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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The West Indies and the Spanish Main [1899], by 
+James Rodway
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The West Indies and the Spanish Main [1899]
+
+Author: James Rodway
+
+Release Date: June 14, 2010 [EBook #32809]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WEST INDIES ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Steven Gibbs, Jane Hyland and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+    The Story of the Nations.
+
+    THE WEST INDIES.
+
+[Illustration: RECEPTION OF SPANIARDS BY ARAWAKS.
+
+(_From Gottfried's "Reisen."_)]
+
+    THE WEST INDIES
+
+    AND THE
+
+    SPANISH MAIN
+
+    BY
+
+    JAMES RODWAY
+
+    _SECOND IMPRESSION_
+
+    London
+
+    T. FISHER UNWIN
+
+    PATERNOSTER SQUARE
+
+    MDCCCXCIX
+
+    COPYRIGHT BY T. FISHER UNWIN, 1896
+    (For Great Britain).
+
+    COPYRIGHT BY G.P. PUTNAM'S SONS, 1896
+    (For the United States of America).
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+The story of the West Indies and Spanish Main is one to stir the hearts
+of many nations. The shores of the Caribbean Sea have been the scene of
+marvellous adventures, of intense struggles between races and peoples,
+of pain, trouble, and disaster of almost every description. No wonder
+that the romance writer has laid his scenes upon its beautiful islands
+and deep blue waters, for nowhere in the world, perhaps, could he find
+such a wealth of incident. From "Robinson Crusoe" to Marryat's genial
+stories, and down to "Westward Ho!" and "Treasure Island," old and young
+have been entranced for many generations with its stories of shipwrecks,
+pirates, sea-fights, and treasure-seekers. Yet with all this the field
+has not been exhausted, for hardly a year passes without a new romance
+dealing more or less with the "Indies."
+
+Under this name of the Indies the islands and continent were first known
+to the Spaniards, and it was not until some years had passed that the
+mainland received the name of _Terra Firma_. The string of islands
+facing the Atlantic were the Antilles, so called from a traditional
+island to the west of the Azores, marked on maps and globes of the
+fifteenth century. This "Bow of Ulysses," as Froude called the islands,
+was divided into the Greater and Lesser Antilles, the latter being also
+known as the Caribbees, from their original inhabitants. Other divisions
+were made later into Windward and Leeward Islands, but these differed so
+much in the descriptions of different nations that it would be as well
+to leave them out of the question. Perhaps the best way would be to name
+the whole the Antilles or West Indian Islands and divide them, in going
+from north to south, into the Bahamas, the Greater Antilles, and the
+Caribbees.
+
+When we think of these beautiful islands and shores they recall those of
+that other "Great Sea" which was such a mighty factor in the development
+of Greece and Rome, Phoenicia and Carthage, Venice and Genoa. As Ulysses
+and Æneas wandered about the Mediterranean, so the early voyagers sailed
+along the coasts of the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico in fear of
+anthropophagoi, amazons, giants, and fiery dragons. As the Indies were
+the scene of struggles between great nations and the raids of
+buccaneers, so also was the Mediterranean a battlefield for Christian
+and Turk, and a centre for piracy.
+
+Reports of golden cities, pearls and emeralds in profusion, and wealth
+that passed all description, led the Spaniards to explore every island
+and river, until the cannibals became less alarming. Yet their
+sufferings were terrible. Hurricanes sunk their frail craft on the sea
+and earthquakes wrung their very souls on land. Starvation, with its
+consequent sickness and death, destroyed one party after another, but
+they still went on. The discovery of the riches of Mexico and Peru led
+them to look for other rich nations, and to travel thousands of miles on
+the mainland, guided by the reports of the Indians. Undaunted by
+suffering and failure, they would often try again and again, perhaps
+only to perish in the attempt at last.
+
+The treasures of the Indies made Spain the greatest nation in Europe.
+With her riches she could do almost anything. Other nations bowed down
+before her, and she became sovereign of the seas and mistress of the
+world. No matter how it was obtained, gold and silver flowed into her
+coffers; what did she care that it was obtained by the bloody sweat of
+the poor Indians?
+
+Then came envy and jealousy. Why should Spain claim the whole of the New
+World? England, Holland, and France began to dispute her supremacy and
+determined to get a share of the good things. The "invincible
+domination" of Spain led her to declare war against England, with the
+result that the hardy sea-dogs of that time began to worry the fat
+galleons at sea, and to pillage the treasure depôts on the Main.
+
+And here we must mention that there were two important places in the
+Indies where Spain was most vulnerable--the Mona Passage between
+Hispaniola and Porto Rico and the Isthmus of Darien. Through the first
+came the outward fleets with supplies, and on their return with gold and
+silver, while on the Isthmus was the depôt for merchandise and the great
+treasure store. At these two points the enemy congregated, either as
+ships of war, buccaneers, corsairs, or pirates, and in their
+neighbourhood some of the most bitter struggles took place. There was no
+peace in the Indies, whatever might nominally be the case in Europe.
+Englishmen's blood boiled at the atrocities of the Spaniards, but we are
+afraid it was not love for the oppressed alone that made them massacre
+the Spaniards whenever they got an opportunity. The poor Indian received
+but a scant measure of justice from these very people, when as a matter
+of convenience they required possession of the Caribbee islands.
+
+Other nations took possession of smaller islands, unoccupied by Spain,
+and from these centres continued their raids, as privateers in war, and
+as pirates at other times. Sometimes they were united among themselves
+against the common enemy, sometimes at war with each other. France and
+Holland against England, England and Holland against France--nothing but
+quarrels and fighting. Now an island changed hands, and again it was
+restored or recaptured. The planters were never sure of being able to
+reap their crops, and often had literally to superintend the estate
+work, armed with sword and arquebuse, while their black and white slaves
+cultivated the soil.
+
+Now the West Indies became the great training ground for three maritime
+nations--England, France, and Holland. Spain lost her prestige, and the
+struggle lay among her enemies for over a century. At first the three
+disputants for her place were equally matched; then Holland dropped
+behind, leaving England and France to fight it out. The struggle was a
+very close one, which only ended with the fall of Napoleon, and it was
+in the Caribbean Sea where the great check to France took place. Here
+Rodney defeated De Grasse, and here Nelson and many another naval
+officer gained that experience which served them so well in other parts
+of the world.
+
+Here also was the scene of that great labour experiment, the African
+slave-trade. The atrocities of the Spaniards caused the depopulation of
+the Greater Antilles, and led to the importation of negroes. Whatever
+may be said against slavery, there can hardly be any question that the
+African has been improved by his removal to another part of the world
+and different surroundings. True, he has not progressed to the extent
+that was expected by his friends when they paid such an enormous sum for
+his enfranchisement; still, there are undoubtedly signs of progress.
+
+The white colonists in the West Indies never settled down to form the
+nucleus of a distinct people. Since the emancipation the islands have
+been more and more abandoned to the negroes and coloured people, with
+the result that although the government is mostly in the hands of the
+whites, they are in such a minority as to be almost lost. In Cuba there
+appears to be such a feeling of patriotism towards their own island that
+probably we shall soon hear of a new republic, but elsewhere in the
+islands our hopes for the future must lie in the negroes and coloured
+people.
+
+On the mainland the original inhabitants were not exterminated as in the
+large islands, and consequently we have there a most interesting
+process in course of accomplishment--the development of one or more
+nations. Here are the true Americans, and as the Gaul was merged in the
+Frank, and the Briton in the Saxon, so the Spaniard has been or will
+ultimately be lost in the American. At present the so-called Spanish
+republics are in their birth-throes--they are feeling their way. Through
+trouble and difficulty--revolution and tyranny--they have to march on,
+until they become stronger and more fitted to take their places among
+other nations. Out of the struggle they must ultimately come, and it
+will be a most interesting study for those who see the result.
+
+In Hispaniola we have also a nation in the course of development--an
+alien race from the old world. More backward than the Americans, the
+Africans of Haïti are struggling to gain a position among other nations,
+apparently without any good result. The nation is yet unborn, and its
+birth-throes are distressing. We look upon that beautiful island and
+feel sad that such a paradise should have fallen so low. As a race the
+negro has little of that internal power that makes for progress--he must
+be compelled to move on. Some are inclined to look upon him as in the
+course of degenerating into the savage, but we, on the contrary, believe
+him to be progressing slowly.
+
+In the islands belonging to European nations the influence of the
+dominant power is visible in the negro even when he has no trace of
+white blood. The French, English, or Dutch negro may be recognised by
+his manners, and even features. In some places East Indians and Chinese
+have been imported, but these stand alone and make little impression.
+They are aliens as yet, and take little part in the development of the
+colonies.
+
+Latterly the West Indies have sunk into neglect by Europe. Except for
+the difficulties of the planters their history is almost a blank sheet.
+Few know anything about the beautiful islands or the grand forests of
+the mainland. Even the discovery of gold in Guiana, which goes to
+confirm the reports of Ralegh, three centuries ago, is only known to a
+few. Ruin and desolation have fallen upon them since the peace of 1815
+and the emancipation. Even the negro--the _protégé_ of the
+benevolent--is no longer the object of interest he once was. Cane sugar
+is being gradually ousted by that from the beet, and hardly anything has
+been done to replace its cultivation by other tropical products.
+
+Yet the islands are still as lovely as they were four centuries ago, and
+on the continent is a wealth of interest to the naturalist and lover of
+the beautiful. Now and again a tourist goes the round of the islands and
+publishes the result in a book of travel; but the countries are out of
+the track of civilisation and progress. Possibly if the Panama or
+Nicaragua Canal is ever finished things may be a little better, but at
+present the outlook is very dismal.
+
+In attempting to compress the story of the West Indies and Spanish Main
+within the covers of one volume we have undertaken a task by no means
+easy. Every island and every province has its own tale, and to do them
+all justice would require a hundred books. Every West Indian will find
+something missing--some event unmentioned which is of the greatest
+importance to his particular community. This is only to be expected, yet
+we believe that the reader will get a fairer idea of their importance
+when they are comprehended in one great whole. The photo block
+illustrations are from negatives prepared by Mr. Thomas B. Blow, F.L.S.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+    I.
+                                                                   PAGE
+    THE SPANIARDS AND THEIR VICTIMS                                1-22
+
+    The native Americans--The Arawak and the Carib--Their independent
+    spirit--Their country--The character of the Spaniard--He wants to
+    convert the natives to Christianity--"A ton of gold"--First Spanish
+    settlers in Hispaniola--They ravage the island and are entirely cut
+    off--The second colony oppresses the Indians--Repartimientos--Cruelties
+    to the Indian slaves--Decrease of the population--Slave-hunting in
+    other islands and on the Main--Resistance of the cannibals--Decline of
+    Hispaniola.
+
+    II.
+
+    THE QUEST FOR "EL DORADO"                                     23-47
+
+    Treasure-seeking and its dangers--Alonzo de Ojeda--The proclamation to
+    the Indians--Disastrous voyage of Valdivia--A cannibal story--"El
+    Dorado," the gilded one--The German knights--Ambrosio de
+    Alfinger--George of Spires--Nicholas Fedreman and others--Pedro de
+    Ursua and Lope de Aguirre--Pedro de Acosta--Diego de Ordas and Juan
+    Martinez--The quest and its dangers.
+
+    III.
+
+    "SINGEING THE SPANIARD'S BEARD"                               48-67
+
+    The Papal Bull of partition--English and French seamen in the
+    Indies--Raids on the Spanish possessions--Master William Hawkins goes
+    to Brazil--The Caribs friendly to the enemies of Spain--John Hawkins
+    carries negroes from Africa--Francis Drake's attack on Nombre de
+    Dios--The Simaroons--Drake captures the Panama train--John
+    Oxenham--Andrew Barker--Drake's second voyage--He captures St. Domingo
+    and Carthagena--Last voyage of Drake and Hawkins--Death of
+    Drake--Exploits of other adventurers.
+
+    IV.
+
+    RALEGH AND THE FIRST BRITISH COLONIES                         68-89
+
+    "Letters Patent" to Ralegh--"El Dorado" again--Ralegh's first voyage to
+    Guiana--Keymis and Berrie--The Dutch in Guiana--Charles Leigh founds a
+    settlement--Robert Harcourt's colony--Ralegh's imprisonment--He is
+    released to again visit Guiana--Disastrous results--Roger North's
+    colony--King James's want of policy--Changes after his death--St.
+    Christopher's and Barbados--North's colony again--The Bahamas--The
+    French and Dutch settlements--Rise of the Dutch--The French and English
+    at St. Christopher's.
+
+    V.
+
+    BUCCANEERS, FILIBUSTERS, AND PIRATES                         90-112
+
+    The buccaneers of Hispaniola--Tortuga--Bay of Campeachy--Privateers
+    turning pirates--Pierre Legrand--Captains de Basco and Brouage--Captain
+    Lawrence--Montbar the "Exterminator"--Lolonois--Morgan storms and
+    captures Panama--He settles down in Jamaica--Van Horn--Raid on the
+    South Sea--Lionel Wafer's journey across the Isthmus.
+
+    VI.
+
+    WAR IN THE YOUNG COLONIES                                   113-136
+
+    Spanish raids--Effects of the "Great English Revolution"--The Caribbee
+    Islands in revolt--Cavaliers and Roundheads in Barbados--Charles the
+    Second declared king--Lord Willoughby arrives with a Commission from
+    the fugitive--Persecution of the Roundheads--Sir George Ayscue sent out
+    with a fleet to reduce Barbados--The island blockaded--Its
+    surrender--Surinam held for the king--Cromwell and Spain--The
+    Expedition to St. Domingo--Capture of Jamaica--Colonisation of the
+    island--The Council for foreign plantations.
+
+    VII.
+
+    THE PLANTERS AND THEIR SLAVES                               137-159
+
+    First adventurers not agriculturalists--Slaves wanted--Negroes
+    imported--Sugar--Cotton--Tobacco--First plantations--Kidnapping--
+    Prisoners transported--English slave-trade--Comparative cost of negroes
+    and whites--Rebels--Story of Henry Pitman--Condition of the
+    bond-servants--Life of the planter--Dangers of the
+    voyage--Jamaica--Slavery in Africa--Treatment of the West Indian slave.
+
+    VIII.
+
+    THE STRUGGLE FOR SUPREMACY                                  160-183
+
+    Trade disputes between England and Holland--War--The buccaneers
+    employed--Repulse of De Ruyter at Barbados--Capture of Dutch colonies
+    by English--The French drive the English from St. Kitt's--Abortive
+    attempts for its recapture--Peace of Breda--The value of the buccaneers
+    to Jamaica--Character of the three nations now contending for
+    supremacy--Case of Surinam--English refused permission to leave with
+    their slaves--War again--Peace of Westminster and the exodus from
+    Surinam--Case of Jeronomy Clifford--Sir Henry Morgan represses
+    buccaneering--Another war--Du Casse and the Corsairs--Jacques
+    Cassard--Curious position of Berbice--Cassard takes Curaçao--His
+    downfall.
+
+    IX.
+
+    THE STRUGGLE FOR THE DARIEN TRADE                           184-206
+
+    Carthagena and Porto Bello fairs--The trade of the Isthmus--The
+    joint-stock mania--William Paterson and the Darien scheme--Caledonia
+    and New Edinburgh founded--Destruction of the colony--The _Assiento_
+    contract--The Great South Sea Bubble--Vain attempts of the English to
+    obtain free trade with the Spanish provinces--Attacks on the logwood
+    cutters of Campeachy--War with Spain--Contraband traders and their
+    losses--Captain Jenkins' ear--Another war with Spain--Admiral Vernon
+    takes Porto Bello--His failure at Carthagena--English exploits.
+
+    X.
+
+    SLAVE INSURRECTIONS AND BUSH NEGROES                        207-236
+
+    Sufferings of the planters from war--Barbados alone as having never
+    fallen to the enemy--Internal difficulties--Ferocity of slaves and
+    cruelty of their punishments--The Maroons of Jamaica and bush negroes
+    in Guiana--Slave insurrections--Abortive plots in Barbados--Troubles in
+    Jamaica--Revolt in Antigua--The great slave insurrection in
+    Berbice--The whites driven from the colony--Haunts of the Guiana bush
+    negroes--Surinam in continual fear of their raids--Expeditions sent
+    against them--Treaties--Great insurrection in Jamaica and suppression
+    of the Maroons.
+
+    XI.
+
+    THE SOVEREIGNTY OF THE SEAS                                 237-255
+
+    Downfall of Spain--England and France--Contraband traffic of the Dutch
+    and Danes--Advantages of neutrality--The Jews in the islands--They
+    support the buccaneers--The great war--England against the
+    world--Admiral Rodney--His abortive fights with De Guichen--The
+    training of his fleet--He captures St. Eustatius and confiscates
+    private property--Capture of Demerara--Outcry against Rodney--British
+    disasters--Rodney appears again--His decisive victory over De
+    Grasse--Peace and its results--The great struggle with France and her
+    allies--British supremacy--Peace of Amiens--War again--Nelson in the
+    West Indies--The American war--Decline of the plantations from the
+    abolition of the slave-trade.
+
+    XII.
+
+    DOWNFALL OF HISPANIOLA                                      256-275
+
+    Results of the French Revolution--The friends of the blacks--The rights
+    of man--Civil disabilities of free coloured people--Agitation in the
+    French colonies--James Ogé--Demand of the coloured people for equal
+    rights--Civil war in Hispaniola--"Perish the colonies"--Great slave
+    insurrection--The whites concede equal rights, but the Convention
+    revokes their original decree--Truce broken--The struggle
+    renewed--Devastation of the colony--The British expedition and its
+    failure--Toussaint L'Ouverture--Slavery abolished--It is re-established
+    by Napoleon--Treachery to L'Ouverture and the negroes--Dessalines and
+    Christophe declare the independence of Hayti--Massacre of the
+    whites--The Empire and Republic.
+
+    XIII.
+
+    EMANCIPATION OF THE SPANISH MAIN                            276-288
+
+    Influence of the French Revolution on Spanish America--Miranda vainly
+    attempts to rouse Venezuela--Revolution at Caracas--Simon
+    Bolivar--Struggle for independence--Atrocities of both parties--Bolivar
+    proclaims extermination to the Royalists--Spanish successes--The
+    British Legion--Devastation of the country--The Columbian
+    Republic--Guatemala.
+
+    XIV.
+
+    ABOLITION OF SLAVERY                                        289-313
+
+    Agitation against slavery by the Quakers--Abolition of the African
+    slave-trade--Effects of this on the plantations--Condition of the
+    slave--Registration--Rising in Barbados--The Protestant missionaries
+    arrive--Opposition of the planters--Ordinance against preaching and
+    teaching slaves passed in Jamaica--The anti-slavery party in
+    England--Amelioration of the condition of the slave--Insurrection in
+    Demerara--Prosecution and conviction of the Rev. John
+    Smith--Emancipation in the British colonies--Its effect on colonies of
+    other nationalities--Insurrection at St. Croix--Total abolition of
+    slavery in the West Indies.
+
+    XV.
+
+    RESULTS OF EMANCIPATION                                     314-345
+
+    Ruin of the planters--Difficulty of procuring labour--Abolition of the
+    differential duties--Immigration--Barbados an exception when ruin fell
+    on the other colonies--Labour laws in French, Danish, and Dutch
+    colonies--Another insurrection in St. Croix--Race prejudice causes
+    riots in Demerara--Insurrection at Jamaica--Confederation riot at
+    Barbados.
+
+    XVI.
+
+    THE ISTHMUS TRANSIT SCHEMES                                 346-364
+
+    Nelson's expedition to the San Juan--Miranda's project--Importance of a
+    canal--Central America--Effects of the discovery of gold in
+    California--The Panama railway--Canal projects--Darien again--The
+    _Times_ and the Nicaragua project--Ship railway--Lesseps and the Panama
+    Canal--Difficulties of the work--Its downfall--Character of
+    Lesseps--The Nicaragua Canal.
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+                                                                   PAGE
+
+    1.--Reception of Spaniards by Arawaks. From Gottfried's
+    "Reisen"                                                 _Frontispiece_
+
+    2.--Reception of Spaniards by Caribs. From Gottfried's
+    "Reisen"                                                         5
+
+    3.--A corner of Paradise. The Victoria Regia                     8
+
+    4.--_En route_ to the goldfields of Guiana. Passing the rapids
+    of the Essequebo                                                10
+
+    5.--Worrying the natives with dogs. From Gottfried's "Reisen"   13
+
+    6.--A modern alluvial gold washing                              16
+
+    7.--Suicides. From Gottfried's "Reisen"                         17
+
+    8.--A Guiana river. The Tumatamari falls                        26
+
+    9.--Inhabitants of the Spanish Main. From Colijn's "Reisen"     28
+
+    10.--"El Dorado." From Gottfried's "Reisen"                     37
+
+    11.--Negro woman returning from market                          53
+
+    12.--Negro barber                                               54
+
+    13.--Negro family on holiday                                    55
+
+    14.--Negresses gossiping                                        56
+
+    15.--Ralegh in Trinidad. From Gottfried's "Reisen"              71
+
+    16.--Gold hunting. From Gottfried's "Reisen"                    80
+
+    17.--Carib attack on a settlement. From Gottfried's "Reisen"    89
+
+    18.--St. Kitt's. From Andrews' "West Indies"                   118
+
+    19.--A Surinam planter. From Stedman's "Surinam"               138
+
+    20.--A negro festival. From Edwards' "West Indies"             140
+
+    21.--Voyage of the sable Venus. From Edwards' "West Indies"    142
+
+    22.--Slaves landing from the ship. From Stedman's "Surinam"    144
+
+    23.--Map of _Terra Firma_. From Gottfried's "Reisen"           197
+
+    24.--A rebel negro. From Stedman's "Surinam"                   209
+
+    25.--The execution of breaking on the rack. From Stedman's
+    "Surinam"                                                      212
+
+    26.--March through a swamp. From Stedman's "Surinam"           224
+
+    27.--Trelawny town. From Edwards' "West Indies"                231
+
+    28.--Pacification of the Maroons. From Edwards' "West Indies"  234
+
+    29.--View of part of Hispaniola. From Andrews' "West Indies"   258
+
+    30.--La Guayra on the Main. From Andrews' "West Indies"        280
+
+    31.--The First of August. From Madden's "West Indies"          308
+
+    32.--A relic of the slavery days--old slave buying fish        310
+
+    33.--Negress, Guiana                                           315
+
+    34.--Negress fish-sellers, Guiana                              316
+
+    35.--Chinese wood-carrier                                      317
+
+    36.--East Indian coolie                                        318
+
+    37.--East Indian coolie family                                 319
+
+    38.--Coolie barber                                             320
+
+    39.--East Indian coolie girl                                   321
+
+    40.--Coolie women, British Guiana                              322
+
+    41.--Coolie vegetable sellers, British Guiana                  323
+
+    42.--East Indian coolies, Trinidad                             324
+
+    43.--East Indian coolie, Trinidad                              325
+
+    44.--Trinidad coolies                                          326
+
+    45.--Barbados. From Andrews' "West Indies"                     330
+
+    46.--St. Lucia. From Andrews' "West Indies"                    331
+
+    47.--Atlantic entrance to Darien Canal. From Cullen's "Darien
+    Canal"                                                         348
+
+    48.--Europe supported by Africa and America. From Stedman's
+    "Surinam"                                                      363
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+THE WEST INDIES.
+
+
+
+
+I.
+
+THE SPANIARDS AND THEIR VICTIMS.
+
+
+When the early writers spoke of America as the new world, _mundus
+novus_, they could hardly have appreciated the full meaning of the name.
+True, it was a new world to them, with new animals, new plants, and a
+new race of mankind; but the absolute distinctness of everything,
+especially in the tropical regions, was not understood. With our fuller
+knowledge the ideas of strangeness and novelty are more and more
+impressed, and we are ready to exclaim, Yes! it is indeed a new world.
+
+Unlike those of the eastern hemisphere, the peoples of the West are of
+one race. Apart from every other, the development of the American Indian
+has gone on different lines, the result being a people self-contained,
+as it were, and unmodified until the arrival of the European. The
+American is perhaps the nearest to the natural man, and his character is
+the result of nature's own moulding. When compared with the European or
+Asiatic he seems to be far behind, yet the civilisation of Peru and
+Mexico was in some respects in advance of that of their conquerors. This
+was brought about by a dense population which forced men into collision
+with each other--in other parts of the continent and on the islands they
+were more isolated and therefore less civilised.
+
+In the forest region of the Spanish Main, and on the West Indian
+islands, the communities were, as a rule, very small and isolated one
+from another. A kind of patriarchal system prevented much communication,
+and inter-tribal disputes were a bar to union. Every community
+distrusted every other, and even when one tribe fought against its
+neighbour there were few attempts to bring the sections together against
+the common enemy.
+
+On the coasts and islands of the Caribbean Sea, at the time of their
+discovery, lived two distinct peoples, the Arawaks and the Caribs. There
+were also a few other tribes of minor importance, such as the Warrows,
+but these made little impression, and may therefore be left out of
+consideration. The remnants of the two great stocks still exist in
+Guiana and at the mouth of the Orinoco, living to-day in much the same
+manner as they did when the country was first discovered by the
+Spaniards.
+
+Four centuries ago the Greater Antilles were exclusively inhabited by
+Arawaks, and the Lesser by Caribs. The Arawak, as his name implies, was
+more or less an agriculturalist--a meal-eater, a cultivator of
+vegetables, mainly cassava. From the poisonous root of this plant
+bread, drink, and a preservative sauce for meat, were prepared, so that,
+with game or fish, it formed the staff of life. The probable course of
+his migration was from Yucatan or Mexico to the south-east, terminating
+in Guiana, and from thence north through the whole of the Antilles. When
+Columbus arrived people of this stock filled the larger islands and the
+Bahamas, but along the coast and in the island of Trinidad they disputed
+the occupation of the territories with the Caribs. In Porto Rico also
+the Caribs had become aggressive, and even in Hispaniola the Arawaks had
+to defend their shores against that warlike people. If we believe the
+accounts of the Spaniards the inhabitants of the Greater Antilles were
+not altogether a savage people. Whether they had destroyed all the
+larger game, or whether they found none on their arrival, the fact
+remains that they were agriculturalists rather than huntsmen. They were,
+however, expert in fishing, and built great canoes with sails, in which
+they carried on their operations even in comparatively rough water.
+Their provision grounds were highly praised by the Spaniards in language
+that could hardly apply to little clearings like those in the Guiana
+forest. In them were grown, besides cassava, yams, sweet potatoes, and
+maize, while other things such as cotton and tobacco were also largely
+cultivated. The natives had also acquired several arts besides that of
+canoe building, which, when we consider their want of proper implements,
+was almost wonderful. Cotton was spun and woven into cloth for their
+scanty garments, gold cast and hammered into figures and ornaments, and
+wood and stone idols and weapons were also carved. All this was done
+with stone implements, even to the work of hollowing great logs for
+their canoes, and shaping planks. We read of axe-heads made of _guanin_,
+an alloy of gold and copper, and also of attempts to make similar tools
+of silver, but these were very rare, and could hardly have been utilised
+to any good purpose. When we appreciate the labour and pains taken in
+excavating a large canoe, with only fire and the stone adze, we can see
+that these people were by no means idle. Nor were they altogether
+wanting in appreciation of art, for the figures on their baskets and
+pottery were beautifully true geometrical patterns, and their so-called
+idols, although grotesque and rude, often striking.
