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diff --git a/33029-h/33029-h.htm b/33029-h/33029-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c4260fa --- /dev/null +++ b/33029-h/33029-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,9617 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<!-- $Id: header.txt 236 2009-12-07 18:57:00Z vlsimpson $ --> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of Ducks and Geese, by Harry M. Lamon and Rob R. Slocum. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> + +body { + margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; +} + + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; +} + +p { + margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; +} + +hr { + width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; +} + +hr.long { + width: 66%; +} /* longer rule before new chapters */ + +table { + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; +} + +td.toc-page { + text-align: right; + vertical-align: bottom; +} /* page numbers in TOC */ + +td.toc-detail { + text-align: left; + padding-left: 1em; +} /* chapter content summaries in TOC */ + +td.toc-itemnum { + text-align: left; + vertical-align: top; +} /* chapter and figure numbers */ + +td.right-indent { + text-align:right; + padding-right:1.0em; +} /* right align one fraction-width indented */ + +td.left-indent { + text-align:left; + padding-left:2.0em; +} /* left aligned and indented */ + +.pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; +} /* page numbers */ + +.bb {border-bottom: solid 2px;} + +.bl {border-left: solid 2px;} + +.bt {border-top: solid 2px;} + +.br {border-right: solid 2px;} + +.bbox {border: solid 2px;} + +.center {text-align: center;} + +.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + +.u {text-decoration: underline;} + +.caption {font-weight: bold;} + +/* Images */ +.figcenter { + margin: auto; + text-align: center; +} + +.figleft { + float: left; + clear: left; + margin-left: 10%; + margin-bottom: 1em; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-right: 1em; + padding: 0; + text-align: center; +} + +.figright { + float: right; + clear: right; + margin-left: 1em; + margin-bottom: + 1em; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-right: 10%; + padding: 0; + text-align: center; +} + +/* Footnotes */ +.footnotes {border: dashed 1px;} + +.footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} + +.footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} + +.fnanchor { + vertical-align: super; + font-size: .8em; + text-decoration: + none; +} + +/* Index */ +.ditto {padding-left: 1.5em; padding-right: 1.5em;} /* spacing for ditto marks in lists */ + +ul {list-style-type: none} /* no bullets on lists */ + +ul.nest {margin-top: .15em; margin-bottom: .15em; text-indent: -1.5em;} /* spacing for nested list */ +ul.nest2 {margin-top: .15em; margin-bottom: .15em; text-indent: -3em;} /* spacing for nested list */ + +li {margin-top: .15em; margin-bottom: .15em;} /* spacing for list */ +li.indent {padding-left: 1.5em;} /* indented header */ + +div.trans-note { + border-style: solid; + border-width: 1px; + margin: 2em 15%; + padding: 1em; + text-align: center; +} /* transcriber's note */ + + + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +Project Gutenberg's Ducks and Geese, by Harry M. Lamon and Rob R. Slocum + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Ducks and Geese + +Author: Harry M. Lamon + Rob R. Slocum + +Release Date: June 30, 2010 [EBook #33029] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DUCKS AND GEESE *** + + + + +Produced by Steven Giacomelli, Simon Gardner, La Monte +H.P. Yarroll and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team +at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images +produced by Core Historical Literature in Agriculture +(CHLA), Cornell University) + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<div class="trans-note"> +<p class="center"><b>Transcriber's Note</b></p> + +<p>The figure captions have been retained in the same order of appearance +as the plates in the original, but moved to follow the section which +each illustrates. The list of illustrations has been adjusted accordingly.</p> + +<p>Minor inconsistencies in spelling have been retained as in the original. +Where typographical errors have been corrected and missing references +added, these are <a href="#TN_detail">listed at the end of this book</a>.</p> + +<ul> +<li><a href="#TABLE_OF_CONTENTS">Table of Contents</a></li> +<li><a href="#LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS">List of Illustrations</a></li> +<li><a href="#INDEX">Index</a></li> +</ul> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a href="images/frontispiece.002.jpg"><img src="images/frontispiece_tn.jpg" width="400" height="262" alt="" +title="Water yards and ducklings. Linked to larger image of frontispiece." /></a> +<span class="caption"><i>Frontispiece.</i> General view of water yards and ducklings on a large Long Island duck farm. (<i>Photograph +from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<hr /> + + +<h1> DUCKS AND GEESE</h1> + +<p class="center"> BY<br /> + HARRY M. LAMON</p> + +<p class="center" style="font-size:small">SENIOR POULTRYMAN, BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY, UNITED STATES<br /> + DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE</p> + +<p class="center"> AND<br /> + ROB R. SLOCUM</p> + +<p class="center" style="font-size:small"> POULTRYMAN, BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY, UNITED STATES<br /> + DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE</p> + +<p class="center"> <i>Authors of<br /> + "The Mating and Breeding of Poultry"<br /> + and "Turkey Raising"</i></p> + +<p class="center"> ILLUSTRATED</p> + +<p class="center"> NEW YORK<br /> + ORANGE JUDD PUBLISHING COMPANY</p> + +<p class="center"> LONDON<br /> + KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRÜBNER & CO., LIMITED</p> + +<p class="center"> 1922</p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="center"> <span class="smcap">Copyright</span>, 1922, <span class="smcap">by</span><br /> + <span class="smcap">Orange Judd Publishing Company</span><br /> + <i>All Rights Reserved</i></p> + +<p class="center"> PRINTED IN U. S. A. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></span> +</p> + + + +<h3>PREFACE</h3> + + +<p>Of all lines of poultry keeping, duck raising is +unique in that it lends itself to the greatest degree +of specialization and intensification along lines +which are purely commercial. On a comparatively +small area thousands of ducklings can be reared and +marketed yearly. The call for information concerning +the methods used by these commercial duck +raisers has been considerable, and since such information +is not available in complete concise form +the present book has been prepared partly to furnish +just this information.</p> + +<p>The methods used by successful Long Island duck +raisers differ widely in some particulars and since +in the space at command, it has been impossible to +describe all the methods used, the plan has been +adopted of detailing in the main the methods of one +successful grower. This it is believed will prove to +be more helpful and less confusing than to attempt +to give the method of several different men.</p> + +<p>Much space has been given to the operations of +the commercial duck raisers but the fact is recognized +that the great bulk of the ducks entering into +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</a></span>the trade of the country is the product of small +flocks kept on general farms. For this reason a +chapter has been added dealing with duck raising +on the farm, and attention is here called to the fact +that most of the information given under commercial +duck raising can be readily adapted to use in +connection with the farm flock.</p> + +<p>Detailed, complete information on goose raising +is even more fragmentary than is the case with +ducks. Yet there is a fine opportunity to rear a few +geese at a profit on many farms, and the need and +call for information is quite general. It is for this +reason that a section of this book has been devoted +to goose raising and in that section all the good reliable +information available on the subject is given. +The special attention of the women of the farm is +directed to the opportunity which goose raising offers +to make a good profit on a small side line with +the minimum of initial investment and of labor.</p> + +<p>The greatest care has been taken to make the information +on both duck and goose raising as complete +and clear as possible. However, the authors +appreciate the unlimited value of good illustrations +in making clear methods and operations which are +more difficult to grasp from a word description, and +have therefore assembled a set of illustrations for +this book, the completeness and excellence of which +have never before been approached in any book on +the subject. The illustrations alone are an education.</p> + +<p>In preparing and presenting this book to the public, +the authors take pleasure in acknowledging<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span> +their deep indebtedness to the following persons for +help and information furnished:</p> + +<ul style="margin-left:4em"> +<li>Roy E. Pardee</li> +<li>John C. Kriner</li> +<li>Charles McClave</li> +<li>Stanley Mason</li> +<li>Dr. Balliet</li> +<li>William Minnich</li> +<li>George W. Hackett</li> +<li>Dawson Brothers</li> +</ul> + +<p>Particular acknowledgment is due Robert A. Tuttle +for the manner in which he threw open his duck +plant to the authors and for the most generous +amount of time which he gave in furnishing information.</p> + +<p>Special acknowledgment is likewise due Alfred +R. Lee, Poultryman, U. S. Department of Agriculture, +for information secured from his Farmers' Bulletins +on duck raising and goose raising.</p> + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span></p> +<h3><a name="TABLE_OF_CONTENTS" id="TABLE_OF_CONTENTS"></a>TABLE OF CONTENTS</h3> + + + +<table> + +<tr><td></td><td align="left">Preface</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td align="left">List of Illustrations.</td></tr> + + +<tr><td></td><td align="center">PART I—DUCKS</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="left">Chapter.</td> <td></td> <td class="toc-page">Page.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="toc-itemnum">I.</td> <td align="left">Extent of the Industry—Opportunities</td> <td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_3">3</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="toc-detail">Present Extent of the Industry—Different Types of Duck + Raising—Opportunities for Duck Raising—Prices for + Breeding Stock—Ducks for Ornamental Purposes.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="toc-itemnum">II.</td> <td>Breeds and Varieties—How to Mate to Produce Exhibition + Specimens—Preparing Ducks for the Show—Catching and + Handling</td> <td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_9">9</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="toc-detail">Breeds of Ducks—Classification of Breeds—Marking the + Ducks—Nomenclature—Distinguishing the + Sex—Size—Popularity of Breeds—Egg Production—Size of + Duck Eggs—Color of Eggs—Broodiness—General + Considerations in Making the Mating—Making the + Mating—The Pekin—The Aylesbury—The Rouen—The + Cayuga—The Call—The Gray Call—The White Call—The + Black East India—The Muscovy—The Colored Muscovy—The + White Muscovy—The Blue Swedish—The Crested White—The + Buff—The Runner—The Fawn and White Runner—The White + Runner—The Penciled Runner—Preparing Ducks for the + Show—Catching and Handling Ducks—Packing and Shipping + Hatching Eggs.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="toc-itemnum">III.</td> <td>Commercial Duck Farming—Location—Estimate of Equipment + and Capital Necessary in Starting the Business</td> <td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="toc-detail">Distribution—Stock Used—Location of Plant—Making a + Start in Duck Farming—Equipment, Capital, etc. + Required—Lay-out or Arrangement of the Plant—Land + Required—<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[Pg x]</a></span>Number of Breeders required—Housing Required + for Breeders—Incubator Capacity—Brooder + Capacity—Fattening Houses or Sheds—Feed + Storage—Killing and Picking House—Resident—Horse + Power—Feeding Track—Electric Lights—Water + Supply—Fences—Labor—Invested Capital—Working + Capital—Profits.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="toc-itemnum">IV.</td> <td>Commercial Duck Farming—Management of the Breeding Stock</td> <td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_55">55</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="toc-detail">Age of Breeders—Distinguishing Young from Old + Ducks—Selection of Breeding Ducks—Number of Females to + a Drake—Securing Breeding Drakes—Houses and Yards for + Breeders—Bedding and Cleaning the Breeding + Houses—Cleaning the Breeding Yards—Water Yards for + Breeders—Feeding the Breeders—Egg Production—Time of + Marketing Breeders—Disease—Insect Pests—Dogs.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="toc-itemnum">V.</td> <td>Commercial Duck Farming—Incubation</td> <td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="toc-detail">Kinds of incubators used—Incubator Cellar—Incubator + Capacity Required—Age of Hatching Eggs—Care of + Hatching Eggs—Selecting the Eggs for + Hatching—Temperature—Position of + Thermometer—Testing—Turning the Eggs—Cooling the + Eggs—Moisture—Fertility—Hatching—Selling Baby Ducks.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="toc-itemnum">VI.</td> <td>Commercial Duck Farming—Brooding and Rearing the + Young Stock</td> <td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_80">80</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="toc-detail">Removing the Newly Hatched Ducklings to the Brooder + House—Brooder Houses Required—Brooder House No. + 1—Construction of House—Heating + Apparatus—Pens—Equipment of the Pens—Grading and + Sorting the Ducklings—Cleaning and Bedding the + Pens—Ventilation—Other Types of Brooder Houses—Length + of Time in Brooder House No. 1—Brooder House No. + 2—Brooder House No. 3—Yard Accommodations for + Ducklings—Shade—Feeding—Lights for Ducklings—Pounds + of Feed to Produce a Pound of Market Duck—Water for + Young Ducks—Age and Weight when Ready for + Market—Cripples—Cleaning the Yards—Critical Period + with <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</a></span>Young Ducks—Disease Prevention—Gapes or + Pneumonia—Fits—Diarrhoea—Lameness—Sore Eyes—Feather + Eating or Quilling—Rats—Cooperative Feed Association.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="toc-itemnum">VII.</td> <td>Commercial Duck Farming—Marketing</td> <td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_102">102</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="toc-detail">Proper Age to Market—Weights at Time of Marketing—The + Last Feed for Market Ducks—Sorting Market + Ducklings—Killing—Scalding—Picking—Dry + Picking—Cooling—Packing—Shipping—Cooperative + Marketing Association—Prices for Ducks—Shipping Ducks + Alive—Saving the Feathers—Prices and Uses of Duck + Feathers—Marketing Eggs.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="toc-itemnum">VIII.</td> <td>Duck Raising, on the Farm</td> <td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_120">120</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="toc-detail">Conditions Suitable for Duck Raising—Size of + Flock—Making a Start—Selecting the Breed—Age of + Breeding Stock—Size of Matings—Breeding and Laying + Season—Management of + Breeders—Housing—Feeding—Water—Yards—Care of Eggs + for Hatching—Hatching the Eggs—Brooding and + Rearing—Feeding the Ducklings—Water for + Ducklings—Distinguishing the Sexes—Marketing the + Ducks—Diseases and Insect Pests.</td></tr> + + +<tr><td></td><td align="center" style="padding-top:0.5em">PART II—GEESE</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="toc-itemnum">IX.</td> <td>Extent of the Industry—Opportunities</td> <td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_141">141</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="toc-detail">Nature of the Industry—Opportunities for Goose + Raising—Goose Raising as a Business for Farm + Women—Geese as Weed Destroyers—Objections to Geese.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="toc-itemnum">X.</td> <td>Breeds and Varieties—How to Mate to Produce Exhibition + Specimens—Preparing Geese for the Show—Catching and + Handling</td> <td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_147">147</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="toc-detail">Breeds of Geese—Nomenclature—Size—Popularity of the + Breeds—Egg Production—Size of Goose Eggs—Color of + Goose Eggs—Broodiness—Size of Mating—Age of + Breeders—Marking Young Geese—General Considerations in + Making the Mating—Making the Mating—The Toulouse—The + Embden—The African—The Chinese—The Brown Chinese—The + White Chinese—The Wild or Canadian—The + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[Pg xii]</a></span>Egyptian—Preparing Geese for the Show—Catching and + Handling Geese—Packing and Shipping Hatching + Eggs—Prices for Breeding Stock.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="toc-itemnum">XI.</td> <td>Management of Breeding Geese</td> <td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_164">164</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="toc-detail">Range for Breeders—Number of Geese to the Acre—Water + for Breeding Geese—Distinguishing the Sex—Purchase of + Breeding Stock—Time of Laying—Housing—Yards—Feeding + the Breeding Geese.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="toc-itemnum">XII.</td> <td>Incubation</td> <td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_172">172</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="toc-detail">Care of Eggs for Hatching—Methods of Incubation—Period + of Incubation—Hatching with Chicken Hens—Hatching with + Geese—Breaking Up Broody Geese—Hatching with an + Incubator—Moisture for Hatching Eggs—Hatching.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="toc-itemnum">XIII.</td> <td>Brooding and Rearing Goslings</td> <td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_178">178</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="toc-detail">Methods of Brooding—Brooding with Hens or Geese—Length + of Time Brooding is Necessary—Artificial + Brooding—General Care of Growing Goslings—Feeding the + Goslings—Percentage of Goslings Raised—Rapidity of + Growth—Diseases.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="toc-itemnum">XIV.</td> <td>Fattening and Marketing Geese</td> <td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_187">187</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td class="toc-detail">Classes of Geese Marketed—Markets and Prices—Prejudice + Against Roast Goose—Methods of Fattening Geese for + Market—Pen Fattening—Noodling Geese—Methods Used on + Fattening Farms—Selling Geese + Alive—Killing—Picking—Packing for Shipment—Saving the + Feathers—Plucking Live Geese for their Feathers.</td></tr> + +<tr><td>Index</td> <td></td> <td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_215">215</a></td></tr> +</table> + + + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[Pg xiii]</a></span></p> +<h3><a name="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS" id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h3> + + +<table> +<tr> +<td></td> <td>Frontispiece. Water Yards and Ducklings.</td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="toc-itemnum"> 1.</td> <td>Mule Ducks and Blue Swedish Ducks</td> +<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_11">11</a></td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="toc-itemnum"> 2.</td> <td>Mallard Ducks</td> +<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_11">11</a></td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="toc-itemnum"> 3.</td> <td>Goose, Duck and Hen Eggs</td> +<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="toc-itemnum"> 4.</td> <td>Young Pekins for Breeders and Aylesbury Drake</td> +<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="toc-itemnum"> 5.</td> <td>Rouen Drake and Black East India Ducks</td> +<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="toc-itemnum"> 6.</td> <td>Rouen Drake in Summer Plumage and Rouen Duck</td> +<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="toc-itemnum"> 7.</td> <td>Cayuga Ducks</td> +<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_27">27</a></td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="toc-itemnum"> 8.</td> <td>Gray Call Ducks</td> +<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="toc-itemnum"> 9.</td> <td>White Call Ducks</td> +<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_29">29</a></td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="toc-itemnum">10.</td> <td>Colored Muscovy Drake and White Muscovy Drake</td> +<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="toc-itemnum">11.</td> <td>Crested White Drake and Young White Muscovy + Showing Black on Head</td> +<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="toc-itemnum">12.</td> <td>Wing of Blue Swedish Duck</td> +<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="toc-itemnum">13.</td> <td>Pair of Buff Ducks</td> +<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_36">36</a></td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="toc-itemnum">14.</td> <td>Penciled Runner Drake and White Runner Drake</td> +<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="toc-itemnum">15.</td> <td>Methods of Carrying Ducks</td> +<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_40">40</a></td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="toc-itemnum">16.</td> <td>Power Feed Mixer</td> +<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_51">51</a></td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="toc-itemnum">17.</td> <td>Duck Houses</td> +<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="toc-itemnum">18.</td> <td>House for Breeding Ducks</td> +<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="toc-itemnum">19.</td> <td>Another Type of Breeding House</td> +<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="toc-itemnum">20.</td> <td>Feeding the Breeders</td> +<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="toc-itemnum">21.</td> <td>Interior of Breeding House</td> +<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_75">75</a></td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="toc-itemnum">22.</td> <td>Incubator Cellar</td> +<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_75">75</a></td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="toc-itemnum">23.</td> <td>Interior of No. 1 Brooder House</td> +<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="toc-itemnum">24.</td> <td>Watering Arrangement in Brooder Pens</td> +<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_87">87</a></td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="toc-itemnum">25.</td> <td>Another Type of No. 1 Brooder House</td> +<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_87">87</a></td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="toc-itemnum">26.</td> <td>Brooder House No. 2</td> +<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="toc-itemnum">27.</td> <td>Brooder House No. 3</td> +<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_91">91</a></td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="toc-itemnum">28.</td> <td>Long Brooder House and Yards</td> +<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_91">91</a></td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="toc-itemnum">29.</td> <td>Pekin Ducklings 3 Days and 2 Weeks Old</td> +<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_91">91</a></td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="toc-itemnum">30.</td> <td>Pekin Ducklings 3 Weeks and 6 Weeks Old<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[Pg xiv]</a></span></td> +<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_91">91</a></td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="toc-itemnum">31.</td> <td>Interior of Cold Brooder House</td> +<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_91">91</a></td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="toc-itemnum">32.</td> <td>Yard Ducks</td> +<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="toc-itemnum">33.</td> <td>Duck Sheds</td> +<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_95">95</a></td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="toc-itemnum">34.</td> <td>Feeding and Watering Arrangements</td> +<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_95">95</a></td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="toc-itemnum">35.</td> <td>Green Feed for Ducks</td> +<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="toc-itemnum">36.</td> <td>Feeding from Track</td> +<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="toc-itemnum">37.</td> <td>Yard Ducks at Rest</td> +<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_98">98</a></td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="toc-itemnum">38.</td> <td>Artificial Water Yards</td> +<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_98">98</a></td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="toc-itemnum">39.</td> <td>Catching Pens for Fattening Ducklings</td> +<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_104">104</a></td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="toc-itemnum">40.</td> <td>Carrying Ducklings to Slaughter</td> +<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_105">104</a></td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="toc-itemnum">41.</td> <td>Hanging Ducklings and Cutting Throat Veins</td> +<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_105">105</a></td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="toc-itemnum">42.</td> <td>Bleeding Ducklings</td> +<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_105">105</a></td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="toc-itemnum">43.</td> <td>Washing Heads</td> +<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_105">105</a></td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="toc-itemnum">44.</td> <td>Ducklings Ready for the Pickers</td> +<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_105">105</a></td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="toc-itemnum">45.</td> <td>Scalding</td> +<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="toc-itemnum">46.</td> <td>Picking Ducks</td> +<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="toc-itemnum">47.</td> <td>Dressed Duckling</td> +<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_109">109</a></td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="toc-itemnum">48.</td> <td>Weighing Out Ducklings for Packing</td> +<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_109">109</a></td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="toc-itemnum">49.</td> <td>Curing Duck Feathers</td> +<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_118">118</a></td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="toc-itemnum">50.</td> <td>Egyptian Gander and Sebastapol Goose</td> +<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_161">161</a></td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="toc-itemnum">51.</td> <td>Toulouse and Embden Ganders</td> +<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_161">161</a></td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="toc-itemnum">52.</td> <td>Canadian and African Ganders</td> +<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_161">161</a></td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="toc-itemnum">53.</td> <td>Brown and White Chinese Ganders</td> +<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_161">161</a></td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="toc-itemnum">54.</td> <td>Methods of Handling Geese</td> +<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_162">162</a></td> +</tr><tr> +<td class="toc-itemnum">55.</td> <td>Geese Fattening in an Orchard</td> +<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_200">200</a></td> +</tr></table> + +<hr class="long" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="DUCKS" id="DUCKS"></a>DUCKS +<br /> +<span style="font-size:medium">PART I</span></h2> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span></p> +<h3><a name="Chapter_I" id="Chapter_I"></a>CHAPTER I +<br /> +Present Extent of the Industry</h3> + + +<p>Duck raising while representing an industry of +considerable value to the United States when considered +from a national standpoint, is one of the minor +branches of the poultry industry. According to the +1920 census there were 2,817,624 ducks in the United +States with a valuation of $3,373,966. As compared +with this the census for 1910 shows a slightly greater +number of ducks, 2,906,525, but their value was considerably +less being only $1,567,164. In the ten +years between the census of 1900 and that of 1910 +there was a decrease in the number of ducks of +nearly 40%.</p> + +<p>According to the 1920 census the more important +duck raising states arranged in their order of importance +were Iowa, Illinois, Pennsylvania, New +York, Missouri, Minnesota, Tennessee, Ohio, South +Dakota, Indiana, Nebraska and Kentucky. The number +reported for Iowa was 235,249 and for Kentucky +99,577. New England, the North Atlantic, the East +North Central, the West North Central, the Moun<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span>tain +and the Pacific states showed an increase, while +the South Atlantic, East South Central and West +South Central states showed a decrease. In spite of +the existence of quite a number of large commercial +duck farms, the great bulk of ducks produced are +those which come from the general farms where +only small flocks are kept. Yet only a small proportion +of farms have ducks on them. The comparatively +small number of ducks is distributed over +practically the entire United States, being more common +in some sections than others, particularly along +the Atlantic Coast and along the Pacific Coast, with +fairly numerous flocks on the farms of the Middle +West.</p> + +<p><i>Different Types of Duck Raising.</i> The conditions +under which ducks are kept and the purpose for +which they are kept fall under four heads: First, +commercial duck raising for the production of duck +meat; second, duck raising as a by-product of the +general farm; third, duck raising for egg production; +fourth, duck breeding for pleasure, exhibition +or the sale of breeding stock.</p> + +<p><i>Opportunities for Duck Raising.</i> Undoubtedly the +greatest opportunity for profitable duck growing +lies under the first of these heads, namely, commercial +duck raising. Where the conditions of climate, +soil and land are favorable and where the location +is good with respect to market there exists an excellent +opportunity for one skilled in duck growing +to engage in that business in an intensive manner<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span> +for the purpose of putting on the market spring or +green ducklings. Where these are in demand they +bring a good price and since the output per farm is +large they pay a good return even with a small margin +of profit per pound.</p> + +<p>The second greatest opportunity undoubtedly +consists of duck raising as a by-product of the general +farm. Where conditions are suitable, that is to +say, where there is a considerable amount of pasture +land easily accessible, and particularly where there +is a stream or pond to which the ducks can have access, +a small flock of ducks, say 10 or 12 females, +can be kept to excellent advantage on the farm. The +cost of maintaining them will not be great and they +will not only provide a most acceptable variety in +the form of duck meat and duck eggs for the farmers' +table but they will also produce a surplus which +can be sold at a profit. It must be remembered, +however, that where only a small flock is kept it is +generally impracticable for the farmer to give his +ducks the attention necessary to cater to the market +for green ducklings. As a result he usually keeps +them until fall and sells them on the market at a +considerably lower price than is obtained by the +commercial duck grower.</p> + +<p>There also exists an opportunity which has not +been developed to any great extent to keep some one +of the egg producing breeds of ducks such as the Indian +Runner for the primary purpose of egg production. +A few ventures of this sort seem to have been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span> +successful but it must be remembered that the market +for duck eggs is not nearly so broad as that for hens' +eggs and that in some quarters there exists considerable +prejudice against duck eggs for table consumption. +Before engaging in duck raising primarily +for the production of market eggs it would therefore +be necessary to investigate and consider carefully +the market conditions in the neighborhood so as to +know whether the eggs could be marketed to advantage. +While the Runner ducks are prolific layers +there is no advantage in keeping them in preference +to fowls as egg producers. The eggs are larger +in size but it takes more feed to produce them, while +they cannot as a rule be disposed of at much if any +higher price than can be secured for hens' eggs. +For baking purposes duck eggs can be readily sold +on account of their larger size.</p> + +<p>There is always an opportunity to produce fine +stock of any kind, whether it be ducks, chickens, +turkeys or geese. Ducks are not exhibited to the +same extent as are chickens and the competition in +the shows is not as a rule so keen. Nevertheless +many persons are interested in producing and exhibiting +good stock and there exists a very definite +market for birds of quality.</p> + +<p>There is also a probability that a good business +could be worked up by one who would pay special +attention to producing a strain of ducks of early +maturity, large size and good vigor in order to supply +breeding drakes to many of the commercial<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> +duck farms. These farms usually secure drakes for +breeding from sources outside their own flocks each +year but the usual practice is to exchange drakes +with some other commercial grower. While very +good birds are to be found on these duck farms +there is no greater opportunity to engage in any systematic +breeding, the selection of the breeding stock +being of rather a hurried nature during certain seasons +of the year when the ducks are being marketed. +Moreover, the long continued custom of exchanging +drakes with the neighboring farmers has in most +cases led to the blood being so largely confined within +one circle that no great percentage of new blood +is obtained by these exchanges. Of course, the opportunity +along breeding lines for this purpose is +limited to the Pekin duck as this is the breed which +is kept upon all the large commercial duck farms +in the United States.</p> + +<p><i>Prices for Breeding Stock.</i> Duck breeders who +make a specialty of selling breeding stock or eggs +for hatching find a steady and quite a wide demand +for their stock. The eggs are usually sold in sittings +of 11 and bring a price of from $3 to $5 per sitting +depending on the quality of the stock. The prices +received for the birds themselves depend of course +upon their quality and may run anywhere from +about $5 to $25 per bird.</p> + +<p><i>Ducks for Ornamental Purposes.</i> On estates or in +parks where natural or artificial ponds are included +in the grounds, waterfowl are often kept for orna<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span>mental +purposes. Any breeds may be used, and +often the gay colored Wood Duck and Mandarin, or +some one of the small breeds such as the Calls, +Black East Indian or the Mallards are kept for this +purpose. It is said that these small ducks will absolutely +destroy the mosquito larvae in any such ponds +or lakes.</p> + + + +<hr class="long" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span></p> +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II +<br /> +Breeds and Varieties—How to Mate to Produce Exhibition +Specimens—Preparing Ducks for the +Show—Catching and Handling</h3> + + +<p><i>Breeds of Ducks.</i> There are 11 standard breeds +of ducks. All of these breeds with the exception of +the Call, Muscovy and Runner consist of a single +variety. The Call is divided into two varieties, the +Gray and the White; the Muscovy consists of two +varieties, the Colored and the White; and the Runner +consists of three varieties, the Fawn and White, +the White and the Penciled.</p> + +<p>Duck breeders, of course, whether raising the +birds for fancy or for profit, keep one of the standard +breads or varieties. Frequently, also, the farm +flocks consist of standardbred ducks but on many +farms, probably a great majority, the flock consists +of the common or so-called "puddle" duck. In certain +parts of the South there is a duck known as the +"mule duck" which is a cross between the Muscovy +and the common duck. This is a duck of good market +quality but will not breed from which characteristic +it gets its name. Most of the common or +"puddle" ducks which are found on farms are of +rather small size, are indifferent as layers, and do<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> +not make a desirable type of market duck. They +have arisen simply from the crossing of standard +breeds with resultant carelessness and indifference +in breeding. Because of the care with which they +have been selected and bred for definite purposes, +the standard breeds are decidedly superior to the +common "puddle" ducks and should by all means +be kept in preference since they will yield better +results and greater profits.</p> + +<p>In addition to the standard breeds and varieties +flocks of Mallards are also kept to a limited extent. +The Mallard is a common small wild duck which +has lent itself readily to domestication and which +thrives with proper care under confined conditions. +In weight, the drakes will run from 2½ pounds to 3 +pounds or even a little larger. The ducks average +about 2¼ pounds with a variation of from 1 pound +12 ounces to 2 pounds 8 ounces. By selecting the +large eggs for hatching and by liberal feeding, it is +easy to increase the size of Mallards to such an extent +that they resemble small Rouens rather than +wild Mallards. The plumage of the Mallard is very +similar to that of the Rouen but of a lighter shade. +Another small wild duck known as the Wood or +Carolina duck, which is a native of North America, +has been domesticated and on account of the great +beauty of its plumage is usually to be found wherever +ornamental waterfowl are kept. The Mandarin +duck is a small duck of about the same size as +the Wood duck, is of beautiful plumage and like the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> +Wood duck is generally kept for ornamental purposes. +This duck is said to be a native of China.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 259px;"> +<a href="images/fig01.jpg"><img src="images/fig01_tn.jpg" width="259" height="400" alt="" +title="Mule ducks and Blue Swedish ducks. Linked to larger image of figure 1." /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 1. Upper—Pair of Mule Ducks. Lower—Pair of Blue +Swedish Ducks. (<i>Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. +Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 261px;"> +<a href="images/fig02.jpg"><img src="images/fig02_tn.jpg" width="261" height="400" alt="" +title="Mallard ducks. Linked to larger image of figure 2." /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 2. Upper—Mallard Duck. Lower—Mallard Drake. The +Mallard is a wild duck which is quite easily domesticated and which has +a plumage color very similar to the Rouen. It is small in size. +(<i>Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of +Agriculture.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<h4>Classification of Breeds</h4> + +<p>So far as the standard breeds and varieties are +concerned they may be divided into three classes +according to the purpose for which they are kept +and for which they are best suited. First is the meat +class which consists of the Pekin, Aylesbury, Muscovy, +Rouen, Buff, Cayuga and Blue Swedish. These +breeds could well be termed general purpose ducks +for they are quite good layers in addition to producing +excellent table carcasses and are therefore well +suited for general farm use. They are, however, +kept more particularly for meat production.</p> + +<p>The second class is known as the egg class and +consists of the three varieties of the Runner Duck, +formerly known as the Indian Runner. The Runner +Duck is much smaller in size than the birds of the +meat class, is longer in leg and more active, and is +not so well suited for the production of table ducks +but is a very prolific layer. With proper feeding +and management the Runner ducks will compare +favorably with hens as egg producers.</p> + +<p>The third class is known as the ornamental class +and is composed of the ducks which are kept and +bred principally for ornamental purposes. This +class consists of the Call duck with its two varieties,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> +the Black East India duck and the Crested White +duck. Both the Call and East India ducks are small +in size being really the bantams of the duck family. +While they make good table birds, their small size +handicaps them as commercial meat fowl. The +Crested White duck is of larger size, possesses a +crest and is bred mainly as an ornamental fowl.</p> + +<p><i>Marking the Ducks.</i> The duck raiser who is +breeding his ducks for exhibition quality has need +for knowledge of the breeding of the birds he may +contemplate using in his matings. In order that this +information may be available, the young ducks as +they are hatched can be marked by toe punching +them on the webs of their feet in the same manner +that baby chicks are toe punched. A different set +or combination of marks is used for each mating so +that the breeding of the different ducks can be distinguished. +Mature ducks can, if desired, be leg +banded in order to furnish a distinguishing mark.</p> + + +<h4>Nomenclature</h4> + +<p>Before taking up a description of the matings of +the different standard breeds and varieties it is well +to indicate the common nomenclature which is used +in connection with these fowls and which differs +from that used for chickens. The male duck is +called drake, the female duck is termed duck, and +the young duck of either sex is termed duckling. In +giving the standard weights for the different breeds<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> +of ducks, weights are given for adult ducks and +adult drakes, and for young ducks and young +drakes. By adult duck or drake is meant a bird +which is over one year old. By young duck or drake +is meant a bird which is less than one year old. The +horny mouth parts of the duck instead of being +termed beak as in chickens are called bill, and the +separate division of the upper bill at its extremity +is termed the bean. Ducks do not show any comb +or wattles as in chickens. In England use is made of +the terms ducklet and drakerel. Ducklet is used to +signify a female during her first laying season just +as the word pullet is used in contrast to hen. Drakerel +is used to signify a young drake as contrasted +with an older drake just as the word cockerel is used +in comparison to cock in chickens.</p> + +<p><i>Distinguishing the Sex.</i> The sex of mature ducks +can be readily told by their voices and also by a difference +in the feathering. The duck gives voice to a +coarse, harsh sound which is the characteristic +"quack" usually thought of in connection with this +class of fowl. The drake on the other hand utters +a cry which is not nearly so loud or harsh but which +is more of a hissing sound. Distinction of sex by this +means can be made after the ducklings are from 4 +to 6 weeks old. Before this age, both sexes make +the same peeping noise.</p> + +<p>Mature drakes are also distinguished from the +ducks by the presence of two sex feathers at the +base of the tail. These are short feathers which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> +curl or curve upward and forward toward the body +of the bird. In ducks these feathers are absent.</p> + + +<h4>Size</h4> + +<p>An idea of the size of the different standard +breeds can best be obtained by giving the standard +weights. They are as follows:—</p> + + + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Standard weights of various breeds of duck."> +<tr><th align="left"></th><th align="center">Adult Drake.</th><th align="center">Adult Duck.</th><th align="center">Young Drake.</th><th align="center">Young Duck.</th></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Pekin</td><td align="center">9</td><td align="center">8</td><td align="center">8</td><td align="center">7</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Aylesbury</td><td align="center">9</td><td align="center">8</td><td align="center">8</td><td align="center">7</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Rouen</td><td align="center">9</td><td align="center">8</td><td align="center">8</td><td align="center">7</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Cayuga</td><td align="center">8</td><td align="center">7</td><td align="center">7</td><td align="center">6</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Muscovy</td><td align="center">10</td><td align="center">7</td><td align="center">8</td><td align="center">6</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Blue Swedish</td><td align="center">8</td><td align="center">7</td><td align="center">6½</td><td align="center">5½</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Crested White</td><td align="center">7</td><td align="center">6</td><td align="center">6</td><td align="center">5</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Buff</td><td align="center">8</td><td align="center">7</td><td align="center">7</td><td align="center">6</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Runner</td><td align="center">4½</td><td align="center">4</td><td align="center">4</td><td align="center">3½</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p>There are no standard weights for the Call duck +and for the Black East India duck but these are all +small in size, being really bantam ducks. The drakes +will weigh from 2½ to 3 pounds and the ducks from +2 to 2½ pounds.</p> + + +<h4>Popularity of Breeds</h4> + +<p>In the meat class by far the most popular duck in +this country is the Pekin. It is the breed which is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> +used exclusively on the large commercial duck +farms. Next to the Pekin in this class probably +comes the Muscovy which is quite commonly kept in +some sections of the country, particularly in the +South. The Aylesbury duck has never proved to be +very popular in the United States perhaps due to its +white bill and skin, although it is the popular market +duck of England. The other breeds included in +the meat class are kept more or less commonly but +do not approach in popularity either the Pekin or +the Muscovy. Any of the breeds in this class will +prove to be satisfactory for a farm flock, although +the Colored breeds and varieties are at a disadvantage +when dressed due to their dark pin feathers.</p> + +<p>In the <i>egg</i> class there is included only the Indian +Runner and this of course is the breed which is kept +wherever the production of duck eggs is the primary +object. The Fawn and White is the most popular +variety of this breed.</p> + +<p>In the ornamental class there is no particular outstanding +breed, since the ducks belonging in this +class are kept very largely to satisfy the pleasure of +the owner and the selection of a breed is entirely a +matter of personal preference.</p> + + +<h4>Egg Production</h4> + +<p>While the conditions under which ducks are kept +and the care they are given will affect their egg pro<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span>duction +greatly, there are certain rather definite +comparisons that can be made between the different +breeds. The Pekin is a good layer and will produce +from 80 to 120 eggs. The Aylesbury and the Rouen +are about alike in laying ability, neither being quite +as good as the Pekin. The Cayuga is a good layer +ranking with the Aylesbury and Rouen or between +these and the Pekin. The Muscovy is an excellent +layer being fully as prolific as the Pekin, especially +if broken up when broody and not allowed to sit. The +Blue Swedish is about equal to the Cayuga in laying +ability. The Buff duck is an excellent layer comparing +favorably with the Pekin or even with the +Runner. The Runner ducks are the best layers of +the duck family and if given proper care and good +feed will compare favorably with hens in egg producing +ability. The Crested White duck is not a particularly +good layer. The Calls and the Black East India +ducks will lay from 20 to 60 eggs per year, approaching +the latter number if the eggs are collected +as laid and the ducks are not allowed to sit which +will induce some of them to continue to lay for quite +a portion of the year. Extremely large ducks of any +breed do not lay as well as the more medium sized +birds.</p> + +<p><i>Size of Duck Eggs.</i> The eggs of the different +meat breeds will run about the same in size with +the exception of the Muscovy whose eggs run a little +larger. Actual weights of eggs from representative +flocks show Pekin, Rouen, Aylesbury and Cayuga<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> +eggs to average about 2½ pounds per dozen although +there is a tendency for the Rouen eggs to run somewhat +larger and for Cayugas to run a little smaller. +Muscovy eggs weigh about 3 pounds per dozen with +selected large eggs weighing as high as 3¼ pounds. +Eggs of the Runner duck are smaller but are considerably +larger than average hens' eggs or about the +size of large Minorca eggs. They weigh about 2 +pounds per dozen. Eggs of the bantam breeds of +ducks, the Calls and the Black East India, together +with those of the Mandarin and Wood ducks will +weigh from one pound to 1½ pounds per dozen depending +upon the size of the ducks themselves. Eggs +of the Mallard duck will run from 26 to 32 ounces +to the dozen. The size of eggs laid by ducks, especially +the bantam breeds and the Mallard can be +increased somewhat by liberal feeding. Average +hens' eggs should weigh about 1½ pounds per dozen.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a href="images/fig03.jpg"><img src="images/fig03_tn.jpg" width="400" height="263" alt="" +title="Goose, duck and hen eggs. Linked to larger image of figure 3." /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 3. Upper—Comparison of size of goose egg on the left a black egg of a Cayuga duck in the center +and a hen egg on the right. Lower—Duck eggs—At the left is a Pekin duck egg, next a black egg laid by a +Cayuga duck, third a Muscovy egg, fourth a duck egg of green color and on the extreme right the egg of +a Runner duck. (<i>Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p><i>Color of Eggs.</i> The color of duck eggs ranges +from white to a polished black. Pekin eggs run +mostly white although some show a decided blue +or green tint. Aylesbury eggs run quite uniformly +white. The color of Rouen eggs varies from white +to a dark green. The Cayuga produces very few +white eggs, most of them being green or black, some +being as black as though polished. Muscovy eggs +run from a white to a greenish cream in color. The +eggs of the Blue Swedish and the Buff ducks usually +run white. The Runner duck lays white eggs as a +rule while the Crested White duck lays eggs which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> +range in color from white to green. The eggs of the +Call ducks run from white to green while the eggs +of the Black East India, like the Cayuga, for the +most part run from green to black.</p> + +<p>A peculiarity in regard to the egg color is that the +same female may lay eggs which are widely different +in color. It is likewise true that the color of the +shell is influenced to some extent by the feed. Ducks +on range will lay darker colored eggs than those +which are yarded. There is also a tendency for the +eggs to run darker in color when laying first begins +and for the eggs to lighten as laying proceeds. A +peculiarity in regard to duck eggs with a dark +colored shell is that a thorough washing will lighten +up the shell color decidedly.</p> + +<p><i>Broodiness.</i> The Muscovy, the Call and the Black +East India ducks are broody breeds. The ducks of +these breeds will make their nests, hatch their eggs +and are good mothers. All the other breeds are +classed as non-broody breeds. Of course, a certain +percentage of them will go broody and show a desire +to sit but they do not make reliable sitters and +mothers and are not as a rule used for this purpose.</p> + + +<h4>Considerations in Making the Mating<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></h4> + +<p>Since ducks are kept for different purposes there<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> +will of course be certain fundamental differences in +the different classes in the selection of the individuals +to make up the mating. Whatever the purpose, +however, the first consideration in selecting the +breeders must be to secure those which possess excellent +vigor and general health and which meet +insofar as possible the standard requirements for +size. Where the Call duck and the Black East India +are concerned the selection for size must be for +smallness since that is a characteristic greatly desired. +In the other breeds the selection for size must +be to see that they come up to the standard weights +for the particular breed in question. As in other +classes of fowls the condition and cleanliness of the +plumage and the general appearance and actions of +the birds are good indications of their health and +thriftiness. A bright eye is likewise a valuable indication +of good health while a watery eye is usually a +sign of weakness. It is necessary to guard against +birds which show any tendency toward crooked or +roach back, hump back, crooked tails, or twisted +wings. Since all breeds of ducks should have clean or +unfeathered legs it is likewise necessary to guard +against any breeders which show down on the +shanks or between the toes as this sometimes occurs.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> For a more detailed discussion of the principles of breeding +as applied to chickens and which is equally applicable to ducks, +the reader is referred to "The Mating and Breeding of Poultry" +by Harry M. Lamon and Rob R. Slocum, published by the +Orange Judd Publishing Company, New York City.</p></div> + +<p>In selecting the mating for any one of the meat +breeds use birds which have good length, width and +depth of body so that they will have plenty of meat<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> +carrying capacity. For breeders of market ducks, +birds which are active, well matured and which are +not extreme in size for the breed are preferable as +the fertility is likely to run better than with the extremely +large birds. Where birds are bred for exhibition +purposes, it frequently happens that it is +desirable to use large breeders and to hold them for +breeding purposes as long as they are in good breeding +condition. Where this is the case it becomes +necessary to mate a smaller number of females to +a drake than would be the case with smaller and +younger breeders. Where old birds are used as +breeders better results will be secured by mating old +ducks to a young drake or vice versa than by mating +together old birds of both sexes. While ducks of any +of the meat breeds are kept primarily for meat production, +it is essential that the egg production be good +throughout the breeding season in order to raise as +many ducklings and secure as great a profit as possible. +Selection of the females as breeders should be +made therefore on the basis of good egg production +as well as good meat type if the conditions under +which the ducks are kept are such as to make it +possible to check this in any manner.