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diff --git a/32809-h/32809-h.htm b/32809-h/32809-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..043f022 --- /dev/null +++ b/32809-h/32809-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,12758 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of The West Indies and the Spanish Main, by James Rodway. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> + + p { margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; + } + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; + } + hr { width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; + } + + table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} + + body{margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + + ul {list-style-type: none;} + + .pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; + } /* page numbers */ + + .linenum {position: absolute; top: auto; left: 4%;} /* poetry number */ + .blockquot{margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 10%;} + .sidenote {width: 20%; padding-bottom: .5em; padding-top: .5em; + padding-left: .5em; padding-right: .5em; margin-left: 1em; + float: right; clear: right; margin-top: 1em; + font-size: smaller; color: black; background: #eeeeee; border: dashed 1px;} + + .bb {border-bottom: solid 2px;} + .bl {border-left: solid 2px;} + .bt {border-top: solid 2px;} + .br {border-right: solid 2px;} + .bbox {border: solid 2px;} + + .center {text-align: center;} + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + .u {text-decoration: underline;} + + .caption {font-weight: bold;} + + .figcenter {margin: auto; text-align: center;} + + .figleft {float: left; clear: left; margin-left: 0; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: + 1em; margin-right: 1em; padding: 0; text-align: center;} + + .figright {float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; + margin-top: 1em; margin-right: 0; padding: 0; text-align: center;} + + .footnotes {border: dashed 1px;} + .footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} + .footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} + .fnanchor {vertical-align: super; font-size: .8em; text-decoration: none;} + + .poem {margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; text-align: left;} + .poem br {display: none;} + .poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} + .poem span.i0 {display: block; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + .poem span.i2 {display: block; margin-left: 2em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + .poem span.i4 {display: block; margin-left: 4em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The West Indies and the Spanish Main [1899], by +James Rodway + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The West Indies and the Spanish Main [1899] + +Author: James Rodway + +Release Date: June 14, 2010 [EBook #32809] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WEST INDIES *** + + + + +Produced by Steven Gibbs, Jane Hyland and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i">[Pg i-iii]</a></span></p> + +<h3>The Story of the Nations</h3> + +<h2>THE WEST INDIES<br /><br /></h2> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 70px;"> +<img src="images/p_i.jpg" width="70" height="67" alt="" title="" /> +<br /></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 451px;"> +<img src="images/frontispiece.jpg" width="451" height="312" alt="RECEPTION OF SPANIARDS BY ARAWAKS." title="" /> +<span class="caption">RECEPTION OF SPANIARDS BY ARAWAKS.<br /> +(<i>From Gottfried's "Reisen."</i>)</span></div> + +<h1><br />THE WEST INDIES<br /></h1> + +<h4>AND THE</h4> + +<h1>SPANISH MAIN<br /><br /></h1> + +<h4>BY</h4> + +<h3>JAMES RODWAY</h3> + +<h4><i>SECOND IMPRESSION</i><br /></h4> + +<h2>London</h2> + +<h3><br />T. FISHER UNWIN</h3> + +<h4>PATERNOSTER SQUARE</h4> + +<h5>MDCCCXCIX</h5> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[Pg iv-vi]</a></span><br /></p> +<h4><span class="smcap">Copyright by T. Fisher Unwin</span>, 1896<br /> +(For Great Britain).<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Copyright by G.P. Putnam's Sons</span>, 1896<br /> +(For the United States of America).<br /></h4> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2>INTRODUCTION</h2> + + +<p>The story of the West Indies and Spanish Main +is one to stir the hearts of many nations. The shores +of the Caribbean Sea have been the scene of marvellous +adventures, of intense struggles between races +and peoples, of pain, trouble, and disaster of almost +every description. No wonder that the romance +writer has laid his scenes upon its beautiful islands +and deep blue waters, for nowhere in the world, +perhaps, could he find such a wealth of incident. +From "Robinson Crusoe" to Marryat's genial stories, +and down to "Westward Ho!" and "Treasure +Island," old and young have been entranced for +many generations with its stories of shipwrecks, +pirates, sea-fights, and treasure-seekers. Yet with +all this the field has not been exhausted, for hardly +a year passes without a new romance dealing more +or less with the "Indies."</p> + +<p>Under this name of the Indies the islands and +continent were first known to the Spaniards, and it +was not until some years had passed that the mainland +received the name of <i>Terra Firma</i>. The string +of islands facing the Atlantic were the Antilles, so<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span> +called from a traditional island to the west of the +Azores, marked on maps and globes of the fifteenth +century. This "Bow of Ulysses," as Froude called +the islands, was divided into the Greater and Lesser +Antilles, the latter being also known as the Caribbees, +from their original inhabitants. Other divisions were +made later into Windward and Leeward Islands, but +these differed so much in the descriptions of different +nations that it would be as well to leave them out of +the question. Perhaps the best way would be to +name the whole the Antilles or West Indian Islands +and divide them, in going from north to south, into +the Bahamas, the Greater Antilles, and the Caribbees.</p> + +<p>When we think of these beautiful islands and +shores they recall those of that other "Great Sea" +which was such a mighty factor in the development +of Greece and Rome, Phœnicia and Carthage, Venice +and Genoa. As Ulysses and Æneas wandered about +the Mediterranean, so the early voyagers sailed along +the coasts of the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of +Mexico in fear of anthropophagoi, amazons, giants, +and fiery dragons. As the Indies were the scene of +struggles between great nations and the raids of buccaneers, +so also was the Mediterranean a battlefield for +Christian and Turk, and a centre for piracy.</p> + +<p>Reports of golden cities, pearls and emeralds in +profusion, and wealth that passed all description, led +the Spaniards to explore every island and river, until +the cannibals became less alarming. Yet their sufferings +were terrible. Hurricanes sunk their frail craft +on the sea and earthquakes wrung their very souls on +land. Starvation, with its consequent sickness and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span> +death, destroyed one party after another, but they +still went on. The discovery of the riches of Mexico +and Peru led them to look for other rich nations, and +to travel thousands of miles on the mainland, guided +by the reports of the Indians. Undaunted by suffering +and failure, they would often try again and again, +perhaps only to perish in the attempt at last.</p> + +<p>The treasures of the Indies made Spain the greatest +nation in Europe. With her riches she could do +almost anything. Other nations bowed down before +her, and she became sovereign of the seas and mistress +of the world. No matter how it was obtained, gold +and silver flowed into her coffers; what did she care +that it was obtained by the bloody sweat of the poor +Indians?</p> + +<p>Then came envy and jealousy. Why should Spain +claim the whole of the New World? England, +Holland, and France began to dispute her supremacy +and determined to get a share of the good things. +The "invincible domination" of Spain led her to +declare war against England, with the result that the +hardy sea-dogs of that time began to worry the fat +galleons at sea, and to pillage the treasure depôts on +the Main.</p> + +<p>And here we must mention that there were two +important places in the Indies where Spain was +most vulnerable—the Mona Passage between Hispaniola +and Porto Rico and the Isthmus of Darien. +Through the first came the outward fleets with +supplies, and on their return with gold and silver, +while on the Isthmus was the depôt for merchandise +and the great treasure store. At these two points the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[Pg x]</a></span> +enemy congregated, either as ships of war, buccaneers, +corsairs, or pirates, and in their neighbourhood some +of the most bitter struggles took place. There was +no peace in the Indies, whatever might nominally be +the case in Europe. Englishmen's blood boiled at +the atrocities of the Spaniards, but we are afraid it +was not love for the oppressed alone that made them +massacre the Spaniards whenever they got an opportunity. +The poor Indian received but a scant measure +of justice from these very people, when as a matter of +convenience they required possession of the Caribbee +islands.</p> + +<p>Other nations took possession of smaller islands, +unoccupied by Spain, and from these centres continued +their raids, as privateers in war, and as pirates +at other times. Sometimes they were united among +themselves against the common enemy, sometimes +at war with each other. France and Holland against +England, England and Holland against France—nothing +but quarrels and fighting. Now an island +changed hands, and again it was restored or recaptured. +The planters were never sure of being able to reap +their crops, and often had literally to superintend the +estate work, armed with sword and arquebuse, while +their black and white slaves cultivated the soil.</p> + +<p>Now the West Indies became the great training +ground for three maritime nations—England, France, +and Holland. Spain lost her prestige, and the +struggle lay among her enemies for over a century. +At first the three disputants for her place were equally +matched; then Holland dropped behind, leaving +England and France to fight it out. The struggle<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</a></span> +was a very close one, which only ended with the fall +of Napoleon, and it was in the Caribbean Sea where +the great check to France took place. Here Rodney +defeated De Grasse, and here Nelson and many +another naval officer gained that experience which +served them so well in other parts of the world.</p> + +<p>Here also was the scene of that great labour experiment, +the African slave-trade. The atrocities of +the Spaniards caused the depopulation of the Greater +Antilles, and led to the importation of negroes. +Whatever may be said against slavery, there can +hardly be any question that the African has been +improved by his removal to another part of the world +and different surroundings. True, he has not progressed +to the extent that was expected by his +friends when they paid such an enormous sum for +his enfranchisement; still, there are undoubtedly signs +of progress.</p> + +<p>The white colonists in the West Indies never +settled down to form the nucleus of a distinct people. +Since the emancipation the islands have been more +and more abandoned to the negroes and coloured +people, with the result that although the government +is mostly in the hands of the whites, they are in such +a minority as to be almost lost. In Cuba there +appears to be such a feeling of patriotism towards +their own island that probably we shall soon hear +of a new republic, but elsewhere in the islands our +hopes for the future must lie in the negroes and +coloured people.</p> + +<p>On the mainland the original inhabitants were not +exterminated as in the large islands, and consequently<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[Pg xii]</a></span> +we have there a most interesting process in course of +accomplishment—the development of one or more +nations. Here are the true Americans, and as the +Gaul was merged in the Frank, and the Briton in the +Saxon, so the Spaniard has been or will ultimately +be lost in the American. At present the so-called +Spanish republics are in their birth-throes—they are +feeling their way. Through trouble and difficulty—revolution +and tyranny—they have to march on, +until they become stronger and more fitted to take +their places among other nations. Out of the struggle +they must ultimately come, and it will be a most +interesting study for those who see the result.</p> + +<p>In Hispaniola we have also a nation in the course +of development—an alien race from the old world. +More backward than the Americans, the Africans of +Haïti are struggling to gain a position among other +nations, apparently without any good result. The +nation is yet unborn, and its birth-throes are distressing. +We look upon that beautiful island and +feel sad that such a paradise should have fallen so +low. As a race the negro has little of that internal +power that makes for progress—he must be compelled +to move on. Some are inclined to look upon him as +in the course of degenerating into the savage, but +we, on the contrary, believe him to be progressing +slowly.</p> + +<p>In the islands belonging to European nations the +influence of the dominant power is visible in the negro +even when he has no trace of white blood. The +French, English, or Dutch negro may be recognised +by his manners, and even features. In some places<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[Pg xiii]</a></span> +East Indians and Chinese have been imported, but +these stand alone and make little impression. They +are aliens as yet, and take little part in the development +of the colonies.</p> + +<p>Latterly the West Indies have sunk into neglect +by Europe. Except for the difficulties of the planters +their history is almost a blank sheet. Few know +.anything about the beautiful islands or the grand +forests of the mainland. Even the discovery of gold +in Guiana, which goes to confirm the reports of +Ralegh, three centuries ago, is only known to a few. +Ruin and desolation have fallen upon them since the +peace of 1815 and the emancipation. Even the negro—the +<i>protégé</i> of the benevolent—is no longer the +object of interest he once was. Cane sugar is being +gradually ousted by that from the beet, and hardly +anything has been done to replace its cultivation by +other tropical products.</p> + +<p>Yet the islands are still as lovely as they were four +centuries ago, and on the continent is a wealth of +interest to the naturalist and lover of the beautiful. +Now and again a tourist goes the round of the islands +and publishes the result in a book of travel; but the +countries are out of the track of civilisation and +progress. Possibly if the Panama or Nicaragua Canal +is ever finished things may be a little better, but at +present the outlook is very dismal.</p> + +<p>In attempting to compress the story of the West +Indies and Spanish Main within the covers of one +volume we have undertaken a task by no means easy. +Every island and every province has its own tale, and +to do them all justice would require a hundred books.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[Pg xiv]</a></span> +Every West Indian will find something missing—some +event unmentioned which is of the greatest +importance to his particular community. This is +only to be expected, yet we believe that the reader +will get a fairer idea of their importance when they +are comprehended in one great whole. The photo +block illustrations are from negatives prepared by +Mr. Thomas B. Blow, F.L.S.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="80%" summary="toc"> + +<tr><td align="center"><h2>CONTENTS</h2></td><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="center" style="width: 60%;"><br /><a href="#I">I</a></td><td align="right" style="width: 10%;"><br /><span class="smcap">page</span></td></tr> + + +<tr><td style="text-align:center"><span class="smcap">The Spaniards and their Victims</span></td><td style="text-align:right">1-22</td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-align:left">The native Americans—The Arawak and the Carib—Their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">[Pg xv]</a></span> +independent spirit—Their country—The character of the +Spaniard—He wants to convert the natives to Christianity—"A +ton of gold"—First Spanish settlers in Hispaniola—They +ravage the island and are entirely cut off—The +second colony oppresses the Indians—Repartimientos—Cruelties +to the Indian slaves—Decrease of the population—Slave-hunting +in other islands and on the Main—Resistance +of the cannibals—Decline of Hispaniola.</td><td> </td></tr> + + +<tr><td style="text-align:center"><br /><a href="#II">II</a></td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-align:center"><span class="smcap">The Quest for "El Dorado"</span></td><td style="text-align:right">23-47</td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-align:left">Treasure-seeking and its dangers—Alonzo de Ojeda—The +proclamation to the Indians—Disastrous voyage of Valdivia—A +cannibal story—"El Dorado," the gilded one—The +German knights—Ambrosio de Alfinger—George of Spires—Nicholas +Fedreman and others—Pedro de Ursua and +Lope de Aguirre—Pedro de Acosta—Diego de Ordas and +Juan Martinez—The quest and its dangers.</td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-align:center"><br /><a href="#III">III</a></td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-align:center"><span class="smcap">Singeing the Spaniard's Beard</span></td><td style="text-align:right">48-67</td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-align:left">The Papal Bull of partition—English and French seamen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi">[Pg xvi]</a></span> +in the Indies—Raids on the Spanish possessions—Master +William Hawkins goes to Brazil—The Caribs friendly to +the enemies of Spain—John Hawkins carries negroes from +Africa—Francis Drake's attack on Nombre de Dios—The +Simaroons—Drake captures the Panama train—John Oxenham—Andrew +Barker—Drake's second voyage—He +captures St. Domingo and Carthagena—Last voyage of +Drake and Hawkins—Death of Drake—Exploits of other +adventurers.</td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-align:center"><br /><a href="#IV">IV</a></td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-align:center"><span class="smcap">Ralegh and the First British Colonies</span></td><td style="text-align:right">68-89</td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-align:left">"Letters Patent" to Ralegh—"El Dorado" again—Ralegh's +first voyage to Guiana—Keymis and Berrie—The +Dutch in Guiana—Charles Leigh founds a settlement—Robert +Harcourt's colony—Ralegh's imprisonment—He +is released to again visit Guiana—Disastrous results—Roger +North's colony—King James's want of policy—Changes +after his death—St. Christopher's and Barbados +—North's colony again—The Bahamas—The French and +Dutch settlements—Rise of the Dutch—The French and +English at St. Christopher's.</td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-align:center"><br /><a href="#V">V</a></td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-align:center"><span class="smcap">Buccaneers, Filibusters, and Pirates</span></td><td style="text-align:right">90-112</td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-align:left">The buccaneers of Hispaniola—Tortuga—Bay of Campeachy—Privateers +turning pirates—Pierre Legrand—Captains +de Basco and Brouage—Captain Lawrence—Montbar +the "Exterminator"—Lolonois—Morgan storms +and captures Panama—He settles down in Jamaica—Van +Horn—Raid on the South Sea—Lionel Wafer's journey +across the Isthmus.</td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-align:center"><br /><a href="#VI">VI</a></td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-align:center"><span class="smcap">War in the Young Colonies</span></td><td style="text-align:right">113-136</td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-align:left">Spanish raids—Effects of the "Great English Revolution"—The +Caribbee Islands in revolt—Cavaliers and Roundheads<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xvii" id="Page_xvii">[Pg xvii]</a></span> +in Barbados—Charles the Second declared king—Lord +Willoughby arrives with a Commission from the +fugitive—Persecution of the Roundheads—Sir George +Ayscue sent out with a fleet to reduce Barbados—The +island blockaded—Its surrender—Surinam held for the +king—Cromwell and Spain—The Expedition to St. Domingo—Capture +of Jamaica—Colonisation of the island—The +Council for foreign plantations.</td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-align:center"><br /><a href="#VII">VII</a></td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-align:center"><span class="smcap">The Planters and their Slaves</span></td><td style="text-align:right">137-159</td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-align:left">First adventurers not agriculturalists—Slaves wanted—Negroes +imported—Sugar—Cotton—Tobacco—First plantations—Kidnapping—Prisoners +transported—English +slave-trade—Comparative cost of negroes and whites—Rebels—Story +of Henry Pitman—Condition of the bond-servants—Life +of the planter—Dangers of the voyage—Jamaica—Slavery +in Africa—Treatment of the West Indian +slave.</td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-align:center"><br /><a href="#VIII">VIII</a></td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-align:center"><span class="smcap">The Struggle for Supremacy</span></td><td style="text-align:right">160-183</td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-align:left">Trade disputes between England and Holland—War—The +buccaneers employed—Repulse of De Ruyter at Barbados—Capture +of Dutch colonies by English—The French drive +the English from St. Kitt's—Abortive attempts for its recapture—Peace +of Breda—The value of the buccaneers to +Jamaica—Character of the three nations now contending +for supremacy—Case of Surinam—English refused permission +to leave with their slaves—War again—Peace +of Westminster and the exodus from Surinam—Case of +Jeronomy Clifford—Sir Henry Morgan represses buccaneering—Another +war—Du Casse and the Corsairs—Jacques +Cassard—Curious position of Berbice—Cassard takes +Curaçao—His downfall.</td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-align:center"><br /><a href="#IX">IX</a></td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-align:center"><span class="smcap">The Struggle for the Darien Trade</span></td><td style="text-align:right">184-206</td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-align:left">Carthagena and Porto Bello fairs—The trade of the Isthmus—The +joint-stock mania—William Paterson and the Darien<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xviii" id="Page_xviii">[Pg xviii]</a></span> +scheme—Caledonia and New Edinburgh founded—Destruction +of the colony—The <i>Assiento</i> contract—The Great South +Sea Bubble—Vain attempts of the English to obtain free +trade with the Spanish provinces—Attacks on the logwood +cutters of Campeachy—War with Spain—Contraband +traders and their losses—Captain Jenkins' ear—Another +war with Spain—Admiral Vernon takes Porto Bello—His +failure at Carthagena—English exploits.</td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-align:center"><br /><a href="#X">X</a></td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-align:center"><span class="smcap">Slave Insurrections and Bush Negroes</span></td><td style="text-align:right">207-236</td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-align:left">Sufferings of the planters from war—Barbados alone as +having never fallen to the enemy—Internal difficulties—Ferocity +of slaves and cruelty of their punishments—The +Maroons of Jamaica and bush negroes in Guiana—Slave +insurrections—Abortive plots in Barbados—Troubles in +Jamaica—Revolt in Antigua—The great slave insurrection +in Berbice—The whites driven from the colony—Haunts of +the Guiana bush negroes—Surinam in continual fear of +their raids—Expeditions sent against them—Treaties—Great +insurrection in Jamaica and suppression of the +Maroons.</td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-align:center"><br /><a href="#XI">XI</a></td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-align:center"><span class="smcap">The Sovereignty of the Seas</span></td><td style="text-align:right">237-255</td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-align:left">Downfall of Spain—England and France—Contraband +traffic of the Dutch and Danes—Advantages of neutrality—The +Jews in the islands—They support the buccaneers—The +great war—England against the world—Admiral +Rodney—His abortive fights with De Guichen—The training +of his fleet—He captures St. Eustatius and confiscates +private property—Capture of Demerara—Outcry against +Rodney—British disasters—Rodney appears again—His +decisive victory over De Grasse—Peace and its results—The +great struggle with France and her allies—British +supremacy—Peace of Amiens—War again—Nelson in the +West Indies—The American war—Decline of the plantations +from the abolition of the slave-trade.</td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-align:center"><br /><a href="#XII">XII</a></td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-align:center"><span class="smcap">Downfall of Hispaniola</span></td><td style="text-align:right">256-275</td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-align:left">Results of the French Revolution—The friends of the blacks—The +rights of man—Civil disabilities of free coloured<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xix" id="Page_xix">[Pg xix]</a></span> +people—Agitation in the French colonies—James Ogé—Demand +of the coloured people for equal rights—Civil war +in Hispaniola—"Perish the colonies"—Great slave insurrection—The +whites concede equal rights, but the Convention +revokes their original decree—Truce broken—The +struggle renewed—Devastation of the colony—The British +expedition and its failure—Toussaint L'Ouverture—Slavery +abolished—It is re-established by Napoleon—Treachery to +L'Ouverture and the negroes—Dessalines and Christophe +declare the independence of Hayti—Massacre of the whites—The +Empire and Republic.</td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-align:center"><br /><a href="#XIII">XIII</a></td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-align:center"><span class="smcap">Emancipation of the Spanish Main</span></td><td style="text-align:right">276-288</td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-align:left">Influence of the French Revolution on Spanish America—Miranda +vainly attempts to rouse Venezuela—Revolution +at Caracas—Simon Bolivar—Struggle for independence—Atrocities +of both parties—Bolivar proclaims extermination +to the Royalists—Spanish successes—The British Legion—Devastation +of the country—The Columbian Republic—Guatemala.</td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-align:center"><br /><a href="#XIV">XIV</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-align:center"><span class="smcap">Abolition of Slavery</span></td><td style="text-align:right">289-313</td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-align:left">Agitation against slavery by the Quakers—Abolition of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xx" id="Page_xx">[Pg xx]</a></span> +African slave-trade—Effects of this on the plantations—Condition +of the slave—Registration—Rising in Barbados—The +Protestant missionaries arrive—Opposition of the +planters—Ordinance against preaching and teaching slaves +passed in Jamaica—The anti-slavery party in England—Amelioration +of the condition of the slave—Insurrection in +Demerara—Prosecution and conviction of the Rev. John +Smith—Emancipation in the British colonies—Its effect on +colonies of other nationalities—Insurrection at St. Croix—Total +abolition of slavery in the West Indies.</td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-align:center"><br /><a href="#XV">XV</a></td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-align:center"><span class="smcap">Results of Emancipation</span></td><td style="text-align:right">314-345</td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-align:left">Ruin of the planters—Difficulty of procuring labour—Abolition +of the differential duties—Immigration—Barbados +an exception when ruin fell on the other colonies—Labour +laws in French, Danish, and Dutch colonies—Another +insurrection in St. Croix—Race prejudice causes riots in +Demerara—Insurrection at Jamaica—Confederation riot at +Barbados.</td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-align:center"><br /><a href="#XVI">XVI</a></td><td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-align:center"><span class="smcap">The Isthmus Transit Schemes</span></td><td style="text-align:right">346-364</td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-align:left">Nelson's expedition to the San Juan—Miranda's project—Importance +of a canal—Central America—Effects of the +discovery of gold in California—The Panama railway—Canal +projects—Darien again—The <i>Times</i> and the +Nicaragua project—Ship railway—Lesseps and the Panama +Canal—Difficulties of the work—Its downfall—Character +of Lesseps—The Nicaragua Canal.</td><td> </td></tr> + +</table></div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS" id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="80%" summary="illustrations"> +<tr><td align='left' >1.</td><td align='left'>Reception of Spaniards by Arawaks. From Gottfried's "Reisen"</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_i"><i>Frontispiece</i></a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xxi" id="Page_xxi">[Pg xxi]</a></span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>2.</td><td align='left'>Reception of Spaniards by Caribs. From Gottfried's "Reisen"</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_5">5</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>3.</td><td align='left'>A corner of Paradise. The Victoria Regia</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_8">8</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>4.</td><td align='left'><i>En route</i> to the goldfields of Guiana. Passing the rapids of the Essequebo</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>5.</td><td align='left'>Worrying the natives with dogs. From Gottfried's "Reisen"</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>6.</td><td align='left'>A modern alluvial gold washing</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>7.</td><td align='left'>Suicides. From Gottfried's "Reisen"</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>8.</td><td align='left'>A Guiana river. The Tumatamari falls</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>9.</td><td align='left'>Inhabitants of the Spanish Main. From Colijn's "Reisen"</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>10.</td><td align='left'>"El Dorado." From Gottfried's "Reisen"</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_37">37</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xxii" id="Page_xxii">[Pg xxii]</a></span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>11.</td><td align='left'>Negro woman returning from market</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_53">53</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>12.</td><td align='left'>Negro barber</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>13.</td><td align='left'>Negro family on holiday</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_55">55</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>14.</td><td align='left'>Negresses gossiping</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_56">56</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>15.</td><td align='left'>Ralegh in Trinidad. From Gottfried's "Reisen"</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_71">71</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>16.</td><td align='left'>Gold hunting. From Gottfried's "Reisen"</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_80">80</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>17.</td><td align='left'>Carib attack on a settlement. From Gottfried's "Reisen"</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>18.</td><td align='left'>St. Kitt's. From Andrews' "West Indies"</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_118">118</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>19.</td><td align='left'>A Surinam planter. From Stedman's "Surinam"</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_138">138</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>20.</td><td align='left'>A negro festival. From Edwards' "West Indies"</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_140">140</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>21.</td><td align='left'>Voyage of the sable Venus. From Edwards' "West Indies"</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_142">142</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>22.</td><td align='left'>Slaves landing from the ship. From Stedman's "Surinam"</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>23.</td><td align='left'>Map of <i>Terra Firma</i>. From Gottfried's "Reisen"</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_197">197</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xxiii" id="Page_xxiii">[Pg xxiii]</a></span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>24.</td><td align='left'>A rebel negro. From Stedman's "Surinam"</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_209">209</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>25.</td><td align='left'>The execution of breaking on the rack. From Stedman's "Surinam"</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_212">212</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>26.</td><td align='left'>March through a swamp. From Stedman's "Surinam"</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_224">224</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>27.</td><td align='left'>Trelawny town. From Edwards' "West Indies"</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_231">231</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>28.</td><td align='left'>Pacification of the Maroons. From Edwards' "West Indies"</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_234">234</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>29.</td><td align='left'>View of part of Hispaniola. From Andrews' "West Indies"</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_258">258</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>30.</td><td align='left'>La Guayra on the Main. From Andrews' "West Indies"</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_280">280</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>31.</td><td align='left'>The First of August. From Madden's "West Indies"</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_308">308</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>32.</td><td align='left'>A relic of the slavery days old slave buying fish</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_310">310</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>33.</td><td align='left'>Negress, Guiana</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_315">315</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>34.</td><td align='left'>Negress fish-sellers, Guiana</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_316">316</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>35.</td><td align='left'>Chinese wood-carrier</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_317">317</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xxiv" id="Page_xxiv">[Pg xxiv]</a></span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>36.</td><td align='left'>East Indian coolie</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_318">318</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>37.</td><td align='left'>East Indian coolie family</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_319">319</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>38.</td><td align='left'>Coolie barber</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_320">320</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>39.</td><td align='left'>East Indian coolie girl</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_321">321</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>40.</td><td align='left'>Coolie women, British Guiana</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_322">322</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>41.</td><td align='left'>Coolie vegetable sellers, British Guiana</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_323">323</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>42.</td><td align='left'>East Indian coolies, Trinidad</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_324">324</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>43.</td><td align='left'>East Indian coolie, Trinidad</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_325">325</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>44.</td><td align='left'>Trinidad coolies</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_326">326</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>45.</td><td align='left'>Barbados. From Andrews' "West Indies"</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_330">330</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>46.</td><td align='left'>St. Lucia. From Andrews' "West Indies"</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_331">331</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>47.</td><td align='left'>Atlantic entrance to Darien Canal. From Cullen's "Darien Canal"</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_348">348</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>48.</td><td align='left'>Europe supported by Africa and America. From Stedman's "Surinam"</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_363">363</a></td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h1>THE WEST INDIES</h1> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h3><a name="I" id="I"></a>I</h3> + +<h3>THE SPANIARDS AND THEIR VICTIMS</h3> + + +<p>When the early writers spoke of America as the +new world, <i>mundus novus</i>, they could hardly have appreciated +the full meaning of the name. True, it was +a new world to them, with new animals, new plants, +and a new race of mankind; but the absolute distinctness +of everything, especially in the tropical regions, +was not understood. With our fuller knowledge the +ideas of strangeness and novelty are more and more +impressed, and we are ready to exclaim, Yes! it is +indeed a new world.</p> + +<p>Unlike those of the eastern hemisphere, the peoples +of the West are of one race. Apart from every other, +the development of the American Indian has gone +on different lines, the result being a people self-contained, +as it were, and unmodified until the +arrival of the European. The American is perhaps +the nearest to the natural man, and his character +is the result of nature's own moulding. When com<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span>pared +with the European or Asiatic he seems to +be far behind, yet the civilisation of Peru and Mexico +was in some respects in advance of that of their +conquerors. This was brought about by a dense +population which forced men into collision with each +other—in other parts of the continent and on the +islands they were more isolated and therefore less +civilised.</p> + +<p>In the forest region of the Spanish Main, and on +the West Indian islands, the communities were, as +a rule, very small and isolated one from another. +A kind of patriarchal system prevented much communication, +and inter-tribal disputes were a bar to +union. Every community distrusted every other, +and even when one tribe fought against its neighbour +there were few attempts to bring the sections together +against the common enemy.</p> + +<p>On the coasts and islands of the Caribbean Sea, +at the time of their discovery, lived two distinct +peoples, the Arawaks and the Caribs. There were +also a few other tribes of minor importance, such as +the Warrows, but these made little impression, and +may therefore be left out of consideration. The +remnants of the two great stocks still exist in Guiana +and at the mouth of the Orinoco, living to-day in +much the same manner as they did when the country +was first discovered by the Spaniards.</p> + +<p>Four centuries ago the Greater Antilles were exclusively +inhabited by Arawaks, and the Lesser by +Caribs. The Arawak, as his name implies, was more +or less an agriculturalist—a meal-eater, a cultivator +of vegetables, mainly cassava. From the poisonous<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span> +root of this plant bread, drink, and a preservative +sauce for meat, were prepared, so that, with game or +fish, it formed the staff of life. The probable course +of his migration was from Yucatan or Mexico to the +south-east, terminating in Guiana, and from thence +north through the whole of the Antilles. When +Columbus arrived people of this stock filled the +larger islands and the Bahamas, but along the coast +and in the island of Trinidad they disputed the +occupation of the territories with the Caribs. In +Porto Rico also the Caribs had become aggressive, +and even in Hispaniola the Arawaks had to defend +their shores against that warlike people. If we +believe the accounts of the Spaniards the inhabitants +of the Greater Antilles were not altogether a savage +people. Whether they had destroyed all the larger +game, or whether they found none on their arrival, +the fact remains that they were agriculturalists rather +than huntsmen. They were, however, expert in +fishing, and built great canoes with sails, in which +they carried on their operations even in comparatively +rough water. Their provision grounds were highly +praised by the Spaniards in language that could +hardly apply to little clearings like those in the +Guiana forest. In them were grown, besides cassava, +yams, sweet potatoes, and maize, while other things +such as cotton and tobacco were also largely cultivated. +The natives had also acquired several arts +besides that of canoe building, which, when we consider +their want of proper implements, was almost +wonderful. Cotton was spun and woven into cloth +for their scanty garments, gold cast and hammered<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> +into figures and ornaments, and wood and stone idols +and weapons were also carved. All this was done +with stone implements, even to the work of hollowing +great logs for their canoes, and shaping planks. We +read of axe-heads made of <i>guanin</i>, an alloy of gold +and copper, and also of attempts to make similar +tools of silver, but these were very rare, and could +hardly have been utilised to any good purpose. +When we appreciate the labour and pains taken in +excavating a large canoe, with only fire and the stone +adze, we can see that these people were by no means +idle. Nor were they altogether wanting in appreciation +of art, for the figures on their baskets and pottery +were beautifully true geometrical patterns, and their +so-called idols, although grotesque and rude, often +striking.</p> + +<p>On the mainland the Arawaks lived in small +communities, only electing a war-chief as occasion +required—in Haïti the Cacique seems to have been +leader and ruler as well. And here we must mention +the most striking characteristic of the American +Indian—his utter abhorrence of anything like coercion. +Even in childhood his parents let him do as +he pleases, never attempting to govern him in any +way. It followed therefore that neither war-captain +nor Cacique had any real power to compel them to a +course they disliked, and that discipline was entirely +wanting. The traveller in Guiana at the present day +can thoroughly understand this trait of character, for +he has to take it into account if he wishes to get +their assistance. They must be treated as friends, +not as servants, and the greatest care taken not to +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5-6]</a><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6"></a></span>offend their dignity, unless he wishes to be left alone +in the forest.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 458px;"> +<img src="images/p005.jpg" width="458" height="309" alt="RECEPTION OF SPANIARDS BY CARIBS." title="" /> +<span class="caption">RECEPTION OF SPANIARDS BY CARIBS.<br /> +(<i>From Gottfried's "Reisen.")</i></span> +</div> + + +<p>They quarrelled little among themselves, and only +fought against the Caribs; they were peaceable, kind, +and gentle, so hospitable to strangers that Columbus +could hardly say enough in their favour. "A better +race there cannot be," he declared to his sovereigns, +and this opinion was confirmed by all who came into +contact with them. In fact if you do nothing to +offend him, the Arawak of to-day is the same quiet +and gentle fellow who met the voyagers on their +arrival at Guanahani.</p> + +<p>The Caribs were a stronger race, and had probably +followed the same track as the Arawaks in a later +migration. At the time of the discovery they appear +to have driven the more gentle race from the smaller +islands south of Porto Rico, and had taken their +women as wives. All along the coast the two tribes +fought with each other, but on account of the greater +stretch of country there was nothing like the extermination +which took place in the Lesser Antilles. +The Arawaks retired up the rivers and creeks, leaving +their enemies to take possession of the coast, which +they did to such good purpose that the Spaniards +were unable to get a footing in Guiana. All the +early writers agree that the Caribs were man-eaters—in +fact the word cannibal seems to have been derived +from their name. In the smaller islands they had +eaten all the men of the gentler tribe, and now made +periodical raids on the larger, from whence they +carried off prisoners to be cooked and devoured at +leisure. These raids led to combinations on the part<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> +of the inhabitants of Haïti and Porto Rico, and +hitherto they had been successful in preventing anything +like an occupation of these islands by their +enemies. Whether these successes would have continued +is doubtful; the arrival of the Spaniards upset +everything.</p> + +<p>The Carib was not so entirely dependent on the +produce of the soil as the meal-eater. He was a +hunter and fisherman, but above everything else a +warrior. His women had provision grounds like +those of the Arawak, possibly because they came +from that stock. The Carib's hunting grounds were +circumscribed and poor, and his craving for meat +could only be appeased in one way—by eating his +enemies. Probably this made him all the more +fierce and bloodthirsty, as a flesh diet is certainly +more stimulating than one of fish and starchy tubers.</p> + +<p>If the Arawak was impatient of control, the Carib +was even more independent. The former would pine +away and die under coercion, the latter refused +absolutely to be a slave. He would die fighting for +his liberty, but never admit that he was conquered. +It was not he who welcomed the Spaniards to the +West Indies—on the contrary, he did everything possible +to prevent their landing on his shores. His +so-called treachery caused many difficulties to the +new-comers, but taken altogether he was much respected +by them as a foe worthy of their steel.</p> + +<p>These two peoples lived in a country which +Columbus described as a veritable paradise—in fact +he thought he had discovered the site of the Garden +of Eden. Into this beautiful world he let loose a +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span>band of robbers and murderers, to depopulate and +make it a wilderness. They were the product of an +entirely different environment—a continent in which +every man's hand was against that of his neighbour. +For a long time Spain had been a battlefield, on +which the most warlike instincts of mankind came to +the front. Her soldiers understood the advantages of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> +discipline, and would follow their leaders wherever +anything was to be gained, yet at the same time they +were individuals, and as such fought for their own +hands as well.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 268px;"> +<img src="images/p008.jpg" width="268" height="357" alt="A CORNER OF PARADISE. THE VICTORIA REGIA." title="" /> +<span class="caption">A CORNER OF PARADISE. THE VICTORIA REGIA.</span> +</div> + +<p>Like the rest of Christendom Spain was very +religious, and after treasure-seeking, the adventurers +of that nation meant to convert the heathen. The +cross was erected everywhere on landing, and religious +services held to pray for help in their undertakings. +If the cruelties that followed were not quite in +accordance with Christ's teachings we must put it +down to the manners and customs of the age. Ignorance +was really the great characteristic of that period, +and the brilliancy of the few only shone out the +brighter because of the dark background. The +majority were steeped in superstition, and almost +entirely dominated by their passions.</p> + +<p>Columbus was continually harping upon the desirability +of making the natives of the new world +Christians. "Your Highness," he said, in one of his +letters, "ought to rejoice that they will soon become +Christians, and that they will be taught the good +customs of your kingdom." He took nine of them to +Spain, on his return from the first voyage, who were +baptized and taught the Spanish language. The king +and queen told him to deal lovingly with those in +the Indies, and to severely punish any who ill-treated +them. More were sent to Spain and allowed to go +back for the purpose of "gaining souls." Columbus, +however, did not altogether agree with his sovereigns—his +project was to send enough as slaves to pay the +expenses of his expeditions, and he actually shipped<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> +four lots for that purpose. But Ferdinand and +Isabella would not have this, and even went so far as +to prohibit the deportation of the Caribs notwithstanding +the admiral's argument that they were +unworthy of the royal clemency, because they ate +men and were enemies of the friendly Arawaks.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 311px;"> +<img src="images/p010.jpg" width="311" height="269" alt="EN ROUTE TO THE GOLDFIELDS OF GUIANA. PASSING THE RAPIDS +OF THE ESSEQUEBO." title="" /> +<span class="caption">EN ROUTE TO THE GOLDFIELDS OF GUIANA. PASSING THE RAPIDS +OF THE ESSEQUEBO.</span> +</div> + +<p>How the new world was discovered in 1492 has +been told so often that it is hardly necessary to repeat +the story. Haïti, named Hispaniola or Little Spain, +was chosen from the first as the island on which a +settlement should be planted. Here Columbus left<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> +thirty-nine colonists under the command of Diego de +Arana, and under the protection of the great Cacique +Guacanagari. He "trusted to God" that on his return +he would find a ton of gold and a large quantity of +spices, with the proceeds of which his sovereigns +might undertake the conquest of Jerusalem from the +infidels.</p> + +<p>A ton of gold! This was the whole end and aim +of his expedition. Everything else was subordinate +to this. He had seen the natives wearing gold ornaments, +and found that the precious metal could be +gathered from certain streams on the island. But, +could he estimate the amount of labour required to +procure such an enormous quantity, by people who +had no other appliances than baskets? This alone +was enough to bring trouble upon the peaceful island.</p> + +<p>But this was not all. The colonists quarrelled +among themselves, interfered with the Indian women, +went hunting for gold all over the country, took +it wherever it could be found, and stole provisions +when their friends did not bring them enough. Not +satisfied with the district of the friendly Cacique, +they ravaged that of Caonabo, the Carib chieftain +of another clan, a man of a different stamp. He resented +the insults at once by attacking the Spaniards, +who, notwithstanding the assistance of their allies, +were utterly exterminated. When Columbus arrived, +instead of a ton of gold, he found nothing but the +blackened ruins of the fort and houses.</p> + +<p>This should have been a lesson to the Spaniards, +but unfortunately it only led to further quarrels. The +new-comers did not intend to cultivate the soil; their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> +main object was treasure, and they expected the +natives to provide them with food. And here we +must mention the fact that the people of tropical +climes <i>never</i> have any store of provisions laid up—this +is only necessary where winter prevails for half +the year. It follows therefore that however liberal +they may feel towards strangers, their supplies being +restricted to their own wants leave little to give +away. Up to a certain point the Indian gives freely, +but when this means privation to himself he withholds +his hand. The want of a full appreciation of this fact +caused great trouble in many of the early settlements, +and in some cases led to their destruction. The natives +promised food supplies; but when they found themselves +starving, naturally withheld further assistance. +The settlers considered this a breach of faith, and +made incursions on the provision grounds, taking +what they wanted, and seriously injuring the crops. +This the Indians resented, and deadly quarrels ensued, +which ended in their driving out the colonists +or deserting the place altogether. In the latter case +the food supply was necessarily cut off, and often led +ultimately to the abandonment of the colony.</p> + +<p>To the kindly people of Hispaniola the new-comers +were gods, and their horses and cattle preternatural +creatures. While wondering and admiring, they were +at the same time frightened at these out-of-the-way +men and animals, especially when the soldiers exhibited +themselves on horseback. At first they +thought them immortal, and were disagreeably surprised +when they fell before the army of Caonabo. +But even the proverbial worm will turn, and soon the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13-14]</a><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14"></a></span>oppressions of the second colonists drove the poor +Haïtians to resist. To labour in the field was beneath +the dignity of the adventurous treasure-seekers—the +natives must supply them with provisions. What +they had brought from Spain was soon spoilt in such +a hot climate—no one had yet learned how to pack +for long voyages. They must get food, and what was +the good of having thousands of people, and acres of +cultivated land in their neighbourhood, if the natives +did not bring in as much as was required? At first +they were supplied willingly, but when the results of +this profuse hospitality began to tell upon themselves, +the poor Haïtians withheld their hands. Then the +Spaniards began complaining to the Cacique, who, +however, had no real authority over his people in a +matter of this kind, and therefore could do nothing. +Driven by want the Spaniards made incursions on +the provision grounds, where they spoilt as much as +they took away, and left a waste behind. Sometimes +they met with resistance, and the defenders were cut +down without mercy. The spoilers only wanted an +excuse for fleshing their swords; they were even +anxious to show their powers, and make the natives +feel that at last they had masters.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 418px;"> +<img src="images/p013.jpg" width="418" height="316" alt="WORRYING THE NATIVES WITH DOGS." title="" /> +<span class="caption">WORRYING THE NATIVES WITH DOGS.<br /> +(<i>From Gottfried's "Reisen."</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p>Before two years had passed the Spaniards were +beset with difficulties. The Indian looked despairingly +at his wasted fields, and refused to cultivate +them any longer. Why should he plant for others +when he himself was starving? Some fled into the +mountains and forests of the interior, others died of +want. This naturally told upon the white men, who +had not yet learnt that they must cultivate the soil if<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> +they wanted its produce. They could not demean +themselves to this, but must have the power to compel +the inhabitants and owners of this beautiful island to +work for them.</p> + +<p>The home authorities knew what was going on, +and did their best according to their lights to provide +a remedy. At first they gave large tracts of land to +the settlers, <i>repartimientos</i> as they were called, but +what was the use of these if their owners could get +no labourers? Then to every grant was allotted a +certain number of Indians as slaves, and thus the +cruel system that ultimately depopulated the Greater +Antilles and the Bahamas was introduced.</p> + +<p>Those who were not allotted as slaves were compelled +to pay tribute. In the neighbourhood of the +gold-washings this was to consist of a little bellful of +gold; in other places of an arroba (28 lbs.) of cotton, +once a quarter for every person above the age of +fourteen. Metal tokens to hang upon the neck were +given as receipts, and when these were absent the +people were severely punished. Thus this gentle and +independent race was enslaved.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 273px;"> +<img src="images/p016.jpg" width="273" height="355" alt="A MODERN ALLUVIAL GOLD WASHING." title="" /> +<span class="caption">A MODERN ALLUVIAL GOLD WASHING.</span> +</div> + +<p>Even with modern appliances and the use of quicksilver, +gold-washing is a most precarious business; +what then could it have been here with nothing but a +basket and gourd? Columbus had such exaggerated +ideas that, when he saw the gold-washings of Cibao, +he came to the conclusion they were the Ophir of the +Bible; from his reports the king and queen thought +nothing of demanding this small tribute. To the +Indian, however, the gleaning of the tribute meant +the labour of days and weeks, and when there were +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span>so many seekers it was found utterly impossible for +each to gather his amount. Then they ran away, +and were hunted with dogs, brought back, and compelled +to wash the gravel under surveillance, subject +to the pricks of a sword if they were not active +enough. But, even with all this, the returns were +not equal to what was expected, and the tribute had +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span>ultimately to be abandoned. However, it was stated +that as much as the value of a million crowns per +annum was extracted during the best years, at a cost +of pain and suffering awful to contemplate.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 459px;"> +<img src="images/p017.jpg" width="459" height="326" alt="SUICIDES." title="" /> +<span class="caption">SUICIDES.<br /> +(<i>From Gottfried's "Reisen."</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p>The cotton tribute had also to be abandoned, and +even the <i>repartimientos</i> were not a success. If they +had been willing, the natives could hardly have performed +steady work, and as slaves they were almost +valueless. In their natural condition they laboured +when they chose, wasting time as we should say with +little good result. Now their masters demanded +heavy tasks which prevented their working on their +own provision grounds, and yet provided little or +nothing in the way of rations. Hundreds died of +starvation; thousands committed suicide. Some +jumped from high precipices; they hanged, stabbed, +drowned, and poisoned themselves; mothers destroyed +their babes to save them from the misery +of living. If caught in such attempts they were +flogged, had boiling water or melted lead poured over +them, and were otherwise tortured until death came +to their relief. Their cruel masters, however, rarely +wished to kill them outright—they were too valuable. +No, they must break down this dogged, stubborn +spirit—treat them as horses and mules, until they +bent themselves to the yoke.</p> + +<p>It was left for bands of soldiers on foraging expeditions +to kill in mere wantonness. A company +would be travelling through the island and come +upon a village, where perhaps they stopped for a +short rest. The people looked on, admiring their +shining armour and weapons, wondering what sort<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> +of creatures these were that so quietly cropped the +grass and shrubs. One of the soldiers would take +out his sword, feel its keen edge, and think what a +pity it was that the weapon should be used so little. +Behind him comes a little boy. The temptation is +great; in a moment the sharp weapon flashes and +the child lies dead. The Indians fly, and the whole +party follows, chasing and slaughtering to their heart's +content, not knowing nor caring why. In a few +minutes fifty are killed, the soldiers return to their +bivouac, and if they inquire into the matter at all pass +it off as a good jest.</p> + +<p>Is it any wonder that the population decreased to +a wonderful degree in a few years? The sugar-cane +had been introduced by Columbus on his second +voyage, and labour was soon required for cultivating +this and other crops. As long as slaves were procurable +the planters throve, and as by that time Hispaniola +had become the great centre of the Indies, the +settlers were in a fair way to make fortunes. But +the decrease in the population became alarming, and +something had to be done; then, new settlers were +continually arriving who also wanted slaves. It followed, +therefore, that some of the more audacious of +the adventurers took up the trade of kidnapping the +Indians from other islands and the mainland. A host +of disappointed treasure-seekers had ransacked every +shore, and were now well prepared for the business of +man-hunting.</p> + +<p>The first people to suffer were those who so kindly +welcomed Columbus on his arrival—the gentle inhabitants +of the Bahamas. They were even more<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> +peaceful than the Haïtians, because they had not +suffered from Carib invasions. When the slave +hunters told them to come to the south and live with +their ancestors, they willingly allowed themselves to +be carried off to suffer like their neighbours. Some +ran away and got to the northern shores of Hispaniola, +where they stretched out their hands to their beautiful +homes and then died of grief.</p> + +<p>Having entirely depopulated the smaller islands, +and being prevented from kidnapping the people of +Cuba, Porto Rico, and Jamaica, by the settlers on +those islands, they tried the Caribbees. Here they +met their match. No longer was it the gentle Arawak +whom they encountered, but the ferocious cannibal. +Like his foes he had been trained in war for many +generations. Not only did he refuse to work for the +stranger, but even went so far as to oppose his landing. +On his islands was little to attract the treasure-seeker, +and if he would not submit to be a slave, +nothing was to be gained by interfering with him. +This the Spaniard found out by bitter experience. +A few vessels were wrecked on these inhospitable +shores, the crews of which escaped to land only to be +killed and eaten, after being tortured with all the +ingenuity of the savage. Even a landing for fresh +water had to be made in the most cautious manner, +and the carriers protected by a strong guard. No +doubt the Caribs had heard of the white man's cruelties +from their Arawak prisoners, and were therefore +all the more ready to repel their invasions. This was +particularly noticeable later when the English and +French arrived and found them by no means so<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> +ferocious as the Spaniards had reported. Possibly +they knew these people to be enemies to their foes, +and were therefore all the more ready to be friendly +as long as no attempts were made to oppress them.</p> + +<p>Hispaniola rose to some importance very quickly, +and almost as quickly declined. The settlers depopulated +the island, and then complained of the want of +labourers. The gold-seekers went elsewhere, and +Mexico and the isthmus of Darien became of more +importance. Some writers have attempted to give +the number of Indians exterminated in the early +years of the sixteenth century, but little reliance can +be placed on their statistics. Generally, they range +from one to three millions, but it is doubtful whether +even the lowest figure is not too high. Yet, when we +read the statement of Columbus that crowds of people +(in one place two thousand) came forth to meet him, +and his description of the large area of cultivated land, +as well as the broad and good roads, it is not difficult +to conceive that a million people lived in these great +islands.</p> + +<p>With the destruction of the labourers down fell the +plantations. Cattle had been introduced and throve +wonderfully; now they ran wild over the islands, +especially Hispaniola, until they became innumerable. +On the abandoned provision grounds of the +Indians they found a virgin pasturage. Hogs also +took to the woods, and increased even faster than the +cattle. At first there were neither huntsmen nor +carnivorous animals to check this wonderful development. +The once domesticated animals recovered +some of the powers and capacities of their wild ances<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span>tors, +and only required enemies to assist in bringing +out other latent characters. And these were not long +wanting. Large and powerful hounds had been imported +from Spain to hunt the runaway Indians, and +now that their occupation was gone, they also took to +the woods and savannahs. Like their ancestors and +cousins, the wolves, they combined into packs and +fought the cattle and hogs. Both hunters and hunted +became stronger and fiercer—the dogs learnt how best +to attack, and their prey to defend themselves. It +was a struggle like that between the cannibals and +meal-eaters—nature's method of preserving the +balance of life. This equalisation no doubt would +have been the result had not man interfered; how +this happened we must leave to another chapter.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span></p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h3><a name="II" id="II"></a>II</h3> + +<h3>THE QUEST FOR "EL DORADO"</h3> + + +<p>Ophir was not found in the islands, and the bands +of adventurers went over to <i>terra firma</i> or the mainland +to continue the search. Along the coast of +Guiana and Venezuela they again came across the +gentle Arawak and ferocious Carib, the latter making +himself respected everywhere, while his poor-spirited +fellow-countryman was alternately caressed and +plundered. In every place the Spaniards found gold +ornaments, and every tribe told them that the precious +metal was only obtainable in some far distant country. +The Haïtians sent Columbus to the south in search of +the <i>guanin</i> country, and it was there he discovered the +coast of Paria and the delta of the mighty Orinoco. +But he was not fated to come across the treasure +cities of the Indies.</p> + +<p>Others followed to at last conquer Mexico and +Peru, but even then it was generally believed that +nations existed who had more riches to be plundered +than those of the Inca and Montezuma. To find +these golden regions the voyagers wandered in every +direction, contributing much to the knowledge of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> +coasts and rivers, but always coming back disappointed.</p> + +<p>The horrors of this search can hardly be appreciated +nowadays. The ships were so small and ill-found +that we should hardly care to use them for coasters, +yet in them these pioneers crossed the Atlantic and +encountered the hurricanes of the West Indies. +Decked only at bow and stern, the waves dashed into +the hold and wetted the provisions, while the sun +poured down upon the water casks and burst their +wooden hoops. The butter and cheese stank, the +flour in sacks became mouldy, and the bacon and salt +fish putrid. Then the hull of the vessel was unprotected, +and the teredo, or ship worm, bored it through +and through, until nothing but careening and caulking +could save the poor craft from sinking. When we +understand the privations and dangers of this navigation +we are not surprised that the adventurers often +came to grief, but rather wonder that any of them +survived.</p> + +<p>Living in the West Indies, we have often thought +of the pain and suffering it would produce if we were +compelled to walk or sit in the burning sun armed as +were the soldiers at that period. We can hardly +believe that they wore steel body armour, yet the +evidence is too strong to be refuted. True, they gave +it up afterwards in favour of quilted cotton, but before +they did so how hot they must have felt! We can +fancy the sentry standing exposed to the full blaze +of the sun, his helmet and breastplate burning hot +and his woollen underclothing saturated with perspiration. +Then there would be the open boat ascending<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> +a river. The occupants dared not row in the shade +for fear of cannibals shooting at them with poisoned +arrows from the thicket, and out in the river they must +have felt as if in a furnace. Even with our white +clothing and light hats a long journey in an open boat +when the sun is high often ends in fever, and almost +invariably in a headache. The neck and backs of the +hands get blistered, and become sore, the glare on the +water dazzles the eye, and we feel faint.</p> + +<p>In one of the accounts of such a boating expedition +on a river in Guiana we read of the men +finding some yellow plums floating on the water, and +of their being much refreshed by them. We also +have come across these hog-plums when almost +exhausted by a long exposure on the open river, and +when even our negro steersman was nodding as he +held the paddle. Suddenly we came to our destination, +the mouth of a creek, and were under an arcade +of vegetation, beneath which the plums floated on the +cool dark water.</p> + +<p>The men of the sixteenth century must have been +stronger than ourselves, or they could hardly have +endured such pain and privation. They lay down on +the bare earth night after night, and on board ship +went to sleep on naked planks. As they could endure +pain and discomfort, so also could they inflict it on +others. The rough seamen learnt to bear hardships +which blunted their feelings of humanity and made +them inclined to torture others. When in the hands +of the cannibals they were almost as stoical as the +savage himself, their ruling passion being a desire for +revenge. If cruelly treated by one tribe they retaliated<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> +on others; in the same way the Indians killed one +party of Spaniards to avenge the insults of their +countrymen. This led to a great deal of trouble and +made the voyages of the treasure-seekers dangerous +to all. However free from blame one party might be, +they were liable to suffer for previous wrong-doings<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> +and they in turn left behind them injuries to be +avenged on the next comers.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 263px;"> +<img src="images/p026.jpg" width="263" height="359" alt="A GUIANA RIVER. THE TUMATAMARI FALLS." title="" /> +<span class="caption">A GUIANA RIVER. THE TUMATAMARI FALLS.</span> +</div> + +<p>And then, how very audacious these adventurers +were! Alonzo de Ojeda was perhaps the most +striking example of utter recklessness in face of +danger. In 1509 he entered the harbour of Carthagena +in spite of a warning that its shores were +inhabited by a ferocious tribe who fought with palm-wood +swords and poisoned arrows. It was even +stated that the women mingled in the battle, and +could use the bow and a kind of lance.</p> + +<p>These people had been irritated by another party +of Spaniards, and on sight of the vessels were up in +arms at once. However, Ojeda was undaunted, and +landed at once with his men and some friars, who +had been sent to convert the Indians. In front stood +the enemy brandishing their weapons, and prepared +for the first hostile movement. Yet, even under these +critical circumstances, he ordered the usual proclamation +to be read to the Indians in a language of which +they knew nothing. He, Alonzo de Ojeda, servant +of the most high and mighty sovereigns of Castile +and Leon, conquerors of barbarous nations, notified +them that God had given St. Peter the supreme +power over the world, which power was exercised by +the Pope, who had given all that part of the world to +these sovereigns. They were called upon to acknowledge +this sovereignty at once, which, if they refused +to do, he would bring upon them the horrors of +war, desolation to their houses, confiscation of their +property, and slavery to their wives and children.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span></p> + +<p><br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 530px;"> +<img src="images/p028.jpg" width="530" height="209" alt="INHABITANTS OF THE SPANISH MAIN." title="" /> +<span class="caption">INHABITANTS OF THE SPANISH MAIN.<br /> +(<i>From Colijn's "Reisen."</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p>While one of the friars read this address the +savages stood on the defensive, no doubt wondering +what the delay meant. Ojeda knew not their language, +and they took little notice of his signs of amity. As +they still brandished their weapons, the intrepid +adventurer led on an attack, calling the Virgin to his +aid, and in a few minutes put them to flight, killing a +few and taking others prisoners. Not content with +this, he followed them through the forest to their +village, and after a deadly fight, drove them out and +burnt their dwellings. Still undaunted, he went on +to another village, which he found deserted, but while +his men were searching for plunder he was attacked +by the enemy in overwhelming numbers. All his +followers were killed, and he himself wounded with a +poisoned arrow, yet he managed to escape into the +forest to suffer hunger and thirst in addition to the +pain of his wound.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile his men on board the ships were +wondering what had become of their leader and his +party. They were afraid to venture far into the woods +on account of the yells and shouts of the Indians, +who were celebrating their triumph. At last, however, +they commenced a search, and found their +captain in a mangrove swamp, lying on a tangle of +roots, speechless and dying of hunger, yet still +clutching his naked sword and bearing his buckler. +Notwithstanding all this, he ultimately recovered, to +go on as eagerly as ever in making fresh conquests.</p> + +<p>Later, the proclamation to the Indians was interpreted +to them, sometimes eliciting replies very much +to the point. When the Bachelor Enciso went in +search of the country of Zenu, where gold was so<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> +plentiful that it could be collected in the rainy season +in nets stretched across the river, he was opposed by +two Caciques, to whom the paper was read. They +listened courteously, and, when it had been expounded, +said they were quite willing to admit that there was +one God, the ruler of heaven and earth, whose +creatures they were. But as to the Pope's regency +and his donation of <i>their</i> country to the king of +Spain, that was another thing altogether. The Pope +must have been drunk when he gave away what was +not his, and the king could only have been mad +to ask him for the territory of others. They, the +Caciques, were the rulers of these territories, and +needed no other sovereign: if their king came to +take possession they would cut off his head and +stick it on a pole, as they did the heads of their +other enemies, at the same time pointing to a row of +grisly skulls impaled close by. Their arguments, +however, were useless, for Enciso attacked, routed +them, and took one of the Caciques prisoner.</p> + +<p>The accounts of the early voyagers are full of such +examples of audacity as well as of endurance of +suffering. The perils of the sea were as great as +those of the land, but few voyages were as disastrous +as that of Valdivia, who in 1512 sailed from Darien +for Hispaniola. When in sight of Jamaica, his vessel +was caught in a hurricane and driven upon some +shoals called the Vipers, where it was dashed to +pieces. He and his twenty men barely escaped with +their lives in a boat without sails, oars, water, or +provisions. For thirteen days they drifted about, +until seven were dead and the remainder helpless.