+
+On the mainland the Arawaks lived in small communities, only electing a
+war-chief as occasion required--in Haïti the Cacique seems to have been
+leader and ruler as well. And here we must mention the most striking
+characteristic of the American Indian--his utter abhorrence of anything
+like coercion. Even in childhood his parents let him do as he pleases,
+never attempting to govern him in any way. It followed therefore that
+neither war-captain nor Cacique had any real power to compel them to a
+course they disliked, and that discipline was entirely wanting. The
+traveller in Guiana at the present day can thoroughly understand this
+trait of character, for he has to take it into account if he wishes to
+get their assistance. They must be treated as friends, not as servants,
+and the greatest care taken not to offend their dignity, unless he
+wishes to be left alone in the forest.
+
+[Illustration: RECEPTION OF SPANIARDS BY CARIBS.
+
+(_From Gottfried's "Reisen."_)]
+
+They quarrelled little among themselves, and only fought against the
+Caribs; they were peaceable, kind, and gentle, so hospitable to
+strangers that Columbus could hardly say enough in their favour. "A
+better race there cannot be," he declared to his sovereigns, and this
+opinion was confirmed by all who came into contact with them. In fact if
+you do nothing to offend him, the Arawak of to-day is the same quiet and
+gentle fellow who met the voyagers on their arrival at Guanahani.
+
+The Caribs were a stronger race, and had probably followed the same
+track as the Arawaks in a later migration. At the time of the discovery
+they appear to have driven the more gentle race from the smaller islands
+south of Porto Rico, and had taken their women as wives. All along the
+coast the two tribes fought with each other, but on account of the
+greater stretch of country there was nothing like the extermination
+which took place in the Lesser Antilles. The Arawaks retired up the
+rivers and creeks, leaving their enemies to take possession of the
+coast, which they did to such good purpose that the Spaniards were
+unable to get a footing in Guiana. All the early writers agree that the
+Caribs were man-eaters--in fact the word cannibal seems to have been
+derived from their name. In the smaller islands they had eaten all the
+men of the gentler tribe, and now made periodical raids on the larger,
+from whence they carried off prisoners to be cooked and devoured at
+leisure. These raids led to combinations on the part of the inhabitants
+of Haïti and Porto Rico, and hitherto they had been successful in
+preventing anything like an occupation of these islands by their
+enemies. Whether these successes would have continued is doubtful; the
+arrival of the Spaniards upset everything.
+
+The Carib was not so entirely dependent on the produce of the soil as
+the meal-eater. He was a hunter and fisherman, but above everything else
+a warrior. His women had provision grounds like those of the Arawak,
+possibly because they came from that stock. The Carib's hunting grounds
+were circumscribed and poor, and his craving for meat could only be
+appeased in one way--by eating his enemies. Probably this made him all
+the more fierce and bloodthirsty, as a flesh diet is certainly more
+stimulating than one of fish and starchy tubers.
+
+If the Arawak was impatient of control, the Carib was even more
+independent. The former would pine away and die under coercion, the
+latter refused absolutely to be a slave. He would die fighting for his
+liberty, but never admit that he was conquered. It was not he who
+welcomed the Spaniards to the West Indies--on the contrary, he did
+everything possible to prevent their landing on his shores. His
+so-called treachery caused many difficulties to the new-comers, but
+taken altogether he was much respected by them as a foe worthy of their
+steel.
+
+These two peoples lived in a country which Columbus described as a
+veritable paradise--in fact he thought he had discovered the site of the
+Garden of Eden. Into this beautiful world he let loose a band of
+robbers and murderers, to depopulate and make it a wilderness. They were
+the product of an entirely different environment--a continent in which
+every man's hand was against that of his neighbour. For a long time
+Spain had been a battlefield, on which the most warlike instincts of
+mankind came to the front. Her soldiers understood the advantages of
+discipline, and would follow their leaders wherever anything was to be
+gained, yet at the same time they were individuals, and as such fought
+for their own hands as well.
+
+[Illustration: A CORNER OF PARADISE. THE VICTORIA REGIA.]
+
+Like the rest of Christendom Spain was very religious, and after
+treasure-seeking, the adventurers of that nation meant to convert the
+heathen. The cross was erected everywhere on landing, and religious
+services held to pray for help in their undertakings. If the cruelties
+that followed were not quite in accordance with Christ's teachings we
+must put it down to the manners and customs of the age. Ignorance was
+really the great characteristic of that period, and the brilliancy of
+the few only shone out the brighter because of the dark background. The
+majority were steeped in superstition, and almost entirely dominated by
+their passions.
+
+Columbus was continually harping upon the desirability of making the
+natives of the new world Christians. "Your Highness," he said, in one of
+his letters, "ought to rejoice that they will soon become Christians,
+and that they will be taught the good customs of your kingdom." He took
+nine of them to Spain, on his return from the first voyage, who were
+baptized and taught the Spanish language. The king and queen told him to
+deal lovingly with those in the Indies, and to severely punish any who
+ill-treated them. More were sent to Spain and allowed to go back for the
+purpose of "gaining souls." Columbus, however, did not altogether agree
+with his sovereigns--his project was to send enough as slaves to pay the
+expenses of his expeditions, and he actually shipped four lots for that
+purpose. But Ferdinand and Isabella would not have this, and even went
+so far as to prohibit the deportation of the Caribs notwithstanding the
+admiral's argument that they were unworthy of the royal clemency,
+because they ate men and were enemies of the friendly Arawaks.
+
+[Illustration: EN ROUTE TO THE GOLDFIELDS OF GUIANA. PASSING THE RAPIDS
+OF THE ESSEQUEBO.]
+
+How the new world was discovered in 1492 has been told so often that it
+is hardly necessary to repeat the story. Haïti, named Hispaniola or
+Little Spain, was chosen from the first as the island on which a
+settlement should be planted. Here Columbus left thirty-nine colonists
+under the command of Diego de Arana, and under the protection of the
+great Cacique Guacanagari. He "trusted to God" that on his return he
+would find a ton of gold and a large quantity of spices, with the
+proceeds of which his sovereigns might undertake the conquest of
+Jerusalem from the infidels.
+
+A ton of gold! This was the whole end and aim of his expedition.
+Everything else was subordinate to this. He had seen the natives wearing
+gold ornaments, and found that the precious metal could be gathered from
+certain streams on the island. But, could he estimate the amount of
+labour required to procure such an enormous quantity, by people who had
+no other appliances than baskets? This alone was enough to bring trouble
+upon the peaceful island.
+
+But this was not all. The colonists quarrelled among themselves,
+interfered with the Indian women, went hunting for gold all over the
+country, took it wherever it could be found, and stole provisions when
+their friends did not bring them enough. Not satisfied with the district
+of the friendly Cacique, they ravaged that of Caonabo, the Carib
+chieftain of another clan, a man of a different stamp. He resented the
+insults at once by attacking the Spaniards, who, notwithstanding the
+assistance of their allies, were utterly exterminated. When Columbus
+arrived, instead of a ton of gold, he found nothing but the blackened
+ruins of the fort and houses.
+
+This should have been a lesson to the Spaniards, but unfortunately it
+only led to further quarrels. The new-comers did not intend to cultivate
+the soil; their main object was treasure, and they expected the natives
+to provide them with food. And here we must mention the fact that the
+people of tropical climes _never_ have any store of provisions laid
+up--this is only necessary where winter prevails for half the year. It
+follows therefore that however liberal they may feel towards strangers,
+their supplies being restricted to their own wants leave little to give
+away. Up to a certain point the Indian gives freely, but when this means
+privation to himself he withholds his hand. The want of a full
+appreciation of this fact caused great trouble in many of the early
+settlements, and in some cases led to their destruction. The natives
+promised food supplies; but when they found themselves starving,
+naturally withheld further assistance. The settlers considered this a
+breach of faith, and made incursions on the provision grounds, taking
+what they wanted, and seriously injuring the crops. This the Indians
+resented, and deadly quarrels ensued, which ended in their driving out
+the colonists or deserting the place altogether. In the latter case the
+food supply was necessarily cut off, and often led ultimately to the
+abandonment of the colony.
+
+To the kindly people of Hispaniola the new-comers were gods, and their
+horses and cattle preternatural creatures. While wondering and admiring,
+they were at the same time frightened at these out-of-the-way men and
+animals, especially when the soldiers exhibited themselves on horseback.
+At first they thought them immortal, and were disagreeably surprised
+when they fell before the army of Caonabo. But even the proverbial worm
+will turn, and soon the oppressions of the second colonists drove the
+poor Haïtians to resist. To labour in the field was beneath the dignity
+of the adventurous treasure-seekers--the natives must supply them with
+provisions. What they had brought from Spain was soon spoilt in such a
+hot climate--no one had yet learned how to pack for long voyages. They
+must get food, and what was the good of having thousands of people, and
+acres of cultivated land in their neighbourhood, if the natives did not
+bring in as much as was required? At first they were supplied willingly,
+but when the results of this profuse hospitality began to tell upon
+themselves, the poor Haïtians withheld their hands. Then the Spaniards
+began complaining to the Cacique, who, however, had no real authority
+over his people in a matter of this kind, and therefore could do
+nothing. Driven by want the Spaniards made incursions on the provision
+grounds, where they spoilt as much as they took away, and left a waste
+behind. Sometimes they met with resistance, and the defenders were cut
+down without mercy. The spoilers only wanted an excuse for fleshing
+their swords; they were even anxious to show their powers, and make the
+natives feel that at last they had masters.
+
+[Illustration: WORRYING THE NATIVES WITH DOGS.
+
+(_From Gottfried's "Reisen."_)]
+
+Before two years had passed the Spaniards were beset with difficulties.
+The Indian looked despairingly at his wasted fields, and refused to
+cultivate them any longer. Why should he plant for others when he
+himself was starving? Some fled into the mountains and forests of the
+interior, others died of want. This naturally told upon the white men,
+who had not yet learnt that they must cultivate the soil if they wanted
+its produce. They could not demean themselves to this, but must have the
+power to compel the inhabitants and owners of this beautiful island to
+work for them.
+
+The home authorities knew what was going on, and did their best
+according to their lights to provide a remedy. At first they gave large
+tracts of land to the settlers, _repartimientos_ as they were called,
+but what was the use of these if their owners could get no labourers?
+Then to every grant was allotted a certain number of Indians as slaves,
+and thus the cruel system that ultimately depopulated the Greater
+Antilles and the Bahamas was introduced.
+
+Those who were not allotted as slaves were compelled to pay tribute. In
+the neighbourhood of the gold-washings this was to consist of a little
+bellful of gold; in other places of an arroba (28 lbs.) of cotton, once
+a quarter for every person above the age of fourteen. Metal tokens to
+hang upon the neck were given as receipts, and when these were absent
+the people were severely punished. Thus this gentle and independent race
+was enslaved.
+
+[Illustration: A MODERN ALLUVIAL GOLD WASHING.]
+
+Even with modern appliances and the use of quicksilver, gold-washing is
+a most precarious business; what then could it have been here with
+nothing but a basket and gourd? Columbus had such exaggerated ideas
+that, when he saw the gold-washings of Cibao, he came to the conclusion
+they were the Ophir of the Bible; from his reports the king and queen
+thought nothing of demanding this small tribute. To the Indian, however,
+the gleaning of the tribute meant the labour of days and weeks, and when
+there were so many seekers it was found utterly impossible for each to
+gather his amount. Then they ran away, and were hunted with dogs,
+brought back, and compelled to wash the gravel under surveillance,
+subject to the pricks of a sword if they were not active enough. But,
+even with all this, the returns were not equal to what was expected, and
+the tribute had ultimately to be abandoned. However, it was stated
+that as much as the value of a million crowns per annum was extracted
+during the best years, at a cost of pain and suffering awful to
+contemplate.
+
+[Illustration: SUICIDES.
+
+(_From Gottfried's "Reisen."_)]
+
+The cotton tribute had also to be abandoned, and even the
+_repartimientos_ were not a success. If they had been willing, the
+natives could hardly have performed steady work, and as slaves they were
+almost valueless. In their natural condition they laboured when they
+chose, wasting time as we should say with little good result. Now their
+masters demanded heavy tasks which prevented their working on their own
+provision grounds, and yet provided little or nothing in the way of
+rations. Hundreds died of starvation; thousands committed suicide. Some
+jumped from high precipices; they hanged, stabbed, drowned, and poisoned
+themselves; mothers destroyed their babes to save them from the misery
+of living. If caught in such attempts they were flogged, had boiling
+water or melted lead poured over them, and were otherwise tortured until
+death came to their relief. Their cruel masters, however, rarely wished
+to kill them outright--they were too valuable. No, they must break down
+this dogged, stubborn spirit--treat them as horses and mules, until they
+bent themselves to the yoke.
+
+It was left for bands of soldiers on foraging expeditions to kill in
+mere wantonness. A company would be travelling through the island and
+come upon a village, where perhaps they stopped for a short rest. The
+people looked on, admiring their shining armour and weapons, wondering
+what sort of creatures these were that so quietly cropped the grass and
+shrubs. One of the soldiers would take out his sword, feel its keen
+edge, and think what a pity it was that the weapon should be used so
+little. Behind him comes a little boy. The temptation is great; in a
+moment the sharp weapon flashes and the child lies dead. The Indians
+fly, and the whole party follows, chasing and slaughtering to their
+heart's content, not knowing nor caring why. In a few minutes fifty are
+killed, the soldiers return to their bivouac, and if they inquire into
+the matter at all pass it off as a good jest.
+
+Is it any wonder that the population decreased to a wonderful degree in
+a few years? The sugar-cane had been introduced by Columbus on his
+second voyage, and labour was soon required for cultivating this and
+other crops. As long as slaves were procurable the planters throve, and
+as by that time Hispaniola had become the great centre of the Indies,
+the settlers were in a fair way to make fortunes. But the decrease in
+the population became alarming, and something had to be done; then, new
+settlers were continually arriving who also wanted slaves. It followed,
+therefore, that some of the more audacious of the adventurers took up
+the trade of kidnapping the Indians from other islands and the mainland.
+A host of disappointed treasure-seekers had ransacked every shore, and
+were now well prepared for the business of man-hunting.
+
+The first people to suffer were those who so kindly welcomed Columbus on
+his arrival--the gentle inhabitants of the Bahamas. They were even more
+peaceful than the Haïtians, because they had not suffered from Carib
+invasions. When the slave hunters told them to come to the south and
+live with their ancestors, they willingly allowed themselves to be
+carried off to suffer like their neighbours. Some ran away and got to
+the northern shores of Hispaniola, where they stretched out their hands
+to their beautiful homes and then died of grief.
+
+Having entirely depopulated the smaller islands, and being prevented
+from kidnapping the people of Cuba, Porto Rico, and Jamaica, by the
+settlers on those islands, they tried the Caribbees. Here they met their
+match. No longer was it the gentle Arawak whom they encountered, but the
+ferocious cannibal. Like his foes he had been trained in war for many
+generations. Not only did he refuse to work for the stranger, but even
+went so far as to oppose his landing. On his islands was little to
+attract the treasure-seeker, and if he would not submit to be a slave,
+nothing was to be gained by interfering with him. This the Spaniard
+found out by bitter experience. A few vessels were wrecked on these
+inhospitable shores, the crews of which escaped to land only to be
+killed and eaten, after being tortured with all the ingenuity of the
+savage. Even a landing for fresh water had to be made in the most
+cautious manner, and the carriers protected by a strong guard. No doubt
+the Caribs had heard of the white man's cruelties from their Arawak
+prisoners, and were therefore all the more ready to repel their
+invasions. This was particularly noticeable later when the English and
+French arrived and found them by no means so ferocious as the Spaniards
+had reported. Possibly they knew these people to be enemies to their
+foes, and were therefore all the more ready to be friendly as long as no
+attempts were made to oppress them.
+
+Hispaniola rose to some importance very quickly, and almost as quickly
+declined. The settlers depopulated the island, and then complained of
+the want of labourers. The gold-seekers went elsewhere, and Mexico and
+the isthmus of Darien became of more importance. Some writers have
+attempted to give the number of Indians exterminated in the early years
+of the sixteenth century, but little reliance can be placed on their
+statistics. Generally, they range from one to three millions, but it is
+doubtful whether even the lowest figure is not too high. Yet, when we
+read the statement of Columbus that crowds of people (in one place two
+thousand) came forth to meet him, and his description of the large area
+of cultivated land, as well as the broad and good roads, it is not
+difficult to conceive that a million people lived in these great
+islands.
+
+With the destruction of the labourers down fell the plantations. Cattle
+had been introduced and throve wonderfully; now they ran wild over the
+islands, especially Hispaniola, until they became innumerable. On the
+abandoned provision grounds of the Indians they found a virgin
+pasturage. Hogs also took to the woods, and increased even faster than
+the cattle. At first there were neither huntsmen nor carnivorous animals
+to check this wonderful development. The once domesticated animals
+recovered some of the powers and capacities of their wild ancestors,
+and only required enemies to assist in bringing out other latent
+characters. And these were not long wanting. Large and powerful hounds
+had been imported from Spain to hunt the runaway Indians, and now that
+their occupation was gone, they also took to the woods and savannahs.
+Like their ancestors and cousins, the wolves, they combined into packs
+and fought the cattle and hogs. Both hunters and hunted became stronger
+and fiercer--the dogs learnt how best to attack, and their prey to
+defend themselves. It was a struggle like that between the cannibals and
+meal-eaters--nature's method of preserving the balance of life. This
+equalisation no doubt would have been the result had not man interfered;
+how this happened we must leave to another chapter.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+II.
+
+THE QUEST FOR "EL DORADO".
+
+
+Ophir was not found in the islands, and the bands of adventurers went
+over to _terra firma_ or the mainland to continue the search. Along the
+coast of Guiana and Venezuela they again came across the gentle Arawak
+and ferocious Carib, the latter making himself respected everywhere,
+while his poor-spirited fellow-countryman was alternately caressed and
+plundered. In every place the Spaniards found gold ornaments, and every
+tribe told them that the precious metal was only obtainable in some far
+distant country. The Haïtians sent Columbus to the south in search of
+the _guanin_ country, and it was there he discovered the coast of Paria
+and the delta of the mighty Orinoco. But he was not fated to come across
+the treasure cities of the Indies.
+
+Others followed to at last conquer Mexico and Peru, but even then it was
+generally believed that nations existed who had more riches to be
+plundered than those of the Inca and Montezuma. To find these golden
+regions the voyagers wandered in every direction, contributing much to
+the knowledge of the coasts and rivers, but always coming back
+disappointed.
+
+The horrors of this search can hardly be appreciated nowadays. The ships
+were so small and ill-found that we should hardly care to use them for
+coasters, yet in them these pioneers crossed the Atlantic and
+encountered the hurricanes of the West Indies. Decked only at bow and
+stern, the waves dashed into the hold and wetted the provisions, while
+the sun poured down upon the water casks and burst their wooden hoops.
+The butter and cheese stank, the flour in sacks became mouldy, and the
+bacon and salt fish putrid. Then the hull of the vessel was unprotected,
+and the teredo, or ship worm, bored it through and through, until
+nothing but careening and caulking could save the poor craft from
+sinking. When we understand the privations and dangers of this
+navigation we are not surprised that the adventurers often came to
+grief, but rather wonder that any of them survived.
+
+Living in the West Indies, we have often thought of the pain and
+suffering it would produce if we were compelled to walk or sit in the
+burning sun armed as were the soldiers at that period. We can hardly
+believe that they wore steel body armour, yet the evidence is too strong
+to be refuted. True, they gave it up afterwards in favour of quilted
+cotton, but before they did so how hot they must have felt! We can fancy
+the sentry standing exposed to the full blaze of the sun, his helmet and
+breastplate burning hot and his woollen underclothing saturated with
+perspiration. Then there would be the open boat ascending a river. The
+occupants dared not row in the shade for fear of cannibals shooting at
+them with poisoned arrows from the thicket, and out in the river they
+must have felt as if in a furnace. Even with our white clothing and
+light hats a long journey in an open boat when the sun is high often
+ends in fever, and almost invariably in a headache. The neck and backs
+of the hands get blistered, and become sore, the glare on the water
+dazzles the eye, and we feel faint.
+
+In one of the accounts of such a boating expedition on a river in Guiana
+we read of the men finding some yellow plums floating on the water, and
+of their being much refreshed by them. We also have come across these
+hog-plums when almost exhausted by a long exposure on the open river,
+and when even our negro steersman was nodding as he held the paddle.
+Suddenly we came to our destination, the mouth of a creek, and were
+under an arcade of vegetation, beneath which the plums floated on the
+cool dark water.
+
+The men of the sixteenth century must have been stronger than ourselves,
+or they could hardly have endured such pain and privation. They lay down
+on the bare earth night after night, and on board ship went to sleep on
+naked planks. As they could endure pain and discomfort, so also could
+they inflict it on others. The rough seamen learnt to bear hardships
+which blunted their feelings of humanity and made them inclined to
+torture others. When in the hands of the cannibals they were almost as
+stoical as the savage himself, their ruling passion being a desire for
+revenge. If cruelly treated by one tribe they retaliated on others; in
+the same way the Indians killed one party of Spaniards to avenge the
+insults of their countrymen. This led to a great deal of trouble and
+made the voyages of the treasure-seekers dangerous to all. However free
+from blame one party might be, they were liable to suffer for previous
+wrong-doings and they in turn left behind them injuries to be avenged
+on the next comers.
+
+[Illustration: A GUIANA RIVER. THE TUMATAMARI FALLS.]
+
+And then, how very audacious these adventurers were! Alonzo de Ojeda was
+perhaps the most striking example of utter recklessness in face of
+danger. In 1509 he entered the harbour of Carthagena in spite of a
+warning that its shores were inhabited by a ferocious tribe who fought
+with palm-wood swords and poisoned arrows. It was even stated that the
+women mingled in the battle, and could use the bow and a kind of lance.
+
+These people had been irritated by another party of Spaniards, and on
+sight of the vessels were up in arms at once. However, Ojeda was
+undaunted, and landed at once with his men and some friars, who had been
+sent to convert the Indians. In front stood the enemy brandishing their
+weapons, and prepared for the first hostile movement. Yet, even under
+these critical circumstances, he ordered the usual proclamation to be
+read to the Indians in a language of which they knew nothing. He, Alonzo
+de Ojeda, servant of the most high and mighty sovereigns of Castile and
+Leon, conquerors of barbarous nations, notified them that God had given
+St. Peter the supreme power over the world, which power was exercised by
+the Pope, who had given all that part of the world to these sovereigns.
+They were called upon to acknowledge this sovereignty at once, which, if
+they refused to do, he would bring upon them the horrors of war,
+desolation to their houses, confiscation of their property, and slavery
+to their wives and children.
+
+[Illustration: INHABITANTS OF THE SPANISH MAIN.
+
+(_From Colijn's "Reisen."_)]
+
+While one of the friars read this address the savages stood on the
+defensive, no doubt wondering what the delay meant. Ojeda knew not their
+language, and they took little notice of his signs of amity. As they
+still brandished their weapons, the intrepid adventurer led on an
+attack, calling the Virgin to his aid, and in a few minutes put them to
+flight, killing a few and taking others prisoners. Not content with
+this, he followed them through the forest to their village, and after a
+deadly fight, drove them out and burnt their dwellings. Still undaunted,
+he went on to another village, which he found deserted, but while his
+men were searching for plunder he was attacked by the enemy in
+overwhelming numbers. All his followers were killed, and he himself
+wounded with a poisoned arrow, yet he managed to escape into the forest
+to suffer hunger and thirst in addition to the pain of his wound.
+
+Meanwhile his men on board the ships were wondering what had become of
+their leader and his party. They were afraid to venture far into the
+woods on account of the yells and shouts of the Indians, who were
+celebrating their triumph. At last, however, they commenced a search,
+and found their captain in a mangrove swamp, lying on a tangle of roots,
+speechless and dying of hunger, yet still clutching his naked sword and
+bearing his buckler. Notwithstanding all this, he ultimately recovered,
+to go on as eagerly as ever in making fresh conquests.
+
+Later, the proclamation to the Indians was interpreted to them,
+sometimes eliciting replies very much to the point. When the Bachelor
+Enciso went in search of the country of Zenu, where gold was so
+plentiful that it could be collected in the rainy season in nets
+stretched across the river, he was opposed by two Caciques, to whom the
+paper was read. They listened courteously, and, when it had been
+expounded, said they were quite willing to admit that there was one God,
+the ruler of heaven and earth, whose creatures they were. But as to the
+Pope's regency and his donation of _their_ country to the king of Spain,
+that was another thing altogether. The Pope must have been drunk when he
+gave away what was not his, and the king could only have been mad to ask
+him for the territory of others. They, the Caciques, were the rulers of
+these territories, and needed no other sovereign: if their king came to
+take possession they would cut off his head and stick it on a pole, as
+they did the heads of their other enemies, at the same time pointing to
+a row of grisly skulls impaled close by. Their arguments, however, were
+useless, for Enciso attacked, routed them, and took one of the Caciques
+prisoner.
+
+The accounts of the early voyagers are full of such examples of audacity
+as well as of endurance of suffering. The perils of the sea were as
+great as those of the land, but few voyages were as disastrous as that
+of Valdivia, who in 1512 sailed from Darien for Hispaniola. When in
+sight of Jamaica, his vessel was caught in a hurricane and driven upon
+some shoals called the Vipers, where it was dashed to pieces. He and his
+twenty men barely escaped with their lives in a boat without sails,
+oars, water, or provisions. For thirteen days they drifted about, until
+seven were dead and the remainder helpless. Then the boat stranded on
+the coast of Yucatan, and the poor wretches were captured by Indians, to
+be taken before their Cacique. They were now put into a kind of pen to
+fatten for the cannibal festival. Valdivia and four others were taken
+first, and the horror produced on their comrades led them to risk
+everything and break out of their prison in the night. Having succeeded
+in reaching the forest, they were almost as badly off, for no food could
+be had, and they dared not run the risk of going near the villages.
+Almost perishing with hunger, they at last reached another part of the
+country, to be again captured, and kept as slaves. Finally they all died
+except two, one of whom at last escaped to tell the tale almost by a
+miracle.
+
+One of the stories is suggestive of "Robinson Crusoe." In 1499 Niño and
+Guerra sailed from Spain in a bark of fifty tons, and, while exploring
+the Gulf of Paria, came across eighteen Carib canoes filled with armed
+men. The savages assailed them with flights of arrows, but the sudden
+boom of the cannon frightened them away at once. One canoe, however, was
+captured, in which they took a Carib prisoner, and found an Arawak
+captive lying bound at the bottom. On being liberated, the Arawak
+informed the Spaniards, through their interpreter, that he was the last
+of seven who had been taken by the cannibals. The other six had been
+killed and eaten one after another, and he had been reserved for the
+next evening meal. The Spaniards, incensed against the man-eater, gave
+him into the hands of the Arawak, at the same time handing him a
+cudgel, leaving his enemy unarmed. Immediately the Arawak sprang upon
+him, knocked him sprawling, trod his breath out of his body, and at the
+same time beat him with his fist until nothing but a shapeless corpse
+remained. But, not yet satisfied, he tore the head off and stuck it on a
+pole as a trophy.
+
+After the conquest of Mexico and Peru had rewarded Cortez and Pizarro,
+others wished to be equally fortunate. From the Indians came reports of
+golden countries in the interior, and land expeditions were projected.