</p> + +<p>In selecting the mating in the Runner breed it is +necessary to keep in mind that the general type of +body is quite different from that of the meat breeds, +being much slimmer and much more upright in body +carriage. For this mating select thrifty, healthy +birds and those which are active. Some breeders<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> +trapnest their Runner ducks or have some other +means of checking up the better layers. As in +chickens, it is of course desirable to use these better +layers as breeders since the purpose in keeping this +kind of duck is primarily egg production.</p> + +<p>In selecting the mating in the Call and East India +breeds it is necessary to use the smaller ducks since +the object here is to keep the size small. In addition, +with these breeds or with any other breeds kept +and bred primarily for fancy or exhibition purposes, +it is necessary to conform just as closely as possible +to the standard requirements<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> both insofar as size +and type are concerned, and also with respect to +color.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> For a complete and official description and list of disqualifications +of the standard breeds and varieties of ducks, the +reader is referred to the American Standard of Perfection published +by the American Poultry Association, and obtained by +Orange Judd Publishing Company, New York, N. Y.</p></div> + + +<h4>Breeds of Ducks</h4> + +<p><i>The Pekin.</i> While this variety wants to be of +good size and to have length, breadth and depth of +body it is somewhat more upstanding than some of +the other meat breeds, showing a definite slope of +body downward from shoulders to tail. The back +line of the Pekin should show a slight concavity +from the shoulders to the tail and the upper line of +the bill is likewise slightly concave between the +point where it joins the head and its extremity. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span>shoulders should be broad and any tendency toward +narrowness at this point must be avoided. While a +good depth of keel is desired, the standard does not +call for so deep a keel as in the Aylesbury. As a +matter of fact, however, the winning specimens as +seen in the shows are not as a rule as erect in carriage +as called for by the standard illustration, +there being a tendency to get them almost if not +quite as deep in keel as the Aylesbury. In fact, +some breeders seem to strive for a low down keel +approaching a condition where they are nearly as +low in front as behind but this is not desirable Pekin +type.</p> + +<p>Sometimes a drake will show a rough neck, that +is, the feathers on the back of the neck will be +crossed or folded over showing a tendency to curl. +These birds should be avoided as breeders since +there is a tendency for them to produce ducks having +a crest. Sometimes a green or a greenish spotted +bill will be encountered. Since the bill should be a +clear yellow, breeders showing this defect should be +avoided particularly as they are likely to produce +birds having greenish or olive colored legs. The +shanks and toes should be a clear deep orange. +Black sometimes occurs in the bean. This may occur +in birds of either sex but is more common in the +ducks than in the drakes. In the drake black in the +bean disqualifies but while it is undesirable and a +serious defect in the duck it does not disqualify. The +color of the plumage is white or creamy white<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> +throughout. Creaminess in this variety is not a +serious defect as it is in white chickens. The use, +however, of yellow corn and of foods very rich in +oil tends to increase the creaminess of the plumage +and should not be used to excess for birds which are +to be exhibited.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 260px;"> +<a href="images/fig04.jpg"><img src="images/fig04_tn.jpg" width="260" height="400" alt="" +title="Young Pekins for breeders and Aylesbury drake. Linked to larger image of figure 4." /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 4. Upper—Young Pekins which on account of their size, +thriftiness and rapid growth were selected out of a lot about to be +killed for market and saved for breeders. Lower—Aylesbury +Drake—Notice the depth and development of the breast. (<i>Photographs +from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of +Agriculture.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p><i>The Aylesbury.</i> This breed is particularly noted +for its deep keel. It differs from the Pekin in type +in that it is more nearly level in body. There is a +decided tendency for the Aylesbury to run too short +in body which has probably come about by extreme +selection for deep keel. It is well, therefore, in making +the mating to select breeders with good length +of body. Since the deep full breast and keel is characteristic +of this breed it is necessary to avoid breeders +which show any tendency toward a flat breast. +As in the case of the Pekins avoid any birds which +have green or olive colored bills. The back line of +the Aylesbury should be straight, showing no tendency +toward a slight concavity as in the Pekin. +Birds showing this shape back should be avoided. +As in the Pekin black on the bill or bean of the +drake will disqualify and in the duck is a serious defect. +The color of plumage should be white throughout +and should show no tendency toward creaminess. +The bill in this breed is flesh colored instead +of yellow as in the Pekin. The Aylesbury is not +quite as nervous a breed as the Pekin.</p> + +<p><i>The Rouen.</i> The Rouen duck is a parti-colored +breed and is therefore much more difficult to secure<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> +in perfection of color and marking than is the case +with the white breeds. Moreover, the dark pin +feathers make the ducks more difficult to dress +than in white breeds. In type these birds are very +level in body and are massive, carrying a great deal +of meat. Avoid birds showing a lack of length of +body or depth of keel or which are too flat in breast. +The back of the Rouen should have a slightly convex +or arched shape from neck to tail and it is necessary +to guard against birds which have a flat or a concave +back. The body of the Rouen should be carried +practically horizontal. The upper line of the bill +should be slightly dished or concave. The white +ring about the neck of the drake is an important +part of the marking. This should not be too wide +but should run about a quarter of an inch in width. +It should be as distinct and clean cut as possible but +should not quite come together in the rear. Any approach +to a ring in the female is a disqualification. +White in the primary or secondary wing feathers is +a serious defect since it constitutes a disqualification. +It must therefore be carefully avoided. +White feathers in the fluff of the drake is another +color defect which must be guarded against.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 245px;"> +<a href="images/fig05.jpg"><img src="images/fig05_tn.jpg" width="245" height="400" alt="" +title="Rouen Drake and Black East India Ducks. Linked to larger image of figure 5." /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 5. Upper—Rouen Drake. Notice the low set, nearly horizontal +body, the massive appearance and the arched back. Lower—Pair +of Black East India Ducks. (<i>Photographs from the Bureau +of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p><i>Breast of Drake.</i> The farther the claret color on +the breast of the drake extends down the better will +be the females secured from the mating. Drakes +which are deficient in the amount of claret on the +breast should therefore be thrown out as breeders. A +purple rump in drakes must be avoided as must black<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> +feathers over the rump as they tend to keep up too +dark a body color in the female. On the other hand +too bright or light a color in the male or exhibition +female will produce females which are too light in +color. Drakes with light olive colored bills must be +avoided as these will have a tendency to produce +offspring which show too much yellow in the females' +bills, and clear yellow bills constitute a disqualification. +In the females solid yellow bills, fawn +colored breasts and absence of penciling must be +avoided. Females which are dark or nearly black +over the rump are good breeders as they tend to +keep up the ground color of the body and tail.</p> + +<p>The Rouen shows some tendency to fade in color. +This is evidenced first on the tips of the wings. The +fading will also show in the fluff of drakes. The +drakes of this breed and likewise of the Gray Call +and the Mallard show a peculiar behavior with respect +to the color of their plumage. About June 1 +the drakes moult, losing their characteristic male +adult plumage and the new plumage is practically +that of the female. This female plumage is retained +until about October when they gradually regain their +normal winter male plumage. Young Rouens of both +sexes have female plumage until the last moult which +occurs at about four or five months of age, when the +drakes assume the adult male plumage. The sex +of the young Rouens can, however, be told by the +difference in the color of the bills.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 261px;"> +<a href="images/fig06.jpg"><img src="images/fig06_tn.jpg" width="261" height="400" alt="" +title="Rouen drake and duck. Linked to larger image of figure 6." /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 6. Upper—Rouen Drake showing summer plumage. At +this season the Rouen drake assumes a plumage resembling quite +closely that of the female. In the fall the drake again assumes the +normal male plumage. Lower—Rouen Duck. (<i>Photographs from +the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p><i>The Cayuga.</i> The Cayuga is much like the other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> +breeds of the meat class in general type or shape of +body showing good length, breadth and depth. It +is a very solid duck and weighs heavier than it looks. +The body carriage is slightly more upright than the +Rouen but not so much so as the Pekin. The back +line should be straight and any tendency toward an +arched back must be avoided. It is slightly smaller +than the Pekin, Aylesbury and Rouen, averaging +about a pound less.</p> + +<p>In making the mating, size is important and +breeders should be selected which are up to standard +weights if possible. While this breed is not +kept very widely at the present time, nevertheless +it is an excellent market duck, dressing out into a +very plump yellow carcass in spite of its black plumage +which is a disadvantage in dressing. The +color should be a lustrous greenish black throughout, +being somewhat brighter in the drake than in +the duck. The duck is more likely to show a brownish +cast of plumage, particularly as she grows older. +It is hard to hold good black color with age. Moreover, +white or gray is apt to occur in the breast of females. +With age also a little white sometimes develops +on the back of the neck, around the eyes and +underneath the neck at the base of the bill. The +white which occurs in breast is more likely to come +in ducks and is not commonly found in the drakes. +In the drakes on the other hand, there is a tendency +for the white to come on the throat under the bill.</p> + +<p>Drakes as a rule run truer in color and hold their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> +color better than do the ducks. Where the white +mottling occurs in plumage with age one need not +hesitate to breed from these birds if they were of +good black color as young birds. The drakes of the +best color do not as a rule fade or become mottled to +any great extent with age. It is necessary to guard +against birds as breeders which have a rusty brown +lacing on the breast and under the wings, also those +which have a wing-bow laced with brown. There +is a tendency for the bill of drakes, which should +be black, to be too light or olive in color and this +tendency increases with age. Drakes with bills of +this color should be avoided as breeders. When +Cayugas are first hatched the baby ducks all show +a white breast.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 260px;"> +<a href="images/fig07.jpg"><img src="images/fig07_tn.jpg" width="260" height="400" alt="" +title="Cayuga ducks. Linked to larger image of figure 7." /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 7. Upper—Cayuga Duck. Lower—Cayuga Drake. (<i>Photographs +from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of +Agriculture.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p><i>The Call.</i> The Call ducks are the bantams of the +duck race. There is always a tendency for them to +grow too large and this is especially true when they +have an opportunity to eat all they want as for example +when they are fed with the larger ducks. +They should not be fed too liberally and should be +given wheat or some other solid grain rather than +any mash. If there is a good pond of water to which +the Call ducks can have access they do not need to +be fed much of anything.</p> + +<p>In breeding, the smallest individuals which are +suitable in other respects for breeders, should be +selected in order to keep down the size and offset +the tendency to breed larger in successive generations. +In type the Calls are practically miniature<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> +Pekins except that they should have a very short, +rather broad head and bill. The broad flat and +short bill and the round short head give the head an +appearance which is often described by the term +"button headed". In this breed avoid birds which +show arched backs. The body should have what is +known as a flatiron shape, that is, should be broad +at the shoulders and taper toward the tail. Too +deep keels and narrow shoulders should be avoided +as should also too long bills. Call ducks, together +with East Indias and Mallards should have their +wings clipped or be pinioned, that is, have the first +joint of one wing cut off, to prevent them from flying +away.</p> + +<p><i>The Gray Call.</i> The plumage of the Gray Call is +practically that of the Rouen although they are not +quite as good in color as a breed. There is more of +a tendency for some of the birds to run to dark and +others, especially the males, to run too light in color. +While they are likely to be well penciled the shade +of color is apt to be wrong. White in the flights and +under the wings must be guarded against as must +also absence of ribbon or wing bar in females. The +color of the plumage is likely to fade with age but +after the birds moult and secure their new plumage, +the color is usually higher again. In general the same +color characteristics hold true as with the Rouen +and the same defects must be guarded against.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 261px;"> +<a href="images/fig08.jpg"><img src="images/fig08_tn.jpg" width="261" height="400" alt="" +title="Gray call ducks. Linked to larger image of figure 8." /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 8. Upper—Gray Call Drake. Lower—Gray Call Duck. +(<i>Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department +of Agriculture.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p><i>The White Call.</i> This variety is, both in type +and color, practically a miniature Pekin except for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> +the short, rather broad head and bill. They breed +very true in color and should be free from creaminess. +The same general defects must be watched +for and avoided as in the Pekin.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 263px;"> +<a href="images/fig09.jpg"><img src="images/fig09_tn.jpg" width="263" height="400" alt="" +title="White call ducks. Linked to larger image of figure 9." /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 9. Upper—White Call Duck. Lower—White Call Drake. +(<i>Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department +of Agriculture.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p><i>The Black East India.</i> This is a black breed +which is small in size being a bantam duck like the +Call. As a matter of fact it is a miniature Cayuga. +The color should be black throughout and the same +color characteristics hold true as in the case of the +Cayuga. The same color defects must therefore be +guarded against, the worst one being white in the +breast of females especially. Avoid breeding from +a drake with a black bill as in this respect the breed +differs from the Cayuga since the bill of the duck +should be black but that of the drake should be very +dark green. Purple barring must be carefully selected +against.</p> + +<p><i>The Muscovy.</i> This breed differs in certain respects +very markedly from the other standard +breeds of ducks. They are long and broad in body +which is carried in a horizontal position but are not +so deep in keel as the Pekin, Aylesbury or Rouen. +The longest bodied young ducks will make the largest +individuals. The head should have feathers on +the top which can be elevated at will to form a +crest. Guard against breeders having smooth +heads, or in other words, lacking a crest. +The face is covered with corrugations or caruncles +and should be red in color. At the base of the upper +bill there is a sort of knob-like formation in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> +drake which serves as one of the distinguishing +characteristics between the duck and drake of this +breed. The more prominent the knob and the more +wrinkled or corrugated the face the better is the +specimen in this respect. The wings are long and +strong and these birds fly very well. They will +also climb fences. The drakes are quite pugnacious +and fight one another badly at times. They are especially +pugnacious when they have young.</p> + +<p>This breed of ducks will often roost on roosts like +chickens or in the trees or on the barn. They do not +quack like other ducks and unlike other domesticated +breeds which moult two or three times a year, they +moult only once, taking longer to do so, usually +about 90 days, although the female may complete +her moult a little sooner. The period of incubation +for Muscovy eggs is longer, being from 33 to +35 days as compared to 28 days for other +breeds. In size the male and female differ +considerably as will be seen from the standard +weights given (<a href="#Page_14">See Page 14</a>), the male being considerably +larger. These ducks lay well, the fertility +runs good, the eggs hatch well, and the little ducks +are hardy and easily raised. They are a broody +breed. The ducks will make their nests and hatch +out their eggs if allowed to do so and are excellent +mothers. Sometimes they will fly up and make their +nests in a hollow tree. A Muscovy duck can cover +properly about 20 eggs. In spite of the fact that +they fly well they are easily domesticated. It takes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> +about two years for the males of this breed to fully +mature although the ducks get their full size when +one year of age. The Muscovy is perhaps the best +general purpose breed for a farm flock.</p> + +<p>The extent and intensity of the red of the face increases +up to maturity and the redder the face the +better. The plumage of the Muscovy is not as downy +or oily as other breeds, the feathers being harder. +For this reason the birds are more apt to become +water soaked and to drown as a result when they +have not been accustomed to water in which to +swim. This is especially true of the drakes on account +of their large size and long wing feathers. +Muscovy ducks dress well, having a rich yellow skin, +and therefore make a good market duck, although +the difference in size of the duck and drake and the +dark pin feathers of the Colored variety are disadvantages +from a market standpoint. Select against +breeders which run small in size as there is more or +less of a tendency for this breed to decrease in size. +The Muscovy is long lived, specimens having been +known to breed until they were eight or ten years +of age.</p> + +<p><i>The Colored Muscovy.</i> Although the standard +calls for more or less white in different sections of +this variety, as a matter of fact breeders desire to +get the birds as dark as possible except for a very +small patch of white on the breast and a small patch +of white on the center of the wing. Indeed, birds +without the white on the breast and with very little on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> +the wing are valuable breeders since there is a tendency +for too much white to occur in the plumage. +Occasionally all black birds occur and these can be +used to advantage in breeding when there is a tendency +toward too much white in plumage. Plumage +more than half white is a disqualification. The dark +plumage birds such as are wanted are very likely to +show considerable black or gypsy color in the face +which should be a good red. This must be selected +against insofar as possible. The nearly black or the +darkest birds are quite likely to show some white or +grizzling on the head. Grizzled or brownish penciled +feathers sometimes occur in various parts of +the plumage and must of course be guarded against +as the markings should be distinctly black and +white. The baby ducks of this variety are quite apt +to show considerable white although the best of +them come yellowish black. This variety tends to +run a little larger in size than the white variety +although the standard weights are the same for +both. Dun or chocolate colored ducks sometimes +come from Colored Muscovies while Blue Muscovies +can be produced by crossing the Colored and the +white varieties.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 258px;"> +<a href="images/fig10.jpg"><img src="images/fig10_tn.jpg" width="258" height="400" alt="" +title="Colored Muscovy Drake and White Muscovy Duck. Linked to larger image of figure 10." /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 10. Upper—Colored Muscovy Drake. Notice the partly +erect crest feather on top of the head. Lower—White Muscovy +Drake. Notice the long, horizontal body and the rough or carunculated +face. (<i>Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, +U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p><i>The White Muscovy.</i> This variety should have +pure white plumage throughout. Young Muscovies +of both sexes often have a patch of black on top of +the head up to the time they moult at maturity. +Since black disqualifies it is impossible to show +young ducks in this condition but these black feath<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span>ers +usually come in white after the moult and such +birds need not therefore be discarded as breeders. +When it is desired to show young White Muscovies +which have black on the head it is customary to +pluck these black feathers a sufficient time before +the show so that the white feathers which come in +their place will have time to grow out. There is +little or no trouble with black or gypsy face in this +variety.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 260px;"> +<a href="images/fig11.jpg"><img src="images/fig11_tn.jpg" width="260" height="400" alt="" +title="Crested White Drake and Young White Muscovy. Linked to larger image of figure 11." /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 11. Upper—Crested White Drake. Lower—Young White +Muscovy duck showing black on top of the head. This is not an +unusual occurrence and the black is lost when the bird gets its +mature plumage in the fall. (<i>Photographs from the Bureau of +Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p><i>The Blue Swedish.</i> In type and size this breed is +about the same as the Cayuga although perhaps +slightly more upstanding. In selecting the mating +it is important to use birds which are close to standard +weight as there is somewhat of a tendency for +the size to be too small. As its name indicates the +color is largely blue except for a white heart-shaped +patch or bib which should be present on the breast. +Sometimes this white extends along the underside +of the body from the under-bill almost to the vent. +Such birds are undesirable as breeders since they +show too much white. On the other hand birds lacking +a prominent white bib must also be avoided. Two +of the flight feathers should be white and birds +lacking these must be avoided. Guard against any +red, gray or black in any part of the plumage. Sometimes, +however, birds having more or less black +throughout the plumage are used as breeders for the +purpose of strengthening the blue color. Avoid any +tendency toward a ribbon on the wing-bow and also +birds that are too light, ashy or washed out in the +blue color.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span></p> + +<p>Sometimes birds show lines of white feathers +around the eyes and over the head and these should +be selected against as breeders as they are likely to +cause white splashing in the plumage. Yellow or +greenish bills must likewise be avoided since the first +of these is a disqualification. In general this variety +in breeding behaves insofar as color is concerned, +very much like the Blue Andalusian chicken.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> The +young ducks when hatched are yellow or creamy +blue and from blue matings there are also produced +black and white ducklings. As in other colored +breeds and varieties, the dark pin feathers are somewhat +of a disadvantage from a market standpoint.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> For a detailed discussion of the behaviour of the Blue Andalusian +in breeding, the reader is referred to "The Mating +and Breeding of Poultry" by Harry M. Lamon and Rob R. +Slocum, published by the Orange Judd Publishing Company, +New York City.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a href="images/fig12.jpg"><img src="images/fig12_tn.jpg" width="400" height="263" +alt="Wing of Blue Swedish duck." title="Linked to larger image of figure 12." /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 12. Blue Swedish duck showing white flight feathers. The Standard calls for only two white +flights, but there is a decided tendency as shown here for more flights to be white. (<i>Photograph from the +Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p><i>The Crested White.</i> Although not so large, this +breed is much like the Pekin but with body carried +more nearly horizontal and with a crest on the head. +The type varies considerably however, the principal +selection practiced having been for crest. The plumage +is white in color throughout. What is desired +in the crest is to have as large a one as possible, +round and perfect in form, and set squarely on the +head. Not infrequently crooked crests occur and +also double or split crests, that is to say, where the +crest is parted or divided. In some cases the crests +may even come treble, that is, split into three parts. +Entire absence of crest is by no means uncommon.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> +In fact, it is considered a pretty good proportion if +one half of the ducks hatched have crests although +the matings vary considerably in this, occasionally +one producing practically 100% of the offspring +with crests. Avoid as breeders birds with small +crests, lopped crests, split crests or showing an absence +of crest. Avoid also breeders showing mottled +or green bills in females and black bean in the +bill of drakes.</p> + +<p><i>The Buff.</i> In type this breed is similar to the +Swedish. As will be seen from the standard weights +it is one of the medium sized breeds and makes a +very nice market bird as it dresses out into a nice +round fat carcass and is a good layer. In color the +birds of both sexes should be as uniform a buff as +possible except that the head and upper part of the +neck in the drake should be seal brown when in full +plumage. Color defects which are likely to be encountered +and which should be avoided are the +tendency for the head of the drake to run to a chestnut +color and for his neck to be too light or faded +out in color. Sometimes the head of the drake runs +too dark in color approaching a greenish black like +the head of the Rouen. This is of course undesirable. +The wings of both sexes are apt to run to light +or even in some cases, pure white flights. Blue wing +bars are sometimes shown and these must be carefully +avoided. Penciling such as is found in the +Fawn and White Runner sometimes occurs and since +it is a serious defect must be rigidly guarded against.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> +Any tendency toward a white bib or a white ring +around the neck of both sexes must likewise be +avoided. Greenish or mottled bills must be avoided +in ducks which are to be used as breeders. Not much +trouble is experienced in the bill of drakes which as +a rule comes good. Any blue cast in the feathers on +the rump and back of both sexes must be selected +against. As a rule the females of this breed tend to +be better colored than the males. At certain periods +of the moult the head coloring of the drakes becomes +a good buff color and later when the moult is +complete, it changes to a copper color. When +hatched the ducklings are a creamy yellow.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a href="images/fig13.jpg"><img src="images/fig13_tn.jpg" width="400" height="260" alt="" +title="Pair of Buff Ducks. Linked to larger image of figure 13." /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 13. Pair of Buff Ducks—Drake on the right (<i>Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, +U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p><i>The Runner.</i> The type of this breed is quite different +from that of the other breed of ducks and +type is very important. The Runner wants to be decidedly +upstanding and to be very reachy. It should +have very slim slender lines. The neck should be +straight and the head should be carried at right +angles to the neck. The bill should be perfectly +straight on top and on a line with the skull showing +absolutely no tendency to be dished. The legs of +this breed are longer than those of other ducks and +this accounts for the fact that they run rather than +waddle when they move about. It is from this fact +that they get their name. They are very active and +are troublesome about crawling through fences. +They are good layers and non-sitters and they have +often been called the Leghorns of the duck family. +It must be remembered, however, that while they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> +have the inherent ability to lay as well as hens they +will do this only when they receive proper feed and +care. It is quite useless to expect a high egg yield +from them when they are carelessly fed and improperly +housed and cared for. Avoid as breeders ducks +of both sexes that are too heavy behind, or in other +words, are too heavy-bottomed. Avoid birds which +are too short in legs. Avoid crooked or sharp backs. +Round heads must likewise be avoided.</p> + +<p><i>The Fawn and White Runner.</i> In this variety the +markings must be very distinct and definite. There +is a tendency which must be avoided for the head +to run to black instead of chestnut, especially in +males. It is likewise necessary to avoid females +which tend to show penciling on the sides of the +breast or on the wing-bows. These defects are apt +to be associated with colored flight feathers which +is also a defect to be avoided. Guard against too +much fawn extending up the neck from the body to +the head as the neck should be white in color. Too +dark tail coverts approaching a greenish black +sometimes occur and are undesirable. In type this +variety will not average quite as good as the White.</p> + +<p><i>The White Runner.</i> This variety is best in type +and it likewise runs good in color which should be +white throughout. Sometimes foreign color will be +shown in the back of females and this of course must +be avoided. Also avoid birds as breeders with green +or mottled bills.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a href="images/fig14.jpg"><img src="images/fig14_tn.jpg" width="400" height="260" alt="" +title="Pencilled runner drake and white runner drake. Linked to larger image of figure 14." /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 14. Penciled Runner Drake on left and White Runner Drake on right. (<i>Photographs from the +Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p><i>The Penciled Runner.</i> In type this variety runs<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> +about the same as the Fawn and White. The color +combination is rather difficult to breed as it is hard +to get the good penciling desired in the female together +with the white markings. In general, in +breeding this variety there is a tendency to pay +more attention to type than to color. The penciling +is like that of the Rouen but lighter in color consisting +of a brown penciling on a fawn colored ground. +Avoid any grayish stippling on the breast of the +drake and also on the wing-bows. These defects +are likely to be associated with colored flights which +are undesirable. The colored portion of the head of +the drake is darker than that of the duck in this +variety. Avoid lack of white on the neck in both +sexes and avoid females which are lacking in penciling.</p> + +<p><i>Preparing Ducks for the Show.</i> Aside from selecting +the individuals which most nearly approach +the standard requirements there is very little which +can be done in the way of preparing the birds for +the show as these fowls are practically self-prepared. +For a period of at least a week or ten days +before they are shipped to the show those intended +for exhibition should be given access to a grass +range and also if possible to running water. The +grass range will keep them in good condition and +the running water will allow them to clean themselves. +Any broken feathers should be plucked at +least six weeks before the birds are to be shown in +order to allow the feathers time enough to grow out<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> +again. It must be remembered that most ducks +after getting in a good condition of flesh do not tend +to hold this for a very long period but soon grow +thinner again and will not take on fat the second +time for some little period.</p> + +<p>Often there will be a difference in weight as high +as 3 pounds when a duck is in good condition and +after it has thinned. In order to have the ducks in +top form, therefore, it is necessary to bring them up +to flesh at the proper time. In order to bring ducks +which are to be exhibited up to standard weight, +they should be fed twice daily, for at least 10 days +before shipping, a grain mixture consisting of one +part corn and two parts oats. Give them all they +will eat of this mixture. With Runners and the small +breeds of ducks there is a danger of their putting on +too much weight if corn is used in the ration and it +is therefore best to give them oats alone. When +the birds are shipped to the show they are quite +likely to get their plumage soiled during the journey. +When this occurs fill a barrel about half full +of water. Then as the ducks are taken out of the +shipping coops take three of them at a time, put +them in the barrel and cover it over, leaving them +for a few minutes. When they are taken out they +will usually be clean.</p> + + +<h4>Catching and Handling Ducks</h4> + +<p>Ducks should never be caught by the legs which +are short and weak and are very likely to be injured.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> +For the same reason they should never be carried by +the legs. Ducks should be caught by the neck, +grasping them just below the head. They can be +carried short distances without injury in this way +but it is not advisable to carry fat ducks by the neck +for any considerable distance. The best way to handle +them is to catch them by the neck, then carry +them on the arm with the legs in the hand just as +one would carry a chicken. See Fig. 15. A scoop net +about 18 inches in diameter and with a six foot handle +can also be used to excellent advantage in catching +ducks.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a href="images/fig15.jpg"><img src="images/fig15_tn.jpg" width="400" height="263" alt="" +title="Methods of carrying ducks. Linked to larger image of figure 15." /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 15. Two methods of carrying ducks. (<i>Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. +Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span> +</div> + + +<h4>Packing and Shipping Hatching Eggs</h4> + +<p>Eggs for hatching must be shipped when they are +fresh as duck eggs tend to deteriorate in quality +quite rapidly. They may be shipped fairly long distances. +Shipment may be made either by express or +by Parcel Post. In order to prevent breakage and +to lessen the effects of the jar to which the eggs are +subjected during shipment, they must be carefully +packed. One of the best methods is to use an ordinary +market basket. Line the basket well on the +bottom and sides with excelsior. Wrap each egg in +paper and then wrap in excelsior so that there will +be a good thick cushion of excelsior between the +eggs and they will not be allowed to come in contact +with one another. Pack the eggs in the basket securely +standing them on end so that they cannot<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> +move or shift around. Cover the top of the eggs +with a thick layer of excelsior using enough so that +it runs up well above the sides of the basket. Over +the top sew a piece of strong cotton cloth. Instead +of sewing the cloth it can be pushed up under the +outside rim of the basket with a case knife, this +being quicker and equally as effective as sewing.</p> + + + +<hr class="long" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span></p> +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III +<br /> +Commercial Duck Farming—Location—Estimate of +Equipment and Capital Necessary in Starting +the Business</h3> + + +<p><i>Distribution.</i> Commercial Duck farming is confined +very largely to the sections within easy shipping +distance of the larger cities. A great majority +of these farms are located about New York +City, particularly on Long Island. Some duck farms +are located on the Pacific Coast and a few commercial +plants are scattered about here and there +throughout the country. The size of these farms +ranges all the way from plants with an output of +5,000 or 10,000 ducklings up to those with an output +around 100,000 yearly.</p> + +<p><i>Stock Used.</i> The stock used on the commercial +duck plants of the United States consists exclusively +of the Pekin. The reasons for the use of this particular +breed are the fact that it has white plumage +and therefore dresses out well, that it is of good +size, that its egg production is good, and that it +makes quick growth.</p> + +<p><i>Location of Plant.</i> On Long Island the commercial +duck plants are located along the streams, especially +those on the southern shore of the Island,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> +which empty into the various bays. Locations along +these streams are not easy to secure at the present +time owing to the fact that duck farms are not allowed +in many sections where summer homes have +been built. A water site of this sort is very valuable, +although not absolutely essential, since it provides +water yards for the breeding ducks and for the fattening +ducklings if desired, and reduces the labor +and cost of equipment materially since the ducks +always have access to water and no additional provision +need be made to provide them with drinking +water. It also enables the ducks to keep their plumage +clean. Usually these locations are on fresh +water streams but some of them are further out toward +the bay where the water is salty or at least +brackish.</p> + +<p>The mature ducks thrive well on the salt water +and do not have to be furnished with fresh drinking +water in addition. For the young ducks, however, +with a salt water location it is necessary to provide +fresh drinking water. A few farms in other sections +of the country are what are known as dry land +farms, that is to say, they are not situated on the +bank of a stream. In such locations running water +is carried through the yards so that the ducks have +an ample supply of drinking water and in some +cases artificial ponds are constructed to provide +water in which the breeding ducks can swim. Formerly +the idea was universally held that swimming +water was essential for the breeders in order to se<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span>cure +good fertility, and many duck farmers still believe +that better results can be secured in this way. +On some of the dry land duck farms, however, +breeding ducks are successfully kept without such +swimming places. The young market ducklings do +not require water to swim in although some raisers +prefer to have it and it is commonly allowed where +readily available. On the dry land farms provision +is made simply for a continuous supply of fresh +drinking water for the fattening ducklings. Ducklings +kept out of the water, do not take as much exercise +and, in consequence, fatten a little more readily.</p> + + +<h4>Making a Start in Duck Farming</h4> + +<p>Duck farms or plants are sometimes operated on +a considerable scale at the beginning, the plans +being carefully laid by some experienced duck man. +In these cases, operations at the start may be of +sufficient magnitude so that the output will amount +to 15,000 or 20,000 ducklings in a year. In most +cases, however, these places have been the result +of a more gradual growth from a small beginning, +a condition made necessary either by the inexperience +of the grower or by lack of capital. Not infrequently +men engaged in other forms of farming but +possessing a suitable location will keep 200 or 300 +breeding ducks and from this gradually build up a +good sized duck plant.</p> + +<p><i>Equipment, Capital, etc. Required.</i> The estimates<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> +given as to the amount of equipment and capital required +are based on the assumption that a plant is +to be operated of sufficient size to have a yearly output +of about 30,000 ducklings. It must be understood +in this connection that location and various +other conditions or circumstances will influence the +cost of different items of equipment and for this reason +these estimates must not be considered as absolute +but should rather serve as a guide or basis on +which to figure. The figures here given contemplate +the building up of an establishment which is efficient +but which is in no particular elaborate, the buildings +and other equipment being as simple and inexpensive +as possible.</p> + +<p><i>Lay-out or Arrangement of the Plant.</i> The plant +must be carefully planned so as to make the best +possible use of the land and particularly of the +water frontage. It is particularly important to arrange +the buildings in such a manner as to cut down +labor as much as possible. If there is any expectation +of enlarging the capacity at some future time, +this must also be borne in mind in the arrangement +of the various buildings and yards. The incubator +cellar should be convenient to the No. 1 brooder +house and the various brooder houses to one another. +The brooder house must likewise be convenient +to the growing and fattening houses and yards +and these in turn to the killing house. The feed +room should be centrally located so as to save labor +as much as possible in feeding the ducks.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>Land Required.</i> For a duck plant of the size indicated +10 acres of land should be ample. This, +however, means that no effort would be made to +grow any of the feed for the ducks or ducklings with +the exception of green feed. In some cases where +the lay of the land is unusually favorable so that the +plant can be laid out to the very best advantage, a +smaller amount of ground than this might be sufficient +but it is not well to figure on less than 10 acres.</p> + +<p><i>Number of Breeders Required.</i> With the usual +methods of management and with good success, one +may estimate that 40 young ducks can be marketed +each year from each breeding female. This is a good +average although in some good years duck raisers +will do a little better than this. On the other hand +in poor years they will not do so well. For a plant +having an output of 30,000 market ducks there +would therefore be needed in the neighborhood of +800 breeding ducks in addition to 100 drakes.</p> + +<p><i>Housing Required for Breeders.</i> In figuring on +the amount of housing required for this number of +breeding ducks, it is necessary to figure on 2½ to 3 +square feet of floor space per bird, 3 square feet +being better than 2½. This would require a housing +space 20 feet deep by 120 feet long. However +ducks are not usually housed in one building of this +size, and in fact it is better not to do so since the +smaller the flock of breeders kept together the better +they will do. In no case should a duck raiser +run more than 400 ducks in a flock and it is very<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> +much better to run them in pens of 100 each. In +fact, some breeders do not place more than 25 to 50 +breeding ducks in a pen.</p> + +<p><i>Incubator Capacity.</i> Incubators are used exclusively +for hatching the eggs. At the present time in +practically all cases some form of hot water mammoth +incubator is utilized for this purpose. An investment +is required both in incubators and in a +cellar in which to operate them. In figuring on the +incubator capacity necessary to take care of a proposition +of this size, it is necessary to base the estimate +on the number of eggs produced during the season +of flush production. The duck raiser figures on +incubating all eggs suitable for the purpose rather +than to sell any of them for other purposes as there +is a greater profit in rearing and marketing the +ducklings. For that reason he must have incubator +capacity enough to take care of all the eggs laid at +any time of the year. During the season of flush +production the yield will ordinarily run in the neighborhood +of 80%. The period of incubation is 28 days +but 2 days more should be added to this to allow for +cleaning out the machines, etc., before starting another +hatch. This means that there would be 30 days +between hatches. Figuring on 800 ducks with an 80% +production for 30 days an incubator capacity of +around 19,200 eggs would be required.</p> + +<p><i>Brooder Capacity.</i> A brooder house capacity, +where artificial heat can be supplied, sufficient to +take care of about half of the total output of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> +plant at one time is necessary. This means there +would have to be on this plant a heated brooder +house capacity for 15,000 ducklings. About half +of this number or 7500 would need accommodations +in the number 1 or warmest brooder house where +the heat can be kept up to 65 or 70 degrees in the +house itself, and warmer of course under the hover. +The other 7500 ducklings capacity would be in the +number 2 house, that is, a house where heat could +be supplied in the early spring and where the temperature +could be run up to 60 degrees. Hovers in +such a house are not really needed but it is common +to cover the hot waterpipes with a platform in order +to provide a runway on which one can run a wheel +barrow and thus simplify feeding. Ordinarily +after May 1 no heat is needed in the number 2 +brooder house. The young ducks are usually 2 to 3 +weeks old when they go into the number 2 house +and they stay there for about 2 weeks depending on +the weather. Heat for the brooder houses is supplied +by means of hot water pipes and a coal burning +stove such as are used in brooder houses for +chickens. A number 3 or cold brooder house is also +needed where ducklings can be housed and can be +driven in at night and in cold weather after they +have graduated from the number 2 house. From +the number 3 house a part of the ducklings are +taken directly to the yards where they are housed +in open front sheds.</p> + +<p><i>Fattening Houses or Sheds.</i> In addition to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> +brooder houses, there are required fattening houses +or sheds for the ducks when they are moved from +the No. 3 brooder house to the yards. Suitable +houses for this purpose are 16 feet deep by 24 feet +long. In front they are 5 feet high and in the rear +3½ feet. They are set on posts with a base board +around to make them tight. The fronts are entirely +open and provided with curtains which are used only +in the winter to keep out the snow. The ducklings +are shut in these houses when desired by means of +wire panels which close the lower part of the front. +Houses such as described are divided into two parts +and each side will accommodate 200 ducklings.</p> + +<p><i>Feed Storage.</i> Considerable feed storage room is +necessary as it is very desirable to be able to buy +feed in quantity and also to carry a considerable +stock on hand in order to offset the possibility of not +being able to secure feed at any time. There should +be storage capacity for 4 cars of 30 tons each, in +other words, for 120 tons of feed. Still greater capacity +than this is desirable. In connection with the +feed storage there should be a place where the feed +can be mixed and where feed can be cooked. Two +power operated feed mixers are required as one is +not sufficient during the busy season to allow the +mixing and feeding of the mash for both the breeders +and the young stock at the same time. A feed +cutter is necessary in preparing the green feed +which is mixed in the mash. The usual type of kettle +feed cooker is commonly used for boiling fish and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> +preparing other cooked feeds but in its place a +small four-horse steam boiler can be utilized to good +advantage as this makes it possible to cook the feed +right in the mixer by using a steam hose.</p> + +<p><i>Killing and Picking House.</i> A killing and picking +house where the ducks can be prepared for market +is another necessary building but this need not be an +expensive building. It must be located with reference +to its convenience to the rest of the plant. It +is also desirable to locate it over a spring if one is +available for the spring water can be used to excellent +advantage in cooling the dressed ducklings. +When a spring is not available water must be piped +to this building. The killing house is usually built +with at least one side open or partly open. A place +is provided outside the picking room where the +ducks can be hung and bled. Inside room is required +for six or eight pickers. A kettle for heating water +to be used in scalding the ducks is necessary as are +also tanks in which to place the ducks after they +are picked. Additional room is needed where the +ducks can be weighed and packed ready for shipment.</p> + +<p><i>Residence.</i> In addition to the other buildings +enumerated, a residence would of course be necessary. +The size and elaborateness of this and consequently +its cost depends entirely upon the owner's +needs and wishes.</p> + +<p><i>Horse Power.</i> One horse and wagon for the purpose +of drawing the feed about the plant and for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> +certain other necessary work would be required. If +the owner desires to do his own hauling of the feed +from the railroad and the other necessary trucking +he would, of course, have to keep more horses, a +team at least, or an automobile truck. Where only +one horse is kept, this trucking must be hired done.</p> + +<p><i>Feeding Track.</i> On many of the larger duck +farms, a feed track is employed in feeding the stock. +Such a track consists of a framework of sufficient +strength to support a car filled with mash which is +pushed along the track by hand. The track leads +from the feed mixer across the various yards where +the ducks to be fed are located, including both the +breeding ducks, yard ducks and brooder ducks in +yards. This involves a considerable amount of +trackage which must be fairly level and which runs +over the yard fences or along the ends of the yards +so that the feed can be shoveled directly from the +car into the feeding trays in the yards. The use of +a feed track simplifies the feeding considerably but +its construction is quite expensive. Where a track +is not used, the feed as mixed is dumped into a low +wagon which is driven along the yards, or through +them by removing movable panels in the fences and +the feed shoveled from the wagon to the feed trays.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 263px;"> +<a href="images/fig16.jpg"><img src="images/fig16_tn.jpg" width="263" height="400" alt="" +title="Power feed mixer. Linked to larger image of figure 16." /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 16. Power feed mixer. The feed is dumped into a low +wagon from which it is shoveled to the ducks. (<i>Photograph from +the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p><i>Electric Lights.</i> Most duck farms at the present +time are located where electric lighting is available. +It is desirable and in fact almost necessary to have +the various houses wired so that lights can be turned +on when desired. In addition, lights are usually pro<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span>vided +in the yards for fattening ducks and are used +at night and especially during storms to keep the +ducks from stampeding.</p> + +<p><i>Water Supply.</i> An adequate water supply is essential. +This will consist of a well or spring furnishing +an ample amount of water, a power pump and +a water supply tank. From the tank, the water must +be piped to the incubator cellar, the brooder houses, +the killing house, the feed house and to any of the +yards where the ducks do not have access to a natural +supply of good water. In addition, of course, +the water from the same tank is usually used to supply +the residence.</p> + +<p><i>Fences.</i> Not a great deal of investment is necessary +in fences since the yards are rather small and +the fences are low. Two-foot fences of two-inch +mesh wire are used for the yard ducks while for the +little ducks 18-inch wire of one-inch mesh is used. +The biggest items of expense connected with the +fences are the cost of the stakes or posts used in their +construction and the labor used in this work. The +portion of the yards extending into the water are the +most troublesome and most expensive to build. In +some cases, rather elaborate wooden picket fences +are used in the water yards. These are more permanent +but are more expensive to build.</p> + +<p><i>Labor.</i> For a plant of the size indicated there +would be required in addition to an active +working proprietor three other men. One man would +be needed to operate the incubators, one man would<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> +devote his time to the brooder houses, one man +would feed the yard ducks and the fattening pens, +and one man would do the killing and packing, take +care of the feathers, clean the yards, etc. Of course, +there would be periods when these men would not +have their entire time taken up with their particular +duties and this would permit them to turn in and +help with the miscellaneous work on the plant.