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> +Then the boat stranded on the coast of Yucatan, and +the poor wretches were captured by Indians, to be +taken before their Cacique. They were now put into +a kind of pen to fatten for the cannibal festival. +Valdivia and four others were taken first, and the +horror produced on their comrades led them to risk +everything and break out of their prison in the night. +Having succeeded in reaching the forest, they were +almost as badly off, for no food could be had, and +they dared not run the risk of going near the villages. +Almost perishing with hunger, they at last reached +another part of the country, to be again captured, +and kept as slaves. Finally they all died except two, +one of whom at last escaped to tell the tale almost by +a miracle.</p> + +<p>One of the stories is suggestive of "Robinson +Crusoe." In 1499 Niño and Guerra sailed from +Spain in a bark of fifty tons, and, while exploring +the Gulf of Paria, came across eighteen Carib canoes +filled with armed men. The savages assailed them +with flights of arrows, but the sudden boom of the +cannon frightened them away at once. One canoe, +however, was captured, in which they took a Carib +prisoner, and found an Arawak captive lying bound +at the bottom. On being liberated, the Arawak +informed the Spaniards, through their interpreter, +that he was the last of seven who had been taken by +the cannibals. The other six had been killed and +eaten one after another, and he had been reserved for +the next evening meal. The Spaniards, incensed +against the man-eater, gave him into the hands +of the Arawak, at the same time handing him a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> +cudgel, leaving his enemy unarmed. Immediately +the Arawak sprang upon him, knocked him sprawling, +trod his breath out of his body, and at the same time +beat him with his fist until nothing but a shapeless +corpse remained. But, not yet satisfied, he tore the +head off and stuck it on a pole as a trophy.</p> + +<p>After the conquest of Mexico and Peru had +rewarded Cortez and Pizarro, others wished to be +equally fortunate. From the Indians came reports of +golden countries in the interior, and land expeditions +were projected. These reports grew into shape, and +at last a quest as romantic as that for the Holy Grail, +led one adventurer after another on and on, to starvation, +sickness, and death.</p> + +<p>The germ of the story of "El Dorado," the lake +of golden sands, and the glittering city of Manoa, +appears to have first arisen in New Granada. Here +was the Lake of Guatavita, and before the arrival +of the Spaniards this was the scene of an annual +religious festival. To the genius of the lake the +Cacique of the neighbouring district offered a holy +sacrifice on a certain day. In the morning he anointed +his body with balsam, and then rolled himself in gold +dust until he became a "gilded king." Then, embarking +in a canoe with his nobles, he was paddled +to the centre of the lake, crowds of people thronging +its shores and honouring him with songs and the din +of rude instrumental music. Offerings to the god of +the lake were made from the canoe, gold, emeralds, +pearls, and everything precious being scattered upon +the water. Finally, the Cacique jumped in himself +and washed the gold from his body, while the people<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> +shouted for joy. To wind up the festival a great +drinking bout was held, when canoesful of piwarree, +the Indian's beer, were drunk, and every one made +merry.</p> + +<p>Such was the tradition—for the ceremony had +been discontinued half a century before—which +had so impressed itself over the northern shores of +South America, as to be told from the Amazon to +the isthmus of Darien. "El Dorado" was gilded +every morning, and his city was full of beautiful +golden palaces. It stood on the edge of the great +salt lake Parima, the sands of which were composed +of the precious metal. Some went so far as to say +that they had seen the glittering city from a distance, +and were only prevented from reaching it by the +peculiar difficulties of the way. Not to mention +tigers and alligators, starvation and sickness, there +were "anthropophagoi and men whose heads do +grow beneath their shoulders," besides amazons and +fiery dragons. Wherever the story was told the +golden city was located at a far distance, and it +seemed ever to recede before the eager seekers. They +sought it in the forest and on the savannah, over the +lofty peaks of the Andes, and along the banks of the +mighty rivers. The whole of the Spanish Main was +explored, and places then visited which have hardly +been seen again by the white man down to the present +date.</p> + +<p>The quest began in New Granada, and from thence +it shifted to Venezuela. The most daring seekers +were German knights, the Welsers of Augsburg. +They had received charters from Charles the Fifth,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> +under which they were empowered to found cities, +erect forts, work mines, and make slaves of the +Indians. One of their representatives, Ambrosio de +Alfinger, set out in 1530, accompanied by two hundred +Spaniards, and a larger number of Indians, laden with +provisions and other necessaries. On the journey +the party committed such brutalities upon the poor +natives that the reports afterwards helped to fire the +blood of Englishmen, and make them bitterly cruel. +To prevent the bearers from running away they were +strung together on chains, running through rings +round their necks. If one of them dropped from +sickness or exhaustion, his head was cut off, the +ring loosened, and thus the trouble of interfering with +the chain saved. If he were to be left behind, it did +not matter whether he was alive or dead. At one +place on the river Magdalena the frightened natives +took refuge on some islands, but the Spaniards swam +their horses across and killed or took prisoners the +whole of them. From their Cacique Alfinger got +booty to the value of sixty thousand dollars, with +which he sent back for further supplies. But, although +he waited for a year his messengers did not +return, and the company were reduced to such straits +that many died for want of bare food. But the +Indians fared much worse, for their provision grounds +were utterly destroyed, and what with murders and +starvation the surrounding country was quite depopulated +and desolate.</p> + +<p>Even Alfinger had to give up waiting for his +supplies and move on at last, for these had been +utilised by his lieutenant on an expedition of his own.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> +The party eked out a bare subsistence with wild fruits +and game. If they found a village they plundered +it of everything it contained, dug up the provisions +from the fields, and left the survivors of the massacre +to starve. Not that they themselves were in a much +better plight; fever, the result of want and exposure, +carried them off in continually increasing numbers. +At last they got into a mountain region, and the poor +naked bearers were frozen to death. Descending +again they encountered stronger and fiercer tribes, by +whom they were defeated, the cruel Alfinger himself +dying two days afterwards from his wounds. A +small remnant only returned after two years' absence, +leaving a track of pain and suffering to make their +memory accursed for many generations.</p> + +<p>George of Spires now fitted out a great expedition +of three hundred infantry and two hundred cavalry, +which started in 1536. They also went a long distance +into the interior, braving hardships and dangers +almost incredible. Jaguars carried off their horses, +and even went so far as to attack and kill several +of the Indian bearers and one Spaniard. Like their +predecessors, they also encountered savage Indians, +and died of starvation and sickness. After journeying +fifteen hundred miles from the coast they had to +return unsuccessful; but as their leader was less +cruel than Alfinger, the losses of the party were not +so great. Instead of dying on the journey he lived +to become Governor of Venezuela.</p> + +<p>Nicholas Fedreman followed the last party with +supplies, but took them to go treasure-seeking on his +own account. He wandered about for three years,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> +and at last returned with some wonderful stories +which induced others to continue the search. Herman +de Quesada also travelled about for a year, and returned +like his predecessors. Then Philip von Huten, +who had gone already with George of Spires, fitted +out a great expedition. His party was at one time +so utterly famished that they had to eat ants, which +they captured by placing corn cobs near the nests of +these little creatures. They travelled in a great circle +without knowing where they went, and at the end of +a year came back to the place from whence they had +started. Hearing, however, of a rich city called +Macatoa, Von Huten started again, and found streets +of houses with about eight hundred inhabitants, but +no treasure. The people here sent him on farther, +with their tales of the Omaguas, a warlike people +living away in the south. On he went for five days, +and at last came upon what he thought must be the +golden city. It stretched away as far as the eye +could reach, and in the centre was a great temple. +But, although the little party charged gallantly down +a hill and into the town, the Omaguas came out in +such force that they had to retreat, bearing their +wounded leader in a hammock. Continually harassed +by Indians, they at last got back, to tell such stories +of the dangers of the quest that the Omaguas seem +to have been afterwards left alone.</p> + +<p>Our account of the search for "El Dorado" is +necessarily short and imperfect, as it would be impossible +even to enumerate all the expeditions. +There is one, however, that was so tragic and awful, +that, although it was fitted out in Peru, it must yet be +mentioned in the story of the Spanish Main.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 458px;"> +<img src="images/p037.jpg" width="458" height="315" alt=""EL DORADO."" title="" /> +<span class="caption">"EL DORADO."<br /> +(<i>From Gottfried's "Reisen."</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span></p> +<p>Notwithstanding the enormous quantities of gold +and silver found in Peru, the crowds of needy +treasure-seekers who went to that country gave some +trouble to the Viceroy, who appears to have been +willing to get rid of them at any cost. Whether he +purposely sent them on a "wild goose chase," or +whether he really believed the "El Dorado" story, is +doubtful, but it is certain that he thought it prudent +to give them employment in some way, to prevent +mischief in his province.</p> + +<p>The expedition was put in command of Pedro de +Ursua, and was intended to go down the Amazon in +search of treasure cities. Embarking on the river +Huallaga, in the year 1560, they had hardly passed +the mouth of Ucayali before Ursua found he had a +most unprincipled gang of scoundrels under his +command. A little farther down the river they +mutinied, under the leadership of Lope de Aguirre, +and murdered Ursua and his lieutenant, appointing +Guzman as captain. Being dissatisfied, however, with +their new commander, they also killed him a little +later, together with most of his adherents.</p> + +<p>Now Aguirre became leader—a ruffian whose +character was of the blackest. Father Pedro Simon +delineates his features and character, making him +out to be a very devil. He was about fifty years of +age, short of stature and sparsely built, ill-featured, +his face small and lean, his beard black, and his eyes +as piercing as those of a hawk. When he looked at +any one he fixed his gaze sternly, particularly when +annoyed; he was a noisy talker and boaster, and +when well supported very bold and determined, but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> +otherwise a coward. Of a very hardy constitution, +he could bear much fatigue, either on foot or horseback. +He was never without one or two coats of +mail or a steel breastplate, and always carried a sword, +dagger, arquebuse, or lance. His sleep was mostly +taken in the day, as he was afraid to rest at night, +although he never took off his armour altogether nor +put away his weapons. Simon said he had always +been of a turbulent disposition; a lover of revolts +and mutinies; an enemy to all good men and good +actions.</p> + +<p>Such was the Tyrant or Traitor Aguirre—virtually +a madman—who now became the leader of a band +of wretches like-minded to himself. They journeyed +down the mighty river, now and again murdering +one or another of the party, on the least suspicion of +their dislike to their proceedings, and ill-treating the +natives everywhere.</p> + +<p>Aguirre was not ashamed to boast that he had +murdered a woman—not an Indian, but a beautiful +Spanish lady, who had accompanied her lover on +this arduous journey. Donna Inez de Altienza, a +young widow, fell passionately in love with Ursua, +who was brave, generous, and handsome; and loath +to part with him, she undertook the hitherto unheard-of +journey of thousands of miles in a strange +and savage country. No fears or terrors daunted +this devoted woman until after the death of her +lover. Aguirre then picked a quarrel on the ground +that her mattress was too large for the boat, and she +also was murdered. The Spanish poet, Castellanos, +thus laments the cruel deed:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span>—</p> + +<p style="margin-left:4em"> +"The birds mourned on the trees;<br /> +The wild beasts of the forest lamented;<br /> +The waters ceased to murmur;<br /> +The fishes beneath the waters groaned;<br /> +The winds execrated the deed<br /> +When Llamoso cut the veins of her white neck.<br /> +Wretch! wert thou born of woman?<br /> +No! what beast could have such a wicked son?<br /> +How was it that thou didst not die<br /> +In imagining a treason so enormous?<br /> +Her two women, 'midst lamentation and grief,<br /> +Gathered flowers to cover her grave,<br /> +And cut her epitaph in the bark of a tree—<br /> +'These flowers cover one whose faithfulness<br /> +And beauty were unequalled,<br /> +Whom cruel men slew without a cause.'"<br /> +</p> + +<p>Whether Aguirre reached the mouth of the Amazon +is doubtful—the evidence is in favour of his getting +out of that river into the Rio Negro, and from thence +into the Orinoco. However this may have been, he +arrived at last in the Gulf of Paria and proceeded to +the island of Margarita. Here, true to his character, +he and his men commenced to plunder and kill +the inhabitants, going so far as to defy the local +authorities and even the king of Spain himself. To +even enumerate the deeds of this band of outlaws +would fill a chapter, but we cannot omit giving an +extract from Aguirre's letter to his king, one of the +most curious productions ever written:—</p> + +<p>"I firmly believe that thou, O Christian king and +lord, hast been very cruel and ungrateful to me and +my companions for such good service, and that all +those who write to thee from this land deceive thee +much, because thou seest things from too far off. I +and my companions, no longer able to suffer the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> +cruelties which thy judges and governors exercise +in thy name, are resolved to obey thee no longer.... +Hear me! O hear me! thou king of Spain. Be not +cruel to thy vassals.... Remember, King Philip, +that thou hast no right to draw revenues from these +provinces, since their conquest has been without +danger to thee. I take it for certain that few kings +go to hell, only because they are few in number; if +they were many, none of them would go to heaven. +For I believe that you are all worse than Lucifer, and +that you hunger and thirst after human blood; and +further, I think little of you and despise you all; nor +do I look upon your government as more than an air +bubble....</p> + +<p>"In the year 1559 the Marquis of Canete entrusted +the expedition of the river of Amazons to Pedro de +Ursua, a Navarrese, or, rather, a Frenchman, who +delayed the building of his vessels till 1560. These +vessels were built in the province of the Motilones, +which is a wet country, and, as they were built in the +rainy season, they came to pieces, and we therefore +made canoes and descended the river. We navigated +the most powerful river in Peru, and it seemed to us +that we were in a sea of fresh water. We descended +the river for three hundred leagues. This bad +governor was capricious, vain, and inefficient, so that +we could not suffer it, and we gave him a quick and +certain death. We then raised Don Fernando de +Guzman to be our king.... Because I did not +consent to their evil deeds they desired to murder +me. I therefore killed the new king, the captain of +his guard, his lieutenant-general, four captains, his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> +major-domo, his chaplain who said mass, a woman, +a knight of the Order of Rhodes, an admiral, two +ensigns, and five or six of his servants. I named +captains and sergeants, but these men also wanted to +kill me, and I hanged them. We continued our +course while this evil fortune was befalling us, and +it was eleven months and a half before we reached +the mouths of the river, having travelled for more +than a hundred days over more than fifteen hundred +leagues. This river has a course of two thousand +leagues of fresh water, the greater part of the shores +being uninhabited, and God only knows how we +ever escaped out of that fearful lake. I advise thee +not to send any Spanish fleet up this ill-omened river, +for, on the faith of a Christian, I swear to thee, O +king and lord, that if a hundred thousand men should +go up, not one would escape....</p> + +<p>"We shall give God thanks if, by our arms, we +attain the rewards which are due to us, but which +thou hast denied us; and because of thine ingratitude +I am a rebel against thee until death."</p> + +<p>He and his band of outlaws ravaged the settlements +of Venezuela for some time, until at last, on +a promise of pardon, all left him save Llamoso, the +murderer of Lady Inez. Aguirre had a daughter, a +girl of twelve to fourteen, and when he found that +all was lost he resolved to kill her. They were living +at a country house, and when Llamoso brought the +news of the desertion of his men, he snatched up a +loaded arquebuse and rushed into his child's room, +saying, "Commend thyself to God, my daughter, for +I am about to kill thee, that thou mayest not be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> +pointed at with scorn, nor that it be in the power of +any one to call thee the daughter of a traitor." A +woman snatched the weapon from his hand, but, +drawing his poniard, he stabbed the girl in the breast, +saying, "Die! because I must die!" Rushing then +to the door, he found the house surrounded by +Spanish soldiers, who compelled him to surrender, +and almost immediately took him out to be shot.</p> + +<p>This put an end to treasure-seeking on the +Amazon, but the search for "El Dorado" had been +going on and was still continued along the banks of +the Orinoco. The first attempt to reach the golden +city by this river appears to have been made by +Pedro de Acosta about the year 1530, but after most +of his men had been killed and eaten by the cannibals, +he was compelled to abandon his project. After him +came Diego de Ordas, the following year, whose expedition +became afterwards famous. He, however, +found nothing himself, although he went as far as +the mouth of the Caroni—it was from one of his men +that the "El Dorado" story was gleaned. By some +accident the whole of the gunpowder was exploded, +and this being attributed to the negligence of the +munitioner, Juan Martinez, he was sentenced to be +put in a canoe, without paddles or food, and allowed +to drift at the mercy of the current.</p> + +<p>What became of the culprit was not known, but +some months afterwards a strange white man was +brought by some Indians to Margarita. He was +wasted by sickness, naked, and apparently destitute, +but, through the kindness of a ship-captain, he got a +passage to Porto Rico, and was there placed in a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> +religious house, under the care of some Dominican +friars. Here he became worse, but when on the +point of death he presented his friends with two +gourdsful of gold beads to pay for the repose of his +soul; he also declared himself to be Juan Martinez, +and told the wonderful story of his adventures.</p> + +<p>After being cast adrift, the canoe floated down the +stream until evening, when it attracted the attention +of some Indians, who paddled out from the shore +and rescued Martinez from his perilous situation. +These were Guianians, who had never before seen a +white man, and therefore resolved to take him to +their king as a curiosity. He was, however, blind-folded +to prevent his seeing the direction they were +taking, and led on and on, through forest and over +mountain, for fifteen days, until a great city was +reached. Arriving here at noon, his bandage was +taken off, and Martinez feasted his eyes upon a great +plain covered with houses, the roofs of which glittered +in the sun as if made of gold. As far as his eye +could reach stretched this marvellous assemblage of +palaces. In the centre dwelt the great king, but, +although the party travelled the whole of that and +the next day, they did not reach the palace until +evening.</p> + +<p>Here Martinez was well treated, and allowed to +walk about the city, but not beyond it. He remained +for seven months, saw the great lake on the shore +of which the city of Manoa stood, and handled its +golden sands. However, he was not content to remain, +and after repeated petitions to be allowed to +depart, was at last furnished with guides and as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> +much gold as they could carry. Arrived at the +Orinoco, the cannibals fell upon the party, stole all +the treasure save that hidden under some provisions +in the two gourds, and left them destitute. After +enduring many privations Martinez, however, got a +passage in an Indian canoe to Margarita, from +whence he expected to go to Spain and report his +discovery to the king.</p> + +<p>What amount of truth, if any at all, was contained +in the story is doubtful. It does not appear to have +been told at once, but gradually leaked out, becoming +more marvellous as it spread over the West Indies. +Adventurers flocked to the Orinoco, and at least a +score of expeditions went in search of "El Dorado." +Under the command of bold adventurers one party +after another entered into the forest, some never to +return or to be heard of again. The remnant sometimes +came back starving, and broken down with sickness. +We read of one Juan Corteso that he marched +into the country, but neither he nor any of his company +did return again. Gaspar de Sylva and his two +brothers sought El Dorado, but fell down to Trinidad, +where all three were buried. Jeronimo Ortal, after +great travail and spending all his substance, died on +a sudden at St. Domingo. Father Iala, a friar, with +only one companion and some Indian guides, returned +with gold eagles, idols, and other jewels, but +when he essayed to pass a second time was slain by +Indians. Alonzo de Herera endured great misery, +but never entered one league into the country; he +also was at last slain by Indians. Antonio Sedenno +got much gold and many Indian prisoners, whom he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> +manacled in irons, and of whom many died on the +way. The tigers being fleshed with the dead carcases +assaulted the Spaniards, who with much trouble hardly +defended themselves from them. Sedenno was buried +within the precincts of the empire of the gilded king, +and most of his people perished likewise. Augustine +Delgado came to an Indian Cacique, who entertained +him with kindness and gave him rich jewels, six +seemly pages, ten young slaves, and three nymphs +very beautiful. To requite these manifold courtesies +he took all the gold he could get and all the Indians +he could lay hold on, to sell for slaves. He was afterwards +shot in the eye by an Indian, of which hurt he +died.</p> + +<p>And so we might go on to tell of the thousands +of people murdered and tens of thousands carried off +as slaves; Every gold ornament was stolen, provision +grounds destroyed, and the forest tracks strewn with +the corpses of those who had been massacred, and +marked out by the graves of their murderers. Sometimes +treasure and slaves were recaptured and no one +left to tell the tale, but more often a few escaped +to fight over the booty and perhaps be hanged as +mutineers on their return.</p> + +<p>The men of that age were undoubtedly great—great +warriors, great ruffians, great villains. Only +here and there can we distinguish a good man like +Las Casas, who did his very best for the Indians +against the opposition of the settlers and the lukewarmness +of the Spanish Court. He was horrified +at the atrocities in the Indies, but the kings wanted +their tithes and cared little how they were obtained.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> +"Get it honestly if you can, but get it," seems to have +been their motto, and it was not for many years that +anything like humanity was shown, and then only by +a few priests.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span></p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h3><a name="III" id="III"></a>III</h3> + +<h3>"SINGEING THE SPANIARD'S BEARD"</h3> + + +<p>On the discovery of the Indies, Ferdinand and +Isabella at once applied to Pope Alexander the +Sixth to secure the rights of Spain in the new +countries against every other nation, but more +especially against Portugal. Accordingly, the celebrated +"Bull of partition" was issued on the 4th +of May, 1493, giving, conceding, and assigning for +ever, to them and their successors, all the islands +and mainlands already found or that might be discovered +in future, to the west of a line, stretching +from the north to the south poles, a hundred leagues +from the Azores or Cape de Verde Islands, provided +they were not in the possession of any other Christian +prince. The sovereigns were commanded to appoint +upright, God-fearing, skilful, and learned men to instruct +the inhabitants in the Catholic faith, and all +unauthorised persons were forbidden to traffic on or +even approach the territories. If they did so they +would incur the indignation of Almighty God and of +the blessed Apostles Peter and Paul.</p> + +<p>Such was the gist of the document under which +the enormities mentioned in the preceding chapters<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> +were committed. Portugal, except for some disputes +about Brazil, accepted this arrangement, but the other +great nations of Europe, especially England, disputed +it from the very beginning. Nevertheless, the +governments, as long as they were at peace with +Spain, took no active part in the matter, but left the +work to individuals, even going so far in some instances +as to disclaim their responsibility for piracies +committed beyond the seas.</p> + +<p>English and French seamen, hearing of the treasure +continually imported into Spain, soon found their +way to the new world, and as early as the year +1526 precautions had to be taken against them. +Orders were sent to build castles on the coasts and +strong houses, not only for defence against the cannibals, +who continued to ravage the larger islands, +but to protect the settlements from French corsairs +who had already commenced their depredations. +The tract of the Spanish fleets led them first to St. +Domingo, and thence on to the isthmus of Darien +or Panama, where at first the chief port was Nombre +de Dios. At these two points it was of great importance +that fortifications should be erected, and +this was done in the first half of the sixteenth +century.</p> + +<p>An English merchant named Thomas Tison +seems to have been the first of our nation who +went to the West Indies, but he got his goods sent +from Bristol to Spain. In 1527 King Henry VIII. +fitted out the <i>Dominus Vobiscum</i> and another vessel +for those parts, but little is known of their course. +It was, however, reported that they went to Porto<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> +Rico, and got there a cargo of brazil wood, and +then proceeded to St. Domingo, where permission +was asked to trade. After waiting for the license +two days the Spanish batteries fired upon them, +driving them off to go back to Porto Rico, where +the inhabitants were more friendly.</p> + +<p>From this time the corsairs and rovers became +more numerous and audacious every year. Some +went trading among the Indians of the mainland, +others, more bold, forced their goods upon the +Spanish settlements under threats of pillage. In +1536 the inhabitants of Havana paid seven hundred +ducats to a French corsair to save the city, +and because later the pirate was chased by three +Spanish vessels, which he captured, he returned and +exacted a second ransom.</p> + +<p>In 1538 there was a gallant fight in the harbour of +Santiago de Cuba, between a Spaniard and a French +corsair. The two vessels fought with each other the +first day until sunset, when a truce was agreed to, and +civilities exchanged between the captains. They sent +each other presents of wine and fruit, were very +friendly, and mutually agreed to fight only by day +with swords and lances. Artillery, they agreed, was +an invention of cowards—they would show their +valour, and the one who conquered should have the +other's vessel. The second day they fought again +until evening without either being conquered, and +again they exchanged courtesies. That night, however, +the Spanish captain, Diego Perez, sent to the +people of the city asking if they would compensate +him for the loss of his ship if the corsair got the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> +better of him; if they agreed to do this he would +risk his life in their service. Were he not poor and +without any other property, he would not have asked +them, and as they would be gainers by his victory, +he did not think his request at all extravagant. But +the authorities refused to pledge themselves to anything, +leaving Perez to fight for his own honour, life, +and property. The battle continued the whole of the +third day, each giving the other time for rest and refreshment, +yet neither was conquered, although many +had fallen on both sides. After similar courtesies +the fight went on next morning, and when evening +came the Frenchman promised to continue it next +morning. Feeling, however, that the Spaniard was +likely to get the better of him, he slipped his cable +in the night and made off, leaving Perez to grieve +at the drawn battle.</p> + +<p>The same year Havana was sacked and burnt, +and three years later both English and French did +great injury to the Spanish trade. Even Portugal +did not escape, but when complaints were sent to +the king of France, he said he intended to follow +those conquests and navigations which by right belonged +to him. In 1545 five French vessels captured +the pearl-fishing fleet near the Main, which the +owners were compelled to ransom; at the same time +they were forced to buy seventy negroes from the +captors. The Frenchmen then took Santa Martha +and got a thousand ducats as ransom.</p> + +<p>One raid after another took place until the Spaniards +were at their wits' ends. Forts were built, <i>guarda-costas</i> +stationed, and other precautions taken, but the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> +depredations and forced traffic still continued. They +cruelly punished all who fell into their hands, and +this led to retaliation, not only for their own injuries, +but to avenge the slaughter of the innocent natives.</p> + +<p>About the year 1530 Master William Hawkins +made three long and famous voyages in the ship +<i>Paul</i>. Hakluyt said he went to Brazil—a thing very +rare in those days to our English nation. He became +so friendly with the Indians that one of their kings +came to England in his vessel, and was exhibited +to King Henry, who marvelled to see this savage +representative of royalty. Unfortunately the poor +fellow died on the return voyage, which made Hawkins +fear for the white hostage he had left behind. +However, his explanation was accepted, and his man +given back unharmed—a result all the more pleasing, +as he knew so little of the language, and might easily +have been misunderstood.</p> + +<p>This is an example of the good feeling of these +people towards Englishmen and all who treated them +fairly. Even the cannibals became more gentle under +good treatment, and would allow the enemies of +Spain to land on their shores without opposition. +By this time the natives of the Greater Antilles were +gone, and with them the thousands of captives +from the mainland. Then began the importation +of negroes, first from Spain, where the Portuguese +had sold a fair number during the previous century, +and then from Africa. Spain could not send and +fetch the negroes on account of the Papal Bull, which +reserved the savage countries east of the line to +Portugal. It followed, therefore, that, as Spain<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> +claimed the Indies, so her sister country claimed +the whole of Africa—a claim as little respected by +other nations as that of her neighbour.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 258px;"> +<img src="images/p053.jpg" width="258" height="302" alt="NEGRO WOMAN RETURNING FROM MARKET." title="" /> +<span class="caption">NEGRO WOMAN RETURNING FROM MARKET.</span> +</div> + +<p>Hearing that there was a good market for negroes +in the West, Captain (afterwards Sir) John Hawkins, +in 1563, got up an expedition to supply this demand. +With three vessels of 120, 100, and 40 tons respectively, +he sailed to Sierra Leone, and partly by the +sword and partly by other means, got three hundred +slaves, whom he carried to Hispaniola. Here he had +a reasonable sale, probably forced, for he trusted the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> +Spaniards no farther than he thought prudent, considering +his strength. His returns were so good, +however, that he not only loaded his own vessels +with hides, ginger, sugar, and some pearls, but also +freighted two hulks to send to Spain.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 259px;"> +<img src="images/p054.jpg" width="259" height="353" alt="NEGRO BARBER" title="" /> +<span class="caption">NEGRO BARBER</span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 266px;"><br /> +<img src="images/p055.jpg" width="266" height="351" alt="NEGRO FAMILY ON HOLIDAY." title="" /> +<span class="caption">NEGRO FAMILY ON HOLIDAY.</span> +</div> + +<p>This success induced him to make another venture +on a larger scale with the <i>Jesus</i> of Lubeck, of 700, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span>and three other vessels of 140, 50, and 30 tons. He +sailed for Africa in October, 1564, to kidnap slaves, +yet all the time he was very religious in a way. His +orders concluded with the commands to "serve God +daily; love one another; preserve your victuals; +beware of fire; and keep good company"—<i>i.e.</i>, do +not stray from others of the fleet. At several places +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span>he took negroes by force, losing a few of his men +in the fights, and with a good number set off for +the West Indies. Fortunately, he said, although they +were in great danger from a gale on this voyage, +they arrived without many deaths of either the +negroes or themselves. For "the Almighty God, +who never suffereth His elect to perish, sent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> +us, on the 16th of February (1565), the ordinary +breeze."</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 266px;"> +<img src="images/p056.jpg" width="266" height="355" alt="NEGRESSES GOSSIPING." title="" /> +<span class="caption">NEGRESSES GOSSIPING.</span> +</div> + +<p>The first land they sighted was Dominica, where +they watered, and then went on to Margarita, the +Governor of which island refused them permission +to trade. They then tried several other places, +including Hispaniola and Cumaná, but also without +success. At Barbarota they forced the people to +traffic, and here they were joined by Captain Bontemps, +a French corsair, with whom they went to +Curaçao, and forced a hundred slaves upon the +inhabitants. Finally they went to Rio de la Hacha +and defeated a body of Spanish troops, after which +the remainder of Hawkins' cargo was freely sold.</p> + +<p>In his third voyage, on which he started in +October, 1567, Hawkins was accompanied by Francis +Drake and several other gentlemen adventurers. He +took a similar course to that of his former voyages, +joined some African chiefs in storming a town, and +received, as his share of the booty, five hundred +prisoners, with whom he again sailed for the Indies. +The alarmed Spaniards dared not refuse to trade, +and consequently he soon sold his negroes at a good +profit. On his return, however, he was caught in +a storm near the coast of Florida and had to take +shelter in the harbour of Vera Cruz, where at first +his vessels were taken for a Spanish fleet then daily +expected. Under this mistake several influential persons +came on board, two of whom were retained as +hostages.</p> + +<p>Next day the Spanish fleet, consisting of thirteen +sail, arrived, and on board one of them was the new<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> +Viceroy of Mexico. From this high authority Hawkins +got permission to repair his ships, victual, and +refit, provided the English kept themselves to a small +island in the harbour, for the due performance of +which they gave twelve hostages.</p> + +<p>But the Spaniards were not prepared to let their +enemies off so easily, and made preparations for a +surprise. Hawkins, becoming suspicious, sent to +inquire about certain shady transactions, and was +at once attacked by something like a thousand men. +The Spaniards sunk three of his vessels, seriously +damaged the fourth, and left him with only one +leaky ship in which to find his way home. A great +number of his men were killed and others captured, +the prisoners to be taken to Mexico and there cruelly +used. Two of them—Miles Philips and Job Hortop—managed +to escape and return to England, where +they gave long accounts of their sufferings, the latter +comparing himself to his namesake the patriarch. +As for Hawkins, in speaking of his return voyage, +he said, that "if all the miserable and troublesome +affairs of this sorrowful voyage should be perfectly +and thoroughly written, there should need a painful +man with his pen, and as great a time as he had that +wrote the lives and deaths of the martyrs."</p> + +<p>This disaster put an end to Hawkins' slave-trading, +but made no impression on the other adventurers +to the Indies. Francis Drake now took up the +quarrel, and in the year 1572 "singed the Spaniard's +beard" to some purpose. Knowing already something +of the state of affairs near the isthmus, he +resolved to gain his spurs in that direction. He<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> +cared not for a forced trade in negroes, but virtually +went in for piracy, for although the relations of the +mother countries were at that time somewhat strained, +war had not yet been declared.</p> + +<p>Drake sailed straight for Nombre de Dios, the +treasure port, arrived suddenly before the inhabitants +had any warning, and landed a hundred and fifty +men in the night. Suddenly the town was roused +to the fact that the enemy were in possession, and +as the people ran off to the forest, they asked each +other what was the matter. Unfortunately for Drake, +however, through a misunderstanding, the English +were alarmed and took to their vessels, so that all +the advantage of the surprise was lost. Undaunted +by this failure, he determined to attempt something +even more audacious—the capture of the Panama +train.</p> + +<p>We have already seen that African slaves had +been imported in considerable numbers; we have +now to mention that on the continent they often +escaped into the forest. Here they lived like the +Indians, and were often in friendship with them, +going under the name of Simerons, or afterwards +Maroons. Always at enmity with the masters whom +they had deserted, they were a terror to the settlers +on account of their continual raids on the plantations.</p> + +<p>Drake determined to get the assistance of these +people, which was freely given, and he was enabled +to traverse the pathless forest and to lie in wait for +the train of mules carrying gold and silver from +Panama to Nombre de Dios. This he captured,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> +but, on account of the difficulties of the way, was +obliged to leave the silver behind, and content himself +with the gold. Then he attacked some merchants, +burnt their goods to the value of two hundred +thousand ducats, and got safely back to his ships just +as the dilatory Spaniards sent out three hundred men +for his capture. It was on this excursion that he saw +the Great South Sea, and determined to carry English +ships into that immense Spanish preserve. How +he carried out his resolve, and appeared suddenly off +the Peruvian coast five years later, is a story we must +leave, as it belongs to another part of the new world.</p> + +<p>When Drake returned to Plymouth the news of his +adventures, and the more substantial evidence of the +gold he had brought, roused others to follow his +example. Among them was one John Oxnam, or +Oxenham, who has been immortalised by Kingsley +in "Westward Ho!" Arriving at the isthmus in +1575, in a vessel of 140 tons, he went to an out-of-the-way +river, and hid his bark among the great +trees. Landing with his seventy men, he went in +search of the Simerons, who took him to a river +which flowed into the South Sea, where a pinnace +was built. In this the English pulled down to the +Pacific, with the intention of capturing one of the +treasure ships coming to Panama. They succeeded +so far as to get sixty thousand dollars in gold from +one bark, and a hundred thousand from another. Not +yet satisfied, they went to the Pearl Islands, attacked +the negro divers, and took a few pearls, with which +they at last returned up the river.</p> + +<p>Unfortunately for Oxenham the negroes of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> +Pearl Islands carried the news of his presence to +Panama, and in two days four boats with a hundred +men were sent in pursuit. They found the two barks, +which had been released, and from their captains +learnt where the Englishmen had gone. Following up +the river they were at a loss when they came to three +branches, but spying some freshly plucked feathers +floating down one of the streams, they followed that +until they came upon the pinnace. Six men were on +guard, one of whom was killed, but the other five +escaped and gave the alarm to their comrades. Pursuing +their track through the forest the Spaniards +found the store of treasure hidden away under boughs +of trees. With this they would have gone back had +not Oxenham attacked them with two hundred +Simerons before they reached their boats. Being +more skilful in bush fighting than the English, the +Spaniards repulsed the party, killing eleven and +taking seven prisoners, from whom they learnt that +the delay was caused by the difficulty of transporting +the treasure.</p> + +<p>Now the news was sent to Nombre de Dios, and the +authorities there found the English vessel and brought +her away, thus cutting off the means of escape for +those still lurking in the forest. Then an expedition +was sent in search of them, and they were found +building canoes. Some were sick and could make no +resistance, the others fled and took refuge with the +negroes, by whom they were ultimately betrayed and +taken to Panama. Here Oxenham was interrogated +as to his authority for the raid, and was obliged to +admit that he had not his Queen's license. All<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> +except five boys were executed, the men at once, and +the officers a little while afterwards at Lima.</p> + +<p>Thus ended one of the most audacious attacks on +the Spaniards which only failed through a little want +of calculation. Hakluyt, who wrote the account, +said the enemy marvelled much to see that although +many Frenchmen had come to these countries, yet +never one durst put foot upon land; only Drake and +Oxenham performed such exploits. When the news +reached Spain the king was so alarmed that he sent +out two galleys to guard the coast, which in the first +year after their arrival took six or seven French +vessels, and put a stop to their piracies for a time.</p> + +<p>There was another class of raids in the Indies, of +which that of Andrew Barker, of Bristol, was an +example. He, and one Captain Roberts, going to +trade in the Canary Islands, had their goods confiscated, +and were put in prison, from which Roberts +escaped and Barker was ultimately discharged. To +recoup his losses and revenge himself, Barker fitted +out several vessels in 1576, in which he went trading +to the Main, and afterwards committed acts of piracy. +He took a small vessel off Margarita and a frigate +near Carthagena, from which he got five hundred +pounds' weight of gold and some emeralds. Now, +following the example of Drake, he landed on the +isthmus to get help from the Simerons, but could find +none. Then, from the unhealthiness of the climate, +most of his men fell sick, and eight or nine died, +which made him give up this part of his project. +Embarking again he took another Spanish vessel +with some gold, but after that the party got into<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span> +difficulties. Barker quarrelled with his ship-master, +and one of the vessels became so leaky that they had +to let her sink, first removing the cargo into the +last Spanish prize. They, however, captured another +vessel with a hundred pounds of silver and some provisions, +but after that the crews mutinied and put +Barker ashore with some others, where they were +attacked by Spaniards, and nine, including the captain, +killed. The mutineers then went on to Truxillo, +which they surprised, but could find no treasure, and +were soon driven to flight by a Spanish vessel. On +their way home the Spanish vessel sunk, carrying +down two thousand pounds' worth of their booty, and +on their arrival at Plymouth they were imprisoned +as accessories to their captain's death. Although +none were executed, yet, says the worthy Hakluyt, +"they could not avoid the heavy judgment of God, +but shortly after came to miserable ends."</p> + +<p>Open war soon came, and culminated in the invasion +of England by the "Invincible Armada" of +1588. No longer could there be any question of the +Queen's license, and in 1585 Drake, now Sir Francis, +fitted out a great fleet to cripple the power of Spain +in the Indies. The Spanish authorities were no longer +unprepared, but ready to give him a warm reception +all along his expected course. The fleet consisted of +twenty-five vessels, with two thousand three hundred +men, among whom could be found many whose names +are famous in the annals of Queen Elizabeth. At +the Cape de Verde Islands they burnt the town of +Santiago in revenge for the murder of a boy, and +after this baptism of fire, proceeded to the island of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> +St. Christopher's, where they landed the sick, cleaned +their vessels, and spent Christmas. Leaving at the +end of December, on the 1st of January, 1586, they +arrived off Hispaniola with the intention of attacking +St. Domingo. The English landed about ten miles +distant from that city, marched upon the Spaniards +unawares, and took it by surprise, notwithstanding +every preparation that had been made, and the careful +watch for enemies from the sea.</p> + +<p>Drake demanded a large ransom, and because it +was not paid at once, commenced to demolish the +buildings, which brought the inhabitants to their senses +and made them offer the sum of 25,000 ducats (about +£7,000), which he accepted. From thence the fleet +sailed to Carthagena, where no opposition was made +until the troops landed, when a great struggle took +place in the streets. The Spaniards had erected +barricades, behind which they succeeded in doing +some execution, but only delayed the surrender for +a short time. After a portion of the town had been +burnt, 110,000 ducats were paid as ransom for the +remainder, and after a few less brilliant exploits, the +fleet went back to England, being thus hurried on +account of sickness among the men. Otherwise, +Drake had intended to capture Nombre de Dios and +Panama, but from this disability had to be content +with booty to the amount of £60,000, which would +mean something like a quarter of a million at the +present value of money. He arrived in time to help +in repelling the Armada, and this invasion kept most +of the English about their own shores for a year or +two.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span></p> + +<p>In 1595, when there were no longer any fears of +a Spanish landing, Drake determined on another +voyage, and this time with Sir John Hawkins. Getting +together six of the Queen's ships and twenty-one +other vessels, they arrived safely at the Caribbee +Islands, where Hawkins became sick and died. +Drake then went on to Porto Rico and attacked the +capital, but could do nothing more than capture a few +vessels from under the guns of the forts. Going to +the Main he captured Rio de la Hacha and a fishing +village named Rancheria. These he held for ransom, +but was dissatisfied with the number of pearls offered +by private persons, the Governor refusing to give +anything, and burnt both town and village. Santa +Martha was also taken, and then Nombre de Dios, +but he found that the treasure had been removed, the +inhabitants taking to the forest when they heard his +fearful name. Sir Thomas Baskerville took seven +hundred and fifty men to go over to Panama, but +returned much discouraged by the difficulties of the +road. Drake finally burnt Nombre de Dios and every +vessel in the harbour down to the smallest boats.</p> + +<p>After that, sickness began to tell upon the expedition, +and Drake himself was stricken with dysentery. +When on the point of death he rose from his bed, put +on his full dress of admiral, called his men and gave +them a farewell address, then, sinking down exhausted +he died immediately afterwards. Several captains and +other important officers also died, and they even lost +the chief surgeon; after that, nothing was left but to +return home. Off Cuba they were attacked by a +Spanish fleet of twenty vessels, sent out to intercept<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> +them, with which they kept up a running fight until +the enemy were left behind.</p> + +<p>On their arrival in England in May, 1596, the sad +news of the death of Drake overshadowed all the +glory of the expedition. In Spain, however, it was +published for general information, and the people +congratulated each other that at last their enemy +was gone. Henry Savile, in his "Libel of Spanish +Lies," said "it did ease the stomachs of the timorous +Spaniards greatly to hear of the death of him whose +life was a scourge and a continual plague to them." No +wonder that the news was so grateful, for none was so +daring, and no name like that of Drake ever came to +be used as a bogey with which to frighten their +children.</p> + +<p>Yet there were many gallant adventurers in the +Indies at that very time. Sir Robert Dudley and +Sir Walter Ralegh were both at Trinidad in 1595, +and for several years before and after the English +rovers were plentiful in the Gulf of Mexico. In +1591 the <i>Content</i> was successfully defended against +six Spanish men-of-war, and the galleons were +obliged to sail in large squadrons. What with the +dangers of storms and the enemy, it was stated that +of a hundred and twenty-three vessels expected in +Spain during that year, only twenty-five arrived +safe.</p> + +<p>The number of rovers became at last so great that +plunder was difficult to obtain. The Spanish settlers +were in continual fear, and naturally took every precaution +against their enemies, hiding the treasure on +the least alarm, and taking to the forest. The French<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span> +corsairs were not far behind the English, although as +yet they had no proper licenses, and only fought for +their own hands. Latterly, also, the Dutch and +Flemings had arrived, and although mainly occupied +in trading, they did not hesitate to fight on occasion, +especially when attempts were made to prevent their +traffic. While under the rule of Charles the Fifth they +had been free to go to and from the Indies, and no doubt +use the knowledge thus gained to further their own +interests since their revolt. Like the English, they +were at enmity with Spain, but there was also another +bond of union—both were Protestant. Queen Elizabeth +assisted Holland in gaining her independence, +and therefore at this period the relations between +English and Dutch were very cordial. But the +fellow-feeling of enmity to Spain made even the +French corsair unite with the two others, so that +pirates, privateers, and traders all combined against +the common foe.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h3><a name="IV" id="IV"></a>IV</h3> + +<h3>RALEGH AND THE FIRST BRITISH COLONIES</h3> + + +<p>The first grant made by Queen Elizabeth for a +settlement in America was given to Sir Humphrey +Gilbert in 1578, but the father of English colonisation +was Sir Walter Ralegh. Although considered a +rover, or pirate, by the Spaniards, he was of a +different type to Drake, Hawkins, and the other +adventurers of the sixteenth century. Not only was +he famous as a brave warrior, but at the same time +as one of the most learned men of his time; as +enterprising in the arts of peace as on the battlefield.</p> + +<p>The "Letters Patent" to Walter Ralegh, Esquire, +dated the 25th of March, 1584, may be considered +as the first charter of the English colonies. Under +them he was empowered to discover, occupy, and +possess barbarous countries not actually in the +possession of any Christian prince, or inhabited by +Christian people, on condition that he reserved to +Her Majesty a fifth of all the gold and silver found +therein. He was also given all the rights of civil and +criminal jurisdiction, and empowered to govern and +make laws as long as these laws did not conflict<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> +with those of the mother country, or with the true +Christian faith of the Church of England. Under +this charter the first settlement in Virginia was +undertaken, and thus England threw down the +gauntlet in the face of Spain.</p> + +<p>However, Ralegh did not confine himself to North +America—there were other countries not in the +actual possession of any Christian prince, the most +notable being Guiana. Ralegh had heard the story +of "El Dorado" and of the failures of the many +German and Spanish knights. He would succeed +where they had failed. Englishmen had displayed +their mettle in the Indies—if the treasures of Peru +and Mexico had raised their enemy to be "mistress +of the world" and "sovereign of the seas," why +should not he also find other golden countries for +the benefit of his virgin queen and country? Because +two rich provinces had been discovered, it did +not follow that there were no others; on the contrary, +the rumours of "El Dorado" were so many that they +could not be treated with contempt. And then the +natives of the "Great Wild Coast," although cannibals, +were friendly to the English, who had always treated +them fairly, and there they had the advantage over +Spain. The country was open to them, although +strictly guarded against their rivals.</p> + +<p>The stories had been lately revived by the expeditions +of Antonio de Berrio, Governor of Trinidad +and Guiana, who had made explorations of the river +Orinoco, and possibly exaggerated his reports for the +purpose of getting settlers. Captain Popham took +some letters from a Spanish vessel in 1594, wherein<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> +were found accounts of the "Nueva Dorado," which +were spoken of as incredibly rich. Ralegh saw these, +and was induced by their reports and his own knowledge +of the Indies, which he had gained in working +at his colonisation schemes, to go out and look up +the matter.</p> + +<p>The occupation of Guiana, he said, had other +ground and assurance of riches than the voyages to +the West Indies. The king of Spain was not so +impoverished as the English supposed by their +taking two or three ports, neither were the riches of +Peru or New Spain to be picked up on the sea-shore. +The burning of towns on the coast did not impoverish +Spain one ducat, for it was within the country that +the land was rich and populous. Therefore England +should endeavour to get possession of this yet unspoiled +country, instead of wasting her energies on +adventures that were of no real benefit, and that +hardly touched the real source of her enemy's greatness.</p> + +<p>Ralegh arrived at Trinidad in March, 1595, and as +a matter of precaution captured the Spanish town of +St. Joseph, and the Governor, De Berrio, from whom +he heard more stories of El Dorado. Here also he +began those conciliatory measures with the natives +which characterised all his dealings. He released +five chiefs, who had been imprisoned in chains and +tortured by dropping melted fat on their bodies, and +thus gained their friendship. Unlike other adventurers +he thought it necessary to excuse himself for +burning St. Joseph, which he did in rather quaint +language. Considering that if he entered Guiana by +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71-72]</a><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72"></a></span>small boats and left a garrison of the enemy at his +back, he "should have savoured very much of the +ass," he took the place, and at the instance of the +natives set it on fire.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 447px;"> +<img src="images/p071.jpg" width="447" height="313" alt="RALEGH IN TRINIDAD." title="" /> +<span class="caption">RALEGH IN TRINIDAD.<br /> +(<i>From Gottfried's "Reisen."</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p>Now began a weary voyage up the Orinoco, first +through the delta, which is such a maze that they +might have wandered for months without getting +into the main river had they not secured an Indian +pilot. Exposed alternately to burning sun and +drenching showers in open boats, they toiled against +the powerful stream. Ralegh everywhere tried his +best to ingratiate himself with the Indians, succeeding +so well that his name became known over the +whole of Guiana. He told them that he had been +sent by a great queen, the powerful Cacique of the +north, and a virgin, whose chieftains were more +numerous than the trees of the forest. She was an +enemy to the Spaniards, had freed other nations from +their oppression, and had now sent to rescue them. +To confirm his statement he gave each Cacique a +coin so that they could possess the queen's likeness, +and these were treasured and even worshipped for a +century afterwards.</p> + +<p>Everywhere he heard of El Dorado, but it was +always receding farther and farther, until his men +became so disheartened that he had to rouse them by +saying that they would be shamed before their comrades +if they gave up so easily. However, after +reaching the mouth of the Caroni and getting specimens +of gold ore, he had to return without doing +more than locating the city of Manoa several hundred +miles to the east of his farthest point. This was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> +done in so exact a manner that the great lake of +Parima, as large as the Caspian Sea, was retained +upon the maps of South America down to the +beginning of the present century. His ore was +probably stream quartz, and in representing it as +taken from the rock he probably reported what the +Indians had told him. When, therefore, he said that +the assay gave its value as £13,000 a ton, there is no +reason to suppose a mistake or untruth, for pieces +quite as valuable may still be picked up. His "Discoverie +of Guiana" is such a mixture of close and +accurate observation with the hearsay of the Indians, +that it is difficult in some cases to separate truth from +fiction. Yet, although historians have charged him +with wilful lying, there can be no doubt of his good +faith. It has been left to the present century to +prove that gold-mines exist on the site of the fabled +El Dorado, for it is there that the well-known Caratal +diggings are situated.</p> + +<p>Ralegh asked the people of England to judge for +themselves. He had spent much time and money, +with no other object than to serve his queen and +country. When they considered that it was the +Spaniard's gold which endangered and disturbed all +the nations of Europe, that "purchaseth intelligence, +creepeth into councils and setteth bound loyalty at +liberty," they would see the advantage of these +provinces he had discovered. Guiana was a country +that had never yet been sacked, turned, or wrought. +The face of the earth had not been torn, nor the +virtue and salt of the soil spent by manurance; the +graves had not been opened for gold, the mines not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> +touched with sledges, or the images pulled down from +the temples. It was so easily defensible that it could +be protected by two forts at the mouth of a river, and +thus the whole empire be guarded. The country +was already discovered, many nations won to Her +Majesty's love and obedience, and those Spaniards +who had laboured on the conquest were beaten, discouraged, +and disgraced. If Her Majesty took up +the enterprise, he doubted not that after the first or +second year there would be a Contractation House +for Guiana in London, with larger receipts than that +for the Indies at Seville.</p> + +<p>Such was Ralegh's dream. Another Peru to be +conquered, and England to be raised to the highest +point of wealth and importance. But unfortunately +he could get no assistance to carry out the grand project. +Yet he was undoubtedly sincere, for did he not +send out two expeditions under Captains Keymis and +Berrie the following year, to assure the Indians that +he had not forgotten them? Keymis found one tribe +keeping a festival in honour of the great princess of +the north, and anxiously waiting for the return of +Gualtero, which name, by the by, was similar to their +word for friend. They made fires, and, sitting in their +hammocks, each man with his companion, they recounted +the worthy deeds and deaths of their ancestors, +execrating their enemies most spitefully, and +magnifying their friends with all the titles of honour +they could devise. Thus they sat talking and smoking +tobacco until their cigars (their measure of time) +went out, during which they were not to be disturbed, +"for this is their religion and prayers which they now<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span> +celebrated, keeping a precise fast one whole day in +honour of the great princess of the north, their +patron and defender."</p> + +<p>The explorations of Ralegh and his captains were +published all over Europe, with the result that attention +was generally drawn to Guiana. Already some Dutchmen +had been trading on the coast for many years, and +it was even reported that they had established a post +in the river Pomeroon, the centre of the province of +Caribana. As early as 1542 Flemings had settled at +Araya on the coast of Venezuela, where they collected +salt and were left undisturbed as long as the +Netherlands belonged to Spain. Ralegh seems to +have purposely ignored the presence of these people +in Guiana, probably to prevent any question of prior +rights on the part of a friendly nation. But, after all, +the Dutchmen could only have been there on their +own responsibility, and their temporary occupation +had no meaning from a national point of view.</p> + +<p>Now that Guiana was made known, vessels of other +nationalities went trading along the coast, everywhere +meeting with a hearty welcome from the Indians as +long as the visitors were not Spanish. They were only +so many additions to their friends—their enemies were +confined to Trinidad and the Orinoco, leaving the +whole coast of Guiana to its rightful owners. In +fact, the Spaniards could no more subdue the Caribs +of the Main than they could those of the islands. +Only in Trinidad, where the Arawak was employed +against the cannibal, was a settlement made possible.</p> + +<p>Ralegh was unable to carry out his great project, +but others were not backward in attempting to settle<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> +in the country. First came Charles Leigh, who in +1604 founded a colony in the river Oyapok, which +failed partly from the lack of assistance from England +and partly from too great a dependence on the +promises of the Indians to supply food. Sickness +followed on starvation, Leigh died, and a mutiny +took place, after which the survivors got back to +Europe in a Dutch trader, which fortunately arrived +when all hope of succour had been abandoned. +Robert Harcourt followed to the same river in 1609, +like Leigh, getting promises of assistance from the +Indians by using the name of Ralegh. With their +consent he took possession of the country, "by twig +and turf," in the name of King James. This ceremony +was performed by first cutting a branch from a +tree, and then turning up a sod with the sword, thus +claiming everything in and on the earth.</p> + +<p>Harcourt's colony lasted several years, and in 1613 +he received from James the First a grant of all that +part of Guiana lying between the rivers Amazons and +Essequebo, on the usual condition of the fifth of all +gold and silver being handed over to the king. In the +same year the Dutch trading factory at Kyk-over-al +on the river Essequebo was established, and this was +probably the reason why the English grant made that +river the boundary of their possessions, leaving the +Hollander to establish himself between the Essequebo +and the Orinoco.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, in 1603, poor Ralegh had been tried on +a charge of aiding and abetting the plot to raise +Arabella Stuart to the throne of England, on the +death of Queen Elizabeth. Any one who reads the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> +account of his trial will perceive at once the absurdity +of the charge, yet Ralegh was convicted and sentenced +to be hanged, drawn, and quartered. However, even +with all his hatred for the knight, King James dared +not carry out the sentence, but instead, kept him +imprisoned in the Tower.</p> + +<p>Here Ralegh still hankered after the treasures of +Guiana, and in 1611 he made a proposition to the +Government to send Captain Keymis to find the rich +gold mine which had been pointed out to him by an +Indian. If Keymis should live to arrive at the place +and fail to bring half a ton or more of that rich ore +of which he had shown a sample, Ralegh himself +would bear all the expense of the journey. "Though," +said he, "it be a difficult matter of exceeding difficulty +for any man to find the same acre of ground +again, in a country desolate and overgrown, which he +hath seen but once, and that sixteen years since—which +were hard enough to do upon Salisbury Plain—yet +that your lordships may be satisfied of the truth, +I am contented to adventure all I have (but my +reputation) upon Keymis's memory."</p> + +<p>This proposition was rejected, and the poor knight +lingered on in the Tower, attended during part of the +time by two Guiana Indians, Harry and Leonard +Regapo. In 1616, however, he at last recovered his +liberty on condition that he went to Guiana and +brought back gold, but at the same time the king refused +to pardon him. Nevertheless he took up the +matter with an amount of enthusiasm which showed +his entire confidence in its ultimate success. All his +own money and as much of his wife's as could be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> +spared was spent in fitting out the expedition, and he +also got contributions from many of his friends. The +king even went so far as to give him a commission to +undertake a voyage to the south parts of America, or +elsewhere in America, inhabited by heathen and +savage people, with all the necessary rights of +government and jurisdiction; yet with all this the +old sentence hung over his head.</p> + +<p>The expedition of fourteen vessels started in March, +1617, but even from the commencement the voyage +was disastrous. First a gale was encountered, which +drove the fleet to take refuge in Cork Harbour, +where it lay until August. This seems to have put a +damper on the commander, who now began to realise +how much depended on his success. He was twenty-two +years older than when he went on his first voyage +to Guiana, and most of those years he had spent in +captivity. Is it any wonder that when the excitement +attendant on his release had gone off he became sick +and utterly prostrated? Such was his condition when +the fleet arrived at Cayenne, where he went to look +for his Indian boy Harry, who had gone back to his +people and was now wanted as interpreter.</p> + +<p>So low was Ralegh's condition that he had to be +carried ashore, and although he soon became a little +better under a course of fresh meat and fruits, he +never wholly recovered. So great was his weakness, +both of mind and body, that he deputed Keymis to +lead the party up the Orinoco, while he rested at +Cayenne; in a few days he would go on to Trinidad +and wait there until they returned. Keymis accordingly +went on, accompanied by young Walter Ralegh,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> +a number of other gentlemen, and four hundred +soldiers. They arrived at the site of the supposed +gold mine without accident, but found that since the +first expedition some Spaniards had built "a town of +sticks, covered with leaves," and this stood in the way +of their approach to the mine. Possibly Keymis +now thought of his master's expression in regard to +St. Joseph, and did not care to "savour of an ass" by +leaving the enemy to interfere with his work. He +therefore attacked this town of St. Thome, and set it +on fire. Unfortunately young Ralegh was killed in +the fight, and the thought of how he could tell this +bad news preyed upon the mind of Keymis until all +relish for gold-seeking was lost. The Spaniards took +to the bush, from whence they sallied forth on any +small party of the English, and ultimately put them +into a state of confusion. The mine could not be +found, the adventurers began to complain that they +had been fooled, and Keymis was so troubled that he +seemed neither to know nor care anything about +treasure-seeking.</p> + +<p>Ralegh had meanwhile arrived in the Gulf of Paria, +where he received the news of the burning of St. +Thome and the death of his son from some Indians. +Presently Keymis arrived, utterly dejected, to find +his master broken down and more woe-begone than +himself. Ralegh said he was undone, and that +Keymis was entirely to blame. Not even a sample of +ore—the king would believe him a liar and a cheat. +Then, this attack on a Spanish town! Did not +Keymis remember that these were not the days of +the virgin queen, when to "singe the Spaniard's +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80-81]</a><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81"></a></span>beard" was worthy of praise? Did he not know +that James was friendly with the king of Spain and +wanted to get from him a princess for his son +Henry?</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 445px;"> +<img src="images/p080.jpg" width="445" height="322" alt="GOLD HUNTING." title="" /> +<span class="caption">GOLD HUNTING.<br /> +(<i>From Gottfried's "Reisen."</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p>Keymis had been the intimate friend of Ralegh +through all his troubles. He had remained faithful +even when threatened with the rack at the time of +the trial. As a kind of steward he had administered +the prisoner's estate, and was a trusted friend and +confidant of the family. He had seen young Walter +grow up to manhood, and now through his fault the +youth had been killed. For the first time the bereaved +father was angry with his captain; perhaps +if Keymis died the whole blame would be laid upon +his shoulders, and Ralegh be exonerated. He went +to the cabin allotted to him, loaded a pistol, shot +himself, and then, as he feared the wound was not +mortal, finished the suicide by driving a long knife +into his heart.</p> + +<p>Thus died poor Keymis, but unfortunately this +did not make any difference to his master. If Ralegh +had been prepared to throw all the responsibility on +his lieutenant, the king could only be satisfied with +treasure. Even if James had been inclined to over-look +the affair, the Spanish ambassador would not +condone such an offence. He is said to have rushed +into the royal presence with the cry of "Piracy! +piracy! piracy!" at the same time demanding the +immediate capture and punishment of the raiders. It +followed, therefore, that Ralegh was arrested immediately +on his return, and finally executed under the +old sentence, but by decapitation instead of hanging.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span></p> + +<p>His last days were passed with resignation and +fortitude. His old spirit was entirely broken, and +although he petitioned the king for grace and pardon, +he did so in a hopeless way. He had many sympathisers, +and to satisfy them the king's printers issued +a little book entitled "A Declaration of the Demeanour +and Carriage of Sir Walter Raleigh," obviously +inspired by the king himself. Here was a thing +unheard of before or since; a sovereign excusing +himself for his actions! If anything were required to +prove the prisoner's innocence, this was sufficient. +Did James want to salve his own conscience, or was +it intended to satisfy those who clamoured on account +of the injustice of the execution? No doubt many of +the old sea dogs who had served under Drake and +Hawkins were still living, and remembered when +Plymouth bells rang at the news of fresh arrivals +from the Indies. "But now, forsooth, you must not +burn down a thatched hovel without a great to-do +being made." If Spain wanted peace, why did her +people murder a ship's company in cold blood a little +while before? Out upon it! The good old days had +passed and England was going to ruin.</p> + +<p>However, even King James's sneaking friendship +for Spain could not keep back colonisation altogether. +Something like moderation was introduced, and only +pirates pure and simple kept up the old traditions. +As for the king he hardly knew how to steer, what +with the petitions for reprisals from English seamen +on the one hand, and complaints of the Spanish +ambassadors on the other. The result of this want +of policy is well shown in the case of Roger North<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> +one of the adventurers in the last expedition of +Ralegh, who, in 1619, wished to re-establish the +colony in the Oyapok, which had virtually sunk to +nothing. An association called the Amazon Company +was formed, and, notwithstanding Spanish protests, +the king granted "Letters Patent," under which +North got up an expedition in four vessels. Then +the Spanish ambassador began to storm, and the +weak king revoked the patent, calling upon the members +of the Company to renounce their rights. North, +who had been warned that something was going on, +hurried up his preparations, and was off so quickly +that he sailed on the 30th of April, 1620, fifteen days +before the proclamation revoking his license was +published.</p> + +<p>On his return in January following he was arrested +and sent to the Tower, where he remained until July. +Meanwhile his cargo from Guiana was seized on the +ground that it had been obtained from Spanish possessions, +but with all his willingness to oblige Spain +the king could not get the case proven. It followed, +therefore, that North was released, and his goods restored, +but as the cargo was mainly tobacco it had +become much damaged by neglect.