+These reports grew into shape, and at last a quest as romantic as that
+for the Holy Grail, led one adventurer after another on and on, to
+starvation, sickness, and death.
+
+The germ of the story of "El Dorado," the lake of golden sands, and the
+glittering city of Manoa, appears to have first arisen in New Granada.
+Here was the Lake of Guatavita, and before the arrival of the Spaniards
+this was the scene of an annual religious festival. To the genius of the
+lake the Cacique of the neighbouring district offered a holy sacrifice
+on a certain day. In the morning he anointed his body with balsam, and
+then rolled himself in gold dust until he became a "gilded king." Then,
+embarking in a canoe with his nobles, he was paddled to the centre of
+the lake, crowds of people thronging its shores and honouring him with
+songs and the din of rude instrumental music. Offerings to the god of
+the lake were made from the canoe, gold, emeralds, pearls, and
+everything precious being scattered upon the water. Finally, the Cacique
+jumped in himself and washed the gold from his body, while the people
+shouted for joy. To wind up the festival a great drinking bout was held,
+when canoesful of piwarree, the Indian's beer, were drunk, and every one
+made merry.
+
+Such was the tradition--for the ceremony had been discontinued half a
+century before--which had so impressed itself over the northern shores
+of South America, as to be told from the Amazon to the isthmus of
+Darien. "El Dorado" was gilded every morning, and his city was full of
+beautiful golden palaces. It stood on the edge of the great salt lake
+Parima, the sands of which were composed of the precious metal. Some
+went so far as to say that they had seen the glittering city from a
+distance, and were only prevented from reaching it by the peculiar
+difficulties of the way. Not to mention tigers and alligators,
+starvation and sickness, there were "anthropophagoi and men whose heads
+do grow beneath their shoulders," besides amazons and fiery dragons.
+Wherever the story was told the golden city was located at a far
+distance, and it seemed ever to recede before the eager seekers. They
+sought it in the forest and on the savannah, over the lofty peaks of the
+Andes, and along the banks of the mighty rivers. The whole of the
+Spanish Main was explored, and places then visited which have hardly
+been seen again by the white man down to the present date.
+
+The quest began in New Granada, and from thence it shifted to Venezuela.
+The most daring seekers were German knights, the Welsers of Augsburg.
+They had received charters from Charles the Fifth, under which they
+were empowered to found cities, erect forts, work mines, and make slaves
+of the Indians. One of their representatives, Ambrosio de Alfinger, set
+out in 1530, accompanied by two hundred Spaniards, and a larger number
+of Indians, laden with provisions and other necessaries. On the journey
+the party committed such brutalities upon the poor natives that the
+reports afterwards helped to fire the blood of Englishmen, and make them
+bitterly cruel. To prevent the bearers from running away they were
+strung together on chains, running through rings round their necks. If
+one of them dropped from sickness or exhaustion, his head was cut off,
+the ring loosened, and thus the trouble of interfering with the chain
+saved. If he were to be left behind, it did not matter whether he was
+alive or dead. At one place on the river Magdalena the frightened
+natives took refuge on some islands, but the Spaniards swam their horses
+across and killed or took prisoners the whole of them. From their
+Cacique Alfinger got booty to the value of sixty thousand dollars, with
+which he sent back for further supplies. But, although he waited for a
+year his messengers did not return, and the company were reduced to such
+straits that many died for want of bare food. But the Indians fared much
+worse, for their provision grounds were utterly destroyed, and what with
+murders and starvation the surrounding country was quite depopulated and
+desolate.
+
+Even Alfinger had to give up waiting for his supplies and move on at
+last, for these had been utilised by his lieutenant on an expedition of
+his own. The party eked out a bare subsistence with wild fruits and
+game. If they found a village they plundered it of everything it
+contained, dug up the provisions from the fields, and left the survivors
+of the massacre to starve. Not that they themselves were in a much
+better plight; fever, the result of want and exposure, carried them off
+in continually increasing numbers. At last they got into a mountain
+region, and the poor naked bearers were frozen to death. Descending
+again they encountered stronger and fiercer tribes, by whom they were
+defeated, the cruel Alfinger himself dying two days afterwards from his
+wounds. A small remnant only returned after two years' absence, leaving
+a track of pain and suffering to make their memory accursed for many
+generations.
+
+George of Spires now fitted out a great expedition of three hundred
+infantry and two hundred cavalry, which started in 1536. They also went
+a long distance into the interior, braving hardships and dangers almost
+incredible. Jaguars carried off their horses, and even went so far as to
+attack and kill several of the Indian bearers and one Spaniard. Like
+their predecessors, they also encountered savage Indians, and died of
+starvation and sickness. After journeying fifteen hundred miles from the
+coast they had to return unsuccessful; but as their leader was less
+cruel than Alfinger, the losses of the party were not so great. Instead
+of dying on the journey he lived to become Governor of Venezuela.
+
+Nicholas Fedreman followed the last party with supplies, but took them
+to go treasure-seeking on his own account. He wandered about for three
+years, and at last returned with some wonderful stories which induced
+others to continue the search. Herman de Quesada also travelled about
+for a year, and returned like his predecessors. Then Philip von Huten,
+who had gone already with George of Spires, fitted out a great
+expedition. His party was at one time so utterly famished that they had
+to eat ants, which they captured by placing corn cobs near the nests of
+these little creatures. They travelled in a great circle without knowing
+where they went, and at the end of a year came back to the place from
+whence they had started. Hearing, however, of a rich city called
+Macatoa, Von Huten started again, and found streets of houses with about
+eight hundred inhabitants, but no treasure. The people here sent him on
+farther, with their tales of the Omaguas, a warlike people living away
+in the south. On he went for five days, and at last came upon what he
+thought must be the golden city. It stretched away as far as the eye
+could reach, and in the centre was a great temple. But, although the
+little party charged gallantly down a hill and into the town, the
+Omaguas came out in such force that they had to retreat, bearing their
+wounded leader in a hammock. Continually harassed by Indians, they at
+last got back, to tell such stories of the dangers of the quest that the
+Omaguas seem to have been afterwards left alone.
+
+Our account of the search for "El Dorado" is necessarily short and
+imperfect, as it would be impossible even to enumerate all the
+expeditions. There is one, however, that was so tragic and awful, that,
+although it was fitted out in Peru, it must yet be mentioned in the
+story of the Spanish Main.
+
+[Illustration: "EL DORADO."
+
+(_From Gottfried's "Reisen."_)]
+
+Notwithstanding the enormous quantities of gold and silver found in
+Peru, the crowds of needy treasure-seekers who went to that country gave
+some trouble to the Viceroy, who appears to have been willing to get rid
+of them at any cost. Whether he purposely sent them on a "wild goose
+chase," or whether he really believed the "El Dorado" story, is
+doubtful, but it is certain that he thought it prudent to give them
+employment in some way, to prevent mischief in his province.
+
+The expedition was put in command of Pedro de Ursua, and was intended to
+go down the Amazon in search of treasure cities. Embarking on the river
+Huallaga, in the year 1560, they had hardly passed the mouth of Ucayali
+before Ursua found he had a most unprincipled gang of scoundrels under
+his command. A little farther down the river they mutinied, under the
+leadership of Lope de Aguirre, and murdered Ursua and his lieutenant,
+appointing Guzman as captain. Being dissatisfied, however, with their
+new commander, they also killed him a little later, together with most
+of his adherents.
+
+Now Aguirre became leader--a ruffian whose character was of the
+blackest. Father Pedro Simon delineates his features and character,
+making him out to be a very devil. He was about fifty years of age,
+short of stature and sparsely built, ill-featured, his face small and
+lean, his beard black, and his eyes as piercing as those of a hawk. When
+he looked at any one he fixed his gaze sternly, particularly when
+annoyed; he was a noisy talker and boaster, and when well supported very
+bold and determined, but otherwise a coward. Of a very hardy
+constitution, he could bear much fatigue, either on foot or horseback.
+He was never without one or two coats of mail or a steel breastplate,
+and always carried a sword, dagger, arquebuse, or lance. His sleep was
+mostly taken in the day, as he was afraid to rest at night, although he
+never took off his armour altogether nor put away his weapons. Simon
+said he had always been of a turbulent disposition; a lover of revolts
+and mutinies; an enemy to all good men and good actions.
+
+Such was the Tyrant or Traitor Aguirre--virtually a madman--who now
+became the leader of a band of wretches like-minded to himself. They
+journeyed down the mighty river, now and again murdering one or another
+of the party, on the least suspicion of their dislike to their
+proceedings, and ill-treating the natives everywhere.
+
+Aguirre was not ashamed to boast that he had murdered a woman--not an
+Indian, but a beautiful Spanish lady, who had accompanied her lover on
+this arduous journey. Donna Inez de Altienza, a young widow, fell
+passionately in love with Ursua, who was brave, generous, and handsome;
+and loath to part with him, she undertook the hitherto unheard-of
+journey of thousands of miles in a strange and savage country. No fears
+or terrors daunted this devoted woman until after the death of her
+lover. Aguirre then picked a quarrel on the ground that her mattress was
+too large for the boat, and she also was murdered. The Spanish poet,
+Castellanos, thus laments the cruel deed:--
+
+    "The birds mourned on the trees;
+    The wild beasts of the forest lamented;
+    The waters ceased to murmur;
+    The fishes beneath the waters groaned;
+    The winds execrated the deed
+    When Llamoso cut the veins of her white neck.
+    Wretch! wert thou born of woman?
+    No! what beast could have such a wicked son?
+    How was it that thou didst not die
+    In imagining a treason so enormous?
+    Her two women, 'midst lamentation and grief,
+    Gathered flowers to cover her grave,
+    And cut her epitaph in the bark of a tree--
+    'These flowers cover one whose faithfulness
+    And beauty were unequalled,
+    Whom cruel men slew without a cause.'"
+
+Whether Aguirre reached the mouth of the Amazon is doubtful--the
+evidence is in favour of his getting out of that river into the Rio
+Negro, and from thence into the Orinoco. However this may have been, he
+arrived at last in the Gulf of Paria and proceeded to the island of
+Margarita. Here, true to his character, he and his men commenced to
+plunder and kill the inhabitants, going so far as to defy the local
+authorities and even the king of Spain himself. To even enumerate the
+deeds of this band of outlaws would fill a chapter, but we cannot omit
+giving an extract from Aguirre's letter to his king, one of the most
+curious productions ever written:--
+
+"I firmly believe that thou, O Christian king and lord, hast been very
+cruel and ungrateful to me and my companions for such good service, and
+that all those who write to thee from this land deceive thee much,
+because thou seest things from too far off. I and my companions, no
+longer able to suffer the cruelties which thy judges and governors
+exercise in thy name, are resolved to obey thee no longer.... Hear me! O
+hear me! thou king of Spain. Be not cruel to thy vassals.... Remember,
+King Philip, that thou hast no right to draw revenues from these
+provinces, since their conquest has been without danger to thee. I take
+it for certain that few kings go to hell, only because they are few in
+number; if they were many, none of them would go to heaven. For I
+believe that you are all worse than Lucifer, and that you hunger and
+thirst after human blood; and further, I think little of you and despise
+you all; nor do I look upon your government as more than an air
+bubble....
+
+"In the year 1559 the Marquis of Canete entrusted the expedition of the
+river of Amazons to Pedro de Ursua, a Navarrese, or, rather, a
+Frenchman, who delayed the building of his vessels till 1560. These
+vessels were built in the province of the Motilones, which is a wet
+country, and, as they were built in the rainy season, they came to
+pieces, and we therefore made canoes and descended the river. We
+navigated the most powerful river in Peru, and it seemed to us that we
+were in a sea of fresh water. We descended the river for three hundred
+leagues. This bad governor was capricious, vain, and inefficient, so
+that we could not suffer it, and we gave him a quick and certain death.
+We then raised Don Fernando de Guzman to be our king.... Because I did
+not consent to their evil deeds they desired to murder me. I therefore
+killed the new king, the captain of his guard, his lieutenant-general,
+four captains, his major-domo, his chaplain who said mass, a woman, a
+knight of the Order of Rhodes, an admiral, two ensigns, and five or six
+of his servants. I named captains and sergeants, but these men also
+wanted to kill me, and I hanged them. We continued our course while this
+evil fortune was befalling us, and it was eleven months and a half
+before we reached the mouths of the river, having travelled for more
+than a hundred days over more than fifteen hundred leagues. This river
+has a course of two thousand leagues of fresh water, the greater part of
+the shores being uninhabited, and God only knows how we ever escaped out
+of that fearful lake. I advise thee not to send any Spanish fleet up
+this ill-omened river, for, on the faith of a Christian, I swear to
+thee, O king and lord, that if a hundred thousand men should go up, not
+one would escape....
+
+"We shall give God thanks if, by our arms, we attain the rewards which
+are due to us, but which thou hast denied us; and because of thine
+ingratitude I am a rebel against thee until death."
+
+He and his band of outlaws ravaged the settlements of Venezuela for some
+time, until at last, on a promise of pardon, all left him save Llamoso,
+the murderer of Lady Inez. Aguirre had a daughter, a girl of twelve to
+fourteen, and when he found that all was lost he resolved to kill her.
+They were living at a country house, and when Llamoso brought the news
+of the desertion of his men, he snatched up a loaded arquebuse and
+rushed into his child's room, saying, "Commend thyself to God, my
+daughter, for I am about to kill thee, that thou mayest not be pointed
+at with scorn, nor that it be in the power of any one to call thee the
+daughter of a traitor." A woman snatched the weapon from his hand, but,
+drawing his poniard, he stabbed the girl in the breast, saying, "Die!
+because I must die!" Rushing then to the door, he found the house
+surrounded by Spanish soldiers, who compelled him to surrender, and
+almost immediately took him out to be shot.
+
+This put an end to treasure-seeking on the Amazon, but the search for
+"El Dorado" had been going on and was still continued along the banks of
+the Orinoco. The first attempt to reach the golden city by this river
+appears to have been made by Pedro de Acosta about the year 1530, but
+after most of his men had been killed and eaten by the cannibals, he was
+compelled to abandon his project. After him came Diego de Ordas, the
+following year, whose expedition became afterwards famous. He, however,
+found nothing himself, although he went as far as the mouth of the
+Caroni--it was from one of his men that the "El Dorado" story was
+gleaned. By some accident the whole of the gunpowder was exploded, and
+this being attributed to the negligence of the munitioner, Juan
+Martinez, he was sentenced to be put in a canoe, without paddles or
+food, and allowed to drift at the mercy of the current.
+
+What became of the culprit was not known, but some months afterwards a
+strange white man was brought by some Indians to Margarita. He was
+wasted by sickness, naked, and apparently destitute, but, through the
+kindness of a ship-captain, he got a passage to Porto Rico, and was
+there placed in a religious house, under the care of some Dominican
+friars. Here he became worse, but when on the point of death he
+presented his friends with two gourdsful of gold beads to pay for the
+repose of his soul; he also declared himself to be Juan Martinez, and
+told the wonderful story of his adventures.
+
+After being cast adrift, the canoe floated down the stream until
+evening, when it attracted the attention of some Indians, who paddled
+out from the shore and rescued Martinez from his perilous situation.
+These were Guianians, who had never before seen a white man, and
+therefore resolved to take him to their king as a curiosity. He was,
+however, blind-folded to prevent his seeing the direction they were
+taking, and led on and on, through forest and over mountain, for fifteen
+days, until a great city was reached. Arriving here at noon, his bandage
+was taken off, and Martinez feasted his eyes upon a great plain covered
+with houses, the roofs of which glittered in the sun as if made of gold.
+As far as his eye could reach stretched this marvellous assemblage of
+palaces. In the centre dwelt the great king, but, although the party
+travelled the whole of that and the next day, they did not reach the
+palace until evening.
+
+Here Martinez was well treated, and allowed to walk about the city, but
+not beyond it. He remained for seven months, saw the great lake on the
+shore of which the city of Manoa stood, and handled its golden sands.
+However, he was not content to remain, and after repeated petitions to
+be allowed to depart, was at last furnished with guides and as much
+gold as they could carry. Arrived at the Orinoco, the cannibals fell
+upon the party, stole all the treasure save that hidden under some
+provisions in the two gourds, and left them destitute. After enduring
+many privations Martinez, however, got a passage in an Indian canoe to
+Margarita, from whence he expected to go to Spain and report his
+discovery to the king.
+
+What amount of truth, if any at all, was contained in the story is
+doubtful. It does not appear to have been told at once, but gradually
+leaked out, becoming more marvellous as it spread over the West Indies.
+Adventurers flocked to the Orinoco, and at least a score of expeditions
+went in search of "El Dorado." Under the command of bold adventurers one
+party after another entered into the forest, some never to return or to
+be heard of again. The remnant sometimes came back starving, and broken
+down with sickness. We read of one Juan Corteso that he marched into the
+country, but neither he nor any of his company did return again. Gaspar
+de Sylva and his two brothers sought El Dorado, but fell down to
+Trinidad, where all three were buried. Jeronimo Ortal, after great
+travail and spending all his substance, died on a sudden at St. Domingo.
+Father Iala, a friar, with only one companion and some Indian guides,
+returned with gold eagles, idols, and other jewels, but when he essayed
+to pass a second time was slain by Indians. Alonzo de Herera endured
+great misery, but never entered one league into the country; he also was
+at last slain by Indians. Antonio Sedenno got much gold and many Indian
+prisoners, whom he manacled in irons, and of whom many died on the way.
+The tigers being fleshed with the dead carcases assaulted the Spaniards,
+who with much trouble hardly defended themselves from them. Sedenno was
+buried within the precincts of the empire of the gilded king, and most
+of his people perished likewise. Augustine Delgado came to an Indian
+Cacique, who entertained him with kindness and gave him rich jewels, six
+seemly pages, ten young slaves, and three nymphs very beautiful. To
+requite these manifold courtesies he took all the gold he could get and
+all the Indians he could lay hold on, to sell for slaves. He was
+afterwards shot in the eye by an Indian, of which hurt he died.
+
+And so we might go on to tell of the thousands of people murdered and
+tens of thousands carried off as slaves; Every gold ornament was stolen,
+provision grounds destroyed, and the forest tracks strewn with the
+corpses of those who had been massacred, and marked out by the graves of
+their murderers. Sometimes treasure and slaves were recaptured and no
+one left to tell the tale, but more often a few escaped to fight over
+the booty and perhaps be hanged as mutineers on their return.
+
+The men of that age were undoubtedly great--great warriors, great
+ruffians, great villains. Only here and there can we distinguish a good
+man like Las Casas, who did his very best for the Indians against the
+opposition of the settlers and the lukewarmness of the Spanish Court. He
+was horrified at the atrocities in the Indies, but the kings wanted
+their tithes and cared little how they were obtained. "Get it honestly
+if you can, but get it," seems to have been their motto, and it was not
+for many years that anything like humanity was shown, and then only by a
+few priests.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+III.
+
+"SINGEING THE SPANIARD'S BEARD."
+
+
+On the discovery of the Indies, Ferdinand and Isabella at once applied
+to Pope Alexander the Sixth to secure the rights of Spain in the new
+countries against every other nation, but more especially against
+Portugal. Accordingly, the celebrated "Bull of partition" was issued on
+the 4th of May, 1493, giving, conceding, and assigning for ever, to them
+and their successors, all the islands and mainlands already found or
+that might be discovered in future, to the west of a line, stretching
+from the north to the south poles, a hundred leagues from the Azores or
+Cape de Verde Islands, provided they were not in the possession of any
+other Christian prince. The sovereigns were commanded to appoint
+upright, God-fearing, skilful, and learned men to instruct the
+inhabitants in the Catholic faith, and all unauthorised persons were
+forbidden to traffic on or even approach the territories. If they did so
+they would incur the indignation of Almighty God and of the blessed
+Apostles Peter and Paul.
+
+Such was the gist of the document under which the enormities mentioned
+in the preceding chapters were committed. Portugal, except for some
+disputes about Brazil, accepted this arrangement, but the other great
+nations of Europe, especially England, disputed it from the very
+beginning. Nevertheless, the governments, as long as they were at peace
+with Spain, took no active part in the matter, but left the work to
+individuals, even going so far in some instances as to disclaim their
+responsibility for piracies committed beyond the seas.
+
+English and French seamen, hearing of the treasure continually imported
+into Spain, soon found their way to the new world, and as early as the
+year 1526 precautions had to be taken against them. Orders were sent to
+build castles on the coasts and strong houses, not only for defence
+against the cannibals, who continued to ravage the larger islands, but
+to protect the settlements from French corsairs who had already
+commenced their depredations. The tract of the Spanish fleets led them
+first to St. Domingo, and thence on to the isthmus of Darien or Panama,
+where at first the chief port was Nombre de Dios. At these two points it
+was of great importance that fortifications should be erected, and this
+was done in the first half of the sixteenth century.
+
+An English merchant named Thomas Tison seems to have been the first of
+our nation who went to the West Indies, but he got his goods sent from
+Bristol to Spain. In 1527 King Henry VIII. fitted out the _Dominus
+Vobiscum_ and another vessel for those parts, but little is known of
+their course. It was, however, reported that they went to Porto Rico,
+and got there a cargo of brazil wood, and then proceeded to St. Domingo,
+where permission was asked to trade. After waiting for the license two
+days the Spanish batteries fired upon them, driving them off to go back
+to Porto Rico, where the inhabitants were more friendly.
+
+From this time the corsairs and rovers became more numerous and
+audacious every year. Some went trading among the Indians of the
+mainland, others, more bold, forced their goods upon the Spanish
+settlements under threats of pillage. In 1536 the inhabitants of Havana
+paid seven hundred ducats to a French corsair to save the city, and
+because later the pirate was chased by three Spanish vessels, which he
+captured, he returned and exacted a second ransom.
+
+In 1538 there was a gallant fight in the harbour of Santiago de Cuba,
+between a Spaniard and a French corsair. The two vessels fought with
+each other the first day until sunset, when a truce was agreed to, and
+civilities exchanged between the captains. They sent each other presents
+of wine and fruit, were very friendly, and mutually agreed to fight only
+by day with swords and lances. Artillery, they agreed, was an invention
+of cowards--they would show their valour, and the one who conquered
+should have the other's vessel. The second day they fought again until
+evening without either being conquered, and again they exchanged
+courtesies. That night, however, the Spanish captain, Diego Perez, sent
+to the people of the city asking if they would compensate him for the
+loss of his ship if the corsair got the better of him; if they agreed
+to do this he would risk his life in their service. Were he not poor and
+without any other property, he would not have asked them, and as they
+would be gainers by his victory, he did not think his request at all
+extravagant. But the authorities refused to pledge themselves to
+anything, leaving Perez to fight for his own honour, life, and property.
+The battle continued the whole of the third day, each giving the other
+time for rest and refreshment, yet neither was conquered, although many
+had fallen on both sides. After similar courtesies the fight went on
+next morning, and when evening came the Frenchman promised to continue
+it next morning. Feeling, however, that the Spaniard was likely to get
+the better of him, he slipped his cable in the night and made off,
+leaving Perez to grieve at the drawn battle.
+
+The same year Havana was sacked and burnt, and three years later both
+English and French did great injury to the Spanish trade. Even Portugal
+did not escape, but when complaints were sent to the king of France, he
+said he intended to follow those conquests and navigations which by
+right belonged to him. In 1545 five French vessels captured the
+pearl-fishing fleet near the Main, which the owners were compelled to
+ransom; at the same time they were forced to buy seventy negroes from
+the captors. The Frenchmen then took Santa Martha and got a thousand
+ducats as ransom.
+
+One raid after another took place until the Spaniards were at their
+wits' ends. Forts were built, _guarda-costas_ stationed, and other
+precautions taken, but the depredations and forced traffic still
+continued. They cruelly punished all who fell into their hands, and this
+led to retaliation, not only for their own injuries, but to avenge the
+slaughter of the innocent natives.
+
+About the year 1530 Master William Hawkins made three long and famous
+voyages in the ship _Paul_. Hakluyt said he went to Brazil--a thing very
+rare in those days to our English nation. He became so friendly with the
+Indians that one of their kings came to England in his vessel, and was
+exhibited to King Henry, who marvelled to see this savage representative
+of royalty. Unfortunately the poor fellow died on the return voyage,
+which made Hawkins fear for the white hostage he had left behind.
+However, his explanation was accepted, and his man given back
+unharmed--a result all the more pleasing, as he knew so little of the
+language, and might easily have been misunderstood.
+
+This is an example of the good feeling of these people towards
+Englishmen and all who treated them fairly. Even the cannibals became
+more gentle under good treatment, and would allow the enemies of Spain
+to land on their shores without opposition. By this time the natives of
+the Greater Antilles were gone, and with them the thousands of captives
+from the mainland. Then began the importation of negroes, first from
+Spain, where the Portuguese had sold a fair number during the previous
+century, and then from Africa. Spain could not send and fetch the
+negroes on account of the Papal Bull, which reserved the savage
+countries east of the line to Portugal. It followed, therefore, that, as
+Spain claimed the Indies, so her sister country claimed the whole of
+Africa--a claim as little respected by other nations as that of her
+neighbour.
+
+[Illustration: NEGRO WOMAN RETURNING FROM MARKET.]
+
+Hearing that there was a good market for negroes in the West, Captain
+(afterwards Sir) John Hawkins, in 1563, got up an expedition to supply
+this demand. With three vessels of 120, 100, and 40 tons respectively,
+he sailed to Sierra Leone, and partly by the sword and partly by other
+means, got three hundred slaves, whom he carried to Hispaniola. Here he
+had a reasonable sale, probably forced, for he trusted the Spaniards no
+farther than he thought prudent, considering his strength. His returns
+were so good, however, that he not only loaded his own vessels with
+hides, ginger, sugar, and some pearls, but also freighted two hulks to
+send to Spain.
+
+[Illustration: NEGRO BARBER]
+
+[Illustration: NEGRO FAMILY ON HOLIDAY.]
+
+This success induced him to make another venture on a larger scale with
+the _Jesus_ of Lubeck, of 700, and three other vessels of 140, 50, and
+30 tons. He sailed for Africa in October, 1564, to kidnap slaves, yet
+all the time he was very religious in a way. His orders concluded with
+the commands to "serve God daily; love one another; preserve your
+victuals; beware of fire; and keep good company"--_i.e._, do not stray
+from others of the fleet. At several places he took negroes by force,
+losing a few of his men in the fights, and with a good number set off
+for the West Indies. Fortunately, he said, although they were in great
+danger from a gale on this voyage, they arrived without many deaths of
+either the negroes or themselves. For "the Almighty God, who never
+suffereth His elect to perish, sent us, on the 16th of February (1565),
+the ordinary breeze."
+
+[Illustration: NEGRESSES GOSSIPING.]
+
+The first land they sighted was Dominica, where they watered, and then
+went on to Margarita, the Governor of which island refused them
+permission to trade. They then tried several other places, including
+Hispaniola and Cumaná, but also without success. At Barbarota they
+forced the people to traffic, and here they were joined by Captain
+Bontemps, a French corsair, with whom they went to Curaçao, and forced a
+hundred slaves upon the inhabitants. Finally they went to Rio de la
+Hacha and defeated a body of Spanish troops, after which the remainder
+of Hawkins' cargo was freely sold.