</p> + +<p>In addition to the regular men employed, additional +labor would be necessary to do the picking. +For this purpose pickers are usually brought in and +work by the piece. During the spring of 1920 these +pickers received six cents per duck and they will +average about 75 ducks a day, beginning work at 6 +in the morning and finishing by noon or a little later. +Some pickers will average as high as 100 ducks a +day. In the busy season from 800 to 1200 ducks will +be marketed per week and the usual practice is to +kill and pick not over three days a week, usually +during the first part of the week.</p> + +<p><i>Invested Capital.</i> Investment in the business exclusive +of working capital, that is to say, the money +in the land and buildings and other equipment +would require under present conditions about $1,000 +for each thousand ducks marketed. In other words, +in a plant of this size, close to $30,000 would be invested. +The amount of invested capital depends to +some extent upon location and upon the elaborateness +of the buildings and other equipment but with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> +a well laid out economical plant an investment of the +size indicated should be sufficient.</p> + +<p><i>Working Capital.</i> In addition to the capital invested +in the plant there would be required a considerable +amount of working capital. From the +first of November to the beginning of the marketing +of the ducks there would be required from $6,000 +to $8,000 with which to purchase feed, meet the pay +roll, and for other running expenses. Even after +the marketing begins there would be a period of +from a month to six weeks when the expenses will +continue to be greater than the receipts so that some +additional capital might be necessary. However, +returns would begin to come in which could be used +to take care of the more pressing current obligations +so that additional working capital which might be +needed over that indicated would not be large.</p> + +<p><i>Profits.</i> The profits in commercial duck raising +vary widely, as must be expected, depending upon +the management, upon the season and upon prices +received. After deducting all overhead charges and +interest on the investment, the net return per duck +should be at least 10 cents per duckling marketed. +In fact the return should be 15 cents to provide +much inducement to engage in the business. Some +seasons the returns will run greater than this but on +the other hand, there is always the chance of occasional +big losses.</p> + + + +<hr class="long" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span></p> +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV +<br /> +Commercial Duck Farming—Management of the +Breeding Stock</h3> + + +<p><i>Age of Breeders.</i> On most large commercial duck +plants the entire breeding stock is renewed each +year. In other words, the breeders are kept only +through their first laying season. This makes it +necessary to select from the young stock reared and +save for breeders as many head as it is desired to +carry for the coming year. This practice is used +for the reason that ducks lay best during their first +year. Therefore, since it is desired to keep up the +maximum egg production in order to raise as many +market ducks as possible, young breeders are considered +better. Some raisers, however, keep a part +of their breeding ducks for two years and occasionally +for 3 or even 4 years but this is not the usual +practice. Recent comparison made between young +and two year old ducks as breeders would seem to +indicate that ducklings hatched from the eggs of the +latter live a little better.</p> + +<p><i>Distinguishing Young from Old Ducks.</i> In this +connection it is of interest to know how young ducks +can be readily distinguished from the older birds. +The young ducks have bright yellow legs and bills<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> +while the old ducks after a period of laying, lose a +considerable amount of the yellow from these sections. +In addition, soon after the ducks begin to lay, +their bills as a rule will begin to be streaked with +black. Young ducks can also be told from the old +ducks by feeling of the end of the breast bone which +runs to a point at the abdomen. In the older ducks +this is hard while in the young ducks it is gristly and +bends easily. The windpipe of an old duck is hard +and rather difficult to compress or dent while in the +young duck it is softer and easily dented.</p> + +<p><i>Selection of Breeding Ducks.</i> The breeders are +usually selected from the ducklings which reach +market age from the last week in June through July. +As these lots become ready for market and are +driven into the pens to be slaughtered each duck is +handled and any especially good birds which the +proprietor thinks will make good breeders are +thrown out at this time.</p> + +<p>In making selection of breeders those are chosen +which are healthy and thrifty and which have good +wide, long and deep bodies. Ducks with crooked +wings, crooked tails, hump backs or paddle legs are +rejected for this purpose. After the young ducks +for breeders are selected they are put in a yard or +fattening pen until the number which the owner expects +to keep is complete. These young breeders +generally begin to moult soon after they are selected +and from this time on they are fed whole corn and +plenty of green feed until it is time to begin feeding<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> +the laying ration. Some of the breeding ducks will +usually begin to lay about December 1 although +they will not lay heavily at that time. The laying +ration described later should be begun about that +time or a couple of weeks earlier.</p> + +<p><i>Number of Females to a Drake.</i> As a rule on commercial +duck farms the birds are mated in the proportion +of about one drake to seven ducks. This +proportion will vary to some extent under different +methods of management and weather conditions +and may run all the way from 1 to 5 to 1 to 8. The +smaller number of drakes should be used late in +the season while the larger number will give better +fertility early in the breeding season.</p> + +<p>Since the drakes do not fight seriously, flock matings +can be made. Better results will be obtained +from smaller flocks than from large flocks and there +will also be less cracked eggs and less very dirty +eggs from the smaller flocks. Before the ducks are let +out in the morning there is a tendency for them to run +back and forth through the pens, and in this way +they tramp over many of the eggs which are laid anywhere +about the floor. The larger the flock the more +cracked and dirty eggs will result. While the drakes +do not fight each other they do at times injure and +kill the ducks to some extent when three or four +drakes may chase one duck. In this way they may +injure the ducks' backs and often pick their eyes and +necks. Whenever a duck is found which is injured +she should be removed from the flock. Difficulty of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> +this sort is most prevalent about the 1st of March. +If the trouble gets very bad it can be stopped to +some extent by cutting back the upper bills of the +drakes about one-fourth of an inch with a tinsnip +or by reducing the proportion of drakes.</p> + +<p><i>Securing Breeding Drakes.</i> It is common practice +on duck plants to avoid inbreeding by securing +drakes from some other flock each year. This is +usually accomplished by buying the drakes outright +from some neighboring duck farmer. It may also +be accomplished by purchasing a few eggs for +hatching in order to secure new blood. In any particular +community there is a tendency for the duck +farmers to trade breeding drakes among themselves +for a period of years with the result that they all +have much the same blood and not a great deal of +benefit is obtained from securing the drakes from +some neighbor's flock. It is undoubtedly good practice +to go farther afield occasionally for a supply of +breeding drakes. In purchasing stock for new blood +be sure that it is as good as the home stock and better +if it can be found. It will do no good to purchase +and use inferior stock and may do much harm.</p> + + +<h4>Houses and Yards for Breeders</h4> + +<p>The breeding flocks are usually confined to breeding +yards. The size of these yards depends upon the +size of the breeding flock but large yards are not required. +A yard for 200 breeders is not as a rule<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> +larger than 100 by 200 feet including the water part +of the yard. Houses and yards should be located +on sand if possible as this is easier to keep clean and +therefore keeps the birds in better condition. Occasional +flocks of breeding ducks are allowed their +liberty but this is not common practice nor is it good +practice unless the surroundings are clean and the +ducks do not have access to stagnant mud or refuse +in which they can work. If ducks work too much in +this kind of material they will eat more or less of it +which injures the eggs for hatching purposes.</p> + +<p>Many different styles of houses are used for breeders, +some of which are decidedly more elaborate than +is necessary. A very satisfactory economical house +is one 20 feet deep, 7 feet high in front and 4 feet at +back, with a shed roof. This can be constructed +of tongue and groove material or may be made of +unmatched stuff and covered with paper. A house +of this proportion makes a good light house and it +can be carried in length according to the size of the +flock. For a breeding unit of 200 ducks, which is a +good unit to use, a house 20 feet deep and 30 to 40 +feet long is suitable. No floor is used in the house +but it should be well filled up with dirt so that the +water will not come in.</p> + +<p>One or more good sized openings are left in the +front of the breeding house for ventilation, or windows +may be placed in the front which can be used +for this purpose. Good ventilation is necessary. +Additional ventilation is secured from the doors. If<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> +the weather is mild the doors are left partly open, +if cold they are nearly closed, while when the +weather is hot they are left entirely open. A good +scheme is to use a sort of Dutch door so that the bottom +or top half can be opened independently. In +this way the top part of the doors can be left open +so as to let in the sunlight and still keep the ducks +in the house or the top may be left closed and the +bottom opened so as to allow the ducks to go in or +out and still cut down the amount of ventilation. +When the weather is warm the doors may be left +entirely open except for a board 18 inches to 2 feet +wide inserted in the bottom of the door when it is +desired to keep the ducks in.</p> + +<p>Shade is essential for the breeders and if not provided +naturally by trees must be supplied by means +of artificial shelters.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a href="images/fig17a.jpg"><img src="images/fig17a_tn.jpg" width="400" height="336" alt="" +title="Duck houses (rear view). Linked to larger image." /></a> +<a href="images/fig17b.jpg"><img src="images/fig17b_tn.jpg" width="400" height="336" alt="" +title="Duck houses (front view). Linked to larger image." /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 17. Upper—Rear and end view of house or shed used for +fattening ducks. Lower—General view on a duck plant, showing +open front fattening houses in the foreground and houses for +breeders in the background. (<i>Photographs from the Bureau of +Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<hr /> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a href="images/fig18.jpg"><img src="images/fig18_tn.jpg" width="400" height="262" alt="" +title="House for breeding ducks. Linked to larger image." /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 18. A good house for breeding ducks. It is 20 feet deep, 40 feet long, 7 feet high in front and 4 +feet in the rear and will accommodate 200 breeders. (<i>Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, +U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p><i>Bedding and Cleaning the Breeding Houses.</i> Usually +straw, meadow hay, or swale hay is used for +bedding. Shavings make good material for this purpose +if they do not contain too much sawdust. The +principal objection to shavings is that it takes longer +to bed with them. Often a few joists are laid at the +back of the house on which to pile bales of straw or +other bedding so that it will be kept dry and will +serve as an emergency supply available for bedding +the house in stormy days. The houses should be +bedded fairly often in order to keep the floors clean +and dry and so as not to allow the ducks' feet to get +cold. The frequency with which bedding is neces<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span>sary +will depend upon the weather. In winter it may +at times be necessary to bed every day. In May it +may be necessary only twice a week and still later in +the season only once a week. In wet weather the +ducks track in lots of mud and water and frequent +bedding helps to keep the eggs clean. The houses +are cleaned out only once a year and this is usually +done after the ducks have stopped laying. To clean +out the houses while the ducks are laying would +disturb them and tend to stop their egg production.</p> + +<p><i>Cleaning the Breeding Yards.</i> The yards should +be cleaned whenever they need it, that is, whenever +they begin to get sloppy or sticky. It is a matter of +judgment to decide when this is necessary. The +character of the soil influences this, as sandy yards +absorb the droppings better and do not need cleaning +as frequently as heavier soils. In the yards for +the breeding ducks, or the water yards, this will as +a rule not be over 2 or 3 times a season. In dry +weather cleaning is accomplished by sweeping the +yards with a broom. In wet weather the droppings +spread over the yard and are packed down by the +ducks' feet until they form a layer of putty-like material +which cannot be swept off but is scraped off +by means of a hoe.</p> + +<p><i>Water Yards for Breeders.</i> Formerly it was the +consensus of opinion that breeders needed water in +which they could swim in order to keep in good +breeding condition and to give the best results in +fertility of the eggs. At present it is not considered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> +necessary to have sufficient water to permit swimming +although many breeders prefer to do this and +feel that they get better results from it. However, +breeding ducks have been and are being kept successfully +in dry yards where water is supplied to +them simply in an amount sufficient to allow them to +drink and to clean themselves. Where water yards +are provided this should not be on stagnant water +but there should be some circulation of the water +so as to keep it clean and fresh. Where the lay of +the land is such that it is not possible to run all the +yards down to a stream for this purpose it is sometimes +possible to dig a canal or ditch from the stream +to the yards so as to allow the ducks access to the +water. Where the yards can extend into the water +it saves a great deal of labor or considerable expense +in equipment as it is not then necessary to provide +the ducks with drinking water by means of +some artificial arrangement such as a concrete gutter +or ditch extending through the yards or by +means of artificial ponds.</p> + +<p>If the water yards used freeze over in winter it is +necessary to cut holes in the ice so that the ducks +can get water for drinking purposes. Sometimes +the ducks will go into these water holes and after +getting their plumage wet will come out and sit +down in the yard and freeze fast to the ground. During +such weather conditions it is necessary to make +the rounds of the yards frequently and to loosen +any ducks that have frozen fast. If they are left in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span> +that condition they are apt to injure themselves in +trying to pull free and if left too long will die.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a href="images/fig19.jpg"><img src="images/fig19_tn.jpg" width="400" height="264" alt="" +title="Another type of breeding house. Linked to larger image of figure 19." /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 19. Another successful type of house for breeding ducks. It is 20 ft. by 40 ft. and is divided into +two pens each of which will accommodate 100 breeders. (<i>Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, +U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<hr /> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a href="images/fig20.jpg"><img src="images/fig20_tn.jpg" width="400" height="261" alt="" +title="Feeding the breeders. Linked to larger image of figure 20." /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 20. Meal time for the breeders. (<i>Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department +of Agriculture.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p><i>Feeding the Breeders.</i> Breeding ducks are fed +twice a day, in the morning and at night. It is usual +practice to feed the breeders last in the morning +and first at night. The reason for feeding them last +in the morning is that they are usually fed in the +yards rather than the house and they should be kept +in until they are through laying which will be after +daylight. A good breeding ration consists of the +following, the proportions being given by measure +in bushels.</p> + +<ul style="margin-left:4em"> +<li>1 bushel bran.</li> +<li>1 bushel low-grade flour.</li> +<li>1 bushel corn meal.</li> +<li>1 bushel green feed.</li> +<li>½ bushel either raw or cooked vegetables.</li> +<li>1 bushel in 10 of beef scrap.</li> +<li>½ bushel in 10 of cooked fish.</li> +</ul> + +<p>This ration will keep the breeding ducks in good +flesh but there will be no difficulty in their getting +too fat. It is also a good laying ration and will promote +good egg production. The vegetables used in +this ration usually consist of sugar beets, cow beets, +potatoes, etc. However, if potatoes are used the +amount of flour in the ration should be reduced a +little so as not to make the ration too heavy. Beets, +when used, are fed raw cut up and mixed in the +feed. Small potatoes, boiled and mixed in the feed +are more valuable as they have a greater food value +than beets. Some duck growers feed fish entirely,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> +using no beef scrap. This is done where a plentiful +supply of fish can be secured by going out into the +bay after them. However, this is not very good +practice for a sufficient supply of fish may not +always be available and the ducks are so fond of +the fish that they will not eat well the beef scrap +used as a substitute for the fish, until they have become +used to it. Fish is prepared for feeding by +boiling it thoroughly in a feed cooker.</p> + +<p>The available land on the plant is used to grow +a supply of green feed. Rye is used for this purpose +early in the spring as soon as it is high enough to +mow. It is mowed the first time when it is like a +lawn. At this stage it does not have to be cut up. +Oats are used in the same way. During the summer +fodder corn is used. This is the poorest crop for the +purpose but is as a rule the only one available at +that time. Rape is sowed in August and its use begun +about the time of the first frost and kept up +until the hard freezes come or until it is buried under +the snow. Creek grass which is secured from +the fresh water streams on Long Island by going +out in a flat bottom boat and raking it off the creek +bottom with a wooden rake, is very much relished +by the ducks and is used whenever it is available. +However, the supply of this material is not as plentiful +as it was formerly and it is rather hard to get. +When it is available it can be used either in winter +or summer.</p> + +<p>Good field clover cut up and boiled with the pota<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span>toes +or with the fish makes a good green feed. All +of these green materials for use in the ration, unless +they are already in short lengths, are cut up by +means of a power feed cutter before they are mixed +in the mash. When no other form of green feed is +available ground alfalfa is used but only half as +much of this material is mixed with the ration as +is used of any of the other kinds of green feed. +Wherever possible the various duck yards should be +used to grow a crop of green stuff such as oats or +rye as this not only helps out on the supply of green +feed but also helps to sweeten the soil. The growing +of a crop on the heavier types of soil used for ducks +is especially important as such soils are more likely +to become contaminated from the droppings.</p> + +<p>The ration for the ducks is mixed up in a power +feed mixer which works much on the principle of a +power dough mixer. In fact, dough mixers are used +on some plants. In mixing the feed enough water +should be added to bring the material to a consistency +where it will hold together when squeezed in +the hand. In fact, the consistency should be between +crumbly and sticky, but should never be +sloppy. The feed is dumped from the mixer into a +low horse drawn wagon and driven around to the +various yards where it is shoveled off on to the feed +troughs or trays. On some large duck plants a +track is provided which runs over the yards and +over this a car loaded with feed is pushed and the +feed shoveled into the feed trays.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span></p> + +<p>The breeders should be fed in the same place. If +feeding is begun in the house this practice should +be continued. If feeding is begun in the yards it +should be continued there. To change disturbs the +ducks and interferes with their egg production.</p> + +<p>Coarse ground oyster shell about as large as corn +should be kept before the breeders all the time in +boxes where they can help themselves. A flock of +700 or 800 breeders will eat upwards of 200 pounds +a week of this material. Unless sand is available in +the yards where they can get it, ducks should also +have access to a supply of good sharp creek sand +but when kept in sand yards no other form of grit +need be furnished.</p> + +<p>The usual method of feeding is to utilize flat +troughs on which the feed is shoveled. Only as much +feed should be given at the regular feeding time as +the ducks will eat up clean. This makes it necessary +to watch the feeding carefully and to regulate +the amount accordingly. It is good practice to +gather up any feed that is left by the ducks so that +it will not lie there to sour and spoil as such feed +is bad for the birds.</p> + + +<h4>Egg Production</h4> + +<p>The average egg production of Pekin ducks kept +under commercial farm conditions will run from +80 to 125 eggs per head for the season. This will vary +somewhat from year to year and also with the man<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span>agement +and feed given the ducks. The laying begins +to a small extent about December 1 and gradually +increases until the ducks are laying freely in +February. As the hot weather of summer begins +to come on the laying drops off until about July +1 and after this not enough eggs are produced as a +rule to pay to hold the breeding ducks longer. Often +many ducks will stop laying considerably before +this, especially those which have started laying +early and it may not pay to keep such pens later +than May. Laying takes place early in the morning +and practically all the eggs are laid soon after daylight. +It is for this reason that the ducks are usually +shut up at night so that all the eggs laid will be secured +as some of them would otherwise be lost by +their being laid around in the yard or in the water. +In the spring the ducks can be let out about 6 a. m., +as the laying will be pretty well over by that time, +but in winter they must be kept shut up later in order +to secure all the eggs. After the ducks start +laying in the spring they are very regular and continuous +layers and will miss fewer days than most +hens.</p> + +<p>After the breeding ducks are first put in the +breeding pens and shut in the houses at night it is +common practice to use electric lights for the first +2 or 3 weeks in order to keep them from stampeding +as ducks in strange surroundings are quite nervous +and are quite likely to stampede and to run +over one another thus causing cripples. Electric<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> +lights have also been used to some extent during the +late fall and winter for the purpose of inducing egg +production earlier than the natural season. As a +rule the ducks can be started to laying about 4 +weeks after turning on the lights but the average +production under this system is not likely to run +more than 60 eggs for the season as so handled they +moult quite early in the spring. A single 25 watt +light is sufficient for a house or pen 16 x 24 feet and +the lights are left turned on all night.</p> + +<p>The object in feeding and caring for the breeding +ducks is to keep them from moulting and to keep +them laying as long as possible. It must be remembered +that any radical change in feed or manner +of feeding, shutting them up too closely, change of +temperature, or other disturbing conditions are +likely to cause moulting and to check egg production. +Any change in feed must be made carefully +and gradually, not suddenly. It must also be remembered +that ducks are excitable birds and must +be handled and driven carefully so as to disturb +them as little as possible.</p> + + +<h4>Time of Marketing Breeders</h4> + +<p>The breeders should be turned off to market whenever +their egg production drops off so decidedly that +it no longer pays to hold them. In most cases this +will be about the 1st of July but it may range considerably +earlier than this, especially with pens of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> +ducks that have started laying early. When the +ducks finish laying their eggs they begin to moult +and it is at this time that they should be marketed. +If marketing is delayed, the ducks will lose condition +as the moulting progresses and will therefore +be held at a loss.</p> + + +<h4>Diseases and Pests</h4> + +<p><i>Disease.</i> Old ducks, that is, mature ducks, are +practically free from disease. Of course, there will +be a certain amount of loss in the breeding stock +from various causes but this should not run for the +entire season more than 10% of the flock. Ducks +do not become egg bound, but sometimes, especially +during heavy laying, they become ruptured.</p> + +<p><i>Insect Pests.</i> Ducks are remarkably free from +lice and other insect pests and those which they do +have do not trouble them much. It is unnecessary +therefore to take any precautions in the way of +treating the ducks to keep them free of insects.</p> + +<p><i>Dogs.</i> Occasionally trouble may be experienced +from dogs. If these animals get into the yards with +the breeders or the fattening ducks, they may kill +a good many and in addition will seriously injure +the rest by chasing them and by the fright which +the ducks are given.</p> + + + +<hr class="long" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span></p> +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V +<br /> +Commercial Duck Farming—Incubation</h3> + + +<p>The Pekin duck is essentially a non-broody breed. +It, therefore, becomes necessary to resort to incubators +for the purpose of hatching the eggs. Occasional +ducks will sit if allowed to do so but it is not +the practice on commercial duck farms to allow them +to sit and hatch their young. No special means are +taken to break them of broodiness other than not to +allow them eggs to sit on.</p> + +<p><i>Kinds of Incubators Used.</i> Both the smaller kerosene +lamp heated incubators and the large or mammoth +hot water heated incubators are used for hatching +duck eggs. At the present time the mammoth hot +water machines are those which are in principal use +due largely to the lessened labor required to operate +them.</p> + +<p><i>Incubator Cellar.</i> It is necessary to provide some +room in which the incubators can be installed and +operated. This may take the form of a cellar, or the +incubators may be operated in rooms above the +ground. Many of the incubator cellars on duck +farms are only partially under ground and not a few +of them are built entirely out of ground. The particular +size and shape of the cellar or incubator<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span> +room will, of course, depend upon the number of incubators +to be installed and upon their make and +shape. Usually these buildings are constructed +with rather thick walls so that the temperature of +the room will fluctuate less with changes in outside +temperature. Provision is also necessary by means +of windows or other ventilating devices to provide +for good ventilation in the room. The cellars are +usually constructed with cement floors as moisture +is used freely and wooden floors would rot out +quickly.</p> + +<p><i>Incubator Capacity Required.</i> The aim on commercial +duck farms is to hatch all of the eggs produced +which are suitable for the purpose. Practically +no eggs are sold except the cracked eggs or +those which would not give good results in the incubator +such as too large or too small eggs. Occasionally, +of course, there will be sales of duck eggs +in comparatively large lots for incubation purposes +where someone is starting a duck farm. Occasionally +also duck farmers buy from each other a few +eggs for incubation in order to secure new blood. +On the whole, however, practically all of the eggs +laid are incubated and it is necessary to have an incubator +capacity sufficient to take care of the eggs +as they are produced during the flush season.</p> + +<p>Since the egg production at this time will run +around about 80% and since the period of incubation +is 28 days and a couple more days must be +allowed to take the ducklings out of the machines<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> +and to clean up the machines, it is necessary to figure +on 30 days between hatches. To take care of +the flush production at this time there would be required +an incubator capacity of from 20 to 25 eggs +per head of breeding ducks. The latter figure is a +safer estimate than the former. Of course, eggs +sufficient to fill the entire incubator capacity are not +put in the machines at any one time but different +lots are put in as soon as a sufficient number is obtained +to make it worth while. There will be, therefore, +eggs in various stages of incubation in different +sections of the machines at the same time. While +Pekin duck eggs will run about ½ heavier in weight +than hens' eggs they do not take up a proportionately +greater amount of space in the incubator. An +incubator tray will accommodate about 5/6 as many +Pekin duck eggs as it will hens' eggs.</p> + +<p><i>Age of Hatching Eggs.</i> Duck eggs should be set +as often as enough are secured to fill one or more +trays in the incubator or enough to produce a sufficient +number of ducklings to utilize brooding space +to advantage. Since duck eggs deteriorate more +rapidly than hens' eggs they cannot be kept so long +before they are set. It is best not to save them for +longer than one week. During the season of flush +production it is not, of course, necessary to save +them that long since enough eggs will be secured +to set each day if desired. The usual practice at +this time is to set twice a week. During the early +part of the season when the production of eggs is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> +low and the temperature cool the eggs are often +saved for as long a period as two weeks without noticeably +bad results.</p> + +<p><i>Care of Hatching Eggs.</i> Eggs for hatching should +be kept in a cool place. Any place suitable for keeping +hens' eggs for hatching is a suitable place for +duck eggs. The temperature should be from 50° +to 70° Fahrenheit. Where the eggs are not kept +longer than one week, it is not necessary to turn +them, especially if they are kept on end. If kept +longer than this it is safer to turn them once a day +or once in two days, handling them carefully so as +not to crack any or to injure their hatching qualities.</p> + +<p><i>Selecting the Eggs for Hatching.</i> Medium sized +eggs are preferred for this purpose. Therefore, the +extremely large eggs and the very small ones are +thrown out. Rough shelled eggs or eggs with +crooked or deformed shells are likewise thrown out +since they are not likely to hatch well. Eggs that +are badly soiled so that they cannot be tested easily +are washed but the clean eggs are not. All the eggs +intended for incubation purposes are sounded by +striking them gently against one another in order to +detect and remove the cracked eggs. No selection +is made on the basis of color. The eggs may be +white, creamy white or a blue, or bluish green in +color. At the present time a considerably less proportion +of the eggs show a blue tint than formerly.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> +As the egg laying season advances the eggs laid by +the ducks tend to get a little larger.</p> + +<p><i>Temperature.</i> Up to the time of testing, that is, +about the fifth day, the incubator is run at a temperature +of from 101 to 102 degrees. After the fifth +day the temperature is kept as near 103 as possible. +The most sensitive period for a duck egg is during +the first 3 or 4 days of incubation. If they are +allowed to get too warm during this time the germ +may be killed while if the temperature is too low, +development will be retarded.</p> + +<p><i>Position of the Thermometer.</i> In figuring on the +proper temperature at which to run the incubator, +the thermometer should be so placed that the bulb +is on a level with the top of the eggs, preferably +touching a fertile egg. If the thermometer bulb +rests on an infertile egg the temperature recorded +will be lower than the actual temperature of fertile +eggs in the later stages of incubation, due to the +animal heat of the developing embryos, with the +result that the machine would be operated at too +high a temperature.</p> + +<p><i>Testing.</i> It is common practice to make only one +complete test. This is done on the evening of the +fifth day. Testing may be done by means of an ordinary +candling device such as is used with hens' +eggs, each egg being examined separately. To save +time a piece of apparatus may be used which is simple +in construction and which simplifies the process +of candling considerably. This may be termed a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span> +testing table. It consists of a table the same +width as an incubator tray and longer than the tray. +In the table there is an opening the size of a row of +eggs and beneath this are placed several electric +light bulbs with reflectors back of them so as to +throw the light up through the eggs. By sliding the +tray along the table each row of eggs is brought over +the lights and their condition can be quickly noted. +At this test all the infertile eggs are taken out as +well as any eggs in which the germs have died. +The infertile eggs after a careful retest are then +packed in cases and sent to market where they are +usually sold to bakers as tested eggs. While no second +test is made of the eggs left in the machines the +experienced incubator operator is constantly on the +watch for and is constantly removing any eggs +which die at a later time. To the experienced eye +the color of the egg indicates that it has died as it +takes on a sort of pinkish or darkish tint. Duck +eggs after they die will spoil very quickly and must +be removed promptly as the odor which they throw +off is very strong and will prove harmful to the other +eggs. The inexperienced operator can readily locate +dead eggs by smelling over the tray.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a href="images/fig21.jpg"><img src="images/fig21_tn.jpg" width="400" height="263" alt="" +title="Interior of breeding house. Linked to larger image of figure 20." /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 21.</span> Interior of house for breeding ducks. Notice the heavy bedding and the feeding track. (<i>Photograph +from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<hr /> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a href="images/fig22.jpg"><img src="images/fig22_tn.jpg" width="400" height="261" alt="" +title="Incubator cellar. Linked to larger image of figure 21." /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 22. Incubator cellar on large duck plant. Trays of eggs set out to turn and cool. (<i>Photograph +from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p><i>Turning the Eggs.</i> The eggs are neither turned, +cooled nor otherwise disturbed after they are put in +the incubator until after they are tested on the fifth +day. From this time on they are turned twice a day, +morning and night, until they begin to pip.</p> + +<p><i>Cooling the Eggs.</i> There is a considerable differ<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span>ence +in the practice of incubator operators with regard +to cooling. No cooling should be done until +after the first test. After this some incubator men +cool the eggs by dropping the doors of the machine. +Others take the trays of eggs out and put them on +top of the machine. Cooling is usually done once a +day. The amount of cooling which the eggs require +seems to vary greatly and here again the judgment +of the operator comes into play. About the best general +rule which can be given is that the eggs should +be cooled until they do not feel warm to the face +but they should never be cooled to the extent that +they feel cold to the face or hands. The length +of time to bring this about varies with the age of the +eggs and the temperature of the room.</p> + +<p><i>Moisture.</i> A good deal of moisture is used in incubating +duck eggs. It is usual to begin to spray +the eggs with water the next day after testing. +However, this may vary anywhere from the sixth to +the tenth day. They are sprayed quite thoroughly, +some men using water enough so that it runs out of +the bottom of the machine. No particular care is +taken to see that the water used is warm. Ordinary +water just as it comes from the pipes is commonly +used and is applied by means of a spray nozzle attached +to a hose. However, extremely cold water +should not be used for this purpose. This spraying +is done once or twice a day as the operator may +think necessary until the eggs begin to hatch. In +many cases even then if the ducklings seem to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> +drying too fast after they come out of the shell, or +to be having difficulty to get out it is well to open +the machines and wet the eggs down thoroughly.</p> + +<p><i>Fertility.</i> The fertility varies with the season +that is, with the weather. At the beginning of the +laying season when the weather is cold the fertility +usually runs rather low. This is likewise true at +the end of the laying season when the heat of summer +sets in. During the interval between these two +times of low fertility there will usually be one or +more periods during which the fertility will go down +and then come back again. This seems to occur even +though the weather remains about the same and +though there is no change in the method of feeding. +Fertility may be considered to be good when it runs +about 85%. When the fertility is running poor the +hatching of the eggs left in the machines after testing +will usually be poor also.</p> + +<p><i>Hatching.</i> It takes longer as a rule from the time +that the ducklings pip the eggs until they hatch than +it does with chicks. To retain the moisture which is so +necessary during hatching, the machines are usually +shut tightly and are not opened until the hatching +is pretty well completed unless it becomes necessary +to add more moisture as indicated above. The little +ducklings should be left in the incubator until the +hatching is over and they are thoroughly dried off. +As soon as the hatching is completed, the ventilators +in the machines are opened to hasten the drying +process. If the ducklings open their bills and pant<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> +it is an indication that they are not getting enough +ventilation and this should be supplied by fastening +the machine door open a little way. If the ducks +are not ready to be taken out of the machines by +noon or soon after, it is best to leave them until the +next morning before removing them to the brooder +house. In the meantime, however, the old eggs and +shells and other refuse should be taken out. Usually +the hatch is completed in time so that the ducklings +can be removed to the brooder house on the afternoon +of the 28th day. As a rule the earlier the hatch +is completed the better are the ducklings.</p> + +<p>Figures secured on results in hatching for the entire +season on Long Island duck farms indicate that +as a whole the duck raisers will not average much +over 40% hatch of all eggs set. Some hatches may +run as high as 60% or even more and in some seasons +the average percentage will run higher than +40. Some especially skilled operators may also secure +considerably better average results than this. +It is quite a common practice on the part of duck +farmers to pay their incubator man a bonus on all +ducklings over 40% hatched during the season. This +bonus may range anywhere from $1 to $5 per thousand +ducklings. Such an arrangement serves to give +the incubator man a greater incentive to give the +machines good attention and to secure just the best +results of which he is capable.</p> + +<p><i>Selling Baby Ducks.</i> Within the last two or three +years there has sprung into existence a small but in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span>creasing +trade in baby ducks. They are handled and +shipped about the same as baby chicks. Baby ducks +are ready for shipment as soon as they are thoroughly +dry, usually about 12 hours after the hatch +starts to come off. They are neither fed nor watered +before shipment and are packed in cardboard boxes +used in shipping baby chicks. As a rule the shipping +boxes will accommodate about half the number +of ducklings that they will chicks. Of course the +outside temperature very largely governs the matter +of the number to a compartment. In warm summer +weather, a two compartment box intended for +50 chicks will accommodate 26 ducklings if well +ventilated at the sides and top. They are shipped +by parcel post and can be sent anywhere within a +radius of one thousand miles if the trip does not require +more than 36 hours. For best results the ducklings +should not be allowed to go much beyond this +length of time before they are fed. On receipt they +should be placed immediately in a brooder already +prepared for them.</p> + + + +<hr class="long" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span></p> +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI +<br /> +Commercial Duck Farming—Brooding and +Rearing the Young Stock</h3> + + +<p>Young ducks are easier to brood than chicks. +They seem to learn more quickly where the source +of heat is and they are less likely to cause trouble +from crowding. They are also less subject to disease.</p> + +<p><i>Removing the Newly Hatched Ducklings to the +Brooder House.</i> The ducklings should be left in the +incubator until they are thoroughly dried off. Usually +they will be dried so that they can be moved +on the afternoon of the 28th day of incubation. If, +however, they are not ready early in the afternoon +it is best to leave them in the machine until the next +morning. In moving the ducklings, place them in +boxes, baskets or other suitable carriers and cover +them with burlap or cloth to avoid any danger of the +ducklings becoming chilled.</p> + +<p><i>Brooder Houses Repaired.</i> There are many different +types and styles of brooder houses which are +used with success. For this reason only one type of +each class of brooder house needed is described in +detail. These particular houses have been in successful +use for a considerable period of time and +are given because they embody all the necessary re<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span>quisites +for such houses and at the same time utilize +the space to good advantage and are economical in +construction.</p> + +<p>In general there are required three different +brooder houses. The first of these requires sufficient +heating capacity so that the temperature of the +house itself can be maintained at 65 to 70 degrees +even in the cold weather of winter or early spring. +In addition, hovers are required in this house under +which a temperature can be maintained from 80 to +90 degrees. For convenience this house will be spoken +of as brooder house No. 1. A second brooder house +which can be called brooder house No. 2 will be required +which is equipped with heating apparatus so +that the temperature can be run up to 60 degrees +when required. The third brooder house known as +brooder house No. 3 is a cold brooder house or one +without artificial heat. It furnishes shelter for the +young ducks where they can be driven in at night +and during the day in cold weather. As the ducklings +pass out of the brooder house No. 3 they are +housed in sheds or shelters with yards which usually +extend into the water but which may not do so in all +cases.</p> + + +<h4>Brooder House No. 1</h4> + +<p>The length of this house determines its capacity, +the required amount of which will depend upon the +output of any particular plant. There should be +brooder capacity in this house sufficient to care for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> +approximately ¼ of the total output for the year at +one time.</p> + +<p><i>Construction of House.</i> A suitable house which +has been in practical use for some time consists of +one 20 feet wide and running east and west with +windows in the south or front side. If the location +were right such a house could be run north and +south to good advantage and should then have windows +on each side so as to let in the sunlight from +both directions. The front wall of this house is 7 +feet high, the back wall 4 feet. The ridge of the +house is about 2 feet in front of the center, the front +slope of the roof having an eight inch pitch while +the back slope has a 6 inch pitch. The roof rafters +are 2 x 4's placed every two feet. The studs and +plates are likewise 2 x 4. The walls are made of +matched material. The roof is constructed of 1 x 2 +inch strips placed every 4 inches and these covered +with shingles. Tie beams every 8 feet extend from +front to rear plates. This particular brooder house +is not ceiled but a good tight ceiling 8 feet above the +walk or runway would make it easier to keep the +house clean and would also render it somewhat easier +in cold weather to maintain the temperature desired. +The house is built on a concrete wall or foundation +and a dirt floor is used but the dirt must be +filled in well above the level of the ground outside so +that there is no danger of water coming into the house +or the floors becoming damp or sloppy. Windows +are placed in the front wall, one to each pen. In<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> +every other pen there is a small door in the back of +the house to facilitate cleaning out the pens. A +window can be substituted for this door to good advantage +as it makes the house lighter.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a href="images/fig23.jpg"><img src="images/fig23_tn.jpg" width="400" height="262" alt="" +title="Interior of Number 1 Brooder House. Linked to larger image of figure 23." /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 23. Interior of No. 1 brooder house showing walk and hover combined in the middle of the house +and pens on each side. (<i>Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p><i>Heating Apparatus.</i> Heat is furnished by means +of a coal burning stove which heats water and +causes it to circulate through pipes run the length +of the house. The heater must always be placed +in the windward end of the building as otherwise +it is hard to get the heat down to the other end as +the wind tends to drive it back. The hot water pipes +are carried down the center of the house and the +return pipes are located in the same place. A low +partition is run lengthwise of the house dividing the +pipes and thus forming double pens, half extending +from the center to the front and half from the center +to the rear of the house. The pipes and the partition +between them is covered over with boards making +a 4 foot walk or runway directly over the pipes, +which comes into most convenient use as a place to +convey, by means of a wheelbarrow, feed or other +material needed in the house, and as a convenient +place from which to care for the ducklings in the +pens on each side. This board covering over the +pipes also serves to hold the heat and thus forms +hovers.</p> + +<p>It is advisable to partition off the first third of the +house, that is, the portion in which the heater is located, +with a solid partition. Then by having suitable +valves in the pipes, the heat can be cut off from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> +the rest of the house and only the smaller partitioned +off end used as a separate and independent section +of the brooder. This is especially useful when only +a small number of ducklings are being hatched +early in the spring when the weather is cold and it +may be difficult to heat the whole building properly. +It is also economical in fuel under such conditions.</p> + +<p>If, on the other hand, the number of ducklings +hatched during the cold weather is so large that all +or nearly all of the house capacity is needed to care +for them, it will usually pay to install an additional +heater, the pipes from which can be run along the +rear wall of the building, in order to keep up a +proper house temperature when the weather is +severe.</p> + +<p><i>Pens.</i> Having the hovers in the center of the +house, makes it possible to have double sets of pens, +one running from the center to the front wall and +the other from the center to the rear wall. The pens +are divided off by means of partitions made of one +foot boards. These are high enough to confine the +ducklings to their own pen and at the same time +are easy to step over. In a house of this width, 20 +feet, with 4 feet in the center taken up by the double +hovers or walk, each pen is 8 feet long in the clear +or 10 feet to the partition under the hover. The pens +in the first third of the house are made 5 feet wide, +in the next third 6 feet and in the last third 7 feet +wide. When the ducklings are first brought from +the incubator cellar they are placed in the pens<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> +nearest the heater as the temperature will run somewhat +higher there than in the portions of the house +more remote from the heater. These 5 × 10 foot pens +will accommodate 125 baby ducklings although better +results will be obtained by placing only 100 in +a pen if sufficient room is available. Some duck +growers use boards which can be slipped into slots +made of cleats nailed to the pen partitions at different +distances from the hover and which serve to +confine the baby ducklings close to the hover for the +first few days or until they learn to go under the +hover to get warm.</p> + +<p>As additional ducklings are hatched later and +brought to the brooder house, the ducklings already +there are moved along the necessary number of pens +in order to accommodate the new-comers in the pens +nearest the heater. For this purpose, a small door +is made in each partition next the outside wall of +the house through which the ducklings can be +driven. A broom is a handy implement to use in +driving the ducklings as they can be pushed along +in front of it. It is best to drive the ducklings +just after they have been fed as they are not so nervous +and afraid at that time.</p> + +<p>The increased width of the pens in the second +and third portions of the house is for the purpose +of taking care of the growth of the ducklings as +they are moved along the house. Pens of the same +width as those in which they were started become +too crowded as the ducklings increase in size.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>Equipment of the Pen.</i> The equipment of the +pens is quite simple. Water is piped through the +house along both walls so that it is available to each +pen. A spigot is provided in each pen and under +this is placed the drinking dish, which consists of a +round metal pan about a foot in diameter and 3 or +4 inches deep. A square pan should never be used +as the ducklings are apt to get their bills caught in +the corners. One quarter inch mesh wire netting is +bent in a circle and placed in the drinking dish as +a guard to keep the ducklings from getting into the +pan. This guard should be made of such size that +there is a space between the wire and the edge of the +dish of about 1½ inches all around. This guard +should be about 8 inches high. The water pan itself +is set upon a wire covered frame about 18 inches +square under which is dug a pit 4 or 5 inches deep +to drain away any water which the ducklings slop +out of the pan. Such an arrangement keeps the pens +from becoming sloppy and damp.</p> + +<p>Each pen must also have a flat metal dish on +which to place the feed for the little ducks. Metal +pans are better than wooden feeding trays as they +are easier to keep clean.</p> + +<p>In each pen is provided a small hopper filled with +fine sharp creek sand to which the ducklings have +access at all times. Some duck growers prefer to +mix the sand in the feed rather than to provide it in +hoppers. After the ducklings are allowed to run in +the yards, sand need not be furnished if the yards<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> +are sand as the ducklings will help themselves. If +the land in the yards is not sand, however, it is +necessary to continue to furnish this material.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 260px;"> +<a href="images/fig24.jpg"><img src="images/fig24_tn.jpg" width="260" height="400" alt="" +title="Watering arrangement in brooder pens. Linked to larger image of figure 24." /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 24. Watering arrangement in the brooder pens for young +ducklings. (<i>Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. +S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<hr /> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a href="images/fig25.jpg"><img src="images/fig25_tn.jpg" width="400" height="262" alt="" +title="Another type of number 1 brooder house. Linked to larger image of figure 25." /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 25. Another type of No. 1 brooder house. Here the hovers are along the back of the house and +the work is done from an alleyway along the front. The box with handles on top of the hover is used in +carrying the newly hatched ducklings from the incubator cellar to the brooder house. (<i>Photograph from +the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p><i>Grading and Sorting the Ducklings.</i> As the +ducklings are moved from pen to pen through this +house as well as the other houses, they are constantly +graded for size and thriftiness, the smaller, +less thrifty individuals being left with younger lots. +Some ducklings do not grow as quickly as others, +and these if left with ducklings larger than themselves +will not get their share of the feed and will +not do as well. In this connection it should be noted +that when young ducks are not fairly clean it is a +good indication that they are not doing as well as +they should.