</p> + +<p>This detention of North, and the consequent delay +in sending out supplies to the Oyapok, led to the +downfall of the infant colony. Hearing nothing from +England the settlers became disheartened, and if it +had not happened that Dutch traders arrived there +occasionally they would have been starved. Even as +it was one left after another until few remained, and +when, six years later, "the Company of Noblemen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> +and Gentlemen of England for the Plantation of +Guiana" was formed, the settlement had to be commenced +anew. However, some of those who left +carried the English flag to the island of St. Christopher's, +where a settlement was commenced in 1624 +by Thomas Warner. Thus, as Ralegh was the father +of English colonisation, so his beloved Guiana became +the parent of the British West Indies.</p> + +<p>James the First died in March, 1625, and with him +went the English subservience to Spain, never to be +restored. During his reign British enterprise had +been kept back; now it broke down all obstructions. +True, New England and Bermuda were settled during +his reign, but they owed little to him or his government. +As soon as the Royal obstructionist was dead, +colonisation schemes came to the front. Before even +a month had passed, on the 14th of April, John Coke +came forward with a proposition to incorporate a +company for the defence and protection of the West +Indies, for establishing a trade there, and for fitting +out a fleet to attack the Spanish settlements. About +the same time, also, the Attorney-General made some +"notes" on the advantages derived by the Spaniards +and Dutch from their West Indian trade, showing +that it was neither safe nor profitable to England for +them to remain absolute lords of those parts, and +suggesting that the new king should entertain the +matter and openly interpose, or else permit it to be +done underhand; then if it prospered he could make +it his own at pleasure.</p> + +<p>What was done in these particular cases does not +appear, but that a new policy was introduced is cer<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span>tain. +In September following the case of St. Christopher's +was brought before the Privy Council, which +apparently confirmed what had been done, in taking +possession of the island. In the "information" laid +over it was stated that Thomas Warner had discovered +that island, as well as Nevis, Barbados, and +Montserrat, and had begun the planting and colonising +of these islands, until then only inhabited by +savages. King Charles was asked to take them under +his royal protection and grant Thomas Warner their +custody as his lieutenant, with the usual powers of +jurisdiction.</p> + +<p>The result was not altogether to the liking of the +petitioners, Ralph Merrifield and Thomas Warner, +for in July, 1627, a grant of all the Caribbees was +made to the Earl of Carlisle. This was sweeping +enough, however, to suit those who wanted English +colonies, however it ignored the rights of the first +settlers in St. Kitt's and Barbados, which latter +island had been settled a few months after the first.</p> + +<p>Now, also, Roger North came forward with his +story and got the revoked patent renewed, so that he +could go on with the settlement in the Oyapok. For +a time it did very well, but the tide had turned in +favour of the islands, and Guiana was soon abandoned +to the Dutch and French.</p> + +<p>The most important of the two islands first colonised +was Barbados, which, fortunately for her comfort, +never suffered from such calamities as befel the +sister island of St. Christopher's. As far as the +English were concerned Barbados was discovered by +a vessel going out to Leigh's settlement, in Guiana, in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> +1605. A pillar was erected with the inscription, +"James, King of England and this island," but +nothing was done in the way of a settlement until +immediately after Warner commenced planting in +St. Kitt's. The most intimate connection existed +between Barbados and Guiana from the earliest +times, as in fact it does to the present day, for +Captain Powell, the commander of the little company +of pioneers, sent to his Dutch friend, Groenwegel, in +Essequebo, for a party of Arawak Indians to teach +the new-comers how to plant provisions, cotton, and +tobacco.</p> + +<p>In 1630 another group of islands was added by the +granting of a patent to the "Governor and Company of +Adventurers for the Plantation of the Islands of Providence, +Henrietta, and the adjacent islands." Under +this charter possession was taken of the Bahamas, but +little was done in the way of settling them for about +a century. Thus West Indian colonisation was commenced, +and claims made to all the smaller islands +on behalf of England.</p> + +<p>But it is not to be supposed that France and +Holland were going to let everything go by default—on +the contrary, they soon began to settle in some +of the very islands which had been granted to the +Earl of Carlisle. The Dutch, as we have seen, were +traders from the beginning, preferring the so-called +contraband traffic with the natives and Spanish +colonists to anything like the raids of English or +French. Yet, in their plodding way they went on +steadily, and as early as the year 1600 took possession +of the island of St. Eustatius. When the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> +Spaniards awoke to the fact that the Dutch were +injuring their trade, they began to enforce all the +old prohibitions and seized the smugglers. But the +Hollander commenced to feel his power, and gave +his enemy several lessons, which made him feel that +the United Provinces with their symbol of a bundle +of darts were not to be despised.</p> + +<p>In 1615 the Dutch took the capital of Porto Rico, +and in 1621 their West India Company was formed +with territorial and trading rights over all the unoccupied +countries of Africa and America. Suddenly as it +were the despised Hollander became a power in the +West Indies, and the Company was soon strong +enough to conquer Brazil, which it must be remembered +was, with Portugal and all her colonies, then in +the hands of Spain. About the year 1627 Piet Heyn +destroyed a Spanish fleet in Mataça Bay, Cuba, the +booty from which was something enormous. Altogether, +the West India Company was said to have +captured 547 vessels, mainly off the coast of America, +the prize money from which amounted to thirty +million guilders (£2,500,000), while the damage to +Spain was at least six times as much.</p> + +<p>Now also the French began to claim their share. +In 1625 Mons. d'Enambuc went on a piratical expedition +to the Caribbean Sea, but without any intention +of founding a colony. However, off the Cayman's +islands he was attacked by a Spanish galleon of +much superior force, and although he succeeded at +last in driving her off, his vessel was so crippled that +he had to put into St. Christopher's for repairs. Here +he found Warner already established, and with him a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> +few Frenchmen. On account of his condition and +the beauty of the island, he became inclined to settle, +and as the English and French were then on good +terms, Warner saw no objection. The consequence +was that St. Kitt's became divided between the two +nationalities, with results in the future most disastrous +to both.</p> + +<p>At first, however, the assistance of the French was +very welcome. The Caribs were still a power in the +smaller islands and gave a great deal of trouble to the +young colony. At first they were friendly, but when +the settlers wished to oppress them by taking away +their lands and compelling them to supply provisions, +open war began. Hearing from an Indian woman +that a conspiracy was forming to destroy all the white +men, Warner determined to be beforehand with them. +He massacred a hundred and twenty of the men, took +the women as slaves, and drove the remainder off the +island. But these powerful savages were by no mean +conquered, for those who escaped soon came back +with three or four thousand of their friends from +neighbouring islands, and at first it appeared as if the +whites would have been utterly exterminated. By a +supreme effort of both French and English, however, +this great invasion was repelled, the defenders killing +about two thousand, and capturing fifteen large periaguas, +with a loss to themselves of about a hundred, +most of whom died from poisoned arrows. This was +a bond of union between French and English, and +Warner and d'Enambuc amicably divided the island +between them.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 444px;"> +<img src="images/p089.jpg" width="444" height="306" alt="CARIB ATTACK ON A SETTLEMENT" title="" /> +<span class="caption">CARIB ATTACK ON A SETTLEMENT<br /> +(<i>From Gottfried's "Reisen."</i>)</span> +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h3><a name="V" id="V"></a>V</h3> + +<h3>BUCCANEERS, FILIBUSTERS, AND PIRATES</h3> + + +<p>Now that settlements were commenced the old +system of piracy was somewhat discountenanced by +the home governments, and many of the adventurers +began to become a little more civilised. But there +was still a large number of them who became known +as buccaneers, filibusters, freebooters, marooners, and +brethren of the coast, who continued to worry the +Spaniards, and even to attack other nationalities on +occasion. They had taken to the trade, and, when +no longer able to carry it on in a quasi-legitimate +manner, did so on their own lines.</p> + +<p>The claim of Spain to the whole of America was +the great cause of offence. Had she been content +with what her people could occupy, there would have +been little trouble, but the "dog in the manger" +policy could hardly be recognised by other nations. +It followed, therefore, that when complaints were +made to France and England of the ravages on the +Spanish coasts, the sovereigns told the king of Spain +to protect his own shores, disclaiming on their own +parts any responsibility whatever.</p> + +<p>The earliest accounts of the buccaneers are con<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span>fused +with those of the French corsairs, of which +mention has been already made. They sailed along +the coast from one island to another, trading a little, +capturing Spanish vessels, fighting the guarda-costas, +and now and again repairing to some out-of-the-way +place to put their ships in order or even to assist the +Caribs in their raids. The advantages of combination +were soon felt, and with these also the necessity for +places of rendezvous. Even the English adventurers +became accustomed to obtain wood and water from +Dominica, but this island was not conveniently +situated for the French corsairs. They wanted an +uninhabited place near enough to Hispaniola and the +track of the Spanish vessels for them to be quickly +pounced upon and for the corsairs to as quickly +escape. Then there must be a food supply, and on +the great island of Hispaniola were countless herds +of wild cattle which ranged over a wilderness utterly +depopulated.</p> + +<p>The palmy days of the Hispaniola planter were +over, and although he imported negro slaves to some +extent, he was virtually ruined. One after another +left for the newly discovered countries on the Main, +and for Peru and Mexico, leaving the island to a few +merchants and wealthy planters, who found it to +their interest to remain. Hispaniola was little more +than a house of call on the road to the treasure +countries, which meant that although the port of +St. Domingo was fortified, the greater portion of the +island was open to any one who chose to occupy it.</p> + +<p>Salt was a scarce commodity in those times, but it +could be obtained in some of the smaller islands,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> +notably Tortuga, which for that reason became the +resort of the buccaneers. But the Indians had learnt +how to preserve meat without this useful substance, +by smoking it over a fire of green branches and +leaves. Even Europeans knew something of this +process, although we believe they never preserved +their beef and bacon entirely without salt as did the +Indians their game. The process was very simple. +Four sticks with forked ends were pushed into the +ground, and on these uprights a sort of rack of other +sticks was laid to make an open platform, where the +pieces of meat were laid above a fire until well dried +and impregnated with smoke. This stage was called +a boucan, or barbecue, and from their using it to +prepare supplies for their voyages the corsairs became +known as buccaneers.</p> + +<p>There were no tinned provisions in those days, nor +had the proper means of keeping food on long +voyages been yet perfected. It followed, therefore, +that a food supply in the Indies had to be provided, +and the Spaniards unintentionally did good service +to their enemies by placing hogs on most of the +islands to breed and be available in emergencies.</p> + +<p>It is obvious that the hunting of semi-wild animals +and curing their meat required time, and for that +reason a division of labour was initiated. While one +party went cruising in search of Spanish vessels, +another ranged the country to capture and prepare +the supplies against their return. Thus a rendezvous +became necessary, and in time plantations were +established in this neighbourhood to gradually develop +into a settlement. Now and again the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> +Spaniards discovered these places, but as they were +generally of little value, their loss was of no importance; +if destroyed the buccaneers could easily +escape to another locality. When the enemy burnt +their vessels, they easily built canoes with which they +soon captured others and became as strong as before. +The hunters grew to like their hardy life with its +perfect liberty, and became so inured to the climate +and open air as to be utterly unlike the effeminate +planters. They were even little subject to the +diseases of the country, and could live for months +at a time on nothing but meat. As for clothes, they +made these from the skins of animals, and all they +really required from outside was powder and lead for +their firearms.</p> + +<p>They became known as the brethren of the coast +from their custom of each choosing one comrade as a +bosom friend and brother. Everything gained by +either was common to both, and the company were +very strict in enforcing their law against unfaithfulness +in a companion, or unfair dealing in any way +among themselves. Sometimes they marooned a +culprit by leaving him alone on some small island to +die of hunger, or perhaps to become a "Crusoe" for +many years. The wounded received compensation +according to a fixed tariff, from the common stock or +from contributions; thus the loss of an arm was +valued at five hundred crowns, and other mutilations +at corresponding rates.</p> + +<p>As the attacks of the Spaniards became more +common, the small bands united, and division of +labour became more exact. Some were hunters of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> +wild boars, others of cattle, a few became planters, +but the main body were always sea rovers. At first +the hunters were on good terms with the Spanish +planters and entered into engagements to supply +them with meat. A party would go off into the +interior and stay away for months at a time, +eventually returning with large supplies borne on +the backs of their horses. During all this time they +lived in rough shelters which could be erected in an +afternoon, and were much exposed to the vicissitudes +of the weather. Now they made up for their long +term of privation by carousing to their hearts' +content, and when drunk, often fought and killed +each other. In the settlements there were generally +a few women, and these often became the cause of +contentions; there were also bond-servants who were +treated most cruelly.</p> + +<p>Sometimes they made incursions on the Spanish +settlements, which led to stronger efforts for their +extermination that at last considerably reduced their +numbers. In fact, had it not been for the continual +accessions they would soon have died out, or have +given up their trade and settled down as planters. +Hispaniola became at last almost untenable, for the +Spaniards, unable to find any other way of putting +them down, organised several hunting parties with +the view to utterly destroy the wild cattle and thus +deprive them of their means of living. Not that this +was easily done, for it took many years, during which +the hunting parties from both sides fought and killed +each other, committing enormities which made the +quarrel all the more bitter.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span></p> + +<p>About the year 1632 a party of buccaneers +captured the island of Tortuga from the Spaniards, +the garrison of twenty-five men surrendering without +a blow. Here was now the grand rendezvous of the +French, for which it was perfectly suitable from its +proximity to the food supply and the track of the +Spanish vessels. It was situated on the north of the +western portion of Hispaniola, and not very well +suited for plantations, although good tobacco was +grown there. There were, however, plenty of sea +fowl and turtle to be had, as well as their eggs, which +formed a large portion of the diet of the inhabitants.</p> + +<p>This island became a veritable pandemonium—the +sink of the West Indies. It was the place of call for +rovers of all nations, the market for their booty, and +the storehouse for everything in the way of supplies. +The merchants pandered to the tastes of their +customers, and drinking and gambling went on +continually. But in 1638 it was surprised by the +Spaniards, who began to be alarmed at this nest of +pirates at their very doors. They chose a time when +most of the rovers were away on a cruise, and the +buccaneers gone hunting in Hispaniola. All they +captured were killed—even those who surrendered +being hanged as pirates. Only a few escaped by +hiding among the rocks and bushes to come forth +after the enemy had left, which they did without +leaving a garrison.</p> + +<p>A grand attempt to expel the hunters from the +main island was now organised, in which a corps of +five hundred lancers ranged the island in bands of +fifties. Many of the buccaneers were killed, but the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> +remainder combined together under an Englishman +named Willis and again took possession of Tortuga.</p> + +<p>From this rendezvous near Hispaniola the main +passages between the islands were under observation, +but a similar station was required near the Isthmus, +and this was established about 1630 in the Bay of +Campeachy. Like that at Tortuga its beginnings are +lost in obscurity. At first one or more of the small +islands or keys was used on occasion—later fortifications +were erected, and a watch always kept for the +enemy. The excuse for the settlement was the logwood +trade, but this did not become of much importance +until after the English conquest of Jamaica.</p> + +<p>Like the true buccaneers these pirates were fond +of hunting, but their game was principally Indians, +whom they attacked and carried off from the Main, +the men to sell to the plantations and the women +to keep for themselves. When they arrived after a +cruise and sold their booty, they would have a jolly +time with drinking, gambling, and firing of guns, +until the island would seem to be the habitation of +devils rather than human beings.</p> + +<p>There were also other pirate resorts, notably the +Virgin Islands and the Bahamas, but these were +generally used only by one company, and never rose +to the position of general resorts. It is to these that +most of the romances refer, but the stories of Pirate +and Treasure islands rarely have much foundation in +fact.</p> + +<p>How privateers became pirates is well shown by a +case that occurred in the latter half of the seventeenth +century. A vessel went cruising from the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> +Carolinas, and after being out for eighteen months +had gained so few prizes that the crew began to +complain. After discussing the situation, they resolved +to try the South Sea, where they hoped to +find the Spaniards less prepared. Meeting with very +bad weather at the entrance of the Strait of Magellan, +they were, however, obliged to turn back, and then +the majority decided to become pirates. Eight men +who refused to agree were marooned on the island +of Fernando Po, their late comrades leaving them a +small boat in which they expected to be able to get +to some English colony.</p> + +<p>The vessel left, and commenced her piratical work +at once by capturing a Portuguese ship larger than +herself, the crew being brought and landed on the +same island. In the night the Portuguese made off, +taking with them the Englishmen's boat as well as +their own, leaving the eight privateers to do the best +they could. However, they were not easily daunted, +and at once began to cut down trees and build a sloop +of four tons, which they finished in six weeks, meanwhile +living on sea fowl and their eggs, which were +plentiful. Finally they sailed for Tobago, but missing +that island got to Tortuga, where they arrived almost +perishing with hunger and thirst, having had nothing +to eat or drink for six days. Even then they were +not discouraged, but after resting awhile, set sail in +the same boat for New England, passing along the +Spanish islands, often unable to land for water on +account of the enemy, and lying under cover of the +mangroves, to be almost devoured by mosquitoes. +Even with all this care they were taken at last,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> +stripped, thrust down in the hold of a Spanish +<i>guarda-costa</i>, and finally kept as slaves in the island +of Cuba.</p> + +<p>In the early years of the seventeenth century few +of the adventurers had any commissions, but as the +mother countries began to establish settlements, letters +of marque were granted when there was a war. The +corsairs and pirates then became privateers, only to go +back to their old trade when peace was nominally +restored. Some played fast and loose with these +commissions, sometimes having both French and +English at the same time, either to be used according +to circumstances. The French Governors went so +far as to sell these documents signed and sealed, but +without names, so that they passed from hand to +hand ready to be filled up when the pirate wished to +escape the yard-arm. The young colonies were too +weak to incur their displeasure—in fact they were glad +to encourage their visits, as the settlers could always +pick up good bargains when they sold their booty. +Yet, with all that, there was a dread of them, even +among their own countrymen, which prevented that +feeling of safety which best consists with the progress +of a colony.</p> + +<p>We can say little of individuals, as there were so +many, but we may mention a few of the most striking +characters and their daring exploits. They inspired +such dread among the Spaniards that at last the +latter hardly dared to defend themselves against them, +but on their approach immediately surrendered. If +the cargo was rich, quarter was granted, but if otherwise, +or anything was found secreted, the whole com<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span>pany, +officers, crew, and passengers, were forced to +leap overboard. Pierre Legrand with his twenty-eight +men once attacked a great Spanish galleon, +and before going alongside scuttled his own vessel so +that it sunk as the pirates leapt on to the enemy's +deck. With no possibility of retreat the men fought +like devils and quickly got possession of the galleon, +with the usual result.</p> + +<p>When other nations had compelled respect from +Spain their vessels were sometimes chartered to carry +rich cargoes, which thus sailed under the protection +of another flag. But the pirates were not to be +cheated so easily, for they had their spies on the +look-out, and often managed to glean information. +On one occasion Captains Michael de Basco and +Brouage heard of two Dutch vessels leaving Carthagena +with treasure and at once followed, attacked +and captured them. Exasperated at being beaten +by a force much smaller than their own, the Dutch +captains told Michael that he could not have overcome +them if he had been alone. "Very well," said +the audacious Frenchman, "let us begin the fight +again, and Captain Brouage shall look on. But if I +conquer I will not only have the Spanish silver you +carry, but your own ships as well." The Dutch were +not inclined to accept this challenge, but made off as +soon as they could after the treasure had been taken +into the pirate vessels, fearing they might otherwise +lose their opportunity.</p> + +<p>Captain Lawrence was once unexpectedly overtaken +by two Spanish sixty-gun ships, the crews of +which numbered fifteen hundred. Addressing his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> +men, he said—"You have experience enough to be +aware of your danger, and too much courage to fear. +On this occasion we must avail ourselves of every +circumstance, hazard everything, and attack and +defend at the same time. Valour, artifice, rashness, +and even despair itself must now be employed. Let +us fear the disgrace of a defeat; let us dread the cruelty +of our enemy; and let us fight that we may escape +him." After he was applauded with loud cheers, +Lawrence took aside one of the bravest of his men, +and in the presence of all, gave him strict orders to +fire the gunpowder at a given signal, thus telling them +plainly they must fight or be blown up. Meanwhile +the enemy had approached very close, and Lawrence, +ranging his men on both sides of the vessel, steered +between the two great monsters, firing a broadside +on either hand as he passed, which they could not +return for fear of damaging each other. He did not +succeed in capturing them, but they were so demoralised +by his determined attitude, and the number of +killed and wounded, that they were glad to make +off.</p> + +<p>Montbar was a Frenchman who had heard of the +atrocities of the Spaniards and the exploits of the +buccaneers, and determined to go out to the West +Indies to join in the fray. On his voyage from +France he met a Spanish vessel which he attacked +and boarded with a sabre in his hand. Passing twice +from bow to stern, he carved his way through the +enemy, entirely reckless of danger, and by his +example animated his comrades until the vessel was +taken. Then standing apart while the spoil was being<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> +divided, he gloated with savage pleasure over the +corpses that lay on the deck.</p> + +<p>Arrived at Hispaniola he heard from the buccaneers +that they could do little in the way of planting because +of the continual attacks on their settlements. "Why +then," said Montbar, roughly, "do you tamely submit +to such insults?" "We do not!" they answered; +"the Spaniards have experienced what kind of men +we are, and therefore take advantage of the time when +we go hunting. But we are going to join with some +of our companions, who have been even worse treated +than ourselves, and then we shall have hot work." +"If such be the case let me lead you," said Montbar, +"not as a commander, but first in the post of +danger."</p> + +<p>They were quite willing to have him as leader, and +the very same day he went at the head of a party to +find the enemy. Meeting a small body of Spaniards +he rushed upon them with such fury that hardly one +escaped, and this at once justified them in their choice. +He afterwards became such a terror all over the West +Indies as to be known as "the Exterminator."</p> + +<p>Lolonois was another ruffian, who commenced his +career by taking a Spanish frigate with only two +canoes and twenty-two men. This vessel had sailed +from Havana especially to put down the buccaneers, +and had on board a negro executioner who was +engaged to hang the prisoners. Hearing this from +the negro, Lolonois ordered all the Spaniards to be +brought before him, and going down the line, he +struck off one head after another, licking his sword +after each blow. He afterwards went to Port au<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> +Prince, where four vessels were fitting out for his +capture. These he took and threw all their crews +into the sea, except one man, whom he sent to the +Governor of Havana with the news, and a warning +that he would treat the Governor himself in the same +way if he had the opportunity.</p> + +<p>After this he ran the best prizes aground and sailed +for Tortuga in the frigate, where he joined Michael +de Basco. With four hundred and forty men this +worthy pair sailed for the Main, where they plundered +the coast of Venezuela, set fire to Gibraltar, and held +Maracaybo for ransom. They carried off all the +crosses, pictures, plate, ornaments, and even bells +from the churches, with the intention of using them +in a great cathedral to be erected on Tortuga.</p> + +<p>Although the buccaneers were mostly French they +were not confined to that nationality. The famous +or notorious Captain Morgan was a Welshman, who +began his career in the West Indies as a bond-servant. +One of his greatest exploits was the capture +of Porto Bello, which had taken the place of Nombre +de Dios after that town had been burnt by Drake. +He even out-did Drake and every other adventurer +before him by storming Panama, from whence he +obtained a very rich booty. Here he fell in love with +a Spanish lady, who, however, threatened to stab herself +rather than yield to his embraces. Even when +he tried the gentlest measures which such a ruffian +could think of, she still refused to yield, so that he +had ultimately to comply with the wishes of his companions +and leave her. Panama was burnt, the +retreat across the isthmus safely performed without<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> +any serious misadventure, and Morgan sailed away +to Jamaica with the lion's share of the plunder.</p> + +<p>In this great expedition the buccaneers of all +nations united to form a combination hitherto unknown. +But, as this was the first time that such a +thing had occurred, so also was it the last. As for +Morgan his career was ended; his comrades charged +him with treachery and made it unsafe for him to +come within their reach. He therefore settled down +in Jamaica, made himself right with the authorities +there and in England, was knighted by King Charles +the Second, and professed now to have a great dislike +to piracy. On two occasions Sir Henry Morgan +became acting Governor of Jamaica, and in that +capacity did his best to discountenance buccaneering.</p> + +<p>In 1683 a great expedition was organised at +Tortuga by Van Horn, a Fleming, noted for his +courage and ferocity. In the heat of an engagement +he would pace the deck, and urge his men to fight by +shooting any one who even flinched from a ball. He +thus made himself a terror to cowards and the admiration +of the brave; like Montbar, gaining the respect +and confidence of his followers. Like the French +leader also, he was careless about his own share of +the booty, leaving everything to his men, which +naturally increased his popularity. With twelve +hundred men in six vessels he sailed for Vera Cruz, +and surprised the town at night. Most of the inhabitants +took refuge in the churches, and the buccaneers +posted sentries with barrels of gunpowder in +front of each, giving orders to blow up the buildings +on the least sign of an attempt to escape. After<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> +plundering the houses they demanded about half a +million pounds from the prisoners as ransom for +their lives and liberties. This was not obtained, however, +for while waiting the collection a large body of +troops was seen approaching from the interior, and a +fleet of seventeen vessels came into the harbour from +Spain. Yet the buccaneers were determined to get +something towards the ransom, and to this end seized +fifteen hundred slaves, with which they quietly sailed +away in defiance of the enemy, promising to call +again for the balance of the ransom. The Spanish +fleet let them pass without firing a single gun, and +they went back to Tortuga, there to spend a year in +rioting and carousing.</p> + +<p>When their money was all spent they resolved to +try the most arduous of adventures, a raid on the +ports of the Great South Sea. And it happened +curiously that at that very time the English pirates +were getting ready for a similar venture, without +either having knowledge of that of the other party. +About four thousand men were engaged, some going +by way of the Straits of Magellan and others across +the isthmus. The English and French met, and at +first agreed to work together, but for want of one +leader who could command and be respected by both +parties, the expedition proved almost a failure. Possibly +also the French had not forgotten Morgan's +treachery, and this caused distrust and prevented +any cordial feeling.</p> + +<p>Those who travelled across the isthmus stole boats +on the other side, and with them captured larger +vessels, until this little frequented sea became almost<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> +as dangerous to Spanish ships as the Caribbean. +Most of the smaller ports were surprised, and even +Guayaquil was captured, mainly because they were not +provided with forts and other defences. In fact, the +people were so unacquainted with war and so wrapped +up by the supposed security of their position, that +even when the alarm was given little could be done. +Silver became so common that nothing but gold, +pearls, and precious stones would satisfy the spoilers, +yet with all their easy conquests they got little real +benefit. Some died of sickness, and many from the +results of drunkenness and debauchery. The storms +of Cape Horn and the Straits wrecked several vessels, +and drowned both spoil and spoilers, while those who +attempted to return by land were equally unfortunate. +They died in the bush of fever and dysentery, or were +cut off by ambuscades of the enemy, often losing their +booty if they escaped with their lives.</p> + +<p>What a journey across the isthmus really meant at +that time is well exemplified in the case of Lionel +Wafer. In 1681 he was a surgeon on board an +English vessel under Captain Sharp, one of those +privateers who went cruising in the South Sea. +After spending some time there the party divided, +one portion deciding to cross overland, and the other +to continue the cruise.</p> + +<p>Wafer went with those who intended crossing the +isthmus, the whole numbering forty-four white men +and three Indians. They marched from the Pacific +shore one afternoon, and towards night arrived at the +foot of a hill, where they put up several rough sheds. +Rain had already begun to fall—such rain as is only<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> +known in the tropics—and they had to crouch under +these imperfect shelters until midnight, with streams +of water running down their backs and rivulets flowing +about their feet. By morning they felt less discomfort +and were glad to warm their chilled limbs by +walking up the hill. Here they came upon an Indian +path which led to a village, where they were gratified +with food and a drink made of Indian corn. After +resting awhile they agreed with one of the Indians to +guide them on the next day's journey, and that night +rested in the village.</p> + +<p>Next morning they went on again, and at mid-day +arrived at an Indian hut, the owner of which was so +morose and surly that at first he refused to have +anything to do with them. After they had spoken +kindly and asked him to guide them on their journey, +he roughly answered that he was prepared to lead +them to the Spanish settlements. This of course +would never do, and they offered him beads, money, +axes, and knives to gain his good-will, but all without +effect, until a sky-blue petticoat was dangled before +the eyes of his wife. This turned the scale, for her +persuasions being added to theirs, he at last consented +to procure a guide, excusing himself from the task on +the plea that he was lame from a cut. He wished to +detain them with him for the day, as it still rained, +but they were in so great a dread of being discovered +by the enemy that, having obtained the guide, they +marched three miles farther before stopping for the +night.</p> + +<p>On the fourth morning the weather was fairer, and +they travelled for twelve miles over hills and through<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> +slushy morasses, crossing one river after another to +the number of about thirty. Rain poured down +again in the afternoon and during the greater part of +the night, so that they had much ado to keep their +fires from going out. What with the discomforts of +their situation, the want of proper food, and the +chilliness preceding intermittent fever, they even forgot +for the time their fears of the Spaniards. However, +as the sun rose they went on again until, after +travelling seven miles through the forest, they reached +the hut of a Spanish Indian, who supplied them +with yams, sweet potatoes, and plantains, but no meat +except the flesh of two monkeys, which they gave to +the weak and sickly.</p> + +<p>While resting here Wafer met with an accident. +One of the company, in drying some gunpowder on a +silver plate, carelessly placed it near the fire where he +was sitting, with the result that it exploded and tore +the skin and flesh from one of his thighs, rendering +him almost helpless. He had a few medicines in his +knapsack and dressed the wound as well as he could +under the circumstances, but rest and proper food +were needed, and these he could not have. The +consequence was that, after struggling along with the +others until he sank down exhausted and suffering +from excruciating torture, he was left behind with +two sick men at an Indian village, where they +were presently joined by two others who had broken +down.</p> + +<p>Observing the condition of Wafer's wound, the +Indians treated it with a poultice of chewed herbs +on a plantain leaf, and in twenty days it was healed.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> +Nevertheless, although they did him this kindness, +they were not over civil, but on the contrary treated +the five white men with contempt, throwing them +their refuse provisions as if they were dogs. One +young Indian proved kinder, and got them some ripe +bananas now and then, but the others were annoyed +because the main body had compelled some inhabitants +of the village to go with them as guides against +their will. The weather was then so bad that even +the Indians considered travelling almost impossible, +and this annoyed them all the more, especially when +the guides did not return.</p> + +<p>Day after day passed, and the Indians becoming +more incensed at the non-arrival of their people, +began to think of avenging themselves on Wafer +and his comrades. Thinking that the guides had +been murdered, they determined to burn them to +death, and even went so far as to erect a great pile +of wood for the purpose. But almost at the last +moment their chief interposed, and offered to send +away the Englishmen in charge of two guides.</p> + +<p>Accordingly they set out, their only food supply a +little dry Indian corn, and their only resting-place at +night the wet ground, still exposed to drenching rains +which fell every day. The third night they went to +sleep on a low mound, and in the morning woke to +find it a little island with water extending as far as +their eyes could reach. To add to their trouble, the +Indian guides had disappeared, leaving them to +remain here without shelter and almost starved for +three days. Then the waters fell and they commenced +the weary work of steering to the north by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> +means of a pocket compass—a task the difficulty of +which can only be appreciated by one who has attempted +it.</p> + +<p>However, they soon reached the bank of a deep +river, the stream of which was rushing along like a +mill race. Here a lately-felled tree lying across +showed them where their comrades had passed, and +they commenced to climb over astride as the trunk +was so slippery. One of the party was so weak and +so overburdened by four hundred pieces of eight +(silver dollars) that he fell, and was immediately +carried down the stream out of sight.</p> + +<p>Giving him up as lost, the four survivors went +wandering about, looking for the footprints of their +comrades, but could find no trace of them, probably +on account of the floods. Fearing a mistake, they +again crossed the river and recommenced the search +on the other side, where they were surprised to come +upon their lost companion sitting on the bank, +which he had managed to gain by grasping the +bough of a tree as he was borne swiftly past. Finding +no signs of a trail, they again went on working with +the compass as before. On the fifth day they had +nothing to eat but a few wild berries, and the day +following arrived at another great river where not +even a tree lay across to give them a passage. They +had only their long knives, but with them they set to +work and cut down bamboos, with which rafts were +made by binding the sticks with bush-ropes. They +had just finished and were resting awhile, when a +terrible storm came on. The rain fell as if from a cascade, +thunder rolled and lightning flashed, accompanied<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> +by a sulphurous odour which almost choked them. +There was no shelter but the trees of the forest, and +the fire was put out at once, leaving these half-starved +wretches to shiver and shake with ague all through +the afternoon and up to midnight.</p> + +<p>Then the waters began to rise, and in the darkness—that +total absence of light under the canopy of +foliage, where two men sitting together only know of +each other's presence by feeling, for the din of the +elements is absolutely deafening—Wafer began to +appreciate the fact that the swirl of the flood had +reached his feet. With no possibility of communicating +with the others, he felt his way to a hollow +silk-cotton tree, into which he crawled, and climbed +upon a heap of debris that stood in the centre. Here +he fell asleep from sheer exhaustion, or more probably, +perhaps, fainted. When he awoke he said it was +impossible for words to paint the terrors that overwhelmed +his mind. The water reached to his knees, +notwithstanding that the mound was five feet above +the ground level, and he was afraid it would reach +still higher. However, as the sun rose the flood went +down, and presently he was glad to crawl out and +stretch his chilled limbs. But he was all alone, and +at first thought his comrades had been drowned. +He shouted, but no answer came back, except the +echo of his own voice. Giving way to despair, he +threw himself on the buttress of a tree, from which +condition he was roused by the appearance of first +one and then another, until the little company was +again complete. They also had found similar refuges +and now came to look after their rafts.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span></p> + +<p>But the bundles of canes had become water-logged +and useless, so they resolved to retrace their steps if +possible to the Indian village. On their way they +unfortunately missed shooting a deer which lay beside +the path, and had nothing to eat but macaw berries +and the pith of a tree. Seeing the track of a wild +hog they followed that, and ultimately came upon +two provision fields. But even with this prospect of +food they were so much depressed that, although +perishing with hunger, they were afraid to venture +near the Indian huts, and lingered about for some +time. However, at last Wafer summoned enough +courage to go into one of them, when almost immediately +he was so affected by the close atmosphere +and the odour of some meat cooking over the fire, +that he fainted.</p> + +<p>The kindly Indians assisted in his recovery, and +gave him something to eat, when he was pleasantly +surprised to find there the very same guides on whose +account he and his comrades had been nearly roasted +to death. On telling them where the others were, +the Indians went out and brought back three, but +had to carry food to the fourth before he could gain +enough strength to walk the short distance. Here +they were treated with the greatest humanity and +tenderness, and after resting a week they again +started with four guides, to reach the same river that +had before checked their progress, in one day. Here, +finding a canoe, they proceeded up stream until, +arriving at the dwelling of the chief who had saved +them from torture, they were told it was impossible to +go on in such weather.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span></p> + +<p>Wafer and his companions stopped here for several +months—in fact the chief wished to retain them altogether. +As a physician, Wafer was respected and +loved; but at last, wishing to depart, by repeated +importunities and the promise to come back with +some good hunting-dogs, and then to marry the +chief's daughter, he was at last furnished with guides. +Over high mountains, along the edges of precipices, +and through dense forests they toiled until they came +to a river flowing north, on which they embarked, and +reached the shores of the Gulf of Darien two days +later. Here they were overjoyed to find an English +vessel, the crew of which gave them a hearty welcome, +making up to some extent for their long and perilous +journey.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span></p> + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h3><a name="VI" id="VI"></a>VI</h3> + +<h3>WAR IN THE YOUNG COLONIES</h3> + + +<p>At the beginning of the seventeenth century Spain +was nominally at peace with the other great powers, +except the Netherlands, which had not yet come to +the front. By the treaty of 1604 Queen Elizabeth +made up the English quarrel, and in 1609 even +Holland was conceded a truce for nine years.</p> + +<p>Thus amity was supposed to exist, and the raids +of licensed privateers came to an end. Yet there +was "no peace beyond the line." Not to mention +corsairs and pirates, the English were as determined +on their part to get a share of America as were +the Spaniards to keep them out if possible. The +founders of Virginia were resolute to lose their lives +rather than abandon so noble a colony. Even King +James dared not give it up, although in 1612 and the +following year there was a hot contention with the +Spanish Secretary of State on the matter. Spain was +discontented that the colony should have the royal +sanction, and at the same time demanded its removal, +accompanying this with a threat to drive out the +settlers, as well as those in the Bermudas. But +James could not admit the Papal Bull, and as the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span> +English were firm, the claimants of the whole of +America contented themselves with protests.</p> + +<p>In the West Indies, however, Spain went farther. +Here she had undoubtedly the right by discovery, +although not by actual possession, save in the Greater +Antilles. The weak English king who succeeded the +strong-minded Tudor princess was not prepared to +contest the Spanish supremacy here, but simply +answered the complaints against English adventurers +by disclaiming all responsibility. Neither England +nor France had officially taken the ground that only +actual possession created territorial rights, but many +Englishmen were clamouring loudly to that effect. +We have already noticed in another chapter James's +policy, or want of policy, and the change which took +place a few weeks after his death—we have now to +deal with the results of that alteration.</p> + +<p>In 1621 hostilities were renewed between Spain +and the Netherlands, but even during the nominal +truce the Dutch invaded Margarita, and demolished +the fort, but without, however, taking actual possession. +When the truce was over hostilities were +recommenced with a vigour that rather astonished +Spain, for in the interval the Netherlands had progressed +wonderfully. In 1625, the year of his +accession, Charles the First entered into a treaty, +offensive and defensive, with the United Provinces, +which of course brought England into collision with +Spain, and open war began again in the West Indies. +In 1629 a fleet of thirty-five vessels under Don +Frederic de Toledo conquered the island of St. +Christopher's and removed most of the English<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span> +settlers, only a few of whom managed to escape +to the mountains, while the French got off in two +of their vessels. The French refugees suffered a +great deal from the want of preparation for their +hurried flight, and arrived at the island of St. +Martin's perishing with hunger and thirst. Here +they dug holes in the sand and obtained a supply +of brackish water, which was so unwholesome that +some died from drinking it in excessive quantities. +After the Spaniards left they returned to St. Christopher's +to find a few English, who, annoyed at their +desertion, wanted to keep the island to themselves, +but the French were too numerous and soon took +possession of their old quarters.</p> + +<p>In 1632 the Dutch took possession of Tobago, and +two years later of Curaçao, which latter island soon +became their great stronghold in the West Indies, +and the principal depôt for the contraband traffic +with Venezuela. At that time no Spanish vessels +went to this part of the Main, but finding that the +trade was of some importance to the Dutch, the +authorities now granted licenses to drive their rivals +out of the market. But the Spanish traders could +not compete with the Hollanders, and this so annoyed +the authorities that they determined to extinguish +smuggling at any cost. This they were unable to do +by catching the delinquents, but they could punish +those who dealt with them. The result was the +infliction of heavy fines and confiscation, with disgraceful +punishments, from which many were ruined. +Yet with all that the trade was so lucrative to both +parties that neither was inclined to give it up—the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> +Dutch took care of themselves, while cheap commodities +could generally command a market, whatever +the risk. The fact was the mother country +imposed so many restrictions, and exacted such +heavy fees for licenses, that the cost of an article +was doubled or trebled as compared with that of +the Hollander.</p> + +<p>In 1627 a French Association was incorporated +under the title of "The Company of the Islands of +America." They appointed the Sieurs d'Enambuc +and du Rossy to settle the islands of St. Christopher's +and Barbados as well as others situated at the +"entrance of Peru." Nothing was done at Barbados, +as the English were already in possession, but +in 1634 examinations of Dominica, Martinique, and +Guadeloupe were made, which ended in the two +latter islands becoming French colonies in 1635.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, in November, 1630, a treaty was signed +at Madrid between England and Spain, after which +peace was supposed to again prevail. Nothing was +said about the West Indies, probably because Spain +knew that further protests were useless. Hardly had +this been settled before, in 1635, France declared war +against the common foe, and her corsairs could now +legally carry on their work of pillage and destruction. +In 1638 the island of St. Martin's, which had +been partly occupied by French and Dutch, was +captured by Spaniards, who expelled the inhabitants +and replaced them by a strong garrison. In the same +year Colonel Jackson, with a force from the English +islands, captured Santiago de la Vega in Jamaica, +and plundered it of everything valuable, after which,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span> +in retaliation, the island of New Providence, one of +the Bahamas, was captured by Spain. Neither place +was, however, occupied by the captors, who only did +as much damage as they could and then left.</p> + +<p>Almost from the commencement of their settlements +the French had quarrelled among themselves, +but until the struggle which ended in the execution of +Charles the First, there had been few difficulties in +the English islands. The Barbadians, it is true, +protested against the claim of the Earl of Carlisle, in +which they were joined by the people of St. Kitt's, +but this was settled without disturbance. Now, however, +the effects of "the great rebellion" began to be +felt across the seas, and disaffection towards the Parliament, +and loyalty to the king, were promoted by +a number of Royalists who had fled from the disturbance +in the mother country.</p> + +<p>In 1650 the West Indies were virtually in revolt +against the Parliament, and on the 10th of September +an embargo was declared in England against vessels +bound for the Caribbee Islands, Bermuda, and +Virginia. This was followed on the 27th by an Act +prohibiting all commerce with these colonies because +of their rebellion against the Commonwealth. Virginia +and the Bermudas had declared for King Charles +the Second after the execution of his father, and sent +emissaries to Barbados for the purpose of inciting +them to join in the revolt.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 551px;"> +<img src="images/p118.jpg" width="551" height="281" alt="ST. KITT'S." title="" /> +<span class="caption">ST. KITT'S.<br /> +(<i>From Andrews' "West Indies."</i>)</span> +</div> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span></p> + +<p>At the commencement of that year Barbados +was in a state of ferment, waiting only for the spark +which would plunge the island into civil war. Even +at this early period the inhabitants of Little England, +as it is called, were very loyal, and had something of +the conceit which has characterised them ever since. +True, there were "Roundheads" on the island, but +hitherto party differences had been put in the background—now +they were brought into prominence. +When the agent of the Bermudians asked that +Barbados should declare for the king, the majority +were in favour of the project, but, as a matter of +course, the others, who were of considerable importance, +refused. At first the Royalists went so far as +to advocate the banishment of their opponents, but +were unable to find any reasonable excuse for such a +high-handed proceeding. However they brought in +an Act to imprison all who went to a conventicle, or +who seduced others from repairing to the Public +Congregation or from receiving the Holy Sacrament. +For a second offence the penalty was forfeiture of all +lands, goods, chattels, and debts by those whom they +called "the enemy to the peace of the island."</p> + +<p>This was to have been published on April 15, 1650, +and kept secret until proclaimed, to prevent trouble. +But it appears that Colonel Codrington, a member of +the Assembly, divulged it in his cups, for which he +was fined twenty thousand pounds of sugar, and +banished from the island. A deputation of Parliamentarians +then waited upon the Governor, to enter +their protest against the new law, and were asked +to leave the matter in his hands, as he had to deal +with "violent spirits." Finally, the proclamation was +delayed, on the ground that there were many errors +in the copy, and the two parties stood at bay.</p> + +<p>On the 23rd of April the Roundheads petitioned<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span> +the Governor to issue his writ for a new Assembly, +on the ground that the present body had sat for its +full term. This he agreed to do, and thus alienated +the Cavaliers, who said he was a most emphatic +Roundhead and enemy to the king. Handbills and +posters now began to be circulated calling attention +to the "damnable designe" of the Independents, of +which, they said, Colonel Drax, "that devout zealot +(of the deeds of the Devil, and the cause of that seven-headed +Dragon at Westminster), is the Agent." One +of the writers declared that he should think his best +rest but disquiet until he had sheathed his sword in +the bowels of the same obnoxious personage.</p> + +<p>The Cavaliers were still adding to their numbers +by the arrival of more refugees, while Colonel Drax +and his friends fell into the background. The new-comers +had mostly been ruined by the civil war, and +were naturally desirous of doing something to retrieve +their fortunes; it followed, therefore, that anything +that led to the confiscation of the estates of the +obnoxious party would be to their advantage. The +Cavaliers set to work to rouse the island by going +about on horseback, fully armed, everywhere challenging +those they met to drink the health of Charles +the Second and confusion to the Independent dogs. +This, with the rumours of a Roundhead plot and the +various manifestoes, induced the Governor to issue a +proclamation declaring that in future if any persons +spread such scandalous papers they would be proceeded +against as enemies of the public peace, at the +same time forbidding any one to take up arms in a +hostile manner.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span></p> + +<p>This produced little effect, for the leader of one of +the roving bands, Colonel Shelley, refused to disband. +On this the Governor issued commissions to raise a +militia for the preservation of order, but by the time +that a hundred men had been collected an alarm +went forth that the Cavaliers were advancing on +Bridgetown. This was the 1st of May, and by that +time the Cavaliers were prepared to act. Their +leader was Colonel Walrond, who, on being sent for +by the Governor, and saying they had no evil intention, +was allowed to depart. However, they took +possession of the town, and then came forward with +the demand that all Independents and other disturbers +of the peace should be at once disarmed. To +this the Governor agreed, provided the well-affected +should vouch for their safety. They also stipulated +that the magazine on the bridge should be put under +their protection, that those who obstructed the peace +and laboured to ruin the loyal colonists should be +punished, that twenty persons whose names they +gave should be forthwith arrested, and that the +Governor should speedily call together the Assembly +to try them; meanwhile they refused to disperse until +these things were done. The Governor could do +nothing but accede to these demands, but even then +there was something more which they considered the +climax—"that our lawful soveraigne Charles the +Second be instantly in a solemn manner proclaimed +king."</p> + +<p>This staggered the Governor, who said it was a +matter for the General Assembly, in which opinion +he got them at last to agree. However, they were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> +not yet content, but insisted that at the dissolution +of the present Assembly only such men as were +known to be well-affected to His Majesty and conformers +to the Church of England should be chosen +and admitted. After that they must be promised an +"Act of oblivion" for the lawful taking up of arms, +safe-conduct for all officers on legislative business, +and, finally, that the Governor must come to them +without the companionship of any disaffected person +and put himself under their care.</p> + +<p>All this was perforce agreed to, and on the 3rd of +May Charles the Second was declared king of +England, &c., as well as of Barbados, and at the +same time the Book of Common Prayer was proclaimed +to be the only pattern of true worship.</p> + +<p>Behind all this was a fact which no one mentioned, +but which probably everybody knew—on the 29th of +April Lord Willoughby had arrived in the harbour, +bearing a commission as Governor of the Caribbee +Islands, from the fugitive King Charles and the Earl +of Carlisle. No doubt the whole demonstration was +got up on his account, the Cavaliers wanting to have +the king proclaimed first, so that there should be no +difficulty about the commission. Everything was +ready now, and nothing was heard but uproarious +drinking of His Majesty's health, the Cavaliers going +from house to house and compelling others to follow +their example. As for Lord Willoughby, he left the +Governor to carry out the stipulated measures, while +he went to look after the other islands under his +jurisdiction.</p> + +<p>Now the Royalists of Barbados began to persecute<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span> +the leaders of the obnoxious party, beginning with +the twenty they had named to the Governor. Some, +seeing their danger, had got off to England, but +those who remained were sentenced to pay a million +pounds of sugar and to be banished. Then nearly a +hundred others were indicted and ordered to leave +before the 2nd of July, while all their commissions +of the peace or in the militia were cancelled. Wives +were banished with their husbands, and unless the +estate-owners humbly submitted, paid their fines, and +appointed well-affected persons as attorneys, their +properties were confiscated. Yet with all that, when +an attempt was made to get to the bottom of the +rumoured plot, no trace of it could be found. Some +of the more moderate of the Royalists even began to +doubt whether they were not going too far, but they +salved their consciences by saying that everything +was done in the interest of the king.</p> + +<p>When the news arrived in England it created a +great stir. In November some merchants and planters +interested in the island asked for permission to make +reprisals on their own account. They wanted licenses +to trade there with five or six able ships, and letters +of marque to use in case of obstruction, or a refusal to +comply with certain demands. These demands were +to repeal all Acts dishonourable to the Commonwealth, +to renounce obedience to Charles Stuart, to acknowledge +the supreme authority of the Parliament, to +banish certain "active incendiaries in the late troubles," +and, finally, to recall those who had suffered, so that +they might enjoy the same rights as the other inhabitants. +A further petition asked for the removal of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> +Lord Willoughby in favour of Edward Winslow, a +man of approved fidelity to the Commonwealth.</p> + +<p>The Parliamentary Government did not adopt +these proposals, as they intended to reduce the +island in a regular manner. In January, 1651, a +fleet was made ready for this purpose, but being +employed in the reduction of the Scilly Islands, it +could not be got ready for the West Indies until June +following.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile Lord Willoughby had returned, and +was doing his best to conciliate the Barbadians of +both parties. He did not altogether approve of what +had been done, but repealed the Acts of sequestration, +thus putting the inhabitants in good spirits for +the expected invasion. It was rumoured that Prince +Rupert was coming out from Marseilles, and this +made things appear brighter, encouraging them to +put their forts in order.</p> + +<p>The English fleet did not actually leave Plymouth +until the 5th of August. It was under the command +of Sir George Ayscue, who took six or seven merchant +vessels under convoy, probably those referred +to in the petition. He reached Barbados on the 15th +of October, when as yet no news had been heard of +Prince Rupert; in fact, that great seaman had been +dissuaded from crossing the Atlantic. Fourteen +Dutch vessels were captured in Carlisle Bay, the +sudden arrival of the fleet preventing their escape.</p> + +<p>Willoughby had some six thousand foot and four +hundred horse stationed at different parts of the +island, and was determined to hold it for the king, +looking forward daily to see Prince Rupert arrive<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span>. +He had heard from a Dutch vessel that the king +was marching on London with an army of Scots: +this also tended to make his resistance all the more +stubborn. From a few Roundheads, who managed +to come off in the night, Ayscue learnt this, but he +was as equally determined to subdue the island as +Willoughby was to defend it.</p> + +<p>On being called upon to surrender the island for +the use of the Parliament of England, the Governor +replied that he acknowledged no supremacy over +Englishmen save the king and those having commissions +from him, directing the letter to the admiral +on board His Majesty's ship the <i>Rainbow</i>. He also +said that he had expected some overtures of reparation +for the hostile acts upon the ships in the bay. +After this defiance nothing was left but to prepare +first for a strict blockade, and then to effect a landing. +The strength on shore was too great for any open +attack, and Ayscue managed to send a proclamation +addressed to the freeholders and inhabitants, urging +them to accept in time his offers of peace and mercy. +In answer to this the Assembly met and passed a +declaration to "sticke to" Lord Willoughby and +defend the island to the utmost.</p> + +<p>In England a great deal of interest was felt in the +struggle, and the demand for news of the expedition +created a supply giving circumstantial accounts of +what had <i>not</i> taken place. One of them was headed, +"Bloody news from the Barbados, being a true relation +of a great and terrible fight between the Parliament's +Navie, commanded by Sir George Ayscue, and +the King of Scots' Forces under the command of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> +Lord Willoughby; with the particulars of the fight, +the storming of the Island, the manner how the +Parliament's Forces were repulsed and beaten off +from Carlisle Bay and the Block House, and the +number killed and wounded." And all this before +any attempt had been made beyond the blockade!</p> + +<p>On the receipt of the news of the battle of Worcester, +Ayscue sent another flag of truce to give Willoughby +the information, saying that he did so as a friend +rather than as an enemy. He was acting in that +quality, by stating the true condition of England, and +leaving him and his friends to judge of the necessity +for due obedience to the State of England; otherwise +they would be swallowed up in the destruction so +shortly and inevitably coming upon them.</p> + +<p>In reply, Willoughby said he had never served his +king so much in expectation of prosperity as in consideration +of duty, and that he would not be the +means of increasing the sad affliction of His Majesty +by giving up that island. To this Ayscue rejoined, +that if there were such a person as the king, +Willoughby's retention of that place signified nothing +to his advantage, and therefore the surrender could +be small grief to him. He well knew the impossibility +of the island subsisting without the patronage of +England, and the admiral's great desire was to save +it from ruin and destruction.</p> + +<p>As Willoughby refused to surrender, Ayscue +determined to attack the Hole or James's Town, +which he did on the 2nd of November, beating off +its defenders, taking thirty prisoners, and spiking the +four guns of the fort. On the 1st of December the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span> +fleet which had been sent to reduce Virginia arrived, +and on the temporary addition of this force, Ayscue +again sent to Willoughby, as he stated, for the last +time. In reply he was told that the Assembly would +consider the matter in two or three days, but this +reply did not please the admiral, so he tried to hurry +up the decision by landing at Speight's Town. Against +the stubborn opposition of twelve hundred men he +stormed and took the fort, which he held for two +days, ultimately retiring, however, after burning the +houses, demolishing the fortifications, and throwing +the guns into the sea.</p> + +<p>After that the correspondence was continued, +Ayscue entreating Willoughby to spare the good +people of the island the horrors of war. To this the +Governor replied, that they only took up arms in +their own defence; the guilt of the blood and ruin +would be at the doors of those who brought force to +bear. Then the Virginia fleet sailed for its destination, +and Ayscue recommenced hostilities by again +occupying Speight's Town.</p> + +<p>By this time, however, there was a party on the +island in favour of peace, and they began to bestir +themselves, thus making the Royalists more determined. +They put forth a proclamation inviting +the inhabitants to endure the troubles of war for a +season, rather than by base submission to let the +deceitful enemy make them slaves for ever. But the +Roundheads now began to assemble under Colonel +Modiford at his house, to the number of six hundred +men, who declared for the Parliament, and threatened +to bring Willoughby to reason, the admiral going so<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> +far as to visit them surreptitiously to read his commission. +Hearing of this, Willoughby got two +thousand four hundred men together and appeared +near the house, but did not venture to attack it, as by +this time he had become somewhat disheartened.</p> + +<p>This brought things to a crisis, and on the 10th of +January arrangements were made for a commission +from both sides to make arrangements for terms. +After a great deal of hesitation on the part of the +admiral, the capitulation was at last signed, the +articles being exceedingly favourable both to the +inhabitants and Lord Willoughby. So lenient were +they that Ayscue had to excuse himself to the home +authorities for fear that he might have been misunderstood. +They were, in short, liberty of conscience, +continuation of the old government, and of the old +Courts of Justice, no taxation without consent of +the Assembly, no confiscations, all suits to be decided +on the island, no acts of indemnity, no oaths against +their consciences, a temporary cessation of all civil +suits, and finally that Lord Willoughby should retain +all his private property in the islands as well as in +Surinam, with full liberty to go to England. These +articles were signed on the 11th of January, 1652, and +the "storm in a teapot" came to an end, the Barbadians +proudly boasting that they had been able to +defy the mighty power of the Commonwealth. Most of +the leaders were banished from the island, some going +to Surinam, where a colony had been established by +Lord Willoughby soon after his arrival in Barbados. +Among them was Major Byam, who became Governor, +and virtually held the settlement for the king until he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> +came to his own again. This is all the more curious +because Cromwell knew the circumstances, yet made +no effort to bring the people under submission. At +first the settlers established a little Commonwealth of +their own, with Major Byam as president, but when +his term had expired, instead of giving place to another +he declared he had a commission as Governor from +the king, although he refused to show the document +to any one. With enough Royalists to back him, he +thus held office until the Restoration, notwithstanding +the complaints of the Parliamentary faction and their +requests to the home authorities for redress.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, early in 1652 England went to war +with the Dutch, and this seriously interfered with the +trade of that nationality in the West Indies. The +Navigation Act was another blow to them, although +it could not yet be enforced altogether. Cromwell +made himself respected in such a manner that peace +with Holland was restored in April, 1654, thus leaving +him free to carry out his designs against the old +enemy—Spain.</p> + +<p>Since Queen Elizabeth's time the English Governments +had done little in the way of worrying the +Spaniards, although pirates had been busy almost +without intermission. Now, however, Cromwell was +at liberty, and he began to see that they wanted a little +correction to prevent their having too much of their +own way in America. The Spanish ambassador +was cringing enough when he saw what a powerful +leader had arisen, and did his best to avert the impending +storm. It is even stated that he assured the +Protector of his master's friendship, and declared that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> +if he took the Crown of England Spain would be first +in her approval. Cromwell was not to be mollified +by soft speeches; he had got peace at home, and was +determined to have it across the seas as well. He +was quite willing to arrange for a treaty, but it must +be on his own terms, not at the dictation of Spain. +A commission was appointed to meet the ambassador +and discuss the grounds of the agreement, and they +began at once with the West Indies. A long list of +depredations was produced for which the English +demanded satisfaction before going farther. The +English had been treated as enemies wherever the +Spaniards met them in the West Indies, even when +going to and from their own plantations, notwithstanding +the former treaty, and the Commission +insisted on a proper indemnity. The English must +be free to trade everywhere—in fact the old claim of +Spain to the whole of America must be finally +abandoned.</p> + +<p>The Spanish ambassador replied that the inquisition +and trade to the West Indies were his master's +two eyes, and that nothing different from the practice +of former times could be permitted. On hearing this +Cromwell, seeing that neither indemnity for the past +nor promises of amendment in the future could be +obtained, prepared for war, and commenced by fitting +out an expedition to conquer Hispaniola.</p> + +<p>In December, 1654, we find the first mention of a +special service under the command of Generals Penn +and Venables, and early in the following year the +fleet sailed for Barbados. With five thousand men +from England, and as many from the West Indies,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span> +the expedition arrived near St. Domingo on the 13th +of April, 1655, frightening the inhabitants so much +that they fled to the woods on its approach. However, +the affair was so badly managed that no benefit +accrued from following the example of Drake, which +appears to have been the object of the leaders. Like +the great Elizabethan hero, they landed at a distance +from the town with the intention of marching along +the shore, but instead of landing ten miles off they +went as far as thirty. For four days the troops +wandered through the mangrove bushes, without +guides, and even without provisions, thus giving the +runaway Spaniards time to rally from their fright and +come out after them. Weary, entangled in the +swamps, and utterly unfit to cope with an enemy, +the English became an easy prey; the slaughter was +considerable, and it was even stated that those killed +were mostly shot in the back while trying to escape.</p> + +<p>Unwilling to attempt anything further in Hispaniola, +Penn and Venables took off the dispirited remnant +and sailed for Jamaica, hoping to do something there +to prevent failure altogether. Not that there were +any laurels to be gained in that direction, for the +inhabitants only numbered three thousand, and half +of these were negro slaves. A few shots were fired, +and then the inhabitants took to flight, leaving the +English in possession of the island. A capitulation +was agreed upon with the old Spanish Governor, who +was brought in a hammock to sign it, but many of +the people took to the woods with their slaves, and +refused to be bound by the articles. A body of two +thousand men was then sent to scour the interior<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> +and bring them back, but they could find nothing +save great herds of wild cattle. Afterwards, in pure +wantonness, the churches and religious buildings were +demolished, the cattle killed or driven far away, and +the provision grounds devastated, with the result that +the invaders were soon starving. In less than a +month two thousand were sick, many had died, and +the remainder had become mutinous. Altogether +the whole affair was so badly managed that Cromwell +became almost mad at the news, and sent both commanders +to the Tower on their return.