+
+In his third voyage, on which he started in October, 1567, Hawkins was
+accompanied by Francis Drake and several other gentlemen adventurers. He
+took a similar course to that of his former voyages, joined some African
+chiefs in storming a town, and received, as his share of the booty, five
+hundred prisoners, with whom he again sailed for the Indies. The alarmed
+Spaniards dared not refuse to trade, and consequently he soon sold his
+negroes at a good profit. On his return, however, he was caught in a
+storm near the coast of Florida and had to take shelter in the harbour
+of Vera Cruz, where at first his vessels were taken for a Spanish fleet
+then daily expected. Under this mistake several influential persons came
+on board, two of whom were retained as hostages.
+
+Next day the Spanish fleet, consisting of thirteen sail, arrived, and on
+board one of them was the new Viceroy of Mexico. From this high
+authority Hawkins got permission to repair his ships, victual, and
+refit, provided the English kept themselves to a small island in the
+harbour, for the due performance of which they gave twelve hostages.
+
+But the Spaniards were not prepared to let their enemies off so easily,
+and made preparations for a surprise. Hawkins, becoming suspicious, sent
+to inquire about certain shady transactions, and was at once attacked by
+something like a thousand men. The Spaniards sunk three of his vessels,
+seriously damaged the fourth, and left him with only one leaky ship in
+which to find his way home. A great number of his men were killed and
+others captured, the prisoners to be taken to Mexico and there cruelly
+used. Two of them--Miles Philips and Job Hortop--managed to escape and
+return to England, where they gave long accounts of their sufferings,
+the latter comparing himself to his namesake the patriarch. As for
+Hawkins, in speaking of his return voyage, he said, that "if all the
+miserable and troublesome affairs of this sorrowful voyage should be
+perfectly and thoroughly written, there should need a painful man with
+his pen, and as great a time as he had that wrote the lives and deaths
+of the martyrs."
+
+This disaster put an end to Hawkins' slave-trading, but made no
+impression on the other adventurers to the Indies. Francis Drake now
+took up the quarrel, and in the year 1572 "singed the Spaniard's beard"
+to some purpose. Knowing already something of the state of affairs near
+the isthmus, he resolved to gain his spurs in that direction. He cared
+not for a forced trade in negroes, but virtually went in for piracy, for
+although the relations of the mother countries were at that time
+somewhat strained, war had not yet been declared.
+
+Drake sailed straight for Nombre de Dios, the treasure port, arrived
+suddenly before the inhabitants had any warning, and landed a hundred
+and fifty men in the night. Suddenly the town was roused to the fact
+that the enemy were in possession, and as the people ran off to the
+forest, they asked each other what was the matter. Unfortunately for
+Drake, however, through a misunderstanding, the English were alarmed and
+took to their vessels, so that all the advantage of the surprise was
+lost. Undaunted by this failure, he determined to attempt something even
+more audacious--the capture of the Panama train.
+
+We have already seen that African slaves had been imported in
+considerable numbers; we have now to mention that on the continent they
+often escaped into the forest. Here they lived like the Indians, and
+were often in friendship with them, going under the name of Simerons, or
+afterwards Maroons. Always at enmity with the masters whom they had
+deserted, they were a terror to the settlers on account of their
+continual raids on the plantations.
+
+Drake determined to get the assistance of these people, which was freely
+given, and he was enabled to traverse the pathless forest and to lie in
+wait for the train of mules carrying gold and silver from Panama to
+Nombre de Dios. This he captured, but, on account of the difficulties
+of the way, was obliged to leave the silver behind, and content himself
+with the gold. Then he attacked some merchants, burnt their goods to the
+value of two hundred thousand ducats, and got safely back to his ships
+just as the dilatory Spaniards sent out three hundred men for his
+capture. It was on this excursion that he saw the Great South Sea, and
+determined to carry English ships into that immense Spanish preserve.
+How he carried out his resolve, and appeared suddenly off the Peruvian
+coast five years later, is a story we must leave, as it belongs to
+another part of the new world.
+
+When Drake returned to Plymouth the news of his adventures, and the more
+substantial evidence of the gold he had brought, roused others to follow
+his example. Among them was one John Oxnam, or Oxenham, who has been
+immortalised by Kingsley in "Westward Ho!" Arriving at the isthmus in
+1575, in a vessel of 140 tons, he went to an out-of-the-way river, and
+hid his bark among the great trees. Landing with his seventy men, he
+went in search of the Simerons, who took him to a river which flowed
+into the South Sea, where a pinnace was built. In this the English
+pulled down to the Pacific, with the intention of capturing one of the
+treasure ships coming to Panama. They succeeded so far as to get sixty
+thousand dollars in gold from one bark, and a hundred thousand from
+another. Not yet satisfied, they went to the Pearl Islands, attacked the
+negro divers, and took a few pearls, with which they at last returned up
+the river.
+
+Unfortunately for Oxenham the negroes of the Pearl Islands carried the
+news of his presence to Panama, and in two days four boats with a
+hundred men were sent in pursuit. They found the two barks, which had
+been released, and from their captains learnt where the Englishmen had
+gone. Following up the river they were at a loss when they came to three
+branches, but spying some freshly plucked feathers floating down one of
+the streams, they followed that until they came upon the pinnace. Six
+men were on guard, one of whom was killed, but the other five escaped
+and gave the alarm to their comrades. Pursuing their track through the
+forest the Spaniards found the store of treasure hidden away under
+boughs of trees. With this they would have gone back had not Oxenham
+attacked them with two hundred Simerons before they reached their boats.
+Being more skilful in bush fighting than the English, the Spaniards
+repulsed the party, killing eleven and taking seven prisoners, from whom
+they learnt that the delay was caused by the difficulty of transporting
+the treasure.
+
+Now the news was sent to Nombre de Dios, and the authorities there found
+the English vessel and brought her away, thus cutting off the means of
+escape for those still lurking in the forest. Then an expedition was
+sent in search of them, and they were found building canoes. Some were
+sick and could make no resistance, the others fled and took refuge with
+the negroes, by whom they were ultimately betrayed and taken to Panama.
+Here Oxenham was interrogated as to his authority for the raid, and was
+obliged to admit that he had not his Queen's license. All except five
+boys were executed, the men at once, and the officers a little while
+afterwards at Lima.
+
+Thus ended one of the most audacious attacks on the Spaniards which only
+failed through a little want of calculation. Hakluyt, who wrote the
+account, said the enemy marvelled much to see that although many
+Frenchmen had come to these countries, yet never one durst put foot upon
+land; only Drake and Oxenham performed such exploits. When the news
+reached Spain the king was so alarmed that he sent out two galleys to
+guard the coast, which in the first year after their arrival took six or
+seven French vessels, and put a stop to their piracies for a time.
+
+There was another class of raids in the Indies, of which that of Andrew
+Barker, of Bristol, was an example. He, and one Captain Roberts, going
+to trade in the Canary Islands, had their goods confiscated, and were
+put in prison, from which Roberts escaped and Barker was ultimately
+discharged. To recoup his losses and revenge himself, Barker fitted out
+several vessels in 1576, in which he went trading to the Main, and
+afterwards committed acts of piracy. He took a small vessel off
+Margarita and a frigate near Carthagena, from which he got five hundred
+pounds' weight of gold and some emeralds. Now, following the example of
+Drake, he landed on the isthmus to get help from the Simerons, but could
+find none. Then, from the unhealthiness of the climate, most of his men
+fell sick, and eight or nine died, which made him give up this part of
+his project. Embarking again he took another Spanish vessel with some
+gold, but after that the party got into difficulties. Barker quarrelled
+with his ship-master, and one of the vessels became so leaky that they
+had to let her sink, first removing the cargo into the last Spanish
+prize. They, however, captured another vessel with a hundred pounds of
+silver and some provisions, but after that the crews mutinied and put
+Barker ashore with some others, where they were attacked by Spaniards,
+and nine, including the captain, killed. The mutineers then went on to
+Truxillo, which they surprised, but could find no treasure, and were
+soon driven to flight by a Spanish vessel. On their way home the Spanish
+vessel sunk, carrying down two thousand pounds' worth of their booty,
+and on their arrival at Plymouth they were imprisoned as accessories to
+their captain's death. Although none were executed, yet, says the worthy
+Hakluyt, "they could not avoid the heavy judgment of God, but shortly
+after came to miserable ends."
+
+Open war soon came, and culminated in the invasion of England by the
+"Invincible Armada" of 1588. No longer could there be any question of
+the Queen's license, and in 1585 Drake, now Sir Francis, fitted out a
+great fleet to cripple the power of Spain in the Indies. The Spanish
+authorities were no longer unprepared, but ready to give him a warm
+reception all along his expected course. The fleet consisted of
+twenty-five vessels, with two thousand three hundred men, among whom
+could be found many whose names are famous in the annals of Queen
+Elizabeth. At the Cape de Verde Islands they burnt the town of Santiago
+in revenge for the murder of a boy, and after this baptism of fire,
+proceeded to the island of St. Christopher's, where they landed the
+sick, cleaned their vessels, and spent Christmas. Leaving at the end of
+December, on the 1st of January, 1586, they arrived off Hispaniola with
+the intention of attacking St. Domingo. The English landed about ten
+miles distant from that city, marched upon the Spaniards unawares, and
+took it by surprise, notwithstanding every preparation that had been
+made, and the careful watch for enemies from the sea.
+
+Drake demanded a large ransom, and because it was not paid at once,
+commenced to demolish the buildings, which brought the inhabitants to
+their senses and made them offer the sum of 25,000 ducats (about
+£7,000), which he accepted. From thence the fleet sailed to Carthagena,
+where no opposition was made until the troops landed, when a great
+struggle took place in the streets. The Spaniards had erected
+barricades, behind which they succeeded in doing some execution, but
+only delayed the surrender for a short time. After a portion of the town
+had been burnt, 110,000 ducats were paid as ransom for the remainder,
+and after a few less brilliant exploits, the fleet went back to England,
+being thus hurried on account of sickness among the men. Otherwise,
+Drake had intended to capture Nombre de Dios and Panama, but from this
+disability had to be content with booty to the amount of £60,000, which
+would mean something like a quarter of a million at the present value of
+money. He arrived in time to help in repelling the Armada, and this
+invasion kept most of the English about their own shores for a year or
+two.
+
+In 1595, when there were no longer any fears of a Spanish landing, Drake
+determined on another voyage, and this time with Sir John Hawkins.
+Getting together six of the Queen's ships and twenty-one other vessels,
+they arrived safely at the Caribbee Islands, where Hawkins became sick
+and died. Drake then went on to Porto Rico and attacked the capital, but
+could do nothing more than capture a few vessels from under the guns of
+the forts. Going to the Main he captured Rio de la Hacha and a fishing
+village named Rancheria. These he held for ransom, but was dissatisfied
+with the number of pearls offered by private persons, the Governor
+refusing to give anything, and burnt both town and village. Santa Martha
+was also taken, and then Nombre de Dios, but he found that the treasure
+had been removed, the inhabitants taking to the forest when they heard
+his fearful name. Sir Thomas Baskerville took seven hundred and fifty
+men to go over to Panama, but returned much discouraged by the
+difficulties of the road. Drake finally burnt Nombre de Dios and every
+vessel in the harbour down to the smallest boats.
+
+After that, sickness began to tell upon the expedition, and Drake
+himself was stricken with dysentery. When on the point of death he rose
+from his bed, put on his full dress of admiral, called his men and gave
+them a farewell address, then, sinking down exhausted he died
+immediately afterwards. Several captains and other important officers
+also died, and they even lost the chief surgeon; after that, nothing was
+left but to return home. Off Cuba they were attacked by a Spanish fleet
+of twenty vessels, sent out to intercept them, with which they kept up
+a running fight until the enemy were left behind.
+
+On their arrival in England in May, 1596, the sad news of the death of
+Drake overshadowed all the glory of the expedition. In Spain, however,
+it was published for general information, and the people congratulated
+each other that at last their enemy was gone. Henry Savile, in his
+"Libel of Spanish Lies," said "it did ease the stomachs of the timorous
+Spaniards greatly to hear of the death of him whose life was a scourge
+and a continual plague to them." No wonder that the news was so
+grateful, for none was so daring, and no name like that of Drake ever
+came to be used as a bogey with which to frighten their children.
+
+Yet there were many gallant adventurers in the Indies at that very time.
+Sir Robert Dudley and Sir Walter Ralegh were both at Trinidad in 1595,
+and for several years before and after the English rovers were plentiful
+in the Gulf of Mexico. In 1591 the _Content_ was successfully defended
+against six Spanish men-of-war, and the galleons were obliged to sail in
+large squadrons. What with the dangers of storms and the enemy, it was
+stated that of a hundred and twenty-three vessels expected in Spain
+during that year, only twenty-five arrived safe.
+
+The number of rovers became at last so great that plunder was difficult
+to obtain. The Spanish settlers were in continual fear, and naturally
+took every precaution against their enemies, hiding the treasure on the
+least alarm, and taking to the forest. The French corsairs were not far
+behind the English, although as yet they had no proper licenses, and
+only fought for their own hands. Latterly, also, the Dutch and Flemings
+had arrived, and although mainly occupied in trading, they did not
+hesitate to fight on occasion, especially when attempts were made to
+prevent their traffic. While under the rule of Charles the Fifth they
+had been free to go to and from the Indies, and no doubt use the
+knowledge thus gained to further their own interests since their revolt.
+Like the English, they were at enmity with Spain, but there was also
+another bond of union--both were Protestant. Queen Elizabeth assisted
+Holland in gaining her independence, and therefore at this period the
+relations between English and Dutch were very cordial. But the
+fellow-feeling of enmity to Spain made even the French corsair unite
+with the two others, so that pirates, privateers, and traders all
+combined against the common foe.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+IV.
+
+RALEGH AND THE FIRST BRITISH COLONIES.
+
+
+The first grant made by Queen Elizabeth for a settlement in America was
+given to Sir Humphrey Gilbert in 1578, but the father of English
+colonisation was Sir Walter Ralegh. Although considered a rover, or
+pirate, by the Spaniards, he was of a different type to Drake, Hawkins,
+and the other adventurers of the sixteenth century. Not only was he
+famous as a brave warrior, but at the same time as one of the most
+learned men of his time; as enterprising in the arts of peace as on the
+battlefield.
+
+The "Letters Patent" to Walter Ralegh, Esquire, dated the 25th of March,
+1584, may be considered as the first charter of the English colonies.
+Under them he was empowered to discover, occupy, and possess barbarous
+countries not actually in the possession of any Christian prince, or
+inhabited by Christian people, on condition that he reserved to Her
+Majesty a fifth of all the gold and silver found therein. He was also
+given all the rights of civil and criminal jurisdiction, and empowered
+to govern and make laws as long as these laws did not conflict with
+those of the mother country, or with the true Christian faith of the
+Church of England. Under this charter the first settlement in Virginia
+was undertaken, and thus England threw down the gauntlet in the face of
+Spain.
+
+However, Ralegh did not confine himself to North America--there were
+other countries not in the actual possession of any Christian prince,
+the most notable being Guiana. Ralegh had heard the story of "El Dorado"
+and of the failures of the many German and Spanish knights. He would
+succeed where they had failed. Englishmen had displayed their mettle in
+the Indies--if the treasures of Peru and Mexico had raised their enemy
+to be "mistress of the world" and "sovereign of the seas," why should
+not he also find other golden countries for the benefit of his virgin
+queen and country? Because two rich provinces had been discovered, it
+did not follow that there were no others; on the contrary, the rumours
+of "El Dorado" were so many that they could not be treated with
+contempt. And then the natives of the "Great Wild Coast," although
+cannibals, were friendly to the English, who had always treated them
+fairly, and there they had the advantage over Spain. The country was
+open to them, although strictly guarded against their rivals.
+
+The stories had been lately revived by the expeditions of Antonio de
+Berrio, Governor of Trinidad and Guiana, who had made explorations of
+the river Orinoco, and possibly exaggerated his reports for the purpose
+of getting settlers. Captain Popham took some letters from a Spanish
+vessel in 1594, wherein were found accounts of the "Nueva Dorado,"
+which were spoken of as incredibly rich. Ralegh saw these, and was
+induced by their reports and his own knowledge of the Indies, which he
+had gained in working at his colonisation schemes, to go out and look up
+the matter.
+
+The occupation of Guiana, he said, had other ground and assurance of
+riches than the voyages to the West Indies. The king of Spain was not so
+impoverished as the English supposed by their taking two or three ports,
+neither were the riches of Peru or New Spain to be picked up on the
+sea-shore. The burning of towns on the coast did not impoverish Spain
+one ducat, for it was within the country that the land was rich and
+populous. Therefore England should endeavour to get possession of this
+yet unspoiled country, instead of wasting her energies on adventures
+that were of no real benefit, and that hardly touched the real source of
+her enemy's greatness.
+
+Ralegh arrived at Trinidad in March, 1595, and as a matter of precaution
+captured the Spanish town of St. Joseph, and the Governor, De Berrio,
+from whom he heard more stories of El Dorado. Here also he began those
+conciliatory measures with the natives which characterised all his
+dealings. He released five chiefs, who had been imprisoned in chains and
+tortured by dropping melted fat on their bodies, and thus gained their
+friendship. Unlike other adventurers he thought it necessary to excuse
+himself for burning St. Joseph, which he did in rather quaint language.
+Considering that if he entered Guiana by small boats and left a
+garrison of the enemy at his back, he "should have savoured very much of
+the ass," he took the place, and at the instance of the natives set it
+on fire.
+
+[Illustration: RALEGH IN TRINIDAD.
+
+(_From Gottfried's "Reisen."_)]
+
+Now began a weary voyage up the Orinoco, first through the delta, which
+is such a maze that they might have wandered for months without getting
+into the main river had they not secured an Indian pilot. Exposed
+alternately to burning sun and drenching showers in open boats, they
+toiled against the powerful stream. Ralegh everywhere tried his best to
+ingratiate himself with the Indians, succeeding so well that his name
+became known over the whole of Guiana. He told them that he had been
+sent by a great queen, the powerful Cacique of the north, and a virgin,
+whose chieftains were more numerous than the trees of the forest. She
+was an enemy to the Spaniards, had freed other nations from their
+oppression, and had now sent to rescue them. To confirm his statement he
+gave each Cacique a coin so that they could possess the queen's
+likeness, and these were treasured and even worshipped for a century
+afterwards.
+
+Everywhere he heard of El Dorado, but it was always receding farther and
+farther, until his men became so disheartened that he had to rouse them
+by saying that they would be shamed before their comrades if they gave
+up so easily. However, after reaching the mouth of the Caroni and
+getting specimens of gold ore, he had to return without doing more than
+locating the city of Manoa several hundred miles to the east of his
+farthest point. This was done in so exact a manner that the great lake
+of Parima, as large as the Caspian Sea, was retained upon the maps of
+South America down to the beginning of the present century. His ore was
+probably stream quartz, and in representing it as taken from the rock he
+probably reported what the Indians had told him. When, therefore, he
+said that the assay gave its value as £13,000 a ton, there is no reason
+to suppose a mistake or untruth, for pieces quite as valuable may still
+be picked up. His "Discoverie of Guiana" is such a mixture of close and
+accurate observation with the hearsay of the Indians, that it is
+difficult in some cases to separate truth from fiction. Yet, although
+historians have charged him with wilful lying, there can be no doubt of
+his good faith. It has been left to the present century to prove that
+gold-mines exist on the site of the fabled El Dorado, for it is there
+that the well-known Caratal diggings are situated.
+
+Ralegh asked the people of England to judge for themselves. He had spent
+much time and money, with no other object than to serve his queen and
+country. When they considered that it was the Spaniard's gold which
+endangered and disturbed all the nations of Europe, that "purchaseth
+intelligence, creepeth into councils and setteth bound loyalty at
+liberty," they would see the advantage of these provinces he had
+discovered. Guiana was a country that had never yet been sacked, turned,
+or wrought. The face of the earth had not been torn, nor the virtue and
+salt of the soil spent by manurance; the graves had not been opened for
+gold, the mines not touched with sledges, or the images pulled down
+from the temples. It was so easily defensible that it could be protected
+by two forts at the mouth of a river, and thus the whole empire be
+guarded. The country was already discovered, many nations won to Her
+Majesty's love and obedience, and those Spaniards who had laboured on
+the conquest were beaten, discouraged, and disgraced. If Her Majesty
+took up the enterprise, he doubted not that after the first or second
+year there would be a Contractation House for Guiana in London, with
+larger receipts than that for the Indies at Seville.
+
+Such was Ralegh's dream. Another Peru to be conquered, and England to be
+raised to the highest point of wealth and importance. But unfortunately
+he could get no assistance to carry out the grand project. Yet he was
+undoubtedly sincere, for did he not send out two expeditions under
+Captains Keymis and Berrie the following year, to assure the Indians
+that he had not forgotten them? Keymis found one tribe keeping a
+festival in honour of the great princess of the north, and anxiously
+waiting for the return of Gualtero, which name, by the by, was similar
+to their word for friend. They made fires, and, sitting in their
+hammocks, each man with his companion, they recounted the worthy deeds
+and deaths of their ancestors, execrating their enemies most spitefully,
+and magnifying their friends with all the titles of honour they could
+devise. Thus they sat talking and smoking tobacco until their cigars
+(their measure of time) went out, during which they were not to be
+disturbed, "for this is their religion and prayers which they now
+celebrated, keeping a precise fast one whole day in honour of the great
+princess of the north, their patron and defender."
+
+The explorations of Ralegh and his captains were published all over
+Europe, with the result that attention was generally drawn to Guiana.
+Already some Dutchmen had been trading on the coast for many years, and
+it was even reported that they had established a post in the river
+Pomeroon, the centre of the province of Caribana. As early as 1542
+Flemings had settled at Araya on the coast of Venezuela, where they
+collected salt and were left undisturbed as long as the Netherlands
+belonged to Spain. Ralegh seems to have purposely ignored the presence
+of these people in Guiana, probably to prevent any question of prior
+rights on the part of a friendly nation. But, after all, the Dutchmen
+could only have been there on their own responsibility, and their
+temporary occupation had no meaning from a national point of view.
+
+Now that Guiana was made known, vessels of other nationalities went
+trading along the coast, everywhere meeting with a hearty welcome from
+the Indians as long as the visitors were not Spanish. They were only so
+many additions to their friends--their enemies were confined to Trinidad
+and the Orinoco, leaving the whole coast of Guiana to its rightful
+owners. In fact, the Spaniards could no more subdue the Caribs of the
+Main than they could those of the islands. Only in Trinidad, where the
+Arawak was employed against the cannibal, was a settlement made
+possible.
+
+Ralegh was unable to carry out his great project, but others were not
+backward in attempting to settle in the country. First came Charles
+Leigh, who in 1604 founded a colony in the river Oyapok, which failed
+partly from the lack of assistance from England and partly from too
+great a dependence on the promises of the Indians to supply food.
+Sickness followed on starvation, Leigh died, and a mutiny took place,
+after which the survivors got back to Europe in a Dutch trader, which
+fortunately arrived when all hope of succour had been abandoned. Robert
+Harcourt followed to the same river in 1609, like Leigh, getting
+promises of assistance from the Indians by using the name of Ralegh.
+With their consent he took possession of the country, "by twig and
+turf," in the name of King James. This ceremony was performed by first
+cutting a branch from a tree, and then turning up a sod with the sword,
+thus claiming everything in and on the earth.
+
+Harcourt's colony lasted several years, and in 1613 he received from
+James the First a grant of all that part of Guiana lying between the
+rivers Amazons and Essequebo, on the usual condition of the fifth of all
+gold and silver being handed over to the king. In the same year the
+Dutch trading factory at Kyk-over-al on the river Essequebo was
+established, and this was probably the reason why the English grant made
+that river the boundary of their possessions, leaving the Hollander to
+establish himself between the Essequebo and the Orinoco.
+
+Meanwhile, in 1603, poor Ralegh had been tried on a charge of aiding and
+abetting the plot to raise Arabella Stuart to the throne of England, on
+the death of Queen Elizabeth. Any one who reads the account of his
+trial will perceive at once the absurdity of the charge, yet Ralegh was
+convicted and sentenced to be hanged, drawn, and quartered. However,
+even with all his hatred for the knight, King James dared not carry out
+the sentence, but instead, kept him imprisoned in the Tower.
+
+Here Ralegh still hankered after the treasures of Guiana, and in 1611 he
+made a proposition to the Government to send Captain Keymis to find the
+rich gold mine which had been pointed out to him by an Indian. If Keymis
+should live to arrive at the place and fail to bring half a ton or more
+of that rich ore of which he had shown a sample, Ralegh himself would
+bear all the expense of the journey. "Though," said he, "it be a
+difficult matter of exceeding difficulty for any man to find the same
+acre of ground again, in a country desolate and overgrown, which he hath
+seen but once, and that sixteen years since--which were hard enough to
+do upon Salisbury Plain--yet that your lordships may be satisfied of the
+truth, I am contented to adventure all I have (but my reputation) upon
+Keymis's memory."
+
+This proposition was rejected, and the poor knight lingered on in the
+Tower, attended during part of the time by two Guiana Indians, Harry and
+Leonard Regapo. In 1616, however, he at last recovered his liberty on
+condition that he went to Guiana and brought back gold, but at the same
+time the king refused to pardon him. Nevertheless he took up the matter
+with an amount of enthusiasm which showed his entire confidence in its
+ultimate success. All his own money and as much of his wife's as could
+be spared was spent in fitting out the expedition, and he also got
+contributions from many of his friends. The king even went so far as to
+give him a commission to undertake a voyage to the south parts of
+America, or elsewhere in America, inhabited by heathen and savage
+people, with all the necessary rights of government and jurisdiction;
+yet with all this the old sentence hung over his head.
+
+The expedition of fourteen vessels started in March, 1617, but even from
+the commencement the voyage was disastrous. First a gale was
+encountered, which drove the fleet to take refuge in Cork Harbour, where
+it lay until August. This seems to have put a damper on the commander,
+who now began to realise how much depended on his success. He was
+twenty-two years older than when he went on his first voyage to Guiana,
+and most of those years he had spent in captivity. Is it any wonder that
+when the excitement attendant on his release had gone off he became sick
+and utterly prostrated? Such was his condition when the fleet arrived at
+Cayenne, where he went to look for his Indian boy Harry, who had gone
+back to his people and was now wanted as interpreter.
+
+So low was Ralegh's condition that he had to be carried ashore, and
+although he soon became a little better under a course of fresh meat and
+fruits, he never wholly recovered. So great was his weakness, both of
+mind and body, that he deputed Keymis to lead the party up the Orinoco,
+while he rested at Cayenne; in a few days he would go on to Trinidad and
+wait there until they returned. Keymis accordingly went on, accompanied
+by young Walter Ralegh, a number of other gentlemen, and four hundred
+soldiers. They arrived at the site of the supposed gold mine without
+accident, but found that since the first expedition some Spaniards had
+built "a town of sticks, covered with leaves," and this stood in the way
+of their approach to the mine. Possibly Keymis now thought of his
+master's expression in regard to St. Joseph, and did not care to "savour
+of an ass" by leaving the enemy to interfere with his work. He therefore
+attacked this town of St. Thome, and set it on fire. Unfortunately young
+Ralegh was killed in the fight, and the thought of how he could tell
+this bad news preyed upon the mind of Keymis until all relish for
+gold-seeking was lost. The Spaniards took to the bush, from whence they
+sallied forth on any small party of the English, and ultimately put them
+into a state of confusion. The mine could not be found, the adventurers
+began to complain that they had been fooled, and Keymis was so troubled
+that he seemed neither to know nor care anything about treasure-seeking.