</p> + +<p><i>Cleaning and Bedding the Pens.</i> Careful attention +must be given to keeping the pens and the ducklings +themselves clean if they are to do well. Therefore +the pens must be cleaned out as often as may be +necessary to accomplish this purpose. The judgment +of the brooder man must decide how often this +is necessary but it will be at least once a week. When +cleaning the pens the old bedding is thrown out +from the front pens through the windows and from +the back pens through the door provided in the rear +wall for this purpose. Bedding the pens must be +done more frequently, usually about every other +day. Fresh bedding will help to absorb the droppings +and will keep the pens from becoming sloppy +or sticky. For bedding, straw, meadow hay, swale<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> +hay or any other suitable material available should +be utilized.</p> + +<p><i>Ventilation.</i> Plenty of ventilation is required in +the brooder house in order to take out the ammonia +odor which arises from the droppings. Properly +managed, the doors and windows provide sufficient +means of ventilation but some duck growers prefer +to have roof ventilators in addition.</p> + +<p><i>Other Types of Brooder Houses.</i> Many other +types of brooder houses are used, some of them +being shed roof construction and many of them +being built narrower than this house, that is to say, +14, 16 or 18 feet wide with an alleyway along the +front or rear side of the house from which the work +is done. The hovers are placed at the back of the +pens when the alley-way is in the front, otherwise, +they are placed next to the alley-way. The disadvantages +of these houses are that only single pens +are provided and that valuable brooding space is +used up by the alley-way. The advantages of the +house described above lie in the fact that the hovers +are in the center of the house with the pens on each +side of this, thus doubling the capacity, and that by +making use of a walk over the hover pipe no room +is wasted in an alley-way. Having pens on each +side also lessens the labor of taking care of the +ducklings to some extent as the arrangement is more +compact.</p> + + +<h4>Length of Time in Brooder</h4> + +<p><i>In House No. 1.</i> As a rule the ducklings are kept<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> +in the No. 1 house until they are from 2 to 3 weeks +old, this of course depending somewhat upon the +time of year and the weather and also upon the +number of ducklings for which accommodations +must be provided at any particular time. As the +ducks are moved down through the house and +eventually reach the last pens they are taken from +this house and placed in brooder house No. 2.</p> + +<p><i>Brooder House No. 2.</i> This is a heated house like +brooder house No. 1 but in which it is not necessary +to maintain so high a temperature. Sufficient heating +apparatus should be installed to make it possible +to maintain the temperature at 60 degrees if +this becomes necessary in the early spring.</p> + +<p>The particular brooder house described is 14 feet +wide and has a shed roof. It is provided with a +window in the front of each pen. No openings are +required along the back since this is not a double +pen house. The space in such a house could undoubtedly +be used to better advantage if it were +constructed as wide as the No. 1 house and the hot +water pipes and walk put through the middle of the +house so as to provide double pens. In this house +the hot water pipes are run along the rear of the +pens, and while hovers are not really necessary, a +walk is constructed over the pipes in order to save +space and provide a convenient place from which +to do the work, and this forms hovers.</p> + +<p>Ordinarily after May 1 no heat is needed in the +No. 2 house. The pens in this house are 12 feet wide<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> +and they are equipped with feeding and watering +arrangements as in brooder house No. 1. As the +ducklings are moved to this house from the No. 1 +house from 150 to 200 are placed in each pen. They +are moved through the house from pen to pen in the +same manner as in the No. 1 house to make way for +new arrivals. As a rule they stay in this house about +two weeks depending somewhat on the weather and +upon the number of ducklings being brooded. Yards +are used in connection with this house which are the +same width as the pens and 50 feet in length. As in +the No. 1 house the pens in this house should be +cleaned at least once a week and they should be +bedded with straw or other bedding material every +other day. As soon as the ducks have been moved +through this No. 2 house they are put in brooder +house No. 3.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a href="images/fig26.jpg"><img src="images/fig26_tn.jpg" width="400" height="260" alt="" +title="Brooder house number 2. Linked to larger image of figure 26." /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 26. Brooder house No. 2 and yards. The trees furnish fine shade for the growing ducklings. +(<i>Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<hr /> + +<h4>Brooder House No. 3</h4> + +<p>This is a shed roof house 16 feet wide equipped +with single pens. No heat is required in this house. +Yards of the same width as the pens and 50 feet +deep are used. Usually the ducks are fed outside +the house from a wagon driven along a roadway +just in front of the yards.</p> + +<p>The pens are 16 feet wide and the same number +of ducks is used in them as in the No. 2 house. As +a rule the ducks stay in this house about 2 weeks +and are then moved to the duck pens or shelters<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> +with the larger yards which may or may not have +water. From this point on the ducks are termed +yard ducks.</p> + +<p>In all three of the brooder houses the young ducks +are supplied with their drinking water from pipes +through the houses. They are not given access to +water until they are moved to the yards.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a href="images/fig27.jpg"><img src="images/fig27_tn.jpg" width="400" height="261" alt="" +title="Brooder house number 3. Linked to larger image of figure 27." /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 27. Brooder house No. 3. At the time this picture was taken there were no ducklings in the house +and advantage was taken of this fact to give it a good cleaning by throwing out the bedding and droppings, +which will be hauled away and spread on cropped land. (<i>Photograph from the Bureau of Animal +Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<hr /> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a href="images/fig28.jpg"><img src="images/fig28_tn.jpg" width="400" height="261" alt="" +title="Long brooder house and yards. Linked to larger image of figure 28." /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 28. Long brooder house and yards with feeding track. (<i>Photograph from the Bureau of Animal +Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<hr /> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 261px;"> +<a href="images/fig29.jpg"><img src="images/fig29_tn.jpg" width="261" height="400" alt="" +title="Pekin ducklings. Linked to larger image of figure 29." /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 29. Upper—Pekin ducklings 3 days old. Lower—Pekin +ducklings 2 weeks old. Duck egg used for size comparison. (<i>Photographs +from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department +of Agriculture.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 260px;"> +<a href="images/fig30.jpg"><img src="images/fig30_tn.jpg" width="260" height="400" alt="" +title="Pekn ducklings. Linked to larger image of figure 30." /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 30. Upper—Pekin ducklings 3 weeks old. Lower—Pekin +ducklings 6 weeks old. (<i>Photographs from the Bureau of Animal +Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<hr /> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a href="images/fig31.jpg"><img src="images/fig31_tn.jpg" width="400" height="264" alt="" +title="Interior of a cold brooder house. Linked to larger image of figure 31." /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 31. Interior of a cold brooder house. The low partitions can easily be stepped over. (<i>Photograph +from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span> +</div> +<hr /> + +<h4>Yard Accommodations for Ducklings</h4> + +<p>As the ducklings get to be 8 weeks old they can +stand ordinary weather conditions and it is not absolutely +necessary to have houses for them. However, +it is common and good practice to provide +shelter where they can be housed at night and can +take refuge from storms. A suitable house for this +purpose consists of a building 16 x 24 feet divided +into two parts with 200 ducklings to a side. This +house is 5 feet high in front and 3½ feet in back. It +is set on posts with a baseboard around it to make +it tight. It can be constructed of matched stuff or unmatched +stuff covered with paper. The front is left +open but curtains are placed on the front which can +be used to close the openings so as to keep out the +snow. These are used only in the winter. When +the ducklings are first started in these sheds they +are shut in when desired by means of wire panels +fitted into the lower part of the open front. The +ducklings are left in these yards and fed there until +they are ready for market.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a href="images/fig32.jpg"><img src="images/fig32_tn.jpg" width="400" height="265" alt="" +title="Yard ducks. Link to larger image of figure 32." /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 32. Eat, drink and grow fat for tomorrow they die. Fattening or yard ducks with fattening house +or shelter used. (<i>Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p><i>Shade.</i> Shade is important for the ducklings as +soon as the sun gets hot. Exposure to the sun without +shade will cause quite a heavy loss in ducklings. +If natural shade is not furnished by trees, some artificial +means must be adopted to supply the shade. +This may take the form of shelters or low frames +covered with boards, brush or burlap.</p> + +<p><i>Feeding.</i> The first feed and water is given as soon +as the ducks are placed in the No. 1 brooder house +or when 24 to 36 hours old. They are fed 3 times a +day, in the morning about 6 a. m., at noon, and at +night about 4:30 or 5 o'clock. The time of feeding +should be regular, and fairly early in the morning +but not any earlier in the afternoon than one can +help so that the time between the evening and the +morning feed will not be too long. Some growers +prefer to feed 4 or 5 times daily for the first week or +two. The birds are fed as much as they will clean +up at each feeding and if any feed is left it should +be gathered up so that it will not sour and cause +digestive troubles.</p> + +<p>The first feed consists of the following:—One +measure corn meal, one measure bran, one measure +ground crackers, stale bread or shredded wheat +waste, one measure in 10 of beef scrap or fish, one +measure in 6 of creek grass or other very fine green +stuff. Green rye or oats should never be used for +this purpose after it becomes jointed. If the feed +is mixed up with cold water about ½ measure of low-grade +wheat flour should be used to cause it to stick<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> +together. If hot water is used in the mixing this is +not needed.</p> + +<p>Sand must be fed either by mixing it in to the extent +of about 3% of the ration or the sand can be fed +separately in hoppers as previously described. This +same mixture may be fed in the No. 1, No. 2, and +No. 3 brooder houses, or in other words, until ducklings +go to the yards, or ration No. 2 given below +may be substituted either at the start or after a week +or ten days. After the ducklings go to the yards the +following fattening ration is used: 200 pounds corn +meal, 100 pounds low-grade flour, 100 pounds bran, +1 part in 10 of beef scrap and 2 tubs or bushels of +green stuff. Some duck growers prefer to feed 300 +pounds of corn meal instead of 200 pounds. This +ration like the other is fed 3 times a day. Of course, +there are many different rations in use with good results, +every grower having more or less personal +preferences in this matter. A proper proportion of +animal feed, consisting of beef scrap or fish is very +important as the ducklings will not grow and make +normal gains if this is omitted or reduced in amount.</p> + +<p>Much has been written about the feeding of celery +seed to fattening ducklings for the purpose of improving +the flavor of the flesh and formerly ducklings +were advertised and sold as "celery-fed". As +a matter of fact, the amount of celery seed fed was +small and it is questionable how much influence it +had on the flavor of the birds. At the present time,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> +celery seed is not used in fattening the ducklings on +most of the large duck farms of Long Island.</p> + +<p>A comparison of gains made by ducklings on two +different rations is shown in the following table. +Ration No. 1 consists of the fattening ration given +above. Ration No. 2 consists of 100 pounds bran, +100 pounds corn meal, 50 pounds rolled oats, 50 +pounds gluten feed, 10% beef scrap. The ducks +used were three days old at the first weighing and +there were 27 in each lot. After the second weighing +the number in each lot was reduced to 24 ducks.</p> + + + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Comparison of the weight gains made by ducklings on two different rations."> +<tr><th align="left"></th><th align="center" colspan="3">Feed No. 1</th><th align="center" colspan="3">Feed No. 2</th></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="center" colspan="2">Total Weight</td><td align="center">Average Weight</td><td align="center" colspan="2">Total Weight</td><td align="center">Average Weight</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">August 14</td><td align="right">4¾</td><td align="center">lbs.</td><td class="left-indent">0.176</td><td align="right">4¾</td><td align="center">lbs.</td><td class="left-indent">0.176</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">August 21</td><td class="right-indent">10</td><td align="center">"</td><td class="left-indent">0.37</td><td align="right">9½</td><td align="center">"</td><td class="left-indent">0.352</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">August 28</td><td align="right">16½</td><td align="center">"</td><td class="left-indent">0.687</td><td align="right">17½</td><td align="center">"</td><td class="left-indent">0.729</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">September 5</td><td class="right-indent">25</td><td align="center">"</td><td class="left-indent">1.041</td><td class="right-indent">27</td><td align="center">"</td><td class="left-indent">1.125</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">September 13</td><td align="right">44½</td><td align="center">"</td><td class="left-indent">1.854</td><td align="right">48½</td><td align="center">"</td><td class="left-indent">2.02</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">September 19</td><td class="right-indent">50</td><td align="center">"</td><td class="left-indent">2.083</td><td align="right">56½</td><td align="center">"</td><td class="left-indent">2.354</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">September 27</td><td class="right-indent">64</td><td align="center">"</td><td class="left-indent">2.666</td><td class="right-indent">67</td><td align="center">"</td><td class="left-indent">2.62</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">October 4</td><td align="right">78½</td><td align="center">"</td><td class="left-indent">3.27</td><td align="right">82½</td><td align="center">"</td><td class="left-indent">3.437</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">October 11</td><td align="right">99½</td><td align="center">"</td><td class="left-indent">4.145</td><td align="right">103½</td><td align="center">"</td><td class="left-indent">4.312</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">October 18</td><td align="right">115½</td><td align="center">"</td><td class="left-indent">4.812</td><td class="right-indent">119</td><td align="center">"</td><td class="left-indent">4.958</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">October 25</td><td class="right-indent">126</td><td align="center">"</td><td class="left-indent">5.25</td><td class="right-indent">135</td><td align="center">"</td><td class="left-indent">5.62</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p><i>Lights for Ducklings.</i> Often when the ducks are +about one-third grown or about 4 weeks old they +will stampede at night at any unusual noise or any +other disturbance. In doing this, especially when +they are in fairly large lots, they surge back and +forth in the pens, running over one another with the +result that their backs are torn and scratched while +not infrequently more serious injuries result and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span> +may cause cripples. To keep them quiet it is common +to use lights at night. Formerly lanterns were +used but now on most duck plants electric lights are +available for this purpose. For a house 140 feet +long, six 15-watt lights scattered at equal intervals +will be sufficient, and these can be used in like proportion +for houses of other lengths. The lights are +left on all night. Even when the ducks are half +grown and may be out on the yards it is still necessary +to use lights on stormy nights so that they will +stay in and keep quiet and not get drowned in the +rain. With a 16 × 24 foot house such as described +previously, a single 25 watt light is sufficient. Ducklings +are especially likely to be stampeded during +thunderstorms and if a storm is coming up it is well +to turn on the lights and to shut the ducklings in +their shelters when they are first placed in the +yards. One should not carry a lantern when moving +among the ducklings at night as this will cause +moving shadows which are very likely to frighten +and stampede the birds.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a href="images/fig33a.jpg"><img src="images/fig33a_tn.jpg" width="400" height="253" alt="" +title="Duck sheds. Linked to larger image of figure 33." /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 33. Another type of duck shed used on Long Island. (<i>Photograph from the Bureau of Animal +Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<hr /> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a href="images/fig34.jpg"><img src="images/fig34_tn.jpg" width="400" height="263" alt="" +title="Feeding and watering arrangements. Linked to larger image of figure 34." /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 34. Convenient feeding arrangements. At the right of the feeding track runs a water pipe with +spigots and pans at frequent intervals. At the left are the feeding trays. (<i>Photograph from the Bureau +of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p><i>Pounds of Feed to Produce a Pound of Market +Duck.</i> It is stated by long established duck growers +that from 5 to 7 pounds of feed is required, this including +the feed given to the breeding ducks for the +season, to produce a pound of market duck.</p> + +<p><i>Water for Young Ducks.</i> Drinking water is provided +to the ducklings while in the brooder houses +by means of a piped supply. The drinking pans are +filled at each feeding time but at no other time.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> +Water is not left before them continuously while +they are in the brooder houses as they would be +working in it all the time and this would keep them +dirty and make the house sloppy. After they are +put out on the yards they may or may not be provided +with water in which they can swim. Most +duck growers on Long Island allow them to have +access to water. While it is undoubtedly true that +swimming in the water induces them to take more +exercise and thus tends to reduce somewhat the +rapidity of fattening, at the same time it lessens the +labor very materially as they do not need to be provided +with a supply of drinking water other than +the water in which they swim. Ducklings can be +grown very successfully with only a limited amount +of water, that is, only enough to drink and in which +to wash themselves.</p> + +<p><i>Age and Weight When Ready for Market.</i> Ducklings +are usually marketed when they are 10 to 12 +weeks old. A partial moult on the neck and breast +occurs about this time giving them a somewhat +rough look. This indicates that they are in proper +condition to kill. If killing is not done within a +week after this moult starts they will begin to lose +flesh and it will be some time before they will fatten +again. Ducks when ready to ship will average +from 5 to 6 pounds. A majority will weigh nearer +5 than 6 pounds. A pen of fattened ducks is driven +up to the killing house and into a pen where each +one is caught up and examined to see if it is in good<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> +condition. If the duck has a good smooth breast so +that the breastbone is not felt when handled and is +well fleshed on the back it is ready to kill. If it is +not in this condition it is thrown out and these thin +ducks are returned to the yards for further fattening +or are utilized for shipping alive. Thin ducks +are generally used for live shipments as they will +not shrink as much as well fattened ducks.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a href="images/fig35.jpg"><img src="images/fig35_tn.jpg" width="400" height="263" alt="" +title="Green feed for ducks. Linked to larger image of figure 35." /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 35. An important part of rations for ducks. Green feed ready to be cut up into short lengths suitable +for mixing in the feed. (<i>Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of +Agriculture.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<hr /> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a href="images/fig36.jpg"><img src="images/fig36_tn.jpg" width="400" height="270" alt="" +title="Feeding from track. Linked to larger image of figure 36." /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 36. Feeding fattening or yard ducks from the feeding track. (<i>Photograph from the Bureau of +Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p><i>Cripples.</i> There will always be found in the +flocks more or less crippled ducks and those with +crooked backs, twisted wings, etc. As a rule ducks +with twisted wings fatten well and are in good condition +and can be killed about as soon as any of the +others. The crippled ducks are sorted out into a +lot by themselves where they are held until they can +be put into condition to market. It is doubtful +whether it pays the duck growers to bother with +these ducks since they are rather difficult to condition +and it would probably pay better to kill them. +However, it is quite common practice to carry them +until they can be marketed.</p> + +<p><i>Cleaning the Yards.</i> The yards must be cleaned +whenever they need it. It is a matter of judgment +to decide when this is necessary but they must be +cleaned whenever they get sticky or sloppy. The +weather will have a considerable influence upon the +frequency of cleaning which may be necessary once +in two weeks, or in the yards of brooder houses Nos. +2 and 3 may run as often as once a week. In dry +weather the yards are cleaned by sweeping up the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> +droppings and carting them away. In wet weather +the ducks in running about over the yard pack down +the droppings until they form a sort of putty-like +layer which has to be scraped off with a hoe.</p> + +<p><i>Critical Period with Young Ducks.</i> The critical +period with young ducks is the first week of their +existence. With good management after they have +passed this point not many are lost. The loss in +young ducks from the time they are hatched until +they are ready for market will range all the way +from 5 to 30%. When the loss does not average +more than 10% for the season this is considered +good. Undoubtedly many duck raisers lose a greater +percent than 10.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a href="images/fig37.jpg"><img src="images/fig37_tn.jpg" width="400" height="263" alt="" +title="Yard ducks at rest. Linked to larger image of figure 37." /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 37. Yard ducks at rest. (<i>Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry. U. S. Department of +Agriculture.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<hr /> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a href="images/fig38.jpg"><img src="images/fig38_tn.jpg" width="400" height="263" alt="" +title="Artificial water yards. Linked to larger image of figure 38." /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 38. On this plant, the lay of the land was such that not all of the yards could be run down to the +stream. So a shallow canal was dug from the stream through the yards which were without natural +water frontage. (<i>Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span> +</div> +<hr /> + +<h4>Disease Prevention</h4> + +<p>Trouble from disease in young ducks is not severe +although there is a greater loss from this source +than in the case of mature ducks. The aim of the +grower should be to use such methods of management +and feeding as will keep the ducklings in good +health and reduce the losses to a minimum. To accomplish +this care must be taken to see that the +brooding temperatures are correct, that the feed +used contains what the ducklings need, that they +are not overfed and that the house and yards are +clean and dry and the feed and water dishes are +clean. Remember that green feed and animal feed +are essential ingredients in the ration.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>Gapes or Pneumonia.</i> One of the principal +troubles is a disease which is called "pneumonia" by +some duck raisers and by others "gapes". It is not +the same disease which is called gapes in chickens. +In fact, it is a form of cold which approaches pneumonia. +The little ducks stretch their necks up and +breathe hard and usually die within a comparatively +short time. This disease may affect either the baby +ducks or ducks which are old enough to kill. All +that can be done is to make sure that the housing +and brooding conditions are such as to correct the +trouble which causes the colds.</p> + +<p><i>Fits.</i> In addition, the little ducks for the first 3 or +4 days may be more or less subject to a disease +which is called "fits" by some duck growers. With +this disease they simply keel over and soon die. It +is probably a digestive difficulty of some sort. The +feeding of plenty of green stuff or the turning of the +ducks out on grass will usually stop this trouble.</p> + +<p><i>Diarrhoea.</i> This is a fairly common trouble. It +may be due to improper feeding, or to too high or +low temperature in the brooder. The obvious treatment +is to remedy the cause or causes of the trouble.</p> + +<p><i>Lameness.</i> Not infrequently growers, particularly +beginners, experience difficulty from a fairly +large proportion of their ducklings becoming lame. +This may grow worse until a considerable number of +the birds will die. This trouble may be due to a +lack of animal matter and mineral matter in the +ration or may be due to digestive troubles caused by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> +poor rations, by over feeding, by failing to gather +up feed not eaten by the ducklings and leaving it +to sour, or by lack of cleanliness of the feed and +water dishes. Where the pens are allowed to become +damp and sloppy this may also cause some +lameness.</p> + +<p><i>Sore Eyes.</i> Occasionally duck growers complain +that their ducklings suffer from sore eyes. This may +be due to a cold causing a discharge from the eyes +or may be due to the use of too sloppy feed which +adheres to the eyes and causes an irritation. Affected +birds should be placed in a separate pen from +the others and the eyes should be bathed with an +antiseptic solution.</p> + +<p><i>Feather Eating or "Quilling".</i> This is a bad habit +which is apt to cause more or less trouble when the +ducklings are about two-thirds grown. It is much +more likely to occur when the birds are kept in +cramped quarters. It is usually started by one or +a few individuals but when the feathers are injured +so that they begin to bleed, which they will very +quickly do, the vice will spread among the whole +flock and serious damage will occur. It is therefore +necessary to be on the lookout for this trouble, and +as soon as detected, the birds responsible should be +removed. If the culprits are placed with older +birds which are already feathered, they will not +trouble by trying to eat the feathers. It is the blood +in the growing feathers which attracts them. If the +habit has become general, it is more difficult to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> +check. About the best thing that can be done, is to +turn them out in a roomy yard, one with a growing +green crop, if available, where they will be so busy +as to stop the feather eating of their own accord.</p> + +<p><i>Rats.</i>—Rats are very destructive if they get into +the brooder house. A single rat has been known to +kill and drag off as many as 200 ducklings in one +night. If a rat gets into the brooder house it is therefore +of the utmost importance that it be hunted +down and killed without delay. Otherwise serious +losses will result.</p> + + +<h4>Cooperative Feed Association</h4> + +<p>A very large proportion of the feed used on a +duck plant is that which is fed to the market ducks. +By purchasing feed in considerable quantities the +duck grower is able to cut down the cost to some +extent. A number of the duck raisers on Long Island +have developed this idea further by forming a cooperative +feed organization. Stock in this concern +is held both by the duck growers and by outsiders +but is controlled by the duck growers. The feed association +maintains a feed warehouse, purchases +feeds in quantity and does business both with the +duck growers and with other persons in the market +for feed. The existence of a cooperative feed purchasing +association of this sort not only cuts down to +some extent the cost of feed but likewise makes it +possible for the duck growers to have greater assurance +of securing the supply which is so necessary to +them during the growing season.</p> + + + +<hr class="long" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span></p> +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII +<br /> +Commercial Duck Farming—Marketing</h3> + + +<p>On commercial duck farms, the business consists +mainly of producing large quickly grown ducklings +which are marketed before they are mature. Because +of this immaturity, the ducks are quite commonly +termed green ducks. The business has also +become so highly specialized on Long Island and +this is such a center of the industry, that the birds +are commonly quoted on the New York market as +Long Island ducklings.</p> + +<p><i>Proper Age to Market.</i> It is important that the +ducklings be marketed as soon as they have reached +the proper age and stage of development. When +the ducklings are about 10 to 12 weeks old they begin +to shed their first growth of feathers. This is +apparent first on the neck and breast, giving them +somewhat of a rough appearance. The ducklings +must be marketed within one week after they begin +this moult. If they are allowed to go longer than +this they will begin to get thin and as it will take +them 6 weeks or more to grow a new crop of +feathers it will be a considerable period before they +get back in market condition again and any additional +weight which they may attain will not be sufficient +to pay for the feed eaten during this period.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>Weights at the Time of Marketing.</i> Well grown +ducklings should average in weight from 5 to 6 +pounds at 10 to 12 weeks of age when they are +ready to be marketed. A majority of the ducks will +weigh closer to 5 pounds than they will to 6. The +vast majority of ducklings are marketed at this age +as it does not pay to keep them past the time they +reach prime market condition. On commercial duck +farms practically the only ducks which are marketed +at an older age than this are the breeders +which are turned off at the end of the laying season +and the ducklings which by reason of their being +crippled or less thrifty are not in suitable market +condition at this time and are held longer until they +are in good condition. The ducklings are marketed +from early spring until late fall. The time at which +ducklings are first available for market in any quantity +depends upon the earliness with which the +breeders begin to lay and the end of the season depends +upon how late the breeders continue to lay at +a profitable rate.</p> + +<p><i>The Last Feed for Market Ducks.</i> It is important +in order to have the dressed ducklings appear to the +best advantage and also in order to insure their +keeping qualities as much as possible that they +should have no feed in their crops when they are +killed. This means that if they are to be killed in +the morning, which is the usual practice, they should +be fed for the last time the previous night. If, how<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span>ever, +they are not to be killed until afternoon they +can be fed lightly in the morning.</p> + +<p><i>Sorting Market Ducklings.</i> When a pen of ducklings +which are being fattened are deemed ready to +be killed they are driven up to the killing house and +a few of them at a time driven into a small pen +where it is easy to catch and examine them. Each +duck as it is caught is examined to make sure that +it is in proper market condition. The examination +consists of feeling of the duck's body to see that it +has a good smooth breast so that the breast bone +cannot be readily felt. If it is in that condition it is +ready to kill. Ducks which do not show this condition +are thrown out and returned to the yards where +they are fed for a longer period unless it is desired +to ship them alive.</p> + +<p>At the proper season of the year when breeders +for the next season are to be selected, suitable birds +for that purpose are picked out from the market lots +as they are examined. In any lot of ducks there will +be found some cripples. It is common practice to +sort these out and group them together in a pen by +themselves where they are held until they are in +suitable condition for marketing. It is doubtful +whether it pays to hold these cripples as they are +hard to get in good condition and in many cases are +probably kept and fed at a loss. Some ducklings +will show twisted wings but as a rule they are +thrifty and will fatten readily and be in good market +condition.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a href="images/fig39.jpg"><img src="images/fig39_tn.jpg" width="400" height="261" alt="" +title="Catching pens for fattening ducklings. Linked to larger image of figure 39." /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 39. Awaiting slaughter. The fattened ducklings are driven into these catching pens. (<i>Photograph +from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<hr /> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a href="images/fig40.jpg"><img src="images/fig40_tn.jpg" width="400" height="263" alt="" +title="Carrying ducklings to slaughter. Linked to larger image of figure 40." /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 40. Carrying the ducklings from the catching pen to the killing place. (<i>Photograph from the +Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>Killing.</i> As the ducklings suitable for killing are +selected, 10 or 12 of them, depending upon the capacity +of the killing room, are hung up by their feet, +the head being fastened down by means of a hook +or else weighted down by means of a blood can hung +from a hook inserted through the bill. By means of +a long, narrow bladed sharp knife the veins in the +throat just beyond the skull are severed so as to +cause free bleeding. The blood flows either into the +blood can or into a trough above which the birds are +hung. The birds are not stuck or brained unless it is +desired to dry pick them nor are they as a rule +stunned by hitting them on the head before bleeding. +In some states, however, the law requires that +all birds bled shall first be stunned in this manner. +The bleeding of the ducks causes their death and +they are allowed to hang until they are thoroughly +bled out. They are then taken down, the blood +washed off of their heads and placed on a table +or on the floor convenient to the pickers, other ducks +being hung in their places.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a href="images/fig41.jpg"><img src="images/fig41_tn.jpg" width="400" height="264" alt="" +title="Hanging ducklings and cutting throat veins. Linked to larger image of figure 41." /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 41. The ducks are hung by the feet and the veins in the neck cut from inside the mouth to cause +free bleeding. (<i>Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<hr /> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a href="images/fig42.jpg"><img src="images/fig42_tn.jpg" width="400" height="261" alt="" +title="Bleeding ducklings. Linked to larger image of figure 42." /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 42. After the throat veins are cut, the ducks are allowed to hang until they are well bled out. The +blood is caught in the trough below. (<i>Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department +of Agriculture.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<hr /> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a href="images/fig43.jpg"><img src="images/fig43_tn.jpg" width="400" height="266" alt="" +title="Washing heads. Linked to larger image of figure 43." /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 43. Ducks which have been bled, ready to have the blood washed from their heads and mouths before +they are picked. (<i>Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<hr /> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a href="images/fig44.jpg"><img src="images/fig44_tn.jpg" width="400" height="264" alt="" +title="Ducklings ready for the pickers. Linked to larger image of figure 44." /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 44. After they are bled and washed, the ducks are laid in the picking room ready for the pickers. +(<i>Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p><i>Scalding.</i> The picker selects a duck from the +table where they are placed after being taken down +and carries it to a large kettle of water which is +maintained at a temperature just below boiling. +They are thoroughly soused in this water holding +them by the head and feet so as to allow the water +to penetrate into the feathers until they can be +readily plucked. The picker tests the readiness with +which the feathers come out by plucking a few from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> +the breast or body and thus determines whether the +scalding is sufficient or whether more is required. +Care is taken not to dip the feet or head in the +water as this might discolor these parts. Practically +all market ducks from Long Island are scald picked +at the present time. Dry picking which is demanded +in some markets such as Boston makes a somewhat +better looking carcass and also increases the value +of the feathers, but is generally considered too slow +and too highly skilled a process for use on the average +duck farm.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 259px;"> +<a href="images/fig45.jpg"><img src="images/fig45_tn.jpg" width="259" height="400" alt="" +title="Scalding. Linked to larger image of figure 45." /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 45. Holding the head in one hand and the feet in the other, +the picker dips the duck in water heated nearly to the boiling point +and souses well to work the water into the feathers until they pluck +easily. (<i>Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. +Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p><i>Picking.</i>. After scalding the picker starts removing +the feathers. In doing this the duck is held either +on the lap or on a board nailed to the side of the +feather box. The feathers on the breast are picked +first, then working down toward the tail, pulling the +feathers with the grain. The soft body feathers as +plucked are thrown into the feather box, the coarser +feathers being thrown on the floor. The main wing +and tail feathers are left on as are likewise some of +the feathers of the neck next the head.</p> + +<p>The most troublesome part of picking ducks is removing +the down. This may be removed to some extent +by rubbing with the hand although care must +be taken not to bruise the skin severely. In some +cases the down is shaved off with a sharp knife. In +some of the commercial packing houses the duck's +body is sprinkled with powdered rosin and then +dipped into the hot water. This melts the rosin so +that the down and rosin can be rubbed off easily<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> +with the hand leaving the body clean. Pin feathers +are usually removed by grasping them between the +thumb and a dull knife.</p> + +<p>In some packing houses, ducks are steamed before +picking. Where this is done they are picked clean +and the wing and tail feathers are pulled before +steaming takes place. Six or eight ducks which +have been bled are hung at the same time in the top +of a steam box or barrel which can be made air-tight +and the steam turned on until the soft feathers +of the breast come off easily. The length of time +to steam depends on the temperature of the steam +itself and varies from one-half to 2 minutes. In some +cases the ducks are hung in a steam box with the +heads outside so as to prevent the steam from +coming into contact with the heads, possibly discoloring +them.</p> + +<p>On Long Island women are used very largely for +picking and they secure for this service 6 cents per +duck. A good picker should do 75 ducks or even +more a day. The value of the feathers will slightly +more than pay for the cost of picking.</p> + +<p>Picking usually begins early in the morning about +6 o'clock and is generally finished by noon or soon +after. Most duck raisers figure on doing their killing +and picking during the first half of the week and +do not like to kill if they can help it during the latter +days of the week.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a href="images/fig46.jpg"><img src="images/fig46_tn.jpg" width="400" height="263" alt="" +title="Picking ducks. Linked to larger image of figure 46." /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 46. Picking the ducks. (<i>Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of +Agriculture.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p><i>Dry Picking.</i> Where the market requires it, the +ducks must be dry picked. In doing this the pro<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span>cedure +is the same as in dry picking chickens. After +the cut is made to bleed the ducks, the point of the +knife is plunged through the roof of the mouth until +it reaches the brain when it is turned to cause a +paralysis of the muscles which enables the feathers +to be plucked more easily. The duck is then struck +on the back of the head with a club to stun it and +make it easier to handle when picking. The picker +seats himself by the feather box, with the duck on +his lap, holding the head pressed against the outside +of the box and held there by the picker's leg. He +then proceeds immediately and as quickly as possible +to pluck the feathers. It is necessary to accomplish +this without delay, for the feathers soon +set and are then much harder to pluck and are more +likely to result in tears in the skin. When removing +the down, the hand is moistened when much of the +down can be rubbed off. Pin feathers are removed +by grasping them between the thumb and the edge +of a dull knife and any which cannot be gotten in +this way are shaved off with a sharp knife. After +picking, the carcasses are cooled in cold water the +same as the scalded birds.</p> + +<p><i>Cooling.</i> After the birds are plucked they are +thrown into cold water and are left there for several +hours or until the body heat is entirely removed. It +is most important that this be thoroughly accomplished +for if any body heat is left in the carcasses +they are almost sure to become green-struck when +packed. The length of time that they must be left<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> +in the water depends upon the weather conditions. +If the weather is warm so that the water is not very +cool it is necessary to add ice in order to hasten the +cooling and to accomplish it thoroughly. Cooling +in water also serves to plump the carcasses somewhat.</p> + +<p><i>Packing.</i> After the ducks are thoroughly cooled +they are removed from the water and packed. Long +Island ducklings are usually packed in barrels. +Forty-five ducks will pack in a sugar barrel and 33 +in a flour barrel. The proper number for the barrel +used is placed on hanging spring scales and weighed +before being packed. The best method of packing +is to lay the ducks on their sides. If they are packed +on their backs or bellies, the ice used between the +layers is apt to cause a cutting or bruising of the +soft abdomens and injure the appearance of the carcasses. +Between each layer of ducks a scoopful of +cracked ice is used although in cool weather it may +only be necessary to use half a scoop of ice. After +the barrel is packed it should be allowed to stand +for a while to settle. Then the top of the barrel +is piled up with cracked ice and covered with burlap. +On the side of the barrel is marked the number +of ducks and their weight. Later a card is +tacked alongside of this showing the consignee's and +the shipper's names as well as the number of ducks +and their weight.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 258px;"> +<a href="images/fig47.jpg"><img src="images/fig47_tn.jpg" width="258" height="400" alt="" +title="Dressed duckling. Linked to larger image of figure 47." /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 47. Dressed duckling. The main feathers of the tail and +wings and the feathers of the neck part of the way from the head +to the body are left on. The rest of the body is picked clean. +(<i>Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department +of Agriculture.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 261px;"> +<a href="images/fig48.jpg"><img src="images/fig48_tn.jpg" width="261" height="400" alt="" +title="Weighing out ducklings for packing. Linked to larger image of figure 48." /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 48. After thorough cooling a sufficient number of ducks to +fill a barrel is weighed out and packed with or without ice depending +upon the weather. (<i>Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, +U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<h5> </h5> + +<p><i>Shipping.</i> The barrels should be packed and +shipped the same evening. Shipping may be done<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> +either by express or by automobile truck. A good +many of the Long Island ducklings are now shipped +into New York City by truck.</p> + +<p><i>Cooperative Marketing Association.</i> The duck +growers on Long Island have formed a cooperative +marketing association. This association maintains +its own house in New York City and sells practically +the entire output of Long Island ducklings, controlling +probably 90%. During the year 1919 there were +in the neighborhood of 800,000 head of ducks marketed +through this house. Practically all of the capital +stock of this concern is held by the duck growers +and they are not allowed to sell any of their stock +without first offering it to the association.</p> + +<p><i>Prices for Ducks.</i> Early in the season the ducklings +bring the best prices, that is to say from March +1 to May 1. Then as the output of ducks increases +prices gradually drop. The heaviest shipments occur +in June, July and August. In September as the +output of ducks begins to drop off the price begins +to climb a little. The following prices as quoted in +the New York Produce Review show the range from +March, 1920, to June, 1921.</p> + + +<h4>Long Island Ducklings—Fresh Dressed</h4> + + + + + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Seasonal price variation for ducklings."> + +<tr><th colspan="4" align="center">1920</th></tr> + +<tr><td align="center">March</td><td align="right">31</td><td align="right">45c</td><td align="center">per lb.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">April</td><td align="right">21</td><td align="right">45c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">28</td><td align="right">38c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span>May</td><td align="right">5</td><td align="right">35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> " </td><td align="right">12</td><td align="right">35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> " </td><td align="right">26</td><td align="right">35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">June</td><td align="right">2</td><td align="right">35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">9</td><td align="right">35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">16</td><td align="right">35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">23</td><td align="right">35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">30</td><td align="right">35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">July</td><td align="right">7</td><td align="right">35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">14</td><td align="right">35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">21</td><td align="right">35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">28</td><td align="right">35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">August</td><td align="right">4</td><td align="right">36c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">11</td><td align="right">36c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">18</td><td align="right">36c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">25</td><td align="right">36c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">September</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">36c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">8</td><td align="right">37c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">15</td><td align="right">37c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">22</td><td align="right">38c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">29</td><td align="right">38c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">October</td><td align="right">6</td><td align="right">38c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">13</td><td align="right">38c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">20</td><td align="right">39c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">27</td><td align="right">39c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">November</td><td align="right">3</td><td align="right">40c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> + +<tr><th colspan="4" align="center">1921</th></tr> + +<tr><td align="center">March</td><td align="right">30</td><td align="right">48c</td><td align="center">per lb.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span>April</td><td align="right">6</td><td align="right">46c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">13</td><td align="right">38c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">20</td><td align="right">38c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">27</td><td align="right">38c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">May</td><td align="right">4</td><td align="right">35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">11</td><td align="right">32c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">18</td><td align="right">28c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">25</td><td align="right">28c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">June</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">28c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p>The following quotations from the same source +give the prices for frozen Long Island ducklings.</p> + + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><th colspan="4" align="center">1920</th></tr> +<tr><td align="center">January</td><td align="right">7</td><td align="right">41c</td><td align="center">per lb.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">14</td><td align="right">41c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">21</td><td align="right">41c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">28</td><td align="right">41c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">February</td><td align="right">4</td><td align="right">41c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">11</td><td align="right">41c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">18</td><td align="right">41c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">25</td><td align="right">41c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">March</td><td align="right">3</td><td align="right">41c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">10</td><td align="right">41c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">17</td><td align="right">41c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">November</td><td align="right">10</td><td align="right">40c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">17</td><td align="right">40c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">24</td><td align="right">40c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">December</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">40c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">8</td><td align="right">40c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> "</td><td align="right">15</td><td align="right">40c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">22</td><td align="right">40c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">29</td><td align="right">40c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> + +<tr><th colspan="4" align="center">1921</th></tr> + +<tr><td align="center">January</td><td align="right">5</td><td align="right">40c</td><td align="center">per lb.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">12</td><td align="right">40c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">19</td><td align="right">40c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">26</td><td align="right">40c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">February</td><td align="right">2</td><td align="right">41c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">9</td><td align="right">41c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">16</td><td align="right">41c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">23</td><td align="right">41c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">March</td><td align="right">2</td><td align="right">41c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">9</td><td align="right">41c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">16</td><td align="right">41c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">23</td><td align="right">41c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p>Quotations from the same source are given below +to give some idea of the range in price of the live +Long Island spring ducklings and likewise of live +old Long Island ducks or breeders.