</p> + +<p>However, Jamaica was captured, and for the first +time in the history of the West Indies a Spanish +possession went into the hands of another nation. +Some thought the island of no importance as compared +with Hispaniola—it was certainly of little value +to the Spaniards. However, a few English people +foresaw something of its future importance, and did +their best to develop the island. In October Cromwell +issued a proclamation offering certain advantages +to settlers from the other islands, or from England, so +that it might be occupied as soon as possible. It +stated that by the providence of God Jamaica had +come into the possession of the State, and that they +were satisfied of its fertility and commodiousness for +trade; it had therefore been resolved to plant it. To +this end it was made known to the people of the +English islands and colonies the encouragements +offered to those who removed their habitations there +within two years from the 29th of September, 1656. +Twenty acres of land would be granted to every adult, +and ten for each child, they would have freedom to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span> +hunt wild cattle and horses, be given the privilege of +mining except for gold and silver, and freedom from +taxes for three years.</p> + +<p>It resulted from this that many planters from +Barbados and St. Kitt's went over, and in a very +few years Jamaica was more prosperous than it had +ever been while in the possession of Spain. In November, +1656, Cromwell ordered the Scotch Government +to apprehend all known idle masterless robbers and +vagabonds, male or female, and to transport them +there, and at the same time the Council of State +ordered that a thousand girls and as many young +men should be enlisted in Ireland for the same purpose. +As for the adventurers who went with the expedition, +they were reported as being so lazy "that it +could not enter into the heart of any Englishman +that such blood should run in the veins of his +countrymen"—they were so unworthy, slothful, and +basely secure, out of a strange kind of spirit desiring +rather to die than live. As for planting, little was +done by them, although every possible inducement +and encouragement was given.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile letters of marque were issued to privateers +for the West Indies, which drove the Spaniards +to send their treasure from Peru to Buenos Ayres, +a route that had been abandoned since the time of +Queen Elizabeth. Now also they began to make +efforts for the recovery of Jamaica, and in May, 1658, +thirty companies of infantry, under the command of +the late Governor, landed on the north side of the +island. Here in a small harbour they entrenched +themselves, and built a little fort before their pre<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span>sence +became known to the English. However, +Governor D'Oyley at last heard of the invasion, but +it was nearly two months after their arrival before he +could proceed to approach them by sea. When he +arrived, however, with seven hundred and fifty men, +he at once stormed their fortress and drove them to +their vessels, in which they fled to Cuba. This put +an end to the matter; but the old Governor returned, +and lived with the remnant of the Spaniards and +their slaves in the mountains.</p> + +<p>Now at last even the Pope had to acknowledge +other sovereignty than that of Spain, and this he did +in a letter to Father Fontaine, of the Dominican Mission, +on the 25th of July, 1658. Therein he acknowledged +the king of France as ruler of the conquests +and colonies his subjects had made in the American +islands. Thus was the Bull of partition at last cancelled +by the successor of its original promulgator, +and the ground for the exclusive claim to America +cut away. At this time France was also at war with +Spain, but the following year a treaty was signed, and +in 1660, on the restoration of Charles the Second, +peace was restored with England.</p> + +<p>At the first private audience of the Spanish ambassador +with the king, he delivered a memorial demanding +the restoration of Jamaica to his master, on the +ground that it had been taken by his rebel subjects, +contrary to the treaty between the two Crowns. Instead +of doing this, however, Charles despatched a +vessel with letters to the Governors of the Caribbee +islands, asking them to encourage all persons willing +to transplant themselves to the larger islands. At<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span> +the same time the Royal African Company, the great +slave-trading corporation of that time, was asked to +make Jamaica its headquarters for the sale of negroes. +Then it was arranged to send women from England +to be wives for the planters, Newgate and Bridewell +to be spared as much as possible, so that poor maids +might have a chance, with whom it was stated that +few English parishes were unburdened.</p> + +<p>On the 1st of December, 1660, King Charles the +Second made a move which must be considered as of the +greatest importance to the development of the British +Colonial Empire—he founded the "Council for foreign +plantations," which later developed into the Colonial +Office. This Council were to inform themselves of +the state of the plantations and of how they were +governed, keeping copies of all grants in a book. +They were to write to every Governor asking for +exact accounts of their proceedings, the nature of +their laws and government, as well as statistics. They +must establish a correspondence with the colonies, so +that the king might be informed of all complaints, +their wants, what they cultivated, their commodities, +and their trade, so that all might be regulated upon +common grounds and principles. They must adopt +means for rendering them and England mutually +helpful, and bring them into a more uniform government, +with a better distribution of justice. Especial +care was to be taken for the execution of the Navigation +Act, and consideration given to the best means +of providing servants, to which end care was to be +taken that no persons were forced or enticed away by +unlawful means. Those willing to be transported<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> +were, however, to be encouraged, and a legal course +was to be settled for sending over vagrants and +others who were noxious and unprofitable in England. +Learned and orthodox ministers were also to +be sent, and instructions given for regulating and +repressing the debaucheries of planters and servants. +The Council were also to consider how the natives +and slaves might be invited to, and made capable of, +baptism in the Christian faith, and finally to dispose +of all matters relating to the good government, improvement, +and management of the plantations.</p> + +<p>Thus England commenced her great career of +colonisation, the results of which we see to-day. +While taking all due account of Virginia and New +England, we cannot but note that it was in the West +Indies where the "prentice hand" was first tried. +Jamaica was the main object of these provisions—to +that island the king's attention had been specially +directed, and it was here that many difficulties had to +be encountered before it could be made a worthy +appendage of the Crown. Most of the other islands +were in the hands of private persons or companies, +while this was under the control of the State. No +matter that the island had been annexed by rebels, +Charles the Second was determined to hold it fast +for England, in spite of all the protests of Spain.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h3><a name="VII" id="VII"></a>VII</h3> + +<h3>THE PLANTERS AND THEIR SLAVES</h3> + + +<p>When the first European adventurers went to the +West Indies, serfdom was still common in Spain. +The peasantry were, as a rule, bound to the soil, and +could neither be taken away by their lords nor remove +at their own will. The consequence was that +only soldiers, mariners, and free men from the +towns took part in the first expeditions. The townsmen +had mostly been brought up to the trades of +their fathers, and were hardly fit to cultivate the land +even in Spain, much less, therefore, were they suited +to the tropics. They could not demean themselves +by performing anything so servile, but must get their +land cultivated by others. As the serfs were not +available, first Indians and then negro slaves and +white bond-servants were employed.</p> + +<p>We have seen how the Indians were exterminated, +and how the first planters in Hispaniola were ruined +by the want of labour. Even the Spanish priests +could see that the poor Arawak's nature was quite +distinct from that of the European peasant. The +serf had been kept under subjection for centuries; his +father and grandfather had worked in the fields, and +he must do the same. The armourer, the mason, and +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138-139]</a><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139"></a></span>the weaver carried on their trades, because they had +been born into the respective guilds as it were. The +Indians, on the contrary, were free, and had always +been so; yes, more free than any people in the old +world. They died, and the planter had to look elsewhere +for his labour supply. Then commenced the +cry which has been continually rising from the plantations +ever since—More servants! More slaves! +More coolies!</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 313px;"> +<img src="images/p138.jpg" width="313" height="418" alt="A SURINAM PLANTER." title="" /> +<span class="caption">A SURINAM PLANTER.<br /> +(<i>From Stedman's "Surinam."</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p>For many years the Portuguese had been kidnapping +negroes on the west coast of Africa. By +their connection with Morocco they had learnt that +the natives of the interior were brought to and openly +sold in the Moorish towns—possibly they themselves +had purchased some of them. To bring home a +number after every voyage to the coast was therefore +nothing strange, nor was it anything novel to sell +them in Portugal to help pay the expense of the +voyage. From Portugal to Spain this negro slavery +spread, until it became fairly common in both +countries.</p> + +<p>When the cry for labourers came over the Atlantic—even +before the extermination of the natives—a few +negroes were sent out. Finding them more docile +and better able to endure hard labour than the +Indians, more were called for, the benevolent priests +also urging the matter to save the remnant of the +Arawaks. The demand created a supply, and soon +the Portuguese found themselves embarked in a lucrative +trade, of which they commanded the monopoly. +Thus began a traffic which has been unreservedly +condemned by the most enlightened of humanity, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140-141]</a><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141"></a></span>and praised alone by those whose very livelihood +depended upon it.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 315px;"> +<img src="images/p140.jpg" width="315" height="369" alt="A NEGRO FESTIVAL." title="" /> +<span class="caption">A NEGRO FESTIVAL.<br /> +(<i>From Edwards' "West Indies."</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p>On his second voyage Columbus carried the sugar +cane, which was destined to have such an influence +for good and evil on the West Indies. Its produce +was at first known as a kind of honey, and recognised +as an expectorant and comforting medicine. Now it +had made its way into the kitchens of the great, where +it was considered as one of the spices, and with them +became more and more used every year. In early +times the cane was cultivated on the warmer shores +of the Mediterranean, and, after their discovery, in +the Canary and Cape de Verde islands. At the +period of the discovery of America sugar was sold +at about eightpence a pound, equivalent to something +like three shillings nowadays. As the demand continued +to increase large plantations were laid out in +Hispaniola, until it became the staple product of the +colony.</p> + +<p>Cotton was known in the old world, but as yet had +hardly come into use in Europe. In the West Indies +it was generally cultivated in a small way by every +native, and on being forwarded to Spain, the "tree +wool," as it was called, soon came into use. Then +came another product, tobacco, which was quite new +at that time, although probably known in the far +East. It seemed strange to the new-comers that +people should carry firebrands in their mouths, and +at first they took tobacco-smokers for juggling fire-eaters, +until they also learnt the sustaining power of +the "weed." This soon took place, and by the year +1550 tobacco was well known in Spain and Italy. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142-143]</a><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143"></a></span>Probably also the Dutch knew it quite as early, for it +was in the Netherlands that it became more quickly +appreciated than in any other country, probably on +account of its particularly comforting properties in +marshy districts. Soon afterwards Jean Nicot introduced +it into France, and probably Master Hawkins +brought samples into England from Brazil, although +Ralegh is stated to have been the first English +smoker. Towards the end of the sixteenth century +its use became so common all over Europe that Popes +and Churchmen thundered their curses against the +"filthy habit," and later poor King James wrote his +"Counterblast to Tobacco," which only had the effect +of making it better known.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 310px;"> +<img src="images/p142.jpg" width="310" height="382" alt="VOYAGE OF THE SABLE VENUS." title="" /> +<span class="caption">VOYAGE OF THE SABLE VENUS.<br /> +(<i>From Edwards' "West Indies."</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p>Here at the beginning were two commercial +products which grew well in the West Indies, with +a doubtful third to come to the front as soon as it +became known. As yet coffee had not been introduced—this +followed in the next century. Notwithstanding +the large profit on sugar the Spaniard would +not labour in the field, and in the end the plantations +became fewer and fewer until only one or two were +left. This falling off tended to keep up the price, +and although the Dutch bought much cotton and +tobacco from the Indians of the Main, and the +Portuguese began to grow sugar in Brazil, the supply +was always limited.</p> + +<p>There was room for more plantations, and the first +people to take advantage of this opening were the +English. Their many different colonies in Guiana +all commenced planting with tobacco: Virginia and +the Bermudas did the same. All through the reign +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144-145]</a><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145"></a></span>of James the First, however, the trade was obstructed +in so many ways that a great deal of their produce +was sent to the Netherlands and thus escaped the +English duties. Probably also the smuggling of +tobacco, so notorious at a later period, began at this +time, as the Dutch were always noted free-traders, +not only on the Spanish Main, but in Europe as +well.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 314px;"> +<img src="images/p144.jpg" width="314" height="432" alt="SLAVES LANDING FROM THE SHIP." title="" /> +<span class="caption">SLAVES LANDING FROM THE SHIP.<br /> +(<i>From Stedman's "Surinam."</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p>Like the Spaniards, the English adventurers were +soldiers and sailors, and therefore did not work in the +field. Subject to the raids of the European claimants +of the territory as well as the incursions of ferocious +cannibals, they went about literally with pistols in +their belts and swords at their thighs. Now they +had to show a good face to some buccaneer company, +and anon to fight the French or Dutch when war +broke out. Later, when there was no fear of enemies +from without, they had a continual dread of slave +insurrections. It followed, therefore, that the planter +was always on the alert, and, even if he felt inclined, +could do little in the way of cultivation.</p> + +<p>In England serfdom had virtually come to an end, +and the agricultural labourer might go where he +pleased. But the love of country, the unknown but +magnified perils of a sea voyage, and stories of cruel +Spaniards and man-eating Caribs, prevented many +from going to the Indies, notwithstanding the great +inducements offered. The English planters found +it difficult to get negroes, as their enemy controlled +the trade. As for the Indians, they had to deal with +cannibals whose women cultivated small clearings, +but resented anything like coercion, while no labour<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> +whatever could be got from the men. Something +had to be done. If the English labourer would not +come willingly, he might be kidnapped, and the +carrying out of this work led to the organisation +of bands of ruffians, who went sailing along the +coasts, especially of Scotland and Ireland, to pick +up likely fellows wherever they found opportunity. +However, this caused such an outcry that extraordinary +efforts were made on the part of the Government +to put down "spiriting," as it was called.</p> + +<p>In June, 1661, the Council for foreign plantations +considered the best means of encouraging and furnishing +people for the colonies, and they thought that +felons condemned for small offences, and sturdy +beggars, might be sent. They had several complaints +of men, women, and children being spirited away +from their masters and parents, and later the Mayor +of Bristol and the Lord Mayor of London petitioned +the king for authority to examine ships, with the +view of finding out whether the passengers went of +their own free will. It was stated that husbands +forsook their wives, wives fled from their husbands, +children and apprentices ran away, while unwary and +credulous persons were often tempted on board by +men-stealers. Many who had been pursued by hue +and cry for robberies, burglaries, and breaking prison, +also escaped to the plantations. Certain persons, +called spirits, inveigled, and by lewd subtleties +enticed, away young persons, whereby great tumults +and uproars were raised in London, to the breach of +the peace and the hazard of men's lives.</p> + +<p>These abuses led to an Order in Council, published<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span> +in September, 1664, for registering persons going +voluntarily, and commissions were given to the Lord +High Admiral and the officers of the ports to establish +registration offices and give certificates. Yet +the spiriting still went on, for in April, 1668, Sir +Anthony Ashley Cooper was asked to move the +House of Commons to make the offence capital. +His petitioner, said he, had found one lost child, and +after much expense and trouble, freed him, but there +were several others in the same ship, and other ships +in the river at the same work. Even if the parents +found their children, they could not recover them +without money, and he was sure that if such a law +were passed the mercy to these innocents would +ground a blessing on those concerned in introducing +it. This Act was finally passed on the 1st of March, +1670, punishing the spirits with death without benefit +of clergy.</p> + +<p>There were, however, other means of procuring +servants. In 1649, when Cromwell took Drogheda +by storm, about thirty prisoners were saved from the +massacre to be shipped to Barbados, and in 1651 +seven or eight thousand Scots, taken at the battle +of Worcester, were reserved for a similar fate. After +the Restoration, however, there was an intermission +in such supplies, and the planters began to look to +Newgate and Bridewell for their labour supply.</p> + +<p>The supply was by no means equal to the demand, +for the agents in London of the planters of Virginia, +Barbados, St. Christopher's, and other islands were +equally clamorous for their share. As for King +Charles the Second, he granted the prisoners as a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span> +privilege to his favourites, and even mistresses, who +generally sold it to the highest bidder. The agent +must have had influence to get into the presence +of the holder, say of a hundred prisoners sentenced +to transportation, and this was only obtainable by +largess to door-keepers and servants. Then came +the trouble of obtaining delivery from the prison +authorities, and here again fees were demanded. In +one case that is recorded the amount paid to the +gaoler of Newgate was fifty-five shillings a head. +But even now the trouble was only beginning. The +prisoners were supposed to be delivered at the door +of the gaol, and the planter was under a heavy bond +not to allow one to escape. He must account for +each by a certificate of death on the voyage or of +landing in Barbados, on penalty of five hundred +pounds for every one missing. It followed, therefore, +that a sufficiently strong guard had to be provided, +and provision made for attempts at rescue by the +prisoners' friends. Even this was not all, for the +concession simply granted a certain number, and +it rested with the gaoler to palm off the old, weak, +and infirm on those who were at all wanting in +liberality. Then, at the best the prisoners were +hatters, tailors, and haberdashers, rather than agricultural +labourers, many of whom ultimately proved +valueless. If a large number was available, and there +were several applicants, the competition became quite +spirited—every one wanted his pick before the others, +and the gaoler made the best of the occasion, leaving +those to whom he allotted the refuse to curse their +evil fortune.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span></p> + +<p>Up to the passing of the Navigation Act the +Dutch had been free to trade with English colonies, +and had brought a fair number of negroes; and +afterwards the king established the Royal African +Company to prevent the supply being cut off. The +average price of the African was then about £16 or +2,400 pounds of sugar, but the Dutch sold their slaves +for a little less, which led the planters to evade the +Navigation Act when they had opportunities.</p> + +<p>The white bond-servant was valued at about 2,200 +pounds of sugar, very little less than the slave for life, +although he had generally but five years to serve. +The cost of transport was about £5 per head; it +followed, therefore, that if the London agent got his +prisoners cheap he made a good profit. There was +also another way of making money in this business. +Some of the gaol-birds had friends who were willing +to pay good sums on consideration that the convict +should be virtually freed on his arrival. Many a +sum of fifty pounds was obtained in this way, sometimes +without helping the bond-servant in the least. +How were the relations to prove that the promise +had not been fulfilled, and if they did so what redress +could be obtained? They certainly could not go to +law, as the whole transaction was illegal.</p> + +<p>We have seen how Charles the Second tried to +people Jamaica with free settlers, but this did not +prevent the transportation of criminals. In 1665 +four young men, who had been convicted of interrupting +and abusing a preacher, were whipped +through the streets of Edinburgh and afterwards +sent to Barbados, and in 1684 some of the Rye<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> +House plotters were reprieved on condition that they +served ten years in the West Indies. When these +plotters arrived in Jamaica, the Governor, "by His +Majesty's command," directed the Assembly to pass +an Act "to prevent all clandestine releasements or +buying out of their time," so that their punishment +should not be evaded. But it was after the Monmouth +rebellion, in 1685, that the greatest deportation +took place. The miserable followers of the duke +were executed by Judge Jeffreys until even his thirst +for blood was somewhat slackened, when the remainder +were sent to the plantations. The story +of one of these unfortunates gives such a graphic +picture of the life of a bond-servant that we cannot +do better than give an outline of the "Relation of +the great sufferings and strange adventures of Henry +Pitman, surgeon to the late Duke of Monmouth."</p> + +<p>Having been taken prisoner after the battle of +Sedgemoor, he was committed to Ilchester Gaol, had +his pockets rifled, his clothes torn off his back, and +was remanded until the Wells assizes. While in +gaol he was inveigled into telling all he knew, by +promises of pardon, and then his acknowledgments +were treated as a confession. Those who pleaded +not guilty on the first day of the trial were convicted +and executed the same afternoon; others who confessed +were equally condemned. After two hundred +and thirty had been hanged the remainder were ordered +to be transported to the Caribbee islands, of whom Pitman +was one. With some others, including his brother, +he was disposed of to an agent who took £60 from +his friends to set him free on his arrival at Barbados.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span></p> + +<p>The Legislative Assembly of that island, however, +in consequence of the "most horrid, wicked, and execrable +rebellion," lately raised, and because many of +the rebels had been transported for ten years, passed +a special Act, under which they were bound to serve, +notwithstanding any bargain to the contrary. If they +attempted to escape they were to be flogged, and +burnt in the forehead with the letters "F.T.," meaning +"Fugitive Traitor."</p> + +<p>By this law Pitman's hopes were frustrated, and, +utterly disheartened, he was not inclined to work at +his profession for the master to whom he had been +sold. Although the status of a surgeon was not then +as high as it is now, it was yet a great downfall to +practise the profession on rations of five pounds of +salt beef or fish per week, with nothing else but corn +meal. As for the fees, which were large, the master +pocketed them, leaving Pitman to endure the discomforts +of a tropical residence and semi-starvation +as best he could. On one occasion he refused to go +on with his work, and for this he was beaten by his +master until the cane used was broken in pieces. +Then the master became bankrupt, and, with his +brother, Pitman was sent back to the merchant to +whom they had been first consigned.</p> + +<p>Here his brother died of the hardships he had +experienced, and Pitman resolved to escape, notwithstanding +the risk of attempting such a thing. +Having made the acquaintance of a poor man who +was willing to help, he got a consignment of goods +from his friends in England, with which to raise the +means. A boat was purchased for twelve pounds;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span> +but this led to inquiries, as the buyer was known to +be poor, and his creditors began to come down upon +him. However, Pitman contributed enough to satisfy +them, meanwhile postponing his departure until suspicion +had been lulled.</p> + +<p>On the evening of the 9th of May, 1687—this being +a holiday, when most of the people were revelling—he +and seven other bond-servants got safely off in +their open boat, with a small supply of provisions and +water, a few tools, a compass, and a chart. They +intended to make for the Dutch island of Curaçao, +six hundred miles distant; but even before they were +out of Carlisle Bay their frail craft began to leak, and +they had to tear up their clothes to stop the gaping +seams. At sunrise they were out of sight from the +land, but so enervated by sea-sickness that some +would willingly have gone back. However, they +went on as best they could, with nothing but their +hats to bale out the water, which still continued to +trickle into the boat. They were a little more comfortable +as the sun rose, but when night came a gale +arose which kept them employed baling for their +lives. To add to their difficulties the rudder broke, +and they had to steer with an oar.</p> + +<p>Five days passed in this manner, the refugees +hardly able to get an hour's rest for the baling and +continual fear that the boat would sink if left alone. +On the sixth morning they saw Margarita, but could +not land on account of the rocky shore, which nearly +wrecked them on their making the attempt. Sheering +off, they next day sighted Saltatudos island, one of the +Dry Tortugas, where they met a boat manned with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> +privateers, who treated them very kindly, and wanted +them to join their company. To this, however, Pitman +and his companions would not agree, and this +annoyed the privateers, who burnt their boat and +virtually kept them as prisoners. When they went +on a cruise the refugees were left in charge of four +men, and had much ado to find enough turtle to keep +them from starving. After remaining here for three +months an English privateer arrived, and, at their +request, took them on to New Providence, to which +the inhabitants had just returned after being driven +off by Spaniards. Pitman at last got to Amsterdam, +and from thence to England, where the revolution +had just taken place, and his friends had succeeded +in obtaining a free pardon.</p> + +<p>The white bond-servant, being under a short +engagement, was generally worked to his utmost +capacity. No matter if he died before the end of +his term as long as he paid for the expense incurred. +But Englishmen were no more inclined to be slaves +then than they are now, and the planters of St. +Kitt's found them so troublesome to manage that +they soon became afraid of buying, and showed a +preference for negroes. Some of the English servants +committed suicide, and it is recorded that a pious +master told one of them, who had expressed his +intention of destroying himself, that he trusted that +God would give him more grace, than, for a short +term of trouble in this life, to precipitate himself into +hell.</p> + +<p>Even in the earliest times some of the planters +were absentees, living in England. The system was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span> +always more or less fortune-hunting, the whole end +and aim being to get rich and return to the old +country. There were, as we have seen, many difficulties +and dangers to encounter, and not the least +of the drawbacks was the want of good society. We +who live in an age when there is daily communication +with the whole world, can hardly conceive how entirely +these pioneers were cut off from their friends. +The long voyage was full of discomfort, and at the +best uncertain as to its termination. The words +still found on bills of lading, "the act of God or the +queen's enemies," had a meaning then hardly appreciable +by the present generation. Barbary pirates +and French corsairs ranged the Channel; in the +broad Atlantic storms shook the crazy vessels to +pieces; and when they escaped these dangers, it was +often to fall into the hands of the buccaneers when in +sight of their destination. Then there were hurricanes +on both sea and land, and earthquakes on some of +the islands. Vessels were sunk in harbour, houses +blown away, and sugar buildings torn down. As for +the negro huts, they were carried off altogether, and +the crops injured so as to become useless. Then, perhaps, +when the planter had strained himself to the +utmost to put things straight, another tornado would +put him in a worse plight than before.</p> + +<p>Yet with all this the planter struggled on, generally +doing his best to carry the traditions and fashions of +the mother country into his new home. We have +already noticed Barbados, and how it was affected by +the "great rebellion." Many other examples might be +noted had we sufficient space. The planter was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span> +nearly always a gentleman, even if he had begun +his career as a transported rebel. Some were +gallants, and dressed in the extreme of London +fashion, often living beyond their means. Others +were merchants, trading with their own vessels, and +selling their surplus goods for produce to make up +cargoes. With their own sugar, and as much as +they could procure from others, they filled their ships +for the homeward voyage, and in return got enough +merchandise for trading. These were the fortune-hunters, +who were always looking forward to that +happy time when, with money in their pouches, they +could once more settle down in Merry England. The +old country was always "home," as it is still for the +West Indian, although perhaps neither himself nor +his parents ever saw it—then it was the will-o'-the-wisp +that drove him to endure all the discomforts of +a life in the tropics, often to die of fever before his +work was hardly begun.</p> + +<p>While Jamaica was under the dominion of Spain +little was done to develop the island. The Indians +were exterminated, as in Hispaniola, to be replaced +by wild cattle and horses, and fifteen hundred negroes +were introduced to cultivate provision grounds. From +these, passing vessels, which called in on their way +to Mexico, got their supplies. As yet it was not a +rendezvous for buccaneers, and taken altogether it +was quite insignificant. Thousands of white men +and tens of thousands of negroes were required +before it became the important island which ultimately +rivalled Hispaniola. However, although the +Spaniard was driven out he left his sting behind in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span> +the shape of his slaves, who took to the mountains, +to be afterwards known as Maroons, and to worry the +English colonists for over a century.</p> + +<p>And here, as we are dealing with the planter and +his labour supply, we must say something of the +negro slaves, to whom the West Indies were indebted +for their very existence as European colonies. Unlike +the American, the African had known slavery +for ages. Prisoners taken in war were kept in servitude +as a matter of course; debtors were slaves to +their creditors, and even children were sold by their +parents. Yet there were great differences between the +tribes—the Coromantees, for example, were particularly +troublesome, and the Foulahs often dangerous. +The first slave-traders took their cargoes from the +more northern coasts, and from this cause, perhaps, +as well as the want of proper supervision in the +Indies, runaways, or Simerons, were mentioned at +very early periods. Later, the trade was carried on +in a particularly judicious manner, and the more +docile tribes selected, to be sold in the colonies as +"Prime Gold Coast Negroes."</p> + +<p>In their native countries these people were all +virtually slaves to their chiefs, and as such were +liable to be sold at any time. The authority was +unlimited; the slightest offence meant slavery; +death was the only alternative. Often when, for +some reason or other, the negro was rejected by the +trader, he was executed at once. Adultery was +punished by the sale of both offenders, and debtors +could be sold by their creditors. Bryan Edwards, +author of a history of the West Indies, took much<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span> +pains to procure information from the slaves themselves, +through an interpreter; and as they had no +reason to misrepresent their cases, we can safely give +the outlines of one.</p> + +<p>The most interesting story is, perhaps, that of the +boy Adam, a Congo, about fourteen years of age +when he was brought to Jamaica. His country was +named Sarri, and was situated a long distance from +the coast. While walking one morning through a +path, about three miles from his native village, the +boy was captured by one of his countrymen. With +his prisoner the man hid himself in the woods during +the whole of the day, and at night stole away from +the neighbourhood, going on like this for a whole +month. Then he came to the country of another +tribe, where he sold the boy for a gun, some powder +and shot, and a little salt. His new owner afterwards +sold Adam for a keg of brandy to another black man +who was going about collecting slaves, and when +twenty had been collected they were taken to the +coast and sold to a Jamaica captain.</p> + +<p>Of the five-and-twenty interrogated by Bryan +Edwards, fifteen frankly declared that they had +been born in slavery, and were sold to pay the +debts, or bartered to supply the wants, of their +owners. Five were secretly kidnapped in the interior, +and sold to black merchants; the other five +fell into the hands of the enemy in some of those +petty wars which were continually going on, when, if +there had been no market for their sale, they would +almost certainly have been killed.</p> + +<p>It is hardly necessary to state that in giving these<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span> +statements we are not attempting the impossible +task of vindicating slavery either of the black or +white man. It would be well, however, if, in mitigation +of the offence against the negro, his former +condition were taken into consideration, and the +undoubted fact that he was better treated by the +West India planter than by his own countrymen. +His lot was by no means so hard as slavery had +been to the Indian and white bond-servant. He did +not sink under the hardships of a life of toil in the +burning sun, but was happy in his way, and in most +cases better off than his descendant, the West Indian +peasant of to-day. He was certainly treated as a +domestic animal, but his value was always high +enough to prevent anything like ill-usage. There +were certainly people who could be cruel to their +negroes, as there are yet men so low as to brutally +flog valuable horses, but that such were common is +a statement utterly without foundation. As a well-kept +animal, the planter took a pride in him, fed and +doctored him, patted him on the back, and proudly +showed him to his friends. All this appears very +degrading to humanity, but after all the negro did +not see it in that light. On the contrary, he took +a pride in exhibiting his strong muscles and in +showing the "buccras" what a fine nigger massa +had got.</p> + +<p>The slave of the rich planter, like the horse of the +English gentleman, was undoubtedly very comfortable. +First, he was a picked lot—the healthiest, +strongest, and most suitable for his work—one of +those "pieces d'India," as the best negroes were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span> +called by the traders. Then, as an expensive chattel, +everything was done to make him still more valuable, +and to prevent his deteriorating. But unfortunately +there was another class—the miserable, broken-down +creatures sold cheap as refuse lots to poor white +men or even to slaves. Yes, the slaves bought their +diseased fellow-countrymen, to work on their own +allotments, treating them as the costermonger sometimes +does his donkey. Half-starved, hard-worked, +and covered with sores, they lingered in misery until +death came to make them free. Some were so disfigured +with yaws, or leprosy, that none but a negro +could bear the sight of them; these were kept out +of the way and treated worse than mangy dogs.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h3><a name="VIII" id="VIII"></a>VIII</h3> + +<h3>THE STRUGGLE FOR SUPREMACY</h3> + + +<p>By the time of the Dutch war of 1665 the pretensions +of Spain to the exclusive possession of the +Indies had been entirely ignored. Now began the +great struggle of other nations for supremacy, and +the position of "sovereign of the seas," the islands +and Guiana becoming scenes of contention between +English, French, and Dutch. To these struggles is +greatly due the positions the naval powers of the +world hold to-day, and especially that of Britain.</p> + +<p>As it was mainly a demand for free trade which led +to so many attacks on the Spanish possessions, so it +was now the same question which led to the struggle +between the two great mercantile nations which +succeeded Spain and Portugal, as these had followed +Venice and Genoa. In the West Indies there was +no line of demarcation between these new powers, +and consequently their interests often clashed, but +on the whole the colonists were favourable to the +Dutch, and did all they could to evade the Navigation +Act.</p> + +<p>Early in 1665 preparations were made in Barbados +to repel an expected invasion by the Dutch. Vessels<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span> +were ordered to keep together and protect each other, +and men-of-war were sent out to afford convoy. +Already the English buccaneers had been somewhat +discountenanced by the home government, although +they were generally encouraged by the colonies, +especially Jamaica, which derived considerable advantage +from their sales of booty. Now that +there was a demand for all the forces that could +be gathered together, the Governor of that island +gave the rovers letters of marque, under which they +were empowered to ravage the Dutch colonies. At +St. Eustatius they succeeded in carrying off everything +portable, including nine hundred slaves, and +even such heavy articles as sugar coppers and stills. +De Ruyter made an attempt on Barbados on the +20th of April, but the people there made such a +stand that he had to retire. He commenced the +attack at ten o'clock in the morning with his fourteen +vessels, but by three in the afternoon the fleet was +so much damaged that he was forced to move away +his own ship, with a hole in her side "as big as a +barn-door." He then went on to Montserrat and +Nevis, where he captured sixteen ships, but did not +take either of the islands.</p> + +<p>In Guiana, the English from Barbados captured +the Dutch trading factory in the river Essequebo, as +well as the young sugar colony in the Pomeroon, +and in retaliation the Dutch took Surinam. In +January, 1666, France joined the Netherlands, and +an English fleet was sent out to protect Barbados, +which now began to feel alarmed at the possible +result of such a powerful combination.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span></p> + +<p>Then came the critical period for the island of St. +Kitt's, which, as we have before stated, had been +divided between English and French, the former +holding the middle portion with the enemy on either +side. As soon as the news of the declaration of war +arrived, the relations between the two nationalities, +which had often before been much strained, became +ruptured. The English Governor, Watts, gave his +rival three days' notice, and prepared to attack him, +with the assistance of five hundred men from Nevis, +and two hundred buccaneers. General de la Salle, +on the French side, asked and obtained forty-eight +hours' longer grace, and took advantage of this to +steal into the English territory with a large body of +horse and foot, as well as a mob of negroes armed +with bills and hoes. The slaves also carried firebrands, +and were said to have been promised, in +return for their assistance, freedom, English women +as wives, and the liberty to plunder and burn. At +the town of St. Nicholas a gentlewoman with three +or four children, on trying to escape, was forced back +into her blazing house and kept there until the whole +family were burnt to death. A party of English, +who advanced to check their progress, was overwhelmed +by the number of the enemy and driven +back, thus leaving them to advance over the island +with fire and sword.</p> + +<p>Governor Watts took things so coolly, that Colonel +Morgan (not the famous Sir Henry), who led the +buccaneers, went to rouse him, and found he was +lounging about in dressing-gown and slippers. Presenting +a pistol to his breast, Morgan called the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> +Governor a coward and a traitor, at the same time +swearing he would shoot him dead if he did not at +once take his place at the head of the forces. The +contingent from Nevis had already gone over to the +French quarter near Sandy Point, and, after a hard +struggle, had taken the post, when the Governor at +last followed behind. Coming up late his men fired +on the mingled French and English, indiscriminately +slaughtering both. After that everything was confused, +neither party distinguishing friend from foe, +with the result that the Governor, Colonel Morgan, +several other officers, and most of the English, were +killed. After that the main body of the French +arrived, driving before them a confused mob of +women and children, who ran shrieking to their +friends for help. Nothing remained for the English +now but to fly or sue for quarter, and the French +became masters of the whole island, with a body of +prisoners twice as numerous as themselves.</p> + +<p>In 1667 a petition was forwarded to Charles the +Second on behalf of several thousand distressed +people, lately inhabitants of St. Christopher's. In +this it was stated that the island had been one of the +most flourishing colonies—the first and best earth +that ever was inhabited by Englishmen among the +heathen cannibals of America. They prayed that +a colony so ancient and loyal, the mother island of +all those parts, the fountain from whence all the +other islands had been watered with planters, might +not remain in the hands of another nation. Since +the surrender they had been continually oppressed, +until thousands had left for other parts. Many had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span> +sold their estates for almost nothing, and had been +stripped and plundered at sea of the little they had +saved. If the inhumanities of the French nation +were examined, their bloody and barbarous usage +of the Indians, their miserable cruelties to prisoners +of war, all nations would abhor their name. They +would make Christians grind their mills instead of +cattle, leave thousands to starve for want, and send +other thousands to uninhabited lands.</p> + +<p>In 1666 Lord Willoughby, who had gone back to +Barbados on the restoration of Charles the Second, +fitted out an expedition to recapture St. Kitt's, but +his fleet encountered a hurricane, and neither his +vessel nor one of his company was ever heard of +again. The following year his nephew, Henry +Willoughby, made an unsuccessful attempt for the +same object. On the 10th of May of the same year +a fight took place between the English and French +fleets off Nevis. On the English side were ten men-of-war +and one fire-ship, while the enemy had more +than double that number. One of the English +vessels was blown up, but, undaunted by this disaster, +they drove the enemy before them to the very +shores of St. Kitt's, where they took shelter under +the guns of Basse-terre.</p> + +<p>Peace was signed at Breda in July, 1667. The +gains of territory by any one of the three nations +were not considerable, and the result went to prove +that England could hold her own against the only +two powers who were able to dispute her supremacy. +During the war she had captured New Amsterdam +(now New York) from the Dutch, and they in turn<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span> +had taken Surinam. As it was agreed with Holland +that both parties should retain what was then in their +possession, Surinam was virtually exchanged for what +is now the capital of the United States. Antigua +and Montserrat, which had been taken by the French, +were now restored to England, and St. Christopher's +returned to its former condition, but without the +least prospect of the two nationalities ever being +again on friendly terms.</p> + +<p>Now that the war was over the trade of the +privateers came to an end, and further efforts were +made to make them settle down. Having received +orders to discountenance them, the Governor of +Jamaica deputed Colonel Cary to report on the +matter. Cary thought they should not be discouraged, +as already harm had been done to Jamaica +by such attempts, and in the future the want of their +help might be prejudicial. On the news that the +commissions against the Spaniards were called in, +several English privateers resolved never to return to +Jamaica, unless there was a war, but in future to +carry on their operations from Tortuga. To divert +them from injuring the Spaniards, the Governor had, +during the late war, appointed Cary to treat with +them for the reduction of Curaçao, to which they at +first consented, but afterwards disagreed. If, said +Cary, they had two of His Majesty's nimble fifth-rate +frigates, they would be able to keep the +privateers to their obedience, observe the enemy's +movements, and guard their own coasts from rovers. +There was no profitable employment for the privateers +against the French and Dutch; these fellows,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span> +being people that would not be brought to plant, +must prey upon the Spaniard, whether they were +countenanced at Jamaica or not. There was such +an inveterate hatred of the English in those parts +by the Spaniard, that he would not hear of trade +or reconciliation, but, on the contrary, inhumanly +butchered any of the islanders he could cowardly +surprise. The French interest daily increased in +the Caribbees, Hispaniola, and Tortuga, and if this +was suffered to grow it would in a short time prove +of dangerous consequence.</p> + +<p>Here we have plain speaking. It was not to the +interest of England for the pirates to become too +closely connected with the French, as they would +then be helping to build up the prosperity of a nation +that might any day become our enemy. As for the +rovers themselves, they cared little or nothing for +the interests of their country; they were willing to +plunder the Spanish possessions because they got +something worth having; with those of the French +and Dutch it was another thing. It is evident that +Cary troubled himself but little as to how a cargo +was obtained as long as Jamaica profited by the +transaction.</p> + +<p>We may here also call attention to the differences +between the characters of the nations which now +commenced a great struggle for mastery in these +parts. The Dutch were, above everything else, an +association of traders, and although they could +fight on occasion, they hardly ever went out of their +way to pick a quarrel. Their wars with England +were brought about by mercantile disputes, the first<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span> +two, as we have already seen, mainly on account of +the Navigation Acts. The English, "the nation of +shopkeepers," were naturally rival traders, but they +did not altogether confine themselves to traffic, being +rather inclined to alternate or mix it up with something +like piracy. Such transactions as those of +Hawkins were not carried on by any other nation, +the Hollander being more inclined to take advantage +of the swiftness of his fly boat than the metal of his +guns. The French were rarely traders, for even +their plantations were largely supported by buccaneering. +When, after a peace, some of the rovers +settled down for a time, they were always ready to +abandon their fields at the first rumour of a war. +England thus stood between the two others as a +stumbling-block; she interfered with the trade of the +one and offended the dignity of the other; thus +coming in for many blows, which only made her +all the more able to resist and conquer.</p> + +<p>The character of the Dutchman is well shown in +the curious difficulty which hastened a third breach +of the peace with England in 1672. In 1667 a fleet +from the Netherlands captured Surinam, and forced +the authorities of the colony to capitulate on favourable +terms. By these articles the inhabitants were +at liberty to sell or transport, when or where they +pleased, all or any part of their possessions. After +the peace, a few went to Barbados, but the majority +found it difficult to dispose of their plantations, and +therefore remained in hopes of a better market +on the arrival of new Dutch settlers. At that time +the Dutchmen were few and mostly poor; they had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span> +been ruined by the war, and in many cases driven +from their settlements by the English. It followed, +therefore, that there were no buyers, and the plantation +owners, trusting to the capitulation, decided to +wait rather than abandon their flourishing properties.</p> + +<p>In June, 1669, the Dutch Governor issued a proclamation +calling upon all the English who intended to +leave to give notice within six months, after which a +like term was given them to dispose of their goods, +when they might leave for English colonies under +free passes from the authorities of both nations. +In case they were unable to sell their slaves, the +Governor would take them over at the market price, +but only those negroes who had been in their possession +at the rendition of the colony could come under +this arrangement.</p> + +<p>At first sight this looked very fair, but the English +saw at once that something was wrong. In the first +place they understood that under the capitulation +they were free to take away all their property, including +slaves, and at the then market prices they +saw that a forced sale would be a serious loss. +Although not expressly intimated, they also understood +that the Governor meant they were not to +carry them away, and this at once caused much +dissatisfaction. Things were, however, in such a +critical state that little notice was taken of the +proclamation; in fact, the people had not as yet +made up their minds what to do. Such a sacrifice +as was required from those who had flourishing +properties, naturally made them hesitate; and when +the English Government inquired about the matter,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span> +they were told by the Dutch authorities that the +people were so well satisfied that they intended to +remain.</p> + +<p>Such was, however, not the case, and when the +year of grace had expired, and they were virtually +prevented from leaving with or without their negroes, +they sent memorials to King Charles the Second +asking for his interference. It was another case of +Egyptian bondage; the Dutch would not let the +people go—except a few of the poorest. It can +easily be understood that it was not very pleasant to +lose the best colonists and have nothing left but a +lot of abandoned plantations. This would have been +a poor exchange for New York, and it is evident +that the Dutch knew very well what they were +doing, and had the welfare of Surinam at heart. +But, in face of the capitulation, they were undoubtedly +wrong, and when they began to oppress +the English for claiming their rights, they went a +great deal too far.</p> + +<p>When Major Bannister, who had been acting +Governor under the English, protested against this, +he was arrested and transported to Holland, where +he obtained his release only by the intervention of +the English ambassador. Then complaints were +made to the Dutch Government, but it was two years +before permission was granted for commissioners +from England to go out and transport those who +wanted to leave. Even then secret orders were sent +to put every possible obstruction in their way, which +was done by bringing suits for debt, and otherwise +putting the English in positions which made it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span> +impossible for them to wind up their affairs. It +followed, therefore, that only a few more went away, +carrying with them the prayers of the more important +to be delivered from such bondage.</p> + +<p>Matters now came to a crisis. Other questions +had arisen between the two powers, notably some +in connection with the Eastern trade, and the refusal +of Holland to honour the English flag. War broke +out in 1672, and this time the French joined England +against the Dutch, who had to stand alone. French +and English buccaneers were let loose to plunder the +colonies, and they made the seas so dangerous that +hardly one of the enemy's vessels could show herself +in the West Indies. The Dutch colonies were thus +cut off, and even the settlements of Essequebo and +Berbice had to go without their usual supplies. This +deprivation caused much dissatisfaction among the +garrison of the latter colony, and led to a mutiny, +which resulted in the incarceration of the Governor, +who was not released until next year, when the +belated supplies arrived.</p> + +<p>Spain was also involved in the war the following +year, and thus all the nations interested in the West +Indies were fighting at once—Holland and Spain +against France and England. The French buccaneers +had already gained a footing on Hispaniola; now +they attempted to get possession of the whole island, +but could not succeed. However, they went on to +Trinidad, which had always been a Spanish island, +and plundered it of a hundred thousand dollars.</p> + +<p>The Spanish and Dutch colonies suffered greatly, +but Englishmen by no means escaped altogether.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span> +As an example of their treatment by the enemy, the +case of John Darbey is interesting. In April, 1674, +he and six others were taken by a Dutchman from a +small English vessel, while sailing from St. Thomas +to Antigua, and carried to Havana. There they +were kept in irons for five weeks, and then set to +work as slaves on the fortifications. After enduring +great misery for three months, they were removed to +work on board a ship, which was captured by the +French off St. Domingo, when they were of course +released, and finally carried to Jamaica. Here they +told of the sufferings they had endured and witnessed—the +story of which more and more embittered the +English feeling against Spain. On one occasion +Darbey had seen eight men brought in from a New +England bark, who afterwards attempted to escape. +They marched along the shore hoping to attract the +notice of some friendly vessel, but the Governor sent +a party of soldiers in pursuit, and they were all +murdered at once save the master, who was brought +back, executed, and his head stuck on a pole. He +also saw the commander of a man-of-war bring in a +New England vessel and hang five men at the yard-arm, +where the corpses were used as targets by him +and his officers. The same captain wanted himself +and several other Englishmen to sail with them, but +because they indignantly refused, he deliberately +stabbed one of them with his sword, killing him at +once.</p> + +<p>In February, 1674, a treaty was signed at Westminster +in which there was a special clause bearing +on the English in Surinam. To the intent that there<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> +might be no more mistakes, the States General +agreed that the articles of capitulation should not +only be executed without any more prevarication, +but also that His Majesty of Great Britain should +be free to depute commissioners to examine into the +condition of his subjects and agree with them as to +the time of their departure. Also that no special +laws should be made to hamper them in any way in +the sale of their lands, payments of their debts, or +barter of their goods, and that vessels should be +as free to go to Surinam, as they and their servants +should also be free to depart.</p> + +<p>Accordingly, in March, 1675, three commissioners +were instructed to proceed there, and were enjoined +to see that the provisions of the treaty were properly +carried out, to press for debts owing to the English, +and to endeavour to get over the difficulty of their +obligations to the Dutch. Vessels were provided to +carry the settlers wherever they wished, and provision +made for victualling them on the voyage, as well as +for a short time after their landing in their new +homes.</p> + +<p>Now at last it might be presumed that the exodus +could be freely managed; yet even then the Dutch +authorities tried to put obstructions in the way. +Among the servants of the English were many +Indians, some of whom were nominally free, and +these the Dutch Governor demanded should be put +ashore, to prevent the mischiefs and cruelties of the +heathen, their friends, who might avenge themselves +for the deportation on those who remained in the +colony. The English claimed that these people went<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span> +of their own free will, and that some of them were +much attached to their white masters, which was +probably true. Besides these, most of whom were +got off against the Governor's protests, there were +ten Jews with 322 slaves, in preventing the departure +of whom he was more successful. They were not, +strictly speaking, British subjects, although they had +lived under the flag for many years, and the commissioners +did not insist on their admission.</p> + +<p>Finally, three vessels sailed away for Jamaica in +September, 1675, carrying 1,231 people, including +thirty-one Indians, and more negroes than whites. +On arriving at that island they were granted lands in +St. Elizabeth, afterwards known as Surinam quarters, +and thus Guiana again became a factor in the development +of the English islands. As for the Jews, even +they were afterwards allowed to depart when they +memorialised the king and got him to press the +matter.</p> + +<p>Even yet, however, the last had not been heard of +this detention, for it cropped up again in the case of +Jeronomy Clifford, one of those who actually left with +the others for Jamaica. He was then a lad, and +went off with his father, returning again to the +colony as the second husband of an Englishwoman +who had property there. It appears that, as surgeon +of a Dutch vessel, he was so kind to a dying planter +named Charles Maasman, that his widow went to +London and married him in August, 1683.</p> + +<p>Not getting on very well in Surinam, Clifford and +his wife resolved to sell out and take their slaves with +them to Jamaica, but in this they were frustrated.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span> +The Dutch felt very sore about the former migration, +especially when Jamaica plumed herself on her great +acquisition, and taunted them with the fact that they +got little by the transfer of the colony. When, therefore, +Clifford made known his intention, the Governor +told him he could not remove his wife's property +because she had inherited it from a Dutch subject. +Clifford had some of that doggedness which has been +observed so often in Englishmen, and was determined +to obtain what he considered his rights. Under the +capitulation he might leave at any time, and he did +not consider that this right had been in any way +forfeited.</p> + +<p>However, the Dutch Governor said otherwise, and, +to prevent the alienation or removal of his property, +put it in trust, and then endeavoured to set his wife +against him so that she might refuse to leave. By +some tittle-tattle about a female cousin of Clifford, +her jealousy was aroused, and she petitioned for a +divorce on the grounds of cruelty and adultery. +However, when she found out the object of the +traducers of her husband, she asked that her petition +be annulled and made void, because she had been +misled and drawn away by the ill advices of others—now +she was sorry, and well satisfied and content +with him. This having been read before the Court +of Justice, a council of Dutch planters, they showed +their animus by deciding that Mrs. Clifford was a +weak and silly woman, and that it appeared to them +that her husband, to the prejudice of his wife and +that land, had endeavoured to remove his goods, +which they would willingly prevent. They therefore<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span> +ordered the plantation to be appraised and put in +commission, forbidding either Clifford or his wife +from diminishing, removing, or making away with +the estate, but only to enjoy the interest and produce +as long as they lived and corresponded well +with each other. They also wished the wife much +joy of her reconciliation, and condemned her to pay +the costs both present and future. Finally, considering +her frowardness and ill-nature, and for an +example to all other like-natured women, they condemned +her to pay a fine of five thousand pounds of +sugar.</p> + +<p>Clifford, who yet stood by what he considered his +right, was now subjected to a number of petty persecutions. +His wife went to England, leaving him her +attorney, and he began to pester the Governor to +remove the illegal arrest on his estate. At last this +importunity led to his arrest, and he was sentenced +by this same Court of Justice to be hanged, as a +mutineer and disturber of the public peace. But, +being "more inclined to clemency than to carry things +to the utmost rigour of justice," they commuted this +sentence to imprisonment for seven years, with a fine +of a hundred and fifty thousand pounds of sugar.</p> + +<p>As may be supposed, this arbitrary judgment only +made Clifford more exasperated. He still went on +petitioning and protesting that he was not a Dutch +subject, as he had refused to take the oath of allegiance, +and that therefore he was only standing up for +his rights. However, he was imprisoned in the fort, +where every effort was made to prevent his communicating +with England or the English colonies. Not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span>withstanding +these precautions he managed to send +several letters, meanwhile threatening the Court that +if they kept him any longer he would be forced to use +such means of relief as he should be advised. After +some delay his communications reached Barbados, +Jamaica, and New York, from whence they at last +reached King William, who soon got him released. +But even then Clifford could not get back his estate, +and although he went to London and petitioned the +king, who directed inquiry of the ambassador at the +Hague, he could never get any redress. For seventy +years he, and his heirs after his death, kept up a +stream of petitions and memorials, without result, in +the end claiming for illegal detention, damages, and +interest, over half a million pounds.</p> + +<p>During the short peace which followed the treaty +of Westminster attention was again directed to the +buccaneers, who were now called pirates, and treated +as such even in Jamaica, with the result that many of +them settled down. It has been stated that Charles +the Second shared in their gains even after he had +issued proclamations against them, but this sort of +thing now came to an end. The French continued +their depredations up to the year 1680, when the +king issued a proclamation, forbidding the further +granting of commissions, and recalling those which +had been issued, at the same time ordering that +those who persisted in the trade should be hanged +as pirates. This tended to bring the less audacious +to settle down, but even to the beginning of the +present century piracy was still known in the West +Indies.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span></p> + +<p>While Sir Henry Morgan was Acting Governor of +Jamaica, in 1681, Everson, the Dutch pirate, came to +Cow Bay on that island, but Morgan captured him +and his crew and sent them off to Carthagena, to be +punished by the authorities there for the ravages they +had committed on the Spanish coasts and shipping. +During the ex-buccaneer's administration he also +got an Act passed to restrain privateers, and keep +inviolable all treaties with foreign states. Any British +subject who treated a foreign prince or State in a +hostile manner should be punished with death as a +felon.</p> + +<p>Peace did not last long, however, for in 1688 the +French began to move against Holland, and the year +following King William was also bound to declare +war. Almost immediately the English were again +driven out of St. Kitt's, the French, as on the former +occasion, committing outrages quite unjustifiable +among civilised nations even in war. They also +took St. Eustatius from the Dutch.</p> + +<p>As if there were not enough pirates in the West +Indies, the French brought some more from their own +coast—the celebrated corsairs, who had held a position +in Europe during the wars similar to that of the +buccaneers in America. Some rovers, who had lately +settled in Cayenne, were agreeably surprised at the +beginning of the year 1689 by the arrival of Du +Casse, who soon enrolled them under his banner and +started to pillage the Dutch and English colonies.</p> + +<p>The first attack was made upon Surinam with +nine vessels, but after three days' fighting the Dutch +obliged the corsairs to retire, leaving one ship<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span> +aground to be captured. Two of the squadron were, +however, more successful in Berbice, which, after the +enemy had destroyed one or two plantations, was +obliged to pay a ransom of twenty thousand guilders +(£1,666), which was settled by a draft on the proprietors +in Amsterdam, and which curiously enough +appears to have been afterwards paid. Another +privateer destroyed the small settlement in the +Pomeroon river, and obliged the few inhabitants to +fly to Essequebo, and to afterwards abandon the +place altogether. Du Casse then went on to the +islands, where he did much damage to both Dutch +and English, finally, in 1697, Spain being also on the +other side, joining De Pointis to attack and capture +Carthagena.</p> + +<p>The corsairs were privateers with proper commissions, +authorised by the French Government to +pillage and destroy and divide the plunder among +themselves after setting aside the king's share. Up +to the present France could hardly be said to have a +navy, and these private adventurers to some extent +filled its place. True, there were a few king's ships, +but the treasury was often so bare that they could +not be properly armed or manned without assistance +from outside. Then, perhaps, one or more would be +put at the disposal of a renowned corsair, on condition +that the State should be put to no expense. +Courtiers, ministers, and merchants would come forward +and form a joint stock company, equip the ship +or fleet as the case might be, and share the plunder.</p> + +<p>Du Casse settled down as Governor of the French +part of Hispaniola, which by this time had been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span> +taken over, and he appears to have encouraged the +buccaneers on account of their assistance to the +colony. When that great corsair, Jacques Cassard +came out, he was therefore enabled to supply him +with as much help as he required.</p> + +<p>Cassard, in 1712, was supplied by the merchants of +Marseilles with a large fleet, with which he sailed to +the West Indies, beginning, as Du Casse had done, +with Surinam, where he arrived on the 8th of October, +with eight large and thirty small vessels. The Dutch +were not so fortunate this time, for he sailed up and +down the river for three weeks, burning, pillaging, +and carrying off slaves, until most of the inhabitants +took to the bush. Among other exploits he is said +to have broken open the Jewish synagogue, killed a +pig within the sacred precincts, and sprinkled its +blood over the walls and ornaments. He was ultimately +bought off for over £50,000, which, in the +absence of enough coin, was paid in sugar, negro and +Indian slaves, cattle, merchandise, provisions, stores, +jewellery, and a very little cash.</p> + +<p>While remaining in Surinam Cassard sent three +vessels to Berbice, which was easily captured, and for +which a ransom of three hundred thousand guilders +(£25,000) was demanded. But this settlement was +far worse off than Surinam, and had neither goods +nor money to pay such a large amount, which was +out of all proportion to that of her neighbour. After +raising 118,000 guilders in various ways, the balance +was accepted in a bill of exchange on the proprietors, +two of the leading planters of the colony being taken +as hostages and security. Not satisfied with this, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span> +corsairs insisted on a further sum of ten thousand +guilders in cash, as ransom for the private estates, +on the ground that they had been paid only for the +fort and properties of the Government. There was +not so much money in the whole river, and after +collecting every bit of plate and jewellery they +possessed, to the value of six thousand guilders, the +enemy had to take the balance in sugar and stores.</p> + +<p>Now came the most curious part of this transaction. +The two hostages died, and the proprietors refused to +pay the draft—in fact, they said Berbice was not +worth so much. Nevertheless the colony could not +be taken over as a French possession, and even when +the peace of Utrecht was signed in 1713, nothing +could be done. Here was an anomaly—a Dutch +settlement in the hands of French merchants as +security for a debt. On account of trade restrictions +its produce might not be brought to France, and the +owners of the draft neither knew what to do with +the document nor its security. The Dutch proprietors +were equally at a loss, for they knew very well that, if +they ignored the claim of the corsairs, revenge would +be taken on the first opportunity—during the next +war, if not before. At last one of the Marseilles +merchants was deputed to go to Amsterdam, and +after a great deal of haggling he sold the draft to a +third party at a reduction of about forty per cent.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile Cassard had captured St. Eustatius, +and exacted a large ransom. From thence he +resolved to proceed to Curaçao, the great stronghold +of the Dutch, and the depôt for goods used in the +contraband traffic with the Spanish colonies. Here<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span> +there were many Jews, who had large stocks of +merchandise, and as the booty would be certainly +great, Cassard resolved to risk everything on such +an exploit. On his arrival he sent a boat ashore +with a demand for the surrender of the island, to +which the Governor sent a jeering reply, as he +considered the place impregnable. However, the +corsair fleet stood in for the harbour, but were +greeted with such a heavy fire that Cassard was +forced to retire and call a council. The balance of +opinion was against going any farther. The officers +said the Dutch guns were of heavier metal than +theirs, the currents round the island rendered a +landing almost impossible, and the entrance to the +harbour was so narrow that it could easily be +commanded by the two forts. However, Cassard +himself and a few others were in favour of the +attempt, and it was ultimately resolved to carry it +out on the morrow.</p> + +<p>To deceive the Dutch, Cassard sent part of his +fleet on a cruise round the island, while he with the +remainder commenced to bombard the forts, keeping +this up during the day as if that were his line of +attack. The following night, however, he embarked +most of his men in small craft, and keeping the +lights on his ships burning, managed to land under +cover of the darkness. Fortunately for him, this +manœuvre was not perceived by the Dutch, for he +had quite enough to do in contending with a strong +current and in avoiding sunken rocks, which made +the landing so perilous that it is doubtful if even +these hardy fellows would have attempted it during<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span> +the day, when the dangers would be conspicuous. +However, they got ashore without serious accident, +and at once erected a breastwork for the light guns +they had brought.</p> + +<p>Morning broke, and Cassard expected to see the +second half of the squadron returned from its cruise, +and ready to support him, instead of which it was +visible several miles to leeward. To add to his +difficulties, the Dutch had discovered the landing, +had erected a powerful battery a mile away, and +were preparing to attack him before his reinforcements +could come up. Yet in face of all this he +was undaunted. He must, however, attack at once, +and this was done, with the result that the forts were +taken. Cassard was wounded by a musket ball in +the foot, yet he did not relinquish the command, +but followed this first success by turning the guns of +the forts on the town. At the same time he sent a +flag of truce to the Governor, declaring, that if the +place were not at once surrendered at discretion he +would bombard it. In reply, the Dutch attacked +the forts, but were repulsed with great loss, and at +last terms were discussed, with the result that the +ransom was fixed at 600,000 louis d'ors. This +amount was considered so reasonable that the +merchants hastened to pay it over and get rid of +him, which they did in three days.</p> + +<p>On his arrival in Martinique, Cassard found he had +been superseded in the command, and that the fleet +was ordered home. Giving the buccaneers their +share of the booty, he sailed for Brest, and on the +way met an English squadron. The French admiral<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span> +signalled his vessels not to fight, but Cassard, turning +to his second in command of the vessel, said his duty +to his king was above that to his admiral—he would +fight His Majesty's foes wherever he met them. On +that he bore down upon the English and captured +two small craft before nightfall, afterwards making +his voyage to Brest alone.</p> + +<p>This want of subordination so incensed the admiral +that he preferred several charges against him, one +being that he had retained more than his share of +the booty. Whether this charge was true or not, +the "Hero of Nantes," as he was called, fell into +disgrace, followed by great poverty. Almost a +beggar, he was at last sent to prison for importuning +a cardinal and king's minister too much, by claiming +what he considered his rights. There he ultimately +died, and, like some others who have been as badly +treated in life, has now a statue erected to his memory +in his native town.