+
+Ralegh had meanwhile arrived in the Gulf of Paria, where he received the
+news of the burning of St. Thome and the death of his son from some
+Indians. Presently Keymis arrived, utterly dejected, to find his master
+broken down and more woe-begone than himself. Ralegh said he was undone,
+and that Keymis was entirely to blame. Not even a sample of ore--the
+king would believe him a liar and a cheat. Then, this attack on a
+Spanish town! Did not Keymis remember that these were not the days of
+the virgin queen, when to "singe the Spaniard's beard" was worthy of
+praise? Did he not know that James was friendly with the king of Spain
+and wanted to get from him a princess for his son Henry?
+
+[Illustration: GOLD HUNTING.
+
+(_From Gottfried's "Reisen."_)]
+
+Keymis had been the intimate friend of Ralegh through all his troubles.
+He had remained faithful even when threatened with the rack at the time
+of the trial. As a kind of steward he had administered the prisoner's
+estate, and was a trusted friend and confidant of the family. He had
+seen young Walter grow up to manhood, and now through his fault the
+youth had been killed. For the first time the bereaved father was angry
+with his captain; perhaps if Keymis died the whole blame would be laid
+upon his shoulders, and Ralegh be exonerated. He went to the cabin
+allotted to him, loaded a pistol, shot himself, and then, as he feared
+the wound was not mortal, finished the suicide by driving a long knife
+into his heart.
+
+Thus died poor Keymis, but unfortunately this did not make any
+difference to his master. If Ralegh had been prepared to throw all the
+responsibility on his lieutenant, the king could only be satisfied with
+treasure. Even if James had been inclined to over-look the affair, the
+Spanish ambassador would not condone such an offence. He is said to have
+rushed into the royal presence with the cry of "Piracy! piracy! piracy!"
+at the same time demanding the immediate capture and punishment of the
+raiders. It followed, therefore, that Ralegh was arrested immediately on
+his return, and finally executed under the old sentence, but by
+decapitation instead of hanging.
+
+His last days were passed with resignation and fortitude. His old spirit
+was entirely broken, and although he petitioned the king for grace and
+pardon, he did so in a hopeless way. He had many sympathisers, and to
+satisfy them the king's printers issued a little book entitled "A
+Declaration of the Demeanour and Carriage of Sir Walter Raleigh,"
+obviously inspired by the king himself. Here was a thing unheard of
+before or since; a sovereign excusing himself for his actions! If
+anything were required to prove the prisoner's innocence, this was
+sufficient. Did James want to salve his own conscience, or was it
+intended to satisfy those who clamoured on account of the injustice of
+the execution? No doubt many of the old sea dogs who had served under
+Drake and Hawkins were still living, and remembered when Plymouth bells
+rang at the news of fresh arrivals from the Indies. "But now, forsooth,
+you must not burn down a thatched hovel without a great to-do being
+made." If Spain wanted peace, why did her people murder a ship's company
+in cold blood a little while before? Out upon it! The good old days had
+passed and England was going to ruin.
+
+However, even King James's sneaking friendship for Spain could not keep
+back colonisation altogether. Something like moderation was introduced,
+and only pirates pure and simple kept up the old traditions. As for the
+king he hardly knew how to steer, what with the petitions for reprisals
+from English seamen on the one hand, and complaints of the Spanish
+ambassadors on the other. The result of this want of policy is well
+shown in the case of Roger North one of the adventurers in the last
+expedition of Ralegh, who, in 1619, wished to re-establish the colony in
+the Oyapok, which had virtually sunk to nothing. An association called
+the Amazon Company was formed, and, notwithstanding Spanish protests,
+the king granted "Letters Patent," under which North got up an
+expedition in four vessels. Then the Spanish ambassador began to storm,
+and the weak king revoked the patent, calling upon the members of the
+Company to renounce their rights. North, who had been warned that
+something was going on, hurried up his preparations, and was off so
+quickly that he sailed on the 30th of April, 1620, fifteen days before
+the proclamation revoking his license was published.
+
+On his return in January following he was arrested and sent to the
+Tower, where he remained until July. Meanwhile his cargo from Guiana was
+seized on the ground that it had been obtained from Spanish possessions,
+but with all his willingness to oblige Spain the king could not get the
+case proven. It followed, therefore, that North was released, and his
+goods restored, but as the cargo was mainly tobacco it had become much
+damaged by neglect.
+
+This detention of North, and the consequent delay in sending out
+supplies to the Oyapok, led to the downfall of the infant colony.
+Hearing nothing from England the settlers became disheartened, and if it
+had not happened that Dutch traders arrived there occasionally they
+would have been starved. Even as it was one left after another until few
+remained, and when, six years later, "the Company of Noblemen and
+Gentlemen of England for the Plantation of Guiana" was formed, the
+settlement had to be commenced anew. However, some of those who left
+carried the English flag to the island of St. Christopher's, where a
+settlement was commenced in 1624 by Thomas Warner. Thus, as Ralegh was
+the father of English colonisation, so his beloved Guiana became the
+parent of the British West Indies.
+
+James the First died in March, 1625, and with him went the English
+subservience to Spain, never to be restored. During his reign British
+enterprise had been kept back; now it broke down all obstructions. True,
+New England and Bermuda were settled during his reign, but they owed
+little to him or his government. As soon as the Royal obstructionist was
+dead, colonisation schemes came to the front. Before even a month had
+passed, on the 14th of April, John Coke came forward with a proposition
+to incorporate a company for the defence and protection of the West
+Indies, for establishing a trade there, and for fitting out a fleet to
+attack the Spanish settlements. About the same time, also, the
+Attorney-General made some "notes" on the advantages derived by the
+Spaniards and Dutch from their West Indian trade, showing that it was
+neither safe nor profitable to England for them to remain absolute lords
+of those parts, and suggesting that the new king should entertain the
+matter and openly interpose, or else permit it to be done underhand;
+then if it prospered he could make it his own at pleasure.
+
+What was done in these particular cases does not appear, but that a new
+policy was introduced is certain. In September following the case of
+St. Christopher's was brought before the Privy Council, which apparently
+confirmed what had been done, in taking possession of the island. In the
+"information" laid over it was stated that Thomas Warner had discovered
+that island, as well as Nevis, Barbados, and Montserrat, and had begun
+the planting and colonising of these islands, until then only inhabited
+by savages. King Charles was asked to take them under his royal
+protection and grant Thomas Warner their custody as his lieutenant, with
+the usual powers of jurisdiction.
+
+The result was not altogether to the liking of the petitioners, Ralph
+Merrifield and Thomas Warner, for in July, 1627, a grant of all the
+Caribbees was made to the Earl of Carlisle. This was sweeping enough,
+however, to suit those who wanted English colonies, however it ignored
+the rights of the first settlers in St. Kitt's and Barbados, which
+latter island had been settled a few months after the first.
+
+Now, also, Roger North came forward with his story and got the revoked
+patent renewed, so that he could go on with the settlement in the
+Oyapok. For a time it did very well, but the tide had turned in favour
+of the islands, and Guiana was soon abandoned to the Dutch and French.
+
+The most important of the two islands first colonised was Barbados,
+which, fortunately for her comfort, never suffered from such calamities
+as befel the sister island of St. Christopher's. As far as the English
+were concerned Barbados was discovered by a vessel going out to Leigh's
+settlement, in Guiana, in 1605. A pillar was erected with the
+inscription, "James, King of England and this island," but nothing was
+done in the way of a settlement until immediately after Warner commenced
+planting in St. Kitt's. The most intimate connection existed between
+Barbados and Guiana from the earliest times, as in fact it does to the
+present day, for Captain Powell, the commander of the little company of
+pioneers, sent to his Dutch friend, Groenwegel, in Essequebo, for a
+party of Arawak Indians to teach the new-comers how to plant provisions,
+cotton, and tobacco.
+
+In 1630 another group of islands was added by the granting of a patent
+to the "Governor and Company of Adventurers for the Plantation of the
+Islands of Providence, Henrietta, and the adjacent islands." Under this
+charter possession was taken of the Bahamas, but little was done in the
+way of settling them for about a century. Thus West Indian colonisation
+was commenced, and claims made to all the smaller islands on behalf of
+England.
+
+But it is not to be supposed that France and Holland were going to let
+everything go by default--on the contrary, they soon began to settle in
+some of the very islands which had been granted to the Earl of Carlisle.
+The Dutch, as we have seen, were traders from the beginning, preferring
+the so-called contraband traffic with the natives and Spanish colonists
+to anything like the raids of English or French. Yet, in their plodding
+way they went on steadily, and as early as the year 1600 took possession
+of the island of St. Eustatius. When the Spaniards awoke to the fact
+that the Dutch were injuring their trade, they began to enforce all the
+old prohibitions and seized the smugglers. But the Hollander commenced
+to feel his power, and gave his enemy several lessons, which made him
+feel that the United Provinces with their symbol of a bundle of darts
+were not to be despised.
+
+In 1615 the Dutch took the capital of Porto Rico, and in 1621 their West
+India Company was formed with territorial and trading rights over all
+the unoccupied countries of Africa and America. Suddenly as it were the
+despised Hollander became a power in the West Indies, and the Company
+was soon strong enough to conquer Brazil, which it must be remembered
+was, with Portugal and all her colonies, then in the hands of Spain.
+About the year 1627 Piet Heyn destroyed a Spanish fleet in Mataça Bay,
+Cuba, the booty from which was something enormous. Altogether, the West
+India Company was said to have captured 547 vessels, mainly off the
+coast of America, the prize money from which amounted to thirty million
+guilders (£2,500,000), while the damage to Spain was at least six times
+as much.
+
+Now also the French began to claim their share. In 1625 Mons. d'Enambuc
+went on a piratical expedition to the Caribbean Sea, but without any
+intention of founding a colony. However, off the Cayman's islands he was
+attacked by a Spanish galleon of much superior force, and although he
+succeeded at last in driving her off, his vessel was so crippled that he
+had to put into St. Christopher's for repairs. Here he found Warner
+already established, and with him a few Frenchmen. On account of his
+condition and the beauty of the island, he became inclined to settle,
+and as the English and French were then on good terms, Warner saw no
+objection. The consequence was that St. Kitt's became divided between
+the two nationalities, with results in the future most disastrous to
+both.
+
+At first, however, the assistance of the French was very welcome. The
+Caribs were still a power in the smaller islands and gave a great deal
+of trouble to the young colony. At first they were friendly, but when
+the settlers wished to oppress them by taking away their lands and
+compelling them to supply provisions, open war began. Hearing from an
+Indian woman that a conspiracy was forming to destroy all the white men,
+Warner determined to be beforehand with them. He massacred a hundred and
+twenty of the men, took the women as slaves, and drove the remainder off
+the island. But these powerful savages were by no mean conquered, for
+those who escaped soon came back with three or four thousand of their
+friends from neighbouring islands, and at first it appeared as if the
+whites would have been utterly exterminated. By a supreme effort of both
+French and English, however, this great invasion was repelled, the
+defenders killing about two thousand, and capturing fifteen large
+periaguas, with a loss to themselves of about a hundred, most of whom
+died from poisoned arrows. This was a bond of union between French and
+English, and Warner and d'Enambuc amicably divided the island between
+them.
+
+[Illustration: CARIB ATTACK ON A SETTLEMENT
+
+(_From Gottfried's "Reisen."_)]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+V.
+
+BUCCANEERS, FILIBUSTERS, AND PIRATES.
+
+
+Now that settlements were commenced the old system of piracy was
+somewhat discountenanced by the home governments, and many of the
+adventurers began to become a little more civilised. But there was still
+a large number of them who became known as buccaneers, filibusters,
+freebooters, marooners, and brethren of the coast, who continued to
+worry the Spaniards, and even to attack other nationalities on occasion.
+They had taken to the trade, and, when no longer able to carry it on in
+a quasi-legitimate manner, did so on their own lines.
+
+The claim of Spain to the whole of America was the great cause of
+offence. Had she been content with what her people could occupy, there
+would have been little trouble, but the "dog in the manger" policy could
+hardly be recognised by other nations. It followed, therefore, that when
+complaints were made to France and England of the ravages on the Spanish
+coasts, the sovereigns told the king of Spain to protect his own shores,
+disclaiming on their own parts any responsibility whatever.
+
+The earliest accounts of the buccaneers are confused with those of the
+French corsairs, of which mention has been already made. They sailed
+along the coast from one island to another, trading a little, capturing
+Spanish vessels, fighting the guarda-costas, and now and again repairing
+to some out-of-the-way place to put their ships in order or even to
+assist the Caribs in their raids. The advantages of combination were
+soon felt, and with these also the necessity for places of rendezvous.
+Even the English adventurers became accustomed to obtain wood and water
+from Dominica, but this island was not conveniently situated for the
+French corsairs. They wanted an uninhabited place near enough to
+Hispaniola and the track of the Spanish vessels for them to be quickly
+pounced upon and for the corsairs to as quickly escape. Then there must
+be a food supply, and on the great island of Hispaniola were countless
+herds of wild cattle which ranged over a wilderness utterly depopulated.
+
+The palmy days of the Hispaniola planter were over, and although he
+imported negro slaves to some extent, he was virtually ruined. One after
+another left for the newly discovered countries on the Main, and for
+Peru and Mexico, leaving the island to a few merchants and wealthy
+planters, who found it to their interest to remain. Hispaniola was
+little more than a house of call on the road to the treasure countries,
+which meant that although the port of St. Domingo was fortified, the
+greater portion of the island was open to any one who chose to occupy
+it.
+
+Salt was a scarce commodity in those times, but it could be obtained in
+some of the smaller islands, notably Tortuga, which for that reason
+became the resort of the buccaneers. But the Indians had learnt how to
+preserve meat without this useful substance, by smoking it over a fire
+of green branches and leaves. Even Europeans knew something of this
+process, although we believe they never preserved their beef and bacon
+entirely without salt as did the Indians their game. The process was
+very simple. Four sticks with forked ends were pushed into the ground,
+and on these uprights a sort of rack of other sticks was laid to make an
+open platform, where the pieces of meat were laid above a fire until
+well dried and impregnated with smoke. This stage was called a boucan,
+or barbecue, and from their using it to prepare supplies for their
+voyages the corsairs became known as buccaneers.
+
+There were no tinned provisions in those days, nor had the proper means
+of keeping food on long voyages been yet perfected. It followed,
+therefore, that a food supply in the Indies had to be provided, and the
+Spaniards unintentionally did good service to their enemies by placing
+hogs on most of the islands to breed and be available in emergencies.
+
+It is obvious that the hunting of semi-wild animals and curing their
+meat required time, and for that reason a division of labour was
+initiated. While one party went cruising in search of Spanish vessels,
+another ranged the country to capture and prepare the supplies against
+their return. Thus a rendezvous became necessary, and in time
+plantations were established in this neighbourhood to gradually develop
+into a settlement. Now and again the Spaniards discovered these places,
+but as they were generally of little value, their loss was of no
+importance; if destroyed the buccaneers could easily escape to another
+locality. When the enemy burnt their vessels, they easily built canoes
+with which they soon captured others and became as strong as before. The
+hunters grew to like their hardy life with its perfect liberty, and
+became so inured to the climate and open air as to be utterly unlike the
+effeminate planters. They were even little subject to the diseases of
+the country, and could live for months at a time on nothing but meat. As
+for clothes, they made these from the skins of animals, and all they
+really required from outside was powder and lead for their firearms.
+
+They became known as the brethren of the coast from their custom of each
+choosing one comrade as a bosom friend and brother. Everything gained by
+either was common to both, and the company were very strict in enforcing
+their law against unfaithfulness in a companion, or unfair dealing in
+any way among themselves. Sometimes they marooned a culprit by leaving
+him alone on some small island to die of hunger, or perhaps to become a
+"Crusoe" for many years. The wounded received compensation according to
+a fixed tariff, from the common stock or from contributions; thus the
+loss of an arm was valued at five hundred crowns, and other mutilations
+at corresponding rates.
+
+As the attacks of the Spaniards became more common, the small bands
+united, and division of labour became more exact. Some were hunters of
+wild boars, others of cattle, a few became planters, but the main body
+were always sea rovers. At first the hunters were on good terms with the
+Spanish planters and entered into engagements to supply them with meat.
+A party would go off into the interior and stay away for months at a
+time, eventually returning with large supplies borne on the backs of
+their horses. During all this time they lived in rough shelters which
+could be erected in an afternoon, and were much exposed to the
+vicissitudes of the weather. Now they made up for their long term of
+privation by carousing to their hearts' content, and when drunk, often
+fought and killed each other. In the settlements there were generally a
+few women, and these often became the cause of contentions; there were
+also bond-servants who were treated most cruelly.
+
+Sometimes they made incursions on the Spanish settlements, which led to
+stronger efforts for their extermination that at last considerably
+reduced their numbers. In fact, had it not been for the continual
+accessions they would soon have died out, or have given up their trade
+and settled down as planters. Hispaniola became at last almost
+untenable, for the Spaniards, unable to find any other way of putting
+them down, organised several hunting parties with the view to utterly
+destroy the wild cattle and thus deprive them of their means of living.
+Not that this was easily done, for it took many years, during which the
+hunting parties from both sides fought and killed each other, committing
+enormities which made the quarrel all the more bitter.
+
+About the year 1632 a party of buccaneers captured the island of Tortuga
+from the Spaniards, the garrison of twenty-five men surrendering without
+a blow. Here was now the grand rendezvous of the French, for which it
+was perfectly suitable from its proximity to the food supply and the
+track of the Spanish vessels. It was situated on the north of the
+western portion of Hispaniola, and not very well suited for plantations,
+although good tobacco was grown there. There were, however, plenty of
+sea fowl and turtle to be had, as well as their eggs, which formed a
+large portion of the diet of the inhabitants.
+
+This island became a veritable pandemonium--the sink of the West Indies.
+It was the place of call for rovers of all nations, the market for their
+booty, and the storehouse for everything in the way of supplies. The
+merchants pandered to the tastes of their customers, and drinking and
+gambling went on continually. But in 1638 it was surprised by the
+Spaniards, who began to be alarmed at this nest of pirates at their very
+doors. They chose a time when most of the rovers were away on a cruise,
+and the buccaneers gone hunting in Hispaniola. All they captured were
+killed--even those who surrendered being hanged as pirates. Only a few
+escaped by hiding among the rocks and bushes to come forth after the
+enemy had left, which they did without leaving a garrison.
+
+A grand attempt to expel the hunters from the main island was now
+organised, in which a corps of five hundred lancers ranged the island in
+bands of fifties. Many of the buccaneers were killed, but the remainder
+combined together under an Englishman named Willis and again took
+possession of Tortuga.
+
+From this rendezvous near Hispaniola the main passages between the
+islands were under observation, but a similar station was required near
+the Isthmus, and this was established about 1630 in the Bay of
+Campeachy. Like that at Tortuga its beginnings are lost in obscurity. At
+first one or more of the small islands or keys was used on
+occasion--later fortifications were erected, and a watch always kept for
+the enemy. The excuse for the settlement was the logwood trade, but this
+did not become of much importance until after the English conquest of
+Jamaica.
+
+Like the true buccaneers these pirates were fond of hunting, but their
+game was principally Indians, whom they attacked and carried off from
+the Main, the men to sell to the plantations and the women to keep for
+themselves. When they arrived after a cruise and sold their booty, they
+would have a jolly time with drinking, gambling, and firing of guns,
+until the island would seem to be the habitation of devils rather than
+human beings.
+
+There were also other pirate resorts, notably the Virgin Islands and the
+Bahamas, but these were generally used only by one company, and never
+rose to the position of general resorts. It is to these that most of the
+romances refer, but the stories of Pirate and Treasure islands rarely
+have much foundation in fact.
+
+How privateers became pirates is well shown by a case that occurred in
+the latter half of the seventeenth century. A vessel went cruising from
+the Carolinas, and after being out for eighteen months had gained so
+few prizes that the crew began to complain. After discussing the
+situation, they resolved to try the South Sea, where they hoped to find
+the Spaniards less prepared. Meeting with very bad weather at the
+entrance of the Strait of Magellan, they were, however, obliged to turn
+back, and then the majority decided to become pirates. Eight men who
+refused to agree were marooned on the island of Fernando Po, their late
+comrades leaving them a small boat in which they expected to be able to
+get to some English colony.
+
+The vessel left, and commenced her piratical work at once by capturing a
+Portuguese ship larger than herself, the crew being brought and landed
+on the same island. In the night the Portuguese made off, taking with
+them the Englishmen's boat as well as their own, leaving the eight
+privateers to do the best they could. However, they were not easily
+daunted, and at once began to cut down trees and build a sloop of four
+tons, which they finished in six weeks, meanwhile living on sea fowl and
+their eggs, which were plentiful. Finally they sailed for Tobago, but
+missing that island got to Tortuga, where they arrived almost perishing
+with hunger and thirst, having had nothing to eat or drink for six days.
+Even then they were not discouraged, but after resting awhile, set sail
+in the same boat for New England, passing along the Spanish islands,
+often unable to land for water on account of the enemy, and lying under
+cover of the mangroves, to be almost devoured by mosquitoes. Even with
+all this care they were taken at last, stripped, thrust down in the
+hold of a Spanish _guarda-costa_, and finally kept as slaves in the
+island of Cuba.
+
+In the early years of the seventeenth century few of the adventurers had
+any commissions, but as the mother countries began to establish
+settlements, letters of marque were granted when there was a war. The
+corsairs and pirates then became privateers, only to go back to their
+old trade when peace was nominally restored. Some played fast and loose
+with these commissions, sometimes having both French and English at the
+same time, either to be used according to circumstances. The French
+Governors went so far as to sell these documents signed and sealed, but
+without names, so that they passed from hand to hand ready to be filled
+up when the pirate wished to escape the yard-arm. The young colonies
+were too weak to incur their displeasure--in fact they were glad to
+encourage their visits, as the settlers could always pick up good
+bargains when they sold their booty. Yet, with all that, there was a
+dread of them, even among their own countrymen, which prevented that
+feeling of safety which best consists with the progress of a colony.
+
+We can say little of individuals, as there were so many, but we may
+mention a few of the most striking characters and their daring exploits.
+They inspired such dread among the Spaniards that at last the latter
+hardly dared to defend themselves against them, but on their approach
+immediately surrendered. If the cargo was rich, quarter was granted, but
+if otherwise, or anything was found secreted, the whole company,
+officers, crew, and passengers, were forced to leap overboard. Pierre
+Legrand with his twenty-eight men once attacked a great Spanish galleon,
+and before going alongside scuttled his own vessel so that it sunk as
+the pirates leapt on to the enemy's deck. With no possibility of retreat
+the men fought like devils and quickly got possession of the galleon,
+with the usual result.
+
+When other nations had compelled respect from Spain their vessels were
+sometimes chartered to carry rich cargoes, which thus sailed under the
+protection of another flag. But the pirates were not to be cheated so
+easily, for they had their spies on the look-out, and often managed to
+glean information. On one occasion Captains Michael de Basco and Brouage
+heard of two Dutch vessels leaving Carthagena with treasure and at once
+followed, attacked and captured them. Exasperated at being beaten by a
+force much smaller than their own, the Dutch captains told Michael that
+he could not have overcome them if he had been alone. "Very well," said
+the audacious Frenchman, "let us begin the fight again, and Captain
+Brouage shall look on. But if I conquer I will not only have the Spanish
+silver you carry, but your own ships as well." The Dutch were not
+inclined to accept this challenge, but made off as soon as they could
+after the treasure had been taken into the pirate vessels, fearing they
+might otherwise lose their opportunity.
+
+Captain Lawrence was once unexpectedly overtaken by two Spanish
+sixty-gun ships, the crews of which numbered fifteen hundred. Addressing
+his men, he said--"You have experience enough to be aware of your
+danger, and too much courage to fear. On this occasion we must avail
+ourselves of every circumstance, hazard everything, and attack and
+defend at the same time. Valour, artifice, rashness, and even despair
+itself must now be employed. Let us fear the disgrace of a defeat; let
+us dread the cruelty of our enemy; and let us fight that we may escape
+him." After he was applauded with loud cheers, Lawrence took aside one
+of the bravest of his men, and in the presence of all, gave him strict
+orders to fire the gunpowder at a given signal, thus telling them
+plainly they must fight or be blown up. Meanwhile the enemy had
+approached very close, and Lawrence, ranging his men on both sides of
+the vessel, steered between the two great monsters, firing a broadside
+on either hand as he passed, which they could not return for fear of
+damaging each other. He did not succeed in capturing them, but they were
+so demoralised by his determined attitude, and the number of killed and
+wounded, that they were glad to make off.
+
+Montbar was a Frenchman who had heard of the atrocities of the Spaniards
+and the exploits of the buccaneers, and determined to go out to the West
+Indies to join in the fray. On his voyage from France he met a Spanish
+vessel which he attacked and boarded with a sabre in his hand. Passing
+twice from bow to stern, he carved his way through the enemy, entirely
+reckless of danger, and by his example animated his comrades until the
+vessel was taken. Then standing apart while the spoil was being
+divided, he gloated with savage pleasure over the corpses that lay on
+the deck.
+
+Arrived at Hispaniola he heard from the buccaneers that they could do
+little in the way of planting because of the continual attacks on their
+settlements. "Why then," said Montbar, roughly, "do you tamely submit to
+such insults?" "We do not!" they answered; "the Spaniards have
+experienced what kind of men we are, and therefore take advantage of the
+time when we go hunting. But we are going to join with some of our
+companions, who have been even worse treated than ourselves, and then we
+shall have hot work." "If such be the case let me lead you," said
+Montbar, "not as a commander, but first in the post of danger."
+
+They were quite willing to have him as leader, and the very same day he
+went at the head of a party to find the enemy. Meeting a small body of
+Spaniards he rushed upon them with such fury that hardly one escaped,
+and this at once justified them in their choice. He afterwards became
+such a terror all over the West Indies as to be known as "the
+Exterminator."
+
+Lolonois was another ruffian, who commenced his career by taking a
+Spanish frigate with only two canoes and twenty-two men. This vessel had
+sailed from Havana especially to put down the buccaneers, and had on
+board a negro executioner who was engaged to hang the prisoners. Hearing
+this from the negro, Lolonois ordered all the Spaniards to be brought
+before him, and going down the line, he struck off one head after
+another, licking his sword after each blow. He afterwards went to Port
+au Prince, where four vessels were fitting out for his capture. These
+he took and threw all their crews into the sea, except one man, whom he
+sent to the Governor of Havana with the news, and a warning that he
+would treat the Governor himself in the same way if he had the
+opportunity.
+
+After this he ran the best prizes aground and sailed for Tortuga in the
+frigate, where he joined Michael de Basco. With four hundred and forty
+men this worthy pair sailed for the Main, where they plundered the coast
+of Venezuela, set fire to Gibraltar, and held Maracaybo for ransom. They
+carried off all the crosses, pictures, plate, ornaments, and even bells
+from the churches, with the intention of using them in a great cathedral
+to be erected on Tortuga.
+
+Although the buccaneers were mostly French they were not confined to
+that nationality. The famous or notorious Captain Morgan was a Welshman,
+who began his career in the West Indies as a bond-servant. One of his
+greatest exploits was the capture of Porto Bello, which had taken the
+place of Nombre de Dios after that town had been burnt by Drake. He even
+out-did Drake and every other adventurer before him by storming Panama,
+from whence he obtained a very rich booty. Here he fell in love with a
+Spanish lady, who, however, threatened to stab herself rather than yield
+to his embraces. Even when he tried the gentlest measures which such a
+ruffian could think of, she still refused to yield, so that he had
+ultimately to comply with the wishes of his companions and leave her.