</p> + + +<h4>Long Island Spring Ducklings—Live.</h4> + + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> + +<tr><th colspan="4" align="center">1920</th></tr> + +<tr><td align="center">March</td><td align="right">3</td><td align="right">50c</td><td align="center">per lb.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">24</td><td align="right">50c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">31</td><td align="right">55c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span>May</td><td align="right">5</td><td align="right">40c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">12</td><td align="right">40c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">19</td><td align="right">36 @ 40c</td><td align="center">per lb.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">26</td><td align="right">40 @ 41c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">June</td><td align="right">2</td><td align="right">40c</td><td align="center">per lb.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">9</td><td align="right">36 @ 38c</td><td align="center">per lb.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">16</td><td align="right">36c</td><td align="center">per lb.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">23</td><td align="right">37c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">30</td><td align="right">38c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">July</td><td align="right">7</td><td align="right">38c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">14</td><td align="right">38c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">21</td><td align="right">40c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">28</td><td align="right">40c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">August</td><td align="right">4</td><td align="right">38c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">11</td><td align="right">34 @ 36c</td><td align="center">per lb.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">18</td><td align="right">38c</td><td align="center">per lb.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">25</td><td align="right">38c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">September</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">40c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">8</td><td align="right">42 @ 45c</td><td align="center">per lb.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">15</td><td align="right">45c</td><td align="center">per lb.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">22</td><td align="right">45c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">29</td><td align="right">40c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">October</td><td align="right">6</td><td align="right">42c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">13</td><td align="right">42c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">27</td><td align="right">42c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">November</td><td align="right">3</td><td align="right">42c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">10</td><td align="right">42c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">17</td><td align="right">44c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">24</td><td align="right">44c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span>December</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">44c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">15</td><td align="right">42 @ 46c</td><td align="center">per lb.</td></tr> + +<tr><th colspan="4" align="center">1921</th></tr> + +<tr><td align="center">March</td><td align="right">2</td><td align="right">55c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">9</td><td align="right">55c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">16</td><td align="right">52c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">23</td><td align="right">50c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">30</td><td align="right">55c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">April</td><td align="right">6</td><td align="right">50c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">13</td><td align="right">40c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">20</td><td align="right">45c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">27</td><td align="right">38 @ 42c</td><td align="center">per lb.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">May</td><td align="right">4</td><td align="right">38c</td><td align="center">per lb.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">11</td><td align="right">38c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">18</td><td align="right">33c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">25</td><td align="right">33c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">June</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">32c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<h4>Long Island Old Ducks or Breeders—Live</h4> + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> + +<tr><th colspan="4" align="center">1920</th></tr> + +<tr><td align="center">March</td><td align="right">17</td><td align="right">45c</td><td align="center">per lb.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">31</td><td align="right">45c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">May</td><td align="right">19</td><td align="right">30c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">26</td><td align="right">35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">June</td><td align="right">9</td><td align="right">30 @ 32c</td><td align="center">per lb.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">16</td><td align="right">32c</td><td align="center">per lb.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">23</td><td align="right">32c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">30</td><td align="right">35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span>July</td><td align="right">7</td><td align="right">35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">14</td><td align="right">35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">28</td><td align="right">30c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">August</td><td align="right">4</td><td align="right">35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">April</td><td align="right">6</td><td align="right">42c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">13</td><td align="right">36c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">20</td><td align="right">39c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">27</td><td align="right">33 @ 37c</td><td align="center">per lb.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">May</td><td align="right">11</td><td align="right">33c</td><td align="center">per lb.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">25</td><td align="right">30c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p><i>Shipping Ducks Alive</i>. While the great majority +of ducks are shipped dressed there is some shipment +of live ducks. This is particularly true during +the Jewish holidays in March and in September and +October when the demand for live ducks and the +price paid for them is excellent. As a rule it pays +better to ship alive the ducks which are inclined to +be a little thin rather than to ship those which are +in top market condition. This is due to the fact +that fat ducks will shrink very considerably when +cooped and shipped alive, this shrinkage running +from one-half to three-quarters of a pound per head +where they are cooped not to exceed 12 to 15 hours. +The ducks which are in the fattest condition will +shrink the most. At the season of the year when +live ducks are in best demand it often pays to ship +alive the ducklings which are sorted out as not being +in the best condition rather than to hold them for +further fattening.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>Saving the Feathers.</i> The feathers from the ducks +form quite an important source of revenue to the +duck farmers. As stated before the value of the +feathers will a little more than pay for the cost of +picking and since this is a considerable item of expense +the grower cannot afford to neglect the feathers. +The soft body feathers are kept separate from +the coarser feathers, the latter being thrown on the +floor as they are plucked. These coarser feathers +are later swept up and are commonly spoken of as +sweepings. Feathers from dry-picked ducks are superior +in quality and bring a better price but most +of the duck feathers now marketed from commercial +duck farms are scalded feathers. The feathers after +each day's killing are gathered up and spread out in +a loft where they can be placed in a layer not over 3 +or 4 inches deep. This should be an airy place so as +to give the feathers a good place to dry out. On the +second day they are scraped up in a pile and then +spread out again, thus turning them over and changing +their position. They are then left until they are +dry enough to sack which should be in a little over +a week. Unless the feathers are thoroughly dried +out they will heat when sacked and this will seriously +hurt their market quality. When dry they are +packed either in the large special feather sacks +made for this purpose or in smaller sacks, about as +big as two bran sacks, which will hold from 60 to 80 +pounds of feathers. The feathers are shipped to +regular feather dealers or manufacturers.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a href="images/fig49.jpg"><img src="images/fig49_tn.jpg" width="400" height="262" alt="" +title="Curing duck feathers. Linked to larger image of figure 49." /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 49. A valuable by-product of duck plants. The feathers from a duck will pay for the cost of +picking. (<i>Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p><i>Prices and Uses of Duck Feathers.</i> The soft body +feathers and the coarser feathers often called +"sweepings" should be kept and sold separate. +While scalded feathers are not worth as much as dry +picked feathers, the former if properly dried out or +cured will find a ready sale. Feathers packed before +they are thoroughly dried out, are likely to arrive +at their destination in a matted and musty or +heated condition. This, of course, injures their quality +and the price paid for them is discounted according +to their condition.</p> + +<p>The soft body feathers of ducks are used almost +entirely for bedding purposes, that is, are put in pillows +and feather beds. White feathers are preferred +and usually bring a somewhat higher price.</p> + +<p>The prices paid for the feathers vary quite widely +at different times of the year, and in different sections +of the country, and also of course with the condition +of the feathers themselves. The quotations +given below represent the prices paid in June, 1921.</p> + + + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Prices of various grades of duck feathers."> +<tr><th align="center">Duck Feathers</th><th align="center">Cents</th><th align="center">Per Pound</th></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Pure white, dry picked</td><td align="center">50</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Stained and scalded white</td><td align="center">40</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Dark or mixed, dry picked</td><td align="center">33</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Dark or mixed, scalded</td><td align="center">20 to 25</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p><i>Marketing Eggs.</i> On commercial duck farms very +few eggs are marketed. This is due to the fact that +the duck growers find it more profitable to incubate +all eggs suitable for that purpose and to rear and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> +market the ducklings rather than to sell the eggs. +There are always, however, a certain number of +cracked eggs and others which may be too large or +too small to use for hatching and which are therefore +marketed. In addition the infertile eggs tested +out on the 5th day are sold. The eggs may be packed +in ordinary 30 dozen egg cases such as are used for +hens' eggs, utilizing a special filler 5 cells square. +With these fillers a case holds 20 5-6 dozen duck +eggs. A special duck case, holding 30 dozen duck +eggs may be used, the fillers in this case being 6 +cells square like the fillers used for hens' eggs. The +cells in these fillers are 2 inches square and 2¼ or +2½ inches deep.</p> + + + +<hr class="long" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span></p> +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII +<br /> +Duck Raising on the Farm</h3> + + +<p>Duck raising as ordinarily conducted on the general +farm consists of the keeping of a comparatively +small flock purely as a side line. Ducks on the general +farm may be kept for the production of meat +and eggs, for egg production, or mainly as a breeding +proposition where the idea is to produce birds +of exhibition quality. On occasional farms ducks of +the rarer breeds are kept mainly for ornamental +purposes.</p> + +<p><i>Conditions Suitable for Duck Raising.</i> A small +flock of ducks on the farm can be kept to best advantage +where they can be separated from the +other poultry and where they can have access to a +pasture or an orchard which will provide them with +a plentiful supply of green feed. Ducks stand confinement +quite well but if they are closely confined +it is necessary to provide for them the green feed +which they cannot secure for themselves. On many +farms the flock of ducks is allowed to range at liberty +and under these conditions the cost of maintaining +them is much lower since they pick up a considerable +part of their feed. An enclosed run or yard, +however, should be available where they can be con<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span>fined +when desired. It is also necessary to provide +a house or shed in which they can be shut at night +and during the early morning. Otherwise, many +of the eggs may be dropped anywhere about the +place or in the water with the result that some of +them will be lost. A pond or stream to which the +ducks can have access and in which they can swim +is a great advantage since it helps to keep them in +good breeding condition. It is a common but mistaken +idea that low, wet land is best suited for +ducks.</p> + +<p><i>Size of Flock.</i>—The average farm flock of ducks +is small, rarely running over 15 to 20 head. In many +cases not over 10 or 12 ducks with one or two drakes +will be kept. A flock of this size will furnish quite +a large number of ducks for the farmer's table or +for sale in addition to more or less eggs which can +either be used at home or sold.</p> + +<p><i>Making a Start.</i> In making a start with a farm +flock of ducks it is probably best to figure on keeping +only a few head. If the farmer begins with 4 or +5 ducks and one drake he can make his start at +small expense and from this number he will be able +to increase the size of his flock if he finds that results +warrant it. Probably the best way to make a +start is to purchase the desired breeding stock in the +fall. This will give the ducks a chance to get settled +and to be in good condition and accustomed to +their quarters by spring so that they will begin to +breed and lay.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span></p> + +<p>Eggs for hatching can be purchased if desired +and the young ducklings hatched and reared with +chicken hens. Baby ducks are rarely purchased in +making a start as are baby chicks.</p> + +<p><i>Selecting the Breed.</i> Any one of the breeds forming +the so-called meat class will prove satisfactory +for a farm flock. This class includes the Pekin, +Aylesbury, Muscovy, Rouen, Cayuga, Buff and Blue +Swedish. The birds of any of these breeds are of +good size and therefore produce a suitable table +fowl. At the same time they are layers and will +produce eggs for the table or for market as well. +Where the purpose in keeping the ducks is mainly +that of producing eggs for market the Runner is undoubtedly +the breed to select. While these ducks +are smaller in size the ducklings will make good +carcasses of broiler size for the table being killed for +this purpose when about 2½ to 3 pounds in weight. +In addition, the Runner is the best laying breed and +by many persons is considered to be equal in its egg +producing qualities to any of the breeds of chickens.</p> + +<p>Selection of any breed or variety of the meat or +egg classes and especially the selection of a breed +or variety for ornamental purposes or for the pleasure +of breeding will depend upon the individual +preference of the owner for body shape, color of +plumage and other characteristics. A pure breed +of some kind should by all means be kept in preference +to the common or so-called "puddle" duck. Not +only will the pure breeds give greater uniformity in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span> +the carcasses produced but the results in egg production +will likewise be better.</p> + +<p><i>Age of Breeding Stock.</i> The best results in breeding +are secured from ducks during their first laying +season. Not only is egg production better but they +are less likely to become so fat and large as to interfere +with the fertility and hatchability of the +eggs. In fact, on commercial duck farms the breeding +stock is entirely renewed each year. However, +ducks can be profitably kept until they are 2 or 3 +years old, and it is common practice in a farm flock +to hold over some of the breeders after they have +finished their first year. Of course, where the duck +breeder has some especially fine stock which will +produce just the quality he desires in the offspring, +he holds and utilizes these birds just as long as they +are in good breeding condition. As a rule it is best +not to hold breeding ducks after they have finished +their second laying season.</p> + +<p><i>Size of Matings.</i> The proper number of ducks +which should be mated to a drake varies with the +different breeds. Pekins and Aylesbury can be +mated in the proportion of one drake to 6 to 8 ducks. +In the Rouen mate 4 or 5 ducks to a drake and in +the Cayuga 5 or 6 ducks to a drake. In the Muscovy +as high as 10 females may be mated with one male. +In the Blue Swedish and Buff mate in the proportion +of 6 or 7 ducks to one drake. In the Call and East +India breeds from 5 to 8 ducks can be mated to one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> +drake. In the Crested White use 5 or 6 ducks and +in the Runner 6 to 8 ducks to a drake.</p> + +<p>Where young drakes are used more ducks can be +mated to them than is the case with old drakes. It is +also true that where especially large exhibition +birds have been reserved for breeding purposes it is +necessary to reduce the number of ducks mated to a +drake as otherwise the fertility is very likely to run +lower with these older heavier ducks.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding and Laying Season.</i> Under ordinary +farm conditions where the ducks receive only fairly +good care and feed the laying does not begin to any +extent until February or March. With exceptional +care the ducks will begin to lay in January and a +few may even lay in December. The ducks lay very +persistently and continue their laying until hot +weather sets in or usually about the first of July. +They gradually let up in their laying until it ceases +almost entirely soon after that date. The breeding +season is at its height in the months of April and +May. At this time the fertility will run best and the +results in hatching will be most satisfactory. However, +it is possible to continue to hatch the duck +eggs which are produced with fair results as long +as the ducks continue to lay.</p> + + +<h4>Management of Breeders.</h4> + +<p><i>Housing.</i> Some sort of house or shelter must be +provided for the breeding flock. Any available shed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> +or a part of the poultry house may be utilized for +this purpose. No special requirements are necessary +except that the house should provide sufficient +ventilation. This is best furnished by means of a +window and in addition, an opening in the front of +the house should be provided which can be closed +by means of a curtain during severe winter weather. +A board floor is not necessary if the dirt floor +is filled up 6 or 8 inches above the ground level outside +the house. The floors should be provided with +an abundance of litter which is usually changed only +once or twice during the year. As the litter tends +to become dirty more litter must be added. No +equipment is necessary in the houses as the birds +rest on the floor and lay their eggs anywhere about +the house or wherever they may make their nests. +The house should be so arranged that the ducks can +be shut in at night and can be kept there until they +have finished laying in the morning. As most of the +duck eggs are laid early in the morning they can be +let out by 8 or 9 o'clock in the summer. If let out +earlier than this they are likely to lay some of their +eggs in the pond or stream to which they have access +and these would be lost.</p> + +<p><i>Feeding.</i> On many farms the breeding flock of +ducks is fed on the same ration which is given the +farm fowls. However, better results will be obtained +if they are given special feeds. After the laying +season is over the breeding ducks can be fed +sparingly on a mash consisting of one part by weight<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> +corn meal, 2 parts bran, 1 part low grade wheat +flour, 1 part green feed, 8% beef scrap and 3% +oyster shell. This mash is mixed up with water until +it has a consistency just between sticky and crumbly. +It should never be fed in a sloppy condition. A feed +of this mash should be given in the morning and at +night and during the long days of summer it is well +also to give a light feed of cracked corn or mixed +grains in the middle of the day. However, judgment +must be used in feeding ducks especially if +they have range over which they can roam where +they can pick up more or less animal feed and other +material. In this case it is not necessary to feed nearly +so much. Another mash which may be used instead +of the one given consists of 3 parts by measure of +corn meal, 4 parts bran, 2 parts low grade wheat +flour, three-fourths part beef scrap and 2 parts +green feed with a supply of oyster shell.</p> + +<p>Along about December 1 the feed should be +changed with the idea of inducing egg production. +A feed consisting of one part by weight corn meal, +1 part low grade flour or middlings, 1 part bran, +15% beef scrap, 15% vegetables or green feed together +with oyster shell should be fed morning and +evening and in addition a feed consisting of corn +and wheat may be given at noon in a quantity of +about one quart for each 30 ducks. As much mash +should be given them at the morning and evening +feed as they will clean up.</p> + +<p>Another good mash feed which may be used con<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span>sists +of 2 parts by weight of bran, 2 parts middlings, +2 parts corn meal, 1 part beef scrap, 1 part ground +oats and one-tenth of the total weight sand. In addition, +of course, green feed must be added to the +ration if it is not available at all times in the yard. +This mash is fed in the morning and in the evening. +The noon feed consists of 1 part by weight of corn +and 2 parts oats. Where green feed is not available +and must be supplied, cut clover, alfalfa, rye, oats +and corn may be utilized cut up into short pieces and +mixed in the mash. The mash should be fed either +to breeding stock or to ducklings on flat trays or +boards rather than in troughs as the ducks can get +at it better in this form. It must be kept in mind that +while ducks are good egg producers during the laying +and breeding season they will not lay any great +number of eggs unless they are fed for this purpose. +For rations used on commercial duck farms see +<a href="#CHAPTER_IV">Chapter IV</a>.</p> + +<p><i>Water.</i> It is important that a plentiful supply of +drinking water be available to the ducks. A fresh +supply must be provided at each feeding time before +the feed is thrown to the ducks as they like to +eat and drink alternately when feeding. Where the +breeding ducks have access to a stream or pond of +fresh water it is not necessary to provide any other +supply of drinking water.</p> + +<p>Where water is available in which the ducks can +swim it is essential to see that provision is made so +that the ducks can get in and out of the water<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> +easily. If this is not done they may become exhausted +and unable to climb out or they may become +partially cramped when the water is very cold with +the result that they will drown. If given access to +water in which they can swim during cold weather +it is necessary to be on the look-out to see that the +ducks do not freeze fast to the ground when they +come out of the water.</p> + +<p><i>Yards.</i> Where yards are provided for ducks +poultry netting about 2 feet high is ordinarily used. +This will confine most of the breeds but higher fences +even 5 or 6 feet high must be provided for the +breeds which fly readily such as the Muscovy, Call, +East India, Mallard, Wood and Mandarin. In some +cases it is even necessary to cover over the tops of +the yards in order to keep the birds from flying out +or to pinion the birds, that is, to cut off the outermost +joint of one wing. The netting used for yards +should be strung on posts set in the ground and the +lower edge should be pegged down so that the birds +cannot get under it.</p> + +<p><i>Care of Eggs for Hatching.</i> Duck eggs for hatching +must be gathered each day and should be put in +some cool place to be held until they are set. They +should be turned daily, the same as hens' eggs and +the general care is exactly similar. It does not, however, +pay to keep duck eggs as long before setting +them as they spoil more quickly than hens' eggs. In +fact, it is best to set duck eggs when they are not +over a week old if this can be arranged.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>Hatching the Eggs.</i> The period of incubation for +duck eggs ranges from 26 to 28 days for all of the +breeds except the Muscovy. In this breed it takes +from 33 to 36 days for the eggs to hatch. Inasmuch +as most of the commonly kept breeds are not very +broody and therefore do not make reliable hatchers +and mothers it is necessary to resort either to the +use of chicken hens for this purpose or else to utilize +incubators. Either one of these methods can be used +with good success. With the small farm flock it is +very common to utilize hens. The ordinary hen will +be able to cover 9 to 11 duck eggs to advantage depending +on her size and upon the season of the year. +In cold weather the smaller number should be used +rather than the larger number. Before setting the +hen she should be thoroughly dusted with insect +powder to free her from lice. Several hens can be set +in the same room but they should be confined on their +nests allowing them to come off only once a day for +feed and water. Cracked corn makes an excellent +feed for sitting hens. If desired Muscovy, Call, East +India, Mallard, Wood or Mandarin ducks can be allowed +to make their nests and to hatch their eggs as +they are reliable sitters and good mothers.</p> + +<p>After the duck eggs first pip there usually elapses +a longer period of time before the ducklings get out +of the shell than is the case with chicks. For this +reason it is well to take the hens off for feed and +water when the first eggs are pipped returning them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> +to the nest as quickly as possible and confining them +there until the hatch is over.</p> + +<p>During the last week of incubation it is desirable +to sprinkle the eggs daily with water using quite a +liberal amount as duck eggs seem to require more +moisture than hens' eggs in order to hatch well.</p> + +<p>All duck eggs which are at all badly soiled should +be washed before they are set. Washing does not +seem to injure their hatching qualities. In fact, +some breeders prefer to wash all duck eggs whether +dirty or not, feeling that this opens up the pores and +causes a better hatch. This belief is based upon the +idea that when ducks hatch their own eggs under +natural conditions they have access to water in +which they swim and in coming back on the nest +their wet feathers serve to wash the eggs.</p> + +<p>Where an incubator is used for hatching the eggs +are placed in the machine just as hens' eggs. For +the first week the temperature is kept about 102 degrees +and for the rest of the period is maintained +as close to 103 degrees as possible, the bulb of the +thermometer being on a level with the tops of the +eggs. Often the temperature will run up a little +higher than this at hatching time but this does not +do any harm. An incubator will accommodate from +four-fifths to five-sixths as many duck eggs as it will +hens' eggs.</p> + +<p>About the fifth or sixth day the duck eggs are +tested and all infertile and dead germs removed. +From this time on eggs are turned twice a day and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span> +usually cooled once a day until they pip. A second +test may be made about the fifteenth or sixteenth +day when any eggs which have died are removed. If +dead germ eggs are left in the machines they spoil +very quickly and cause a strong odor which makes it +necessary to remove them. During the last week or +ten days and in some cases for a longer period than +this incubator operators supply moisture daily to the +machine. This is usually provided by sprinkling the +eggs liberally with water which has been warmed to +about the temperature of the machine. However, +if warm water is not available, water of ordinary +temperature may be used although it is not well to +use extremely cold water. As a rule the eggs begin +to pip about the twenty-sixth day. At this time the +machine should be tightly closed up and left so until +the hatching is over. In case moisture seems to +be lacking and the ducklings are having a hard +time to get out of the shell the machine can be +opened and the eggs sprinkled again. If there seems +to be sufficient moisture, however, the machines +should not be opened or disturbed. As a rule it +takes ducklings from 24 to 48 hours to hatch after +the pipping first begins. It is advisable to leave the +ducklings in the incubator until they are well dried +off before removing them to the brooder. As a rule +the hatching will be entirely over by the twenty-eighth +day.</p> + +<p><i>Brooding and Rearing.</i> Ducklings can be brooded +if desired by means of chicken hens. In this case<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> +the ducklings which the hen hatches should be given +to her and she should be confined to some kind of a +coop which will allow the ducklings to run at liberty. +If the hen is given her liberty she goes +too far and takes too much exercise for the +little ducks. Where artificial brooders are used +any type of brooding apparatus can be utilized +which is used with success for chickens. It must be +remembered, however, that ducklings do not require +as high a degree of heat as do baby chicks and +should be started off at a temperature of about 90 +degrees under the hover. This can be reduced rather +rapidly until it is down to 80 at about 2 weeks of +age. The length of time that the ducklings require +heat after this depends upon the season and the +weather. Even in fairly cool weather they do not +need any heat after they are 5 or 6 weeks old.</p> + +<p>It is necessary to keep the brooders clean and in +order to do this they must be cleaned out frequently +and new litter supplied. While the ducklings are +small the brooders should be cleaned at least every +other day and as they get larger, cleaning once a +week with the addition of fresh litter between times +will be sufficient.</p> + +<p><i>Feeding the Ducklings.</i> Ducklings do not need to +be fed until they are from 24 to 36 hours old. At +this time they may be given a mixture composed of +equal parts by measure of rolled oats and bread +crumbs with 3% of sharp sand mixed in the feed. +This may be given them five times daily although<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span> +some duck raisers feed only 3 times daily from the +start. About the third day this feed is changed to +equal parts of bread, rolled oats, bran and corn +meal. After the seventh day the ration may consist +of 3 parts bran, 1 part each of low-grade wheat flour +and corn meal, 10% green feed, 5% beef scrap with +about 3% of sand mixed in.</p> + +<p>The ducklings should be fed four times daily after +the seventh day until they are two or three weeks +old. After that time they need be fed only three +times daily, morning, noon and night. The sand +may be given to the ducklings either by mixing it in +the mash or by feeding it in a hopper where they can +help themselves. The mash feed which is prepared +for the ducklings is mixed with water until it has a +consistency a little wetter than crumbly but not +exactly sticky. Sloppy feed should never be used. +As the ducklings grow older the amount of beef +scrap can be increased until it consists of 15% of +the ration by the end of the third week. The proportion +of corn meal can likewise be increased and +simultaneously the amount of bran decreased until +the ducklings are on a fattening ration. Unless they +have a plentiful supply of green feed in the yards +to which they have access it is necessary to provide +this to the extent of about 10% of the feed and it +should consist of tender green stuff rather finely +chopped and mixed in with the mash.</p> + +<p>About 2 weeks before the ducklings are to be +marketed they should be put on a ration consisting<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span> +of three parts by weight of corn meal, two parts +low-grade flour or middlings, one part bran, one-half +part beef scrap, 10% green feed and about 3% +oyster shell or sand. This mash is fed three times +daily. Another ration which can be used for fattening +purposes consists of 3 parts corn meal, 1 part +low-grade wheat flour, 1 part bran, 5% beef scrap +and 3% oyster shell with green feed and grit in addition.</p> + +<p>Where fish is available it can be substituted for +the beef scrap but on most farms this is impractical. +The fish where fed is boiled and mixed in the mash. +However, no fish should be fed up to within 2 weeks +before the ducks are killed as there is danger of +giving a fishy taste to the carcass. For additional +information as to feeding methods used on commercial +duck farms which could be utilized to advantage +for the farm flocks, see <a href="#CHAPTER_VI">Chapter VI</a>.</p> + +<p>Birds which are to be reserved for breeders +should be selected out and taken away from the +ducklings which are to be fattened. These breeding +birds should be carried along on the ration +which they have been receiving until about December +1 when they should be put on a laying ration.</p> + +<p>It is very necessary to see that the ducklings have +a plentiful supply of drinking water. It is especially +important to renew this supply just before the +ducklings are fed so that they will have ample water +while they are consuming their feed. The water +should be given in dishes deep enough so that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span> +ducks can immerse their entire bill as this enables +them to wash the sand out of their nostrils.</p> + +<p><i>Water for Ducklings.</i> In addition to the drinking +water provided duck raisers sometimes allow the +growing ducklings access to water in which they can +swim. If it is desired to fatten the ducklings quickly +and turn them off on the market as green ducks many +raisers do not consider this advisable as it induces +the ducklings to take more exercise and makes it +more difficult to fatten them. However, access to +water in which they can swim makes it unnecessary +to provide any other supply of drinking water and +for this reason lessens the work considerably. Unless +it is easy for the ducklings to get in and out of the +water there is danger of some of them drowning as +they are likely to get tired and unable to climb +out. Little ducklings allowed access to very cold +water are subject to cramp and may be drowned as +a result.</p> + +<p><i>Distinguishing the Sexes.</i> It is difficult to distinguish +the sexes of growing ducks until they begin to +reach maturity. There is, however, a difference in +their appearance. The drakes are coarser or thicker +and more masculine in appearance showing this especially +about the head and neck. Also as they secure +their mature plumage the drake shows curled +feathers on top of the tail which are often referred +to as sex feathers. In addition, the voice of the duck +is harsher and coarser than that of the drake.</p> + +<p><i>Marketing the Ducks.</i> Most of the ducks pro<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span>duced +on farms are marketed alive. This is because +the farmer has no special market and he does not +find that it pays him to dress and ship the ducks +with the chance that they might spoil. In fact, most +of the farm raised ducks are not turned off as green +ducks at 10 to 12 weeks as is done on the commercial +duck plants but are held until fall and then sold +as spring ducks. They will weigh somewhat more +at that time but as a rule the price received per +pound will be lower than that obtained for green +ducks during the spring and summer. Where there +is a special demand for ducklings which the farmer +can supply it will pay him to dress and deliver the +ducks. If it is desired to dress the ducks, the directions +given under <a href="#CHAPTER_VII">Chapter VII</a> can be modified to +suit the farmer's needs. The soft body feathers +should be saved in accordance with the directions +given on <a href="#Page_106">page 106</a>, as they can be used at home in +making pillows or can be sold.</p> + +<p>Such eggs as are produced in surplus may either +be utilized on the home table or sent to market. As +a rule duck eggs are not in great demand except at +certain seasons such as at Easter and during the +Jewish holidays in the spring and fall when they +bring somewhat higher prices than hens' eggs. The +larger size of duck eggs, however, makes them +favored by bakers and they can usually be sold at +any time in a city of any size at prices as good as +those received for hens' eggs.</p> + +<p>Eggs for market can be packed in the ordinary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> +30-dozen hen egg cases by using special fillers which +hold 25 eggs instead of 36 as in the case of hens' +eggs. <a href="#Page_119">See page 119</a>. A farmer with a small flock of +ducks will usually not have eggs enough to fill a case +frequently and for this reason he usually finds it +more convenient to market the few eggs he has by +taking them into town in a basket.</p> + +<p><i>Disease and Insect Pests.</i> Ducks are very little +troubled by insect pests, nor are they greatly +troubled by diseases. The usual difficulties encountered +along this line are those discussed under this +head in <a href="#CHAPTER_VI">Chapter VI</a>. Losses are often experienced as +the result of predatory animals. Rats will cause a +great amount of havoc among the young ducks if +they are able to get at them. A single night's work +on the part of one rat may practically clean out a +small flock of ducklings. It is necessary to make +sure that the ducklings are shut in at night so that +rats cannot get at them.</p> + + + +<hr class="long" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="GEESE" id="GEESE"></a>GEESE +<br /> +PART II.</h2> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span></p> +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX +<br /> +Extent of the Industry—Opportunities</h3> + + +<p>Geese can be raised successfully in practically all +parts of the United States and are in fact scattered +in small flocks over a considerable portion of the +country being most abundant in the South and in the +Middle West.</p> + +<p>The census figures for the year 1920 show Illinois +with 195,769 geese to be the leading state in numbers, +closely followed by Missouri, Arkansas +and Iowa. Next in order of importance as goose +raising states come Kentucky, Tennessee, Minnesota, +North Carolina and Texas. The census figures +of 1920 compared with those for 1910 show a decrease +in the number of geese from 4,431,980 to +2,939,203. The only groups of states which showed +an increase in the number of geese during this +period were the North Atlantic and the Mountain +states. Of the total farms in the United States only +a small proportion, probably one-tenth, have any +geese and the number of geese per farm would not +average over 4 to 10 depending on the section.</p> + +<p><i>Nature of the Industry.</i> Geese are kept almost +wholly in small flocks as a side line on general<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span> +farms. The purpose of goose raising is primarily +one of the production of meat although in the past +flocks of geese have been kept to some extent, particularly +in the south for the purpose of plucking +them to secure the feathers. This practice of plucking +live geese is decreasing and is much less common +than formerly. The eggs of the geese do not +enter to any extent into the egg trade of the country. +As a rule all the eggs produced are hatched for +the purpose of rearing young geese and it is only +occasionally that goose eggs are used for culinary +purposes.</p> + +<p><i>Opportunities for Goose Raising.</i> Undoubtedly the +greatest opportunity along the line of goose raising +lies in the small flock kept on the general farm. +Where conditions are suitable, that is to say, where +there is an abundance of suitable pasture land together +with some water to which the geese can have +access, a small flock can be most profitably kept. +They can be reared very cheaply as both the young +and old geese will secure practically their entire living +during the summer from pasture if an abundant +supply of suitable green material is available. The +cost of rearing them therefore is low. In addition +both the young and old geese are very hardy and +require comparatively little care. They are little +subject to disease and therefore losses are small.</p> + +<p>Geese live and breed for a long time and this +makes it possible to turn off to market a larger proportion +of the young stock reared than is the case<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> +with most other classes of poultry. For all of these +reasons, therefore, a small flock of geese will return +a good profit to the farmer without having to supply +any great amount of equipment or without having +to feed very much in the way of expensive feeds. In +addition to the geese which can be marketed, the +maintenance of a small flock also helps to provide a +variety in the farmer's diet by furnishing suitable +birds for the holiday seasons such as Thanksgiving +and Christmas.</p> + +<p>In addition to the opportunity for goose raising in +small flocks on general farms there likewise exists +a definite opportunity to specialize along this line +somewhat more extensively. In certain places, notably +the state of Wisconsin, goose raising becomes a +more important activity on some farms than merely +that of a by-product. Larger numbers are reared +and special steps are taken in fattening and finishing +them for market either by means of pen fattening +or by means of hand fattening or noodling the +geese. Geese so finished for market bring a special +price and allow a good profit to the raiser for the +time which he has put into them.</p> + +<p>An outgrowth of the goose raising industry which +has been worked to a limited extent consists of the +gathering together of the geese raised in any particular +portion of the country on one farm and the +feeding of them there in large flocks in the fields so +as to fatten them for market. There are not many +of these special fattening farms but several persons<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span> +in different sections of the country who have made a +practice of gathering together and marketing the +geese in this way have found it very profitable. +Probably a similar opportunity exists in certain +other sections where goose raising on the farms in +small numbers is common and where no one has yet +made the effort to collect and fatten the geese before +marketing them.</p> + +<p>While geese are not exhibited to the same extent +as chickens, still there will always be found a market +for birds of good quality, both for the purpose +of exhibition and also as breeders to be used in improving +the stock of other goose raisers.</p> + +<p><i>Goose Raising as a Business for Farm Women.</i> +Like turkey raising goose raising as a side line on +the farm offers an excellent money making opportunity +for the farm women. Without any great outlay +of capital to get a start and without its being necessary +to provide much in the way of buildings or +other equipment, a flock of geese can be started +which will allow a nice profit to the farm woman +for the care and attention which she gives them. +In this connection it should be remembered that +while the opportunities for profit may not be so large +as in turkey raising, yet the care required is much +less and the chances of serious difficulties due to disease +and to inability to raise the young stock are +relatively small. Goose raising therefore offers a +most profitable side line employment for the farm +woman.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>Geese as Weed Destroyers.</i> As stated before +geese are close grazers. In fact, during the growing +season of the year green vegetation forms most and +in some cases practically all of their diet. The vegetation +which they will eat readily is quite varied and +in many cases geese will be found to be very valuable +in ridding pastures or fields of troublesome +weeds. In the southern states geese are often kept +on farms where cotton is raised for the purpose of +keeping the cotton fields free from weeds.</p> + + +<h4>Objection to Geese</h4> + +<p>An objection to geese often expressed but without +good foundation is that they will spoil the pasture +for other stock. This is not true if the pasture is not +overstocked with geese. Of course geese are very +close grazers and if too many of them are kept on a +field they will eat the grass down so close that there +will be none for other animals to get. Similarly the +idea that other animals will not eat grass grown +where goose droppings have fallen is not true except +where the birds are too thick so that the grass is +soiled badly by the droppings.</p> + +<p>The fact that geese are noisy creatures makes +them undesirable to some persons. It is true that +they make a good deal of noise and that their cry is +of a very hoarse, rasping character and to a person +with bad nerves they may be annoying but this is +no valid or weighty objection to the normal, healthy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> +farmer. The Chinese geese are the noisiest and consequently +the greatest offenders in this particular.</p> + +<p>A more valid objection to geese lies in the fact of +their rather ugly disposition. Ganders, especially +as they grow older and during the breeding season, +are decidedly pugnacious and will not hesitate to attack +human beings. They strike heavy formidable +blows with their wings and with their strong bills +they inflict most painful bites. Where there are children +about the house it may be necessary to dispose +of ugly ganders to safeguard the children from serious +injury.</p> + + + +<hr class="long" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span></p> +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X +<br /> +Breeds and Varieties—How to Mate to Produce +Exhibition Specimens—Preparing Geese for the +Show—Catching and Handling</h3> + + +<p><i>Breeds of Geese.</i> There are six standard breeds +of geese consisting of the following: Toulouse, Embden, +African, Chinese, Wild or Canadian and Egyptian. +All of these breeds consist of a single variety +with the exception of the Chinese which is composed +of two. The Toulouse is known as the Gray Toulouse, +the Embden as the White Embden, the African +as the Gray African, the two varieties of the Chinese +as the Brown Chinese and the White Chinese, the +Wild or Canadian as the Gray and the Egyptian as +the Colored.</p> + +<p>The first four of these breeds are the ones which +are commonly kept in domestication. In a general +way it may be said that these breeds are meat +breeds for the reason that they are kept mainly for +the production of meat. The Wild or Canadian +and the Egyptian are more in the nature of ornamental +breeds since they are not so commonly kept +and are principally to be found where ornamental +water-fowls are maintained. The Chinese are sometimes +classed as ornamental geese on account of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span> +their smaller size but they are much more commonly +kept than either the Canadian or the Egyptian and +make a good market fowl where the demand is not +for such a large carcass.</p> + +<p>In addition to the standard breeds there are several +other rare breeds among which is the Sebastapol +which is kept purely as an ornamental breed +by reason of its peculiar feathering. The Sebastapol +is a white goose in which the feathers of the +upper part of the body show a twisted or frizzled +condition which gives it much the general effect of +the feathers being curled. In addition to the standard +breeds of geese there are kept on a great majority +of farms ordinary common geese of no definite +breed or variety. These geese in general are of +smaller size than the larger standard breeds and +have probably arisen as the result of the crossing of +the standard breeds and the subsequent deterioration +in size and color marking is due to careless +breeding and selection.</p> + +<p>In some sections and for certain special purposes +definite crosses of standard breeds are made for the +production of table geese having certain desired +qualities. For this purpose the African ganders are +very popular used upon the Toulouse geese. To some +extent there is produced and marketed a goose +known as the mongrel goose. This has excellent +table quality and is in good demand on account of +its superior eating qualities and its rapid growth. It +is produced by using the Wild or Canadian gander<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> +upon Toulouse, African or Embden geese. The result +of this cross is a hybrid goose which has much +the appearance of the Wild goose but which will +not breed although the females will lay eggs. As a +rule Toulouse or African females are used for the +cross rather than Embden as from the latter there +is a greater tendency to get a lighter cross which +would not resemble its Wild father so closely and +might not therefore be so readily recognized as genuine +mongrel geese.</p> + +<p><i>Nomenclature.</i> The term geese is used to indicate +the birds of both sexes taken as a whole and also as a +plural form for the word goose. The term goose is used +to distinguish the female of the species. The male +is given the specific name of gander to distinguish +it from goose. The young of both sexes are termed +goslings. In giving the standard weights for the +different breeds of geese the birds are classified as +adult ganders and young ganders and as adult geese +and young geese. By adult goose or gander is meant +a bird which is over one year old, by young goose or +gander is meant a bird which is less than one year. +Not infrequently in connection with market reports +use will be made of the term "green geese". This indicates +birds which are marketed when they are of +large size but still young and immature, the green +referring to this immature condition.</p> + +<p><i>Size.</i> An idea of the size of the different standard +breeds of geese can best be secured by giving the +standard weights. They are as follows:<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span></p> + + + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Standard weights of various breeds of geese."> +<tr><th align="left" style="padding-left:1.5em">Breed</th><th align="center" colspan="2">Adult <br />Gander</th><th align="center" colspan="2">Adult <br />Goose</th><th align="center" colspan="2">Young <br />Gander</th><th align="center" colspan="2">Young <br />Goose</th></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Toulouse</td><td align="right">26</td><td align="center">lbs.</td><td align="right">20</td><td align="center">lbs.</td><td align="right">20</td><td align="center">lbs.</td><td align="right">16</td><td align="center">lbs.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Embden</td><td align="right">20</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">18</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">18</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">16</td><td align="center">"</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">African</td><td align="right">20</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">18</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">16</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">14</td><td align="center">"</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Chinese</td><td align="right">12</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">10</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">10</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">8</td><td align="center">"</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Wild or Canadian</td><td align="right">12</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">10</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">10</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">8</td><td align="center">"</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Egyptian</td><td align="right">10</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">8</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">8</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">6</td><td align="center">"</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p><i>Popularity of the Breeds</i>. Of the different standard +breeds kept the Toulouse is undoubtedly the +most popular in this country probably due to its large +size as well as to its quick growth. The Embden follows +the Toulouse closely in popularity. The Chinese +geese are probably third most numerous in numbers +while the African ranks fourth. In certain sections +the African seems to be very popular and one would +expect to find more of this breed than seem to be +present on farms. Neither the Canadian nor the +Egyptians are to be found in any great numbers, the +latter in particular being very rare.