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h3><a name="IX" id="IX"></a>IX</h3> + + +<h3>THE STRUGGLE FOR THE DARIEN TRADE</h3> + + +<p>Carthagena and Porto Bello were the great +trading stations for the Spaniards in the Indies. +The latter had taken the place of Nombre de Dios, +since that town had been destroyed by Drake, and +was now the port to which the treasures of Peru +were brought overland from Panama. The galleons +from Spain, after calling at St. Domingo, went on to +Carthagena, where the first great fair of the year +was held. Here the traders from the inland provinces +of New Granada came to get their supplies +from Europe, which they paid for in gold, silver, +emeralds, and produce. For the short time the +vessels remained, the people of the town woke up +from their year's inactivity, and made the most of the +occasion. Stores were in demand, and lodging-houses +required for the visitors, so that the cost of +living went up by leaps and bounds. Those who +had slaves got enormous profits by their hire, and even +the negroes themselves made large sums beyond the +amounts they had to pay their masters. The whole +place lost its air of desertion and became the scene +of such bustle and confusion as would hardly be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span> +conceivable to those who saw it as a "sleepy hollow" +during the <i>tiempo muerto</i>, the dead time, as it was +called.</p> + +<p>Having done with Carthagena, the galleons went +on to Porto Bello, the beautiful haven, said to have +been the most unhealthy place on the Main. By +reason of its noxious air and barren soil there was a +scarcity of provisions, which led to its desertion at +ordinary times. In anticipation of the fleet, however, +it woke up and became even more lively than Carthagena. +The only reason for its existence was the +trade across the isthmus, otherwise it would have +been deservedly abandoned. Here was held the +great fair, that at the other port being petty in +comparison. The concourse of people was so great +that a single chamber for a lodging during the busy +time sometimes cost a thousand crowns, while a +house would be worth five or six times as much. +As the galleons came in sight, the people began to +erect a great tent in the <i>Plaza</i> to receive their +cargoes, where they were assorted and delivered to +the various consignees or their representatives. The +crowd of men and animals soon became so great +that movement was difficult. Droves of mules came +over the isthmus loaded with cases of gold and +silver, which were dumped down in the open streets +or in the square, for want of storehouses. Yet, with +all the confusion, it is said that theft was unknown, +and losses through mistakes very rare. But not +only were there thousands of mules and their drivers, +but small vessels continually arrived from different +parts of the coast, bringing goods and people, to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span> +increase the hubbub. Here was a cargo of cinchona +bark, there another of cacao, and further on, by no +means the least important, were boat-loads of fresh +vegetables and fruits to supply the great assembly. +This went on for forty days, after which the port was +deserted and the town resumed its poverty-stricken +air. Then two persons in the streets formed a crowd +and half a dozen a mob. Solitude and silence +reigned, where so lately the bustle and noise had +been rampant, and the <i>tiempo muerto</i> ruled until the +following year.</p> + +<p>It can be easily understood that the influence of +the Porto Bello fair was not only felt on the Gulf +side, but on the shores of the Pacific as well. +Panama was largely dependent on the transport +business, which employed a great number of mules +and slaves. Even in the absence of buccaneers and +pirates the road was always difficult, and sometimes +even dangerous. Heavy rains caused great floods, +which delayed the traffic for days, and left the tracks +on the hills so slippery that even that sure-footed +animal the mule was often carried over a precipice. +Then there were cannibal Indians and Simarons +always lurking in the forest, ready to cut off +stragglers. On the rumour of a buccaneer landing +on the coast—it might be a hundred miles away—the +traffic was at once stopped and the merchants +began to "fear and sweat with a cold sweat," as +Thomas Gage very quaintly puts it.</p> + +<p>The Spanish merchants no doubt deplored this +state of things, and would have been thankful for a +good road instead of such an unutterably worthless<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span> +bridle track. There was, however, a side to the +question which probably influenced them—a way +that would be easy for them would also be more +accessible to their enemies. Then, again, a good +road should have been the work of the Spanish +Government rather than of the settlers, but it was +useless to expect anything from that direction. +Nevertheless, a good road and even a canal were +mooted before the end of the sixteenth century, thus +anticipating the Panama railroad and canal of our +own time. But, although the advantages were patent, +the difficulties were so many as to be practically +insurmountable, and nothing whatever was done.</p> + +<p>Towards the end of the seventeenth century came +a sudden craze for carrying out gigantic schemes of +various kinds, practicable or impracticable, useful +or worthless, Utopian or utterly absurd. Among +them was the Mississippi scheme in France and the +South Sea Bubble in England, of which the latter +was intimately connected with the Indies. The time +had arrived when people began to think of trading +on credit or pledges, and of combining together for +carrying on banks and other commercial operations. +Private banks had existed for several centuries, and +more or less public establishments in the great +commercial centres, such as Venice, Amsterdam, and +Hamburg, but up to the present there was no Bank +of England. In fact the great principle that allows +an enormous trade to be carried on without the +actual interchange of specie or commodities had just +been discovered, and the people of France and England +went mad over it.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span></p> + +<p>The pioneer of the system in England was William +Paterson, who seems to have been acquainted with +Dampier and Wafer, both of whom knew the isthmus +of Darien very well. He is also said to have travelled +in the West Indies himself, and even to have visited +the Porto Bello fair, but this is not quite certain.</p> + +<p>Paterson first came into prominence by bringing +forward a scheme which ultimately led to the establishment +of the Bank of England on the 27th of +July, 1694. From this he appears to have derived +no actual benefit, however, although he was one of +the first directors, upon a qualification of £2,000 +stock, which he sold out after the first year, and thus +withdrew. Probably he wanted his money to carry +out the new project for a settlement on the isthmus +of Darien.</p> + +<p>In the course of this history we have advisedly +used the word "English" instead of "British," in +speaking of our nation, because as yet Scotchmen +were little concerned in colonisation schemes. In +fact, except as transported rebels or convicts, they +had hardly any interest in the plantations. This +was the result of Navigation Acts, which debarred +Scotch merchants and vessels from trading, by +ordering that all traffic with the colonies should be +carried on in English vessels and from English +ports.</p> + +<p>Paterson's idea was to take possession of the +isthmus of Darien, establish a Scotch colony at a +convenient harbour on the Gulf side, and then open +up a proper road by which the trade would be so +much facilitated that it would become the great<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span> +highway. Seated between the two vast oceans of +the universe, he said, the isthmus is provided with +excellent harbours on both sides, between the +principal of which lie the more easy and convenient +passes. If these ports and passes were fortified, the +road could easily be secured and defended, thus +affording the readiest and nearest means of gaining +and keeping the command of the South Sea—the +greatest and by far the richest side of the world. +With the passes open, through them would flow at +least two-thirds of the produce of both Indies. The +time and expense of the voyage to China and Japan +would be lessened more than half, and the consumption +of European commodities soon doubled, +and annually increased.</p> + +<p>He contended that Darien possessed great tracts +of country up to that time unclaimed by any +European, and that the Indians, the original proprietors, +would welcome the honest and honourable +settler to their fertile shore. The soil was rich to +a fault, producing spontaneously the most delicious +fruits, and required the hand of labour to chasten +rather than stimulate its capabilities. There crystal +rivers sparkled over sands of gold—there the traveller +might wander for days under a canopy of fruit-laden +branches, the trees bearing them being of inestimable +value as timber. The waters also abounded in wealth. +Innumerable shoals of fish disported themselves +among the rocks, and the bottom was strewn with +pearls. From the dawn of creation this enchanted +country had lain secluded from mortals—now it was +revealed and opened to Scottish enterprise. Let<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span> +them enter and take possession of this promised land, +and build a new city—a new Edinburgh, like Alexandria +of old, which grew to prodigious wealth and +power from its position on another isthmus—to soon +become famous as the new emporium of a new world.</p> + +<p>The reader who has seen our account of Lionel +Wafer's miserable journey will be able to discount +these florid statements, but the Scotch people seem +to have taken everything for gospel. Now, at last, +they would have a colony—a plantation of more +value than any of those that the English had begun +to boast of. They were enthusiastic, and although +poor, did their very best to contribute, actually +promising the large sum of £400,000. England +also subscribed to the extent of £300,000, and +Holland and Hamburg £200,000. Everything looked +bright, and at last a concession was obtained for the +"Company of Scotland, trading to Africa and the +Indies."</p> + +<p>Strange to say, Paterson entirely ignored the +claims of Spain, although he must have known that +she would strenuously object to such a settlement. +It was all very well to say the place belonged to the +Indians, but the very fact of its vicinity to the great +trading centre and channel of communication with +the Pacific coast should have made him anticipate +trouble. Even if he argued that the buccaneers were +practically unmolested along the Mosquito shore, he +must also have known that their position was by no +means secure, and even had this been the case, that it +would have afforded to argument in favour of his +project.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span></p> + +<p>To be successful he must also have had the support +of the English Government, but unfortunately this +was denied. Jealousy and envy between the two +countries led to representations adverse to the scheme +being made to King William, with the result that the +Company was discountenanced, and that most of the +promised subscriptions outside of Scotland were withdrawn. +Then came dissensions among the leaders +themselves, and this lost them half the amount from +their own county. Yet with all that Paterson was +undaunted, and, notwithstanding the diminished funds +at command, he still resolved to go on.</p> + +<p>On the 26th of July, 1698, twelve hundred men in +five ships sailed for a place near the entrance of +the Gulf of Darien, a hundred miles to the east of +Porto Bello. It was afterwards stated that the vessels +were rotten and ill-found, although gaily decked with +flags on the day of departure, which hid some of their +deficiencies. The provision supply was bad, and, to +crown all, the captains were coarse, brutal, and ignorant, +continually quarrelling with each other. Through +envy, Paterson had been prevented from having any +voice in the arrangements, and although he went +with the expedition, he entered the ship as ignorant +of her equipment as any other passenger. But he +evidently had his doubts, for he asked for an inspection +of the stores, only to have his request treated +with contempt.</p> + +<p>On the 27th of October the fleet came to anchor +in a fair sandy bay three leagues west of the Gulf +of Darien, now known as the Port D'Escocés. It +was an excellent harbour surrounded by high moun<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span>tains, +and capable of holding a thousand sail in +security from wind and tempest. The settlers named +the district Caledonia, and considered it to be fertile +and even healthy. They commenced at once to erect +a fort, to which they gave the name of St. Andrews, +and a cluster of houses for the town of New Edinburgh. +These labours gave them little time for +planting, and it naturally followed that they had +to live on the provisions brought from Scotland, +which, bad at the beginning, were now almost worthless. +Paterson sent emissaries to the neighbouring +Spanish settlements to ask for their friendship, and +went himself into the interior to arrange treaties with +the Indians, so that the Scotch might have a good title +to the land. In this latter object he was successful, and +it was agreed that peace should be kept between the +natives and the colonists, "as long as rivers ran and +gold was found in Darien."</p> + +<p>After six days' absence he returned to find a great +change in the settlement. A spirit of mutiny and +discontent had broken out, those who worked hard +being naturally dissatisfied with others who did +nothing. Then the provisions became rotten, and +even then were so reduced in quantity that the +people suffered from want and its consequent sickness. +Four months passed, and nothing but daily +discouragements were encountered; not even a little +gold to enliven their spirits. Hard work under a +tropical sun began to tell upon them, and although +the friendly natives brought a little game, it was +almost useless among so many. Every day, however, +the number was reduced by death, fevers, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span> +dysentery playing sad havoc, until those who remained +were utterly dispirited.</p> + +<p>To add to their troubles they were refused supplies +from Jamaica, King William having sent instructions to +the Colonial Governors to discountenance the colony +in every way. Paterson sent to Jamaica to get food +for the starving people, and instead, his empty vessel +brought copies of the Proclamation that had been +issued in that island. This stated that as His Majesty +knew nothing of the intentions and designs of the +Scots at Darien, and as their settling on the isthmus +was contrary to the peace of Spain, every one was +commanded not to hold any communication with them, +and not to supply arms, ammunition, provisions, or +anything whatsoever, on their peril.</p> + +<p>In this desperate condition they awaited supplies +from Scotland, but these did not arrive, for the ship +had foundered on her way, and even Paterson began +to be discouraged when day after day passed without +relief. Even the reduced number could no longer +exist, and with heavy hearts they prepared to leave. +They had a ship, but no provisions for the voyage, +and on account of the prohibition were prevented +from victualling at one of the islands. At last, however, +they got together as much barbecued fish and +game as the Indians could procure, with a few fruits, +and sailed away. But even now fate was against +them. Hardly had they got out of the harbour +before they were becalmed off this deadly shore +for many days, their scanty supply of food diminishing +when it was so much wanted for the long voyage. +However, the remnant of about thirty, survivors of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span> +the twelve hundred, at last arrived at Charlestown, +Carolina, in a most miserable condition. Paterson +was himself so worn out that he lost his senses for +a time, becoming quite childish, yet he recovered, to +go back to Scotland and ask the Company for another +expedition.</p> + +<p>This he urged on the ground that the first had +failed simply through the want of supplies and the +action of the English Government. Some were in +favour of still carrying out the project, and these +drew up a petition to the king, giving it for presentation +to Lord Hamilton. William the Third, however, refused +not only to receive the petition, but even to grant +an audience to its bearer. Lord Hamilton would not +be put off, however, but watched for his opportunity, +and found it one day as the king was mounting his +horse. He laid the petition on the saddle, which +made His Majesty cry out, "Now, by heaven, this +young man is too bold," adding in a softer tone, "if +a man can be too bold in the service of his country." +With that he threw the document from him and rode +off, afterwards, when memorial after memorial came +from Scotland, issuing a Proclamation against the +worry of such petitions.</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding this refusal, another expedition +was sent out, the management of which was as bad +as that of the first. But this time the Spaniards were +on the alert, and hardly had the settlers begun to put +things in order before the enemy was upon them in +force. Famine and sickness again fell upon New +Edinburgh, added to the horrors of a siege, which +ultimately led to a capitulation on fair terms. But<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span> +so weak were they as the Spaniards allowed them to +embark, that their late enemies out of pity helped to +heave their anchors and set their sails.</p> + +<p>It was long before the Scotch people forgot or +forgave their sister kingdom for her action in thus +frustrating their darling project. Besides impeding +the Union, it is said to have strengthened the Jacobite +feelings in the rebellions of 1715 and 1745. Even as +late as the year 1788, when it was proposed to erect +a monument in Edinburgh to King William the +Third and the "glorious revolution," the affair was +remembered, and some one suggested that the pedestal +should have on the one side a view of Glencoe, +and on the other the Darien colony. Queen Anne, +in 1702, tried to pacify her Scotch subjects by an +autograph letter, stating that she regretted the Company's +losses and disappointments, but this did not +kill the ill-feeling. As for Paterson, in 1715 the +English House of Commons voted him the sum of +£18,241 as some indemnity for his losses, but as +the bill was thrown out by the House of Lords, he +got nothing.</p> + +<p>Thus ended one of the most disastrous of British +attempts to colonise the Indies. From beginning +to end it was an example of the Dutch caution of +William of Orange, as contrasted with the recklessness +of Queen Elizabeth's time or the sturdy defiance +of Cromwell. The king was not prepared to risk +war for an idea, yet at the same time he would not +prohibit the expeditions.</p> + +<p>From 1702 to 1713 there was war between England +and Holland on the one side, and France and Spain<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span> +on the other. By the treaty of Utrecht, which again +brought peace, the English received the concession +for the exclusive supply of negro slaves to the Spanish +colonies for thirty years. This <i>Assiento</i> contract was +given to the Great South Sea Company, which resulted +from one of those joint-stock manias, now epidemic +in France, England, and even Holland.</p> + +<p>The Company was projected by the Earl of Oxford +in 1711, and, like the Mississippi scheme in France, +was intended to assist the Government, which was +virtually bankrupt. As yet there was no funded +national debt, but large sums were owing to the +army and navy, which had been provisionally settled +by debentures, that could be discounted only at a +serious loss to the owners. Down to the establishment +of the Bank of England in 1693 no public loan +existed, but this was commenced by borrowing the +capital of that institution. At the peace of Ryswick, +in 1697, the public debt amounted to twenty millions, +but by the time the South Sea Company was started +the arrears of pay made it half as much again. Part +of the great scheme was to advance this amount +on security of English customs duties amounting +to £600,000 per annum, and a monopoly of the +Spanish trade in the Indies as far as the <i>Assiento</i> +contract would permit.</p> + +<p>Whether the whole affair was a fraud from the +commencement is doubtful; there were certainly +misrepresentations in the prospectus, either wilful or +possibly in good faith. Spain was to allow free trade +to England in four ports on the Pacific, and three +vessels besides slavers were to go to the isthmus +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197-198]</a></span>every year—concessions never promised nor intended +by Philip the Fifth. The slave trade was a fact, and +according to the statements it would give fabulous +profits.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/p197.jpg" width="600" height="430" alt="MAP OF TERRA FIRMA." title="" /> +<span class="caption">MAP OF TERRA FIRMA.<br /> +(<i>From Gottfried's "Reisen."</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p>Visions of boundless wealth now floated before the +eyes of the English people, and they at once began +to rival the French in their madness, as they had in +their colonisation. The English Government was +ready to make every possible concession because it +wanted to be rid of the incubus of thirty millions, +and therefore did nothing to check the Company. +As the stock was issued it was at once bought +up, and then sold again at a considerable advance. +Everybody expected to make fortunes, therefore they +must get shares at any price. Rumours of peace +with Spain, and great concessions that would bring +all the riches of Peru and Mexico into their coffers, +roused them still more. Gold would soon be as +plentiful as copper, and silver as iron. The shareholders +would be the richest people the world ever +saw, and every share would give dividends of hundreds +per cent. per annum. The bill making the Government +concessions was passed in April, 1720, when the +stock was quoted at £310 for a hundred pound share. +Strange to say, it then began to fall, but the projectors +put forth a rumour that England was about +to exchange Gibraltar for a port in Peru, and confidence +was restored at once. So great was the +increased demand that another million was issued at +£300 per £100 share, and these were so much run +after that the fortunate owners were at once offered +double what they had paid. Then another million<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span> +was offered at £400, and in a few hours applications +were received for a million and a half.</p> + +<p>People were so eager to invest their money that +they swallowed almost any bait thrown to them. +Hundreds of bubble companies hovered on the outskirts +of the parent, among them one for settling the +barren islands of Blanco and Sal Tortugas, another to +colonise Santa Cruz, and a third to fit out vessels for +the suppression of piracy. But perhaps the most +absurd was "a company for carrying on an undertaking +of great advantage, but nobody to know what +it is."</p> + +<p>Near their highest point the South Sea Shares were +sold at £890, but so many wanted to sell at that +price that they soon fell to £640. This put the +directors again upon their mettle, and they set to +work with fresh rumours and pushed them up to +£1,000, from which they suddenly went down, with +a few fluctuations, until utterly worthless. The +treasurer of the Company ran away to France when +the blow fell, but the directors were arrested and +their estates ultimately confiscated. Thousands of +people were ruined, and the public credit received a +blow from which it took many years to recover.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the South Sea Company had not been +altogether idle. Besides the slave vessels they were +entitled to send <i>one</i> ship annually to the Carthagena +and Porto Bello fairs, this being called the <i>Navio de +permisso</i>. It was not to be larger than five hundred +tons, yet the Company picked out the biggest they +could find and filled it with goods, to the exclusion +of food and water, which were carried in small store<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span> +vessels that waited outside the harbour. This caused +a great deal of dissatisfaction, as the English brought +so much that they could under-sell the Spanish +merchants in their own market. In 1715 the <i>Bedford</i>, +nominally of six hundred tons, was seized at +Carthagena on the ground that her burden was +excessive. By the Spanish measurements the cargo +was said to have amounted to 2,117½ tons, and the +excess was confiscated and ordered to be sold. +However, the English protested, at the same time +passing over some valuable presents to the authorities, +with the result that a remeasurement was +ordered, which made the amount only 460 tons.</p> + +<p>In 1716 the Spaniards took Campeachy and sixty +English logwood vessels, which occasioned another +war. The English claimed that they had an undoubted +right to cut logwood at that place, and that +former kings had always maintained them in this. +For a long time they had quietly possessed a part of +Yucatan, uninhabited by Spaniards, and they claimed +not only the privilege of wood-cutting, but of settlement +as well. Probably the little notice taken of +their attack on the Darien colony made the Spanish +authorities think England ready to bear any insult, +but they soon found out their mistake. War was +declared in 1718, and all the property of the South +Sea Company, including debts, was confiscated, the +whole amounting to £850,000. This would have +been a great blow to the Company had it been +genuine, but as we have seen, its mercantile transactions +were secondary considerations.</p> + +<p>Peace was restored by the Treaty of Madrid in June<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span> +1721, when the <i>Assiento</i> contract was renewed in +favour of the Royal Company instead of that of the +South Sea. So much dissatisfaction had been created +by the concession for a trading ship, however, that +the English did not insist upon its continuance, and +therefore only slave vessels were to be permitted to +visit the Indies in future. Everything that had been +seized from the South Sea Company was to be +restored, or its equivalent value paid, but the amount +actually received only came to £200,000, which did +not go far to help the unfortunate shareholders.</p> + +<p>Thus, this small measure of free trade with the +Spanish Indies came to an end, and things went on +much the same as before. English, Dutch, and +French vessels still carried on the contraband +traffic, doing all they could to evade the law, often +with the assistance of the local authorities. The +Spanish settlers got their supplies so much cheaper +in this way than through the usual channels, that +they were not likely to give up buying as long as the +smugglers ran the risk. At last, however, the authorities +received very strict orders to enforce the law, +with the result that vessels were often captured, their +cargoes confiscated, and crews imprisoned. Then the +Spanish <i>guarda-costas</i> claimed the right to search +vessels of other nationalities, and to confiscate them +if they found produce from their colonies on board, +or other evidence that they were carrying on illicit +trade.</p> + +<p>This led to another dispute with England, which +claimed compensation for such seizures and the abolition +of the right of search. English vessels had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span> +always resented this overhauling, and latterly several +had fought the <i>guarda-costas</i> rather than submit, +with the result that, when captured, their crews were +treated with a severity often amounting to cruelty. +In 1739 several petitions were presented to the British +Parliament, complaining of such outrages, and asking +the Government to obtain redress. Among them was +one from Captain Jenkins, the master of a Scottish +vessel, who was examined by the House. His story +was that he had been boarded by a <i>guarda-costa</i>, the +Spaniards from which searched his vessel without +finding anything contraband. Apparently enraged +at their discomfiture, and possibly annoyed by the +jeers of the English, they cut off one of Jenkins' +ears and told him to carry it to his king with the +message that they would do the same to him if he +came near the Main. Finally, according to Jenkins' +statement, he was further tortured and threatened +with death. "What did you think when you found +yourself in the hands of those barbarians?" asked a +Member of the House; to which the captain replied, +"I recommended my soul to God and my cause to my +country." The severed ear he exhibited in Parliament +as he had done elsewhere whenever he told the +story.</p> + +<p>It was then stated that the losses from Spanish +depredations by plundering and the taking of fifty-two +vessels, since 1728, amounted to £340,000. In +every case the masters and crews were brutally +treated, and in some cases murdered. The English +demand for compensation was met by the reply that +the king had ordered inquiries to be made, and that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span> +if any of his subjects were found guilty they would +be punished according to their deserts; also that +orders would be given to conform exactly to the +treaties. It was, however, claimed that the treaty of +1667 did not contain any clause bearing on the navigation +and commerce of the Indies, and that the +English had been wrong in supposing they had a +right to sail and trade there; they were only permitted +to sail to their own islands and plantations, +and were therefore subject to confiscation if they +changed their course to make for the Spanish possessions +without necessity. There were then in Havana +fifteen British vessels which had been detained on one +pretext or another, and about the same time the +<i>Success</i> from London to Virginia was captured off +Montserrat, and her captain and crew set adrift in an +open boat to find their way ashore as best they +could.</p> + +<p>In January, 1739, a convention between Great +Britain and Spain was arranged, under which the +latter agreed to pay £95,000 on account of these +demands, less the value of certain vessels which they +agreed to restore. This did not satisfy the West +India merchants, and they petitioned against it. The +indemnity was to be paid on the 10th of July, but that +date having passed without a settlement, Great Britain +issued letters of marque and ordered all Spanish +vessels in her waters to be seized. Spain commenced +reprisals the following month, and war was actually +declared by Great Britain on the 19th of October. +The declaration stated that for several years past +unjust seizures and depredations had been carried on,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span> +and great cruelties exercised. The British colours +had been ignominiously insulted, against the laws of +nations and solemn treaties, and Spain had lately +ordered British subjects from her dominions within a +shorter period than had been covenanted by express +stipulation in those treaties.</p> + +<p>In July previous a fleet under Admiral Vernon had +sailed from Spithead, and after a short cruise off the +Spanish coast, went over to the West Indies, arriving +at Antigua the 27th of September. Going on to +Jamaica, Vernon prepared for a grand raid on the +Spanish settlements, leaving for Porto Bello on the +5th of November with six vessels and 2,500 men. +They arrived on the 21st, and bombarded the forts, +which made a stout resistance; but while this was +going on, the British landed and took the town, thus +compelling the forts to capitulate. Two warships and +several other vessels were captured, as well as specie +to the amount of ten thousand dollars, but the town +was not pillaged, although the guns were either taken +away or rendered useless, and the forts as far as +possible demolished. This was virtually the end of +that stronghold, as it was afterwards allowed to fall +into decay, to be ultimately replaced by Chagres, +Grey Town, and Colon. Later, also, the treasure +from Peru had much diminished, and the isthmus +sunk in importance, especially after the way round +Cape Horn and through the Straits of Magellan was +adopted more and more.</p> + +<p>As the dispute with Spain had arisen from her +action in the Indies, so retaliation on the part of +Great Britain was greatest on the Main. In February,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span> +1740, Vernon again sailed from Jamaica, and on the +6th of March bombarded Santa Martha, but did not +capture it. After repairing damages at Porto Bello +he went on to Chagres, took a Spanish man-of-war +from under the guns of the fort, captured the place, +and demolished it. In January, 1741, Sir Chaloner +Ogle came out from England with a fleet, and joined +him, making a force of 12,000 men in twenty-nine +sail-of-the-line besides smaller vessels.</p> + +<p>This great fleet sailed for Hispaniola in hopes of +encountering that of Spain and France, but not +finding it went on to Carthagena. This, the other +great stronghold on the Main, was guarded by two +powerful batteries, a boom across the entrance to the +port, and four Spanish men-of-war just inside. After +a long cannonading the batteries were silenced, a +landing accomplished at night, and a passage made +by which the fleet entered the harbour. Here, however, +further progress was checked by sickness and +disagreements among the commanders, with the +result that the siege was raised and partial success +ended in miserable failure. This was followed by +another check at Santiago de Cuba, which virtually +terminated all hopes of further great exploits, although +attempts were made on La Guayra and +Puerto Cabello.</p> + +<p>Yet with all this the Spaniards undoubtedly +received a great lesson. Their men-of-war were +captured from under their fortresses, and small +English or colonial vessels performed such deeds +of daring as had hardly been equalled since the +Elizabethan age. The old spirit still existed al<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span>though +it might lie dormant for a time—the men +were there when the hour came. In 1740 Captain +Hall in a New England privateer came to an anchor +under the fort of Puerto de la Plata, pretending to be +a Caracas trader. He wanted to land in the night +and surprise the town, but found that the inhabitants +kept such a good watch that he had to give up that +idea. However, the Governor was sick and sent to +ask the loan of Hall's surgeon, and here was the +opportunity he wanted. The surgeon, quartermaster, +and an interpreter visited the Governor, and at the +same time seven of Hall's crew landed and surprised +the fort, dismounted the guns, marched into the town +and plundered it, finally escaping with the loss of only +one man.</p> + +<p>Peace was at last concluded on the 7th of October, +1748, but nothing was said in the treaty of the right +of search. The <i>Assiento</i> contract was confirmed, and +one English trading ship allowed as formerly; free +trade with the Indies, however, was still one of those +things which could never be conceded.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span></p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h3><a name="X" id="X"></a>X</h3> + +<h3>SLAVE INSURRECTIONS AND BUSH NEGROES</h3> + + +<p>With war almost continuously raging at their very +doors the West Indian planters not only risked their +fortunes but their lives. During the seventeenth +century England spent something like thirty-five +years in fighting her enemies, and in the eighteenth, +forty-six. As long as the quarrel was with Spain +alone the colonists cared but little, but when France +turned against them the struggle was much fiercer. +The French were always most audacious in their +assaults, and the consequences were all the more +disastrous because they were such near neighbours. +We have already spoken of St. Kitt's and the +difficulties produced on that island by its division +between the two nationalities. These were only +terminated by its entire cession to England, which +did not take place until the peace of Utrecht in +1713. Meanwhile, besides the two defeats of the +English already mentioned, they were driven out in +1689, to return the following year and expel the +enemy, retaining entire control until the peace of +Ryswick gave France again her share. Then in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span> +1702 England once more held full possession until +the island was assured to her entirely.</p> + +<p>Barbados, alone among the British West Indian +islands, stands in the proud position of a colony +that has never fallen into the hands of another +nation. It has never even been seriously attacked +beyond the attempt of De Ruyter. And yet the +island was poorly fortified, as compared with the +great strongholds of the West Indies such as Carthagena +and Curaçao. Possibly "the game was +not worth the candle," for on the one hand there +was little plunder to be had, and on the other a +strong force of hardy Englishmen to be encountered. +We have seen already how the Parliamentary fleet +was kept at bay, and what an amount of trouble +the islanders gave before they capitulated. Even +then they were not actually conquered, although +there could be no question as to the ultimate result.</p> + +<p>But not only had the colonists to stand up against +the enemy from outside, but there was another danger +which lay within their plantations and dwellings from +which even Barbados was not free. The slaves had +to be kept under subjection, and the planters must +always be on the alert to anticipate riots and insurrections. +For although the negro in most cases +was submissive, at times he recovered that savage +nature which had only been suppressed by force +and discipline.</p> + +<p>When we read of flogging to death and other +horrible cruelties of the planters and authorities, +we are inclined to sympathise with the African +and look upon his masters as worse than brutes. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209-210]</a><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210"></a></span>But to appreciate the full significance of these +punishments we must judge them by the codes in +existence at the time, remembering that nothing +was ever done to the blacks that had not also been +endured by whites for similar crimes. True, these +punishments were retained for slaves after they had +become obsolete for Europeans, but then the negro +was undoubtedly stubborn and less amenable to +persuasion than any other race. Like a mule he +had to be broken in and trained, and like that +stubborn animal he often gave great trouble in the +process. There were differences of opinion as to +various ways of teaching the negro, and it was only +a long experience that ultimately led to gentle +conciliation instead of flogging.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 320px;"> +<img src="images/p209.jpg" width="320" height="449" alt="A REBEL NEGRO" title="" /> +<span class="caption">A REBEL NEGRO<br /> +(<i>From Stedman's "Surinam."</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p>The slaves often ran away, and had to be hunted +for and brought back. In the larger islands and on +the Main they hid in the forest and swamp, where +they formed communities, to which other runaways +flocked until they became strong enough to hold +their own. From these recesses they often came +forth to pillage the plantations, murder the whites, +and get the slaves to go off with them in a body. +If the buccaneer was ferocious he had at least some +method in his madness; the poor ignorant African, +on the contrary, let his passions dominate him entirely. +In revenge for fancied tyrannies he would +commit the most atrocious crimes, torturing his +prisoners by cutting them to pieces or even flaying +while they still lived.</p> + +<p>Is it any wonder that when caught the bush negro +or maroon was severely punished, and that the utmost<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span> +rigour of the law was exercised? As for flogging, +every one knows how common that was at the beginning +of the present century. Some of us can even +look back to a time when the use of the rod and +whip on delicate children was a matter of course. +Even fine ladies took their little ones to see executions +that now horrify us to think of; in a similar +way the planter's wife stood at her window to see +the punishment of her house-servant.</p> + +<p>We could tell of negroes burnt to death, where a +downpour of rain put out the fires and left them to +linger in torment for hours, of taking pieces of flesh +from the unhappy criminals with red-hot pincers, +and, most horrible of all, breaking on the wheel. +These punishments often took place in the middle +of a town, but only on one occasion have we seen +any mention of the horror of the scene, and this +referred to the smell of burning flesh. Yet the +criminals—for it must be remembered that they +had been legally convicted and sentenced—showed +a stoical indifference to pain almost incredible. As +savages they gloried in showing their ability to +endure torture, only craving sometimes for a pipe +of tobacco to hold between their teeth until it fell.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 310px;"> +<img src="images/p212.jpg" width="310" height="425" alt="THE EXECUTION OF BREAKING ON THE RACK." title="" /> +<span class="caption">THE EXECUTION OF BREAKING ON THE RACK.<br /> +(<i>From Stedman's "Surinam."</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span></p> +<p>The maroons or bush negroes began to form communities +on the Main and in the larger islands from +very early times. In Jamaica they were the remnant +of the Spanish slaves who ran away on the arrival of +the English, with accessions from deserters at later +periods; in Surinam some of those who had been +sent into the forest to prevent their capture by +French corsairs. In both places they maintained +their independence, and ultimately made treaties +with the colonial authorities, greatly to their own +advantage. In Essequebo and Demerara they were +kept down by subsidising Arawak Indian trackers, +who hunted them from savannah to forest, and from +forest to swamp, killing and capturing them almost +as fast as they ran away. In the smaller and more +settled islands the runaways were generally recaptured +at once and severely punished as a warning +to others. There the more daring plotted +insurrections which often caused much trouble for +a few days until suppressed. They did not last +long, for the negroes were wanting in the power of +combination, because they all wanted to be leaders. +Then there was generally some faithful slave or +white man's mistress to give the warning, which +sometimes caused such prompt action that the outbreak +did not occur at all. Yet with all that the +danger was serious, and one that could hardly be +coped with by forts and batteries.</p> + +<p>As early as the year 1649 a plot for a general +rising in Barbados was discovered through the information +of a bond-servant. All the whites were +to have been murdered, but fortunately the ringleaders +were arrested before the time fixed and +eight of them condemned to death. Then in 1676, +under the leadership of a Coromantee, it was arranged +that on a certain fixed day, at a signal to be given +by blowing shells, all the cane-fields should be set +on fire, the white men killed, and their women retained +by the negroes as their wives. This also was +frustrated by information received from a house<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span> +negress. Hearing two men talking of the matter, +she made inquiries, and learnt of the plot in time +to inform her master. Six of the prisoners were +burnt alive and eleven beheaded, while five committed +suicide by hanging themselves before the +trial. The story was told in a pamphlet entitled, +"Great Newes from the Barbados, or a true and +faithful account of the great conspiracy." Yet +again in 1693, after a fearful epidemic had much +reduced the number of the whites, a third conspiracy +was set on foot. The Governor was to have +been killed, the magazine seized, and the forts surprised +and taken. When the plot was nearly ripe +two of the leaders were overheard conversing about +it and instantly arrested. They were hung in chains +for four days without food or drink, promises of +pardon being made if they revealed their accomplices, +which they did at the end of that time, with +the result that some were executed and others cruelly +tortured. We might go on to tell also of the abortive +insurrection of 1702 and several others, but as +there were never any very serious risings in Barbados, +we must proceed to other colonies.</p> + +<p>In Jamaica several abortive attempts at general +insurrections were made, some of them assisted by +the maroons, who continually received accessions to +their numbers from desertion. These people also +made incursions on their own account, which led +the Government to offer £5 a head for every one +killed, the reward being payable on the production +of his ears. In 1734 they destroyed several plantations +and killed a hundred and fifty white men, which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span> +led to an attempt at suppressing them altogether. +Captain Stoddart therefore took a detachment of +soldiers into the mountains to the maroon town of +Nanny. Arriving at night he planted a battery of +swivel guns on a height that commanded the collection +of huts, before the negroes were aware of his +coming. They were rudely awakened from their +sleep to find the place surrounded, and in alarm +many flung themselves over precipices in their hurry +to escape. Some were killed, a few captured, and +the town utterly destroyed. About the same time +a party of maroons from another place were so bold +as to attack the barracks at Spanish Town.</p> + +<p>Two years later, under Captain Cudjo, the maroons +became so formidable that two regiments of regular +troops besides the island militia were employed to +reduce them. The Assembly also ordered a line of +block-houses or posts to be erected as near as +possible to their haunts, at which packs of dogs +were to be kept as part of the garrison. Then they +sent to the Main for two hundred Mosquito Indians +whom they engaged as trackers. This brought +matters to a crisis, and Captain Cudjo was compelled +to sue for peace, which was granted. A +treaty was therefore made with them in 1738 at +Trelawny town, by which they were to be considered +as free on condition that they captured runaway +slaves, assisted in repelling invasions, and +allowed two white residents to remain in their towns. +Thus peace was restored for a time, and the Mosquito +Indians were allowed to go back to their +country.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span></p> + +<p>However, Jamaica was not to be free from slave +insurrections apart from the maroons, for in May, +1760, at St. Mary's, the slaves of General Forrest's +plantation fell suddenly upon the overseer while he +was at supper with some friends, and massacred the +whole company. They were immediately joined by +others, and commenced a career of plundering and +burning all the plantations in the neighbourhood. +Business in the island was at once suspended, martial +law proclaimed, and every white man called out to +assist in putting down the revolt. The negroes, +however, tried to avoid an open conflict, trusting +to hide in the forest, where, however, a large body +was discovered and defeated. The maroons had +been sent for, but did not arrive until this action +had taken place, when they were sent in pursuit of +the flying rebels. This they pretended to do, and +in a few days returned with a collection of ears +which they said had been taken from those whom +they had slain, and for which they were paid. The +story was found out afterwards to have been a falsehood, +as instead of pursuing the fugitives they had +simply cut off the ears of those who had been slain +before they arrived. This led the authorities to +think the maroons in league with the revolted slaves +and afterwards to look upon them with distrust. +However, by the aid of a body of free negroes, the +rebels were at last captured, to be punished in the +cruel manner so characteristic of the time. Some +were burnt, some hung alive on gibbets, and about +six hundred transported to the Bay of Honduras. +Two were hung alive on the parade at Kingston,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span> +one to linger for seven days and the other for nine, +during which time it was said "they behaved with +a degree of hardened insolence and brutal insensibility." +In the course of the whole insurrection +about sixty whites and four hundred negroes were +killed, and damage done to the amount of one +hundred thousand pounds.</p> + +<p>In 1736 a slave revolt took place at Antigua, or +rather it was discovered and anticipated. Five negroes +were broken on the wheel, six hung in chains and +starved to death, one of whom lived for nine days and +eight nights, fifty-eight were burnt at the stake, and +about a hundred and thirty imprisoned. These +horrible punishments were intended as a warning to +the others, and no doubt they had such an effect +on that generation.</p> + +<p>Few of the early insurrections met with any success, +notwithstanding that the negroes largely outnumbered +the whites in every colony. At the most the blacks +had a few days' liberty to murder, burn, and pillage, +after which came the terrible retribution. There was, +however, one conspicuous exception: poor Berbice +was actually taken over, and every white man driven +from the plantations.</p> + +<p>The Dutch were noted nigger drivers, and although +the English were unable to boast much of their +humanity, they stigmatised the Hollander as a cruel +master. If a negro was obstinate, the Englishman +threatened to sell him to a Dutchman or Jew, +but the worst threat of all was to give him to a +free negro. Whether this bad character was deserved +or not is doubtful, but it is quite certain that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span> +the criminal law of the Netherlands permitted "the +question" when a prisoner would not admit his guilt. +This, however, was applicable to white as well as +black, there being no particular slave code in the +Dutch colonies.</p> + +<p>What was the immediate cause of the great rising +of 1763, in Berbice, was never exactly ascertained, +but vague complaints were made of ill-treatment by +certain planters. It commenced on the 27th of +February, on an estate in the river Canje, and from +thence spread like wildfire over the whole colony. +The population consisted of, besides the free Indians, +346 whites, 244 Indian slaves, and about 4,000 negro +slaves. The garrison was supposed to consist of +sixty soldiers besides officers, distributed at several +forts and posts, but owing to sickness only about +twenty were fit for duty when the rising took place.</p> + +<p>An epidemic of fever and dysentery had prevailed +for two years among both whites and slaves, weakening +the former in such a manner that they had no +courage to contend with the revolted negroes, but +mostly ran away to Fort Nassau when they heard +of the rising. Almost out of their senses from fright, +they urged Governor Hoogenheim to abandon the +fort and colony at once. Only one of the councillors +stood by the Governor, and it was as much as these +two could accomplish to prevent even the soldiers +from running away. As for moving against the +rebels, this was impossible, for not one of the colonists +would follow Councillor Abbinsetts in his attempt to +do something. Their fright even affected the officials +and soldiers in such a manner that the Governor<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span> +could hardly escape their importunities to be allowed +to leave.</p> + +<p>Four vessels lay in the river, two merchant ships +and two slavers, but even their crews were sick, and +the captain of one so utterly broken down that he +could not attend to his duties. The Governor tried +to get them to go up the river and do something, but +they were almost as frightened as the colonists. Only +in one place were the negroes opposed; a few whites +taking refuge in the block-house at Peereboom, some +distance above the fort, where their way of escape +was cut off. But for want of a little assistance they +were compelled to make terms with the negroes. +Under the agreement the whites were to be allowed +to go down to the fort in their own boats, but as soon +as they began to embark the negroes fell upon them, +men, women, and children, massacred some and took +others prisoners, a few only managing to get across +the river.</p> + +<p>Among the fugitives was a lad named Jan Abraham +Charbon, whose story gives a graphic picture of the +alarm and consternation produced by the insurrection, +and of its results on himself.</p> + +<p>He was the son of a planter, and the alarm was +brought to the estate at night by a faithful slave. +The plantations below were all in the hands of the +rebels, who were burning and murdering on both +sides of the river. The whites from several neighbouring +estates gathered together and decided to +make a stand at Peereboom, hoping for assistance +from Fort Nassau. They got to the block-house +early in the morning, to the number of thirty whites,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span> +with a body of faithful slaves, who had not yet deserted +them, although they did so later.</p> + +<p>Soon after their arrival the insurgents surrounded +the house and attacked it, the whites making a +successful defence until seven o'clock in the evening. +Then one of Charbon's slaves came forward and asked +if they wanted peace. On receiving a favourable +reply the leaders on both sides came to the agreement +above-mentioned. Next morning the whites were +fired upon as they went to embark, and Charbon was +wounded. However, he jumped into the river and +swam across, hiding himself in the jungle, where he +came upon another fugitive named Mittelholzer.</p> + +<p>For eight days the two wandered about the forest, +losing their way and almost dying from hunger and +thirst. They dared not approach the river for fear +of the negroes. Once they came upon the back of +a plantation and hurriedly gathered a few cobs of +Indian corn, immediately afterwards running back +into the bush to eat them. While lying down a +negro with a sabre passed quite close without seeing +them, but presently another with a gun peeped into +the bushes and caught sight of them. On this +Mittelholzer ran out with his drawn sabre and so +furiously attacked the rebel that he cut off one of his +hands, captured his gun, and put him to flight. However, +this audacity did not save him, for he was captured +soon afterwards, Charbon managing to escape +into the forest. Alone the boy wandered about for +six or seven days, until, again becoming desperate +from hunger, he returned to the same plantation, to +fall into the hands of the negroes. He was stripped<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span> +of his clothes, put in the stocks, flogged, and threatened +with death, but was finally spared on account of his +youth, and because the rebel chief, "King" Coffee, +wanted a secretary to write letters to Governor +Hoogenheim, proposing terms.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the poor Governor hardly knew what +to do. He sent to Surinam and Demerara for assistance, +but while awaiting this the military officers +informed him that the fort was untenable against +even a single assault. The wooden palisades were +so rotten that a strong man could pull them down +easily, and then the building was of wood and could +easily be fired. He was ultimately obliged to destroy +it and retire down the river, where he at first took +possession of the lowest plantation, Dageraad, hoping +to remain there until assistance arrived. But even +here the rumours of an attack by the rebels made the +people clamorous to be allowed to leave, and Hoogenheim +had to retire to the mouth of the river, where +there was a small guard-house, or signal station, near +the site of what is now New Amsterdam. Thus the +last hold on the plantations was given up, and the +whole colony abandoned to the negroes.</p> + +<p>A month passed before the first arrival from Surinam. +All that time the Governor and a few whites +waited day after day, sometimes almost in despair. +The vessels had, at the request of their captains, been +allowed to leave, carrying with them some of the +people, while others had gone off to Demerara. This +desertion was almost necessary, as the food supply +was very limited and of a poor quality—cowards were +useless, and therefore no objection was made to their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span> +departure. Hoogenheim was at last somewhat relieved +by the arrival of the English brigantine <i>Betsy</i> with a +hundred soldiers from Surinam, and with this small +contingent he at once began to retrace his steps with +a view to recover the colony. He went back to +Dageraad, and in a day or two after was attacked by +seven hundred negroes, who fought from early morning +to noon, when they retired after suffering a great +loss in killed and wounded. It was after this battle +that young Charbon arrived with a letter bringing +"greetings from Coffee, Governor of the negroes of +Berbice." The rebel chief said that as the negroes +did not want war, he would give His Honour half the +colony, while he himself would govern the other half +and go up the river with his people, who were determined +never again to be slaves. No notice was taken +of this, and Charbon, who had been warned to bring +back an answer at his peril, was too pleased to get +back to his white friends to again wish for his post +of secretary.</p> + +<p>Even now the Governor's situation was not only +perilous, but most pitiful. St. Eustatius sent two vessels, +but almost as soon as they arrived the men were +attacked by sickness, and instead of being a help they +had to be nursed, even the Governor himself taking +his part in the necessary attendance. At one time +there were not enough healthy soldiers to relieve +guard, but fortunately Coffee had no means of knowing +this, or all would certainly have been over with +them.</p> + +<p>It was not until December that a fleet arrived from +the Netherlands, and then a horrible vengeance over<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span>took +the rebels. There was not much difficulty in +subduing them, especially when a large contingent +of Indians was sent overland from Demerara to drive +them from the forest. In March, 1764, the trials +began with a hundred ringleaders, fifty of whom were +sentenced to death. Fifteen of these were burnt, +sixteen broken on the wheel, and twenty-two hanged. +The following month they executed in similar ways +thirty-four, and later again thirty-two. The chiefs +were burnt at slow fires, punishment which they bore +with the utmost stoicism. One named Atta, however, +told the bystanders that he only suffered what +he deserved. Finally, in December a general amnesty +was proclaimed, which made the negroes cry out with +joy, <i>Dankje! Dankje!</i></p> + +<p>Berbice was of course utterly ruined for a time. +The plantations were overrun with weeds, the buildings +in ruins, and many of the slaves missing. Of +the whites only 116 remained; the rest were dead +from sickness, had been killed by the negroes, or +had fled from the colony. The loss in killed was +small, as the general fright prevented any show of +resistance. What would have happened if the whites +had fallen into the hands of the rebels was shown in +one or two flagrant cases. One of the colony surgeons +was said to have been flayed alive on the ground that +he had poisoned the slaves by forcing them to take +medicine. One poor girl who had been captured at +Peereboom was compelled to submit to the embraces +of King Coffee and driven mad, while another committed +suicide to prevent a similar degradation. +About eight hundred slaves were missing, most of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224-225]</a><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225"></a></span>whom had been killed, as very few managed to escape +to the bush.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 311px;"> +<img src="images/p224.jpg" width="311" height="428" alt="MARCH THROUGH A SWAMP." title="" /> +<span class="caption">MARCH THROUGH A SWAMP.<br /> +(<i>From Stedman's "Surinam."</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p>Behind the coast of Guiana is a long stretch of +swamp, which in slavery times was the general resort +of runaways. For miles extends a grassy plain like +a meadow, the sedges entirely covering the two to +four feet of water which would otherwise give it the +appearance of a great lake. Except through the +various streams that drain it, access is almost impossible +during the rainy season, and even the Indians +care little to explore its recesses beyond fishing in +the canal-like creeks. However, here and there are +little islands or sand reefs, and on these the runaway +slaves took refuge. First, perhaps, a murderer would +escape and hide himself for a time until the hue and +cry had abated, returning now and again to the plantation +at night for the purpose of getting provisions +from his friends. Then others would follow, until +a party of twenty to a hundred, with their wives, had +established a little village. Towards the end of the +last century a number of these communities of bush +negroes had been formed in Demerara, and their depredations +became so common that regular expeditions +were sent against them, guided by Indian trackers. +In 1795 they joined with the slaves to raise a general +insurrection, but special measures were taken so that +they were almost suppressed for a time.</p> + +<p>Before this they had formed a line of stations for +seventy miles from the river Demerara to the Berbice. +Every camp was naturally surrounded by +water, and by driving pointed stakes in a circle, and +leaving the entrance to wind through a double line<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span> +under water, they were made almost impregnable. +To reach them the attacking party had to wade up +to their middles through perhaps a mile of ooze and +water, to be cut with razor grass, and all the time at +the mercy of the negroes. Only during the dry +season was anything like success possible, and even +then the negroes generally saved themselves by flight.</p> + +<p>Many of the slaves were friendly with the runaways, +but they were much feared by the more timid. +On one occasion a negro went to cut wood at the +back of a plantation in Demerara and came suddenly +upon the outpost of a camp, probably the +entrance to the concealed path which led to the little +sand reef. In walking along he stepped upon a +bush-rope, and immediately after heard a bell ring +above his head. Before he could get away a ferocious +bush negro stood before him and demanded his business, +but the poor slave was so frightened that he ran +home and reported the occurrence to his master. +Some of the slaves went so far as to enjoy hunting +runaways—in fact, there was little love lost between +the two parties. One of these was offered his +freedom as a reward for the assistance he had given +in an expedition, the Government engaging to purchase +him of his owner provided they both consented. +Tony, however, did not wish to leave a good master, +and refused, stipulating, however, that he should retain +the right to accept the kind offer at some future +period. When his master ultimately left Demerara, +some years afterwards, Tony claimed his promised +freedom and got it.</p> + +<p>While the bush negroes in other parts of Guiana<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span> +were kept within reasonable bounds, those of Surinam, +like the maroons of Jamaica, had never been conquered. +Treaties were agreed to by them in 1749 and +1761, but disputes continually occurred, with the result +that the colonists were always more or less in +fear of their raids. Then they carried off most of the +slaves whenever they attacked a plantation, until +their number became so great as to be a real danger. +In 1773 the authorities in the Netherlands resolved to +make a special effort to conquer them, and for this +purpose raised a corps of all nationalities which was +put under the command of Colonel Fourgeaud.</p> + +<p>That soldiers should be brought from Europe for +such a service shows the utter ignorance of the Dutch +authorities. If the colonists themselves could not put +down the bush negroes, how could it be expected that +this would be effected by fresh troops from a cold +climate, who had no knowledge of the country, the +mode of fighting, or the difficulties of travelling +through the bush and swamp?</p> + +<p>Commissioners had visited them at different times +to arrange the treaties, but there was generally something +wrong with the presents (virtually blackmail), +or else they were given to the wrong parties. In 1761 +the chief Araby had insisted on the commissioners +binding themselves by his form of oath. This was +done by each party tasting the blood of the other. +With a sharp knife a few drops were drawn from the +arm of each person into a calabash of water with a +few particles of dry earth. After pouring a small +quantity of this mixture on the ground as a libation, +the calabash was handed round from one to another<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span> +until all the company had taken a sip. Then the gadoman +(priest) took heaven and earth—exemplified by +the water and clay—to witness the agreement, and +invoked the curse of God upon the first who broke it, +the company and crowd of negroes around calling out +<i>Da so!</i> (that is so, or amen).</p> + +<p>Yet, after all this solemnity, quarrels soon arose +again. One chief with his sixteen hundred people +had come to terms, but these did not bind his neighbour, +who perhaps had half as many. The different +chiefs were not united in any way, and it followed, +therefore, that, after thousands of guilders had been +spent on one, the others made incursions to get a +share of the good things for themselves. To the +colonists they were all bush negroes, but among themselves +they were as distinct as if they had been different +nations. Even when at peace, and when the +chiefs had received gold-headed canes as symbols of +authority, they would often call at the outlying +plantations and demand rum or anything else they +fancied, which the whites dared not refuse.</p> + +<p>The immediate occasion for the special corps from +the mother country was an insurrection of the slaves +in 1772, who, after plundering and burning some of +the plantations, and murdering their owners, fled in +great numbers to join the bush negroes. The whole +colony was a scene of horror and consternation—the +colonists expected the rising to become general, and +took refuge in Paramaribo, thus leaving their plantations +unprotected. However, it was soon checked, +mainly by raising a body of three hundred free +negroes, called rangers, who were expert bush<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span>fighters, +and therefore thoroughly well fitted to cope +with the rebels.</p> + +<p>One of the chiefs named Baron had settled on an +island in the swamp, such as we have described, where +he defied the whole colony. There were no means of +communication except hidden tracks under water, and +in addition to the palisades the chief had erected a +battery of swivel guns which he had stolen from the +plantations. Thus triply defended by water, stakes, +and guns, it is no wonder if he thought his position +impregnable. However, he was discovered by a party +of rangers, and assaulted by them and a large body +of white soldiers. Camping first on the edge of the +swamp about a mile away, they could see Baron's +flag waving in defiance on the little island, while they +were at their wits' ends to find a means of getting at +him. A great many shots were wasted by both sides +before they found the distance was too great, even for +the swivel guns, and then the rangers began to act. +Several weeks were passed in attempting to make a +causeway by sinking fascines, but when the workers +had come within range, so many were killed that it +had to be abandoned. In despair of ever effecting +anything, they were about to retire, when some of the +rangers discovered the hidden pathway under water. +A feint was now made of attacking one side by one +party, while another crept along the track, and thus at +last the fortress was stormed. A terrible hand-to-hand +fight took place, in which many were killed on both +sides, but even then Baron managed to escape with a +good number of his followers.</p> + +<p>This defeat made little impression, for soon after<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span>wards +the slaves on three plantations killed their white +masters, and, like the others, went off to join the bush +negroes. It was now felt that something must be done +or the colony would have to be abandoned. The bush +negroes had to be hunted from their recesses, however +difficult the task might be, otherwise there would be +no safety even in the town itself. The expeditions +could only move in Indian file, exposed to ambushes +in the most difficult parts of the track, and firing from +behind trees everywhere. There was no possibility of +bringing the party together if attacked; it followed, +therefore, that the long string of men went forward +with the utmost caution. In front came two powerful +blacks with machetes or cutlasses to clear the way, +and immediately behind them the vanguard. These +were followed by the main body alternating with +ammunition bearers, and, finally, a long line of carriers +with food, medicines, utensils, and kill-devil (rum) +with the rearguard. Sometimes the party would +flounder through a swamp for hours, holding their +firearms above their heads to keep them dry. Then +drenching showers would fall, and give the greatest +trouble to prevent the powder from becoming useless. +Creeks had to be passed on fallen trees, or the party +would be detained until a trunk was felled and +trimmed to afford a passage. Exposed to malaria, +mosquitoes, bush ticks, and maribuntas, they went on +day after day, only to find, on reaching the village of +the bush negroes, that they had gone elsewhere, to +perhaps turn up at some unprotected plantation. The +European troops died off in great numbers, while the +enemy were in their element. It followed, therefore, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231-232]</a><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232"></a></span>that little was done, and that the old system of conciliation +had to be adopted, with the same unsatisfactory +results. Finally, by utilising their mutual +jealousies, about 1793 they were driven so far away +from the settlements as to become almost harmless. +Their descendants still exist almost as savages, with +curious manners and customs, partly inherited from +their African forefathers, and partly adopted from +their neighbours the Indians.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 429px;"> +<img src="images/p231.jpg" width="429" height="308" alt="TRELAWNY TOWN." title="" /> +<span class="caption">TRELAWNY TOWN.<br /> +(<i>From Edwards' "West Indies."</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p>We must now return to the maroons of Jamaica, +who had not been conquered, although a nominal +treaty existed, and the white residents remained at +their posts. In July, 1795, two of them were flogged +for pig-stealing, and this was considered a disgrace on +the whole community. On the return of the pig-stealers +to Trelawny they raised a great outcry, and +the resident was at once ordered to leave on pain of +death. Efforts were made to pacify them, but they sent +a written defiance to the magistrates who had ordered +the flogging and declared their intention to attack +Montego Bay. The militia were called out and +soldiers applied for, but before the preparations were +completed, a body of maroons appeared and asked for +an interview with four gentlemen whom they named.</p> + +<p>Hoping the matter might be prevented from going +farther, these and several other whites went to the +rendezvous, where they were received by three hundred +armed men. The maroons complained of the disgrace +on the whole body, through the flogging having +been performed by a negro overseer in the presence +of felons, and demanded reparation. They wanted, +first, an addition to their lands, and, second, a dis<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span>missal +of the then resident in favour of one they had +formerly. Promising to forward their requests to the +Governor, the gentlemen left, the maroons appearing +as if pacified.</p> + +<p>However, this interview was only applied for to +gain time, and especially to allow the departure of +the British fleet which was then on the point of +leaving, and might be detained if they moved too +quickly. On the report that there was a probability +of a settlement of the matter the fleet left, when the +maroons immediately began to plot with the slaves +for a general rising. Reports of this had been received +by the Governor before, but just after the +men-of-war had departed more definite news arrived, +which induced him to send a fast-sailing boat to bring +them back. Fortunately this was successfully accomplished, +and at once confidence drove out the fear of +murders, fires, and plundering which had alarmed the +inhabitants. The slaves were correspondingly disheartened +and left the maroons to fight alone.</p> + +<p>But even the maroons themselves became divided +in opinion on the return of the military and naval +force. The Governor taking advantage of this, issued +a proclamation calling upon them to submit, but only +thirty-eight old men came forward, the others being +determined to fight. They set fire to their own town +and commenced hostilities by attacking the outposts. +This led to a pursuit in which the whites fell into an +ambuscade, many being killed, without as far as was +known doing any harm whatever to the enemy. Now +commenced a series of raids on the plantations, in +which even infants at the breast were massacred.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 302px;"> +<img src="images/p234.jpg" width="302" height="364" alt="PACIFICATION OF THE MAROONS." title="" /> +<span class="caption">PACIFICATION OF THE MAROONS.<br /> +(<i>From Edwards' "West Indies."</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span></p> +<p>The matter becoming serious, the General Assembly +resolved to hunt the rebels with dogs, as had been intended +before the treaty. They accordingly sent over +to Cuba for huntsmen with their powerful blood-hounds, +the descendants of those which had once +worried the poor Indians, and afterwards assisted the +buccaneers. Times had changed however, and a +feeling grew up that hunting men with savage beasts +was not quite the thing. This led to some expressions +of opinion adverse to the action of the executive, +but they excused themselves on the ground that +the safety of the island demanded extreme measures. +If war was justifiable at all, any and every means, +they said, was allowable; in fact, "all was fair in +war."</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the maroons had been driven to their +strongholds in the mountains, where they had little +to eat, and were virtually compelled to ravage the +plantations for food. On the arrival of forty <i>chasseurs</i> +with their hundred dogs, however, they became +alarmed, and began to sue for mercy. It does not +appear that there was any real necessity for using +the animals, their presence being enough for the purpose. +They were led <i>behind</i> the troops, and on their +appearance the maroons surrendered in great numbers, +this putting an end to the insurrection.