+Panama was burnt, the retreat across the isthmus safely performed
+without any serious misadventure, and Morgan sailed away to Jamaica
+with the lion's share of the plunder.
+
+In this great expedition the buccaneers of all nations united to form a
+combination hitherto unknown. But, as this was the first time that such
+a thing had occurred, so also was it the last. As for Morgan his career
+was ended; his comrades charged him with treachery and made it unsafe
+for him to come within their reach. He therefore settled down in
+Jamaica, made himself right with the authorities there and in England,
+was knighted by King Charles the Second, and professed now to have a
+great dislike to piracy. On two occasions Sir Henry Morgan became acting
+Governor of Jamaica, and in that capacity did his best to discountenance
+buccaneering.
+
+In 1683 a great expedition was organised at Tortuga by Van Horn, a
+Fleming, noted for his courage and ferocity. In the heat of an
+engagement he would pace the deck, and urge his men to fight by shooting
+any one who even flinched from a ball. He thus made himself a terror to
+cowards and the admiration of the brave; like Montbar, gaining the
+respect and confidence of his followers. Like the French leader also, he
+was careless about his own share of the booty, leaving everything to his
+men, which naturally increased his popularity. With twelve hundred men
+in six vessels he sailed for Vera Cruz, and surprised the town at night.
+Most of the inhabitants took refuge in the churches, and the buccaneers
+posted sentries with barrels of gunpowder in front of each, giving
+orders to blow up the buildings on the least sign of an attempt to
+escape. After plundering the houses they demanded about half a million
+pounds from the prisoners as ransom for their lives and liberties. This
+was not obtained, however, for while waiting the collection a large body
+of troops was seen approaching from the interior, and a fleet of
+seventeen vessels came into the harbour from Spain. Yet the buccaneers
+were determined to get something towards the ransom, and to this end
+seized fifteen hundred slaves, with which they quietly sailed away in
+defiance of the enemy, promising to call again for the balance of the
+ransom. The Spanish fleet let them pass without firing a single gun, and
+they went back to Tortuga, there to spend a year in rioting and
+carousing.
+
+When their money was all spent they resolved to try the most arduous of
+adventures, a raid on the ports of the Great South Sea. And it happened
+curiously that at that very time the English pirates were getting ready
+for a similar venture, without either having knowledge of that of the
+other party. About four thousand men were engaged, some going by way of
+the Straits of Magellan and others across the isthmus. The English and
+French met, and at first agreed to work together, but for want of one
+leader who could command and be respected by both parties, the
+expedition proved almost a failure. Possibly also the French had not
+forgotten Morgan's treachery, and this caused distrust and prevented any
+cordial feeling.
+
+Those who travelled across the isthmus stole boats on the other side,
+and with them captured larger vessels, until this little frequented sea
+became almost as dangerous to Spanish ships as the Caribbean. Most of
+the smaller ports were surprised, and even Guayaquil was captured,
+mainly because they were not provided with forts and other defences. In
+fact, the people were so unacquainted with war and so wrapped up by the
+supposed security of their position, that even when the alarm was given
+little could be done. Silver became so common that nothing but gold,
+pearls, and precious stones would satisfy the spoilers, yet with all
+their easy conquests they got little real benefit. Some died of
+sickness, and many from the results of drunkenness and debauchery. The
+storms of Cape Horn and the Straits wrecked several vessels, and drowned
+both spoil and spoilers, while those who attempted to return by land
+were equally unfortunate. They died in the bush of fever and dysentery,
+or were cut off by ambuscades of the enemy, often losing their booty if
+they escaped with their lives.
+
+What a journey across the isthmus really meant at that time is well
+exemplified in the case of Lionel Wafer. In 1681 he was a surgeon on
+board an English vessel under Captain Sharp, one of those privateers who
+went cruising in the South Sea. After spending some time there the party
+divided, one portion deciding to cross overland, and the other to
+continue the cruise.
+
+Wafer went with those who intended crossing the isthmus, the whole
+numbering forty-four white men and three Indians. They marched from the
+Pacific shore one afternoon, and towards night arrived at the foot of a
+hill, where they put up several rough sheds. Rain had already begun to
+fall--such rain as is only known in the tropics--and they had to crouch
+under these imperfect shelters until midnight, with streams of water
+running down their backs and rivulets flowing about their feet. By
+morning they felt less discomfort and were glad to warm their chilled
+limbs by walking up the hill. Here they came upon an Indian path which
+led to a village, where they were gratified with food and a drink made
+of Indian corn. After resting awhile they agreed with one of the Indians
+to guide them on the next day's journey, and that night rested in the
+village.
+
+Next morning they went on again, and at mid-day arrived at an Indian
+hut, the owner of which was so morose and surly that at first he refused
+to have anything to do with them. After they had spoken kindly and asked
+him to guide them on their journey, he roughly answered that he was
+prepared to lead them to the Spanish settlements. This of course would
+never do, and they offered him beads, money, axes, and knives to gain
+his good-will, but all without effect, until a sky-blue petticoat was
+dangled before the eyes of his wife. This turned the scale, for her
+persuasions being added to theirs, he at last consented to procure a
+guide, excusing himself from the task on the plea that he was lame from
+a cut. He wished to detain them with him for the day, as it still
+rained, but they were in so great a dread of being discovered by the
+enemy that, having obtained the guide, they marched three miles farther
+before stopping for the night.
+
+On the fourth morning the weather was fairer, and they travelled for
+twelve miles over hills and through slushy morasses, crossing one river
+after another to the number of about thirty. Rain poured down again in
+the afternoon and during the greater part of the night, so that they had
+much ado to keep their fires from going out. What with the discomforts
+of their situation, the want of proper food, and the chilliness
+preceding intermittent fever, they even forgot for the time their fears
+of the Spaniards. However, as the sun rose they went on again until,
+after travelling seven miles through the forest, they reached the hut of
+a Spanish Indian, who supplied them with yams, sweet potatoes, and
+plantains, but no meat except the flesh of two monkeys, which they gave
+to the weak and sickly.
+
+While resting here Wafer met with an accident. One of the company, in
+drying some gunpowder on a silver plate, carelessly placed it near the
+fire where he was sitting, with the result that it exploded and tore the
+skin and flesh from one of his thighs, rendering him almost helpless. He
+had a few medicines in his knapsack and dressed the wound as well as he
+could under the circumstances, but rest and proper food were needed, and
+these he could not have. The consequence was that, after struggling
+along with the others until he sank down exhausted and suffering from
+excruciating torture, he was left behind with two sick men at an Indian
+village, where they were presently joined by two others who had broken
+down.
+
+Observing the condition of Wafer's wound, the Indians treated it with a
+poultice of chewed herbs on a plantain leaf, and in twenty days it was
+healed. Nevertheless, although they did him this kindness, they were
+not over civil, but on the contrary treated the five white men with
+contempt, throwing them their refuse provisions as if they were dogs.
+One young Indian proved kinder, and got them some ripe bananas now and
+then, but the others were annoyed because the main body had compelled
+some inhabitants of the village to go with them as guides against their
+will. The weather was then so bad that even the Indians considered
+travelling almost impossible, and this annoyed them all the more,
+especially when the guides did not return.
+
+Day after day passed, and the Indians becoming more incensed at the
+non-arrival of their people, began to think of avenging themselves on
+Wafer and his comrades. Thinking that the guides had been murdered, they
+determined to burn them to death, and even went so far as to erect a
+great pile of wood for the purpose. But almost at the last moment their
+chief interposed, and offered to send away the Englishmen in charge of
+two guides.
+
+Accordingly they set out, their only food supply a little dry Indian
+corn, and their only resting-place at night the wet ground, still
+exposed to drenching rains which fell every day. The third night they
+went to sleep on a low mound, and in the morning woke to find it a
+little island with water extending as far as their eyes could reach. To
+add to their trouble, the Indian guides had disappeared, leaving them to
+remain here without shelter and almost starved for three days. Then the
+waters fell and they commenced the weary work of steering to the north
+by means of a pocket compass--a task the difficulty of which can only
+be appreciated by one who has attempted it.
+
+However, they soon reached the bank of a deep river, the stream of which
+was rushing along like a mill race. Here a lately-felled tree lying
+across showed them where their comrades had passed, and they commenced
+to climb over astride as the trunk was so slippery. One of the party was
+so weak and so overburdened by four hundred pieces of eight (silver
+dollars) that he fell, and was immediately carried down the stream out
+of sight.
+
+Giving him up as lost, the four survivors went wandering about, looking
+for the footprints of their comrades, but could find no trace of them,
+probably on account of the floods. Fearing a mistake, they again crossed
+the river and recommenced the search on the other side, where they were
+surprised to come upon their lost companion sitting on the bank, which
+he had managed to gain by grasping the bough of a tree as he was borne
+swiftly past. Finding no signs of a trail, they again went on working
+with the compass as before. On the fifth day they had nothing to eat but
+a few wild berries, and the day following arrived at another great river
+where not even a tree lay across to give them a passage. They had only
+their long knives, but with them they set to work and cut down bamboos,
+with which rafts were made by binding the sticks with bush-ropes. They
+had just finished and were resting awhile, when a terrible storm came
+on. The rain fell as if from a cascade, thunder rolled and lightning
+flashed, accompanied by a sulphurous odour which almost choked them.
+There was no shelter but the trees of the forest, and the fire was put
+out at once, leaving these half-starved wretches to shiver and shake
+with ague all through the afternoon and up to midnight.
+
+Then the waters began to rise, and in the darkness--that total absence
+of light under the canopy of foliage, where two men sitting together
+only know of each other's presence by feeling, for the din of the
+elements is absolutely deafening--Wafer began to appreciate the fact
+that the swirl of the flood had reached his feet. With no possibility of
+communicating with the others, he felt his way to a hollow silk-cotton
+tree, into which he crawled, and climbed upon a heap of debris that
+stood in the centre. Here he fell asleep from sheer exhaustion, or more
+probably, perhaps, fainted. When he awoke he said it was impossible for
+words to paint the terrors that overwhelmed his mind. The water reached
+to his knees, notwithstanding that the mound was five feet above the
+ground level, and he was afraid it would reach still higher. However, as
+the sun rose the flood went down, and presently he was glad to crawl out
+and stretch his chilled limbs. But he was all alone, and at first
+thought his comrades had been drowned. He shouted, but no answer came
+back, except the echo of his own voice. Giving way to despair, he threw
+himself on the buttress of a tree, from which condition he was roused by
+the appearance of first one and then another, until the little company
+was again complete. They also had found similar refuges and now came to
+look after their rafts.
+
+But the bundles of canes had become water-logged and useless, so they
+resolved to retrace their steps if possible to the Indian village. On
+their way they unfortunately missed shooting a deer which lay beside the
+path, and had nothing to eat but macaw berries and the pith of a tree.
+Seeing the track of a wild hog they followed that, and ultimately came
+upon two provision fields. But even with this prospect of food they were
+so much depressed that, although perishing with hunger, they were afraid
+to venture near the Indian huts, and lingered about for some time.
+However, at last Wafer summoned enough courage to go into one of them,
+when almost immediately he was so affected by the close atmosphere and
+the odour of some meat cooking over the fire, that he fainted.
+
+The kindly Indians assisted in his recovery, and gave him something to
+eat, when he was pleasantly surprised to find there the very same guides
+on whose account he and his comrades had been nearly roasted to death.
+On telling them where the others were, the Indians went out and brought
+back three, but had to carry food to the fourth before he could gain
+enough strength to walk the short distance. Here they were treated with
+the greatest humanity and tenderness, and after resting a week they
+again started with four guides, to reach the same river that had before
+checked their progress, in one day. Here, finding a canoe, they
+proceeded up stream until, arriving at the dwelling of the chief who had
+saved them from torture, they were told it was impossible to go on in
+such weather.
+
+Wafer and his companions stopped here for several months--in fact the
+chief wished to retain them altogether. As a physician, Wafer was
+respected and loved; but at last, wishing to depart, by repeated
+importunities and the promise to come back with some good hunting-dogs,
+and then to marry the chief's daughter, he was at last furnished with
+guides. Over high mountains, along the edges of precipices, and through
+dense forests they toiled until they came to a river flowing north, on
+which they embarked, and reached the shores of the Gulf of Darien two
+days later. Here they were overjoyed to find an English vessel, the crew
+of which gave them a hearty welcome, making up to some extent for their
+long and perilous journey.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+VI.
+
+WAR IN THE YOUNG COLONIES.
+
+
+At the beginning of the seventeenth century Spain was nominally at peace
+with the other great powers, except the Netherlands, which had not yet
+come to the front. By the treaty of 1604 Queen Elizabeth made up the
+English quarrel, and in 1609 even Holland was conceded a truce for nine
+years.
+
+Thus amity was supposed to exist, and the raids of licensed privateers
+came to an end. Yet there was "no peace beyond the line." Not to mention
+corsairs and pirates, the English were as determined on their part to
+get a share of America as were the Spaniards to keep them out if
+possible. The founders of Virginia were resolute to lose their lives
+rather than abandon so noble a colony. Even King James dared not give it
+up, although in 1612 and the following year there was a hot contention
+with the Spanish Secretary of State on the matter. Spain was
+discontented that the colony should have the royal sanction, and at the
+same time demanded its removal, accompanying this with a threat to drive
+out the settlers, as well as those in the Bermudas. But James could not
+admit the Papal Bull, and as the English were firm, the claimants of
+the whole of America contented themselves with protests.
+
+In the West Indies, however, Spain went farther. Here she had
+undoubtedly the right by discovery, although not by actual possession,
+save in the Greater Antilles. The weak English king who succeeded the
+strong-minded Tudor princess was not prepared to contest the Spanish
+supremacy here, but simply answered the complaints against English
+adventurers by disclaiming all responsibility. Neither England nor
+France had officially taken the ground that only actual possession
+created territorial rights, but many Englishmen were clamouring loudly
+to that effect. We have already noticed in another chapter James's
+policy, or want of policy, and the change which took place a few weeks
+after his death--we have now to deal with the results of that
+alteration.
+
+In 1621 hostilities were renewed between Spain and the Netherlands, but
+even during the nominal truce the Dutch invaded Margarita, and
+demolished the fort, but without, however, taking actual possession.
+When the truce was over hostilities were recommenced with a vigour that
+rather astonished Spain, for in the interval the Netherlands had
+progressed wonderfully. In 1625, the year of his accession, Charles the
+First entered into a treaty, offensive and defensive, with the United
+Provinces, which of course brought England into collision with Spain,
+and open war began again in the West Indies. In 1629 a fleet of
+thirty-five vessels under Don Frederic de Toledo conquered the island of
+St. Christopher's and removed most of the English settlers, only a few
+of whom managed to escape to the mountains, while the French got off in
+two of their vessels. The French refugees suffered a great deal from the
+want of preparation for their hurried flight, and arrived at the island
+of St. Martin's perishing with hunger and thirst. Here they dug holes in
+the sand and obtained a supply of brackish water, which was so
+unwholesome that some died from drinking it in excessive quantities.
+After the Spaniards left they returned to St. Christopher's to find a
+few English, who, annoyed at their desertion, wanted to keep the island
+to themselves, but the French were too numerous and soon took possession
+of their old quarters.
+
+In 1632 the Dutch took possession of Tobago, and two years later of
+Curaçao, which latter island soon became their great stronghold in the
+West Indies, and the principal depôt for the contraband traffic with
+Venezuela. At that time no Spanish vessels went to this part of the
+Main, but finding that the trade was of some importance to the Dutch,
+the authorities now granted licenses to drive their rivals out of the
+market. But the Spanish traders could not compete with the Hollanders,
+and this so annoyed the authorities that they determined to extinguish
+smuggling at any cost. This they were unable to do by catching the
+delinquents, but they could punish those who dealt with them. The result
+was the infliction of heavy fines and confiscation, with disgraceful
+punishments, from which many were ruined. Yet with all that the trade
+was so lucrative to both parties that neither was inclined to give it
+up--the Dutch took care of themselves, while cheap commodities could
+generally command a market, whatever the risk. The fact was the mother
+country imposed so many restrictions, and exacted such heavy fees for
+licenses, that the cost of an article was doubled or trebled as compared
+with that of the Hollander.
+
+In 1627 a French Association was incorporated under the title of "The
+Company of the Islands of America." They appointed the Sieurs d'Enambuc
+and du Rossy to settle the islands of St. Christopher's and Barbados as
+well as others situated at the "entrance of Peru." Nothing was done at
+Barbados, as the English were already in possession, but in 1634
+examinations of Dominica, Martinique, and Guadeloupe were made, which
+ended in the two latter islands becoming French colonies in 1635.
+
+Meanwhile, in November, 1630, a treaty was signed at Madrid between
+England and Spain, after which peace was supposed to again prevail.
+Nothing was said about the West Indies, probably because Spain knew that
+further protests were useless. Hardly had this been settled before, in
+1635, France declared war against the common foe, and her corsairs could
+now legally carry on their work of pillage and destruction. In 1638 the
+island of St. Martin's, which had been partly occupied by French and
+Dutch, was captured by Spaniards, who expelled the inhabitants and
+replaced them by a strong garrison. In the same year Colonel Jackson,
+with a force from the English islands, captured Santiago de la Vega in
+Jamaica, and plundered it of everything valuable, after which, in
+retaliation, the island of New Providence, one of the Bahamas, was
+captured by Spain. Neither place was, however, occupied by the captors,
+who only did as much damage as they could and then left.
+
+Almost from the commencement of their settlements the French had
+quarrelled among themselves, but until the struggle which ended in the
+execution of Charles the First, there had been few difficulties in the
+English islands. The Barbadians, it is true, protested against the claim
+of the Earl of Carlisle, in which they were joined by the people of St.
+Kitt's, but this was settled without disturbance. Now, however, the
+effects of "the great rebellion" began to be felt across the seas, and
+disaffection towards the Parliament, and loyalty to the king, were
+promoted by a number of Royalists who had fled from the disturbance in
+the mother country.
+
+In 1650 the West Indies were virtually in revolt against the Parliament,
+and on the 10th of September an embargo was declared in England against
+vessels bound for the Caribbee Islands, Bermuda, and Virginia. This was
+followed on the 27th by an Act prohibiting all commerce with these
+colonies because of their rebellion against the Commonwealth. Virginia
+and the Bermudas had declared for King Charles the Second after the
+execution of his father, and sent emissaries to Barbados for the purpose
+of inciting them to join in the revolt.
+
+[Illustration: ST. KITT'S.
+
+(_From Andrews' "West Indies."_)]
+
+At the commencement of that year Barbados was in a state of ferment,
+waiting only for the spark which would plunge the island into civil war.
+Even at this early period the inhabitants of Little England, as it is
+called, were very loyal, and had something of the conceit which has
+characterised them ever since. True, there were "Roundheads" on the
+island, but hitherto party differences had been put in the
+background--now they were brought into prominence. When the agent of the
+Bermudians asked that Barbados should declare for the king, the majority
+were in favour of the project, but, as a matter of course, the others,
+who were of considerable importance, refused. At first the Royalists
+went so far as to advocate the banishment of their opponents, but were
+unable to find any reasonable excuse for such a high-handed proceeding.
+However they brought in an Act to imprison all who went to a
+conventicle, or who seduced others from repairing to the Public
+Congregation or from receiving the Holy Sacrament. For a second offence
+the penalty was forfeiture of all lands, goods, chattels, and debts by
+those whom they called "the enemy to the peace of the island."
+
+This was to have been published on April 15, 1650, and kept secret until
+proclaimed, to prevent trouble. But it appears that Colonel Codrington,
+a member of the Assembly, divulged it in his cups, for which he was
+fined twenty thousand pounds of sugar, and banished from the island. A
+deputation of Parliamentarians then waited upon the Governor, to enter
+their protest against the new law, and were asked to leave the matter in
+his hands, as he had to deal with "violent spirits." Finally, the
+proclamation was delayed, on the ground that there were many errors in
+the copy, and the two parties stood at bay.
+
+On the 23rd of April the Roundheads petitioned the Governor to issue
+his writ for a new Assembly, on the ground that the present body had sat
+for its full term. This he agreed to do, and thus alienated the
+Cavaliers, who said he was a most emphatic Roundhead and enemy to the
+king. Handbills and posters now began to be circulated calling attention
+to the "damnable designe" of the Independents, of which, they said,
+Colonel Drax, "that devout zealot (of the deeds of the Devil, and the
+cause of that seven-headed Dragon at Westminster), is the Agent." One of
+the writers declared that he should think his best rest but disquiet
+until he had sheathed his sword in the bowels of the same obnoxious
+personage.
+
+The Cavaliers were still adding to their numbers by the arrival of more
+refugees, while Colonel Drax and his friends fell into the background.
+The new-comers had mostly been ruined by the civil war, and were
+naturally desirous of doing something to retrieve their fortunes; it
+followed, therefore, that anything that led to the confiscation of the
+estates of the obnoxious party would be to their advantage. The
+Cavaliers set to work to rouse the island by going about on horseback,
+fully armed, everywhere challenging those they met to drink the health
+of Charles the Second and confusion to the Independent dogs. This, with
+the rumours of a Roundhead plot and the various manifestoes, induced the
+Governor to issue a proclamation declaring that in future if any persons
+spread such scandalous papers they would be proceeded against as enemies
+of the public peace, at the same time forbidding any one to take up arms
+in a hostile manner.
+
+This produced little effect, for the leader of one of the roving bands,
+Colonel Shelley, refused to disband. On this the Governor issued
+commissions to raise a militia for the preservation of order, but by the
+time that a hundred men had been collected an alarm went forth that the
+Cavaliers were advancing on Bridgetown. This was the 1st of May, and by
+that time the Cavaliers were prepared to act. Their leader was Colonel
+Walrond, who, on being sent for by the Governor, and saying they had no
+evil intention, was allowed to depart. However, they took possession of
+the town, and then came forward with the demand that all Independents
+and other disturbers of the peace should be at once disarmed. To this
+the Governor agreed, provided the well-affected should vouch for their
+safety. They also stipulated that the magazine on the bridge should be
+put under their protection, that those who obstructed the peace and
+laboured to ruin the loyal colonists should be punished, that twenty
+persons whose names they gave should be forthwith arrested, and that the
+Governor should speedily call together the Assembly to try them;
+meanwhile they refused to disperse until these things were done. The
+Governor could do nothing but accede to these demands, but even then
+there was something more which they considered the climax--"that our
+lawful soveraigne Charles the Second be instantly in a solemn manner
+proclaimed king."
+
+This staggered the Governor, who said it was a matter for the General
+Assembly, in which opinion he got them at last to agree. However, they
+were not yet content, but insisted that at the dissolution of the
+present Assembly only such men as were known to be well-affected to His
+Majesty and conformers to the Church of England should be chosen and
+admitted. After that they must be promised an "Act of oblivion" for the
+lawful taking up of arms, safe-conduct for all officers on legislative
+business, and, finally, that the Governor must come to them without the
+companionship of any disaffected person and put himself under their
+care.
+
+All this was perforce agreed to, and on the 3rd of May Charles the
+Second was declared king of England, &c., as well as of Barbados, and at
+the same time the Book of Common Prayer was proclaimed to be the only
+pattern of true worship.
+
+Behind all this was a fact which no one mentioned, but which probably
+everybody knew--on the 29th of April Lord Willoughby had arrived in the
+harbour, bearing a commission as Governor of the Caribbee Islands, from
+the fugitive King Charles and the Earl of Carlisle. No doubt the whole
+demonstration was got up on his account, the Cavaliers wanting to have
+the king proclaimed first, so that there should be no difficulty about
+the commission. Everything was ready now, and nothing was heard but
+uproarious drinking of His Majesty's health, the Cavaliers going from
+house to house and compelling others to follow their example. As for
+Lord Willoughby, he left the Governor to carry out the stipulated
+measures, while he went to look after the other islands under his
+jurisdiction.
+
+Now the Royalists of Barbados began to persecute the leaders of the
+obnoxious party, beginning with the twenty they had named to the
+Governor. Some, seeing their danger, had got off to England, but those
+who remained were sentenced to pay a million pounds of sugar and to be
+banished. Then nearly a hundred others were indicted and ordered to
+leave before the 2nd of July, while all their commissions of the peace
+or in the militia were cancelled. Wives were banished with their
+husbands, and unless the estate-owners humbly submitted, paid their
+fines, and appointed well-affected persons as attorneys, their
+properties were confiscated. Yet with all that, when an attempt was made
+to get to the bottom of the rumoured plot, no trace of it could be
+found. Some of the more moderate of the Royalists even began to doubt
+whether they were not going too far, but they salved their consciences
+by saying that everything was done in the interest of the king.
+
+When the news arrived in England it created a great stir. In November
+some merchants and planters interested in the island asked for
+permission to make reprisals on their own account. They wanted licenses
+to trade there with five or six able ships, and letters of marque to use
+in case of obstruction, or a refusal to comply with certain demands.
+These demands were to repeal all Acts dishonourable to the Commonwealth,
+to renounce obedience to Charles Stuart, to acknowledge the supreme
+authority of the Parliament, to banish certain "active incendiaries in
+the late troubles," and, finally, to recall those who had suffered, so
+that they might enjoy the same rights as the other inhabitants. A
+further petition asked for the removal of Lord Willoughby in favour of
+Edward Winslow, a man of approved fidelity to the Commonwealth.
+
+The Parliamentary Government did not adopt these proposals, as they
+intended to reduce the island in a regular manner. In January, 1651, a
+fleet was made ready for this purpose, but being employed in the
+reduction of the Scilly Islands, it could not be got ready for the West
+Indies until June following.
+
+Meanwhile Lord Willoughby had returned, and was doing his best to
+conciliate the Barbadians of both parties. He did not altogether approve
+of what had been done, but repealed the Acts of sequestration, thus
+putting the inhabitants in good spirits for the expected invasion. It
+was rumoured that Prince Rupert was coming out from Marseilles, and this
+made things appear brighter, encouraging them to put their forts in
+order.
+
+The English fleet did not actually leave Plymouth until the 5th of
+August. It was under the command of Sir George Ayscue, who took six or
+seven merchant vessels under convoy, probably those referred to in the
+petition. He reached Barbados on the 15th of October, when as yet no
+news had been heard of Prince Rupert; in fact, that great seaman had
+been dissuaded from crossing the Atlantic. Fourteen Dutch vessels were
+captured in Carlisle Bay, the sudden arrival of the fleet preventing
+their escape.
+
+Willoughby had some six thousand foot and four hundred horse stationed
+at different parts of the island, and was determined to hold it for the
+king, looking forward daily to see Prince Rupert arrive. He had heard
+from a Dutch vessel that the king was marching on London with an army of
+Scots: this also tended to make his resistance all the more stubborn.
+From a few Roundheads, who managed to come off in the night, Ayscue
+learnt this, but he was as equally determined to subdue the island as
+Willoughby was to defend it.