</p> + + +<h4>Egg Production</h4> + +<p>It must always be remembered in speaking of the +egg production of any breed of poultry that there +will be a considerable variation in individuals within +a breed and that egg production will also be affected +very largely by the conditions under which +the birds are kept. For this reason any attempt to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span> +give an average egg production for a breed is at +best only an approximation. These approximations +often serve, however, to show some well established +contrast between the different breeds with respect +to their egg laying ability. The Toulouse is a fairly +prolific breed of geese and individuals should average +from 12 to 36 eggs, the majority laying about +20 eggs. The Embden is very similar to the Toulouse +in laying ability although probably on the +whole not quite so good a layer. The African is +generally considered a good layer and is said to +average from 20 to 40 eggs. Some breeders state +that the pure African are not as good layers as this, +being about equal to the Embden and that the better +laying Africans really have some Brown Chinese +blood in them which has been introduced to increase +prolificacy. The Chinese is the most prolific breed. +The birds of either the White or Brown variety +should average from 60 to 100 eggs. The eggs laid +by the Chinese are smaller than those of the Toulouse, +Embden or African. The Wild or Canadian +and the Egyptian geese are small layers. They +rarely lay more than one sitting during a season and +the eggs will as a rule range from 4 to 8 in number.</p> + +<p><i>Size of Goose Eggs.</i> Goose eggs are decidedly +larger than duck eggs. There is a considerable variation +in size, depending upon the breed. The eggs +of the Toulouse, African and Embden are of about +the same size and will vary from 6½ to 8 ounces each. +The eggs of the Chinese are smaller and will weigh<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span> +from 5½ to 6 ounces each, while eggs of the Canadian +and Egyptian are the smallest of the standard +breeds, running from 5 to 5½ ounces each.</p> + +<p><i>Color of Goose Eggs.</i> In general goose eggs are +whitish in color but may shade to a gray or buff +tinge. The Wild or Canadian sometimes lay eggs +which are off the white, showing a considerable +green tinge.</p> + + +<h4>About Geese and Matings</h4> + +<p><i>Broodiness.</i> All of the breeds of geese with the +exception of the Toulouse may be classed as broody +breeds, that is to say, they will make their nests and +hatch their young if given a chance to do so. Not +infrequently individuals of the Toulouse breed will +do this also but as a rule they are not dependable +for this purpose.</p> + +<p><i>Size of Mating.</i> In making the mating it is usual +in order to secure best results to use one gander with +from two to four geese in the Toulouse, Embden and +African breeds. In fact, better results will be secured +in these breeds where not over 3 geese are +used and in many cases the geese are mated in trios +or even in pairs. In the Chinese geese a somewhat +larger mating can be employed, one gander being +used with 4 to 6 geese. The Wild or Canadian and +the Egyptian geese in most cases pair only.</p> + +<p><i>Age of Breeders.</i> Geese can be retained and will +give good results as breeders for a longer period<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> +than most other classes of poultry. While the young +geese will often lay during their first year the results +from the eggs produced by them are not as a rule +very satisfactory. It is sometimes claimed that the +eggs of young geese will not hatch but this is untrue +and goslings have been raised from such eggs. +Canadian and Egyptian geese do not lay until they +are 3 years old. Females may be kept for breeding +purposes until they are 8 to 10 years old and should +give good results during this time. If they continue +to lay longer than this and are valuable breeding +individuals they should of course be retained just +so long as they lay at a profitable rate. Instances +are reported where geese 15 to 20 years old were +still giving good results as breeders. As a rule ganders +cannot be successfully kept for breeding purposes +as long as can the geese. Yearling ganders +are often used but they are at their best for breeding +purposes when from 3 to 5 years old and it is +not generally wise to retain them after they are 6 or +7 years old. Egyptian and Canadian ganders will +not breed before they are 2 years old. In general +it is good practice to mate young ganders to older +geese and to mate younger geese with older ganders +as this seems to get better results both in fertility +and in hatching.</p> + +<p><i>Marking Young Geese.</i> It is often desirable to +mark young geese in some way so that their breeding +can be told or so that a record can be kept of +their age. This can be readily accomplished by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span> +punching various combinations of holes in the webs +between the toes at the time the goslings are +hatched.</p> + +<p><i>Considerations in Making the Mating.</i><a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> In making +the mating in breeding geese it must be kept in +mind that it is of primary importance to select the +breeders first of all for size, prolificacy and vitality. +Without these qualities no matter what else the +breeding geese may be there is scant chance of satisfactory +results. Having selected birds which are +of suitable size and vitality those should then be +utilized for breeding which approach most nearly +both in type and color to the requirements as given +in the American Standard of Perfection. As a rule, +a new mating can be made by taking the birds selected +and shutting them up together in a pen away +from the other birds and out of sound of the voices +of their former mates. As a rule about a month of +this treatment will suffice to bring about the new +matings desired and the birds can then be allowed +to range at liberty.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> For a more detailed description of the principles of breeding +as applied to poultry and which is equally applicable to +geese, the reader is referred to "The Mating and Breeding of +Poultry" by Harry M. Lamon and Rob R. Slocum, published +by the Orange Judd Publishing Co., New York, N. Y.</p></div> + +<p>Some ganders are very troublesome about mating. +This is particularly true as they get older. In +some cases it is impossible to get ganders to mate at +all while frequently they will refuse to mate with +more than one goose. As a rule, matings once made<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span> +are permanent from year to year unless changed by +the breeder on account of poor results. Where new +matings are to be made or where changes are to be +made this should be done in the fall so that the birds +will have been mated for several months before the +breeding season begins in order to insure good results. +After the matings are made the geese can be +allowed to run together in larger flocks but the practice +is frequently employed of keeping the different +matings in pens to themselves so as to avoid the +fighting which will otherwise occur between the +ganders. During the breeding season the ganders +are quite savage and will fight fiercely.</p> + + +<h4>Breeds of Geese<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></h4> + +<p><i>The Toulouse.</i> This breed is characterized by its +very low down deep broad massive body. The body +should come well down in front and should be so +deep and full behind that it tends to drag on the +ground when the bird walks. The skin of the rear +portion of the body should have folds. The appearance +or type of the Toulouse depends a great deal +upon the condition of flesh which a bird may be in +at the time as a fat well fleshed condition will improve +type very materially. A dewlap, that is to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span> +say, a pendulous flap of skin on the throat, is desired +but comparatively few birds show a well developed +dewlap. It is more likely to appear with age than +it is in the younger birds. In color the Toulouse +breeds quite true. The principal difficulty which is +encountered is the occasional appearance of one, +two or three white flight feathers in the wing. These +white flights constitute a disqualification and must +of course be avoided in the breeding. It is necessary +also to avoid any birds which lack in size, length, +breadth or depth of body, particularly depth in +front. Birds of this breed are of large size and +make quick growth and for this reason are a fine +market goose although the dark colored pin feathers +are somewhat of a drawback from a market point +of view.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> For a complete and official description and list of disqualifications +of the standard breeds and varieties of geese, the +reader is referred to the American Standard of Perfection published +by the American Poultry Association, obtainable from +Orange Judd Publishing Company, New York, N. Y.</p></div> + +<p><i>The Embden.</i> This breed is of good size but somewhat +smaller than the Toulouse. It has not quite so +long a keel or underline as the Toulouse and while +deep in body it is not so baggy. There should be no +dewlap in this breed. The plumage should be pure +white throughout, the only difficulty of any importance +occurring here being the occasional appearance +of slate on the backs of young geese. This, +however, is not serious as it almost invariably disappears +with the first moult. Embden geese are +rapid growers and mature early which together with +the fact that their plumage is white makes them an +excellent market bird.</p> + +<p><i>The African.</i> In type the African is much the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span> +same as the Toulouse although not quite as large +being about the size of the Embden. What is desired +is a low down body which is flat in keel and +without any folds of skin. The neck should be short. +This bird unlike the Toulouse is characterized by a +knob or protuberance extending out from the head +at the base of the upper bill. This knob should be +black in color and should show no tinge of yellow +on the top or about the base. If the knob gets +scarred or injured it is apt to turn yellow and freezing +likewise is apt to cause it to turn yellow. Birds +of this breed both young and old should show dewlaps, +the absence of these in adult specimens constituting +a disqualification. As in the Toulouse avoid +any white flight feathers. The African makes an +excellent market goose being like the Embden and +Toulouse, quick growing and early maturing. The +ganders are especially in favor for use in crossing +with other varieties for the production of market +geese. It seems probable that some Brown Chinese +blood has been crossed into the Africans on various +occasions probably for the purpose of increasing +the prolificacy of the African as the Brown Chinese +is an excellent layer. It is also true that crosses between +the Brown Chinese and the Toulouse are +sometimes shown for Africans but as a rule this +cross results in too dark a bird and such crosses +should never be used for breeding purposes since +they would not continue to give the uniformity and +other qualities obtained in the first generation.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>The Chinese.</i> The Chinese is quite different in +type from the three preceding breeds. It is much +smaller and higher set on legs and has a body much +more upright in carriage. The neck is long and slender +and the head has a large knob. An important +part about the type is to secure a very slender neck, +another important point being to secure a very large +knob; the larger this is the better. There is, however, +a decided tendency for the knob to run small +when the neck is slender and it is difficult to secure +in perfection the combination of a very slender neck +and a large knob. The Chinese geese should be in +good condition but should not be too fat when shown +as too good a condition of flesh injures the type +materially. If fat there is a decided tendency for +the birds to bag down behind which is undesirable. +The Chinese geese are the best layers but the egg +which they lay is smaller. On account of their +smaller size they do not make as good market geese +where large sized carcasses are desired but where +smaller carcasses suitable for family use are in demand +the Chinese make a satisfactory market breed.</p> + +<p><i>The Brown Chinese.</i> In this variety the knob +should be dark brown or black. As in the African, +injury or freezing may turn the knob yellow which +is undesirable. The plumage should be a rich brown +shade of color, a faded gray color being very undesirable. +The stripe down the back of the neck should +be well defined and should be distinctly in contrast<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span> +with the rest of the neck color. White feathers in +the primaries or secondaries must be avoided.</p> + +<p><i>The White Chinese.</i> The knob in this variety +should be orange and any tendency toward yellow +should be avoided. The plumage should be pure +white throughout. Occasional young females may +show slate in the back but this is not serious as it +almost invariably disappears with the first moult.</p> + +<p><i>The Wild or Canadian.</i> Contrary to expectation +this breed when domesticated is very peaceable and +very tame. There is often, however, a tendency for +them to grow uneasy when the migratory season +comes. To keep the birds from flying away it is +necessary to clip the flight feathers of one wing or +what is safer still to pinion the bird. Pinioning consists +of cutting off the first joint of one wing. This +may be done when the birds are small or may be +done at any time and does not seem to bother them +much. One of the best ways to accomplish this is +to break the joint and then cut it off by using a +chisel and hammer. Not much bleeding will result +but it is well to put a little iodine on the cut. These +birds breed very true in type and color and progress +in the mating simply consists of continuing to select +those birds for breeders which show markings in the +greatest excellence. In type a Canadian goose is +quite different from that of the other breeds mentioned. +It is smaller, set much higher on legs and its +body is neater and trimmer, and is oblong and carried +in a horizontal position. The neck is long and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span> +slender. These birds mate only in pairs as a rule +and the females do not mature and lay until they +are three years old. The ganders often breed when +they are two years old. Usually only a single sitting +of eggs is laid consisting of from 4 to 8. Usually, +however, all of these eggs will hatch and the young +prove to be strong and easily reared.</p> + +<p><i>The Egyptian.</i> This is the smallest of the standard +breeds of geese. In type it more nearly approaches +the Canadian than any other breed but it +is somewhat longer in legs, showing more of the +thigh beneath the body. The body is not carried in +quite such a horizontal position as the Canadian but +slopes downward slightly from the breast to the +tail. The neck is neither so long nor quite so slender +as that of the Canadian. This breed is the brightest +colored of any of the geese and breeds fairly true in +color and markings. Like the Canadian the Egyptian +goose is likely to become uneasy at times and +one wing should therefore be pinioned or the flight +feathers clipped to keep the birds from flying away. +Like the Canadian the Egyptians mate in pairs only +and lay but one sitting during the year. The females +do not lay until they are three years old.</p> + +<p>Neither the Egyptian nor the Canadian geese +should be closely confined or no eggs will be laid. +The goose should be allowed to make her own nest +and hatch her eggs.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a href="images/fig50.jpg"><img src="images/fig50_tn.jpg" width="400" height="264" alt="" +title="Egyptian Gander and Sebastapol Goose. Linked to larger image of figure 50." /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 50. Left—Egyptian Gander. Right—Sebastapol Goose. (<i>Photograph from the Bureau of Animal +Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<hr /> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a href="images/fig51.jpg"><img src="images/fig51_tn.jpg" width="400" height="263" alt="" +title="Toulouse and Embden Ganders. Linked to larger image of figure 51." /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 51. Left.—Toulouse Gander. Right—Embden Gander. (<i>Photographs from the Bureau of Animal +Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<hr /> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a href="images/fig52.jpg"><img src="images/fig52_tn.jpg" width="400" height="264" alt="" +title="Canadian and African Ganders. Linked to larger image of figure 52." /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 52. Left—Wild or Canadian Gander. Right—African Gander. (<i>Photographs from the Bureau +of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<hr /> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a href="images/fig53.jpg"><img src="images/fig53_tn.jpg" width="400" height="263" alt="" +title="Brown and White Chinese Ganders. Linked to larger image of figure 53." /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 53. Left—Brown Chinese Gander. Right—White Chinese Gander. (<i>Photographs from the Bureau +of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<hr /> + + +<h4>Preparing Geese for the Show</h4> + +<p>The preparation of geese for the show is comparatively +a simple matter. It requires first of all that +individuals shall be selected which approach nearest +to the standard requirements both in type and +in color. As to the actual preparation for exhibition +the geese are practically self-prepared. For a period +of at least a week or ten days before they are +shipped to the show they should be given access to +a grass range and to running water. The grass +range tends to put them in good condition while the +running water will give them an opportunity to clean +themselves. Any broken feathers should be plucked +at least six weeks before the birds are to be shown +so as to give them an opportunity to grow in new +ones.</p> + +<p>Since all of the common breeds of geese, with the +exception of the Chinese, should be shown in a fat +condition in order to give them their best type they +should be given a grain mixture twice daily for a +period of at least ten days before the show in order +to get them in good flesh and to bring them up to +standard weight. This ration should consist of one +part corn and two parts oats. In Chinese geese +where it is desired to have them in good condition +of flesh but without showing any tendency toward +bagginess, oats alone should be fed as they are apt +to put on too much fat when corn is fed as well. +When the birds are shipped to the show they are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> +quite likely to get their plumage soiled during the +journey. If this occurs fill a barrel about half full +of water. As the geese are taken from the shipping +coops place two of them at a time in the barrel, +cover it over and leave them for a few minutes. Then +take them out and they will usually be clean.</p> + + +<h4>Catching and Handling Geese</h4> + +<p>Never catch geese by the legs which are weak and +are easily broken or injured. For the same reason +they should never be carried by the legs. In catching +geese grasp them by the neck just below the +head. Often a crooked stick is of value in getting +hold of the birds by the neck. Geese can be carried +short distances by the neck without injury but it is +not advisable to carry them for any considerable +distance in this manner, particularly if they are fat. +The best way to handle the geese is to catch them +by the neck, then place one arm over the shoulders +and around the bird's body thus holding the wings +in place while both legs are grasped with the hand. +The neck should be held with the other hand to +keep the bird from biting. In releasing the bird in +a pen or shipping coop do not let go of the neck +until the bird is placed where it is wanted.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a href="images/fig54.jpg"><img src="images/fig54_tn.jpg" width="400" height="262" alt="" +title="Methods of handling geese. Linked to larger image of figure 54." /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 54—Proper manner of picking up and carrying geese with the head and neck under the arm. +(<i>Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span> +</div> +<hr /> + +<h4>Packing and Shipping Hatching Eggs</h4> + +<p>Goose eggs for hatching must be shipped when +they are fresh if they are to be received in good con<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span>dition +and are to give good results in hatching. +They can be shipped long distances either by express +or by parcel post. In order to prevent breakage +and to lessen the effects of the jar to which the +eggs are subjected during shipment they should be +carefully packed in a market basket or other suitable +receptacle. The same method of packing the +eggs should be employed as with duck eggs described +on page 137.</p> + + +<h4>Prices for Breeding Stock</h4> + +<p>While the demand for breeding stock is not so +broad with geese as it is with some other classes of +poultry, there does exist a steady and profitable demand +for this class of fowls. Goose eggs for hatching +are usually sold in sittings of 5 and the price +varies somewhat depending upon the variety. As +a rule, Embden and Toulouse eggs will bring from +60 cents to $1.20 each. Chinese goose eggs will +bring from 40 cents to $1 each while the eggs of the +African goose will bring from $1 to $2 each. Of +course the price of eggs for hatching like that of +breeding birds depends on the quality of the stock. +The prices for the birds themselves for breeding +purposes will run anywhere from about $8 to $10 +apiece for good birds suitable for breeding on farm +flocks, to $25 or even $50 each of birds of especially +fine quality.</p> + + + +<hr class="long" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span></p> +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI +<br /> +Management of Breeding Geese</h3> + + +<p><i>Range for Breeders.</i> Since grass or other vegetation, +when plentiful, will furnish practically the entire +living both for breeding and growing geese, it +is by all means desirable to have suitable range for +the breeding stock. Aside from economy of production +range is desirable from the fact that the breeders +keep in better condition and better results in +breeding and fertility are obtained. The range for +breeding geese should therefore consist of grass +land or pasture. Often rather low wet land can be +used for this purpose, particularly if some higher +land is also available to provide a more favorable +kind of grass. Often geese can be ranged on the +same pasture with horses or cattle. Later in the season +after the harvest, both breeding and growing +geese can be given the range of the stubble fields to +good advantage as they will glean most of the shelled +grain. The entire flock of breeders is generally +allowed to run together but the flock may be divided +if desired, or each mating may be kept in a +colony by itself if the fighting of the ganders proves +troublesome.</p> + +<p><i>Number of Geese to the Acre.</i> The number of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span> +geese which can be kept or run to the acre depends +of course upon the nature of the land available for +the purpose. The better the pasture and therefore +the more green feed available throughout the summer +and fall, the more geese can be run. In general, +the practice is to run from 4 to 25 geese to an +acre; ten is a fair average under normal conditions.</p> + +<p><i>Water for Breeding Geese.</i> While water to which +the geese can have access for swimming is not absolutely +essential for their well being, they like it +and it is well to provide water if possible especially +during the breeding season. It not only takes care +of the problem of supplying drinking water, but in +the opinion of many goose raisers, increases the fertility +of the eggs laid. A natural water supply such +as a stream or pond in the pasture is therefore desirable, +but if none is available an artificial pond or +tank can be furnished to good advantage.</p> + +<p><i>Distinguishing the Sex.</i> It is difficult to distinguish +the sex of geese. It is, of course, necessary to +know the sex so as to provide the proper number of +ganders and so as to know what birds to pen together +in making a mating. Once the sex of a bird +is determined it is well for the novice to mark it by +means of a suitable leg band so that its sex can be +easily distinguished in the future.</p> + +<p>It is more difficult to distinguish the sex of young +than of old geese. The gander is generally slightly +larger and coarser than the goose, with a longer, +thicker neck and larger head. The gander also has<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span> +a shriller cry than the goose whose cry consists of a +harsher sound. Some goose raisers claim that they +can distinguish the sex of mature geese by the body +shape, the underline of the body of the gander from +the tail to the point where the legs join the body +being nearly straight, while in the goose this line +tends to round out with the fuller development +of the abdomen. This difference is more marked +during the laying season than at other times. Considerable +experience is necessary in order to distinguish +sex by any of the means described and the +really sure way is by an examination of the sexual +organs or by observing the actions of the geese when +mating.</p> + +<p>Upon examination the sphincter muscle which +closes the anus of the female when stretched will +be found to have a folded appearance. If the gander +is placed upon his back and pressure applied +around the anus, the penis will protrude. This test +is more easily made on a mature than on an immature +gander and is also easier to make during warm +than during cold weather.</p> + +<p><i>Purchase of Breeding Stock.</i> Geese when mated +usually stay mated permanently. Matings are not, +therefore, changed from year to year as a rule so +long as they continue to give satisfactory results. If +it becomes necessary to make new matings or to +break up old matings, this should be done in the fall, +so that the birds will be thoroughly used to the new +order of things by the time the breeding season ar<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span>rives, +and the results in eggs laid and young stock +grown will not, therefore, be adversely affected. +For this reason, any breeding stock purchased +should be secured in the fall rather than to wait until +just before the breeding season opens. As a rule, +also, a better selection of breeding stock to choose +from is available to the purchaser in the fall.</p> + +<p><i>Time of Laying.</i> Geese start laying in the early +spring and continue to lay throughout the spring. +With special attention given to the feeding, they +should begin in the northeastern part of the United +States about February 1 and should continue to lay +until about June 1 when geese of the heavier breeds +such as the Toulouse, African and Embden will generally +be pretty well through. Some individuals will +lay later than this and the Chinese geese also have +a rather longer laying season extending further into +the summer. The length of the laying season is also +affected by whether the geese are broken up when +they become broody or whether they are allowed to +sit. The latter practice, of course, stops the layings. +It must be remembered that the Canadian and Egyptian +as a rule lay only a single small setting of eggs +during the season.</p> + +<p>As a rule geese lay during the night or the forenoon. +The frequency of laying varies, some geese +laying every other day while others lay more or less +often.</p> + +<p><i>Housing.</i> Geese withstand the weather very well +and do not need much in the way of houses or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span> +shelter except during winter and during severe +storms. In the North it is the usual practice and +good practice to provide shelter for the geese, which +may take the form of a poultry house, or of any shed +or barn available for the purpose. A shed with +openings on the south side makes an ideal goose +shelter or house. Most breeders in the South who +give their flocks good attention also provide shelter +for them during the winter although geese are also +successfully kept in that section without shelter.</p> + +<p>The houses provided for the breeders must be +kept clean and as dry as possible. The best way to +do this is to bed them liberally with straw, shavings +or some similar material, especially during the winter. +As the bedding becomes soiled, more should be +added and the house should be cleaned out from +time to time and fresh litter put in.</p> + +<p>No equipment for the houses is necessary. The +geese will lay their eggs in nests which they make +on the floor and if plenty of clean bedding is provided, +the eggs will not get badly soiled. Large +boxes, barrels, or similar shelter provided with an +abundance of nesting material may be scattered +about the range to provide places in which the geese +may make their nests.</p> + +<p><i>Yards.</i> Usually no yards are provided for geese +as they are allowed the range of a pasture or are +allowed to roam at liberty about the farm. Any ordinary +woven wire stock fence such as might be used +to fence a pasture will serve to keep the geese con<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span>fined +as well as the other stock. If for any reason +it is desired to confine geese to a yard, the effort +should be made to provide yard enough so that the +geese will have a constant supply of green feed. In +a small yard this is impossible. A 2½ or 3 foot fence +is high enough to confine any of the common breeds +of geese and will also serve for Canadian and Egyptian +geese if they have been pinioned which should +always be done.</p> + +<p><i>Feeding the Breeding Geese.</i> While the flock of +geese may be allowed to pick most of their living +from a good grass range during the summer and fall, +it is necessary to feed them during the winter. In +fact during the summer it may be necessary to feed +them lightly on grain or wet mash if the pasture gets +short. The quantity of feed necessary for this purpose +depends upon the condition of the pasture and +must be judged by the condition of the birds.</p> + +<p>During the winter, they must be fed regularly. +The feed given them should consist of both grain +and some form of roughage. It is necessary to be +careful not to overfeed so that the geese will become +too fat, for while they should be in good condition +of flesh at the beginning of the breeding season, if +they are too fat, poor fertility and poor hatches will +result.</p> + +<p><i>Feed.</i> Oats makes the best feed for breeding +geese as it is not too fattening. Corn, wheat or barley +fed alone is likely to prove too fattening but a +limited quantity should be fed for variety. The grain<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span> +should be fed twice a day throughout the winter +and should be given rather sparingly, depending on +roughage to make up the bulk of the feed. Vegetables, +clover or alfalfa hay, chopped corn stover or +silage make good roughage for this purpose. Corn +silage is a fine feed if it is not moldy and does not +contain so much corn as to be too fattening.</p> + +<p>About three weeks or a month before it is desired +to have the geese commence laying, which should +be at such a time that the first goslings hatched will +have good grass pasture, a mash should be added to +the feed to stimulate egg production. This mash is +generally fed in the morning with the vegetables or +roughage and may consist of three parts bran or +shorts, one part corn meal and one-fourth part meat +scrap. If available buttermilk or skim milk can be +used to mix the mash and replace the meat scrap. +Another mash for this purpose consists of corn meal +one-fourth part, bran two parts, and ground oats one +part, mixed up with skim milk or buttermilk.</p> + +<p>Grit and oyster shell should be kept where the +geese can help themselves particularly during the +laying season. Drinking water must be available at +all times and if a natural supply is not available, +must be given in drinking fountains or dishes which +should be so arranged that the geese cannot get +their feet into the water. When they can get into +the drinking water, they will quickly get it into a +filthy condition.</p> + +<p>When the geese are running in a field with horses<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span> +or cattle a small enclosure should be fenced in to +which the geese can gain access by means of suitable +openings but which will keep the other stock +out. In this should be placed the drinking fountain +for the geese and in this enclosure the geese should +be fed. Otherwise the cattle or horses will get most +of the feed intended for the geese and in addition, +some of the geese may be stepped on or kicked and +injured when the stock crowds around at feeding +time.</p> + + + +<hr class="long" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span></p> +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a>CHAPTER XII +<br /> +Incubation</h3> + + +<p><i>Care of Eggs for Hatching.</i> Since egg production +usually begins early in the spring while the weather +is still cold, it is necessary to gather the eggs at frequent +intervals to prevent their freezing or becoming +chilled. Later in the season daily collection will +be satisfactory. The eggs as collected should be kept +in a cool place and where the evaporation of the egg +contents will not be too great. If set at fairly frequent +intervals, there will be no difficulty on this +score. If they are to be kept for some time, they +may be stored in bran to prevent evaporation. It +is well to mark the eggs as gathered with the date +they are laid so as to overcome the possibility of saving +too long any eggs for hatching.</p> + +<p>Some goose raisers think that it is best to wash +goose eggs before setting them. This belief is based +on the fact that when a goose makes her own nest +and has access to water in which to swim she comes +on the nest with her feathers wet. It is to simulate +this condition that the eggs are washed. Certainly +any dirty eggs should be washed.</p> + +<p><i>Methods of Incubation.</i> The most usual methods +of hatching goose eggs are by means of the chicken<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span> +hen and the goose. Incubators may also be used but +do not as a rule seem to give as good results as they +do with hen or duck eggs. Turkey hens may also be +utilized for this purpose but are not commonly available +although they make good mothers. Probably +the most common method of hatching is the use of +chicken hens. Next common is to allow the goose +to hatch her own eggs. Goose eggs hatch well under +hens or geese. During the height of the season +nearly every fertile egg should hatch if the breeding +geese are managed and fed so that they are in +good condition. Early in the season the eggs may +not run as fertile or hatch as well as later.</p> + +<p><i>Period of Incubation.</i> The period of incubation of +goose eggs is approximately 30 days, but may vary +from 28 to 33 or occasionally even 35 days.</p> + +<p><i>Hatching with Chicken Hens.</i> Chicken hens are +used very commonly to hatch goose eggs both because +they give good results and are readily available +and also because it is desirable to take the first +eggs laid by the geese away and not to let them get +broody and sit so that they will lay more eggs. For +the latter reason practically all the eggs laid early +in the season are hatched by chicken hens.</p> + +<p>The nest can be prepared for the hen either in a +suitable place in a poultry house or in a shed or +other building or in a box or barrel on the ground. +As soon as the hen shows that she is ready to sit by +staying on the nest, in which has been placed a nest +egg or two, for a couple of nights in succession, she<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span> +may be given a sitting of eggs. Four to 6 goose eggs +will constitute a sitting for a common hen. The hen +should be confined to the nest being let off only once +a day for exercise, feed and water.</p> + +<p>The sitting hen must be given good care, being +even more particular in this respect than when she +is sitting on hens' eggs as the period of incubation is +longer. In addition to being careful to see that the +hen comes off her nest for food and water she should +be dusted 2 or 3 times during the hatch with some +good insect powder to keep her free from lice and +therefore contented to stay on the nest. Two or 3 +days before the goslings hatch she should be dusted +with especial care so that the goslings will be free +from vermin.</p> + +<p>On account of the large size of the eggs the hen +should not be depended upon to turn them and this +should be done by hand once or twice daily.</p> + +<p><i>Hatching with Geese.</i> All breeds of geese will +hatch their eggs although some are more persistently +broody than others while there is a considerable +difference in individuals in this respect. Toulouse +and Chinese are perhaps the least broody of +the breeds and are sometimes termed non-broody. +The eggs laid by geese are generally gathered as +laid. If this were not done they will become broody +and stop laying quicker than they do under this +treatment.</p> + +<p>The goose should be allowed to make her own +nest. Often she will do this in a barrel, box or other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span> +shelter if these are conveniently available. When +she shows that she is broody and has stopped laying +she should be given a sitting of eggs which will consist +of 10 or 11. Geese are often difficult to manage +when they have young.</p> + +<p>Wild and Egyptian geese should always be allowed +to make their own nests which they like to do +on dry ground near the water, using straw leaves +or similar material to make the nest. They should +not be disturbed as they are ugly during this time. +They will hatch practically every egg.</p> + +<p><i>Breaking Up Broody Geese.</i> A goose which shows +a desire to sit, can be broken up quite easily by confining +her to a slat-bottomed coop without any feed, +but with plenty of water to drink, for from 2 to 4 +days. After being broken up she will generally +commence laying again after an interval of a few +days.</p> + +<p><i>Hatching with an Incubator.</i> While it is more difficult +to hatch goose eggs in incubators than it is hen +or duck eggs, this can be done by an experienced operator +with a fair degree of success. The incubator +should be operated at a temperature of 101.5 to +102.5 degrees F., with the thermometer so placed +that the bulb is on a level with the top of the eggs. +Beginning with the third day, the eggs should be +turned twice a day as with hens' eggs. Beginning +about the tenth day, the eggs should be cooled once +a day, and they need more cooling than hens' eggs +require. They should be cooled down to a temper<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span>ature +of about 80 to 85 degrees. All goose eggs +whether in incubators or under hens or geese should +be tested once during the hatch. The best time to +do this is sometime between the tenth and fourteenth +days, when any infertile eggs or dead germs +should be thrown out.</p> + +<p><i>Moisture for Hatching Eggs.</i> Where eggs are +being hatched in an incubator, there is need for the +use of considerable moisture. It should be added +first at about the end of the first week of incubation +and should be repeated a couple of times during the +second week. This can best be done by sprinkling +the eggs liberally with water heated to about 100 +degrees. Beginning with the 15th day and until 2 +or 3 days before the eggs are ready to hatch soak +them in warm water for from one-half a minute to a +minute once every 2 or 3 days. For the last 2 or 3 +days do this daily.</p> + +<p>When the eggs are being hatched by chicken +hens or geese in nests indoors or in boxes or barrels +and in dry weather, moisture should be added in the +same manner and with the same frequency and +amount as in the incubator. When the nest is on +damp ground, it is not necessary to use any moisture +on the eggs.</p> + +<p><i>Hatching.</i> Goslings as a rule hatch rather slowly +and somewhat unevenly, especially when under +hens. For this reason it is well to remove each gosling +as it hatches from under the hen or goose and +place it in a covered, cloth-lined box or basket and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span> +keep near the stove until the hatch is completed. As +soon as the hatch is over, the goslings that have been +removed from the nest can be put back under the +hen or goose which is to be allowed to assume the +duties of motherhood.</p> + + + +<hr class="long" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span></p> +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a>CHAPTER XIII +<br /> +Brooding and Rearing Goslings</h3> + + +<p>When the hatch is completed all the goslings +which have been removed from the nest should be +returned; and the hen or goose removed to the coop +which she is to occupy while brooding them. At +this time, if hatched with a hen the goslings should +be examined carefully on the head and neck to see +whether there are any head lice present. If any are +found the heads and necks of the goslings must be +greased with a little lard or vaseline. Not too much +grease should be used as it may prove harmful to the +goslings.</p> + +<p><i>Methods of Brooding.</i> The most common methods +of brooding goslings are the use of geese, of chicken +hens or of artificial means. Geese make the best +mothers but are not always available especially during +the early hatches. Geese may also prove rather +unruly when they have young and for this reason +are not in favor with some goose raisers. When +hatching is done simultaneously with geese and hens +it is the practice of some raisers to give all the goslings +hatched to the geese to rear.</p> + +<p>Hens can be used very successfully for rearing +goslings especially if they are confined to a coop for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span> +the first week or two so that they cannot range too +far and too fast and tire the goslings out. Not over +6 or 8 goslings should be given to a hen to brood.</p> + +<p>Artificial methods are very successful with goslings +much more so in fact than are artificial methods +of hatching the eggs. Some goose raisers prefer +to use artificial means of brooding, especially if they +have only a few goslings and are brooding at the +same time some chicks or ducklings.</p> + +<p><i>Brooding with Hens or Geese.</i> A suitable roomy +coop should be provided to which the goslings with +their mother, either hen or goose, can be moved +when the hatch is completed. The coop should be +so constructed by means of a slatted front or otherwise, +that the hen can be confined and the goslings +allowed to range. It is very desirable to get the goslings +out on grass as soon as possible. A goose with +goslings is often allowed to have her liberty but +many raisers prefer to confine her to a coop the +same as when a hen is used. The coop should have +a board floor well bedded with straw, shavings or +similar material. This will not only help to keep +the goslings dry but will also serve to protect them +from their enemies during the night. For this same +reason the coop should be so constructed that it can +be closed at night by means of a wire covered door +so as to shut out marauders, and at the same time +allow plenty of ventilation. The coop must be +cleaned often so as to keep the goslings clean and +dry.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>Length of Time Brooding Is Necessary.</i> The time +that goslings need brooding will, of course, depend +upon the weather. During mild weather 10 days is +usually sufficient, after which they can do without +any brooding. Early in the season, brooding must be +extended over a longer period. This may mean anywhere +from 2 to 4 weeks or even longer.</p> + +<p><i>Artificial Brooding.</i> For this purpose any brooder +utilized for chicks or ducks can be used for goslings. +To start with they should have a temperature of +about 100 degrees but this can be reduced in a few +days until in a week or ten days it is only 70 to 80 +degrees or if the weather is mild artificial heat may +be dispensed with entirely. Where there are only a +few goslings they may be put with a brood of ducks +as long as they need heat. It does not work so well +to put them with chicks both because they do not +require a high temperature so long as the chicks and +also because they are so large as to be likely to tread +on and injure some of the chicks. Brooders should +be well bedded with straw, shavings or some similar +material and should be cleaned out every 2 or 3 +days so as to be kept clean and dry. Do not crowd +the goslings; give them plenty of room.</p> + +<p>Some goose raisers do not depend upon heated +brooders at all, especially when only a few goslings +are to be brooded. For the first day or two the goslings +are kept in a covered basket or box in the house +near a fire and after this are put out during the +warmth of the day but brought into the house and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span> +put in the basket or box at night until they are two +or three weeks old. The same practice should be followed +with goslings reared in brooders, these being +used only during the night after the first 2 or 3 days, +the goslings being put out-doors during the day in +good weather.</p> + +<p>When goslings which are being artificially +brooded are put out during the day on the grass, +they should be confined at first. This can be easily +accomplished by building a triangular enclosure, +formed of 3 boards, 1 foot wide or wider, placed up +on edge. This enclosure can be easily shifted to a +new position each day thus giving the goslings fresh +ground and fresh grass.</p> + + +<h4>General Care of Growing Goslings</h4> + +<p>Goslings should be kept dry and for this reason +should be kept shut up until the dew is off the grass +in the morning. For the same reason they should +not be allowed access to water in which to swim until +they are at least 3 or 4 weeks old. When allowed +to swim, care should be taken to see that they can +get out of the water easily.</p> + +<p>Goslings caught in a cold rain will often be overcome +and apparently dead. Frequently they can +be revived and saved by wrapping them in a heated +cloth and placing them near a warm fire. While +they are still young, goslings should be driven under +shelter whenever a rain storm comes up.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span></p> + +<p>When allowed to run at liberty, goslings must be +kept track of to some extent. They may become lost +and have to be driven back to their shelter at night. +Or they may fall into holes or get caught in fences +and corners and must be released. When allowed +to run with larger stock they are more or less liable +to injury from being stepped upon or kicked.</p> + +<p>A growing coop or shelter of some sort should be +provided for the growing goslings although this is +not always done after they are pretty well feathered +out. Such a coop should be large enough so that +the goslings are not crowded, and should be well +ventilated. It should have a board floor and be capable +of being closed so as to protect the goslings +from their enemies, but without cutting off ventilation.</p> + +<p>If natural shade is not available where the goslings +range, artificial shade of some sort must be +provided during the hot weather. Growing goslings +are quite susceptible to extreme heat and will not +make as good growth if not provided with shade. +Artificial shade of boards or brush can be easily +provided.</p> + +<p>If for any reason it is necessary to confine growing +goslings, they should be provided with good +grass yards or runs and their coops or shelters +should be moved to a fresh location frequently.</p> + +<p>It is better, if possible, to keep the growing stock +separate from the old breeding stock as they will do +better and make more rapid growth under these<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span> +conditions. Usually, however, where only a few +geese are reared each year, old and young stock +are allowed to range together.</p> + +<p><i>Feeding the Goslings.</i> Like chicks or ducks, goslings +do not need to be fed as soon as hatched, the +yolk of the eggs providing all the nourishment they +need for at least 36 hours. They should, however, +be furnished water to drink as soon as the hatch is +completed.</p> + +<p>The first feed should consist of stale bread, +soaked in milk or water. With this material should +be mixed boiled eggs chopped up fine. The goslings +should be fed 3 or preferably 4 times daily until +they are 2 or 3 weeks old. Chopped grass or some +other green feed should be added to the feed, the +quantity fed being increased steadily. It is important +to get the goslings out on grass as soon as possible, +which should be after the first 2 or 3 days if +the weather is good, so that they will be able to +graze for themselves. Five per cent of fine grit or +sharp sand should likewise be added to the feed. +Some growers prefer to feed the grit or sand in a +hopper to which the goslings have constant access +and from which they can help themselves. A constant +supply of fresh drinking water is essential and +this should be provided in drinking fountains or +dishes such that the goslings cannot get their feet or +bodies in them.</p> + +<p>When a good grass range is available, the goslings, +after they are 2 or 3 weeks old, will need only<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span> +one light feed of mash daily in addition to the grass +they eat. Such a mash will consist of 2 parts shorts +and 1 part corn meal, ground oats or ground barley. +Where the pasture is good many goslings are raised +from the age of 2 or 3 weeks until they are ready +to be fattened without any other feed than the grass +and other material which they get for themselves. +However, the feeding of one light feed of mash a +day is advantageous as it insures adequate feed for +their need and promotes quicker growth. After the +goslings are 6 weeks old, if they are still fed, the +mash should be changed to equal parts shorts, corn +meal and ground oats with 5% meat scrap. This +same mash can be continued until fattening time. +Whole grains are not generally fed to goslings until +they are well feathered and often not until it is desired +to fatten them.</p> + +<p><i>Percentage of Goslings Raised.</i> Goslings are for +the most part quite hardy and are comparatively +easy to brood. This coupled with the fact that they +are relatively free from disease and are not much +troubled with insect pests makes it possible to raise +a large per cent of the thrifty goslings hatched. +With good care and with good strong healthy stock, +it should be possible to raise in the neighborhood of +90% of the goslings hatched.</p> + +<p><i>Rapidity of Growth.</i> Goslings make a very rapid +growth. When marketed as green geese they are +usually turned off at from 12 to 16 weeks of age. At +this age they should weigh from 9 to 12 pounds, de<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span>pending +upon the breed and upon the rapidity of +growth. Many, probably most, young geese are not +marketed at as early an age as this but are held +until the Christmas season or later and marketed at +heavier weight. The best grown Toulouse goslings +should attain a weight of 16 to 18 pounds by Christmas +or when 6 to 8 months old. Other breeds will +weigh proportionately less. Special attention or +special feeding will, of course, increase the weight +over that attained without such feeding.</p> + +<p>As a rule the heavier breeds such as the Toulouse +do not get their full growth until they are about 18 +months old. After this as geese of both sexes grow +older, they will, of course, fill out more and attain +greater weight.</p> + +<p><i>Disease.</i> Goslings are remarkably free from disease +and a very large percentage of all strong goslings +hatched should be reared. One of the principal +difficulties is diarrhoea. This is usually caused by +faulty feeding. It may be due to feeding too great +a quantity of soft feed or to giving soft feed in too +sloppy a condition. Access to stagnant water, unclean +enclosures or unclean drinking dishes may +also cause diarrhoea. When partly grown goslings +which are being given soft feed are troubled with +diarrhoea, this may sometimes be checked by substituting +a light feed of corn daily for a part of the +soft feed.</p> + +<p>Goslings are sometimes troubled with lameness. +This is usually caused by faulty feeding also, partic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span>ularly +by feeding a ration which is lacking in something +needed, such as some form of animal feed like +beef scrap which may cause a lack of mineral matter +in the ration. If the goslings cannot secure it +for themselves a supply of grit or gravel should be +placed at their disposal.</p> + +<p>There is an infectious disease of geese which +sometimes causes trouble known as goose septicemia +or hemorrhagic septicemia. This is a disease similar +to fowl cholera and may attack either young or mature +geese. It is not often found on farms where +the geese are raised in small lots, but sometimes +proves troublesome on farms where a large number +of geese are gathered together for fattening. The +geese are often found dead when one goes to feed +them without having shown much preliminary sickness. +The disease is usually fatal. Shortly before +they die the affected geese may acquire an uncertain +gait and may twist the head about and burrow it in +the dirt. Treatment is of no avail. If the disease +occurs in a flock, the affected birds should be removed +and killed, while the rest of the flock should +be moved to new ground if possible. The ground +which they previously occupied should be plowed +and any houses, shelter, feed troughs, and drinking +vessels should be thoroughly disinfected.</p> + + + +<hr class="long" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span></p> +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV"></a>CHAPTER XIV +<br /> +Fattening and Marketing Geese</h3> + + +<p><i>Classes of Geese Marketed.</i> The market geese +consist principally of the surplus young ganders not +required for breeding purposes and such of the old +geese of either sex as it may be considered desirable +to get rid of. Some young females, when the number +raised is in excess of the number required for +breeders also find their way to market. While these +geese are marketed in the largest numbers during +the Thanksgiving and Christmas holiday season, +particularly the latter, some geese of course find +their way to market practically throughout the year. +There is also a rather limited trade in "green geese" +which corresponds to the trade in spring or "green" +ducklings. Green geese are goslings about 12 to 16 +weeks old, generally of the larger breeds, which are +forced for rapid growth and are made to weigh in +the neighborhood of 10 pounds at that age. These +bring a good price and yield a good profit where +there is demand for this class of geese.</p> + +<p><i>Markets and Prices.</i> As with most classes of poultry, +the large cities offer the best market for geese. +Especially the cities which have a large foreign population +make good markets as many foreigners are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span> +more in the habit of using geese for a holiday dish +than are native Americans. The most favorable +market usually occurs at Christmas when roast +goose and apple sauce is in considerable favor. Considerable +numbers of geese are also used at Thanksgiving +time and in recent years as the price of turkeys +has steadily increased there has been an increasing +tendency to substitute goose for turkey on +that day. Following are prices paid for various +classes of geese on the New York wholesale market +from May 1920 to June 1921 as reported by the New +York Produce Review. Quite a wide variation in +price will be noted in many cases which reflects the +difference in condition of the geese as received. In +the case of express receipts of live geese where a +wide variation in prices occurs the high quotations +represent the receipt of especially fattened geese +from nearby farms.