</p> + +<p>Now came the question of what was to be done +with them. It was argued that no country could +suffer people to live in it unless they could be controlled +by law, and that obedience could not be +expected from these people. To expect it was entirely +out of the question; it was therefore resolved<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span> +to transport them from the island. Accordingly, in +June, 1796, six hundred were sent to Halifax, Nova +Scotia, where lands were granted them and a subsistence +allowed until crops could be raised. Not +liking the climate, they were ultimately established +in Sierra Leone, where they became the nucleus of +the present colony. Those who had submitted remained +in Jamaica, where their descendants are still +well known.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span></p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h3><a name="XI" id="XI"></a>XI</h3> + +<h3>THE SOVEREIGNTY OF THE SEAS</h3> + + +<p>By the middle of the eighteenth century Spain +had fallen behind, and even Holland had lost her +prestige. It followed, therefore, that the only Power +that could rival Great Britain was France, and she +was an enemy that could never be despised. The +struggle in the West Indies between these two +Powers now became, if possible, more intense; and +if the result gave the sovereignty of the seas to +Britons, they have mainly to ascribe it to their naval +training in this part of the world. The mistakes of +Admiral Vernon were lessons which, being borne in +mind by later admirals, tended to prevent similar +disasters in the future.</p> + +<p>There was a short intermission in the struggle +between 1748 and 1756, when the "Seven Years' +War" commenced; but before the actual declaration +hostilities had commenced between the two +rivals in India and North America. Now arose one +of England's great admirals, Rodney, who gained his +laurels in the Caribbean Sea, and was mainly instrumental +in putting France in the background as a +naval power. He first came to the front in 1759,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span> +when he bombarded Havre, and later, with that other +great seaman, Sir Samuel Hood, he became a "household +word" in the West Indies.</p> + +<p>Before they appeared, however, the British captured +Guadeloupe, and commenced a general raid +upon the French shipping. But, as usual, our gallant +foes were by no means despicable, for in 1760 they +claimed to have taken 2,539 English vessels, against +a loss of only 944. On the 5th of January, 1762, +Rodney sailed from Barbados for Martinique, in +command of eighteen ships of the line, and on the +4th of the following month the island capitulated. +Then Grenada was taken, to be followed by Dominica, +Tobago, St. Vincent, and St. Lucia, thus +giving the whole of the French Caribbees into the +possession of Great Britain. Spain being also involved, +Admiral Pococke attacked Havana in May, +and, after a siege of twenty-nine days, took the +Morro Castle, a fort hitherto considered impregnable. +A fortnight later the Governor of Cuba was compelled +to capitulate, thus giving the town also into +the hands of the British. These exploits made +France and Spain sue for peace, which was signed at +Paris in February, 1763, when Grenada, St. Vincent, +Dominica, and Tobago were ceded to Great Britain, +the other captures being restored.</p> + +<p>After this war positive orders were sent to the +British West Indies to break off all trade and intercourse +with the French and Spanish settlements, +with the result that contraband and other traffic was +thrown into the hands of the Dutch and Danes. +Then the Dutch islands of Curaçao and St. Eustatius<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span> +began to flourish more and more, and those of the +Danes, St. Thomas and St. John, became free ports. +During the wars these islands rose to a pitch of +prosperity hardly possible to any of those belonging +to the combatants, on account of their neutrality. +Naturally they were almost barren and of little +account as plantations; but as <i>entrepôts</i> they were +exceedingly useful, not only to their owners, but to +the belligerents as well. Here alone could French, +Spanish, and British ships meet without fighting, and +for them they could run when pursued by the +enemy.</p> + +<p>The island of St. Thomas was first colonised in +1666, but for a long time it made little progress. It +became useful to the pirates, however, mainly from +its being a safe place at which to dispose of their +captures. Then merchant vessels found it sometimes +convenient to go in to escape these rovers, perhaps to +be followed by them, and yet remain safe until an +opportunity occurred for escaping their vigilance. +Prizes were brought here and sold, the prospect of +good bargains leading to the settlement of a number +of rich merchants, and especially Jews. What with +all this, and a little contraband traffic, the people of +St. Thomas did very well, and soon the harbour +became one of the busiest in the West Indies.</p> + +<p>And here we must mention that the Jews were a +very important factor in the development of the +early settlements. It will be remembered that large +numbers of these people were driven from Spain after +the conquest of Granada, and how they went to +Portugal and the Netherlands. A large number also<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span> +went to Brazil, where at first they had a measure of +freedom in the exercise of their religion not granted +in the mother country. When the Dutch captured +Brazil, perfect freedom followed; but after Portugal +took her own again, this was withdrawn, and in consequence +many left for Surinam and the West +Indian islands. Here they were joined by some of +their co-religionists from Holland, and in time became +a powerful body of planters, but more especially +traders. To them were due many improvements in +the manufacture of sugar, and even the introduction +of the cane into some places. In every colony there +was a small community, often with a synagogue, and +their connection one with another, as well as their +virtual neutrality, made their transactions more safe +than those of other traders. As may be supposed, +they had no love for the Spaniard, and consequently +were the main financiers, not only of privateers, but +even pirates.</p> + +<p>St. Thomas, Curaçao, and St. Eustatius lived by +the misfortunes of others. No longer could the jolly +buccaneer sell his prizes and booty at Jamaica; he +must go elsewhere, and let other places reap the +advantage of his free and easy bargains. For it was +"easy come, easy go" with him, and the fortune he +made was soon wasted in riotous living. This was +all to the advantage of the wily Jew, who first +haggled about the price of a cargo, and then got his +money back by charging enormous profits on the +supplies. The rover was as careless as the proverbial +"Jack ashore," and could easily be induced to spend +his last piece of eight on the luxuries so temptingly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span> +laid before him, utterly regardless of the consequences. +He had only to go out and capture +another vessel to be able to return and renew his +jollification.</p> + +<p>In war time these harbours were crowded with the +shipping of all nations, and many a fortune was +made that enabled the merchant to go to Europe +as a West Indian nabob. Then there was a great +demand for neutral vessels, in which goods could be +transhipped for conveyance to colonies where the +belligerent flag might bring a crowd of privateers +before the vessel got safely into harbour. Even +physicians and surgeons made their piles, for there +was always more or less sickness on board the +vessels, and a hundred dollars a visit was a common +fee.</p> + +<p>In 1774 began the dispute with the American +colonies of Great Britain, and four years later France +joined them, thus bringing trouble again upon the +West Indies. The first important move was made +by the French, who, in September, 1778, took Dominica, +on which the English retaliated by capturing +St. Lucia. Then a fleet was sent out from England +under Admiral Byron, and another from France +under Count de Grasse. The French took St. Vincent +and Grenada, and every island of either nation +was in a state of alarm and consternation. In July, +1779, Spain joined the others against England, on +the ground that her flag had been insulted. To this +it was replied that she harboured American privateers, +and furnished them with false documents, +under which they carried Spanish colours. Thus<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span> +England had her hands full, for the Yankees alone +gave her quite enough work, without the addition +of these old rivals.</p> + +<p>As yet Rodney had not come out, but in the years +1778 and 1779 he pressed his claim on the Government +to have a command in the West Indies. The +seas were well known to him, and he had his views as +to the proper mode of carrying out operations; but +for some time his application was refused. Finally, +however, in October, 1779, he was appointed to replace +Admiral Byron, with supreme control over the +operations in the Caribbean Sea, as well as freedom to +intervene if necessary on the American coast.</p> + +<p>Rodney was at last satisfied, and he left in December +with a convoy, the whole fleet numbering three +hundred. In the centre were transports and merchant +vessels, and on either side men-of-war. Off +Cape Finisterre he captured a convoy of sixteen +Spanish vessels, and beyond Cape St. Vincent fought +with another squadron, and captured four men-of-war, +including the admiral. On then to the relief of +Gibraltar, from whence he sent part of the fleet into +the Mediterranean, and where he remained until +February 13, 1780, when he sailed for the West +Indies.</p> + +<p>Arriving off St. Lucia on the 28th of March, he +came upon the French fleet under De Guichen, which +he attempted to engage, but was prevented from the +want of skill in his captains. The result was that +both fleets sailed away from each other without much +damage to either, both stating that the other refused +to fight. As, however, the French had thirty vessels<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span> +to the English seventeen, they could have compelled +an action; so that, although the affair was not creditable +to either, it was perhaps a little more disgraceful +to the larger fleet. Rodney was in a great rage. He +attributed his failure to the incompetency of his +subordinates, who had not been properly trained to +make combined naval evolutions. Every captain, he +said, thought himself fit to be Prime Minister of +Britain.</p> + +<p>However, he continued his cruise, barring the way +of the French, and driving De Guichen to St. Eustatius +to refit. Now he began to teach his captains +those naval manœuvres in which he considered them +so much wanting, which his assistant admiral, Sir +Hyde Parker, did not altogether like. Rodney, it +appears, treated all his subordinates as if they were +raw recruits, and, while he gained obedience, created +a great deal of ill-feeling. But, with all their training, +they could not bring De Guichen to fight, even +when they encountered him a second time; yet we +may presume that the training was by no means +wasted.</p> + +<p>As if Great Britain had not enough enemies, in +December, 1780, she declared war with the Dutch, +on the ground that they assisted the American +colonies. What a formidable array—the Colonies, +France, Spain, and Holland! Yet, somehow or +other, she managed to cope with the whole.</p> + +<p>St. Eustatius was the great offender among the +Dutch colonies. Notwithstanding that the home +Government had sent out strict orders to all her +settlements not to honour the flag of the revolted<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span> +British colonies, or to supply them with contraband +of war, there is no doubt that they were very loose in +inquiring into such transactions. As we have said +already, this and other islands were very useful to +the belligerents; and, as we have just stated, De +Guichen went to St. Eustatius to escape Rodney and +refit. This was no doubt a sore point with the +British admiral, who barred the enemy's passage to +his own islands only to see him get what he needed +from the Dutch.</p> + +<p>When the news of the declaration of war came +out, Rodney was ready at once to pounce upon the +offender; and on the 3rd of February, 1781, before +the authorities of St. Eustatius had heard the news, +he appeared in the harbour. The Governor could +hardly believe his ears when an officer appeared to +demand the surrender of the island to His Majesty of +Great Britain, but being entirely unprepared, and +quite unfitted to cope with such a force, he was +obliged to surrender at discretion.</p> + +<p>Here was the opportunity for revenge, and Rodney +embraced it. Even his best friends could hardly +excuse the arbitrary doings which followed, and +which were stigmatised as unworthy and almost +dishonourable to a British admiral. Being determined +to root out this nest of contrabandists, he +confiscated all the property of the inhabitants, and +ordered them to quit the island. The harbour was +filled with shipping, and the stores with goods, the +vessels numbering two hundred and fifty, and the +contents of the stores worth about three million +pounds. Here was indeed a disaster to the Jews,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span> +not only of St. Eustatius, but even of British islands, +for they were all in correspondence. Rodney went +so far as to say that many of the English merchants +ought to have been hanged, for it was through their +means, and the help of this neutral port, that the +enemy were able to carry on the war.</p> + +<p>The people were astonished at such unheard-of +treatment. Never before had such a thing happened, +except in the raids of buccaneers and pirates. The +Jews petitioned Rodney and General Vaughan to +rescind their decision. They had received orders to +give up the keys of their stores and inventories of +the goods in them, as well as household furniture and +plate; then they were to prepare themselves to quit +the island. Such orders from British commanders, +whose principal characteristics were mercy and +humanity, had distressed them in the extreme, so +that their families were absolutely in despair.</p> + +<p>This appeal had no effect, even when it was supported +by some of the British officers, and such an +auction now began as was never known before. The +news reached Barbados and the other islands, and +down came a horde of speculators, prepared to make +their fortunes at once if possible. Such a haul did +not occur every day, and they intended to take +advantage of it. Thousands of bales of goods were +brought out and sold, without either seller or buyer +knowing anything of their contents. They might +contain rich silks and velvets or the cheapest slave +clothing. It was a grand lottery in which every +bidder got a prize, although they were in some cases +of little value. No one needed to despair of a bargain,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span> +however, for there was so much to sell as compared +with the number of purchasers, that everything went +cheap. Some few got bitten, but in the end hardly +a tithe of the value of the goods was obtained.</p> + +<p>While this was going on at St. Eustatius, some +Bristol privateers got information of the outbreak of +hostilities, and pounced upon Demerara and Berbice, +where they levied blackmail and captured most of +the shipping. As usual with these plunderers, they +had no authority to capture the colony, nor had they +in this case even commissions against the Dutch. +However, they put the inhabitants in a state of +consternation, until, a few days later, two men-of-war +arrived from Barbados to receive the capitulation, +which was demanded on the same terms as that of +St Eustatius, although neither party knew what +these terms were. Nothing was left but submission, +although the authorities protested against such an +unheard-of manner of dictating unknown terms. +The Governor of Barbados had heard from one of +the inhabitants of that island that the Directeur-General +of Demerara had expressed, at his dinner-table, +his fears that in case of a war the river would +be plundered by privateers, and of his preferring to +surrender to one of the king's ships: for this reason +he had sent the men-of-war. This was considered a +bit of "sharp practice" by the Demerarians, but perhaps +turned out for the best.</p> + +<p>Two commissioners were appointed by the colony +to go in one of the English vessels to St. Eustatius +and arrange the articles of capitulation, which were +fortunately on altogether different lines from those<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span> +of that island. Surinam, St. Martin's, Saba, and St. +Bartholomew's also surrendered on the same unknown +terms, but the admiral said that he and General +Vaughan thought they ought to be put on a different +footing. They would not treat them like the other, +whose inhabitants, belonging to a State bound by +treaty to assist Great Britain, had yet nevertheless +assisted her public enemies and the rebels to her +State, with every necessary and implement of war as +well as provisions, thus perfidiously breaking the very +treaties they had sworn to maintain.</p> + +<p>The treatment of St. Eustatius caused a great stir, +not only in the West Indies, but in England as well. +A remonstrance was sent to Rodney by the merchants +of St. Kitt's, who claimed that a large quantity of +their goods had been seized. Some of these were +insured in England, and they considered their +Excellencies responsible for their losses, for which +they would seek redress by all the means in their +power. It was impossible, they said, for many of +them to be more utterly ruined than they then were, +and they asked that certificates in reference to their +property should be sent to England, in demanding +which they were claiming a right rather than a favour. +In reply, Rodney said he was surprised that gentlemen +who called themselves subjects and merchants +of Great Britain, should, when it was in their power +to lodge their effects in the British islands to windward, +under the protection of British laws, send them +to leeward to St. Eustatius, where, in the eyes of +reason and common sense, they could only be lodged +to supply their king's and country's enemies. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span> +island, he continued, was Dutch—everything in it +was Dutch—all was under the Dutch flag. As Dutch +it should be treated, and this was his firm resolution +as a British admiral, who had no view whatever but +to do his duty to his king and country.</p> + +<p>Two merchants from St. Eustatius went to London, +where they were examined by the Attorney and +Solicitor-Generals. They clamoured for justice, and +got it, for one of them was committed on a charge of +high treason for corresponding with the American +agent at Amsterdam, and for furnishing the +Americans with military stores and ammunition. +Several attempts were made to injure Rodney with +the king, but the blow on the enemy was so severe +that His Majesty would not listen to the detractors. +It is said that a cry of rage went up from the French +and American colonies, and that Rodney gloried in +his triumph. He was undoubtedly inclined to ride +rough-shod over everybody and everything, but as +long as he was successful, only the enemy complained.</p> + +<p>But the trouble was not yet over, for the merchants +of St. Kitt's sent lawyers to file their claims in the +Admiralty Courts. Then St. Eustatius was recaptured +for Holland by the French, and the tide +turned against the admiral. Now was the time to +attack him, and his enemies took advantage of it. +The mob that threw up their caps and shouted for +joy at the glorious news of the capture, now lifted +their hands in horror at Rodney's misdeeds. Even +his friend Hood was guilty of the meanness of charging +his comrade with carrying off vast sums of money, +and never accounting for them. Rodney was recalled<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span> +to England, where he arrived on the 19th of September, +1781, in ill-health, and rather downspirited. In +December Burke moved the House of Commons for +a committee to inquire into the affair, but although +he pressed the motion with all his powers of oratory +it was rejected.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the French were turning the tables +upon the late victors and having their revenge for +the disasters which had fallen upon them. This led +to Rodney being again consulted, with the result that +on the 19th of February, 1782, he arrived in Barbados +with twelve ships of the line. This was the most +critical period during the whole war. On the 19th of +October previous, Lord Cornwallis had surrendered +to the Americans at Yorktown, and this disaster was +followed not only by the loss of the West Indian +captures, but of the British colonies of St. Kitt's, +Nevis, Montserrat, Dominica, and St. Vincent. It +was by the special request of the king that Rodney +had been again sent out, and before his departure he +declared that either the French admiral or himself +should be captured. Lord Sandwich, to impress him +the more, on the eve of his departure said: "The +fate of this Empire is in your hands, and I have no +wish that it should be in those of any other."</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the Count de Grasse was at Martinique, +preparing a large fleet for the final reduction of the +British by conquering Jamaica. He was expecting +large reinforcements of French vessels and troops, +which Rodney tried unsuccessfully to cut off. On +the 8th of April the French were reported as having +sailed for Hispaniola, where they were to be joined<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span> +by a Spanish contingent, and Rodney at once sailed +in pursuit. The result was that, at last, on the 12th, +a decisive victory was gained off Dominica. Admiral +de Grasse was captured, many of his fleet destroyed, +and the whole expedition broken up. The British +West Indies were thus saved, and the people of +Jamaica erected a statue to the gallant admiral. +Rodney, in concluding his despatch giving the +account, said it was his most ardent wish that the +British flag should for ever float in every part of the +globe, and there is no doubt that this triumph conduced +to such an end. It stands prominently forth +as the greatest sea fight of the age, and was only +eclipsed by those of Nelson, who we may state +received much of his naval training in the West +Indies.</p> + +<p>In January, 1783, peace was again restored. Great +Britain lost her American colonies, restored those +she had taken from France and Holland, and got +back her own, except the island of Tobago, which +was ceded to France. From Spain she got the right +to cut logwood between the rivers Hondo and Belize, +on the understanding that all other places on the +coasts of Central America should be abandoned, and +that no forts be erected on the concession.</p> + +<p>For ten years there was peace, and during that +time the planting colonies were developed to a +wonderful extent, while those dependent on the +contraband traffic became much depressed. The +English settlements increased in value so much, that +in 1788 they were calculated to have under cultivation +two million and a half acres, with five hundred<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span> +and sixty thousand slaves. These were the palmy +days of the slave-trade, when the importations leapt +up year after year, with a corresponding increase in +the export of produce. The property was valued at +over eighty-six millions sterling, Jamaica coming +first, but nearly every other island flourishing to an +extent hardly credible to those who have only seen +them after their downfall.</p> + +<p>What Jamaica was to the English, the western +portion of Hispaniola became to the French, and even +Spain increased her productions, now that things had +become settled, and treasure seeking less remunerative. +Altogether, the period from this time, to the end of the +century, may be considered as the planter's best days, +and the "good old times" of which we hear so much +but find it so difficult to precisely indicate.</p> + +<p>On the 1st of February, 1793, peace was again +broken by the French Convention, the declaration of +war being made against England and Holland. Thus +began that struggle which seemed interminable at +the time, and which actually lasted twenty-two years. +As usual the West Indies suffered, but this time they +were not quite so much the scene of contention as +they had been formerly. Tobago was captured from +the French on the 15th of April, but during the +remainder of the year little was done. In January, +1794, however, Admiral Sir John Jervis arrived at +Barbados, and in the following month took Martinique +after a severe struggle. Then he went on to St. Lucia, +which also surrendered, and before the end of April +Guadeloupe fell. Then came reverses; a French +fleet arrived, and all were recaptured.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span></p> + +<p>Meanwhile France had invaded Holland, and +established a sister republic on her own lines, +rendering it necessary for the Stadtholder, the Prince +of Orange, to fly off to England. From Kew, where +the king had given him a residence, he wrote letters +to all the Dutch colonies, asking the authorities to +place them in the hands of the British, and treat +people of that nationality as friends and allies. +With these despatches British fleets were sent to all +the possessions of Holland, but only one or two +obeyed the command, the result being that the +others had to be taken by force, until hardly a Dutch +colony existed in any part of the world.</p> + +<p>In October, 1796, Spain joined France on the +ground that the British, in their operations against +the enemy, had injured her in several ways. One of +the reasons given was so absurd that we can hardly +conceive it to have been put forth seriously. Great +Britain had captured Demerara, and this put her in +a situation to possess positions of greater importance. +Spain, however, got nothing by her taking up the +quarrel, for her trade was absolutely swept from the +seas, and communication with America almost cut +off. This state of things became so troublesome that +for the first time in her history neutral vessels were +permitted to trade in her American colonies. She +also lost the island of Trinidad, which had remained +in her possession since the days of Ralegh.</p> + +<p>Soon the whole of the West Indies and Spanish +Main were virtually under the control of Great +Britain, little opportunity being given to her enemies +of crossing the Atlantic. No longer could the Carib<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span>bean +Sea be the scene of the great struggle—the +forces of the combatants were wanted nearer home. +Now again came the harvest of the little island of St. +Thomas, until Denmark was also numbered among +the enemies of the "Queen of the Seas." Then the +United States came to get her pickings as a neutral, +which gave such an impetus to her ship-building and +commerce, that later the seamen trained under such +auspices became formidable rivals to the British.</p> + +<p>The colonists did not altogether dislike this great +war. True, freights and insurances were very high, +but then the prices of produce were high also. There +was a spice of danger in every voyage, but after all +the risk was not so very great until the vessels came +into the Channel. Then there was a convoy to protect +them, and they might even get prize money by +capturing traders of the enemy. Every vessel went +armed, and many a privateer of the enemy got severely +beaten by a gallant body of merchant seamen and +passengers. This was a glorious time for the British +navy, but the fleets in the West Indies had little to +do after the beginning of the war. There was a great +disturbance on the island of Hispaniola, a riot in +Grenada, troubles in the French islands, and a few +skirmishes here and there, but nothing of much consequence +to the British.</p> + +<p>There were many small difficulties of course, and +the navigation laws had to be relaxed generally in +favour of neutrals, as otherwise provisions would have +been scarce. The Dutch were not altogether displeased +with British rule, for Curaçao, which had not +been conquered, was captured from its French garrison<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span> +in 1800, at the request of the inhabitants, whose trade +had been entirely stopped. Then the Spanish colonies +came to an arrangement by which much of their produce +went through British hands, and this prevented +the neutrals from getting everything.</p> + +<p>In 1802 the peace of Amiens gave France a rest +for about ten months, when she got back her own +and the Dutch colonies, leaving Trinidad as an addition +to those of Great Britain. Hardly, however, had +they taken possession, when the treaty was broken, +and the British were again in their midst. A great +deal of the work which had been undone by the peace +had now to be undertaken afresh, but it was ultimately +accomplished, so that things went on much the same +as before.</p> + +<p>The year 1805 was notable for Nelson's trip across +the Atlantic in search of the French fleet, which however +fled before him and got back to Europe. The +same year also saw the heroic defence of "H.M.S." +Diamond Rock, which however was not a ship, but an +improvised fortress, which after a long struggle was +obliged to capitulate. Hundreds of gallant exploits +were performed in the West Indies by both English +and French, and thus the war went on year after year, +until it became something to be calculated for in +commercial transactions. People began to look upon +it almost as a natural state of things, and fathers told +their children that they had peace on one occasion +long ago for as many as ten years.</p> + +<p>The British had undoubtedly become very arrogant. +Their position on the sea was so supreme that they +did much as they pleased with the few neutrals. This<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span> +sort of thing did not suit the North American traders, +who were Englishmen also, and like their forefathers +resented any interference whatever. It resulted, therefore, +that the United States declared war in January, +1813, and made the planters understand what took +place "when Greek met Greek." Almost immediately +every colony was pestered and worried by a number +of fast-sailing schooners, as dangerous in a sense +as had once been the fly-boats of the buccaneers. +The heavy sugar boats going from plantation +to port were captured in great numbers, and +some of the harbours actually blockaded by the +"Saucy Jack," the "Hornet," and other audacious +Yankee craft with names as suggestive of their +characters. Then, indeed, the West Indies were +roused from their apathy—war was actually at their +doors. However, peace came at last, and after 1815 +it might be expected that the islands would go on +prospering and to prosper.</p> + +<p>Such, however, was not the case. In 1807 a great +difficulty had come upon them by the abolition of the +slave-trade, which at once put a stop to all extensions, +either in the way of new plantations or of the acreage +under cultivation. This was the first great check, and +with the fall in prices, which ensued when Britain +became the consignee of almost every settlement, +caused a cry of "Ruin!" to arise, which has continued +with short intermissions down to the present day.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h3><a name="XII" id="XII"></a>XII</h3> + +<h3>DOWNFALL OF HISPANIOLA</h3> + + +<p>Before the abolition of the slave-trade had affected +the British islands the French colonies were distracted +by the results of their great revolution. Hispaniola, +or rather that portion now known as Hayti, had +become, as we before said, the most important colony; +we must now give the story of its downfall. If this +had happened by the fortune of war it would perhaps +not have been so deplorable, but to be utterly ruined +as it was, until even now, after the lapse of a century, +it is behind its neighbours, is very sad.</p> + +<p>But, in the struggle for existence the straining after +liberty has to be reckoned with, and although the +process causes intense suffering to both lord and serf—master +and slave—the fight is sure to come at some +time or other. Miss Martineau uses the title, "The +hour and the man," for her romance of the liberation +of this once flourishing island. The hour had come, +but we are afraid <i>the man</i> has not yet appeared on +Hispaniola.</p> + +<p>When the French people took the government from +the hands of their king and summoned the States<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span> +General, revolutionary ideas had already come to a +head, and the matter of slavery received much consideration. +In all the colonies were numbers of free +coloured persons, who had been manumitted by their +fathers, and in many cases sent to Europe for their +education. In Paris they were brought into communication +with a kind of anti-slavery society, called +<i>L'Amis des noirs</i>, before which they had opportunities +of ventilating their grievances. These consisted of +civil disabilities which kept mulattoes in the background, +and prevented their taking what they believed +to be their proper positions in society. The time was +fitted for such an agitation, the people were there, and +it was only to be expected that their complaints +would come in the long catalogue of charges against +the aristocrats, among whom were included the West +Indian planters. However, although there was little +sympathy with the colonists, nothing particular was +done as yet, except the issue of the celebrated declaration +that all men were born, and continued to be, free +and equal as to their political rights. It might be +said, perhaps, that this alone gave freedom to the slave +and civil equality to the mulatto, but as it did not +specially apply to them, little trouble ensued. The +planters, however, were sufficiently acute to see the +logical outcome of the declaration, and were correspondingly +troubled, as they felt that if published +among the negroes it might convert them into implacable +enemies, and bring on dangerous insurrections. +They were soon pacified, however, by orders to +convene provincial assemblies, and send representatives +to Paris: this they thought would prevent mis<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span>chief, +as their interests +could be made known and +promoted in France.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 498px;"> +<img src="images/p258.jpg" width="498" height="142" alt="VIEW OF PART OF HISPANIOLA." title="" /> +<span class="caption">VIEW OF PART OF HISPANIOLA.<br /> +(<i>From Andrews' "West Indies."</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p>The free coloured people soon heard the news, and at once began to claim +their rights as citizens, which the planters were by no means prepared +to grant. On this refusal they began to arm themselves, and make +demonstrations in various parts of Hayti, but at first were easily put +down by the authorities. As yet there was little ill-feeling; the +demonstrations were only alarming from their significance and their +possible consequences. It followed, therefore, that little was done +beyond a demand for submission, the mulattoes being allowed to +disperse<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span> on promising to keep the peace. A few whites, however, +who had been leaders in the agitation, were severely punished, and when +a certain Mons. Dubois not only advocated the claims of the coloured +people, but the slaves as well, he was banished from the colony.</p> + +<p>Mons. de Beaudierre, a <i>ci-devant</i> magistrate, also +helped to add to the trouble. He was enamoured of +a coloured woman, who owned a valuable plantation, +and wanted to marry her, but at the same time wished +to see her free from all civil disabilities. Accordingly +he drew up a memorial to the committee of his section, +claiming for the mulattoes the full benefit of +the national declaration of rights. This roused the +authorities, who at once arrested him, but so strong +was the feeling of the whites that they took the +prisoner from gaol and put him to death.</p> + +<p>The agitation in Hayti as well as in Martinique +led to petitions and remonstrances to the National +Assembly, and on the 8th of March, 1790, the +majority voted that it was never intended to comprehend +the internal government of the colonies in +the constitution of the mother country, or to subject +them to laws incompatible with their local conditions. +They therefore authorised the inhabitants of each +colony to signify their wishes, and promised that, as +long as the plans suggested were conformable to the +mutual interests of the colonies and the metropolis, +they would not cause any innovations.</p> + +<p>This of course raised a clamour among the friends +of the blacks and mulattoes, who considered it as +sanctioning the slave-trade, which they wanted to put<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span> +down. In Hayti the General Assembly met and +made some radical changes, which were opposed by +many of the old colonists, and this brought discord +among the whites. The Governor dissolved the +Assembly, but this only brought more trouble, for the +subordinate Western body took the part of the General +Assembly, and went so far that the Governor tried +to suppress it by force. But the members put themselves +under the protection of the national guard who +resisted the troops sent against them, and after a +short skirmish drove them off. Thus all authority +was put at defiance by the whites, when if they +wanted to keep down the coloured and black people, +it was of the greatest consequence that union should +exist. The General Convention called the colony to +arms, but, before actually commencing hostilities, +they resolved to proceed to France, and lay the whole +matter before the Convention. Accordingly to the +number of eighty-five they sailed on the 8th of +August, 1790, the authorities also agreeing to await +the result.</p> + +<p>Among the coloured residents in France was a +young man named James Ogé, the son of a mulatto +woman by a white man, whose mother owned a coffee +plantation. He was a regular attendant at the meetings +of the friends of the blacks, where, under such +men as Lafayette and Robespierre, he had been +initiated into the doctrine of the equal rights of men. +On hearing of the vote of non-interference with the +colonies, Ogé, maddened by the thought that the +civil disabilities of people of his colour would be continued, +resolved to go himself to Hayti. He was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span> +confident that the people there would join him, and +going out by way of the United States he obtained +there a good supply of arms, with which he arrived in +October of the same year.</p> + +<p>Six weeks after his arrival he wrote to the Governor, +demanding that all the privileges of the whites should +be extended to every other person, without distinction. +As representing the coloured people he +made this request, and if their wrongs were not at +once redressed, he said, they were prepared to take +up arms. He had already been joined by his two +brothers, and they were busy calling upon their +friends to insist, assuring them that France approved +of their claim. But with all his efforts he could get +but few followers, the same difficulty cropping up +here as in most of the slave insurrections—a want +of the power of combination under one of their own +race. However, he at last got together two hundred, +and, receiving no answer from the Governor, they +commenced a series of raids on the plantations. Ogé +cautioned them against bloodshed, but the first white +man that fell into their hands was murdered, and +others soon met with the same fate. Even mulattoes, +who refused to join the insurgents, were treated the +same way; one man who pointed to his wife and six +children, as a reason for his refusal, being murdered +with them.</p> + +<p>The Governor now sent out a body of troops and +militia to suppress the revolt, with the result that +Ogé was defeated, and obliged to take refuge with +the remnant of his followers in the Spanish colony of +St. Domingo. The whites were now roused, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span> +began to cry out for vengeance upon the coloured +people in general, whether they had sympathised +with Ogé or not. In self-defence they had to take +up arms in several places, but by conciliation on the +part of the authorities a general insurrection was +averted for the time. A new Governor now arrived, +and one of his first acts was to demand the extradition +of Ogé by the Spaniards, which, being done, +he was executed by breaking alive upon the wheel. +In his last confession he is said to have stated that a +plot was then hatching for the destruction of all the +whites, but little notice was taken of this information. +The whites believed that now the leader was dead +things would go on in the old way, but, unfortunately +for them, they were mistaken.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the delegates had arrived in France, +where they were honourably received. After an +interview with a Committee of the Convention, however, +they were informed that their decrees were +reversed, the Haytian Assembly dissolved, and they +themselves under arrest. This, when the news +reached the colony, put the whites into a state of +consternation, and for awhile it appeared as if Hayti +would be the scene of a civil war. Captain Mauduit, +who had led the force against the assembly, was +murdered by his own troops, and preparations were +made to resist the authorities.</p> + +<p>The planters thought these arbitrary measures of +France very oppressive, but they had yet to learn +how far the revolutionists might go. In May, 1791, +the matter of equal rights for the coloured people +came up before the National Convention, and their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span> +claim was strongly advocated by Robespierre and +others. It was now that the words, "Perish the +colonies rather than sacrifice one of our principles," +were uttered by that bloodthirsty revolutionist, to +afterwards become a stock quotation of the extremist +in every country. The result of the discussion was +the decree of May the 15th, that the people of colour +resident in the French colonies, and born of free +parents, should be allowed all the privileges of French +citizens; to have votes, and be eligible for election to +the parochial and colonial assemblies.</p> + +<p>This brought on a crisis in Hayti. The coloured +people were determined to obtain their rights, and the +planters equally resolved that they should remain as +before. The Governor was so much alarmed that he +at once sent to France for further assistance, at the +same time asking for the suspension of the obnoxious +decree. Hearing of this, the mulattoes began to +assemble and take up arms, and the Governor hardly +dared to take action pending the result of his application.</p> + +<p>On the morning of the 23rd of August, 1791, the +people of Cape François were alarmed by reports +that the slaves in the neighbourhood were in open +revolt, plundering the plantations and murdering +the whites. The disturbance had commenced with +the hewing in pieces of a young white apprentice +on Pin. Noé, which murder was followed by a general +massacre of every white man, except the surgeon, +who was spared that he might become useful. From +one estate to another the revolt spread, until the +whole neighbourhood was a scene of murder, fire, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span> +rapine. The white townspeople put their women +and children on board the ships, and then united for +a stubborn defence, but the coloured men wanted to +remain neutral. This roused such a strong feeling +that even at that critical time the whites had to be +prevented by the authorities from murdering the +mulattoes. By thus protecting the mulattoes their +good-will was gained, and they volunteered to go out +against the rebels.</p> + +<p>Amidst the glare of a hundred conflagrations a +strong body of men was collected and sent against +the negroes. They defeated one body of four +hundred, but accessions were continually made to +the side of the rebels, until their overpowering +numbers compelled the whites to retreat, and do +their best to save the town. The revolt had been +continually spreading, and now extended over the +whole country, coloured people joining the negroes +in their work of destruction. One planter was nailed +to a gate, and then had his limbs cut off, one after +another; a carpenter was sawn asunder, on the +ground that this mode of execution suited his trade; +and two mulatto sons killed their white father, notwithstanding +his prayers and promises. White, and +even coloured children, were killed without mercy at +the breasts of their mothers, and young women were +violated before the eyes of their parents. Here and +there the horror was relieved by kind actions on the +part of faithful slaves, who, while joining in the +revolt for their own safety, saved their masters and +mistresses.</p> + +<p>The inhabitants of the town did all they could by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span> +sorties, but this was very little. The rebels would +run away at the first onset, but only to return in +overpowering numbers. A few were taken and +broken on the wheel, others fell in the skirmishes, +but the insurrection still went on. It spread to the +neighbourhood of Port au Prince, but, on the inhabitants +of that town agreeing to enforce the obnoxious +decree, the rebels retired. This action was +at last followed by those of Cape François, and a +partial truce ensued. In two months, it was said, +a thousand plantations were destroyed, and ten +thousand blacks and two thousand whites killed.</p> + +<p>The news of this great disaster caused a revulsion +of feeling in Paris, and the decree which had caused +so much trouble was annulled on the 24th of September, +before the results of the insurrection and the +truces were known. The arrangement had been +come to at Port au Prince on the 11th of the same +month, and on the 20th at Cape François. Thus +almost at the time when it was being repealed the +colonists were promising to see it enforced.</p> + +<p>It is hardly necessary to say what could be the +only result of the arrival of this revocation. The +struggle was renewed, and all hopes of reconciliation +were at an end. The coloured party charged the +whites with treachery and duplicity; now they would +fight until one or the other was exterminated. They +captured Port St. Louis, but got a severe repulse +from Port au Prince. Both sides were desperate, and +although there were fewer massacres in cold blood +the rebels fell in thousands. But as they were so +numerous this slaughter made little impression.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span> +Even when the prisoners were tortured with a refinement +of cruelty hardly credible, no good resulted +from such examples. The time for all that had +passed, yet the whites nailed one poor mulatto by +the feet in a cart, and had him driven round the +neighbourhood as a spectacle, before breaking him +on the wheel.</p> + +<p>In January, 1792, three commissioners arrived from +France to attempt a reconciliation, which they commenced +by publishing the decree revoking the rights +of the coloured people. Then they proclaimed a +general amnesty for all who should surrender within +a given time. Such utter ignorance as was thus +shown has hardly been equalled in any age; we can +only ascribe it to the fact that the scum had risen +to the top. The mulattoes were roused to fury, and +the whites equally exasperated. At Petit Goave the +rebels held thirty-four white prisoners, and at once +they were brought forth to be broken on the wheel, +previous to which the proclamation of amnesty was +read to them, their executioners mockingly claiming +it as a pardon for the cruelties they were exercising.</p> + +<p>This sort of thing, however, could not go on very +long. Most of the plantations and provision grounds +had been destroyed, and both parties felt the want +of food. Unless something were done they would +all be starved; for without means of buying supplies +even the whites could hardly exist, while the blacks +did nothing to raise further crops in place of those +they had eaten or destroyed. France again made +an attempt to put matters straight by declaring, on +the 4th of April, 1792, that the people of colour and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span> +free negroes ought to enjoy equal political rights +with other citizens. New assemblies were to be +called, in the election of which they should be +allowed to vote; a new Governor of Hayti was +appointed, and new commissioners sent out to inquire +into the whole matter.</p> + +<p>The Governor and the commission arrived at Cape +François on the 13th of September, and finding +everything in confusion, they sent the late administrator +to France as a prisoner, and called a new +assembly. Then the commissioners put themselves +in communication with the rebels, which made the +whites think them about to emancipate the slaves. +This was followed by a dispute between them and +the Governor, and the appointment of yet another +head, who arrived in May, 1793. He refused to +recognise the commissioners, but they were not so +easily set aside, for having the whole power of the +colony under control, they took possession of Port +au Prince, Jacmel, and Cape François, afterwards +ordering the Governor to leave. This led to another +war, in which the coloured rebels and even negroes +were utilised by the commissioners, who thus, in a +way, sanctioned the revolt. Similar atrocities to +those formerly enacted were renewed, and again the +colony was distracted in every part.</p> + +<p>The ruined planters now lost all hope, and began +to leave for the United States, Jamaica, and other +colonies. Some went to England, especially those +Royalists who attributed all their disasters to the +revolution. Here they began to urge the British to +conquer Hayti, although as yet war had not been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span> +declared with France. In September, 1793, an expedition +was sent from Jamaica, and on its arrival at +Jeremie the British were apparently welcomed by the +whites. But the colony was so utterly distracted +that little could be done, and although they took +Port au Prince they were repulsed at Cape Tiberon. +Then sickness fell upon them—"Yellow Jack"—and +this, with the delay of reinforcements, made all +prospects of success quite hopeless. With a foreign +enemy at hand the commissioners did all they could +to reconcile the parties, and to this end, just before +the landing of the British, proclaimed complete +emancipation of all the slaves, which was ratified in +Paris on the 4th of February, 1794. This brought +the whole body of rebels together, and the position +of the enemy became untenable. Finally came the +cession of the Spanish part of the island to France, +and now it might be supposed that something could +be done to restore peace.</p> + +<p>This repulse of the British was greatly due to the +influence of a very remarkable personage, Toussaint +L'Ouverture, a pure negro, and lately a slave. He +had joined the revolt from its commencement, and +had succeeded in gaining such an influence over his +race as had hitherto been unknown in any slave +insurrection. As soon as the general emancipation +had been declared, he was so grateful that he joined +the French, heart and soul, drove out the British, put +down the mulattoes, and was appointed Commander-in-chief +of the united forces. In 1801 he became +virtually Dictator of the whole island, and was made +President for life, with the result that many plan<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span>tations +were re-established, and the colony was +making slow progress towards recovery.</p> + +<p>Napoleon Buonaparte has been much lauded for +his diplomacy, but he certainly knew nothing of the +West Indies. After the peace of Amiens he had a +little time to look after the colonies, and Hayti was +among the first to receive attention. Toussaint was +then almost at the height of his power, and had prepared +a Constitution which was laid before Napoleon, +on reading which the First Consul said it was an +outrage on the honour of France, and the work of a +revolted slave, whom they must punish. It was true +that the black President was virtually independent. +He lived in the palace at St. Domingo, and, with his +councillors of all colours, enacted the part of a little +sovereign. To crown his audacity, he, in July, 1801, +proclaimed the independence of the island, and himself +as supreme chief.</p> + +<p>This roused the anger of Napoleon, who retaliated +by a proclamation re-establishing slavery in the island—a +measure so foolish that even the planters themselves +saw the impossibility of carrying it out. To +reduce the negroes again to servitude was utterly +impossible, even with all the power France could then +bring into the island. However, it was attempted +with a force of thirty thousand men and sixty-six +ships of war. When this immense fleet arrived at +Cape François the town was commanded by the +negro Christophe, who, finding himself unable to cope +with such a force, burnt the palace and withdrew. The +French landed and sent two sons of Toussaint, who +had been sent to France for their education, and to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span> +whom they had given a passage to their father, bearing +a letter from Napoleon, offering him great honours if +he would declare his allegiance. All that Toussaint +said in reply was that he would be faithful to his +brethren and his God, and with that he allowed his +sons to return.</p> + +<p>As yet the declaration that slavery was to be re-established +had not been published, and the negroes +were working the plantations on a share of the crop, +with penalties for idleness. The French tried to put +the negroes against Toussaint, in which they succeeded +to some extent, the result being that civil war +was renewed, and that the power of the black chieftain +was broken. Then the general thought it time to +issue the proclamation, which fell upon his negro +allies like a thunder-clap, and made them again +rally round Toussaint. Thus almost everything +which had been gained was utterly and for ever +lost.</p> + +<p>Now the French tried a little double-dealing. The +general stated in a new proclamation that ignorance +had led him hastily to fall into error, and that to prevent +anything of the same kind, and to provide for +the future welfare and liberty of all, he convened an +assembly of representatives of all the inhabitants, +regardless of colour. This won over the leaders, and +finally peace was concluded with Toussaint. The +fallen president wished to retire to his estate and into +private life, but having been cordially invited to meet +the general to discuss with him the welfare of the +colony, he was seized at the interview and put on +board a French frigate, which immediately sailed for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span> +France. Here he was imprisoned for life without +trial, and finally allowed to starve by withholding +food and water for four days.</p> + +<p>The negroes again rose, and the soldiers were by +this time so weakened by yellow fever, which even +carried off the Governor, that little could be done +against the rebels. Yet everything possible was +attempted. Bloodhounds were brought from Cuba +to worry the rebels to death; they were shot and +taken into the sea to be drowned in strings. Dessalines +had now become their leader, and on the +29th of November, 1803, he with Christophe and +Clervaux, the other rebel chiefs, issued the St. +Domingo declaration of independence. Restored to +their primitive dignity the black and coloured people +proclaimed their rights, and swore never to yield +them to any power on earth. "The frightful veil of +prejudice is torn to pieces, and is so for ever; woe be +to whomsoever would dare again to put together its +bloody tatters." The landholders were not forbidden +to return if they renounced their old errors and +acknowledged the justice of the cause for which the +blacks had been spilling their blood for twelve years. +As for those who affected to believe themselves +destined by Heaven to be masters and tyrants, if they +came it would be to meet chains or to be quickly +expelled. They had sworn not to listen to clemency +for those who dared to speak of the restoration of +slavery. Nothing was too costly a sacrifice for liberty, +and every means was lawful to employ against those +who wished to suppress it. Were they to cause rivers +and torrents of blood to flow—were they to fire half<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span> +the globe to maintain it—they would be innocent +before the tribunal of Providence.</p> + +<p>This declaration was followed on the 30th of March, +1804, by an address of Dessalines, in which he said +that everything that reminded them of France also +reminded them of the cruelties of Frenchmen. There +still remained, he said, Frenchmen on their island—creatures, +alas! of their indulgence; when would they +be tired of breathing the same air? Their cruelty, +when compared with the patient moderation of the +blacks—their difference in colour—everything said +that they were not brothers, and would never become +so. If they continued to find an asylum, troubles and +dissensions would be sure to continue. "Citizens, +inhabitants of Hayti, men, women, girls, children, +cast your eyes upon each point of the island! Seek +in it, you, your wives; you, your husbands; you, +your sisters!" Their ashes were in the grave, and +they had not avenged their deaths. Let the blacks +learn that they had done nothing if they did not give +the nations a terrible but just example of the vengeance +of a brave people, who had recovered liberty, +and were jealous to maintain it.</p> + +<p>They were again roused, and from the 29th of April +to the 14th of May an indiscriminate massacre of the +whites took place, as many as 2,500 being killed +during the fifteen days. On the 28th of April Dessalines +issued a manifesto congratulating them on +their success. At length, he said, the hour of vengeance +had arrived, and the implacable enemies of the +rights of man had suffered the punishment due to +their crimes. His arm had too long delayed to strike,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span> +but at the signal, which the justice of God had urged, +they had brought the axe to bear upon the ancient +tree of slavery and prejudice. In vain had time and +the infernal politics of Europe surrounded it with +triple brass. They had become, like their natural +enemies, cruel and merciless. Like a mighty torrent +their vengeful fury had carried away everything in +its impetuous course. "Thus perish all tyrants over +innocence and all oppressors of mankind!" Where +was that evil and unworthy Haytian who thought he +had not accomplished the decrees of the Eternal by +exterminating those bloodthirsty tigers? "If there +be one, let him fly—indignant nature discards him +from our bosom—let him hide his shame far from +hence! The air we breathe is not suited to his gross +organs—it is the pure air of liberty, august and triumphant." +Yes, they had rendered war for war, crime +for crime, outrage for outrage. He had saved his +country—he had avenged America. He made this +avowal in the face of earth and heaven—it was his +pride and glory. Black and yellow, whom the +duplicity of Europeans had endeavoured to divide, +now made but one family—he advised them to maintain +that precious concord and happy harmony. In +order to strengthen the tie let them call to remembrance +the catalogue of atrocities—the abominable +project of massacring the whole population, unblushingly +proposed to him by the French authorities. Let +that nation which was mad enough to attack him, +come—let them bring their cohorts of homicides. He +would allow them to land, but woe to those who +approached the mountains! "Never again shall a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</a></span> +colonist or a European set his foot upon this territory +with the title of master or proprietor."</p> + +<p>On the 8th of October the writer of these bloodthirsty +addresses was crowned as Jacques the First, +Emperor of Hayti.</p> + +<p>In 1808 an attempt was made on the part of Spain +to regain her old colony on the eastern part of the +island, where France still maintained a nominal supremacy. +Spain was now an ally of Great Britain, and, +with the aid of British troops, she took St. Domingo +and retained this part of the island until 1821, when +a revolution took place and it became independent, to +be almost immediately united with its sister republic.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the Emperor Jacques did not long enjoy +his throne in peace, for he was murdered by his +coloured soldiers on the 17th of October, 1806. A +republic followed, under the presidency of General +Petion, who was at the head of the mulattoes, but did +not agree with the blacks. This led to a division, the +north, with Cape François as the capital, coming into +the hands of the negro Christophe, who got himself +crowned as the Emperor Henry the First; the +southern district, with Port au Prince, forming a +republic under President Petion.</p> + +<p>Henry was a man of good common sense, but like +most negroes, much inclined to ape the whites. One +of his toasts at a dinner was characteristic: "My +brother, the king of Great Britain, and may he be successful +against Buonaparte, and continue the barrier +between that tyrant and this kingdom." He created +a legion of honour, called the Order of St. Henry, +built a palace, and began to acquire a fleet; he gave<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</a></span> +balls and encouraged operas, had a great seal, gave +titles of nobility, and procured a set of regalia +and jewels, with velvet robes and all other appendages +of royalty. Under his rule the country +flourished, for he would have no idlers. Yet he was +a tyrant, and at last, in 1820, he was attacked by his +own guard, and committed suicide to prevent falling +into their hands. President Boyer, who had succeeded +Petion, now took advantage of the confusion +to incorporate the two districts, and two years later +he added the revolted Spanish portion, thus bringing +the whole island under one rule, the presidency of +which he held for twenty-two years.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</a></span></p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h3><a name="XIII" id="XIII"></a>XIII</h3> + +<h3>EMANCIPATION OF THE SPANISH MAIN</h3> + + +<p>The influence of the French Revolution was felt in +most of the other islands, but nowhere did it lead to +such disasters as befel Hispaniola. In 1795 there +was an insurrection in the island of Grenada, where +the coloured people, under French influence, nearly +drove the English out of the colony. Even when +defeated they held their own in the mountains for +about a year, committing many atrocities on the +whites who fell into their hands. In most of the +French islands there were insurrections more or less +dangerous, some of which were put down by the +British conquerors, who thus helped to keep the +peace. It could not be expected, however, that small +places like Martinique and Guadeloupe would ever +have made such stubborn resistance as the great +island of Hispaniola.</p> + +<p>A very great impression was made on the Spanish +colonies, who during the war, owing to the distracted +condition of the mother country, attained to a degree +of freedom hitherto beyond their reach. This led to +unfavourable comparisons between past and present, +and the feeling that grew up was fomented by the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</a></span> +British, who now had many opportunities from the +measure of free trade which resulted from the peculiar +circumstances of that period. Secret societies +were then common all over Europe, and in Spain +they were not wanting. In the early years of this +century one of the most energetic members was Francisco +Miranda, a native of Caracas, who had been +a soldier under Washington, and had distinguished +himself by his prominence in many of the revolutionary +projects of the time. He was the prime +organiser of the Creoles of South America, and +under his auspices the "Gran Reunion Americana" +was founded in London. Bolivar and San Martin +were initiated into this society, and took its oath to +fight for the emancipation of South America. Miranda +did his best to ensure the co-operation of Great Britain +and the United States, but failing in this, determined +to get up one or more insurrections without their +assistance.</p> + +<p>On the 27th of March, 1806, he sailed with three +vessels and two hundred men from Jacmel, Hayti, +and on the 11th of April arrived at the Dutch island +of Aruba, from whence the little company proceeded +to Puerto Cabello. The demonstration, however, was +nipped in the bud, for two of his vessels being almost +immediately captured by the Spaniards, Miranda was +obliged to fly in the other to Barbados. Here he +met Admiral Cochrane, with whom he entered into +an arrangement for British assistance. Conceiving +that it might be mutually advantageous to Great +Britain and the Spanish provinces that the latter +should be freed from the yoke of Spain, the admiral<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</a></span> +agreed to support him in a descent on Venezuela, +between the coasts opposite Trinidad and Aruba. +The only stipulation was for free trade with Great +Britain as against her enemies, and with that Miranda +went off to Trinidad.</p> + +<p>Here he hoped to gain recruits from among the +Spanish people of the island, to whom he issued an +address. The glorious opportunity, he said, presented +itself of relieving from oppression and +arbitrary government a people who were worthy of +a better fate, but who were shackled by a despotism +too cruel for human nature longer to endure. Groaning +under their afflictions they hailed with extended +arms the noble cause of freedom and independence, +and called upon them to share the God-like action of +relieving them.</p> + +<p>This stirring address made little impression, and +consequently few followers were enrolled. However, +he got eight armed vessels and two traders, and +sailed from Trinidad on the 25th of July, 1806, for +Coro on the Main. The fort and city were taken, +but the people, instead of joyfully welcoming their +deliverers, ran away and could not be induced to +return. Miranda, finding the place untenable, went +over to Aruba, of which he took possession as a basis +for further operations. But the British authorities +looked upon his scheme as impracticable, especially +as it tended to injure their trade, and in November +Miranda was compelled to disband his little company +of less than three hundred at Trinidad.</p> + +<p>The time for a revolution had not yet arrived, but +it was fast approaching. It could not be expected<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</a></span> +that Great Britain would assist filibustering against +her ally, which Spain now became, and without some +outside assistance Miranda found it impossible to do +anything. However, the people themselves were at +last aroused, and on the 19th of April, 1810, the city +of Caracas deposed the captain-general and appointed +a Junta to rule in the name of the king. +This body invited the other provinces to join and +form a league for mutual protection against the +French, who now had virtual possession of the +mother country. Other provinces took the Government +side and prepared to suppress the revolt, which +led Caracas to ask the assistance of Great Britain and +the United States.</p> + +<p>Among the Venezuelans was Simon Bolivar, who +afterwards became the most important personage in +the struggle for independence. Like Miranda, he +was a native of South America, and like him had +imbibed revolutionary ideas in Paris. He was a +planter, and had taken no part in the overthrow of +the captain-general, but from his principles being +well known, he was appointed with others to proceed +to London in the interests of the Junta. On their +arrival they were answered cautiously, the authorities +not wishing to commit themselves under the circumstances. +Here Bolivar met Miranda, and took the +oath of the "Gran Reunion," promising to work for +the independence of South America, notwithstanding +his nominal position as an advocate of the king of +Spain against Napoleon.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the Spanish Regency had proclaimed +the leaders of the movement to be rebels, declaring +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg 280-281]</a><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281"></a></span>war against them and blockading their ports. The +Central Junta responded by raising an army, which +was defeated with considerable loss at Coro and had +to retire on Caracas. This caused some discouragement, +but Miranda now arrived, was welcomed with +an ovation, and appointed lieutenant-general of the +army. He was also asked to draw up a constitution +and to become one of the deputies at the first congress +of Venezuela to be held in March, 1811.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 538px;"> +<img src="images/p280.jpg" width="538" height="317" alt="LA GUAYRA ON THE MAIN." title="" /> +<span class="caption">LA GUAYRA ON THE MAIN.<br /> +(<i>From Andrews' "West Indies."</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p>No longer was there any question of the French, +the struggle was for entire independence. A civil +war began, which raged with varying fortunes for +twelve years, in the course of which were enacted +scenes more worthy of the days of buccaneers than +the beginning of the nineteenth century. In 1812 +Caracas was destroyed by an earthquake, and in +another locality perished the greater portion of a +thousand men, marching against the Spaniards. It +was reported that those provinces where the revolution +had most influence suffered greatest, while those +more loyal almost escaped. This was due to the fact +that the mountainous region, in which Caracas is +situated, felt the full effect of the earthquake, but the +priests, who were mostly loyalists, told the ignorant +peasantry that it was a judgment on the Patriots. +The result was that large bodies deserted, until the +whole Patriot army became disorganised. Miranda +was captured and sent to Spain, where he died in +prison in 1816, but Bolivar managed to escape.</p> + +<p>New Granada had revolted before Venezuela and +was more successful. It was to this province that +Bolivar retired after the downfall of the Patriot cause<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</a></span> +in Venezuela. Then the Spanish captain-general, +Monteverde, who was called "the Pacificator," commenced +his work by imprisoning so many Patriots +that the gaols were choked, and many died of hunger +and suffocation. In the country districts he let his +troops ravage and plunder like hordes of banditti. +Even his superiors were at length compelled to recall +him on account of the numerous complaints and petitions. +At last the people were again fairly roused, +until there came a war of extermination, in which both +parties tried to outvie the other in murder and rapine.</p> + +<p>Off the peninsula of Paria lay the small island of +Chacachacare, and on it forty-five fugitives took +refuge, where they consulted as to the renewal of the +war. With only six muskets and some pistols, they +landed on the coast on the 13th of March, 1813, surprised +the guard of Güiria, took their arms and +marched into the town, where they were joined by +the garrison, making their number two hundred. +Thus began the second war, in which the Patriots, +assisted by the return of Bolivar and a body of troops +from New Granada, again took possession of a large +part of the province. On the 15th of June Bolivar +proclaimed extermination to the Royalists, and +named the year, the third of independence and first +of the war to the death. This severity created many +enemies in Venezuela, as well as in other countries, +and even Bolivar himself afterwards said that the proclamation +had been issued in a delirium. However, +the result was that both sides became more ferocious +than ever, especially when the Indians were induced +to join the Patriots.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</a></span></p> + +<p>On the 6th of August Bolivar entered Caracas in +triumph. The bells rang, cannons roared, and the +people cheered him as their liberator. His path was +strewn with flowers, blessings were called down upon +his head, and beautiful girls, dressed in white and the +national colours, led his horse and crowned him with +laurel. The prison doors were opened, the Patriots +set free, and, in spite of his proclamation, no act of +retaliation sullied his triumph. Two days later he +re-established the republic and proclaimed himself +Dictator as well as liberator.</p> + +<p>There were now two Dictators in Venezuela, +Marino in the east and Bolivar in the west, but the +Spaniards were by no means conquered. Bolivar +published another decree on the 6th of September, +that all Americans who were even suspected of being +Royalists were traitors to their country, and should +be treated as such. Ten days later twelve thousand +men arrived from Spain, and Bolivar, who had been +besieging Puerto Cabello, was forced to retire. This +encouraged the Royalists, who got the llaneros of the +Orinoco on their side by promises of freedom to kill +and plunder in the cause of the king, and threats of +punishing by death all who disregarded the call to +arms.</p> + +<p>Bolivar was captain-general, but he shared his +power with Marino, the rights of both resting on +force alone. To put an end to this, an assembly of +notables was convened at Caracas, to whom he +resigned his office, and then accepted it again at their +request. But the Patriots, even when united, were as +yet unable to stand before the Spanish army, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</a></span> +very shortly afterwards their flag was only visible on +the island of Margarita. Bolivar again took refuge +in New Granada, where he was elected captain-general, +and entitled Liberator and Illustrious Pacificator. +He, however, quarrelled with the Governor of +Carthagena, and was forced to fly to Jamaica, saying +before his departure that Carthagena preferred her +own destruction to obedience to the federal government.</p> + +<p>In 1815, after the great peace, Marshal Morillo +came out with 10,600 men selected from the army +that had fought against Napoleon. He was to reduce +the whole of the Main from Spanish Guiana to Darien, +dealing first with Margarita. In the course of a year +he did this, committing such atrocities as made his +name a byword over the whole of South America. +In the siege of Carthagena, which lasted about three +months, the Patriots suffered greatly, hundreds dying +of starvation; but at last, on the 6th of December, +1815, it was captured. An amnesty was proclaimed, +but in spite of that four hundred old men, women, +and children who surrendered were all killed, while +most of the stronger men who survived managed to +escape.</p> + +<p>The remnant of the Patriots was now scattered +over the country as guerillas, and while Morillo was +subduing New Granada a fresh signal for a general +revolt was given. The Royalist Governor, in November, +1815, ordered the arrest of Arismendi, who had +been pardoned, and at once the Margaritans rose, +took possession of a part of the island, captured the +fort, and killed the whole garrison. At the same time<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</a></span> +the guerillas united under Paez, who now came to the +front as a llanero and leader of his class. Thus the +struggle was resumed with all its former virulence.</p> + +<p>Bolivar, when he heard of the fall of Carthagena, +went over to Hispaniola to meet President Petion, +who was an ardent supporter of the revolution. Here +he received assistance of arms and money, with which +he began to fit out an expedition to recover his lost +position. There were many refugees from the Main +on that island, but they were not altogether friendly +with the late Dictator, however Petion managed to +secure their co-operation. It followed, therefore, that +on the 16th of March, 1816, three hundred Patriots +left for Margarita, where they captured two Spanish +vessels and united with their fellow-countrymen under +Arismendi. Going over to the Main they soon got +together a powerful force which overran the whole +country and ultimately achieved its independence.