+
+On being called upon to surrender the island for the use of the
+Parliament of England, the Governor replied that he acknowledged no
+supremacy over Englishmen save the king and those having commissions
+from him, directing the letter to the admiral on board His Majesty's
+ship the _Rainbow_. He also said that he had expected some overtures of
+reparation for the hostile acts upon the ships in the bay. After this
+defiance nothing was left but to prepare first for a strict blockade,
+and then to effect a landing. The strength on shore was too great for
+any open attack, and Ayscue managed to send a proclamation addressed to
+the freeholders and inhabitants, urging them to accept in time his
+offers of peace and mercy. In answer to this the Assembly met and passed
+a declaration to "sticke to" Lord Willoughby and defend the island to
+the utmost.
+
+In England a great deal of interest was felt in the struggle, and the
+demand for news of the expedition created a supply giving circumstantial
+accounts of what had _not_ taken place. One of them was headed, "Bloody
+news from the Barbados, being a true relation of a great and terrible
+fight between the Parliament's Navie, commanded by Sir George Ayscue,
+and the King of Scots' Forces under the command of the Lord Willoughby;
+with the particulars of the fight, the storming of the Island, the
+manner how the Parliament's Forces were repulsed and beaten off from
+Carlisle Bay and the Block House, and the number killed and wounded."
+And all this before any attempt had been made beyond the blockade!
+
+On the receipt of the news of the battle of Worcester, Ayscue sent
+another flag of truce to give Willoughby the information, saying that he
+did so as a friend rather than as an enemy. He was acting in that
+quality, by stating the true condition of England, and leaving him and
+his friends to judge of the necessity for due obedience to the State of
+England; otherwise they would be swallowed up in the destruction so
+shortly and inevitably coming upon them.
+
+In reply, Willoughby said he had never served his king so much in
+expectation of prosperity as in consideration of duty, and that he would
+not be the means of increasing the sad affliction of His Majesty by
+giving up that island. To this Ayscue rejoined, that if there were such
+a person as the king, Willoughby's retention of that place signified
+nothing to his advantage, and therefore the surrender could be small
+grief to him. He well knew the impossibility of the island subsisting
+without the patronage of England, and the admiral's great desire was to
+save it from ruin and destruction.
+
+As Willoughby refused to surrender, Ayscue determined to attack the Hole
+or James's Town, which he did on the 2nd of November, beating off its
+defenders, taking thirty prisoners, and spiking the four guns of the
+fort. On the 1st of December the fleet which had been sent to reduce
+Virginia arrived, and on the temporary addition of this force, Ayscue
+again sent to Willoughby, as he stated, for the last time. In reply he
+was told that the Assembly would consider the matter in two or three
+days, but this reply did not please the admiral, so he tried to hurry up
+the decision by landing at Speight's Town. Against the stubborn
+opposition of twelve hundred men he stormed and took the fort, which he
+held for two days, ultimately retiring, however, after burning the
+houses, demolishing the fortifications, and throwing the guns into the
+sea.
+
+After that the correspondence was continued, Ayscue entreating
+Willoughby to spare the good people of the island the horrors of war. To
+this the Governor replied, that they only took up arms in their own
+defence; the guilt of the blood and ruin would be at the doors of those
+who brought force to bear. Then the Virginia fleet sailed for its
+destination, and Ayscue recommenced hostilities by again occupying
+Speight's Town.
+
+By this time, however, there was a party on the island in favour of
+peace, and they began to bestir themselves, thus making the Royalists
+more determined. They put forth a proclamation inviting the inhabitants
+to endure the troubles of war for a season, rather than by base
+submission to let the deceitful enemy make them slaves for ever. But the
+Roundheads now began to assemble under Colonel Modiford at his house, to
+the number of six hundred men, who declared for the Parliament, and
+threatened to bring Willoughby to reason, the admiral going so far as
+to visit them surreptitiously to read his commission. Hearing of this,
+Willoughby got two thousand four hundred men together and appeared near
+the house, but did not venture to attack it, as by this time he had
+become somewhat disheartened.
+
+This brought things to a crisis, and on the 10th of January arrangements
+were made for a commission from both sides to make arrangements for
+terms. After a great deal of hesitation on the part of the admiral, the
+capitulation was at last signed, the articles being exceedingly
+favourable both to the inhabitants and Lord Willoughby. So lenient were
+they that Ayscue had to excuse himself to the home authorities for fear
+that he might have been misunderstood. They were, in short, liberty of
+conscience, continuation of the old government, and of the old Courts of
+Justice, no taxation without consent of the Assembly, no confiscations,
+all suits to be decided on the island, no acts of indemnity, no oaths
+against their consciences, a temporary cessation of all civil suits, and
+finally that Lord Willoughby should retain all his private property in
+the islands as well as in Surinam, with full liberty to go to England.
+These articles were signed on the 11th of January, 1652, and the "storm
+in a teapot" came to an end, the Barbadians proudly boasting that they
+had been able to defy the mighty power of the Commonwealth. Most of the
+leaders were banished from the island, some going to Surinam, where a
+colony had been established by Lord Willoughby soon after his arrival in
+Barbados. Among them was Major Byam, who became Governor, and virtually
+held the settlement for the king until he came to his own again. This
+is all the more curious because Cromwell knew the circumstances, yet
+made no effort to bring the people under submission. At first the
+settlers established a little Commonwealth of their own, with Major Byam
+as president, but when his term had expired, instead of giving place to
+another he declared he had a commission as Governor from the king,
+although he refused to show the document to any one. With enough
+Royalists to back him, he thus held office until the Restoration,
+notwithstanding the complaints of the Parliamentary faction and their
+requests to the home authorities for redress.
+
+Meanwhile, early in 1652 England went to war with the Dutch, and this
+seriously interfered with the trade of that nationality in the West
+Indies. The Navigation Act was another blow to them, although it could
+not yet be enforced altogether. Cromwell made himself respected in such
+a manner that peace with Holland was restored in April, 1654, thus
+leaving him free to carry out his designs against the old enemy--Spain.
+
+Since Queen Elizabeth's time the English Governments had done little in
+the way of worrying the Spaniards, although pirates had been busy almost
+without intermission. Now, however, Cromwell was at liberty, and he
+began to see that they wanted a little correction to prevent their
+having too much of their own way in America. The Spanish ambassador was
+cringing enough when he saw what a powerful leader had arisen, and did
+his best to avert the impending storm. It is even stated that he assured
+the Protector of his master's friendship, and declared that if he took
+the Crown of England Spain would be first in her approval. Cromwell was
+not to be mollified by soft speeches; he had got peace at home, and was
+determined to have it across the seas as well. He was quite willing to
+arrange for a treaty, but it must be on his own terms, not at the
+dictation of Spain. A commission was appointed to meet the ambassador
+and discuss the grounds of the agreement, and they began at once with
+the West Indies. A long list of depredations was produced for which the
+English demanded satisfaction before going farther. The English had been
+treated as enemies wherever the Spaniards met them in the West Indies,
+even when going to and from their own plantations, notwithstanding the
+former treaty, and the Commission insisted on a proper indemnity. The
+English must be free to trade everywhere--in fact the old claim of Spain
+to the whole of America must be finally abandoned.
+
+The Spanish ambassador replied that the inquisition and trade to the
+West Indies were his master's two eyes, and that nothing different from
+the practice of former times could be permitted. On hearing this
+Cromwell, seeing that neither indemnity for the past nor promises of
+amendment in the future could be obtained, prepared for war, and
+commenced by fitting out an expedition to conquer Hispaniola.
+
+In December, 1654, we find the first mention of a special service under
+the command of Generals Penn and Venables, and early in the following
+year the fleet sailed for Barbados. With five thousand men from England,
+and as many from the West Indies, the expedition arrived near St.
+Domingo on the 13th of April, 1655, frightening the inhabitants so much
+that they fled to the woods on its approach. However, the affair was so
+badly managed that no benefit accrued from following the example of
+Drake, which appears to have been the object of the leaders. Like the
+great Elizabethan hero, they landed at a distance from the town with the
+intention of marching along the shore, but instead of landing ten miles
+off they went as far as thirty. For four days the troops wandered
+through the mangrove bushes, without guides, and even without
+provisions, thus giving the runaway Spaniards time to rally from their
+fright and come out after them. Weary, entangled in the swamps, and
+utterly unfit to cope with an enemy, the English became an easy prey;
+the slaughter was considerable, and it was even stated that those killed
+were mostly shot in the back while trying to escape.
+
+Unwilling to attempt anything further in Hispaniola, Penn and Venables
+took off the dispirited remnant and sailed for Jamaica, hoping to do
+something there to prevent failure altogether. Not that there were any
+laurels to be gained in that direction, for the inhabitants only
+numbered three thousand, and half of these were negro slaves. A few
+shots were fired, and then the inhabitants took to flight, leaving the
+English in possession of the island. A capitulation was agreed upon with
+the old Spanish Governor, who was brought in a hammock to sign it, but
+many of the people took to the woods with their slaves, and refused to
+be bound by the articles. A body of two thousand men was then sent to
+scour the interior and bring them back, but they could find nothing
+save great herds of wild cattle. Afterwards, in pure wantonness, the
+churches and religious buildings were demolished, the cattle killed or
+driven far away, and the provision grounds devastated, with the result
+that the invaders were soon starving. In less than a month two thousand
+were sick, many had died, and the remainder had become mutinous.
+Altogether the whole affair was so badly managed that Cromwell became
+almost mad at the news, and sent both commanders to the Tower on their
+return.
+
+However, Jamaica was captured, and for the first time in the history of
+the West Indies a Spanish possession went into the hands of another
+nation. Some thought the island of no importance as compared with
+Hispaniola--it was certainly of little value to the Spaniards. However,
+a few English people foresaw something of its future importance, and did
+their best to develop the island. In October Cromwell issued a
+proclamation offering certain advantages to settlers from the other
+islands, or from England, so that it might be occupied as soon as
+possible. It stated that by the providence of God Jamaica had come into
+the possession of the State, and that they were satisfied of its
+fertility and commodiousness for trade; it had therefore been resolved
+to plant it. To this end it was made known to the people of the English
+islands and colonies the encouragements offered to those who removed
+their habitations there within two years from the 29th of September,
+1656. Twenty acres of land would be granted to every adult, and ten for
+each child, they would have freedom to hunt wild cattle and horses, be
+given the privilege of mining except for gold and silver, and freedom
+from taxes for three years.
+
+It resulted from this that many planters from Barbados and St. Kitt's
+went over, and in a very few years Jamaica was more prosperous than it
+had ever been while in the possession of Spain. In November, 1656,
+Cromwell ordered the Scotch Government to apprehend all known idle
+masterless robbers and vagabonds, male or female, and to transport them
+there, and at the same time the Council of State ordered that a thousand
+girls and as many young men should be enlisted in Ireland for the same
+purpose. As for the adventurers who went with the expedition, they were
+reported as being so lazy "that it could not enter into the heart of any
+Englishman that such blood should run in the veins of his
+countrymen"--they were so unworthy, slothful, and basely secure, out of
+a strange kind of spirit desiring rather to die than live. As for
+planting, little was done by them, although every possible inducement
+and encouragement was given.
+
+Meanwhile letters of marque were issued to privateers for the West
+Indies, which drove the Spaniards to send their treasure from Peru to
+Buenos Ayres, a route that had been abandoned since the time of Queen
+Elizabeth. Now also they began to make efforts for the recovery of
+Jamaica, and in May, 1658, thirty companies of infantry, under the
+command of the late Governor, landed on the north side of the island.
+Here in a small harbour they entrenched themselves, and built a little
+fort before their presence became known to the English. However,
+Governor D'Oyley at last heard of the invasion, but it was nearly two
+months after their arrival before he could proceed to approach them by
+sea. When he arrived, however, with seven hundred and fifty men, he at
+once stormed their fortress and drove them to their vessels, in which
+they fled to Cuba. This put an end to the matter; but the old Governor
+returned, and lived with the remnant of the Spaniards and their slaves
+in the mountains.
+
+Now at last even the Pope had to acknowledge other sovereignty than that
+of Spain, and this he did in a letter to Father Fontaine, of the
+Dominican Mission, on the 25th of July, 1658. Therein he acknowledged
+the king of France as ruler of the conquests and colonies his subjects
+had made in the American islands. Thus was the Bull of partition at last
+cancelled by the successor of its original promulgator, and the ground
+for the exclusive claim to America cut away. At this time France was
+also at war with Spain, but the following year a treaty was signed, and
+in 1660, on the restoration of Charles the Second, peace was restored
+with England.
+
+At the first private audience of the Spanish ambassador with the king,
+he delivered a memorial demanding the restoration of Jamaica to his
+master, on the ground that it had been taken by his rebel subjects,
+contrary to the treaty between the two Crowns. Instead of doing this,
+however, Charles despatched a vessel with letters to the Governors of
+the Caribbee islands, asking them to encourage all persons willing to
+transplant themselves to the larger islands. At the same time the Royal
+African Company, the great slave-trading corporation of that time, was
+asked to make Jamaica its headquarters for the sale of negroes. Then it
+was arranged to send women from England to be wives for the planters,
+Newgate and Bridewell to be spared as much as possible, so that poor
+maids might have a chance, with whom it was stated that few English
+parishes were unburdened.
+
+On the 1st of December, 1660, King Charles the Second made a move which
+must be considered as of the greatest importance to the development of
+the British Colonial Empire--he founded the "Council for foreign
+plantations," which later developed into the Colonial Office. This
+Council were to inform themselves of the state of the plantations and of
+how they were governed, keeping copies of all grants in a book. They
+were to write to every Governor asking for exact accounts of their
+proceedings, the nature of their laws and government, as well as
+statistics. They must establish a correspondence with the colonies, so
+that the king might be informed of all complaints, their wants, what
+they cultivated, their commodities, and their trade, so that all might
+be regulated upon common grounds and principles. They must adopt means
+for rendering them and England mutually helpful, and bring them into a
+more uniform government, with a better distribution of justice. Especial
+care was to be taken for the execution of the Navigation Act, and
+consideration given to the best means of providing servants, to which
+end care was to be taken that no persons were forced or enticed away by
+unlawful means. Those willing to be transported were, however, to be
+encouraged, and a legal course was to be settled for sending over
+vagrants and others who were noxious and unprofitable in England.
+Learned and orthodox ministers were also to be sent, and instructions
+given for regulating and repressing the debaucheries of planters and
+servants. The Council were also to consider how the natives and slaves
+might be invited to, and made capable of, baptism in the Christian
+faith, and finally to dispose of all matters relating to the good
+government, improvement, and management of the plantations.
+
+Thus England commenced her great career of colonisation, the results of
+which we see to-day. While taking all due account of Virginia and New
+England, we cannot but note that it was in the West Indies where the
+"prentice hand" was first tried. Jamaica was the main object of these
+provisions--to that island the king's attention had been specially
+directed, and it was here that many difficulties had to be encountered
+before it could be made a worthy appendage of the Crown. Most of the
+other islands were in the hands of private persons or companies, while
+this was under the control of the State. No matter that the island had
+been annexed by rebels, Charles the Second was determined to hold it
+fast for England, in spite of all the protests of Spain.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+VII.
+
+THE PLANTERS AND THEIR SLAVES.
+
+
+When the first European adventurers went to the West Indies, serfdom was
+still common in Spain. The peasantry were, as a rule, bound to the soil,
+and could neither be taken away by their lords nor remove at their own
+will. The consequence was that only soldiers, mariners, and free men
+from the towns took part in the first expeditions. The townsmen had
+mostly been brought up to the trades of their fathers, and were hardly
+fit to cultivate the land even in Spain, much less, therefore, were they
+suited to the tropics. They could not demean themselves by performing
+anything so servile, but must get their land cultivated by others. As
+the serfs were not available, first Indians and then negro slaves and
+white bond-servants were employed.
+
+We have seen how the Indians were exterminated, and how the first
+planters in Hispaniola were ruined by the want of labour. Even the
+Spanish priests could see that the poor Arawak's nature was quite
+distinct from that of the European peasant. The serf had been kept under
+subjection for centuries; his father and grandfather had worked in the
+fields, and he must do the same. The armourer, the mason, and the
+weaver carried on their trades, because they had been born into the
+respective guilds as it were. The Indians, on the contrary, were free,
+and had always been so; yes, more free than any people in the old world.
+They died, and the planter had to look elsewhere for his labour supply.
+Then commenced the cry which has been continually rising from the
+plantations ever since--More servants! More slaves! More coolies!
+
+[Illustration: A SURINAM PLANTER.
+
+(_From Stedman's "Surinam."_)]
+
+For many years the Portuguese had been kidnapping negroes on the west
+coast of Africa. By their connection with Morocco they had learnt that
+the natives of the interior were brought to and openly sold in the
+Moorish towns--possibly they themselves had purchased some of them. To
+bring home a number after every voyage to the coast was therefore
+nothing strange, nor was it anything novel to sell them in Portugal to
+help pay the expense of the voyage. From Portugal to Spain this negro
+slavery spread, until it became fairly common in both countries.
+
+When the cry for labourers came over the Atlantic--even before the
+extermination of the natives--a few negroes were sent out. Finding them
+more docile and better able to endure hard labour than the Indians, more
+were called for, the benevolent priests also urging the matter to save
+the remnant of the Arawaks. The demand created a supply, and soon the
+Portuguese found themselves embarked in a lucrative trade, of which they
+commanded the monopoly. Thus began a traffic which has been unreservedly
+condemned by the most enlightened of humanity, and praised alone by
+those whose very livelihood depended upon it.
+
+[Illustration: A NEGRO FESTIVAL.
+
+(_From Edwards' "West Indies."_)]
+
+On his second voyage Columbus carried the sugar cane, which was destined
+to have such an influence for good and evil on the West Indies. Its
+produce was at first known as a kind of honey, and recognised as an
+expectorant and comforting medicine. Now it had made its way into the
+kitchens of the great, where it was considered as one of the spices, and
+with them became more and more used every year. In early times the cane
+was cultivated on the warmer shores of the Mediterranean, and, after
+their discovery, in the Canary and Cape de Verde islands. At the period
+of the discovery of America sugar was sold at about eightpence a pound,
+equivalent to something like three shillings nowadays. As the demand
+continued to increase large plantations were laid out in Hispaniola,
+until it became the staple product of the colony.
+
+Cotton was known in the old world, but as yet had hardly come into use
+in Europe. In the West Indies it was generally cultivated in a small way
+by every native, and on being forwarded to Spain, the "tree wool," as it
+was called, soon came into use. Then came another product, tobacco,
+which was quite new at that time, although probably known in the far
+East. It seemed strange to the new-comers that people should carry
+firebrands in their mouths, and at first they took tobacco-smokers for
+juggling fire-eaters, until they also learnt the sustaining power of the
+"weed." This soon took place, and by the year 1550 tobacco was well
+known in Spain and Italy. Probably also the Dutch knew it quite as
+early, for it was in the Netherlands that it became more quickly
+appreciated than in any other country, probably on account of its
+particularly comforting properties in marshy districts. Soon afterwards
+Jean Nicot introduced it into France, and probably Master Hawkins
+brought samples into England from Brazil, although Ralegh is stated to
+have been the first English smoker. Towards the end of the sixteenth
+century its use became so common all over Europe that Popes and
+Churchmen thundered their curses against the "filthy habit," and later
+poor King James wrote his "Counterblast to Tobacco," which only had the
+effect of making it better known.
+
+[Illustration: VOYAGE OF THE SABLE VENUS.
+
+(_From Edwards' "West Indies."_)]
+
+Here at the beginning were two commercial products which grew well in
+the West Indies, with a doubtful third to come to the front as soon as
+it became known. As yet coffee had not been introduced--this followed in
+the next century. Notwithstanding the large profit on sugar the Spaniard
+would not labour in the field, and in the end the plantations became
+fewer and fewer until only one or two were left. This falling off tended
+to keep up the price, and although the Dutch bought much cotton and
+tobacco from the Indians of the Main, and the Portuguese began to grow
+sugar in Brazil, the supply was always limited.
+
+There was room for more plantations, and the first people to take
+advantage of this opening were the English. Their many different
+colonies in Guiana all commenced planting with tobacco: Virginia and the
+Bermudas did the same. All through the reign of James the First,
+however, the trade was obstructed in so many ways that a great deal of
+their produce was sent to the Netherlands and thus escaped the English
+duties. Probably also the smuggling of tobacco, so notorious at a later
+period, began at this time, as the Dutch were always noted free-traders,
+not only on the Spanish Main, but in Europe as well.
+
+[Illustration: SLAVES LANDING FROM THE SHIP.
+
+(_From Stedman's "Surinam."_)]
+
+Like the Spaniards, the English adventurers were soldiers and sailors,
+and therefore did not work in the field. Subject to the raids of the
+European claimants of the territory as well as the incursions of
+ferocious cannibals, they went about literally with pistols in their
+belts and swords at their thighs. Now they had to show a good face to
+some buccaneer company, and anon to fight the French or Dutch when war
+broke out. Later, when there was no fear of enemies from without, they
+had a continual dread of slave insurrections. It followed, therefore,
+that the planter was always on the alert, and, even if he felt inclined,
+could do little in the way of cultivation.
+
+In England serfdom had virtually come to an end, and the agricultural
+labourer might go where he pleased. But the love of country, the unknown
+but magnified perils of a sea voyage, and stories of cruel Spaniards and
+man-eating Caribs, prevented many from going to the Indies,
+notwithstanding the great inducements offered. The English planters
+found it difficult to get negroes, as their enemy controlled the trade.
+As for the Indians, they had to deal with cannibals whose women
+cultivated small clearings, but resented anything like coercion, while
+no labour whatever could be got from the men. Something had to be done.
+If the English labourer would not come willingly, he might be kidnapped,
+and the carrying out of this work led to the organisation of bands of
+ruffians, who went sailing along the coasts, especially of Scotland and
+Ireland, to pick up likely fellows wherever they found opportunity.
+However, this caused such an outcry that extraordinary efforts were made
+on the part of the Government to put down "spiriting," as it was called.
+
+In June, 1661, the Council for foreign plantations considered the best
+means of encouraging and furnishing people for the colonies, and they
+thought that felons condemned for small offences, and sturdy beggars,
+might be sent. They had several complaints of men, women, and children
+being spirited away from their masters and parents, and later the Mayor
+of Bristol and the Lord Mayor of London petitioned the king for
+authority to examine ships, with the view of finding out whether the
+passengers went of their own free will. It was stated that husbands
+forsook their wives, wives fled from their husbands, children and
+apprentices ran away, while unwary and credulous persons were often
+tempted on board by men-stealers. Many who had been pursued by hue and
+cry for robberies, burglaries, and breaking prison, also escaped to the
+plantations. Certain persons, called spirits, inveigled, and by lewd
+subtleties enticed, away young persons, whereby great tumults and
+uproars were raised in London, to the breach of the peace and the hazard
+of men's lives.
+
+These abuses led to an Order in Council, published in September, 1664,
+for registering persons going voluntarily, and commissions were given to
+the Lord High Admiral and the officers of the ports to establish
+registration offices and give certificates. Yet the spiriting still went
+on, for in April, 1668, Sir Anthony Ashley Cooper was asked to move the
+House of Commons to make the offence capital. His petitioner, said he,
+had found one lost child, and after much expense and trouble, freed him,
+but there were several others in the same ship, and other ships in the
+river at the same work. Even if the parents found their children, they
+could not recover them without money, and he was sure that if such a law
+were passed the mercy to these innocents would ground a blessing on
+those concerned in introducing it. This Act was finally passed on the
+1st of March, 1670, punishing the spirits with death without benefit of
+clergy.
+
+There were, however, other means of procuring servants. In 1649, when
+Cromwell took Drogheda by storm, about thirty prisoners were saved from
+the massacre to be shipped to Barbados, and in 1651 seven or eight
+thousand Scots, taken at the battle of Worcester, were reserved for a
+similar fate. After the Restoration, however, there was an intermission
+in such supplies, and the planters began to look to Newgate and
+Bridewell for their labour supply.
+
+The supply was by no means equal to the demand, for the agents in London
+of the planters of Virginia, Barbados, St. Christopher's, and other
+islands were equally clamorous for their share. As for King Charles the
+Second, he granted the prisoners as a privilege to his favourites, and
+even mistresses, who generally sold it to the highest bidder. The agent
+must have had influence to get into the presence of the holder, say of a
+hundred prisoners sentenced to transportation, and this was only
+obtainable by largess to door-keepers and servants. Then came the
+trouble of obtaining delivery from the prison authorities, and here
+again fees were demanded. In one case that is recorded the amount paid
+to the gaoler of Newgate was fifty-five shillings a head. But even now
+the trouble was only beginning. The prisoners were supposed to be
+delivered at the door of the gaol, and the planter was under a heavy
+bond not to allow one to escape. He must account for each by a
+certificate of death on the voyage or of landing in Barbados, on penalty
+of five hundred pounds for every one missing. It followed, therefore,
+that a sufficiently strong guard had to be provided, and provision made
+for attempts at rescue by the prisoners' friends. Even this was not all,
+for the concession simply granted a certain number, and it rested with
+the gaoler to palm off the old, weak, and infirm on those who were at
+all wanting in liberality. Then, at the best the prisoners were hatters,
+tailors, and haberdashers, rather than agricultural labourers, many of
+whom ultimately proved valueless. If a large number was available, and
+there were several applicants, the competition became quite
+spirited--every one wanted his pick before the others, and the gaoler
+made the best of the occasion, leaving those to whom he allotted the
+refuse to curse their evil fortune.
+
+Up to the passing of the Navigation Act the Dutch had been free to trade
+with English colonies, and had brought a fair number of negroes; and
+afterwards the king established the Royal African Company to prevent the
+supply being cut off. The average price of the African was then about
+£16 or 2,400 pounds of sugar, but the Dutch sold their slaves for a
+little less, which led the planters to evade the Navigation Act when
+they had opportunities.
+
+The white bond-servant was valued at about 2,200 pounds of sugar, very
+little less than the slave for life, although he had generally but five
+years to serve. The cost of transport was about £5 per head; it
+followed, therefore, that if the London agent got his prisoners cheap he
+made a good profit. There was also another way of making money in this
+business. Some of the gaol-birds had friends who were willing to pay
+good sums on consideration that the convict should be virtually freed on
+his arrival. Many a sum of fifty pounds was obtained in this way,
+sometimes without helping the bond-servant in the least. How were the
+relations to prove that the promise had not been fulfilled, and if they
+did so what redress could be obtained? They certainly could not go to
+law, as the whole transaction was illegal.
+
+We have seen how Charles the Second tried to people Jamaica with free
+settlers, but this did not prevent the transportation of criminals. In
+1665 four young men, who had been convicted of interrupting and abusing
+a preacher, were whipped through the streets of Edinburgh and afterwards
+sent to Barbados, and in 1684 some of the Rye House plotters were
+reprieved on condition that they served ten years in the West Indies.
+When these plotters arrived in Jamaica, the Governor, "by His Majesty's
+command," directed the Assembly to pass an Act "to prevent all
+clandestine releasements or buying out of their time," so that their
+punishment should not be evaded. But it was after the Monmouth
+rebellion, in 1685, that the greatest deportation took place. The
+miserable followers of the duke were executed by Judge Jeffreys until
+even his thirst for blood was somewhat slackened, when the remainder
+were sent to the plantations. The story of one of these unfortunates
+gives such a graphic picture of the life of a bond-servant that we
+cannot do better than give an outline of the "Relation of the great
+sufferings and strange adventures of Henry Pitman, surgeon to the late
+Duke of Monmouth."