</p> + +<h4>Western Geese, Frozen</h4> + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> + +<tr><th colspan="4" align="center">1920</th></tr> + +<tr><td align="left">May</td><td align="right">5</td><td align="right">25 @ 31c</td><td align="center">per lb.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">12</td><td align="right">25 @ 31c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">19</td><td align="right">25 @ 31c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">26</td><td align="right">25 @ 31c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">June</td><td align="right">2</td><td align="right">25 @ 31c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">9</td><td align="right">25 @ 31c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">16</td><td align="right">25 @ 31c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">23</td><td align="right">25 @ 31c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span></td><td align="right">30</td><td align="right">23 @ 29c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">July</td><td align="right">7</td><td align="right">23 @ 29c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">14</td><td align="right">21 @ 27c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">21</td><td align="right">21 @ 27c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">28</td><td align="right">21 @ 27c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Aug.</td><td align="right">4</td><td align="right">20 @ 25c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> + +<tr><th colspan="4" align="center">1921</th></tr> + +<tr><td align="left">Jan.</td><td align="right">26</td><td align="right">26 @ 34c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Feb.</td><td align="right">2</td><td align="right">26 @ 34c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">9</td><td align="right">26 @ 36c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">16</td><td align="right">26 @ 36c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">23</td><td align="right">26 @ 36c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Mar.</td><td align="right">2</td><td align="right">26 @ 36c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">9</td><td align="right">25 @ 35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">16</td><td align="right">25 @ 35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">23</td><td align="right">25 @ 35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">30</td><td align="right">25 @ 35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Apr.</td><td align="right">6</td><td align="right">25 @ 35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">13</td><td align="right">25 @ 35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">20</td><td align="right">25 @ 35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">27</td><td align="right">25 @ 35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">May</td><td align="right">4</td><td align="right">25 @ 35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">11</td><td align="right">25 @ 35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<h4>Fresh Dressed Geese</h4> + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> + +<tr><th colspan="4" align="center">1920</th></tr> + +<tr><td align="left">Nov.</td><td align="right">17</td><td align="right">34 @ 43c</td><td align="center">per lb.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span></td><td align="right">24</td><td align="right">30 @ 38c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Dec.</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">25 @ 36c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">8</td><td align="right">30 @ 36c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">15</td><td align="right">30 @ 39c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">22</td><td align="right">30 @ 40c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">29</td><td align="right">30 @ 40c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> + +<tr><th colspan="4" align="center">1921</th></tr> + +<tr><td align="left">Jan.</td><td align="right">5</td><td align="right">30 @ 37c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">12</td><td align="right">25 @ 35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">19</td><td align="right">25 @ 34c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">26</td><td align="right">25 @ 34c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<h4>Fresh Dressed Geese</h4> + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> + +<tr><th colspan="4" align="center">1921</th></tr> + +<tr><td align="left">Feb.</td><td align="right">2</td><td align="right">25 @ 34c</td><td align="center">per lb.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">9</td><td align="right">26 @ 36c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">16</td><td align="right">26 @ 36c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">23</td><td align="right">26 @ 36c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Mar.</td><td align="right">2</td><td align="right">26 @ 36c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">9</td><td align="right">25 @ 35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">16</td><td align="right">25 @ 35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">23</td><td align="right">25 @ 35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<h4>Live Geese—Via Freight</h4> + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> + +<tr><th colspan="4" align="center">1920</th></tr> + +<tr><td align="left">May</td><td align="right">5</td><td align="right">18 @ 20c</td><td align="center">per lb.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">12</td><td align="right">22c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">19</td><td align="right">20 @ 22c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">26</td><td align="right">20 @ 22c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span>June</td><td align="right">2</td><td align="right">20 @ 22c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">9</td><td align="right">20 @ 22c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">16</td><td align="right">20 @ 22c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">23</td><td align="right">18 @ 20c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">30</td><td align="right">18 @ 20c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">July</td><td align="right">7</td><td align="right">18 @ 20c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">14</td><td align="right">18 @ 20c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">28</td><td align="right">25c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Aug</td><td align="right">4</td><td align="right">25c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">18</td><td align="right">25c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">25</td><td align="right">25c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Sept.</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">25c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">22</td><td align="right">26c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">29</td><td align="right">26c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Oct.</td><td align="right">20</td><td align="right">25 @ 28c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">27</td><td align="right">27 @ 30c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Nov.</td><td align="right">3</td><td align="right">32c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">10</td><td align="right">32c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">17</td><td align="right">32c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">24</td><td align="right">28 @ 32c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Dec.</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">28 @ 30c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">8</td><td align="right">30 @ 34c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">15</td><td align="right">28 @ 35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">22</td><td align="right">25 @ 30c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">29</td><td align="right">27 @ 32c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> + +<tr><th colspan="4" align="center">1921</th></tr> + +<tr><td align="left">Jan.</td><td align="right">5</td><td align="right">26 @ 32c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">12</td><td align="right">26 @ 30c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">19</td><td align="right">25 @ 29c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">26</td><td align="right">25 @ 29c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span>Feb.</td><td align="right">2</td><td align="right">27 @ 33c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">9</td><td align="right">28 @ 33c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">16</td><td align="right">26 @ 32c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">23</td><td align="right">25 @ 26c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> + +<tr><td align="left">Mar.</td><td align="right">2</td><td align="right">25c</td><td align="center">per lb.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">9</td><td align="right">18 @ 20c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">16</td><td align="right">18 @ 20c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">23</td><td align="right">20c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">30</td><td align="right">20c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Apr.</td><td align="right">6</td><td align="right">15 @ 18c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">13</td><td align="right">15 @ 18c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">20</td><td align="right">15 @ 18c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">27</td><td align="right">15 @ 18c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">May</td><td align="right">4</td><td align="right">14 @ 16c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">11</td><td align="right">14 @ 16c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">18</td><td align="right">14 @ 16c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">25</td><td align="right">14 @ 16c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">June</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">14 @ 16c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<h4>Live Geese—Via Express</h4> + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> + +<tr><th colspan="4" align="center">1920</th></tr> + +<tr><td align="left">Nov.</td><td align="right">24</td><td align="right">30 @ 33c</td><td align="center">per lb.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span>Dec.</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">30 @ 32c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">8</td><td align="right">32 @ 35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">15</td><td align="right">30c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">22</td><td align="right">30c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">29</td><td align="right">28 @ 35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> + +<tr><th colspan="4" align="center">1921</th></tr> + +<tr><td align="left">Jan.</td><td align="right">5</td><td align="right">29 @ 38c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">12</td><td align="right">28 @ 38c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">19</td><td align="right">28 @ 36c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">26</td><td align="right">27 @ 37c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Feb.</td><td align="right">9</td><td align="right">28 @ 40c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">16</td><td align="right">28 @ 42c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">23</td><td align="right">26 @ 28c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Mar.</td><td align="right">2</td><td align="right">25 @ 28c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">9</td><td align="right">20 @ 23c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">16</td><td align="right">18 @ 22c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">23</td><td align="right">18 @ 22c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">30</td><td align="right">20 @ 23c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Apr.</td><td align="right">6</td><td align="right">17 @ 20c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">13</td><td align="right">17 @ 20c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">20</td><td align="right">17 @ 21c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">27</td><td align="right">16 @ 20c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">May</td><td align="right">4</td><td align="right">15 @ 18c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">11</td><td align="right">15 @ 18c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">18</td><td align="right">15 @ 18c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">25</td><td align="right">15 @ 18c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>Prejudice Against Roast Goose.</i> There exists on +the part of some persons a prejudice against goose +on the grounds that it is too greasy a dish. When +improperly cooked, goose will prove to be too greasy +to suit many fastidious palates but this condition is +not so much the fault of the fowl as it is of the method +of preparation and cooking. When dressed if the +goose shows a large amount of abdominal fat, as it +usually does and should, a large part of this should +be removed. This fat when tried out is highly esteemed +by many cooks and by other persons is treasured +as an efficacious treatment for croup in children. +Also while the goose is roasting, a part of the +fat as it cooks out of the carcass should be removed. +Treated in this way one need have no fear that the +roast goose will prove too greasy but instead one +will be pleasantly surprised at the rich taste which +the roast goose possesses.</p> + +<p><i>Methods of Fattening Geese for Market.</i> Many +geese are sent to market without any special treatment +or effort to fatten them, being taken right off +pasture in such condition as they happen to be or at +best with only a half-hearted attempt to fatten them +by feeding a little corn or some other grain for a +short period. When a real effort is made to fatten +geese for the market it is generally done in one of +three ways. First is pen fattening which is the +method best adapted to small lots of geese on the +average farm. Second is by noodling which is only +attempted in sections where the goose raisers are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span> +somewhat of specialists and where the effort is made +to turn out geese of superior quality. Third is fattening +in large flocks which is practiced only by a +very limited number of farmers in scattered sections +who take the unfattened geese raised on the general +farms and finish them for market.</p> + +<p><i>Pen Fattening.</i> For this purpose the geese are put +in pens large enough to hold them comfortably but +without any yards. Not over 20 to 25 geese should +be penned together for this purpose. To get the best +results the geese should be kept as quiet as possible +and to accomplish this the pens are partly darkened +and the geese disturbed only at feeding time. The +geese are fed three times daily; in the morning, at +noon and at night, being given all they will clean up. +One feed should consist of a moist mash composed +of one part shorts and two parts corn meal. This +mash should not be sloppy. The other two feeds consist +mainly of corn with some oats or barley. Some +roughage such as vegetables or hay should also be +supplied. The pens should be deeply bedded with +good oat straw. The geese will eat a considerable +amount of this which thus helps to supply the roughage +which they need. The straw also, of course, +serves to keep the pen and the birds clean. A plentiful +supply of good drinking water is also necessary. +The usual period of fattening is three to five weeks +and a gain of from 4 to 6 pounds per bird can be secured. +This method of fattening is commonly used<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span> +by goose raisers in Wisconsin and the geese from +this state are noted for their fine quality.</p> + +<p>A less intensive form of pen fattening is often +used by farmers where a small yard is provided in +addition to the pen itself and where no effort is +made to darken the pen. If no other means for fattening +are available, a small yard can be built, a +few boards arranged for a shelter at one end and +the birds fed in this enclosure as described above.</p> + +<p><i>Noodling Geese.</i> Noodling geese is a method of +hand feeding which has for its purpose the production +of the best fattened geese. It is not employed to +any extent except in the section about Watertown, +Wisconsin, where the farmers specialize to some extent +on goose fattening. It is a method requiring +long hours and tedious labor and cannot be profitably +carried on unless a special price can be obtained +for the product.</p> + +<p>In noodling geese, 8 or 10 geese are placed in a +pen about 8 by 12 feet which is heavily bedded with +straw. A partition extends halfway across the pen +and is utilized to keep the geese separate as they +are fed. Young ganders and any old ganders or +geese which are to be marketed are used for noodling.</p> + +<p>The pen is kept dark and the geese should be disturbed +only at feeding time. The first feed is given +at 5 o'clock in the morning and five feeds are given +daily at about 4 hour intervals, the last feed coming +at 11 p. m. However, when the geese are first put<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span> +on feed they are noodled only 3 times a day this +being gradually increased to 5 times. The feeder +sits on a box or stool in a corner of the pen, grasps +each goose in turn holding it between his legs to +keep it from struggling as he stuffs it with noodles. +The goose is handled by its neck, never by its legs +which are easily injured, and is held with its back +toward the feeder. The feeder usually wears gloves +to protect his hands from the severe bites which the +birds will inflict. The feeder must also handle the +birds as carefully as possible, especially as killing +time approaches for the flesh bruises easily and the +discolored patches spoil the appearance of the +dressed goose.</p> + +<p>The feeder at the start usually gives each goose +from 3 to 5 noodles, gradually increasing this to 6 +or 7 noodles if the birds will stand it, the number of +noodles fed depending upon the size and condition +of each bird, the feeder being obliged to use his +judgment in this matter. In general if any feed can +be felt in the craw, no noodles are given until the +next feeding time. Failure to observe this is likely +to cause the bird to go off feed. If any geese are +noticed which are off feed they should be taken out +and marketed.</p> + +<p>The noodles are made of scalded corn meal, +ground oats, ground barley and ground wheat or +wheat flour, using equal parts of each. This material +is thoroughly mixed and salted as one would +bread and is then put through a sausage stuffer. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span> +product as it comes from the stuffer is cut into +noodles about 2½ or 3 inches long and these are +boiled for 10 or 15 minutes or until they float. A +wash boiler with a wire rack forming a false bottom +about 1½ inches above the boiler bottom is used for +this purpose. When cooked the noodles are dipped +in cold water and then rolled in flour to keep them +from sticking together. A supply of noodles is made +which will last for 2 or 3 days' feeding.</p> + +<p>Just before feeding, hot water is poured over the +noodles to make them warm and slippery. The +mouth of the goose is forced open and the noodles +are put in, one at a time, and worked down by using +the fingers on the outside of the neck. As each +goose is fed it is placed on the other side of the partition +until all in the pen have been fed. It is important +that plenty of drinking water be kept before +the geese.</p> + +<p>The feeding period where geese are noodled usually +extends from 3 to 4 weeks. Gains of 6 to 10 +pounds per bird can be secured and often an increased +price of 10 to 15 cents a pound can be secured +for such specially fattened geese. Noodled +geese will average about 25 pounds and some individuals +have been made to weigh nearly 40 pounds. +One man can noodle from 50 to 100 geese but has to +put in long hours. Noodled geese should be dressed +where fattened as they are soft fleshed and would +shrink badly if shipped alive.</p> + +<p>Fattening methods similar to the noodling de<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span>scribed +are used in parts of Europe for the production +of the enlarged goose livers which are employed +in making "patte de fois gras".</p> + + +<h4>Methods Used on Fattening Farms</h4> + +<p>As previously mentioned, a few farmers make a +specialty of buying the geese in their section of the +country in the fall when it is too late for serious +trouble to develop from hemorrhagic septicemia, a +disease similar to fowl cholera, and to fatten or finish +them in large flocks for the Thanksgiving and +Christmas markets. Methods are employed in different +sections which differ quite widely.</p> + +<p>On a farm in the Middle West the geese are collected +from the general farms where they are produced +in small flocks and brought to the farm where +they are kept in flocks as large as 1,000 or even +more, and are allowed to run in a cornfield or orchard. +They are fattened for about a month. Corn +on the cob and plenty of water is kept before the +geese all the time and if they are running in a cornfield +they eat the leaves off the corn stalks for roughage. +Roughage is supplied if not available otherwise +and straw, hay or vegetables are utilized for +this purpose.</p> + +<p>No shelter is provided during mild weather, the +geese getting such protection as they can from the +trees or corn stalks. If the weather turns unusually +severe, the geese are generally driven into sheds or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span> +barns. When fattened the geese are usually shipped +to some large market alive. Several farms in the +neighborhood of Boston make a specialty of finishing +geese each fall, and the methods used are quite +different from those described above. No geese are +raised on these farms, the operation being confined +to the fattening or finishing of the geese and to killing +and dressing them for the market. Some of +these goose fatteners also have stalls or stands in +the Boston markets where they are enabled to dispose +of their fattened geese to the best advantage.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"> +<a href="images/fig55.jpg"><img src="images/fig55_tn.jpg" width="350" height="229" alt="" +title="Geese fattening in an orchard. Linked to larger image of figure 55." /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 55. Large flock of geese fattening in an orchard. (<i>Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, +U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p><i>Fatteners.</i> In previous years these fatteners depended +largely upon the geese produced on the +Rhode Island farms for their supply. In the past few +years, however, the supply from this source has +dwindled greatly and the bulk of the geese for fattening +are now shipped from Prince Edward Island, +Canada, in carload lots. Such summer geese as are +now fattened still come from Rhode Island and are +brought in by truck. The fattening season begins in +September and lasts until Christmas. Some early +goslings are bought in June but there is not as good +a profit from the summer geese, the demand and +prices being adversely affected by the supply of +spring ducklings available at that time.</p> + +<p>Experience and good judgment will benefit the +goose fattener greatly when purchasing his supply +of geese for fattening. What he wants are goslings, +not older geese, which have made a good growth +and which have a large frame but which are in poor<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span> +flesh rather than fat. Such geese will make more +rapid and more profitable gains. When geese are +bought for shipment by the carload from Prince +Edward Island, they should be penned and fed at +the point of shipment for 3 or 4 days before they +are loaded in the cars, so as to put them in shape +to stand the journey well. On the farms from which +they come, the goslings are not fed much and in consequence +are not in shape to stand shipment.</p> + +<p><i>The Goslings</i> which are secured from the farms +for fattening are mainly common geese of no particular +breed. Some pure bred geese are also obtained +as are some first crosses between the pure breeds. +A class of geese which is obtained in some numbers +from Prince Edward Island and which is much desired +is the so-called "Mongrel" goose. These are +obtained by breeding a Wild or Canadian gander to +geese of dark plumage similar to the Toulouse or +African. The mongrel geese much resemble the +wild gander in type and color and are in demand on +the market because of their wild or gamy flavor. +They bring about 10 cents per pound more than +common geese. The market, however, is somewhat +limited. These geese will not breed although the +females will lay eggs. Where the wild gander is +mated with light colored or white geese the offspring +will have more or less light colored feathers +and will not as closely resemble the wild parent and +for this reason are not as desirable.</p> + +<p><i>Shipping.</i> The geese are loaded into stock cars<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span> +into which three separate decks are built to accommodate +them. From 1200 to 1400 geese can be +loaded into a car thus arranged. The journey usually +takes about 5 or 6 days and some fatteners send +a man along with the car to feed and water the +geese 2 or 3 times during the trip. If a man does +not accompany the car, buckets of corn should be +placed in the car for feed and some potatoes should +also be supplied as these will serve in place of drinking +water. If the car is not subjected to unusual delay, +the geese should come through in good shape, +but if much delayed there may be 25 to 100 geese +dead when the car arrives at its destination.</p> + +<p>When the car arrives at the end of its journey, +the geese are unloaded and driven to the farm where +they are turned into the fields together in a large +flock. The fields in which they are thus kept should +have a supply of growing green feed or grass and a +good supply of fresh drinking water. They are kept +here until they are wanted for the fattening pens +which may be from a week to 20 days after their +arrival at the farm. While in this large supply flock +they are fed on corn and grass which they can get +for themselves.</p> + +<p><i>Summer Geese</i> to be fattened are placed only +about 50 in a pen or enclosure; and are provided +with a few boards set on posts to protect them from +the hot sun. The later geese are fattened in lots of +3 or 4 hundred or even more, depending upon how +many pickers are available to be kept busy. It is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span> +for this reason also that the geese are not all put +on the fattening ration at the same time, but are +started at intervals so as to have a continuous supply +coming along to keep the pickers busy. The geese +not put in the fattening lots at the start are left in +the fields to grow and develop until they are needed.</p> + +<p>The enclosures in which the geese are penned for +fattening are small lots or fields enclosed by stone +walls or board fences 2½ to 3 feet high. These lots +should be dry and well-drained, a location on a side +hill being good for this purpose. The fattening lots +must be kept clean and stagnant water must not be +allowed to stand in the lots as this is likely to cause +sickness, especially diarrhoea. These yards should +be plowed up each spring and planted to oats, corn +or some other growing crop to sweeten them. No +houses or shelters are provided for these geese but +some yards are somewhat wooded which affords a +measure of protection from the wind.</p> + +<p><i>Feeding.</i> When the geese are placed in the fattening +lots, some fatteners prefer to fast the geese +for from 3 to 5 days, giving them no feed but plenty +of water to drink. This gives them a good appetite +and puts them in good shape for fattening.</p> + +<p>The geese are fed three times a day, in the morning, +at noon and at night. The morning and night +feed usually consists of a moist mixed feed fed in +troughs; while the noon feed is whole corn thrown on +the ground. The use of one feed of corn a day is supposed +to check any tendency toward diarrhoea. In<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span> +very cold weather some fatteners feed the mixed +feed at noon and the corn at night. At first the +geese are not given all they will eat but are worked +up gradually, increasing the amount each day until +they are getting all they want. As a rule the geese +will drop back a little in feed consumption after they +reach the point where they get all they want and +from this time on, the feeding must be very carefully +watched to see that they are not given so much +that they will leave some to sour which would cause +diarrhoea. The morning and noon feeds are lighter, +the heaviest feed being given at night. The bird's +appetites will vary from day to day so that it is best +to make the rounds twice in feeding to make sure +that they have enough and that none is left. If any +is left it must be gathered up and carried away.</p> + +<p>No provision is made for furnishing the fattening +geese with green feed or roughage. The practice +with respect to drinking water varies. Some fatteners +keep a supply before the birds in troughs +which must be washed out each day to keep them +clean. Others furnish no water except that used in +mixing up the feed.</p> + +<p><i>Corn Meal</i> is the principal ingredient of the fattening +mixture. To a sack of corn meal is added +10% beef scrap and five good shovels of grit or medium +sized gravel. In addition some fatteners +add 10% of flour to bind the mixture together. This +material should be thoroughly mixed up in a dry +state as a better mix can be obtained in this way.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span> +It is then mixed up with water, the practice here +varying. Some fatteners mix in a trough with boiling +water a short time before feeding, while others +mix it with cold water letting it soak over night and +adding more water in the morning if it is too dry at +that time. It should be mixed until it can be shoveled +readily but should be quite solid, never in a sloppy +condition as this is likely to cause diarrhoea. A +little salt may be added, if desired, as an appetizer. +While corn meal is generally used, hominy may take +its place. After the geese are started on the fattening +ration, this must be given throughout the fattening +period. Changing to some other feed will throw +the geese off feed and cause a loss.</p> + +<p><i>Feeding.</i> When the mixed feed is ready it is +shoveled into boxes or barrels on a low wagon and +driven to the fattening lots where it is shoveled into +the troughs for the geese. Ordinary V-shaped +troughs are favored instead of flat troughs as the +latter afford hiding places for rats which may cause +damage in addition to the feed which they eat by +frightening the geese.</p> + +<p>Geese are easily frightened and must therefore +be handled rather carefully and gently as a severe +fright will interfere with the gains they will make. +Some fatteners provide electric lights where the +geese rest at night so that they can see and will not +be so likely to become frightened.</p> + +<p>When the geese are ready to be killed they are +driven up to the killing house and into a pen where<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span> +they may be easily caught. Each goose as caught is +examined to see whether it is in condition for killing. +If it is not it is put back with a later lot for additional +fattening. Good condition in a goose is +judged by its weight when handled and also by the +condition of its breast and the fat on its back. A +good place to test geese for fat is on the side of the +body just below the point where the wing joins the +body. If fat can be seized between the thumb and +finger at that point, the goose is in good condition.</p> + +<p><i>Dry Picking.</i> All fattened geese for the Boston +market are dry picked. The goose is held between +the knees of the picker with the wings held fast +against the sides of the body. The head is grasped +by the left hand, the mouth forced open and the +veins in the back of the throat just beyond the skull +severed with a sharp knife for the purpose of bleeding +the bird. If the bird is to be stuck, which is not +always done, the point of the knife is then plunged +through the roof of the mouth to the brain. The +legs are then seized in the left hand, together with +the ends of the wings to prevent the goose from +struggling and the goose is struck once or twice +sharply on the back of the head with a club held in +the right hand. This is for the purpose of stunning +the bird. The geese may also be bled by sticking +the knife through the neck from the outside just below +the head.</p> + +<p>The picker then takes his seat beside the feather +box, holding the goose on his lap with the head held<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span> +between his knee and the outside of the box. He +proceeds to pluck the feathers as rapidly as possible, +removing all the feathers except the main wing +feathers or those of the first joint of the wing and +the feathers of the neck half way from the head to +the body. All the soft body feathers are thrown in +the box and saved. The coarser feathers are thrown +on the floor. The down is removed by rubbing the +moistened hand over the skin. To save the hands, +ordinary rubber heels dipped in water are often +used. Sharp knives are also used to shave off the +pin feathers which cannot be plucked and any down +not removed by rubbing.</p> + +<p>The dry picked goose presents a much better appearance +than a scalded goose and the feathers are +more valuable. The skin of a dry picked bird is +not so likely to be rubbed off in removing the down.</p> + +<p><i>The Value of the Feathers</i> is sufficient to pay for +the cost of the picking or perhaps a little more. The +cost of picking in the fall of 1920 ranged from 15 to +20 cents per goose where the picker was boarded +and 24 cents without board. A good man can pick +about 40 geese in a day. Women are not employed +for this work as the geese are too big and too strong +for them to handle.</p> + +<p>After the geese are picked, the blood is washed +from the head and the feet washed if that is necessary. +They are then thrown into barrels of cold +water to cool and must be left there until the body +heat is entirely removed. The wings are tied in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span> +place by means of a string or tape tied around the +body and wings and the legs may also be crossed +over the back and tied. The geese when ready for +market are either shipped in by express or are +taken in by automobile truck.</p> + +<p><i>Gain in Weight.</i> In fattening according to the +methods described above a gain in weight is secured +of from 6 to 8 pounds per goose. This does not represent +the total gain in value, however, for the fattened +geese will bring more per pound as a result of +their finished condition. The fattened geese when +ready for market will weigh from 12 to 20 pounds. +Weights taken on two carloads of fattened geese +showed an average weight of 14 pounds. On December +2, 1920, fattened geese from these farms +were bringing 42 cents per pound on the Boston +market while the mongrel geese were worth 50 cents +or a little better.</p> + +<p>The question may arise as to the size of farm +necessary to carry on a business of this sort. Using +the methods employed about Boston a farm of 30 +acres would be sufficient to handle 20,000 geese in +a season. In selecting a farm for such a purpose, a +location should be chosen where there are no close +neighbors as the odor from the geese and yards is +offensive to most persons.</p> + +<p><i>Selling Geese Alive.</i> Most farmers who raise only +a few geese ship them alive, either sending them to +some commission house or selling them to someone +who makes a specialty of fattening. Such<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span> +geese are often in poor condition and bring the lowest +quotation. Large coops similar to those used +for turkeys should be used in shipping geese.</p> + +<p><i>Killing.</i> Where geese are killed on the farm for +shipment to market they are usually hung up by +means of a cord about the legs. When geese are to +be dry picked the veins in the throat just beyond +the skull are first severed with a long bladed knife +such as used for killing turkeys to cause good bleeding +and the point of the knife is then plunged +through the roof of the mouth to the brain performing +the stick which serves to make the feathers come +out more easily as with other classes of poultry. +Since it is rather difficult to dry pick geese, they are +usually scalded or steamed and where this is done, +the stick is not made but after the veins in the throat +are cut, the goose is stunned by a blow on the back +of the head with a short club. A blood can or weight +is then hooked through the lower bill which keeps +the neck straightened out and prevents the blood +from being thrown about the room or on the birds. +The birds are allowed to hang until they are dead +and thoroughly bled out.</p> + +<p><i>Picking.</i> When geese are dry picked, the feathers +are removed just as soon as the birds are stuck for +the longer the delay the harder the feathers pull. +The wings are picked to the first joint and the feathers +of the neck half-way to the head. The soft pin +feathers and fine down may be removed by shaving<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span> +the skin or rubbing the body with moistened hands +will partially remove them.</p> + +<p>Usually geese are scalded or steamed for picking. +For steaming a wash boiler three-quarters full of +boiling water and with a burlap sack tightly +stretched over its top can be used. The goose is +simply laid on the sack and the steam coming +through the burlap steams the feathers and makes +them easy to remove. The breast should be steamed +first, then the back and then each side. Two or three +minutes will be time enough to complete the steaming. +The feathers are steamed until they pull out +easily. The goose must be kept moving to prevent +the flesh from becoming scalded and since the breast +is especially tender it is usual to lay the head under +the breast to prevent the latter from scalding. After +steaming the body feathers are removed and the +bird is then singed over a flame furnished by alcohol +burned in shallow tin plates, in order to remove the +down. The down may also be removed by sprinkling +powdered rosin over the goose's body which is +then dipped into hot water. The hot water melts +the rosin which sticks to the down and the down and +rosin can then be rubbed off together.</p> + +<p>Geese may also be steamed by scalding slightly in +hot water and then wrapping tightly in burlap or +some other cloth. They are kept wrapped for about +five minutes which allows the steam to work thoroughly +through the feathers which can then be +plucked easily.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span></p> + +<p>Exactly the same methods can and often are employed +in dressing geese as are used with ducks. +The reader is therefore also referred to the material +in <a href="#CHAPTER_VII">Chapter VII</a>.</p> + +<p>There seems to be no great insistence on the part +of most markets for dry picked geese. Some will +pay slightly more for the dry picked birds but others +make no difference.</p> + +<p><i>Packing for Shipment.</i> After picking, the geese +are washed and then placed in cold water to cool. +Ice water is best for this purpose and is essential in +warm weather. The carcasses must be allowed to +remain in the water until they are thoroughly +cooled, which will take at least one to two hours. If +any animal heat is left in the bodies, they will spoil +very quickly. Often the carcasses are dipped in hot +water, before being thrown in the cold water, to +plump them. After they are thoroughly cooled, the +geese are packed in barrels for shipping. If the +weather is cool they may be packed in well ventilated +barrels without ice, but if the weather is warm, +cracked ice must be used in packing, proceeding in +the same way as when packing ducks as described +on page 109. It is always risky to pack without ice.</p> + +<p><i>Saving the Feathers.</i> Goose feathers are valuable +and should therefore be saved when the geese +are plucked. The soft body feathers and the coarser +feathers should be kept separate. The feathers +should be cured by spreading them out in a thin layer +on the floor of a loft or room, stirring them up<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span> +occasionally until they are thoroughly dried out, +when they can be sacked and sold. Failure to dry +the feathers thoroughly will result in their heating +and molding with the result that they will arrive +at their destination in bad shape and will be worth +less money. The soft body feathers of geese are +practically all used in making beds and pillows +while the quills are sometimes utilized in making +toothpicks and cigarette holders. Prices for goose +feathers in June 1921 were as follows:</p> + + + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Prices for kinds of goose feathers."> +<tr><td align="left">Pure White</td><td align="center">dry picked</td><td align="right">75c</td><td align="center">per lb.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Good average white</td><td align="center">" "</td><td align="right">65c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Largely gray</td><td align="center">" "</td><td align="right">55c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Largely gray</td><td align="center">scalded</td><td align="right">40c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Long goose quills</td><td align="center"> </td><td align="right">5c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p>These prices were for good dry feathers.</p> + + +<p>Plucking Live Geese for their Feathers</p> + +<p>In the days of feather beds and home-made pillows +the practice of plucking live geese for their +feathers was very common. Now, however, with +the demand for goose feathers less and with the +opinion of some breeders that plucking geese is both +cruel and injurious, the practice seems to be decreasing. +Many goose raisers in the South and a +less number in the Middle West and North however +still pluck the feathers from the live geese prior to +the time of moulting. The frequency with which +the picking is done varies greatly, some picking as +often as every six weeks during the spring, summer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span> +and early fall while others pick twice, once in the +spring and once in the fall, or once in the spring +only. Geese should never be picked during the late +fall or winter when the weather is cold or during +the breeding season. Both young and old geese are +plucked and the average yearly production of +feathers per goose is about one pound. When the +quills of the feathers are dry and do not contain any +blood, the feathers are ripe for picking. In plucking, +a stocking is placed over the head of the goose +and the goose held on the lap and between the legs +during the process.</p> + +<p>An assistant to hold the goose during the plucking +simplifies the work greatly. In plucking, part +of the soft feathers of the breast, sides, abdomen +and back are taken but these sections should not be +plucked clean. It is especially important that +enough short feathers be left to support the wings.</p> + +<p>After plucking, the feathers must be cured before +they are shipped. This may be done by spreading +them out on a floor as described for the feathers +taken from slaughtered geese or they may be placed +loosely in burlap sacks and hung up in a garret or +loft. Hanging in this way and in the loosely woven +sacks, they are subjected to a good circulation of air +and will dry out without heating. Sacks of feathers +should not be piled or packed closely together, on +top of one another or even be allowed to lie on the +floor until they are thoroughly dry as otherwise they +are almost sure to heat and mold.</p> + + + +<hr class="long" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span></p> +<h3><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h3> + + + +<ul> +<li class="indent">A</li> + +<li>Absence of crest in Crested White Duck, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> + +<li>African Goose, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> + +<li>Age of<ul class="nest"> + <li>breeding ducks, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> + <li>breeding geese, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li> + <li>duck eggs for hatching, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> + <li>ducklings for market, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> + <li>green geese, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li> + <li>Muscovy duck, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Amount of feed<ul class="nest"> + <li>per pound of market duck, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> + <li>for noodled geese, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Amount of land<ul class="nest"> + <li>for duck plant, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> + <li>for goose fattening farm, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Arrangement of cars for shipping live geese, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> + +<li>Arrangement of duck plant, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> + +<li>Artificial water yards for ducks, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> + +<li>Aylesbury duck, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> +</ul> + + + +<ul> +<li class="indent">B</li> + +<li>Baby ducks, selling, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> + +<li>Bantam ducks, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> + +<li>Bean,<ul class="nest"> + <li>definition of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> + <li>black in, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Bedding<ul class="nest"> + <li>brood coop for goslings, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li> + <li>duck breeding houses, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> + <li>duck brooder houses, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li> + <li>goose breeding houses, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li> + <li>pens for fattening geese, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Beef scrap, feeding, to ducks, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> + +<li>Bib in<ul class="nest"> + <li>Blue Swedish ducks, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> + <li>Buff ducks, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Bill,<ul class="nest"> + <li>definition of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> + <li>black in, of Black East India, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Black East India duck, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> + +<li>Black in bean of<ul class="nest"> + <li>Aylesbury, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> + <li>Crested White Duck, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> + <li>Pekin, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Black bill in Black East India drakes, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> + +<li>Black<ul class="nest"> + <li>head, greenish, in Buff drakes, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> + <li>head, in Fawn and White Runners, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> + <li>in face of Muscovy, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> + <li>plumage of Blue Swedish, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> + <li>on head of young White Muscovy, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> + <li>tail coverts, greenish, in Fawn and White Runners, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Bleeding<ul class="nest"> + <li>ducks, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> + <li>geese, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Blue<ul class="nest"> + <li>cast in Buff ducks, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> + <li>Muscovy, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> + <li>Swedish ducks, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> + <li>wing bar in Buff ducks, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Body shape in breeding ducks, selecting for, <a href="#Page_19">19</a> +</li> +<li>Braining geese, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a> +</li> +<li>Breaking up<ul class="nest"> + <li>goose matings, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> + <li>broody geese, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Breast-bone as index of age in ducks, <a href="#Page_56">56</a> +</li> +<li>Breeding<ul class="nest"> + <li>drakes, securing, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li> + <li>ducks, opportunity to produce, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> + <li>ducks, prices for, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> + <li>season for ducks, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Breeds of ducks, <a href="#Page_9">9</a><ul class="nest"> + <li>Aylesbury, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> + <li>Blue Swedish, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> + <li>broodiness of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> + <li>Buff, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> + <li>Call, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> + <li>Cayuga, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> + <li>common or puddle, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> + <li>Crested White, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> + <li>East India, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> + <li>egg, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> + <li>egg production of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> + <li>Mallard, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> + <li>Mandarin, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> + <li>meat, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> + <li>mule, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> + <li>Muscovy, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> + <li>ornamental, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> + <li>Pekin, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> + <li>popularity of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> + <li>Rouen, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> + <li>Runner, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> + <li>size of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> + <li>Wood, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Breeds of geese, <a href="#Page_147">147</a><ul class="nest"> + <li>African, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> + <li>Canadian, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> + <li>Chinese, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> + <li>common, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> + <li>Egyptian, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> + <li>Embden, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> + <li>mongrel, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> + <li>Sebastapol, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> + <li>Toulouse, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li> + <li>Wild, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Brood coop for goslings, <a href="#Page_179">179</a> +</li> +<li>Brooder<ul class="nest"> + <li>capacity on duck plants, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> + <li>houses for ducklings, <a href="#Page_80">80-90</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Brooders for goslings, <a href="#Page_180">180</a> +</li> +<li>Broodiness of<ul class="nest"> + <li>ducks, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> + <li>geese, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li> + <li>geese, breaking up, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Brooding<ul class="nest"> + <li>ducklings, <a href="#Page_80">80-90</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> + <li>goslings, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><ul class="nest2"> + <li>by artificial means, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li> + <li>with geese, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> + <li>with hens, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> + <li>without artificial heat, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li></ul></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Brown Chinese goose, <a href="#Page_158">158</a> +</li> +<li>Brownish color in Cayuga ducks, <a href="#Page_26">26</a> +</li> +<li>Buff Ducks, <a href="#Page_35">35</a> +</li> +<li>Button head in Call ducks, <a href="#Page_28">28</a> +</li> +<li>Buying geese for fattening, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul> +<li class="indent">C +</li> +<li>Call ducks, 27 +</li> +<li>Canadian goose—see Wild +</li> +<li>Capacity of<ul class="nest"> + <li>car for geese, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> + <li>farm for fattening geese, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li> + <li>incubator for duck eggs, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Capital,<ul class="nest"> + <li>invested, for duck plant, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> + <li>working, for duck plant, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Care of<ul class="nest"> + <li>duck eggs for hatching, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> + <li>goose eggs for hatching, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li> + <li>growing goslings, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li> + <li>hen sitting on goose eggs, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Carrying<ul class="nest"> + <li>ducks, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> + <li>geese, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Caruncles on face of Muscovy, <a href="#Page_29">29</a> +</li> +<li>Cases, shipping, for duck eggs, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a> +</li> +<li>Catching<ul class="nest"> + <li>ducks, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> + <li>geese, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Cayuga duck, <a href="#Page_25">25</a> +</li> +<li>Celery seed, feeding, to fattening ducks, <a href="#Page_93">93</a> +</li> +<li>Changing feed for fattening geese, <a