</p> + +<p>But before this happened the Patriots met with +many reverses. Sometimes it appeared as if they +would be utterly exterminated; then the tide turned +in their favour and they were again successful. The +country was devastated by both parties, until cultivation +was abandoned in many districts. Provisions for +the armies were often unattainable, and this drove the +soldiers to plunder wherever there was an opportunity, +no matter that the sufferers were of their own party.</p> + +<p>The struggle was watched with sympathy by the +people of England, and Canning went so far as to +make a declaration of neutrality favourable to the +Patriots. Then came a systematic attempt to raise +British volunteers, and, as there were many officers<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</a></span> +and men who had been disbanded since the great +peace, a considerable force was raised. Carried away +by enthusiasm they would hear nothing of the difficulties +and dangers they had to encounter, but rushed +to fight in the ranks of a people striving to liberate +themselves from the grossest oppression. The country +was represented as a perfect paradise, and the officers +were promised grants of land in this delightful Eden, +while the men had offers of double the pay of the +British army. A similar call was also made in +Germany with good results, and it was expected +that what with the British Legion and this other +contingent the result would be no longer doubtful.</p> + +<p>On their arrival at Margarita, however, they at once +began to perceive that poverty reigned everywhere, +and that no provision whatever had been made for +them. The Patriots foraged for themselves, and anything +like a commissariat was virtually unknown; but +British soldiers were not accustomed to such a state +of things. Then the food supply was at the best only +live cattle, which they had to kill for themselves, +cassava bread, and a few roots such as yams. The +rations were so irregular, that one or two days would +pass without any supply whatever, and this ultimately +led to complaints and something like a mutiny, which +was put down with the "cat."</p> + +<p>After some delay the British Legion was sent on +to the Main, where they were worse off than in +Margarita. Instead of welcoming them, the Patriots +seemed to be jealous, and did not even give them the +opportunity of fighting as they wished. When posted +before Cumaná they were exposed to the burning<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</a></span> +sun and drenching rains, without tents or any other +shelter; their drinking water was stagnant and +brackish, and for rations had only a pound of beef +per day for each man, from oxen which they had +to butcher. They were also greatly shocked at the +enormities of the Patriots, who carried on the struggle +in a manner suggestive of the Middle Ages rather +than modern days. Prisoners were indiscriminately +massacred, their murderers enjoying the work as if it +were a recreation. It is true that in the then condition +of the country large bodies of prisoners could +neither be fed nor guarded; still the British could not +but feel that the cause they had joined was not altogether +what it had been represented. Want of proper +food led to sickness, and soon they became quite +broken down. Many died of fever and dysentery, +some deserted and got away as best they could, the +general result being that little benefit was derived +from the British Legion by Venezuela.</p> + +<p>If such was the experience of the foreigners, what +must have been that of the Patriots? They were +certainly more used to the country and its food, and +therefore suffered less from sickness; but this advantage +was lost when it came to actual starvation. +With the men engaged in the struggle, only the +women and children were left to cultivate enough +cassava to keep body and soul together. Even this +little was often stolen by a foraging party, who did +not hesitate to murder the whole family if any objection +was made. Fugitives, if not cut off, made their +way in canoes to Trinidad and Demerara, often arriving +almost dead from the privations they had endured.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</a></span> +Delicate Spanish ladies and little children sometimes +arrived—their pitiable condition causing an outflow +of sympathy from the planters, and a feeling of detestation +for their persecutors.</p> + +<p>At the commencement of the year 1820 the Columbian +Republic had become an accomplished fact, and +on the 25th of November an armistice was concluded +between Morillo and Bolivar, which virtually ended +the struggle. The United States had looked upon it +with favour, and Lafayette in France said that opposition +to the independence of the New World would +only cause suffering, but not imperil the idea. In +1823 the celebrated Monroe doctrine was formulated, +and Canning said in the same year that the battle was +won and Spanish America was free.</p> + +<p>Central America had not suffered like Venezuela +and New Granada. From Mexico to Panama was +the old captain-generalship of Guatemala, but little +interest was taken in the province, Spain leaving it +almost entirely in the hands of the Catholic Missions. +It was not until Columbia had gained her independence +that Guatemala moved in the same direction, +although there were slight disturbances in Costa +Rica and Nicaragua from 1813 to 1815. At first +there was a project to found a kingdom, but this +gave way to the proposal for union with Mexico +under the Emperor Iturbide, which was carried out, +but did not last long. In 1823 Central America +established a Federal Republic, and at once abolished +slavery and declared the slave-trade to be piracy—a +decision to which the other revolted colonies came +about the same time.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</a></span></p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h3><a name="XIV" id="XIV"></a>XIV</h3> + +<h3>ABOLITION OF SLAVERY</h3> + + +<p>Negro slavery, although it formed the sinews and +backbone of the plantations, was, as we have seen, +considered unjust by the French republicans and +immoral by a large section of the benevolent in +Great Britain and the United States. In both +countries the Society of Friends, or Quakers, commenced +to influence public opinion against its continuance +as early as about 1770, and had it not been +for the French Revolution it is probable that emancipation +would have taken place early in this century. +The premature and inconsiderate action of the French +in Hayti lost to France her most valuable plantation, +for some years giving such an example of what might +happen were emancipation to be granted elsewhere, +that those in favour of the system could always point +to it with the finger of warning. Yet with all that +the friends of the slave were undaunted; and as a +beginning, in 1807, they procured the abolition of the +slave-trade as far as Great Britain and her colonies +were concerned, and then went on to get the traffic +prohibited by other nations. Denmark had led the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</a></span> +van by declaring it unlawful as early as 1792, but +little impression was made until the nation most +concerned took action.</p> + +<p>This was a great blow to the British West Indies. +The labour question had always been of the first +importance, and to put a sudden stop to the supply +meant a check to all progress. For twenty years +before a great impetus had been given to planting, +which was much assisted by the downfall of Hayti +and consequent reduction of her produce to such an +extent that she no longer affected the market. Now +that the planters could get no more negroes, anything +like enlargement of the acreage under cultivation was +impossible. Latterly, also, produce had diminished +in price, which made cheap labour all the more important. +They had great difficulty in making their +estates pay, and when sugar fell to half its former +value a cry of "Ruin!" went forth all over the West +Indies. It is interesting to note that the panacea +which they expected would save them was free trade. +At that time the British warehouses were filled with +sugar and other tropical produce, while every continental +port was closed by Napoleon, and the United +States by the navigation laws. Not only did Great +Britain store the produce of her own colonies, but +that from those of the French and Dutch as well. In +1812 it was stated that the sugar consumption of +Great Britain amounted to 225,000 hogsheads, while +the production of her colonies was 150,000 in excess +of this. The Southern States had just taken up +cotton cultivation, and brought the price of that +article too low for the West Indian planter, and, as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</a></span> +if that were not enough, coffee also fell in price to an +alarming extent.</p> + +<p>Sugar paid best, and was therefore fostered to the +exclusion of the other products; and now began the +plantation system which became so obnoxious to the +anti-slavery party. Hitherto, with a full supply of +labour, the negroes did little work as compared with +their capabilities—now something like the factory +system of the mother country was introduced. The +old methods would no longer enable the planter to +get a profit, and he must make the best of his labour +supply. Great administrative ability, more careful +management, attention to economy, and concentration, +were all necessary to prevent losses, and that +these were not wanting can easily be seen from the +results. The slaves were driven into the field in +gangs, and kept at work by the threat of the driver's +whip, while the overseers and manager gave most +careful attention to the whole system.</p> + +<p>Not only did the negroes work, but the whites also; +in fact, on the part of the latter there was a continual +strain after a fortune on which to retire from this tiresome +and harassing work of nigger-driving. Where +one succeeded, ten failed; many died of the exposure +and of the <i>anti-malarial</i> drinks they imbibed +so plentifully. So great was the mortality that +the colonies became proverbial for their number of +widows, some of whom, however, were not above +managing their own plantations. It was a race for +wealth, to which everything else was secondary.</p> + +<p>The slaves diminished every year in the absence of +additions from outside, as the whites would have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</a></span> +done under similar circumstances. That there was +no natural increase was mainly due to the fact that +the sexes were unequal, and then, again, maternal +affection was sadly wanting in the women, who +seemed to care less for their children than some +domestic animals. This state of things was mainly +the outcome of the system, which was undoubtedly +immoral, but the mental disabilities of the race must +also be taken into consideration. The anti-slavery +party considered that environment was everything; +if they could only free the negro from compulsory +servitude he would at once become an industrious +labourer. Yes, in their opinion, if he had the incentive +of wages, it would make him a credit to himself +and his community. The slaves, they said, were +worked to death, yet as free men they would do more +and perform their tasks better. Their experience with +free workmen led to these conclusions, but this could +not apply to the West Indies nor to the negro +race.</p> + +<p>The anti-slavery party was very strong, and +although it is not stated that they took "Perish +the colonies!" for their motto, it is very certain that +they cared little about the future of either white or +black as long as they carried their object. To this +end every possible case of oppression and ill-treatment +was exaggerated, and spoken of as if it were +common, notwithstanding that the case only came to +their notice through the trial and punishment of the +offender. The fact was the planter could not afford +to ill-treat his slave—no other animal of his live +stock was of so much value. If a valuable horse<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</a></span> +were killed another could be obtained to replace him, +but this was almost impossible in the case of the +negro. Formerly, when he cost about £20, it might +have paid to work him to death; now that his price +was five or six times as much, self-interest alone prevented +ill-treatment. There was a strong public +opinion in every colony which prevented cruelty, and +there were societies in some which gave prizes to +those in charge of estates who raised the greatest +number of children in proportion to their negroes. +This breeding of negroes was necessarily very slow +work, and did little to make up for the stoppage of +importation. It followed, therefore, that every year +the amount of available labour became less.</p> + +<p>In 1815 the anti-slavery party commenced a +further agitation in favour of the negro, with the +result that a Registrar of slaves was appointed for +each colony, and ultimately a Protector. By obtaining +an annual census they hoped to have some check +on the decrease, and at the same time see if any +Africans were surreptitiously imported. In some +places there was already a slave registration for the +purpose of adjusting the head-tax; here the planters +did not oppose the measure, although they resented +interference. Others, like Barbados, protested against +the innovation as something quite unnecessary, or +even if desirable, not to be imposed upon them from +outside. This led to a great deal of discussion at +the planters' tables, where the slave waiters listened +to what was said, and from thence carried garbled +reports to the others.</p> + +<p>In every colony were numbers of free negroes and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</a></span> +coloured people, some of whom were loafers and +spongers on the slaves, while others went about the +country peddling. Having nothing to do, they +became the news-carriers and circulators of garbled +reports. In 1815 there lived in Barbados a free +coloured man named Washington Franklin, who, +like many negroes, was possessed of a good memory +and a great power of declamation. Getting hold of +the English and colonial newspapers, he would read +the speeches of Wilberforce and others, and after +putting his own construction on them, retail them in +language tending to rouse the slaves. To him was +due an impression that prevailed in Barbados, probably +from a misunderstanding of the Registry Bill, +that they were all to be free at the beginning of the +year 1816. When New Year's Day had passed they +became dissatisfied, believing that their masters had +received orders to set them free, but would not execute +them. They had heard of the successful rising +in Hayti, and were determined to attempt a similar +revolt in Barbados.</p> + +<p>After waiting for the expected freedom until the +14th of April, they determined on that day to have +a general rising, which was signalled by burning +heaps of cane-trash in the parish of St. Philip. Soon +the fields were set on fire, and frenzied mobs, continually +increasing in numbers, went from one plantation +to another seeking arms. This went on for two +days, but on the arrival of the militia they dispersed, +leaving a waste behind. As usual a great many of +the negroes were executed, although it does not +appear that any whites got killed in the revolt.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</a></span> +However, the Registry Act was delayed for two +years, to be ultimately passed in January, 1817.</p> + +<p>Towards the end of the last century a new class +of men appeared in the West Indies—the Protestant +missionaries. Catholic missions had been established +in the Spanish possessions since the time of Columbus, +but hitherto, with the exception of a few Moravians, +no other Church had done anything to convert the +slaves in the British colonies. Between 1780 and +1790, Methodist societies were established in most of +the islands, notwithstanding the opposition of the +planters, who in some cases appear to have thought +that baptized Christians could no longer be held in +slavery. This vulgar error, however, was not the real +cause of the antagonism to these teachers, but rather +the feeling natural to a master which makes him +resent any outside interference between himself and +his servants. The best and kindest were the first to +feel this. The slaves were their children, and to them +they applied, in all their troubles and difficulties, as to +a great father. It followed, therefore, that when the +missionaries came and proclaimed themselves friends +to the slaves, giving them advice in secular as well as +religious matters, the cordial feeling was broken. +"Massa" was much put out, for he liked to hold +the position of a little god to these poor ignorant +creatures over whom he held such power. The +slaves were sometimes whipped as bad children when +they did wrong, and as children they cared little for +a flogging. It is easily conceivable that a humane +missionary might feel more pain at witnessing such a +punishment than the culprit himself, but it is a fact<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</a></span> +that cruel punishment was never mentioned by the +slaves as an excuse for a revolt.</p> + +<p>The missionaries were shocked at the apparent +nakedness and destitution of the negroes, as a visitor +to the West Indies will be even now. They did +not remember that their clothing and houses were +well suited to the climate, and that a home in the +English sense of the word would not have been +appreciated by them. These things were reported to +the societies at home, the members of which knew no +more about the tropics than the merchant who once +sent a consignment of warming-pans to Barbados. +Those who wanted to raise a cry of cruelty to the +poor slave, circulated these facts, and put their own +construction upon them, one going so far as to state +that there were no chimneys to the houses, as if this +omission were a slave disability or oppression, although +any visitor to the colonies could have told him that +these conveniences were hardly found anywhere.</p> + +<p>The negro willingly listened to his friend the +missionary, and felt eager to perform the rites and +ceremonies of the little congregation. The Established +Church was that of England, and although in +some places there were special services for the blacks, +in others "slaves and dogs" were refused admission. +This exclusiveness threw the slaves into the hands of +the Moravians, Baptists, Methodists, and the agents of +the London Missionary Society. The Church government +of some of these was in the hands of the congregation, +and as this was a sort of playing at "Massa," +the slave took to them all the more readily.</p> + +<p>No doubt these ministers were very good men, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</a></span> +animated by a great love for the negroes, but this did +not prevent their being misunderstood by both master +and slave. Then many of them were connected with +the anti-slavery society, and however careful they +might be not to offend local prejudices, by speaking +against the obnoxious system, as conscientious men +they could not help showing their bias. The established +clergymen, on the contrary, when they preached +to the slaves, told them to "be subject to the powers +that be," and to remain content in the condition where +Providence had placed them.</p> + +<p>At first most of the planters only sneered at these +attempts to convert the slaves, but when they saw +what an attraction the chapels became, they opposed +them openly. Gangs of young fellows would attend, +and sometimes break up the meetings by jeering at +the preacher. In 1807 an ordinance was passed in +Jamaica "for preventing the profanation of religious +rites and false worshipping of God, under the pretence +of preaching and teaching, by illiterate, ignorant, and +ill-disposed persons, and of the mischief consequent +thereupon." Considering it the first duty of all magistrates +to encourage the solemn exercise of religion, +and whereas nothing tended more to bring it into +disrepute than the pretended preaching and expounding +of the Word of God by ignorant persons +and false enthusiasts, to persons of colour and +slaves, it was enacted that, after the 1st of July, no +unauthorised person should presume to teach, preach, +offer public prayer, or sing psalms to any assembly +of these people, on pain of a fine of a hundred +pounds, imprisonment for six months, or whipping.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</a></span> +Similar punishments were also to be inflicted on any +one preaching in an unlicensed building, as well as +on the owner of a house or yard in which it had been +permitted.</p> + +<p>Another way of stopping the assembly of slaves +was to pass a law against their meeting at night, and +punish them if they left the estate without a written +permission. There were always excuses for this +apparent harshness, as plots had been arranged at +nocturnal meetings, some of which had given a great +deal of trouble. Even if a pass were granted to +attend chapel, the estate's authorities could hardly be +expected to follow and see that the slave did not go +elsewhere. The missionaries took it that all this was +done to hamper their work, but such was not the case +altogether.</p> + +<p>The anti-slavery party became very strong about +the year 1820, and every obnoxious regulation was +a text for discourses on the infamy of the whole +system. If a planter were punished, the case was +trumpeted over the country to promote a greater +antagonism. How absurd this really was could only +be seen by the West Indians themselves, and if they +attempted to say anything they were put down as +liars, becaused they were biassed in favour of the other +side. One writer pertinently remarked that, among +the hundreds of military and naval officers stationed +in the West Indies, not one had borne out the statements +of the missionaries, and we may call attention +to the curious fact that Captain Marryat, who was +well acquainted with every colony, speaks always of +the negro as a happy fellow. The genial novelist<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</a></span> +does not mince matters when he speaks of oppression +on board ship, and it is not to be supposed that he +would go out of his way to screen the planters.</p> + +<p>Some of the colonies passed laws against indiscriminate +manumissions, and these were declaimed +against as tyranny. Yet their wisdom was so patent +that, under the system, they could only be heartily +approved by every one competent to judge. There is +one little fact that stands out most prominently as a +redeeming point, if such a thing be possible—under +slavery there was no poverty—there were no tramps +nor beggars. The owner of the plantation had to +feed his people in sickness and in health, in childhood +and old age. If manumissions could be given +by the mere stroke of a pen, many a poor sick or +broken-down creature would have been cast adrift to +become a burden upon the community. Now and +again we yet hear some old woman complain that +if this were slavery time, she would not be half-starved +as she is to-day, notwithstanding the poor +relief.</p> + +<p>It may perhaps be thought that we are attempting +the defence of slavery; we only wish to show that it +was not quite so black as it has been painted. It had +its dark side; but, on the other hand, many a bright +gleam can be perceived by those who have seen some +who were born into servitude and heard their stories. +They were well fed, had as much clothing as they +really required, were as a matter of policy well treated +as a rule, and were quite as happy as they are to-day. +Magistrates, policemen, and gaols were almost +unknown; the planter gave the negro a slight<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</a></span> +flogging now and then, and this ended the tale of his +misdemeanours. A bad master might be cruel as a +bad husband may be also, but we should not condemn +marriage on account of its abuses. The great +argument against slavery was the degradation it produced +on the minds of both parties. However, we +are not writing the history of slavery, but the story +of the West Indies, and must apologise for the +digression.</p> + +<p>In 1823 the House of Commons, on a motion of +Fowell Buxton, "that the state of slavery is repugnant +to the principles of the British Constitution, and +of the Christian religion," resolved to ameliorate the +condition of the slave by giving him civil rights and +privileges. As a result of this, orders were sent out +to abolish the flogging of women, and discontinue the +use of the whip in the field.</p> + +<p>Already the West Indian planters were alarmed at +the interference of the British Government, and the +overriding of colonial laws by Orders in Council. +In 1819 they had petitioned against being compelled +to manumit their slaves in cases where they wished to +buy their freedom, but their protests went for nothing. +Now also they had to submit, although they did so +with a bad grace. The British Government left the +carrying out of the provisions of the resolutions to +the colonial legislatures, but at the same time giving +them to understand that there was no option.</p> + +<p>In 1811, when the Governor and Court of Policy of +Demerara neglected to issue a proclamation allowing +negroes to attend chapel in the evening, they received +a sharp reprimand, and the Governor was super<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</a></span>seded; +now they knew that nothing was left but to +obey orders.</p> + +<p>When, therefore, the despatch containing these +resolutions arrived in Demerara, a meeting of the +legislature was at once convened to prepare the +necessary ordinance. There was no attempt to evade +this duty or delay compliance, but such a radical +change required great consideration, especially in +regard to the control of females without the use of +the whip. Negresses were, as a rule, less amenable +to discipline than the men, and it was thought that +something must be done to prevent insubordination. +Several meetings took place from the 21st of July, +1823, to early in August, at which the ordinance was +prepared and passed, but up to the 18th of the latter +month it had not been published. Such a delay, +however, did not imply any intention of evading the +duty, for three or four weeks often elapse from the +time of passing to the publication of a Bill.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the negroes got an idea that something +had been done in England for their benefit. Like +the slaves in Barbados and other colonies, they +heard discussions at their masters' tables, and supposed +that the something which had taken place +meant their total emancipation. "The king had +freed them, but the planters refused to carry out the +order." On the East Coast of Demerara there was +then a small chapel belonging to the London Missionary +Society, under the charge of the Rev. John +Smith. This chapel was a rendezvous for the negroes +of the neighbouring plantations, who not only came +to service, but met afterwards for a little gossip.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[Pg 302]</a></span> +Some who could read gave their ideas of what they +had gleaned from their masters' newspapers, while +others told what had been said at the dinner-tables. +It does not appear that Mr. Smith had told them +anything of the new resolutions, nor is there evidence +that the deacons of the chapel knew of them. It +followed, therefore, that all the information they had +was these garbled reports of their own people.</p> + +<p>On Sunday, the 17th of August, a number of the +bolder spirits met after service and discussed a plot +which had been already under consideration, for a +general rising at eight o'clock next evening. Their +idea was to put their masters in the stocks, arm +themselves, and, when the Governor came, demand +their supposed rights.</p> + +<p>On Monday morning a coloured servant informed +his master of the plot, on which he at once rode +off to Georgetown and interviewed the Governor. +Warnings were sent to most of the planters, and +preparations made to suppress the revolt if it took +place, but such reports were not uncommon, and +although the whites looked after their weapons they +did not feel much alarm. As a matter of policy it +was better to assume indifference, as anything like +desertion of the estates, even so far as the sending +away of women and children, would have encouraged +the negroes.</p> + +<p>The signal was given by a fire near the chapel, +on which the slaves assembled in great mobs, over-powered +their masters, put them in the stocks, and +took all the firearms and other weapons they could +find. The Governor was already in the neighbour<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[Pg 303]</a></span>hood +with a small party of cavalry, and on seeing +the signal proceeded to inquire into its meaning. +On the way he was met by an armed mob, who, +on being asked what they wanted, answered, "Our +right!" He told them of the new law, and promised +a full explanation on the morrow if they +would disperse and come to him at a neighbouring +plantation. There was a slight hesitation for a few +moments, but presently, with cries of "No! no!" +and the blowing of shells, they drowned his voice. +Then some of the more moderate advised him to +go away, which he was obliged to do, as his whole +company numbered hardly a dozen.</p> + +<p>Bearing in mind the disasters of the Berbice insurrection, +the people of Georgetown were much +alarmed. Placing their women and children on +board vessels in the river, the men prepared to +resist to the death. Martial law was proclaimed, +and every person, without distinction, called upon to +enrol at once in the militia, all exemptions being +cancelled. They responded heartily, and soon the +town put on an appearance as if deserted, except +at those places where guards were stationed. The +stores were closed, the slaves kept indoors, and, save +for the arrival and departure of mounted orderlies, +not a sound could be heard. Even the negroes +themselves, in their kitchens and outbuildings, were +overawed, and hardly spoke above a whisper.</p> + +<p>The Methodist ministers came forward and enrolled +themselves in the militia, but they were not +called upon to perform any duty. The Rev. John +Smith, however, took no notice of the proclamation,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[Pg 304]</a></span> +although he admitted having seen it. On the evening +of the revolt he went for a walk with his wife, +and on his return found that the manager's house +was being attacked by a mob of slaves. He succeeded +by expostulation in preventing their doing +much injury, and even rescued the manager from +their hands, but instead of sending notice of the +rising to the neighbouring estates he went quietly +home. As far as he knew no one had been warned +of the revolt, and he was certainly remiss in his +duty when he did nothing whatever. When, on the +following day, he was visited by a militia officer, and +ordered to enrol himself in accordance with the +Governor's proclamation, he refused on the ground +of his exemption, although he knew that all exemptions +had been cancelled.</p> + +<p>As usual the rebels had no proper leaders, and for +some reason or other—the missionaries ascribed it to +religious teaching—they did not burn the houses or +destroy the crops. One or two whites who resisted +were wounded, one at least fatally, but here again +the insurgents were forbearing. Fortunately they +were soon suppressed, and this no doubt prevented +such atrocities as had been committed elsewhere. +What with the soldiers, the militia, and crews of +vessels in the river, the force brought against them +was overwhelming. Only one attempt was made to +fight, but the first volley of the troops sent the rioters +scattering into a cotton field. In about two days +the insurrection was over, and then came the hunt +for fugitives, who as usual took to the swamp at the +back of the estates. A large body of Indians was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[Pg 305]</a></span> +employed, and in the end most of them were +captured, some to be hanged at once and others +after sentence by court-martial.</p> + +<p>Mr. Smith's behaviour was considered as something +more than suspicious—he was believed to have +had knowledge of the plot, and charged with an +intention to side with the negroes if he saw any +prospect of their success. On his refusal to take +part in the defence of the colony he was taken +prisoner, and after the negroes had been tried and +sentenced, his case was brought before a court-martial. +He was charged with promoting discontent +among the slaves, conspiring to bring about a +revolt, knowing of the plot the day before and not +reporting it, and holding communication with one of +the leaders after it had broken out without attempting +to capture him. The case created a great stir, +public opinion being universal that he was the prime +mover in the whole affair.</p> + +<p>His trial lasted over a month, at the end of which +he was found guilty and sentenced to be hanged. +This sentence, however, seems to have been given +to satisfy the people; it was not published, nor was +it intended to be executed without reference to the +home Government. This is proved by the report in +the "Royal Gazette" of the colony, which stated +that the trial was over, but the nature of the proceedings +was such as to render it imperative on the +Governor to transmit them for His Majesty's consideration. +The public were not informed of the +verdict, but it is not to be supposed that they were +ignorant of the result of the trial; on the contrary,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[Pg 306]</a></span> +the sentence met with their approval, and they complained +of the delay in carrying it out, as compared +with the hasty executions of the negroes. Mr. Smith +was ultimately reprieved, on the understanding that +he removed himself from the West Indies, and engaged +never to come back to Guiana or go to any +of the islands. But the poor missionary was sick, +and under treatment before the insurrection, and it +may be presumed that the worry of the trial hastened +his end. He died in prison before the king's answer +arrived, and was buried at night to prevent a hostile +demonstration.</p> + +<p>We have been thus particular in giving the facts +of the Demerara East Coast Insurrection, because +it made such an impression in England. The anti-slavery +party used the case of the "Martyr" Smith +as a watchword, and it was a prime factor in hurrying +on emancipation. The immediate result was an +Order in Council to enable slaves to contract legal +marriage, to hold property, to buy their freedom on +a valuation by disinterested parties, and to put them +under a Protector, whose duty was to see that their +rights were not infringed. They were now citizens, +their only civil disabilities being compulsory labour +and a tie to the plantation or their masters.</p> + +<p>This, however, did not satisfy the anti-slavery +party, and they went on with their struggle for total +emancipation, in which they at last succeeded. In +1833 an Act of Parliament was passed, by which, +after the 1st of August, 1834, slavery was to give +place to an apprenticeship of four or six years, +according to the status of the slave, the former term<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[Pg 307]</a></span> +for house-servants and the latter for labourers on +the plantations, or "predials." Every child born +after that date was to be entirely free, and here +came in one of the greatest blemishes of the law. +These poor infants belonged to nobody; their +mothers cared little for them, and it could not be +expected that the planters would pay to keep up the +old system of superintendence. Even those who +had been instrumental in getting the law passed now +began to make comparisons between the position of +the child-bearing woman under the old and new +systems. Hitherto they were unable to find words +harsh enough to use in condemning slavery—now +they began to find that it had its good points. Then +the new system required new administrators, and, to +prevent any suspicion of bias, magistrates were +brought from England. Yet these very same unbiassed +gentlemen ordered flogging for the men +and the treadmill and dark cell for the women. +The Quaker delegates sent out to inspect the result +of their work were horrified. They said that the +cat was worse than the old whip, and that the +apprenticeship system caused ten times more suffering +than slavery.</p> + +<p>And such was really the case. The negroes could +no longer be kept under subordination—they even +claimed entire freedom at once. Several disturbances +took place before they could be made to understand +that they had to work seven and a half hours every +day, to pay for their homes, provision grounds, and +other allowances. In Demerara the Governor addressed +them as erring children, telling them that +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[Pg 308-309]</a><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309"></a></span>they could not all be masters, and that every one +must work. They had never seen a white man +handle the shovel or the hoe—he was free—now +they had attained to the same condition, the same +coveted freedom from hard labour must be theirs +also. True, there were free negroes, some of whom +had learnt trades, but even they were above working +in the field. Why should free negroes work? +Certainly not for their wives and children. The +women got their allowances, and the planter had +hitherto looked after the children. The negro had +no house rent to pay, his two suits of clothing came +regularly every year, and if he was sick the doctor +attended to him. Except to deck himself with +finery, he had no use for money; a few would work +overtime when they wanted something of that sort, +but the majority did as little as possible.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 319px;"> +<img src="images/p308.jpg" width="319" height="471" alt="THE FIRST OF AUGUST." title="" /> +<span class="caption">THE FIRST OF AUGUST.<br /> +(<i>From Madden's "West Indies."</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p>In 1838, when the house servants were to be freed, +while the predials must serve two years longer, the +difficulties of such an arrangement became insurmountable. +A daughter or wife might be entirely +free, and the father or husband an "apprentice." +Then came the difficulty of classification, which the +commissioners appointed to arrange the divisions +necessarily decided against the opinion of one or the +other disputant, driving him to appeal. All this +rendered a continuance of the system impossible, +and slavery was terminated altogether on the 1st of +August, 1838, the planters receiving from the British +people twenty millions sterling as compensation, being +about one-third of the estimated value of the slaves.</p> + +<p>The French had received such a lesson from the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[Pg 310]</a></span> +revolt of Hayti that they did little for their negroes. +However, after the downfall of Louis Philippe in +1848, the revolutionary Government abolished slavery +throughout the colonies, without compensation.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 266px;"> +<img src="images/p310.jpg" width="266" height="315" alt="A RELIC OF THE SLAVERY DAYS—OLD SLAVE BUYING FISH." title="" /> +<span class="caption">A RELIC OF THE SLAVERY DAYS—OLD SLAVE BUYING FISH.</span> +</div> + +<p>After freedom had been secured in the British +colonies the slaves in neighbouring places naturally +became discontented. There were not many desertions +from the islands, but in Guiana, where the +Dutch negroes were slaves on one side of the river +Corentyne, and the British free on the other, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[Pg 311]</a></span> +runaways from the former caused a great deal of +trouble to the Dutch. Whenever an opportunity +occurred, a party of slaves stole a boat and made +off to the British side, until the Surinam planters +became much alarmed. Ultimately a Dutch gunboat +was stationed at the boundary river, and this +put an end to the migration.</p> + +<p>Some of the islands were much affected, especially +those of the Danes, which were frequented by British +vessels, and were largely English in their sympathies. +Here the negroes soon learnt what had happened, +and began to express dissatisfaction with their own +position. However, Denmark saw that something +had to be done, and in 1847 enacted laws for gradual +emancipation in her islands. From the 28th of July +of that year all children born of slaves were to be +free, and at the end of twelve years from that time +slavery was to cease altogether.</p> + +<p>This did not satisfy the negroes, who became more +discontented, and in 1848 an insurrection took place +on the island of St. Croix. On the 2nd of July it +was rumoured that the slaves would refuse to work +next day, and in the evening the whites were alarmed +by the ringing of bells and blowing of conch shells. +At first it was considered as an alarm of fire, but on +inquiry the whites found that the negroes had revolted, +and were demanding their freedom. Later, people +came in from the country districts with the news +that there were noisy demonstrations, but that as +yet no actual violence had been committed. So little +alarm was as yet felt that no precautions were taken, +although some persons became uneasy.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[Pg 312]</a></span></p> + +<p>Next morning the negroes streamed into Christiansted +in great numbers, and commenced to +demolish the police office. An officer coming into +town was attacked by a woman with an axe, which +fortunately missed him, but the crowd was so good-humoured +that, on his treating the matter coolly +he was allowed to pass: this apparent good feeling +made the authorities hesitate in taking extreme +measures, even when the mob came round the fort, +shouting and calling for freedom. Now, however, +they began to collect trash for the purpose of setting +fire to a house, and the Stadthauptman and a Roman +Catholic priest went among them to try remonstrances. +All the answer they got was that the slaves could not +fight the soldiers, but they intended to burn and +destroy everything if freedom were not given them. +One of the mob carried a British flag as an emblem +of liberty, and several English sailors were reported +as forming part of the crowd. Soon all their good-humour +was gone, and they commenced plundering +the stores, the whites running away to vessels in the +harbour.</p> + +<p>About three o'clock in the afternoon the Governor +arrived from St. Thomas, and went among the crowd +telling them that they were free, at the same time +ordering them to disperse quietly. For a few hours +there was a lull, but next morning they reassembled +in the country districts as if in doubt whether the +Governor really meant what he had said. Some +planters now brought their families to town, leaving +their houses to be plundered. Parties of soldiers +were sent out, and hundreds of prisoners were taken,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[Pg 313]</a></span> +the mobs, which in some cases numbered two or three +thousand, dispersing at their appearance. Martial +law was declared, Porto Rico sent six hundred +Spanish troops, the insurrection was at last quelled, +and peace restored. The Governor stood his trial in +Denmark, to be acquitted, and to have his declaration +of complete emancipation confirmed.</p> + +<p>Slavery still continued in the Dutch possessions +until 1863, and even then it was only replaced by +compulsory labour for ten years, leaving the final +emancipation until 1873. Yet with all that there +were no disturbances to hurry on the process or +cause trouble. In Cuba a law was passed in 1870 +to give freedom to all above the age of sixty, as well +as to children born after the passing of the Act. This, +however, was not enforced on account of internal +dissensions, and although Porto Rico gave her slaves +their liberty on the 23rd of March, 1873, the Cuban +Emancipation Bill was not passed by the Spanish +Senate until February, 1880, and under that law +slavery only came to an end on the 6th of October, +1886.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[Pg 314]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h3><a name="XV" id="XV"></a>XV</h3> + +<h3>RESULTS OF EMANCIPATION</h3> + + +<p>The slave emancipation was a terrible blow to the +West Indies, and one from which many of the islands +have not yet recovered. It was, the planters said, the +second attempt to ruin them, the first having been +the abolition of the slave-trade. The party who +brought it about looked to see their <i>protégées</i> become +a contented, hard-working peasantry, in place of +driven cattle, as they called them. The planters, on +the contrary, were morally certain that as free men +they would not work, and without a labour supply +their estates would be utterly ruined. The British +taxpayer grumbled at having to pay twenty millions, +but this was a mere sop for the estate owners. With +the loss of their human chattels the plantations in +many cases became utterly valueless; for the negroes +congregated round certain centres, leaving most of +the outlying places without enough people to keep +up the cultivation. Labour had been degraded by +the system, and now the full effects of such influence +began to be felt.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 263px;"> +<img src="images/p315.jpg" width="263" height="326" alt="NEGRESS, GUIANA." title="" /> +<span class="caption">NEGRESS, GUIANA.</span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 265px;"><br /> +<img src="images/p316.jpg" width="265" height="315" alt="NEGRESS FISH-SELLERS, GUIANA." title="" /> +<span class="caption">NEGRESS FISH-SELLERS, GUIANA.</span> +</div> + +<p>The compensation money, in many cases, went +towards paying off mortgages and other claims, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[Pg 315]</a></span> +holders of which saw the impending ruin and hastened +to save themselves as far as possible. But it was not +enough even for that, for many plantations had liens +of half the appraised value of the land, buildings, and +slaves. The last security being entirely gone the +others became worthless, and, as no one cared to +advance money on such risks, the nominal owners +could not even get as much as to pay wages. A +plantation valued at perhaps £60,000 a few years +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[Pg 316]</a></span>before, and easily mortgaged for half that amount, +received £16,000 for compensation with which to +pay off the claim, and then wanted cash to carry on +as well. Banks were established, but only solvent +estates could get help from them, and consequently +hundreds were abandoned in the larger colonies, and +hardly one, with the exception of those in Barbados, +could produce as much sugar as formerly. West +Indian Nabobs, who had been getting their ten +thousand a year and living in England, went out<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</a></span> +to see what could be done. Their incomes were +entirely gone, and with them all hopes for the future. +Widows and children lost their only means of support, +and ruin fell on hundreds of families in England as +well as in the West Indies. But not only did this +downfall affect the owners and their relations, but +merchants as well. Old firms shook to their very +foundations, while many became bankrupt, to bring +suffering to the homes of thousands who had hardly +known of the sugar colonies beyond the invectives of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[Pg 318]</a></span> +the anti-slavery society. Many who had been strong +advocates of emancipation now wished they had +never said anything about it, but the die was cast, +and there could never again be anything like the +shilly-shallying of the French at Hayti.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 265px;"> +<img src="images/p317.jpg" width="265" height="288" alt="CHINESE WOOD-CARRIER." title="" /> +<span class="caption">CHINESE WOOD-CARRIER.</span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 265px;"><br /> +<img src="images/p318.jpg" width="265" height="343" alt="EAST INDIAN COOLIE." title="" /> +<span class="caption">EAST INDIAN COOLIE.</span> +</div> + +<p>The negroes would not work, and there were no +means of forcing them to do so. The anti-slavery +party still had their delegates in the West Indies to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[Pg 319]</a></span> +see that the "poor negro" was not oppressed in any +way, and their representatives in Parliament to call +the Government to account if they allowed any +vagrancy laws, or even the shadow of a coercive +measure in the colonies. One ordinance after another +for this purpose was disallowed, until every planter +was in despair.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 258px;"> +<img src="images/p319.jpg" width="258" height="323" alt="EAST INDIAN COOLIE FAMILY." title="" /> +<span class="caption">EAST INDIAN COOLIE FAMILY.</span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 260px;"><br /> +<img src="images/p320.jpg" width="260" height="350" alt="COOLIE BARBER." title="" /> +<span class="caption">COOLIE BARBER.</span> +</div> + +<p>To retain their labourers was a matter of life or +death. Some continued the old slave allowances<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[Pg 320]</a></span> +to put them in good humour, but as these made the +negroes independent of wages, the privilege was +abused. They took everything and did nothing in +return. Some went so far as to say that the Queen +had promised that their late masters should supply +them as usual, entirely regardless of the amount of +work they did. This made the planters sore. What<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[Pg 321]</a></span> +with one trouble and another the few who survived +the wreck hardly knew how to act. They must not +do anything to drive their people away, for there +were many inducements offered by others in the +same predicament. The negro was master, and he +knew it. So much depended on him that he was +enticed to labour, by high wages and greater privi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[Pg 322]</a></span>leges, +until this bidding of one against another +produced the very result which it was intended to +avoid.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 262px;"> +<img src="images/p321.jpg" width="262" height="353" alt="EAST INDIAN COOLIE GIRL." title="" /> +<span class="caption">EAST INDIAN COOLIE GIRL.</span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 264px;"><br /> +<img src="images/p322.jpg" width="264" height="335" alt="COOLIE WOMEN, BRITISH GUIANA." title="" /> +<span class="caption">COOLIE WOMEN, BRITISH GUIANA.</span> +</div> + +<p>Something had to be done. First, the allowances +of those who would not work were stopped; then +their houses and provision grounds were taken away. +Thousands of fruit-trees were destroyed to prevent +their living on mangoes and bananas during the +season. Then the planters attempted to combine<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[Pg 323]</a></span> +to bring wages to a paying level, and this led to +strikes of the negroes. Everything tended to further +estrangement until employer and labourer drifted far +apart. In British Guiana the negroes bought some +of the abandoned plantations and established villages; +in some cases they even attempted to carry them on +as sugar estates, but as all wanted to be masters they +in every case failed.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 263px;"> +<img src="images/p323.jpg" width="263" height="330" alt="COOLIE VEGETABLE SELLERS, BRITISH GUIANA." title="" /> +<span class="caption">COOLIE VEGETABLE SELLERS, BRITISH GUIANA.</span> +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[Pg 324]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 303px;"><br /> +<img src="images/p324.jpg" width="303" height="266" alt="EAST INDIAN COOLIES, TRINIDAD." title="" /> +<span class="caption">EAST INDIAN COOLIES, TRINIDAD.</span> +</div> + +<p>As if this were not enough, the British Government +went in for free trade, and allowed foreign slave-grown +sugar to compete with that of the colonies. +It seemed as if the French revolutionary cry of +"Perish the colonies!" had now been introduced into +the British Parliament. From one point of view the +planters had been amply paid with the compensation +money. Some went so far as to say that twenty +millions could have bought all the estates in the +West Indies, implying that the colonists had no +further claim upon them. Even the anti-slavery +party would not see that they were encouraging the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[Pg 325]</a></span> +slave system in other countries by opening their +markets. This completed the ruin begun by emancipation, +but as long as the principles were adhered to +it did not matter.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 274px;"> +<img src="images/p325.jpg" width="274" height="354" alt="EAST INDIAN COOLIE, TRINIDAD." title="" /> +<span class="caption">EAST INDIAN COOLIE, TRINIDAD.</span> +</div> + +<p>Most of the remaining plantations now fell into the +hands of those who had liens upon them, and they, +not liking to lose their money altogether, commenced<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[Pg 326]</a></span> +the uphill work of again bringing them into cultivation. +Even a few colonists continued the struggle in +hopes of better times. In Demerara there were two +cases where eminent lawyers—the legal profession, +by the bye, doing well when everything else was on +the verge of ruin—spent all their profits in keeping +their sugar estates from utter abandonment. One of +these got so heavily in debt that at one time he could +not pay his house rent, and as the landlord dared not +sue him, he had metaphorically to go on his knees +and beg him to quit.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 303px;"> +<img src="images/p326.jpg" width="303" height="267" alt="TRINIDAD COOLIES." title="" /> +<span class="caption">TRINIDAD COOLIES.</span> +</div> + +<p>However, the sturdy English spirit survived in a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[Pg 327]</a></span> +few, and they set to work to obtain labourers from +other parts of the world. At first they thought of +Africa, but the anti-slavery party would not hear of +immigration from the "dark continent," for fear of +abuses. Then India was tried, with the result that +a few coolies were brought over by private parties, +notably to Demerara by John Gladstone. But again +the cry of slavery went forth, due to the managers +leaving the new-comers in the hands of their headmen +or sirdars. It was charged against them that +they beat their underlings, and of course the planters +had to bear the responsibility. The result was that +East Indian immigration was prohibited for a time. +After a hard struggle on the part of the planters it +was renewed, and in the end prevented Trinidad and +British Guiana from utter abandonment.</p> + +<p>Besides Hindoo coolies, Chinese were also imported, +as well as Maltese, Madeirans, and a few Germans. +At first the negro thought little of this competition, +but when he gradually dropped into the background, +with his missionary friends, he commenced to protest +against it. His friends said, and it was the truth, +that there was enough labour in the colonies to carry +on the estates, but the difficulty was that it could not +be depended upon. Then the wages demanded by +the negroes was entirely beyond the means of the +planters—the price of sugar would not admit of them. +It was a case of cheap labour or the alternative of +giving up the struggle, and with the East Indians, +British Guiana, and Trinidad recovered from the brink +of ruin to become more flourishing in some respects +than in the years immediately preceding emancipation.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[Pg 328]</a></span> +Jamaica, the greatest of the British colonies, suffered +the most as she got but few immigrants, and it is +only during the last decade that she has again begun +to hold up her head. Without healthy competition +with other races, the negroes sunk back, until they +became even more degraded than those of British +Guiana and Trinidad.</p> + +<p>In Barbados, on the contrary, the population was +so dense that the freedman must either work or +starve. There were no waste lands and few absentee +proprietors, nor were any of the estates abandoned. +Labour was plentiful and cheap; it followed, therefore, +that the island soon recovered from the check +and went on prospering. The compulsion of the +whip gave way to the force of circumstances, and +the struggle for existence which ensued has made +the Barbadian negro the most industrious in the +West Indies. Not only is he this, but he is, like his +former masters, intensely loyal to Great Britain and +"Little England." All the black, coloured, and white +people in the other islands call themselves Creoles, +but he is "neither Crab (Carib) nor Creole, but true +Barbadian born."</p> + +<p>In the French, Danish, and Dutch colonies labour +laws were enforced after emancipation, and generally +with good results. They felt the change, but not to +such an extent as their neighbours, and recovered all +the sooner. Then they were not utterly disheartened +by the unhealthy competition of slave-grown products +like the English. Possibly, however, the British +freedman would not have borne coercion, for even the +Danes resented it.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[Pg 329]</a></span></p> + +<p>We have seen already that the negroes of the island +of St. Croix were by no means willing to submit to +what they considered injustice, and how they forced +on their own emancipation. However, down to 1878 +they were bound to the soil as it were under annual +engagements, from which they were not released +without proper notice, even after the term had expired. +They had houses, provision grounds, allowances, +and very low wages, and were bound to work +five days a week. The engagement expired annually +on the 1st of October, and on that day those who did +not renew their contract assembled in the two towns +of the island for a jollification, where something like +the old "mop" or hiring fair of England took place.</p> + +<p>In 1878 they somehow got the impression that the +labour law was about to be relaxed, but there does +not seem to have been any combination among them +to obtain such an end; they were dissatisfied, and that +was all. About the same time the Government were +so assured of their peaceable disposition that they +reduced the garrison of Christiansted, the capital, to +sixty men. When the 1st of October arrived the +negroes assembled as usual in Frederiksted, round +the rum shops, appearing good-humoured, although +noisy, as such a crowd always must be. Nothing +particular happened until, at about three o'clock in +the afternoon, a cry went up that one of their number +had been beaten by a policeman, on which they +attacked the peace officers, and drove them into the +fort, which was police-station and barracks. Some of +the principal whites came out and remonstrated with +them, and at first they seemed as if they would dis<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[Pg 330]</a></span>perse, +but just then the police-master, his assistant, and two soldiers rode +into their midst, brandishing swords and ordering them to move off at +once. Infuriated by this, the mob attacked the horsemen with stones, and +drove them back into the fort, which they now stormed. The British +Vice-Consul then went among them, and, after a little parleying, induced +them to go with him to the outskirts of the town. Here he got a +statement of their grievances, which were—first, that their wages +were too low (only ten cents a day); second, that the annual contract +was slavery; third, that the manager of the estate could fine them at +will; and fourth, that if they wanted to leave the island they were +obstructed. Having promised to do all he could for them, the Vice-Consul +begged them to disperse.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 545px;"> +<img src="images/p330.jpg" width="545" height="117" alt="BARBADOS." title="" /> +<span class="caption">BARBADOS.<br /> +(<i>From Andrews' "West Indies."</i>)</span> +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[Pg 331]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 542px;"><br /> +<img src="images/p331.jpg" width="542" height="313" alt="ST. LUCIA." title="" /> +<span class="caption">ST. LUCIA.<br /> +(<i>From Andrews' "West Indies."</i>)</span> +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[Pg 332]</a></span></p> + +<p>They were apparently leaving the town, when a +woman came running up with the report that the +man who had been beaten by the police had just died +in the hospital. This made them furious, and all +further hopes of their pacification had to be given up. +They invaded the hospital, knocked down the sick-nurse +and a patient who inquired their business, and +demanded to see the murdered man. They were +informed that he was not dead but only dead drunk, +and would soon recover if left alone. On being convinced +of this, they again went off and attacked the +fort. The defenders, when assailed with stones, fired +over their heads, but this only made them all the +more violent. The outer gate was broken down and +some of the negroes were shot. Just at that moment +a planter came up, intending to enter the fort, and at +once they beat him with sticks until he was nearly +killed.</p> + +<p>However, the bullets checked them, but only to +throw the attack on other parts of the town. Stores +were pillaged and set fire to, until a great portion of +the town was in flames. From some of the stores +they took weapons in the shape of cane-bills, and in +one were alarmed for a few moments by an explosion +of gunpowder. The whole of Bay Street was +soon in flames, and like troops of fiends the negroes +went dancing round the fires, in some places pouring +on them cans of petroleum if the houses did +not blaze up fast enough. Then the rum casks +began to burst, and streams of burning spirit ran +down the gutters, adding to the horror of the +scene. The women were always the most reck<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[Pg 333]</a></span>less—they +danced and howled with mingled joy +and rage. The men added to the din by clashing +their sticks together or against the burning stores, +some blowing shells as a sort of rallying signal. +"Our side!" was the watchword, and all who could +not or would not repeat it were severely beaten. +Most of the whites, however, had fled, leaving them +entirely unchecked in their destructive work.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the police-master had sent to Christiansted +for assistance, and while he waited the mob +again assailed the fort and again without success. +All through the night the disturbance continued, and +it was not until six o'clock in the morning that a +small band of twenty soldiers arrived. At their first +volley the mob dispersed, flying precipitately from the +town to carry the riot all over the island. Two soldiers +left in charge of a waggon were killed; and on learning +this the soldiers were roused to a state of fury almost +as great as that of the rioters. They hunted them from +one plantation to another, invaded their huts, stabbed +through the mattresses, and killed every negro who +came in their way, without taking the trouble to +inquire whether they had been concerned in the affair +or not. Three hundred prisoners were taken, and on +the 5th of October a proclamation was issued calling +on all the negroes to return to their houses or be +treated as rebels, after which the disturbance was +quelled. Twelve hundred were sentenced to death, +and a Commission of Inquiry was sent out from +Denmark, the result of their report being that the +obnoxious labour law was repealed.</p> + +<p>We have been thus particular in our account of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[Pg 334]</a></span> +this riot, because it exemplifies the character of the +negro and is a type of such disturbances in other +colonies. There is generally some ill-feeling at the +bottom, but as a rule no conspiracy beforehand. +When the dissatisfaction reaches a certain point, +little is required to raise the passions of the black +man, and that little thing is almost sure to occur. +Unlike the European, he does not proclaim his +grievances, except in a general way, among his own +people—he has not yet arrived at that stage where +civilised man uses the platform and press. It follows, +therefore, that his passions smoulder for weeks and +months, until some trifle—often a misunderstanding—brings +them to the surface.</p> + +<p>At St. Croix there does not appear to have been +anything like race prejudice, or that envious feeling +which makes the negro think himself down-trodden +by his rivals; but that is a characteristic of most +riots, and is strikingly exemplified in two that have +taken place in Demerara.</p> + +<p>After the emancipation the negro in British Guiana +became of less and less importance as more and +more immigrants arrived, until he grew quite sore. +No longer could he demand extortionate wages, for +the labour market was virtually governed by the +current rates paid to the coolies. These people, however, +were quite able to hold their own, and the negro +knew this; it followed, therefore, that he vented his +spite upon the most inoffensive people in the colony.</p> + +<p>The Portuguese from Madeira came to British +Guiana absolutely destitute just after the failure of +the vines on their island. They found the negro<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[Pg 335]</a></span> +more prosperous than perhaps he has ever been +since, for this was the time when, if he worked, he +could always save money if he chose. In fact, many +did so, and bought land which is still in the hands +of some of their descendants, on which houses much +superior to those now in existence were erected. The +Portuguese could not endure the hard labour of sugar-planting, +but soon found openings as small shopkeepers +or pedlars. Hitherto there was little competition in +these businesses, but the few who carried them on +were negroes or coloured persons. These were soon +ousted out, and the Portuguese became almost the +only small trader in the colony. This was a +grievance to the negro, who could not see that he +himself reaped the benefit—certainly he took advantage +of the reduced prices while abusing the sellers.</p> + +<p>At the beginning of the year 1856 the negroes of +Georgetown were excited by the arrival of an anti-Popery +agitator, who had become notorious in England, +Scotland, and the United States. John Sayers Orr, +known as "the Angel Gabriel," because he blew a +trumpet to call the people together, was a native of +Demerara, and soon found out what a strong antipathy +to the Portuguese existed among the people. This +suited his ideas exactly, for were they not Roman +Catholics—the very body which he had been declaiming +everywhere against?</p> + +<p>Soon his horn-blowing brought crowds into the +market square every Sunday, where his harangues +roused his hearers to such a pitch of fury that the +authorities became alarmed. He was therefore +arrested, brought before a magistrate, charged with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[Pg 336]</a></span> +convening an illegal assembly, and committed for +trial. This committal of the popular hero was the +spark which set all the negroes' passions in a blaze, +but, strange to say, they did not attack the authorities. +Their spite was against the Portuguese, and +soon almost the whole colony was the scene of a +general raid upon their shops. Hardly any escaped, +but one after another was broken open and the goods +either carried away or destroyed. Some went so far +as to use the Governor's name, as if he had authorised +the raid, and in this way got ignorant people in +the country districts to help them to seize boats, +provisions, and even the produce of the farms of the +obnoxious Portuguese.</p> + +<p>The riot was ultimately quelled, but not before the +damage amounted to over a quarter of a million +dollars. Hundreds of prisoners were captured, but +beyond the shooting of one policeman there does not +appear to have been any serious casualties, neither +were there any executions. It is interesting to note +that the idea of poisoning, which is connected with +Obeah superstition, was conspicuous here as in the +Berbice slave insurrection. One black man charged +a Portuguese with threatening to poison his customers +with the provisions he sold them; but all the satisfaction +the negro got was a reprimand from the +magistrate.</p> + +<p>The second great riot in Georgetown is notable for +its similarity to that at St. Croix. The feeling of +antipathy to the Portuguese still continued, and the +negro had a special grievance on account of the +reprieve of a murderer of that nationality. If he had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[Pg 337]</a></span> +been black he would have been hanged, they said—it +was colour prejudice. However, no disturbance took +place for several months, and even then it only came +about through a misunderstanding. A black boy +buying a cent roll of bread in the market, snatched +one of the penny rolls instead, when the Portuguese +stall-keeper struck him down with a stick. The boy +was taken up senseless and carried to the hospital, +while his assailant through some misunderstanding +was not arrested. At once there was a cry of +"Portugee kill black man; Binney (the clerk of the +market) let he go," and they began to assail the +clerk with sticks and stones.</p> + +<p>The police arrived, dispersed the mob, and shut up +the market, but this only led to their scattering +throughout the city. The report that the black boy +was dead was carried into every yard, and at once +swarms of women and boys, with comparatively few +men, began to smash the Portuguese shops. The +authorities did next to nothing, beyond sending out +a few special constables, armed only with sticks, to +fight against overpowering crowds better provided +with weapons than themselves. The consequence +was that for two days Georgetown was in the power +of thousands of negroes, and damage resulted to the +amount of nearly fifty thousand dollars. The disturbance +was finally checked by arming the police, +and issuing a proclamation that they were authorised +to fire on the rioters. Not a single shot was fired, +however; the threat was quite sufficient for the purpose.</p> + +<p>It will be seen from these cases that of late years<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[Pg 338]</a></span> +the negroes have not perpetrated such massacres as +once characterised their insurrections, but the insurrection +at St. Thomas-in-the-East in Jamaica seems to +show that the old spirit was not dead in 1865.</p> + +<p>For several years previous Jamaica had been much +depressed—in fact, she had hardly begun to recover +from the ruin which followed emancipation. Then +came a two years' drought, which caused some +distress among the people, who had no other means +of support than what was derived from their small +provision fields. The Baptist connexion was very +strong in the island, and Dr. Underhill, the Secretary +of its Missionary Society, went out, and on his return +published reports blaming the Government for the +distress, which he appears to have highly exaggerated. +This tended to produce more dissatisfaction and to +give the negroes an object on which they could vent +their feelings. In one of Dr. Underhill's letters he +said the people seemed to be overwhelmed with discouragement, +and that he feared they were giving up +their long struggle with injustice and fraud in despair. +Thus a feeling was produced which only required +some little incident to bring on a serious disturbance.</p> + +<p>On the 7th of October a black man was brought up +for trial before the Custos of St. Thomas-in-the-East, +when a somewhat orderly mob marched into the +town to, if possible, release the prisoner. They +crowded round the court-house and made such a +disturbance that one of them was taken in charge, +only, however, to be rescued at once by his friends. +Nothing more was done on that day, but warrants +having been issued for the arrest of the leaders, their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[Pg 339]</a></span> +execution was forcibly resisted. The negroes now +seem to have planned a general rising and issued +notices calling their people to arms. "Blow your +shells, roll your drums; house to house take out +every man! War is at us; my black skin, war is at +hand. Every black man must turn at once, for +the oppression is too great." They were, they said, +ground down by an overbearing and oppressive +foreigner, and if they did not get justice would burn +and kill.</p> + +<p>On the 11th of October a mob assembled at the +same court-house, and being resisted by a small +body of volunteers, they killed the Custos, and every +white man who opposed them, to the number of +twenty-eight, released all the prisoners and burnt +the building. Immediately afterwards there was a +general rising in the district, which spread for about +fifty miles.</p> + +<p>Governor Eyre, when he heard the news, at once +determined to suppress the insurrection before it +affected the whole island. Martial law was declared, +a body of maroons employed, and within a few days +the riots were suppressed. Many of the negroes were +shot as they tried to escape, others taken and hanged +at once, their villages burnt to the ground, and +altogether they received such a lesson as effectually +put a stop to anything of the kind in the future. It +was stated that 439 people were killed and 600 +flogged; a thousand houses were burnt and a great +deal of property destroyed by both parties.</p> + +<p>The severity of Governor Eyre caused a great +outcry in England, especially among the Baptists.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[Pg 340]</a></span> +Among those who were executed was Mr. Gordon, +a member of the Assembly, who no doubt fell a +victim to the feeling aroused among the whites. He +was charged with being a prime instigator of the +revolt, but it does not appear that he went beyond +what is generally allowed to a political agitator. +Such agitation, however, amongst ignorant people, +who are easily excited, is particularly dangerous, and +likely to recoil on the heads of those who initiate it, +who must be prepared to risk the consequences.</p> + +<p>Governor Eyre was recalled, and prosecuted without +success. He undoubtedly saved the island, and, +although such executions as were committed can +hardly be excused, yet when we consider the alarm +and excitement, we must make some allowances. +And, after all, it must be remembered that the loss of +life would probably have been much greater had not +the insurrection been nipped in the bud.</p> + +<p>Barbados is unique in several respects, and as may +be supposed there is something remarkable even +about her riots. The patriotism of the inhabitants, +both black and white, is proverbial all over the West +Indies. There is no place in the world to equal +Barbados—no colony but what has been conquered +by the enemy at some time or other. "Little +England" was said to have offered an asylum to +King George the Third when Buonaparte intended +to invade England, and no doubt if such an offer was +ever made it was done in all sincerity. Barbadians +are proud of their constitution, and jealous of its +infringement in the slightest degree. This feeling +led to a disturbance in 1876, which was the nearest<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[Pg 341]</a></span> +approach to an insurrection on that island in late +years.</p> + +<p>It has often been suggested that a confederation of +the British West Indies would be advantageous in +many ways, and in 1876 the Secretary of State was +of opinion that a closer union of Barbados and the +other Windward Islands was desirable. The Governor +of all the islands was then Mr. Pope Hennessy, who +had lately been appointed, and who had been directed +to obtain the consent of Barbados to a partial union. +The measures proposed were of little importance, +consisting only of the amalgamation of the prisons, +lunatic asylums, and lazarettos, and the extension of +the powers of the Chief Justice, Auditor-General, +and the police force to cover the whole of the +islands.