href="#Page_205">205</a> +</li> +<li>Chestnut colored head in Buff drakes, <a href="#Page_35">35</a> +</li> +<li>Chilling of goslings by rain, <a href="#Page_181">181</a> +</li> +<li>Chinese goose, <a href="#Page_158">158</a> +</li> +<li>Chocolate colored ducks from Colored Muscovy, <a href="#Page_32">32</a> +</li> +<li>Claret in breast of Rouen drakes, deficiency of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a> +</li> +<li>Classification of breeds of ducks, <a href="#Page_11">11</a> +</li> +<li>Cleaning<ul class="nest"> + <li>brood coops for goslings, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> + <li>duck<ul class="nest2"> + <li>breeding houses, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> + <li>brooder houses, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li> + <li>yards, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li></ul></li> + <li>goose breeding houses, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Cleanliness of plumage as indication of health, <a href="#Page_19">19</a> +</li> +<li>Color of<ul class="nest"> + <li>duck eggs, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> + <li>goose eggs, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Colored flights in<ul class="nest"> + <li>Fawn and White Runners, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> + <li>Penciled Runners, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Colored Muscovy, <a href="#Page_31">31</a> +</li> +<li>Commercial duck farming,<ul class="nest"> + <li>opportunity for, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> + <li>distribution of, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Condition of<ul class="nest"> + <li>breeding geese, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li> + <li>ducks ready to kill, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> + <li>geese for fattening, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li> + <li>geese ready to kill, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Conditioning exhibition ducks, <a href="#Page_38">38</a> +</li> +<li>Conditions for duck raising on the farm, <a href="#Page_120">120</a> +</li> +<li>Confining goslings to yards, <a href="#Page_181">181</a> +</li> +<li>Considerations, general, in making<ul class="nest"> + <li>duck matings,<a href="#Page_18"> 18-21</a></li> + <li>goose matings, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Consistency of feed for<ul class="nest"> + <li>ducks, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> + <li>fattening geese, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Construction of brooder houses for ducks, <a href="#Page_82">82</a> +</li> +<li>Cooking geese to overcome greasiness, <a href="#Page_194">194</a> +</li> +<li>Cooling duck<ul class="nest"> + <li>carcasses, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> + <li>eggs during incubation, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Cooling goose<ul class="nest"> + <li>carcasses, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li> + <li>eggs during incubation, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Coop, growing, for goslings, <a href="#Page_182">182</a> +</li> +<li>Cooperative<ul class="nest"> + <li>feed buying, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> + <li>marketing, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Copper colored head of Buff drakes, <a href="#Page_36">36</a> +</li> +<li>Cost of picking<ul class="nest"> + <li>ducks, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> + <li>geese, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Creaminess in plumage of<ul class="nest"> + <li>Aylesbury, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> + <li>Pekin, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Crest,<ul class="nest"> + <li>tendency toward, in the Pekin, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> + <li>of Muscovy, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> + <li>of Crested White, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Crested White duck, <a href="#Page_34">34</a> +</li> +<li>Crippled ducks, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a> +</li> +<li>Critical period with young ducks, <a href="#Page_98">98</a> +</li> +<li>Crooked back<ul class="nest"> + <li>in ducks, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> + <li>in Runner ducks, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Crooked crest in Crested White, <a href="#Page_34">34</a> +</li> +<li>Crooked tail in ducks, <a href="#Page_19">19</a> +</li> +<li>Crossed feathers on neck of Pekin drake, <a href="#Page_22">22</a> +</li> +<li>Crossing African and Brown Chinese geese, <a href="#Page_157">157</a> +</li> +<li>Curing<ul class="nest"> + <li>duck feathers, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> + <li>goose feathers, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li> +</ul></li></ul> +<ul> +<li class="indent">D</li> + +<li>Darkening pens<ul class="nest"> + <li>for fattening geese, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li> + <li>for noodling geese, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Dewlap in<ul class="nest"> + <li>Toulouse geese, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li> + <li>African geese, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Diarrhoea<ul class="nest"> + <li>of ducklings, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> + <li>of goslings, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Diseases<ul class="nest"> + <li>of ducklings, <a href="#Page_98">98-100</a></li> + <li>of goslings, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> + <li>of mature ducks, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> + <li>prevention of, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Dished bill in Rouen, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> + +<li>Distinguishing<ul class="nest"> + <li>sex<ul class="nest2"> + <li>in ducks, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> + <li>in geese, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> +</ul></li> <li>young from old ducks, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Distribution of duck raising, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> + +<li>Dogs a source of loss in ducks, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> + +<li>Double crest in Crested White ducks, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> + +<li>Down, removing,<ul class="nest"> + <li>from market ducks, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> + <li>from market geese, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Drake,<ul class="nest"> + <li>definition of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> + <li>adult, meaning of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> + <li>young, meaning of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Drakerel, definition of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> + +<li>Drinking dishes<ul class="nest"> + <li>for ducklings, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> + <li>for goslings, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Driving geese from railway to farm, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> + +<li>Drowning ducks, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> + +<li>Dry, keeping goslings, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li> + +<li>Dry land duck farms, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> + +<li>Dry picking<ul class="nest"> + <li>ducks, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> + <li>geese, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Duck,<ul class="nest"> + <li>definition of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> + <li>adult, meaning of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> + <li>young, meaning of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Duck raising<ul class="nest"> + <li>as a side line, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> + <li>distribution of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> + <li>for egg production, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> + <li>for ornamental purposes, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> + <li>kinds of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> + <li>on the general farm, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> + <li>opportunities for, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Ducklet, definition of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> + +<li>Duckling, meaning of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> + +<li>Ducks,<ul class="nest"> + <li>number of,<ul class="nest2"> + <li>in leading states, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> + <li>in U. S., <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> +</ul></li> <li>value of, in U. S., <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Dun colored ducks from Colored Muscovy, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> +</ul> + + +<ul><li class="indent">E</li> + +<li>Egg class of ducks, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> + +<li>Egg production,<ul class="nest"> + <li>duck raising for, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> + <li>of breeds of ducks, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> + <li>of breeds of geese, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li> + <li>of Pekins on commercial plants, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> + <li>selection of breeders for, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Eggs, duck,<ul class="nest"> + <li>color of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> + <li>for hatching,<ul class="nest2"> + <li>age of, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> + <li>care of, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, 128</li> + <li>frequency of setting, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> + <li>packing and shipping, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> + <li>prices of, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> + <li>selection of, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> + <li>washing, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li></ul></li> + <li>marketing, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> + <li>size of, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Eggs, goose,<ul class="nest"> + <li>care of, for hatching, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li> + <li>color of, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li> + <li>size of, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li> + <li>washing for hatching, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Egyptian goose, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> + +<li>Electric lights<ul class="nest"> + <li>for breeding ducks, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> + <li>for duck plants, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> + <li>for ducklings, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> + <li>for fattening geese, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Embden goose, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> + +<li>Equipment of pens in duck brooders, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> + +<li>Examining<ul class="nest"> + <li>geese to determine sex, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> + <li>fattened geese for market condition, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Extent of<ul class="nest"> + <li>duck industry, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> + <li>goose industry, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Eye as indication of health in ducks, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul><li class="indent">F</li> + +<li>Faded gray in Brown Chinese geese, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> + +<li>Fading of color in<ul class="nest"> + <li>Buff ducks, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> + <li>Cayuga ducks, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> + <li>Gray Call ducks, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> + <li>Rouen ducks, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Fasting geese before fattening, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li> + +<li>Fattening farms for geese, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li> + +<li>Fattening geese,<ul class="nest"> + <li>by noodling, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li> + <li>methods of, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li> + <li>on farms in the east, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li> + <li>on farms in the middle west, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li> + <li>on large fattening farms, <a href="#Page_199">199-208</a></li> + <li>pen, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Fattening houses or sheds for ducklings, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> + +<li>Fattening summer geese, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> + +<li>Fawn and White Runner, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> + +<li>Fawn colored breasts in Rouen females, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> + +<li>Fawn on neck, too much, in Fawn and White Runner, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> + +<li>Feather eating in ducklings, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> + +<li>Feathered legs in ducks, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> + +<li>Feathers,<ul class="nest"> + <li>saving duck, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> + <li>saving geese, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li> + <li>plucking from live geese, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Feed, cooperative buying of, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> + +<li>Feed cooker<ul class="nest"> + <li>for ducks, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> + <li>cutter for ducks, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> + <li>last, for market ducklings, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> + <li>mixer for ducks, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> + <li>storage for duck plant, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> + <li>troughs or trays for ducks, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> + <li>troughs for fattening geese, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li> + <li>wagon<ul class="nest2"> + <li>for ducks, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> + <li>for geese, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li></ul></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Feeding<ul class="nest"> + <li>breeding ducks, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> + <li>breeding geese, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li> + <li>Call ducks, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> + <li>ducklings, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li> + <li>fattening geese, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li> + <li>geese during shipment, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> + <li>goslings, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li> + <li>growing and fattening ducklings, <a href="#Page_92">92-94</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li> + <li>noodles to geese, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li> + <li>show ducks, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> + <li>show geese, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> + <li>supply geese on fattening farms, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> + <li>track on duck plants, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Fences<ul class="nest"> + <li>for ducks, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> + <li>for fattening geese, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li> + <li>for geese, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Fertility of duck eggs, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> + +<li>Fireless brooding goslings, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li> + +<li>First feed<ul class="nest"> + <li>for ducklings, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li> + <li>for goslings, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Fish, feeding, to ducks, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> + +<li>Fits in ducklings, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> + +<li>Flat breast in Aylesburys, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> + +<li>Flatiron shape in Call ducks, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> + +<li>Folded feathers on neck of Pekin drake, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> + +<li>Foreign color in back of White Runner ducks, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> + +<li>Free range<ul class="nest"> + <li>for ducks, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> + <li>for geese, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li> + <li>for goslings, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Freezing of ducks to the ground, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> + +<li>Frequency<ul class="nest"> + <li>of plucking live geese for feathers, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li> + <li>of setting duck eggs, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Frightening<ul class="nest"> + <li>breeding ducks, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> + <li>ducklings, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> + <li>fattening geese, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li> +</ul></li></ul> + +<ul><li class="indent">G</li> + +<li>Gains in weight<ul class="nest"> + <li>made by ducklings, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> + <li>secured in noodling geese, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li> + <li>secured in pen fattening geese, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li> + <li>secured on goose fattening farms, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Gander, definition of, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li> + +<li>Gapes in ducklings, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> + +<li>Geese as weed destroyers, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li> + +<li>Goose eggs for hatching,<ul class="nest"> + <li>care of, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li> + <li>washing, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Goose fattening farms, <a href="#Page_199">199</a> +</li> +<li>Goose raising,<ul class="nest"> + <li>as a business for farm women, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li> + <li>as a side line, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li> + <li>distribution of, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li> + <li>on general farms, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li> + <li>opportunities for, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Goose septicemia, <a href="#Page_186">186</a> +</li> +<li>Gosling, definition of, <a href="#Page_149">149</a> +</li> +<li>Grading growing ducklings, <a href="#Page_87">87</a> +</li> +<li>Grass yards for goslings, <a href="#Page_182">182</a> +</li> +<li>Gray Call duck, <a href="#Page_28">28</a> +</li> +<li>Gray,<ul class="nest"> + <li>faded, in Brown Chinese geese, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> + <li>in plumage of Blue Swedish ducks, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> + <li>stippling on Penciled Runner drakes, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Greasing heads of goslings for lice, <a href="#Page_178">178</a> +</li> +<li>Green bill<ul class="nest"> + <li>in Aylesbury, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> + <li>in Buff ducks, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> + <li>in Crested White ducks, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> + <li>in Pekin, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> + <li>in White Runner, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Green ducks, <a href="#Page_102">102</a> +</li> +<li>Green feed<ul class="nest"> + <li>for breeding ducks, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> + <li>for breeding geese, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li> + <li>for ducklings, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> + <li>for fattening geese, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li> + <li>for goslings, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Green geese, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a> +</li> +<li>Grit<ul class="nest"> + <li>for breeding geese, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li> + <li>for fattening geese, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li> + <li>for goslings, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Growing green feed for ducks, <a href="#Page_64">64</a> +</li> +<li>Growth of goslings, rapidity of, <a href="#Page_184">184</a> +</li> +<li>Gypsy face in Muscovy ducks, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul><li class="indent">H</li> + +<li>Handling<ul class="nest"> + <li>ducks, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> + <li>geese, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> + <li>geese during noodling, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Hatches of duck eggs, <a href="#Page_78">78</a> +</li> +<li>Hatching duck eggs<ul class="nest"> + <li>with an incubator, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> + <li>with hens, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Hatching eggs, duck, packing and shipping, <a href="#Page_40">40</a> +</li> +<li>Hatching goose eggs<ul class="nest"> + <li>with chicken hens, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> + <li>with geese, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li> + <li>with incubators, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Health,<ul class="nest"> + <li>selection of breeding ducks for, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> + <li>indications of, in ducks, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Heating apparatus for duck brooder house, <a href="#Page_83">83</a> +</li> +<li>Heavy bottoms in Runner ducks, <a href="#Page_37">37</a> +</li> +<li>Hemorrhagic septicemia of geese, <a href="#Page_186">186</a> +</li> +<li>Horse power required on a duck plant, <a href="#Page_50">50</a> +</li> +<li>House capacity<ul class="nest"> + <li>for breeding ducks, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> + <li>for fattening ducks, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Houses<ul class="nest"> + <li>for breeding ducks, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> + <li>for breeding geese, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Hump back in ducks, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul><li class="indent">I</li> + +<li>Identification of ducks by toe punching, <a href="#Page_12">12</a> +</li> +<li>Incubation, period of,<ul class="nest"> + <li>for ducks, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> + <li>for geese, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Incubator capacity on duck plants, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a> +</li> +<li>Incubator cellar, <a href="#Page_70">70</a> +</li> +<li>Incubators, kinds of, for duck eggs, <a href="#Page_70">70</a> +</li> +<li>Injury<ul class="nest"> + <li>to ducks, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> + <li>to goslings, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Insect pests of ducks, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul><li class="indent">K</li> + +<li>Keel, deep,<ul class="nest"> + <li>in Aylesbury, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> + <li>in Call, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> + <li>in Pekin, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> + <li>in Rouen, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Killing<ul class="nest"> + <li>ducks, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> + <li>geese, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li> + <li>house for duck plants, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Knob on head<ul class="nest"> + <li>of African geese, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> + <li>of Chinese geese, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> + <li>of Muscovy drake, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> +</ul></li></ul> + +<ul><li class="indent">L</li> + +<li>Labor required<ul class="nest"> + <li>on duck plants, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> + <li>in noodling geese, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Lameness<ul class="nest"> + <li>of ducklings, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> + <li>of goslings, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Land required for duck plants, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> + +<li>Laying ration<ul class="nest"> + <li>for ducks, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li> + <li>for geese, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Laying season<ul class="nest"> + <li>for ducks, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> + <li>for geese, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Lay-out of duck plant, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> + +<li>Length of time<ul class="nest"> + <li>in brooder house for ducklings, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> + <li>brooding necessary for goslings, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Lights<ul class="nest"> + <li>for breeding ducks, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> + <li>for ducklings, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> + <li>for fattening geese, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Live ducks, shipping to market, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> + +<li>Live geese,<ul class="nest"> + <li>shipping to market, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li> + <li>plucking for feathers, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Location<ul class="nest"> + <li>of duck plant, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> + <li>of goose fattening farm, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Lopped crest in White Crested ducks, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> + +<li>Loss<ul class="nest"> + <li>in ducklings, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> + <li>in geese during shipment, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Lost, goslings becoming, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> + +<li>Lots, fattening, for geese, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul><li class="indent">M</li> + +<li>Making a start in duck raising, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> + +<li>Making new goose matings, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> + +<li>Mallard duck, <a href="#Page_10">10</a><ul class="nest"> + <li>summer plumage of males, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Mandarin duck, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> + +<li>Marketing<ul class="nest"> + <li>duck eggs, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> + <li>ducks, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Markets for geese, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li> + +<li>Marking<ul class="nest"> + <li>ducklings, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> + <li>goslings, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Mating<ul class="nest"> + <li>ducks, general considerations in, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> + <li>geese, general considerations in, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Meat class of ducks, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> + +<li>Mixing feed<ul class="nest"> + <li>for ducks, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> + <li>for fattening geese, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Moisture<ul class="nest"> + <li>for duck eggs during incubation, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> + <li>for goose eggs during incubation, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Molt of ducklings as indication of market condition, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> + +<li>Mongrel goose, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li> + +<li>Mortality<ul class="nest"> + <li>of breeding ducks, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> + <li>of geese during shipment, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Mosquito larvae, destruction of, by ducks, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> + +<li>Mule ducks, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> + +<li>Muscovy duck, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul><li class="indent">N</li> + +<li>Narrow shoulders<ul class="nest"> + <li>in Call ducks, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> + <li>in Pekin ducks, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Nest, preparing the, for hatching goose eggs, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> + +<li>Nomenclature<ul class="nest"> + <li>of ducks, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> + <li>of geese, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Noodles, making, for fattening geese, <a href="#Page_197">197</a> +</li> +<li>Noodling geese, <a href="#Page_196">196</a> +</li> +<li>Number<ul class="nest"> + <li>of breeding ducks required, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> + <li>of ducklings marketed per breeding duck, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> + <li>of ducklings to a pen, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li> + <li>of ducks in leading states, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> + <li>of ducks in U. S., <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> + <li>of ducks to a drake, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> + <li>of geese carried on fattening farms, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li> + <li>of geese in leading states, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li> + <li>of geese in U. S., <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li> + <li>of geese noodled by one man, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li> + <li>of geese to the acre, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> + <li>of times<ul class="nest2"> + <li>ducklings are fed, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li> + <li>geese are fed on fattening farms, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li> + <li>noodled geese are fed, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li> + <li>pen fattened geese are fed, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li> +</ul></li> +</ul> +</li> +</ul> + +<ul><li class="indent">O</li> + +<li>Objections<ul class="nest"> + <li>to duck farms, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> + <li>to geese, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li> + <li>to goose fattening farms, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Odor from goose fattening farms, <a href="#Page_208">208</a> +</li> +<li>Opportunities<ul class="nest"> + <li>for duck raising, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> + <li>for goose raising, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Ornamental<ul class="nest"> + <li>purposes, ducks for, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> + <li>class of ducks, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Output of duck plants, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a> +</li> +<li>Oyster shell, feeding,<ul class="nest"> + <li>to breeding ducks, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> + <li>to breeding geese, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li> +</ul></li> +</ul> + +<ul><li class="indent">P</li> + +<li>Packing dressed<ul class="nest"> + <li>ducks for shipment, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> + <li>geese for shipment, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Packing<ul class="nest"> + <li>duck hatching eggs, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> + <li>goose hatching eggs, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Pasturing<ul class="nest"> + <li>geese, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> + <li>goslings, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Patte de fois gras, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li> + +<li>Pay for picking<ul class="nest"> + <li>ducks, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> + <li>geese, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Pekin duck, <a href="#Page_21">21</a> +</li> +<li>Pekin duck on commercial plants, <a href="#Page_42">42</a> +</li> +<li>Penciled Runner duck, <a href="#Page_37">37</a> +</li> +<li>Penciling in<ul class="nest"> + <li>Buff ducks, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> + <li>Fawn and White Runner females, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> + <li>Rouen females, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Penciling, lack of, in Penciled Runner females, <a href="#Page_38">38</a> +</li> +<li>Pen fattening geese, <a href="#Page_195">195</a> +</li> +<li>Pens<ul class="nest"> + <li>for fattening geese, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li> + <li>for noodling geese, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li> + <li>in brooder house for ducklings <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Percent<ul class="nest"> + <li>hatch of duck eggs set, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> + <li>loss<ul class="nest2"> + <li>in ducklings, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> + <li>in goslings, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li> +</ul></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Period of incubation<ul class="nest"> + <li>for duck eggs, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> + <li>for goose eggs, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> + <li>for Muscovy duck, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Period of feeding<ul class="nest"> + <li>noodled geese, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li> + <li>pen fattening geese, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Picking house for duck plants, <a href="#Page_50">50</a> +</li> +<li>Picking<ul class="nest"> + <li>market ducks, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> + <li>market geese, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Pin feathers, removing, from ducks, <a href="#Page_107">107</a> +</li> +<li>Pinioning<ul class="nest"> + <li>ducks, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> + <li>wild geese, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Pneumonia in ducklings, <a href="#Page_99">99</a> +</li> +<li>Popularity of breeds<ul class="nest"> + <li>of ducks, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> + <li>of geese, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Pounds feed to produce pound of market duck, <a href="#Page_95">95</a> +</li> +<li>Prejudice against roast goose, <a href="#Page_194">194</a> +</li> +<li>Preparing<ul class="nest"> + <li>ducks for the show, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> + <li>geese for the show, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Prevention of disease in ducklings, <a href="#Page_98">98</a> +</li> +<li>Prices<ul class="nest"> + <li>of duck breeding stock and eggs, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> + <li>of duck feathers, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> + <li>of goose breeding stock and eggs, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li> + <li>of goose feathers, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li> + <li>of market ducks, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> + <li>of market geese, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li> + <li>of mongrel geese, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li> + <li>of specially fattened geese, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Prince Edward Island geese, <a href="#Page_201">201</a> +</li> +<li>Production, yearly, of feathers from live geese, <a href="#Page_213">213</a> +</li> +<li>Profits from duck farming, <a href="#Page_54">54</a> +</li> +<li>Protecting feed of geese from other stock, <a href="#Page_171">171</a> +</li> +<li>Puddle ducks, <a href="#Page_9">9</a> +</li> +<li>Pulling broken feathers<ul class="nest"> + <li>in ducks, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> + <li>in geese, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Purple barring in Black East India ducks, <a href="#Page_29">29</a> +</li> +<li>Purple rump in Rouen drake, <a href="#Page_24">24</a> +</li> +</ul> +<ul> +<li class="indent">Q</li> + +<li>Quilling in ducklings, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul><li class="indent">R</li> + +<li>Range<ul class="nest"> + <li>for fattening geese, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li> + <li>for geese, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Rapidity of growth of goslings, <a href="#Page_184">184</a> +</li> +<li>Rations<ul class="nest"> + <li>for breeding ducks, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> + <li>for breeding geese, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li> + <li>for ducklings, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li> + <li>for fattening geese, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li> + <li>for goslings, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Rats as source of loss in ducklings, <a href="#Page_101">101</a> +</li> +<li>Red in plumage of Blue Swedish, <a href="#Page_33">33</a> +</li> +<li>Removing<ul class="nest"> + <li>baby ducks to the brooder, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> + <li>newly hatched goslings from the nest, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Reviving goslings chilled by rain, <a href="#Page_181">181</a> +</li> +<li>Rhode Island geese, <a href="#Page_200">200</a> +</li> +<li>Ribbon or wing bar, absence of, in Gray Call, <a href="#Page_28">28</a> +</li> +<li>Ring, white,<ul class="nest"> + <li>in Buff ducks, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> + <li>in Rouen, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> + <li>width of, in Rouen, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Roach back in ducks, <a href="#Page_19">19</a> +</li> +<li>Rouen duck, <a href="#Page_23">23</a> +</li> +<li>Roughage<ul class="nest"> + <li>for fattening geese, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li> + <li>in rations for geese, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Round head in Runner ducks, <a href="#Page_37">37</a> +</li> +<li>Runner duck, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul><li class="indent">S</li> + +<li>Sand, feeding,<ul class="nest"> + <li>to breeding ducks, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> + <li>to ducklings, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li> + <li>to goslings, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Scalding market<ul class="nest"> + <li>ducks, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> + <li>geese, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Sebastapol goose, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> + +<li>Selection of breeding ducks, <a href="#Page_19">19</a><ul class="nest"> + <li>on commercial plants, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> + <li>on general farms, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Selection of breeding geese, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> + +<li>Selection of duck eggs for hatching, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> + +<li>Selecting the breed of ducks, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> + +<li>Separating growing goslings from old stock, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> + +<li>Septicemia, goose or hemorrhagic, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li> + +<li>Sex<ul class="nest"> + <li>in ducks, distinguishing, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> + <li>in geese, distinguishing, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Shade<ul class="nest"> + <li>for breeding ducks, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> + <li>for fattening summer geese, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> + <li>for goslings, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> + <li>for growing ducklings, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Sharp backs in Runner ducks, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> + +<li>Shaving market geese to remove down, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li> + +<li>Shelter<ul class="nest"> + <li>for fattening geese, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li> + <li>for growing goslings, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Shipping<ul class="nest"> + <li>dressed ducks, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> + <li>dressed geese, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li> + <li>hatching eggs,<ul class="nest2"> + <li>duck, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> + <li>geese, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> +</ul></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Shipping live geese for fattening, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li> + +<li>Short legs in Runner ducks, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> + +<li>Shrinking in shipping ducks alive, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> + +<li>Size<ul class="nest"> + <li>of breeding ducks, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> + <li>of breeds of ducks, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> + <li>of breeds of geese, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li> + <li>of duck eggs, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> + <li>of duck farms, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> + <li>of flocks of breeding ducks, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> + <li>of flocks of ducks on general farms, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> + <li>of flocks of fattening geese, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> + <li>of goose eggs, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li> + <li>of male and female Muscovy, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> + <li>of mating in ducks, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> + <li>of mating in geese, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li> + <li>of sitting of duck eggs, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> + <li>of sitting of goose eggs, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Slate on backs<ul class="nest"> + <li>of young Embden geese, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> + <li>of young White Chinese geese, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Smooth head in Muscovy duck, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> + +<li>Sore eyes in ducklings, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> + +<li>Sorting<ul class="nest"> + <li>growing ducklings, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li> + <li>market ducklings, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Split crest in Crested White ducks, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> + +<li>Steaming<ul class="nest"> + <li>ducks for picking, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> + <li>geese for picking, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Sticking or braining geese, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li> + +<li>Stippling, gray, on Penciled Runner ducks, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> + +<li>Stunning geese, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li> + +<li>Summer geese, fattening, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> + +<li>Summer plumage of Rouen drakes, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> + +<li>Swimming, preventing goslings from, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul> +<li class="indent">T</li> +<li>Temperatures, incubation,<ul class="nest"> + <li>for duck eggs, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> + <li>for goose eggs, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Temperatures, brooder,<ul class="nest"> + <li>for ducklings, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> + <li>for goslings, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Testing<ul class="nest"> + <li>duck eggs, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> + <li>table for candling duck eggs, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Time of feeding<ul class="nest"> + <li>breeding ducks, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li> + <li>geese on fattening farms, 203</li> + <li>noodled geese, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li> + <li>pen fattened geese, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Time of first feed<ul class="nest"> + <li>for ducklings, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li> + <li>for goslings, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Time of laying<ul class="nest"> + <li>with ducks, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> + <li>with geese, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Time<ul class="nest"> + <li>of marketing breeding ducks, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> + <li>of plucking live geese for feathers, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li> + <li>to purchase<ul class="nest2"> + <li>breeding ducks, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> + <li>breeding geese, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> +</ul></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Toulouse goose, defects in, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li> + +<li>Tray, feed, for ducks, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> + +<li>Triple crest in Crested White ducks, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> + +<li>Trough, feed, for ducks, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> + +<li>Turning<ul class="nest"> + <li>duck eggs during incubation, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> + <li>goose eggs during incubation, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Twisted wings in ducks, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul> +<li class="indent">U</li> + +<li>Uses<ul class="nest"> + <li>for duck feathers, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> + <li>for goose feathers, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li> +</ul></li> +</ul> + +<ul> +<li class="indent">V</li> + +<li>Value<ul class="nest"> + <li>of duck feathers, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> + <li>of ducks in the U. S., <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> + <li>of goose feathers, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Vegetables, feeding, to ducks, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> + +<li>Ventilation<ul class="nest"> + <li>for goslings, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> + <li>of brooder houses, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> + <li>of incubator cellars, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> + <li>of incubators when hatching, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Vigor, selection of breeding ducks for, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul><li class="indent">W</li> + +<li>Washing<ul class="nest"> + <li>duck eggs for hatching, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> + <li>goose eggs for hatching, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li> + <li>show ducks, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> + <li>show geese, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Water<ul class="nest"> + <li>for breeding ducks, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li> + <li>for breeding geese, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> + <li>for ducklings, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> + <li>for fattening geese, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li> + <li>for geese during shipment, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> + <li>for goslings, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Water site for duck plants, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> + +<li>Water supply for duck plants, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> + +<li>Water yards<ul class="nest"> + <li>for breeding ducks, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> + <li>for growing and fattening ducklings, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Weed destruction by geese, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> + +<li>Weight<ul class="nest"> + <li>of ducklings when ready for market, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> + <li>of geese from fattening farms, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li> + <li>of goslings when ready for market, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> + <li>of green geese, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li> + <li>of noodled geese, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Weights<ul class="nest"> + <li>of Black East India ducks, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> + <li>of Call ducks, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> + <li>of duck eggs, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> + <li>of goose eggs, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li> + <li>of Mallard ducks, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> + <li>of standard breeds of ducks, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> + <li>of standard breeds of geese, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>White around eyes<ul class="nest"> + <li>of Blue Swedish, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> + <li>of Cayuga, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>White bib<ul class="nest"> + <li>in Blue Swedish, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> + <li>in Buff ducks, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>White Call duck, description of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> + +<li>White Chinese goose, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> + +<li>White in breast<ul class="nest"> + <li>of Black East India, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> + <li>of Cayuga, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>White in fluff of Rouen drake, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> + +<li>White in wings<ul class="nest"> + <li>of African geese, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> + <li>of Blue Swedish ducks, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> + <li>of Brown Chinese geese, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> + <li>of Buff ducks, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> + <li>of Gray Call ducks, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> + <li>of Rouen ducks, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> + <li>of Toulouse geese, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>White Muscovy duck,<ul class="nest"> + <li>description of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> + <li>black on head of young, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>White on head of Colored Muscovy, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> + +<li>White on neck of Cayuga, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> + +<li>White Runner duck, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> + +<li>Wild or Canadian goose, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> + +<li>Windpipe as indication of age in ducks, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> + +<li>Wing bar, absence of, in Gray Call females, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> + +<li>Wood duck, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul><li class="indent">Y</li> + +<li>Yards<ul class="nest"> + <li>for breeding ducks, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> + <li>for breeding geese, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li> + <li>for fattening ducklings, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li> + <li>for fattening geese, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li> + <li>for goslings, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Yellow bills<ul class="nest"> + <li>in Blue Swedish, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> + <li>in Rouen females, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Yellow, loss of, legs and bills of Pekin with laying, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> + +<li>Yellow on knob<ul class="nest"> + <li>of African geese, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> + <li>of Brown Chinese geese, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> + <li>of White Chinese geese, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> +</ul></li> +<li>Yield of feathers from live geese, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li> +</ul> + + +<div class="trans-note"> +<a name="TN_detail" id="TN_detail"></a><p class="center"><b>Transcriber's Notes</b></p> + +<p>Preface (2nd page): "minumum" changed to "minimum" ( ...with the minimum of initial investment and of labor.)</p> + +<p>"Sebastapool" changed to "Sebastapol" in List of Illustrations (Egyptian Gander and Sebastapol Goose) +Figure 50 caption, and twice in the index. This is consistent with the use of "Sebastapol" in the text.</p> + +<p>Page 20: "neccessary" changed to "necessary" ( ...it becomes neccessary to mate a smaller number of females ...).</p> + +<p>Page 30: missing page reference added (See Page 14).</p> + +<p>Page 72: comma deleted after "Of" (Of course, eggs +sufficient to fill the entire incubator capacity ...)</p> + +<p>Fig 28 caption: "yords" changed to "yards" (Long brooder house and yards with feeding track.)</p> + +<p>Page 107: duplicate word "the" deleted (... hung in a steam box with the +heads outside ...)</p> + +<p>Page 131: "chickens" changed to "chicken" (Ducklings can be brooded if +desired by means of chicken hens.)</p> + +<p>Page 136: missing page reference added ( ...in accordance with the directions given on page 106)</p> + +<p>Page 137: missing page reference added (See page 119).</p> + +<p>Page 141: "1920" changed to "1910" (The census figures of 1920 compared with those for 1910 ...)</p> + +<p>Page 145: "in" changed to "is" (An objection to geese often expressed but without +good foundation is that they will spoil the pasture for other stock.)</p> + +<p>Page 154: "Ameriacn" changed to "American" ( ...the American Standard of Perfection.)</p> + +<p>Page 155 Footnote: "standard" changed to initial upper case "Standard" +(American Standard of Perfection).</p> + +<p>Page 163: missing page reference added (The same method of packing the +eggs should be employed as with duck eggs described +on page 137.)</p> + +<p>Page 165: "thoughout" changed to "throughout" ( ...green feed available throughout the summer and fall ...)</p> + +<p>Page 166: "penus" changed to "penis" ( ...the penis will protrude.)</p> + +<p>Page 182: "close" changed to "closed" (It should have a board floor and be capable of being closed ...)</p> + +<p>Page 194: "pleasanty" changed to "pleasantly" ( ...one will be pleasantly surprised at the rich taste which the roast goose possesses.)</p> + +<p>Page 211: missing page reference added ( ... in +the same way as when packing ducks as described +on page 109.)</p> + +<p>Page 222 (Index): "stipling" changed to "stippling" (Gray stippling on Penciled Runner drakes).</p> +</div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Ducks and Geese, by +Harry M. 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