</p> + +<p>An outsider would suppose that there was nothing +offensive in these changes, but that, on the contrary, +they would be beneficial in many ways, but most of +the Barbadians opposed them strongly. Barbados, +they said, was solvent, while some of the islands were +on the verge of bankruptcy—their island should not +be taxed to support paupers. They held meetings +at which six points were agreed to, and on which +the leaders harangued crowds throughout the island. +These were, first, that their Court of Appeal would be +abolished; second, that all the mad people from +other islands would have to be supported by them; +third, that all the lepers would come there; fourth, +that the officials of other islands would live on them; +fifth, that the power would be taken from the people +and given to the Governor; and sixth, that as the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[Pg 342]</a></span> +House of Assembly had always been faithful they +resented any interference with it.</p> + +<p>The Governor was desirous of carrying his project, +and possibly went farther than was consistent with +his instructions, which were to bring about the +arrangement in an amicable manner. He did all +he could to create a party in its favour, and was +charged by the other side with using underhand +means to this end. The main point, however, on +which he laid stress, and which seems to have caused +the trouble, was the advantage to the Barbadians of +having the other islands so close as to become virtually +like their own parishes, so that the surplus +population would be able to take up lands that were +then useless, and lying waste.</p> + +<p>Barbados is densely populated. All the lands are +occupied, and it is very difficult to procure even a +small lot—this makes the people all the more eager +to get possession of a little freehold. Yet, with all +this, they will not settle in other islands, where they +can get a piece of ground for next to nothing.</p> + +<p>Somehow or other the more ignorant people seem +to have got the notion that the Governor was promising +them land in Barbados, and this made them +enthusiastic for his project. Something like communism +would, they thought, follow if the Confederation +Act were passed, and this was the reason in their +opinion why the other party fought against it. The +planters spoke as if Mr. Hennessy had laid himself +open to such a misunderstanding, and that made +them all the more virulent against him.</p> + +<p>The anti-Confederation party said that it had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[Pg 343]</a></span> +always been the pride and glory of Barbados to +have a separate political existence, and if under their +own institutions they had achieved a success which +made them the envy of their neighbours, why should +they change? The majority of the House of Assembly +were on their side, and it is difficult to understand +why the Governor pressed the matter in the way he +did. The opposition was no doubt foolish, but still, +if the people chose to be silly, he could not overcome +their prejudices. Party feeling ran high, only the +mob shouting for Hennessy and Confederation. +Those on one side would hiss him as he appeared—the +others took the horses from his carriage and drew +him along in triumph. It was reported that he never +went out without a guard, and that even his wife lived +in continual fear. She had been threatened with the +abduction of her child, and one ruffian went so far as +to pelt the little one as he was driven along the street, +for which he was prosecuted.</p> + +<p>At last, on the 18th of April, 1876, when the party +feeling had existed over six weeks, matters came to +a crisis. A man went into the yard of Byde Mill +plantation, flourishing a cane-cutter, and bearing a +red flag. He was, he said, a Confederation man, had +just come from the Governor, and wanted some +liquor (cane juice). Getting nothing he went out +and brought his brother who bore a sword, and the +two quarrelled with the man in the boiling-house, +the one with the sword attempting to stab him. +They defied a constable who came to arrest them, +and one blew a shell which brought a mob of women +and children, who went into a field of sweet-potatoes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[Pg 344]</a></span> +and began to carry them off. Three mounted police +arrived, but they were pelted with stones, and one +who attempted to arrest the man with the sword got +wounded. A magistrate then came and read the +Riot Act, but the mob refused to disperse. As usual +there were grievances, some complained that their +pay had been stopped, which the manager said was +because they could not work the mill full time for +want of wind.</p> + +<p>Two cane-fields were now set on fire, and the disturbance +spread, its great characteristic being raids +upon the potato fields. In several places live stock +were killed, dwellings broken into, and everything +chopped or broken to pieces. A few shots were +exchanged, but no one appears to have been killed, +although many got wounds and bruises from sticks +and stones. Everywhere the mob declared they had +the authority of the Governor for what they were +doing, and the sufferers from their depredations +charged Mr. Hennessy with delay in putting down +the disturbance. This, however, was probably due to +the effect of the persecution of Governor Eyre, which +has made every West Indian Governor hesitate before +going to extremes. However, when the people from +the country districts began to fly to Bridgetown he +sent out a few soldiers who very quickly dispersed +the mobs. A sensational telegram to London stated +that five hundred prisoners had been taken, forty +people killed and wounded, rioting was suspended, +but their position was threatened, and that confidence +in the Government had entirely gone. This was +highly exaggerated, but a great deal of property was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[Pg 345]</a></span> +destroyed or injured, fifty estates pillaged, and +probably over fifty persons received more or less +serious blows.</p> + +<p>Quite a storm fell upon Hennessy, who on the 26th +of April had to issue a proclamation threatening to +direct the law officers to take prompt measures +against those who libelled him, by saying that he +had sent emissaries through the island to mislead +the people, and that he countenanced and abetted +the disgraceful and lawless acts of the marauders.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[Pg 346]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h3><a name="XVI" id="XVI"></a>XVI</h3> + +<h3>THE ISTHMUS TRANSIT SCHEMES</h3> + + +<p>By the second half of the last century the supply +of gold and silver from Peru had much diminished, +and the road across the isthmus almost fell into disuse. +In 1780, during the great war, the British +appear to have had some vague notion that it would +be good policy to secure the track across Nicaragua, +for which purpose an expedition was fitted out. +Early in that year Nelson sailed from Jamaica with +five hundred men, and after getting a number of +Indians from the Mosquito shore and a reinforcement +of British troops, the party made the difficult ascent +of the San Juan river, and captured the fort of the +same name. But, through ignorance, the whole +affair proved disastrous—the fort was useless, and +the losses through sickness very great. Of eighteen +hundred men only three hundred and eighty survived, +and Nelson himself nearly lost his life. He +was obliged to go home to recruit, and it was only +after spending two or three months at Bath that he +recovered to continue that glorious career which made +him so famous.</p> + +<p>However, it was not long afterwards that a project<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[Pg 347]</a></span> +for utilising the isthmus was brought under the +consideration of the British Government by General +Miranda, of whom we have spoken in another chapter. +He wanted Pitt to assist him in his projects +for the emancipation of the Spanish colonies, and, as +a means to this end, in 1790, proposed that the +British should take possession of Darien, and thus +further their commerce in the Pacific. Nothing was +done at that time, and a few years later Miranda +made a second proposition that the United States +should join with Great Britain, and open roads and +canals for both nations.</p> + +<p>Mr. Pitt seems to have agreed to this, and was +only prevented from attempting to carry it out by +the delay of President Adams. The United States +were to furnish ten thousand men, and Great Britain +money and ships. In 1801, under Lord Sidmouth, +an expedition was actually set on foot, only to +collapse at the Peace of Amiens. Again, in 1804, +Pitt tried to carry out the project with Miranda, but +the condition of Europe stood in the way of expeditions +to the Spanish Main.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 536px;"> +<img src="images/p348.jpg" width="536" height="162" alt="ATLANTIC ENTRANCE TO DARIEN CANAL." title="" /> +<span class="caption">ATLANTIC ENTRANCE TO DARIEN CANAL.<br /> + +(<i>From Cullen's "Darien Canal."</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p>In enumerating the advantages likely to accrue +from the emancipation of South America, a writer in +the <i>Edinburgh Review</i> of January, 1809, laid great +stress upon a passage across the isthmus. It was the +most important to the peaceful intercourse of nations +of anything that presented itself to the enterprise of +man. So far from being a romantic and chimerical +project, it was not only practicable, but easy. The +river Chagré, about eighteen leagues westward of +Porto Bello, was navigable as far as Cruzes, within<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[Pg 348]</a></span> +five leagues of +Panama. But +there was even a +better route; at +about five leagues +from its mouth +the Chagré received +the river +Trinidad, which +was navigable to +Embarcadero, +from which +Panama was only +distant thirty +miles through a +level country. +The ground had +been surveyed, +and not the practicability +only, +but the facility +of the work <i>completely +ascertained</i>. +Further north +was the grand +lake of Nicaragua, +which by +itself almost extended +the navigation +from sea +to sea. The +Governor of St. +John's Castle<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[Pg 349]</a></span> +(Fort San Juan) had been instructed by the king of +Spain to refuse permission to any British subject +desirous of passing up or down this lake, "for if ever +the English came to a knowledge of its importance +and value they would soon make themselves masters +of this part of the country."</p> + +<p>But not only had the best places for a canal been +selected at this early time, but the many advantages +to be derived from its construction had been well +considered. The same writer went on to say that +from this splendid and not difficult enterprise, not +merely the commerce of the western shores of +America would be brought, as it were, to their doors, +but that of the South Sea whalers, who would be +saved the tedious and dangerous voyage round Cape +Horn. Then the whole of the vast interests of Asia +would increase in value to a degree that was then +difficult to conceive, by having a direct route across +the Pacific. It would be as if, by some great revolution +of the globe, they were brought nearer. Immense +would be the traffic which immediately would +begin to cover the ocean—all the riches of India and +China moving towards America. Then also the commodities +of Europe and America would be carried +towards Asia. As a result of this, vast depôts would +be formed at the two extremities of the canal, to +soon develop into great commercial cities. Never +before had such an opportunity been offered to a +nation as Great Britain had then before her, owing to +a wonderful combination of circumstances.</p> + +<p>Mr. Robinson, a United States merchant, in 1821, +said that the most ardent imagination would fail in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[Pg 350]</a></span> +an attempt to portray all the important and beneficial +consequences of such a work, the magnitude and +grandeur of which were worthy the profound attention +of every commercial nation. The powers of the +old and new world should discard all selfish considerations, +and unite to execute it on a magnificent +scale, so that when completed it might become, like +the ocean, a highway of nations, the enjoyment of +which should be guaranteed by all, and be exempt +from the caprice or regulation of any one kingdom or +state.</p> + +<p>Such were the views promulgated at the beginning +of this century, but nothing was done until about +1850, when the pressure of circumstances again +brought the isthmus into note.</p> + +<p>Darien and Panama are in the Republic of New +Granada, but north of these come the small states of +Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, San Salvador, and +Guatemala. All of these are inhabited by true +Americans—native races who have to a considerable +extent absorbed the slight admixture of European +blood introduced by their conquerors. Some places +are so inaccessible as to be virtually outside the pale +of civilisation. The roads are nothing but mule +tracks, full of quagmires where the animals have to +wade up to their girths in mud—in fact, little better +than the paths so well described by Lionel Wafer. +The rivers are numerous, and, on account of the +heavy rainfall, their currents are very strong, and all +the more dangerous from the numerous sandbanks +and rapids which obstruct their course. Since the +states gained their independence they have passed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[Pg 351]</a></span> +through so many changes of government that at the +beginning hardly a month passed without a revolution +in one or the other. This went on until 1848 +without interference from outside, but with the discovery +of gold in California came an invasion of +ruffians of all nations.</p> + +<p>The old freebooters almost seemed to have come +to life again. Hardy adventurers from all parts of +the world rushed off to the new "El Dorado," woke +the sleepy Nicaraguans on the San Juan river, and +roused the people of Chagres. Over the isthmus of +Panama or through the Nicaragua lake they flocked +by thousands, necessitating the establishment of +Transit Companies to provide them with mules, +boats, and steamers. The easiest, although longest, +route was through Nicaragua, which was controlled +by the Vanderbilt Company, and during the time +the "rush" lasted they took over two or three thousand +per month. The Company had steamers on +the lake to meet the throng of diggers as they +arrived, and they passed through at regular intervals +like a tide. The overland part of the route presented +a strange spectacle, with their pack mules and +horses. Men of all nationalities, armed with pistols +and knives, which they were prepared to use on the +Greasers (natives) at the slightest provocation, put +these altogether in the background. A traveller has +spoken of them as a string of romantic figures that +could not be matched in any other part of the world. +Some glowed with fervent passion, as if on fire, +others were hard, cold, and rugged as the rocky +passes they traversed, while a few were worn, old,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[Pg 352]</a></span> +and decaying, under the effects of the hardships and +reverses of their stormy existence. Every line in +their faces had a meaning, if it could only have +been interpreted, telling of sin and suffering—of +adventures more terrible than were ever portrayed +by the pen of the romantic writer, and of experiences +as fascinating as they had been dangerous.</p> + +<p>Among the results of this rush through Nicaragua +was the expedition of William Walker, the great +filibuster of this century. With fifty-five men he +went forth from California to conquer Central +America, and in the end nearly succeeded. He got +himself elected President of Nicaragua, but ultimately +raised such a storm that he was brought to bay by +some forces from Honduras and Costa Rica, and had +to surrender to the captain of a British man-of-war, +by whom he was handed over to his enemies to be +shot.</p> + +<p>With this wonderful traffic across the isthmus +arose the old canal schemes, as well as a new one +for a railway. Easy and rapid transit must be +obtained in some way or other, and this time being +in the age of steam, it naturally followed that the +project for a railway gained immediate support. It +was commenced in 1850, at which time the terminus +on the Gulf side was settled, and the foundations of +the new town of Aspinwall or Colon laid a few miles +east of Chagres. The difficulties were enormous, on +account of the marshy ground and the number of +rivers to be crossed. The wooden bridges were +almost immediately attacked by wood ants, floods<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[Pg 353]</a></span> +carried away the timbers, but more distressing than +all was the loss of life through sickness. Chinese +labourers were imported in great numbers, only to +fall victims to the same deadly climate which had +given Porto Bello and the isthmus generally their +evil reputation. However, the railway was completed +in 1864, at the enormous cost of $7,500,000, although +its length is only 47½ miles. Thus one part of the +great project was carried out, and a good road provided +for passengers and light goods, the annual +value of which latter is now about £15,000,000.</p> + +<p>But those in favour of a canal were not sleeping +all this time. The old routes were again mooted, +that through Lake Nicaragua being put down at +194 miles in length, while the other, since known as +the Panama, was only 51. Dr. Edward Cullen, however, +in 1850 went out and made some surveys, +with the result that he advocated the old Darien +line as the shortest and most practicable. He +would start from the same Port de Escoces that +witnessed the downfall of William Paterson's scheme, +and which he said was a most commodious harbour +for the terminus of a canal. The isthmus was here +only 39 miles across, and free from many of the difficulties +which beset the other routes.</p> + +<p>As a result of Dr. Cullen's reports, in 1852 it was +proposed to establish "The Atlantic and Pacific +Junction Company," with a capital of fifteen +millions sterling. The prospectus stated that the +period had arrived when the spread of commerce and +the flow of emigration to the western shores of +America, Australasia, and China, demanded a pas<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[Pg 354]</a></span>sage +more direct than those by way of the Cape of +Good Hope and Cape Horn. Various projects had +been formed for uniting the two oceans, but all these +were open to the objection that they fell short of +supplying a continuous channel from sea to sea, +for vessels of all dimensions, by which alone transhipment +could be obviated. Sir Charles Fox, +Mr. John Henderson, Mr. Thomas Brassey, and Dr. +Cullen had received a concession of territory from +New Ganada to the extent of 200,000 acres, on +condition that a deposit of £24,000 be made within +twelve months. It was believed that the work could +be completed for twelve millions.</p> + +<p>The <i>Times</i> spoke disparagingly of the new Company, +and this probably prevented its acceptance by +the financial world. The line, it said, had not been +actually surveyed, but only superficially examined, +and, after all, if it were finished, it could only come +into competition with the Nicaragua Canal, every foot +of which had been the subject of precise estimates, +and which would only cost <i>four millions</i>. Several +letters from the projectors and supporters of the Company +followed, with other leaders, the result being +that the Darien Canal never went beyond a project. +Presently also the rush for California abated, and the +railway met the wants of the passengers; all the canal +schemes were therefore again shelved for a time.</p> + +<p>Then came an almost Utopian project for a ship +railway, the cars of which would run down into the +water, take up the largest vessel, and carry it over +without trouble or difficulty. This met with little +encouragement, and was soon dropped.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[Pg 355]</a></span></p> + +<p>In 1879 Ferdinand de Lesseps, who had achieved +such a glorious success with the Suez Canal, took up +the matter of a canal between the two oceans, and +summoned a congress of savants, engineers and seamen, +to inquire into and discuss the questions of its +possibility, and of the most suitable place for its +excavation. A number of projects were considered, +among them that of Dr. Cullen, brought forward by +M. de Puydt, which, however, did not receive much +attention, as there was a difference of opinion as to +the reliability of the figures.</p> + +<p>The schemes were ultimately reduced to two—those +for the Nicaragua and Panama routes. The +position of the great lake caused the former to be +thoroughly discussed; but there were several almost +insurmountable difficulties in the way of its adoption. +To clear the San Juan river, and make it into a great +canal, would entail great labour and expense, and +then seven or eight locks would be required. On +the Pacific side locks would also be required for the +Rivas, while the harbours of Greytown on the Gulf +side, and Brito on the Pacific, were quite unsuited as +termini for a canal. The total length would be 182½ +miles, and the time occupied in the passage four and +a half days. There was also another great draw-back: +Nicaragua was and is subject to earthquakes, +which would be likely at times to interfere greatly +with such heavy works as were required. It followed, +therefore, that notwithstanding the powerful support +of the Americans, this line was abandoned in favour +of that from Port Simon to Panama, not far from the +railway.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[Pg 356]</a></span></p> + +<p>Two French officers, MM. Wyse and Reclus, had +explored the country, and proposed to carry the canal +through the Chagres river, and thence, by means of a +great tunnel, into the valley of the Rio Grande; but, +on consideration, the tunnel was abandoned in favour +of a deep cutting, which would not exceed 290 feet. +The great objection to this was the floods of the +Chagres river, which sometimes rose twenty-five feet +in a single night; but this was got over by arranging +for a separate bed for the canal. There were a few +other difficulties, but propositions were made to +obviate them; and at last the sub-commission reported +that "the Panama Canal on the level technically +presents itself under the most satisfactory +conditions, and ensures every facility, as it gives +every security, for the transit of vessels from one sea +to another."</p> + +<p>Now came the question of cost. The Nicaragua +Canal was estimated at £32,000,000, and that at +Panama £40,000,000. (The reader will compare +these with former estimates, especially that of Nicaragua +as stated by the <i>Times</i>.) The former was +rejected absolutely, on account of the necessity for +locks, and all further discussion was concerned with +the latter. It was then calculated that, with transit +dues of fifteen francs per ton, the net annual profit +would be £1,680,000.</p> + +<p>M. de Lesseps was elected to the Academy in +1885, when M. Renan said he had been born to +pierce isthmuses, and that antiquity would have made +him a god. Carried away by enthusiasm, the great +projector saw no difficulties; he had already com<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[Pg 357]</a></span>pleted +a work which had been declared almost impossible, +now he would carry out a project similar to +that proposed by William Paterson. However, +Panama was not Suez, a rainless desert, but a place +where floods, marshes, and quagmires took the place +of almost level sands.</p> + +<p>M. Wyse had vainly tried to start a Company; but +when Lesseps, with all the prestige of his Suez Canal, +joined him, there was comparatively little difficulty. +Personally, Lesseps seems to have known little of +Panama—all his knowledge was gained at second +hand. The first public subscription was invited in +July, 1879, the capital being 400,000,000 francs +(£16,000,000), in 800,000 shares at 500 francs each. +This large sum, however, was not obtained at once, +only £3,200,000 being applied for. However, Lesseps +was not discouraged, but determined to go on with +the work, trusting that money would flow in as it was +wanted, which ultimately proved to be the case, +until the project appeared hopeless. He visited the +isthmus, and made a triumphal progress over the +line; he even witnessed one of the great floods of +the Chagres river, which rose forty feet and covered +the railway. Undaunted by this, he went over to +Panama, and on the 5th of January, 1880, inaugurated +the great canal with a ceremony and <i>fête</i>. He +then stated that success was assured, and declared, +upon his word of honour, that the work would be +much easier on the isthmus than in the desert of +Suez.</p> + +<p>In March following he visited New York, where he +was but coldly received, on account of American<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[Pg 358]</a></span> +jealousy of European influence. The President said +that the capital invested in such an enterprise by +corporations or citizens of other countries must be +protected by one or more of the great Powers, but +no European Power could intervene for such protection +without adopting means which the United States +would deem inadmissible. This did not damp his +enthusiasm; if other countries would not assist, all +the credit would go to France. The Company had a +concession from the Columbian Republic for twelve +years, and the United States would not be likely to +interfere.</p> + +<p>It will be interesting here to compare the estimates +for the canal by different persons and at different +times within two years:—</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="estimates"> +<tr><td align='left'>M. Wyse, 1879</td><td align='right'>£17,080,000</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>The Paris Congress, 1879</td><td align='right'>41,760,000</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>The Lesseps Commission, February, 1880</td><td align='right'>33,720,000</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>M. de Lesseps himself, " "</td> + <td align='right'>26,320,000</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Rectified estimate, September, 1880</td><td align='right'>21,200,000</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p>Lesseps said he had an offer from a contractor to +complete the work for twenty millions. Backed by +the press and the deputies, the Company's shares sold +freely, and on the 3rd of March, 1881, it was fully +established. It was promised that in the course of +that year the line of the canal should be cleared, and +dredging commenced. Lesseps expected to finish in +1887, but in 1884 and the two following years he was +obliged to advance the time to 1890. The canal was +to be 47 miles long, 70 feet wide at the bottom, and +29 feet deep.</p> + +<p>Little was done in 1881, but the work was divided<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[Pg 359]</a></span> +into five sections, and in the following year dredging +and excavating were commenced. But, even thus +early, it was found to be more difficult than had been +expected. Up to March, 1883, only 659,703 metres +had been excavated, which was reckoned to be about +1/130th of the whole. This would not do, as it meant +that over a century would pass before its completion. +About seven thousand labourers, mostly Jamaica +negroes, were employed at that time, and this number +was increased until, in 1888, there were 11,500. +In 1884 the average amount excavated was 600,000 +metres per month, against Lesseps' estimate of two +millions. Yet, with all that, it was calculated that in +this year only 1/180th of the material had been taken +out.</p> + +<p>The difficulties were enormous. First, there was +trouble to find dumping places, where the earth +would not be again washed into the excavations by +heavy floods. Then came the rank vegetation, which +was continually stretching from either side to choke +the clearing. Weeds grew six to eight feet high in a +rainy season, and these, with the straggling vines, +kept a little army at work to clear them away from the +embankments and tracks. The workmen suffered +greatly from yellow and other fevers, and £600,000 +was spent on hospitals and their appurtenances. +Money was spent profusely on such things as grand +offices and a magnificent house to lodge the President, +if he should ever come to inspect the +works. All along the route were ornamental bungalows, +and the director-general at Panama had a +salary of £20,000, besides a house and other allow<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[Pg 360]</a></span>ances. +Even he suffered from fever, and his wife and +daughter died of it.</p> + +<p>Up to 1888 about fifty millions sterling had been +spent, and hardly a fifth of the work was finished. +Then financial difficulties led to an arrangement for +merging it in a new Company, which proposed to +complete the canal on a new plan. Notwithstanding +all the objections to locks, it was now proposed to +save such an immense work of excavation by erecting +four on either side, thus bringing the highest +water level to 123 feet. Eighteen and a half miles +were said to have been completed, of which five were +on the Pacific side and the remainder on the Gulf. +To carry out the new plan, £36,000,000 more were +required, but, as a matter of fact, only a third of the +work necessary for this revised scheme had been +done.</p> + +<p>Then came the downfall, which has been compared +to that of the South Sea Bubble. When the Company +went into liquidation, scores of shady transactions +came to light. Editors of newspapers and deputies +had been bribed to gain their support, and money +had been wasted in almost every possible manner. +In February, 1893, M. Ferdinand de Lesseps and +four other directors were prosecuted, with the result +that he, MM. C. de Lesseps, Fontaine, and Cottin, +were convicted of breach of trust and swindling, the +two former being sentenced to five years' imprisonment +and 3,000 francs fines each, and the latter two +years and 20,000 francs fines. M. Eiffel, the architect +of the great tower of Paris, was found guilty of +breach of trust, and sentenced to two years' imprison<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[Pg 361]</a></span>ment +and a fine of 20,000 francs. Nine persons were +then charged with receiving bribes, one of whom, M. +Baïhaut, admitted that he got 375,000 francs. Three +were found guilty, sentenced to imprisonment, fines, +and to pay the liquidators of the company the amount +of M. Baïhaut's bribe. Charles de Lesseps appealed +against the charges of swindling, and these were +quashed on the ground that the transactions had +occurred more than five years before, thus getting the +longer terms of imprisonment and fines of the three +principals reduced.</p> + +<p>Ferdinand de Lesseps hardly knew what was going +on; he was old, feeble, and in a state of apathy +and stupor. Pity for his condition prevented the +carrying out of the sentence as far as he was concerned, +and he died on the 7th of December, 1894. +The <i>Times</i>, in noticing his death, said the story was +a most pitiful one. The blame of the Panama affair +must be laid upon the people and the public temper. +Bribery and corruption were symptoms of a thoroughly +unhealthy state of things. An infatuated public provided +enormous sums; when these were spent, more +went the same way, and to get these contributions +everything possible was done. Lesseps was no engineer, +but a diplomatist, planning great schemes and +the means of carrying them out. He was the man of +the moment in France. He was neither a financier +nor an engineer, neither an impostor nor a swindler. +He was a man of great originality, of indomitable +perseverance, of boundless faith in himself, and of +singular powers of fascination over others.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile several attempts had been made to get<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[Pg 362]</a></span> +money to carry on the work, one of which was by +means of a lottery. But the French people were discouraged, +and were no longer prepared to throw good +money after bad. It followed, therefore, that although +in 1894 a new company, with a capital of sixty-five +million francs, was proposed, and that it was announced +in August that eight hundred workmen were +engaged, it does not appear that anything is being +done. If, as has been stated, only a third of the work +has been accomplished for, say, thirty millions, allowing +for waste of money, it can hardly be expected +that double this amount will ever be obtained. What +with the heavy floods and rank vegetation, a great +deal will have to be done to recover lost ground; in +fact, some of the excavations must be filled up by +this time. Those who know the country can easily +understand that the handsome bungalows, hospitals, +and workmen's houses must be overrun by wood-ants, +and that the machinery is mostly spoilt by rust. +Even if the canal is ever finished with locks, it is +doubtful whether it could pay a dividend, as the +work of keeping it open by dredging would be very +expensive. No doubt it would be a boon to the +world if it were finished, but capitalists expect profit, +and will hardly be inclined to assist without such +expectations.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[Pg 363-364]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 316px;"> +<img src="images/p363.jpg" width="316" height="436" alt="EUROPE SUPPORTED BY AFRICA AND AMERICA." title="" /> +<span class="caption">EUROPE SUPPORTED BY AFRICA AND AMERICA.<br /> + +(<i>From Stedman's "Surinam."</i>)</span> +</div> + +<p>The Nicaragua canal has been in course of excavation +for several years past by an American Company. +As finally adopted, it is to have a total length of 169.4 +miles, of which 56½ will be through the lake, and 64½ +through the San Juan river. There are to be three +locks on either side, which may cause trouble in case +of a violent earthquake; and then, again, the length of +the journey will be against it as compared with that +of Panama. It has been attempted in the United +States to make it a national work, and the sum of a +hundred million dollars is asked from the American +Government, or at least a guarantee on the issue of +bonds to that amount. We believe that very little +enthusiasm for the project has been shown. In +August, 1893, the Company was unable to meet its +obligations, and a receiver was appointed, since which +time we believe the work is being continued, and that +it has been decided to complete it as soon as possible. +M. de Varigny, in <i>L'Illustration</i> of June the 1st, 1895, +gives the following opinion on the work and its +political importance:—</p> + +<p>"That the Washington statesmen take account of +the fact that the cutting of the isthmus is difficult, +costly, and, in case of a rupture with England, dangerous, +we cannot doubt. But such is the fascination +of great enterprises, of grand words and grand +theories, that senators and representatives hesitate to +oppose the current of opinion that is bearing along +the masses.</p> + +<p>"The work has begun, and we can only hope that +it will succeed. There cannot be too many gates +of communication between different peoples. The +United States undertake to open this. Can they do +it, and doing it, will they give up the advantages they +will thereby acquire? The future will show."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[Pg 365]</a></span></p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h2> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Acosta, Pedro de, explorer of the Orinoco, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> +<li>African slavery, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> +<li>Aguirre the Tyrant, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> +<li>Alfinger, Ambrosio de, searches for "El Dorado," <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> +<li>Altienza, Donna Inez de, murdered by Aguirre, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> +<li>Amazon Company, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> +<li>Amazon, expedition of Ursua and Aguirre, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> +<li>American Indian, his character, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li> +<li><i>Amis des Noirs</i>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li> +<li>"Angel Gabriel," John Sayers Orr, rouses the negroes of Demerara, <a href="#Page_335">335</a></li> +<li>Antigua, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> +<li>Anti-slavery party, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></li> +<li>Apprenticeship, negro, <a href="#Page_306">306</a></li> +<li>Araby, a leader of bush negroes, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li> +<li>Arawaks, + <ul class="IX"> + <li>their character, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li> + <li>Columbus tries to enslave them, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> + <li>the Spanish sovereign's good feeling for them, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> + <li>their treatment by the first colonists, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> + <li>did not lay up provisions, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> + <li>thinks Spaniards gods, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> + <li>refuse to be slaves, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> + <li>die off in great numbers, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> + <li>in Guiana, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Araya, Dutch at, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> +<li>Armada, Spanish, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> +<li>Aruba, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li> +<li>Aspinwall, <a href="#Page_352">352</a></li> +<li><i>Assiento</i> contract to supply slaves, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li> +<li>Ayscue, Sir George, reduces Barbados for the Parliament, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Bahamas, + <ul class="IX"> + <li>natives kidnapped, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> + <li>settled by English, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> + <li>resort of buccaneers, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> + <li>captured by Spaniards, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Baïhaut, M., bribed by Panama Canal Company, <a href="#Page_361">361</a></li> +<li>Bannister, Major, English Governor of Surinam, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li> +<li>Barbados, + <ul class="IX"> + <li>first colonised, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> + <li>protests against grant to Earl of Carlisle, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> + <li>result of the English revolution, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> + <li>Charles II. proclaimed king, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> + <li>Sir George Ayscue arrives to subdue the island, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> + <li>attack on Hole Town, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li> + <li>the island surrenders, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> + <li>sufferings of a bond-servant in, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li> + <li>De Ruyter driven off from, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> + <li>its unique position, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li> + <li>negro plots, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li> + <li>anti-slavery insurrection, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li> + <li>result of emancipation, <a href="#Page_328">328</a></li> + <li>confederation disturbances, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></li> + </ul></li> + <li>Barker, Andrew, a rover, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> +<li>Baron, a bush negro chief, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li> +<li>Basco, Michael de, a buccaneer, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> +<li>Baskerville, Sir Thomas, a companion of Drake, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> +<li>Beaudierre, Mons. de, a sympathiser with the coloured people of Hayti, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li> +<li>Berbice,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[Pg 366]</a></span> + <ul class="IX"> + <li>supplies cut off during war, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li> + <li>captured by French corsairs, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> + <li>great slave insurrection, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Belize, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li> +<li>Berrie, one of Ralegh's captains, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> +<li>Berrio, Antonio de, Spanish Governor of Trinidad, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> +<li>Bolivar, Simon, Liberator of Venezuela, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></li> +<li>Bond-servants, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li> +<li>Boyer, President of Hayti, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></li> +<li>Brethren of the coast, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li> +<li>British Guiana, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a></li> +<li>British Legion in Venezuela, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li> +<li>Bull of Partition, + <ul class="IX"> + <li>its terms, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> + <li>disputed, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> + <li>practically revoked, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> + </ul></li> + <li>Bush negroes, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li> +<li>Buxton, Fowell, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></li> +<li>Byam, Major, Governor of Surinam, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> +<li>Byron, Admiral, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li> +</ul> + + <ul class="IX"> +<li>Caciques of the Indians, their position, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> +<li>California rush, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></li> +<li>Campeachy, Bay of, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li> +<li>Cannibals, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> +<li>Canning's declaration of neutrality, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li> +<li>Caribana, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> +<li>Caribbee Islands, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> +<li>Caribs, + <ul class="IX"> + <li>their character, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> + <li>cannibalism, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> + <li>hatred of Spaniards, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> + <li>in Guiana, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> + <li>in St. Kitt's, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> + </ul></li> + <li>Carlisle, Earl of, Grantee of Caribbee Islands, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> +<li>Carthagena, + <ul class="IX"> + <li>taken by French, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li> + <li>great fair, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li> + <li>attacked by Admiral Vernon, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li> + </ul></li> + <li>Cary, Colonel, favours the buccaneers, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> +<li>Casas, Las, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> +<li>Cassard, Jacques, + <ul class="IX"> + <li>the corsair, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> + <li>captures St. Eustatius, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li> + <li>Curaçao, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Cattle, wild, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> +<li>"Cavaliers" and "Roundheads" in Barbados, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> +<li>Central American Republics, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li> +<li>Chagres, <a href="#Page_352">352</a></li> +<li>Charbon, Jan Abraham, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li> +<li>Charles I. and the Colonies, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> +<li>Charles II. + <ul class="IX"> + <li>declared king in the Bermudas and Virginia, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> + <li>Barbados, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> + <li>his interest in the plantations, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> + </ul></li> + <li>Chinese labourers introduced, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li> +<li>Christianity forced on the natives, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> +<li>Christophe, a Haytian leader, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li> +<li>Clervaux, a Haytian leader, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li> +<li>Clifford, Jeronomy, case of, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> +<li>Cochrane, Admiral, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li> +<li>Codrington, Colonel, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> +<li>Coffee, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li> +<li>Coffee, leader of rebel slaves in Berbice, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li> +<li>Coke, John, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> +<li>Colon, <a href="#Page_352">352</a></li> +<li>Colonies, Spanish, in Hispaniola, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> +<li>Coloured people in Hayti, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li> +<li>Columbian Republic, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li> +<li>Columbus' opinion of the natives, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> +<li>Confederation in Barbados, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></li> +<li>Contraband trade with Spanish colonies, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li> +<li>Convict labour, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li> +<li>Coolies, East Indian, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li> +<li>Cooper, Anthony Ashley, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li> +<li>Corsairs, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li> +<li>Corteso, Juan, an "El Dorado" seeker, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> +<li>Costa Rica, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li> +<li>Cottin, M., <a href="#Page_360">360</a></li> +<li>Cotton, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li> +<li>Council for Plantations, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li> +<li>Cromwell and the West Indies, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> +<li>Cudjo, a maroon chief, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li> +<li>Cuba, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> +<li>Cullen, Dr. E., projector of the Darien Canal, <a href="#Page_353">353</a></li> +<li>Curaçao, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li> +</ul> + + <ul class="IX"> +<li>Darbey, John, an English prisoner in Cuba, <a href="#Page_171">171</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[Pg 367]</a></span></li> +<li>Darien Canal, <a href="#Page_353">353</a></li> +<li>Darien scheme, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li> +<li>Delgado, Augustine, an "El Dorado" seeker, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> +<li>Demerara, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></li> +<li>Dessalines, + <ul class="IX"> + <li>a chief in the Haytian insurrection, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li> + <li>crowned emperor, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li> + </ul></li> + <li>Dogs, + <ul class="IX"> + <li>hunt Indians, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> + <li>run wild, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> + <li>hunt maroons, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li> + <li>hunt rebel negroes, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Dominica, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li> +<li><i>Dominus Vobiscum</i>, one of the first English vessels in the West Indies, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> +<li>D'Oyley, Governor of Jamaica, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> +<li>Drake, Sir Francis, + <ul class="IX"> + <li>voyage with Hawkins, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> + <li>raid on Nombre de Dios, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> + <li>great expedition to the West Indies, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> + <li>captures St. Domingo, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> + <li>last voyage, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> + <li>death, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> + </ul></li> + <li>Drax, Colonel, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> +<li>Du Casse, a French corsair, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li> +<li>Dudley, Sir Robert, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> +<li>Dutch, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> +</ul> + + <ul class="IX"> +<li>Edwards, Bryan, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> +<li>Eiffel, M., <a href="#Page_360">360</a></li> + <li> "El Dorado," + <ul class="IX"> + <li>the quest for, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> + <li>dangers, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> + <li>germ of the story, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> + <li>Martinez' report, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> + </ul></li> + <li>Elizabeth, Queen, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> +<li>Emancipation, + <ul class="IX"> + <li>Great Britain, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li> + <li>France, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></li> + <li>Denmark, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li> + <li>Holland, <a href="#Page_313">313</a></li> + <li>Spain, <a href="#Page_313">313</a></li> + </ul></li> + <li>Enambuc, M. d', first French settler, <a href="#Page_87">87-8</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> +<li>Enciso, Bachelor, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> +<li>English and Dutch, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> +<li>Essequebo, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li> +<li>Everson, a Dutch pirate, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li> +<li>Eyre, Governor of Jamaica, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li> +</ul> + + <ul class="IX"> +<li>Fedreman, Nicholas, an "El Dorado" seeker, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> + <li>Ferdinand and Isabella, + <ul class="IX"> + <li>kind feelings towards the Indians, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> + <li>grant from the Pope, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Fontaine, Father, a Catholic missionary, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> +<li>Fontaine, M., a Panama defaulter, <a href="#Page_360">360</a></li> +<li>Fourgeaud, Colonel, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li> +<li>Franklin, Washington, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li> +<li>Free trade, <a href="#Page_324">324</a></li> +<li>French, + <ul class="IX"> + <li>in the West Indies, <a href="#Page_49">49-54</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li> + <li>company for settling the islands, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> + <li>character of, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> + <li>revolution, its influence on Hayti, effect on the Spanish Main, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li> + </ul></li> + </ul> + + <ul class="IX"> +<li>George of Spires, an "El Dorado" seeker, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> + <li>German knights in Venezuela, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> + <li>Gold-hunting, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> +<li>Gordon, Mr., a Member of the Jamaica Assembly, executed, <a href="#Page_340">340</a></li> +<li>Grasse, Count de, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li> +<li>Grenada, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li> +<li>Groenwegel, Commander of Essequebo, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> +<li>Guadeloupe, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li> +<li><i>Guanin</i>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> +<li>Guatavita, Lake of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> +<li>Guatemala, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li> +<li>Guiana, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> +<li>Guianians, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> +<li>Guichen, Admiral de, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li> +<li>Güiria, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li> +<li>Guzman, Fernando de, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> +</ul> + + <ul class="IX"> +<li>Haïti, Hayti, or Hispaniola, + <ul class="IX"> + <li>its inhabitants, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> + <li>colonised, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> + <li>gold found, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> + <li>almost ruined by becoming depopulated, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> + <li>a resort of buccaneers, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li> + <li>under the French, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li> + <li>downfall, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li> + <li>British invasion, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li> + <li>republics and empires, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li> + </ul></li> + <li>Hall, Captain, exploit of, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li> +<li>Harcourt, Robert, in Guiana, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> +<li>Harry, a Guiana Indian, in London, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> +<li>Hartop, Job, a prisoner in Mexico, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li> +<li>Havana,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[Pg 368]</a></span> + <ul class="IX"> + <li>ransomed, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> + <li>sacked and burnt, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> + </ul></li> + <li>Hawkins, Sir John, + <ul class="IX"> + <li>first voyage, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> + <li>second, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> + <li>third, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> + <li>final trip with Drake, and death, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> + </ul></li> + <li>Hawkins, William, voyage to Brazil, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> +<li>Hennessy, Governor John Pope, of Barbados, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a></li> +<li>Henri I. (Christophe), Emperor of Hayti, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li> +<li>Henry VIII. of England sends an expedition to the West Indies, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> +<li>Herera, Alonzo de, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> +<li>Hogs naturalised in Hispaniola, see Haïti</li> +<li>Hondo river, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li> +<li>Hood, Sir Samuel, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li> +<li>Hoogenheim, Wolfert Simon van, Governor of Berbice, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li> +<li>Huten, Philip von, an "El Dorado" seeker, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> +</ul> + + <ul class="IX"> +<li>Iala, Father, an "El Dorado" seeker, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> +<li>Indian, character of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li> +</ul> + + <ul class="IX"> +<li>Jackson, Colonel, captures Santiago de la Vega, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> +<li>Jacques I. (Dessalines), Emperor of Hayti, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li> +<li>Jamaica, + <ul class="IX"> + <li>Valdivia wrecked off the coast, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> + <li>attacked by Colonel Jackson, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> + <li>captured by English, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> + <li>Spanish attempt to recapture, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> + <li>the first real British colony, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> + <li>progress of, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li> + <li>authorities refuse help to the Darien colony, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li> + <li>slave revolts, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li> + <li>serious negro insurrection, <a href="#Page_338">338</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>James I., + <ul class="IX"> + <li>friendship for Spain, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> + <li>dispute with Spain about the West Indies and Virginia, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Jeffreys, Judge, sends prisoners to Barbados, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li> +<li>Jenkins, Captain, and his ear, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> +<li>Jervis, Admiral Sir John, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li> +<li>Jews in the West Indies, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li> +</ul> + + <ul class="IX"> +<li>Keymis, Captain, a follower of Ralegh, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77-9</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> +<li>Kyk-over-al, Dutch fort in Essequebo, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> + </ul> + + <ul class="IX"> +<li>Labour difficulties, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li> +<li>Lafayette, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li> +<li>Lawrence, Captain, an English pirate, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> +<li>Legrand, Pierre, a French pirate, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> +<li>Leigh, Charles, first English settler in Guiana, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> +<li>Lesseps, Ferdinand de, and his Panama scheme, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></li> +<li>Lolonois, the great pirate, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> +</ul> + + <ul class="IX"> +<li>Macatoa, reported a very rich city, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> +<li>Madeirans imported into British Guiana, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li> +<li>Maltese imported into British Guiana, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li> +<li>Manoa, city of, fabulous residence of "El Dorado," <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> +<li>Margarita, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li> +<li>Marino, Dictator of Venezuela, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li> +<li>Maroons or Simarons, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li> +<li>Martinez, Juan de, his report of "El Dorado,"<a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> +<li>Martinique, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li> +<li>Mauduit, Captain, murdered in the Haytian revolt, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li> +<li>Merrifield, Ralph, one of the first settlers in St. Kitt's, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> +<li>Methodists, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li> +<li>Miranda, Francisco, leader of the revolution in Venezuela, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></li> +<li>Missionaries, Protestant, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li> +<li>Montbar, the French pirate, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> +<li>Montserrat, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[Pg 369]</a></span></li> +<li>Morgan, Captain (afterwards Sir Henry), the English buccaneer, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li> +<li>Morgan, Colonel, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> +<li>Morillo, Marshal, Spanish leader in Venezuela, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li><i>Navio de permisso</i>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li> +<li>Negro slavery, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li> +<li>Negroes, free, difficulties with, <a href="#Page_329">329</a></li> +<li>Nelson, Lord, + <ul class="IX"> + <li>flying trip to the West Indies, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li> + <li>his expedition to Nicaragua, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Nevis, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li> +<li>New Edinburgh, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> +<li>New Granada, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li> +<li>New World, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li> +<li>Nicaragua and the canal scheme, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a></li> +<li>North, Roger, a settler in Guiana, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> +<li><i>Nueva Dorado</i>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Ojeda, Alonzo de, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> +<li>Omaguas, reported a rich nation, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> +<li>Ophir, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> +<li>Ordas, Diego de, explores the Orinoco, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> +<li>Orders in Council, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></li> +<li>Orr, John Sayers, "the Angel Gabriel," creates a disturbance in Demerara, <a href="#Page_335">335</a></li> +<li>Ouverture, Toussaint L', leader of the Haytian negroes, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li> +<li>Oxenham or Oxnam, John, crosses the Isthmus, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> +<li>Oyapok, English colonies in the, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> +</ul> + + <ul class="IX"> +<li>Panama, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></li> +<li>Panama Canal, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a></li> +<li>Panama Railway, <a href="#Page_352">352</a></li> +<li>Parima Lake, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> +<li>Paterson, William, and the Darien scheme, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li> +<li>Penn and Venables, Generals, expedition to the West Indies, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> +<li>Perez, Diego, a gallant Spaniard, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> +<li>Petion, President of Hayti, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li> +<li>Philips, Miles, an English prisoner in Mexico, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li> +<li>Pirates in the West Indies, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li> +<li>Pitman, Henry, a bond-servant, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li> +<li>Pitt, in favour of a Panama Canal, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></li> +<li>Plantations, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li> +<li>Pointis, de, a leader of buccaneers, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li> +<li>Pomeroon, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> +<li>Pope, The, + <ul class="IX"> + <li>issues Bull of Partition, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> + <li>acknowledges French rights in the West Indies, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> + </ul></li> + <li>Popham, Captain, captures Spanish letters, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> +<li>Porto Bello, + <ul class="IX"> + <li>its fair, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> + <li>captured by Vernon, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Porto Rico, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> +<li>Prince of Orange in England, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li> +<li>Privateers, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> +<li>Proclamations to the Indians, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> +<li>Providence Island, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> +<li>Puerto Cabello, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li> +</ul> + + <ul class="IX"> +<li>Quesada, Herman de, an "El Dorado" seeker, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> +</ul> + + <ul class="IX"> +<li>Ralegh Sir Walter, + <ul class="IX"> + <li>at Trinidad, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> + <li>his "Letters Patent," <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> + <li>his interest in Guiana, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> + <li>captures Trinidad, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> + <li>searches for "El Dorado," <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> + <li>sent to the Tower, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> + <li>liberated, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> + <li>goes again to Guiana, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> + <li>capture of St. Thome, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> + <li>his execution, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>Reclus, M., a Panama Canal projector, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></li> +<li>Regapo, Leonard, a Guiana Indian, in London, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> +<li><i>Repartimientos</i>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> +<li>Robespierre, <a href="#Page_260">260</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[Pg 370]</a></span></li> +<li>Rodney, Admiral, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li> +<li>Rossy, Sieur du, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> +<li>Route of Spanish trade, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> +<li>Rovers to the Main, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> +<li>Royal African Company for introducing slaves, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li> +<li>Rupert, Prince, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> +<li>Ruyter, Admiral de, attacks Barbados, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> +</ul> + + <ul class="IX"> +<li>St. Christopher's, or St. Kitt's, + <ul class="IX"> + <li>settled by Thomas Warner, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> + <li>granted to the Earl of Carlisle, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> + <li>d'Enambuc arrives, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li> + <li>divided between English and French, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> + <li>attacked by Spaniards, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> + <li>granted to a French Company, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> + <li>bond-servants in, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> + <li>quarrels between English and French, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li> + <li>captured by French, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>St. Croix or Santa Cruz, riots in, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a></li> +<li>St. Domingo, + <ul class="IX"> + <li>captured by Drake, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> + <li>attempted by Penn and Venables, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>St. Eustatius, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li> +<li>St. Lucia, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li> +<li>St. Martin's, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> +<li>St. Thomas, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li> +<li>St. Vincent, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li> +<li>Salle, General de la, French Governor of St. Kitt's, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> +<li>San Juan river, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></li> +<li>Santa Martha, captured by French pirates, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> +<li>Santiago de Cuba, gallant fight at, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> +<li>Santiago de la Vega captured by English, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> +<li>Savile, Henry, his "Libel of Spanish Lies," <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> +<li>Sedenno, Antonio, an "El Dorado" seeker, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> +<li>Serfdom, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li> +<li>Shelley, Colonel, a "Cavalier" in Barbados, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> +<li>Simarons, <i>see</i> Maroons</li> +<li>Slaves, + <ul class="IX"> + <li>Indian, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> + <li>negro, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li> + <li>white (bond-servants), <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li> + <li>insurrections, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></li> + <li>abolition of the African trade, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li> + <li>runaways, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li> + <li>Registrar and Protector of, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li> + <li>emancipation of, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></li> + <li>reviews of slavery, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li> + </ul></li> + <li>Smith, Rev. John, a missionary sentenced to death in connection with a slave revolt, <a href="#Page_303">303-6</a></li> +<li>South Sea Bubble, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li> +<li>Spain, + <ul class="IX"> + <li>character of her people, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> + <li>introducing Christianity, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> + <li>wanton cruelty to the natives, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> + <li>hardiness of Spaniards, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> + <li>their audacity, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> + <li>Spanish claim to supremacy, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> + <li>interference with their trade, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> + <li>Spanish cruelty to prisoners of war, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> + </ul></li> +<li>"Spiriting" or kidnapping white servants, <a href="#Page_146">146</a> + <ul class="IX"> + <li>made felony 147</li> + </ul></li> + <li>Sugar cane, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li> +<li>Suicides, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> +<li>Surinam, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> +<li>Sylva, Gaspar de, an "El Dorado" seeker, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> +</ul> + + <ul class="IX"> +<li>Tison, Thomas, first English trader to West Indies, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> +<li>Tobacco, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li> +<li>Tobago, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li> +<li>Toledo, Don Frederic de, captures St. Kitt's, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> +<li>Tortuga, the great rendezvous of the buccaneers, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> +<li>Trade forced upon the Spanish settlers, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> +<li>Transported convicts, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li> +<li>Treasure seeking, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> +<li>Trelawny Town, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li> +<li>Tribute imposed on natives, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> +<li>Trinidad, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a></li> +</ul> + + <ul class="IX"> +<li>Ursua, Pedro de, murdered by the tyrant Aguirre, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> +<li>Utrecht, treaty of, <a href="#Page_196">196</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[Pg 371]</a></span></li> + </ul> + + <ul class="IX"> +<li>Valdivia, his shipwreck, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> +<li>Van Horn the pirate, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> +<li>Vanderbilt Transit Company, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></li> +<li>Venables and Penn, Generals, their expedition, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> +<li>Venezuela, + <ul class="IX"> + <li>the treasure seekers in, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> + <li>her struggle for independence, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li> + </ul></li> + <li>Vernon, Admiral, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li> +<li>Virgin Islands, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> +<li>Virginia, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> +</ul> + + <ul class="IX"> +<li>Wafer, Lionel, his journey across the Isthmus, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> + <li>Walker, William, the modern filibuster, <a href="#Page_352">352</a></li> + <li>Walrond, Colonel, a "Cavalier" in Barbados, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> +<li>Warner, Thomas, founder of the colony of St. Kitt's, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> +<li>Wars, + <ul class="IX"> + <li>England and Spain, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> + <li>Holland and Spain, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> + <li>France and Spain, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> + <li>England and Holland, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> + <li>England and France against Holland and Spain, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li> + <li>France against England and Holland, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li> + <li>Spain, England, and Holland against France, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li> + <li>England and Holland against France and Spain, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li> + <li>England and Spain, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li> + <li>England and her revolted colonies, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> + <li>France, Spain, and Holland join in the quarrel, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li> + <li>commencement of the great French war, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li> + <li>England and the United States, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li> + </ul></li> + <li>Watts, Governor, of St. Kitt's, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> +<li>Welsers of Augsburg, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> +<li>West India Company of Holland, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li> +<li>William III. and the Darien scheme, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li> +<li>Willoughby, Lord, Governor of Barbados, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124-8</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> +<li>Wyse, M., a Panama Canal projector, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></li> +</ul> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[Pg 372]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/fp001_map.jpg" width="600" height="454" alt="" title="" /> +<br /><span class="link"><a href="images/fp001_mapfull.jpg">View larger image</a></span> +</div> + +<p class="center">The Gresham Press,</p> + +<p class="center">UNWIN BROTHERS,</p> + +<p class="center">WOKING AND LONDON.</p> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The West Indies and the Spanish Main +[1899], by James Rodway + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WEST INDIES *** + +***** This file should be named 32809-h.htm or 32809-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/2/8/0/32809/ + +Produced by Steven Gibbs, Jane Hyland and 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