+
+Having been taken prisoner after the battle of Sedgemoor, he was
+committed to Ilchester Gaol, had his pockets rifled, his clothes torn
+off his back, and was remanded until the Wells assizes. While in gaol he
+was inveigled into telling all he knew, by promises of pardon, and then
+his acknowledgments were treated as a confession. Those who pleaded not
+guilty on the first day of the trial were convicted and executed the
+same afternoon; others who confessed were equally condemned. After two
+hundred and thirty had been hanged the remainder were ordered to be
+transported to the Caribbee islands, of whom Pitman was one. With some
+others, including his brother, he was disposed of to an agent who took
+£60 from his friends to set him free on his arrival at Barbados.
+
+The Legislative Assembly of that island, however, in consequence of the
+"most horrid, wicked, and execrable rebellion," lately raised, and
+because many of the rebels had been transported for ten years, passed a
+special Act, under which they were bound to serve, notwithstanding any
+bargain to the contrary. If they attempted to escape they were to be
+flogged, and burnt in the forehead with the letters "F.T.," meaning
+"Fugitive Traitor."
+
+By this law Pitman's hopes were frustrated, and, utterly disheartened,
+he was not inclined to work at his profession for the master to whom he
+had been sold. Although the status of a surgeon was not then as high as
+it is now, it was yet a great downfall to practise the profession on
+rations of five pounds of salt beef or fish per week, with nothing else
+but corn meal. As for the fees, which were large, the master pocketed
+them, leaving Pitman to endure the discomforts of a tropical residence
+and semi-starvation as best he could. On one occasion he refused to go
+on with his work, and for this he was beaten by his master until the
+cane used was broken in pieces. Then the master became bankrupt, and,
+with his brother, Pitman was sent back to the merchant to whom they had
+been first consigned.
+
+Here his brother died of the hardships he had experienced, and Pitman
+resolved to escape, notwithstanding the risk of attempting such a thing.
+Having made the acquaintance of a poor man who was willing to help, he
+got a consignment of goods from his friends in England, with which to
+raise the means. A boat was purchased for twelve pounds; but this led
+to inquiries, as the buyer was known to be poor, and his creditors began
+to come down upon him. However, Pitman contributed enough to satisfy
+them, meanwhile postponing his departure until suspicion had been
+lulled.
+
+On the evening of the 9th of May, 1687--this being a holiday, when most
+of the people were revelling--he and seven other bond-servants got
+safely off in their open boat, with a small supply of provisions and
+water, a few tools, a compass, and a chart. They intended to make for
+the Dutch island of Curaçao, six hundred miles distant; but even before
+they were out of Carlisle Bay their frail craft began to leak, and they
+had to tear up their clothes to stop the gaping seams. At sunrise they
+were out of sight from the land, but so enervated by sea-sickness that
+some would willingly have gone back. However, they went on as best they
+could, with nothing but their hats to bale out the water, which still
+continued to trickle into the boat. They were a little more comfortable
+as the sun rose, but when night came a gale arose which kept them
+employed baling for their lives. To add to their difficulties the rudder
+broke, and they had to steer with an oar.
+
+Five days passed in this manner, the refugees hardly able to get an
+hour's rest for the baling and continual fear that the boat would sink
+if left alone. On the sixth morning they saw Margarita, but could not
+land on account of the rocky shore, which nearly wrecked them on their
+making the attempt. Sheering off, they next day sighted Saltatudos
+island, one of the Dry Tortugas, where they met a boat manned with
+privateers, who treated them very kindly, and wanted them to join their
+company. To this, however, Pitman and his companions would not agree,
+and this annoyed the privateers, who burnt their boat and virtually kept
+them as prisoners. When they went on a cruise the refugees were left in
+charge of four men, and had much ado to find enough turtle to keep them
+from starving. After remaining here for three months an English
+privateer arrived, and, at their request, took them on to New
+Providence, to which the inhabitants had just returned after being
+driven off by Spaniards. Pitman at last got to Amsterdam, and from
+thence to England, where the revolution had just taken place, and his
+friends had succeeded in obtaining a free pardon.
+
+The white bond-servant, being under a short engagement, was generally
+worked to his utmost capacity. No matter if he died before the end of
+his term as long as he paid for the expense incurred. But Englishmen
+were no more inclined to be slaves then than they are now, and the
+planters of St. Kitt's found them so troublesome to manage that they
+soon became afraid of buying, and showed a preference for negroes. Some
+of the English servants committed suicide, and it is recorded that a
+pious master told one of them, who had expressed his intention of
+destroying himself, that he trusted that God would give him more grace,
+than, for a short term of trouble in this life, to precipitate himself
+into hell.
+
+Even in the earliest times some of the planters were absentees, living
+in England. The system was always more or less fortune-hunting, the
+whole end and aim being to get rich and return to the old country. There
+were, as we have seen, many difficulties and dangers to encounter, and
+not the least of the drawbacks was the want of good society. We who live
+in an age when there is daily communication with the whole world, can
+hardly conceive how entirely these pioneers were cut off from their
+friends. The long voyage was full of discomfort, and at the best
+uncertain as to its termination. The words still found on bills of
+lading, "the act of God or the queen's enemies," had a meaning then
+hardly appreciable by the present generation. Barbary pirates and French
+corsairs ranged the Channel; in the broad Atlantic storms shook the
+crazy vessels to pieces; and when they escaped these dangers, it was
+often to fall into the hands of the buccaneers when in sight of their
+destination. Then there were hurricanes on both sea and land, and
+earthquakes on some of the islands. Vessels were sunk in harbour, houses
+blown away, and sugar buildings torn down. As for the negro huts, they
+were carried off altogether, and the crops injured so as to become
+useless. Then, perhaps, when the planter had strained himself to the
+utmost to put things straight, another tornado would put him in a worse
+plight than before.
+
+Yet with all this the planter struggled on, generally doing his best to
+carry the traditions and fashions of the mother country into his new
+home. We have already noticed Barbados, and how it was affected by the
+"great rebellion." Many other examples might be noted had we sufficient
+space. The planter was nearly always a gentleman, even if he had begun
+his career as a transported rebel. Some were gallants, and dressed in
+the extreme of London fashion, often living beyond their means. Others
+were merchants, trading with their own vessels, and selling their
+surplus goods for produce to make up cargoes. With their own sugar, and
+as much as they could procure from others, they filled their ships for
+the homeward voyage, and in return got enough merchandise for trading.
+These were the fortune-hunters, who were always looking forward to that
+happy time when, with money in their pouches, they could once more
+settle down in Merry England. The old country was always "home," as it
+is still for the West Indian, although perhaps neither himself nor his
+parents ever saw it--then it was the will-o'-the-wisp that drove him to
+endure all the discomforts of a life in the tropics, often to die of
+fever before his work was hardly begun.
+
+While Jamaica was under the dominion of Spain little was done to develop
+the island. The Indians were exterminated, as in Hispaniola, to be
+replaced by wild cattle and horses, and fifteen hundred negroes were
+introduced to cultivate provision grounds. From these, passing vessels,
+which called in on their way to Mexico, got their supplies. As yet it
+was not a rendezvous for buccaneers, and taken altogether it was quite
+insignificant. Thousands of white men and tens of thousands of negroes
+were required before it became the important island which ultimately
+rivalled Hispaniola. However, although the Spaniard was driven out he
+left his sting behind in the shape of his slaves, who took to the
+mountains, to be afterwards known as Maroons, and to worry the English
+colonists for over a century.
+
+And here, as we are dealing with the planter and his labour supply, we
+must say something of the negro slaves, to whom the West Indies were
+indebted for their very existence as European colonies. Unlike the
+American, the African had known slavery for ages. Prisoners taken in war
+were kept in servitude as a matter of course; debtors were slaves to
+their creditors, and even children were sold by their parents. Yet there
+were great differences between the tribes--the Coromantees, for example,
+were particularly troublesome, and the Foulahs often dangerous. The
+first slave-traders took their cargoes from the more northern coasts,
+and from this cause, perhaps, as well as the want of proper supervision
+in the Indies, runaways, or Simerons, were mentioned at very early
+periods. Later, the trade was carried on in a particularly judicious
+manner, and the more docile tribes selected, to be sold in the colonies
+as "Prime Gold Coast Negroes."
+
+In their native countries these people were all virtually slaves to
+their chiefs, and as such were liable to be sold at any time. The
+authority was unlimited; the slightest offence meant slavery; death was
+the only alternative. Often when, for some reason or other, the negro
+was rejected by the trader, he was executed at once. Adultery was
+punished by the sale of both offenders, and debtors could be sold by
+their creditors. Bryan Edwards, author of a history of the West Indies,
+took much pains to procure information from the slaves themselves,
+through an interpreter; and as they had no reason to misrepresent their
+cases, we can safely give the outlines of one.
+
+The most interesting story is, perhaps, that of the boy Adam, a Congo,
+about fourteen years of age when he was brought to Jamaica. His country
+was named Sarri, and was situated a long distance from the coast. While
+walking one morning through a path, about three miles from his native
+village, the boy was captured by one of his countrymen. With his
+prisoner the man hid himself in the woods during the whole of the day,
+and at night stole away from the neighbourhood, going on like this for a
+whole month. Then he came to the country of another tribe, where he sold
+the boy for a gun, some powder and shot, and a little salt. His new
+owner afterwards sold Adam for a keg of brandy to another black man who
+was going about collecting slaves, and when twenty had been collected
+they were taken to the coast and sold to a Jamaica captain.
+
+Of the five-and-twenty interrogated by Bryan Edwards, fifteen frankly
+declared that they had been born in slavery, and were sold to pay the
+debts, or bartered to supply the wants, of their owners. Five were
+secretly kidnapped in the interior, and sold to black merchants; the
+other five fell into the hands of the enemy in some of those petty wars
+which were continually going on, when, if there had been no market for
+their sale, they would almost certainly have been killed.
+
+It is hardly necessary to state that in giving these statements we are
+not attempting the impossible task of vindicating slavery either of the
+black or white man. It would be well, however, if, in mitigation of the
+offence against the negro, his former condition were taken into
+consideration, and the undoubted fact that he was better treated by the
+West India planter than by his own countrymen. His lot was by no means
+so hard as slavery had been to the Indian and white bond-servant. He did
+not sink under the hardships of a life of toil in the burning sun, but
+was happy in his way, and in most cases better off than his descendant,
+the West Indian peasant of to-day. He was certainly treated as a
+domestic animal, but his value was always high enough to prevent
+anything like ill-usage. There were certainly people who could be cruel
+to their negroes, as there are yet men so low as to brutally flog
+valuable horses, but that such were common is a statement utterly
+without foundation. As a well-kept animal, the planter took a pride in
+him, fed and doctored him, patted him on the back, and proudly showed
+him to his friends. All this appears very degrading to humanity, but
+after all the negro did not see it in that light. On the contrary, he
+took a pride in exhibiting his strong muscles and in showing the
+"buccras" what a fine nigger massa had got.
+
+The slave of the rich planter, like the horse of the English gentleman,
+was undoubtedly very comfortable. First, he was a picked lot--the
+healthiest, strongest, and most suitable for his work--one of those
+"pieces d'India," as the best negroes were called by the traders. Then,
+as an expensive chattel, everything was done to make him still more
+valuable, and to prevent his deteriorating. But unfortunately there was
+another class--the miserable, broken-down creatures sold cheap as refuse
+lots to poor white men or even to slaves. Yes, the slaves bought their
+diseased fellow-countrymen, to work on their own allotments, treating
+them as the costermonger sometimes does his donkey. Half-starved,
+hard-worked, and covered with sores, they lingered in misery until death
+came to make them free. Some were so disfigured with yaws, or leprosy,
+that none but a negro could bear the sight of them; these were kept out
+of the way and treated worse than mangy dogs.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+VIII.
+
+THE STRUGGLE FOR SUPREMACY.
+
+
+By the time of the Dutch war of 1665 the pretensions of Spain to the
+exclusive possession of the Indies had been entirely ignored. Now began
+the great struggle of other nations for supremacy, and the position of
+"sovereign of the seas," the islands and Guiana becoming scenes of
+contention between English, French, and Dutch. To these struggles is
+greatly due the positions the naval powers of the world hold to-day, and
+especially that of Britain.
+
+As it was mainly a demand for free trade which led to so many attacks on
+the Spanish possessions, so it was now the same question which led to
+the struggle between the two great mercantile nations which succeeded
+Spain and Portugal, as these had followed Venice and Genoa. In the West
+Indies there was no line of demarcation between these new powers, and
+consequently their interests often clashed, but on the whole the
+colonists were favourable to the Dutch, and did all they could to evade
+the Navigation Act.
+
+Early in 1665 preparations were made in Barbados to repel an expected
+invasion by the Dutch. Vessels were ordered to keep together and
+protect each other, and men-of-war were sent out to afford convoy.
+Already the English buccaneers had been somewhat discountenanced by the
+home government, although they were generally encouraged by the
+colonies, especially Jamaica, which derived considerable advantage from
+their sales of booty. Now that there was a demand for all the forces
+that could be gathered together, the Governor of that island gave the
+rovers letters of marque, under which they were empowered to ravage the
+Dutch colonies. At St. Eustatius they succeeded in carrying off
+everything portable, including nine hundred slaves, and even such heavy
+articles as sugar coppers and stills. De Ruyter made an attempt on
+Barbados on the 20th of April, but the people there made such a stand
+that he had to retire. He commenced the attack at ten o'clock in the
+morning with his fourteen vessels, but by three in the afternoon the
+fleet was so much damaged that he was forced to move away his own ship,
+with a hole in her side "as big as a barn-door." He then went on to
+Montserrat and Nevis, where he captured sixteen ships, but did not take
+either of the islands.
+
+In Guiana, the English from Barbados captured the Dutch trading factory
+in the river Essequebo, as well as the young sugar colony in the
+Pomeroon, and in retaliation the Dutch took Surinam. In January, 1666,
+France joined the Netherlands, and an English fleet was sent out to
+protect Barbados, which now began to feel alarmed at the possible result
+of such a powerful combination.
+
+Then came the critical period for the island of St. Kitt's, which, as we
+have before stated, had been divided between English and French, the
+former holding the middle portion with the enemy on either side. As soon
+as the news of the declaration of war arrived, the relations between the
+two nationalities, which had often before been much strained, became
+ruptured. The English Governor, Watts, gave his rival three days'
+notice, and prepared to attack him, with the assistance of five hundred
+men from Nevis, and two hundred buccaneers. General de la Salle, on the
+French side, asked and obtained forty-eight hours' longer grace, and
+took advantage of this to steal into the English territory with a large
+body of horse and foot, as well as a mob of negroes armed with bills and
+hoes. The slaves also carried firebrands, and were said to have been
+promised, in return for their assistance, freedom, English women as
+wives, and the liberty to plunder and burn. At the town of St. Nicholas
+a gentlewoman with three or four children, on trying to escape, was
+forced back into her blazing house and kept there until the whole family
+were burnt to death. A party of English, who advanced to check their
+progress, was overwhelmed by the number of the enemy and driven back,
+thus leaving them to advance over the island with fire and sword.
+
+Governor Watts took things so coolly, that Colonel Morgan (not the
+famous Sir Henry), who led the buccaneers, went to rouse him, and found
+he was lounging about in dressing-gown and slippers. Presenting a pistol
+to his breast, Morgan called the Governor a coward and a traitor, at
+the same time swearing he would shoot him dead if he did not at once
+take his place at the head of the forces. The contingent from Nevis had
+already gone over to the French quarter near Sandy Point, and, after a
+hard struggle, had taken the post, when the Governor at last followed
+behind. Coming up late his men fired on the mingled French and English,
+indiscriminately slaughtering both. After that everything was confused,
+neither party distinguishing friend from foe, with the result that the
+Governor, Colonel Morgan, several other officers, and most of the
+English, were killed. After that the main body of the French arrived,
+driving before them a confused mob of women and children, who ran
+shrieking to their friends for help. Nothing remained for the English
+now but to fly or sue for quarter, and the French became masters of the
+whole island, with a body of prisoners twice as numerous as themselves.
+
+In 1667 a petition was forwarded to Charles the Second on behalf of
+several thousand distressed people, lately inhabitants of St.
+Christopher's. In this it was stated that the island had been one of the
+most flourishing colonies--the first and best earth that ever was
+inhabited by Englishmen among the heathen cannibals of America. They
+prayed that a colony so ancient and loyal, the mother island of all
+those parts, the fountain from whence all the other islands had been
+watered with planters, might not remain in the hands of another nation.
+Since the surrender they had been continually oppressed, until thousands
+had left for other parts. Many had sold their estates for almost
+nothing, and had been stripped and plundered at sea of the little they
+had saved. If the inhumanities of the French nation were examined, their
+bloody and barbarous usage of the Indians, their miserable cruelties to
+prisoners of war, all nations would abhor their name. They would make
+Christians grind their mills instead of cattle, leave thousands to
+starve for want, and send other thousands to uninhabited lands.
+
+In 1666 Lord Willoughby, who had gone back to Barbados on the
+restoration of Charles the Second, fitted out an expedition to recapture
+St. Kitt's, but his fleet encountered a hurricane, and neither his
+vessel nor one of his company was ever heard of again. The following
+year his nephew, Henry Willoughby, made an unsuccessful attempt for the
+same object. On the 10th of May of the same year a fight took place
+between the English and French fleets off Nevis. On the English side
+were ten men-of-war and one fire-ship, while the enemy had more than
+double that number. One of the English vessels was blown up, but,
+undaunted by this disaster, they drove the enemy before them to the very
+shores of St. Kitt's, where they took shelter under the guns of
+Basse-terre.
+
+Peace was signed at Breda in July, 1667. The gains of territory by any
+one of the three nations were not considerable, and the result went to
+prove that England could hold her own against the only two powers who
+were able to dispute her supremacy. During the war she had captured New
+Amsterdam (now New York) from the Dutch, and they in turn had taken
+Surinam. As it was agreed with Holland that both parties should retain
+what was then in their possession, Surinam was virtually exchanged for
+what is now the capital of the United States. Antigua and Montserrat,
+which had been taken by the French, were now restored to England, and
+St. Christopher's returned to its former condition, but without the
+least prospect of the two nationalities ever being again on friendly
+terms.
+
+Now that the war was over the trade of the privateers came to an end,
+and further efforts were made to make them settle down. Having received
+orders to discountenance them, the Governor of Jamaica deputed Colonel
+Cary to report on the matter. Cary thought they should not be
+discouraged, as already harm had been done to Jamaica by such attempts,
+and in the future the want of their help might be prejudicial. On the
+news that the commissions against the Spaniards were called in, several
+English privateers resolved never to return to Jamaica, unless there was
+a war, but in future to carry on their operations from Tortuga. To
+divert them from injuring the Spaniards, the Governor had, during the
+late war, appointed Cary to treat with them for the reduction of
+Curaçao, to which they at first consented, but afterwards disagreed. If,
+said Cary, they had two of His Majesty's nimble fifth-rate frigates,
+they would be able to keep the privateers to their obedience, observe
+the enemy's movements, and guard their own coasts from rovers. There was
+no profitable employment for the privateers against the French and
+Dutch; these fellows, being people that would not be brought to plant,
+must prey upon the Spaniard, whether they were countenanced at Jamaica
+or not. There was such an inveterate hatred of the English in those
+parts by the Spaniard, that he would not hear of trade or
+reconciliation, but, on the contrary, inhumanly butchered any of the
+islanders he could cowardly surprise. The French interest daily
+increased in the Caribbees, Hispaniola, and Tortuga, and if this was
+suffered to grow it would in a short time prove of dangerous
+consequence.
+
+Here we have plain speaking. It was not to the interest of England for
+the pirates to become too closely connected with the French, as they
+would then be helping to build up the prosperity of a nation that might
+any day become our enemy. As for the rovers themselves, they cared
+little or nothing for the interests of their country; they were willing
+to plunder the Spanish possessions because they got something worth
+having; with those of the French and Dutch it was another thing. It is
+evident that Cary troubled himself but little as to how a cargo was
+obtained as long as Jamaica profited by the transaction.
+
+We may here also call attention to the differences between the
+characters of the nations which now commenced a great struggle for
+mastery in these parts. The Dutch were, above everything else, an
+association of traders, and although they could fight on occasion, they
+hardly ever went out of their way to pick a quarrel. Their wars with
+England were brought about by mercantile disputes, the first two, as we
+have already seen, mainly on account of the Navigation Acts. The
+English, "the nation of shopkeepers," were naturally rival traders, but
+they did not altogether confine themselves to traffic, being rather
+inclined to alternate or mix it up with something like piracy. Such
+transactions as those of Hawkins were not carried on by any other
+nation, the Hollander being more inclined to take advantage of the
+swiftness of his fly boat than the metal of his guns. The French were
+rarely traders, for even their plantations were largely supported by
+buccaneering. When, after a peace, some of the rovers settled down for a
+time, they were always ready to abandon their fields at the first rumour
+of a war. England thus stood between the two others as a
+stumbling-block; she interfered with the trade of the one and offended
+the dignity of the other; thus coming in for many blows, which only made
+her all the more able to resist and conquer.
+
+The character of the Dutchman is well shown in the curious difficulty
+which hastened a third breach of the peace with England in 1672. In 1667
+a fleet from the Netherlands captured Surinam, and forced the
+authorities of the colony to capitulate on favourable terms. By these
+articles the inhabitants were at liberty to sell or transport, when or
+where they pleased, all or any part of their possessions. After the
+peace, a few went to Barbados, but the majority found it difficult to
+dispose of their plantations, and therefore remained in hopes of a
+better market on the arrival of new Dutch settlers. At that time the
+Dutchmen were few and mostly poor; they had been ruined by the war, and
+in many cases driven from their settlements by the English. It followed,
+therefore, that there were no buyers, and the plantation owners,
+trusting to the capitulation, decided to wait rather than abandon their
+flourishing properties.
+
+In June, 1669, the Dutch Governor issued a proclamation calling upon all
+the English who intended to leave to give notice within six months,
+after which a like term was given them to dispose of their goods, when
+they might leave for English colonies under free passes from the
+authorities of both nations. In case they were unable to sell their
+slaves, the Governor would take them over at the market price, but only
+those negroes who had been in their possession at the rendition of the
+colony could come under this arrangement.
+
+At first sight this looked very fair, but the English saw at once that
+something was wrong. In the first place they understood that under the
+capitulation they were free to take away all their property, including
+slaves, and at the then market prices they saw that a forced sale would
+be a serious loss. Although not expressly intimated, they also
+understood that the Governor meant they were not to carry them away, and
+this at once caused much dissatisfaction. Things were, however, in such
+a critical state that little notice was taken of the proclamation; in
+fact, the people had not as yet made up their minds what to do. Such a
+sacrifice as was required from those who had flourishing properties,
+naturally made them hesitate; and when the English Government inquired
+about the matter, they were told by the Dutch authorities that the
+people were so well satisfied that they intended to remain.
+
+Such was, however, not the case, and when the year of grace had expired,
+and they were virtually prevented from leaving with or without their
+negroes, they sent memorials to King Charles the Second asking for his
+interference. It was another case of Egyptian bondage; the Dutch would
+not let the people go--except a few of the poorest. It can easily be
+understood that it was not very pleasant to lose the best colonists and
+have nothing left but a lot of abandoned plantations. This would have
+been a poor exchange for New York, and it is evident that the Dutch knew
+very well what they were doing, and had the welfare of Surinam at heart.
+But, in face of the capitulation, they were undoubtedly wrong, and when
+they began to oppress the English for claiming their rights, they went a
+great deal too far.
+
+When Major Bannister, who had been acting Governor under the English,
+protested against this, he was arrested and transported to Holland,
+where he obtained his release only by the intervention of the English
+ambassador. Then complaints were made to the Dutch Government, but it
+was two years before permission was granted for commissioners from
+England to go out and transport those who wanted to leave. Even then
+secret orders were sent to put every possible obstruction in their way,
+which was done by bringing suits for debt, and otherwise putting the
+English in positions which made it impossible for them to wind up their
+affairs. It followed, therefore, that only a few more went away,
+carrying with them the prayers of the more important to be delivered
+from such bondage.
+
+Matters now came to a crisis. Other questions had arisen between the two
+powers, notably some in connection with the Eastern trade, and the
+refusal of Holland to honour the English flag. War broke out in 1672,
+and this time the French joined England against the Dutch, who had to
+stand alone. French and English buccaneers were let loose to plunder the
+colonies, and they made the seas so dangerous that hardly one of the
+enemy's vessels could show herself in the West Indies. The Dutch
+colonies were thus cut off, and even the settlements of Essequebo and
+Berbice had to go without their usual supplies. This deprivation caused
+much dissatisfaction among the garrison of the latter colony, and led to
+a mutiny, which resulted in the incarceration of the Governor, who was
+not released until next year, when the belated supplies arrived.
+
+Spain was also involved in the war the following year, and thus all the
+nations interested in the West Indies were fighting at once--Holland and
+Spain against France and England. The French buccaneers had already
+gained a footing on Hispaniola; now they attempted to get possession of
+the whole island, but could not succeed. However, they went on to
+Trinidad, which had always been a Spanish island, and plundered it of a
+hundred thousand dollars.
+
+The Spanish and Dutch colonies suffered greatly, but Englishmen by no
+means escaped altogether. As an example of their treatment by the
+enemy, the case of John Darbey is interesting. In April, 1674, he and
+six others were taken by a Dutchman from a small English vessel, while
+sailing from St. Thomas to Antigua, and carried to Havana. There they
+were kept in irons for five weeks, and then set to work as slaves on the
+fortifications. After enduring great misery for three months, they were
+removed to work on board a ship, which was captured by the French off
+St. Domingo, when they were of course released, and finally carried to
+Jamaica. Here they told of the sufferings they had endured and
+witnessed--the story of which more and more embittered the English
+feeling against Spain. On one occasion Darbey had seen eight men brought
+in from a New England bark, who afterwards attempted to escape. They
+marched along the shore hoping to attract the notice of some friendly
+vessel, but the Governor sent a party of soldiers in pursuit, and they
+were all murdered at once save the master, who was brought back,
+executed, and his head stuck on a pole. He also saw the commander of a
+man-of-war bring in a New England vessel and hang five men at the
+yard-arm, where the corpses were used as targets by him and his
+officers. The same captain wanted himself and several other Englishmen
+to sail with them, but because they indignantly refused, he deliberately
+stabbed one of them with his sword, killing him at once.
+
+In February, 1674, a treaty was signed at Westminster in which there was
+a special clause bearing on the English in Surinam. To the intent that
+there might be no more mistakes, the States General agreed that the
+articles of capitulation should not only be executed without any more
+prevarication, but also that His Majesty of Great Britain should be free
+to depute commissioners to examine into the condition of his subjects
+and agree with them as to the time of their departure. Also that no
+special laws should be made to hamper them in any way in the sale of
+their lands, payments of their debts, or barter of their goods, and that
+vessels should be as free to go to Surinam, as they and their servants
+should also be free to depart.
+
+Accordingly, in March, 1675, three commissioners were instructed to
+proceed there, and were enjoined to see that the provisions of the
+treaty were properly carried out, to press for debts owing to the
+English, and to endeavour to get over the difficulty of their
+obligations to the Dutch. Vessels were provided to carry the settlers
+wherever they wished, and provision made for victualling them on the
+voyage, as well as for a short time after their landing in their new
+homes.
+
+Now at last it might be presumed that the exodus could be freely
+managed; yet even then the Dutch authorities tried to put obstructions
+in the way. Among the servants of the English were many Indians, some of
+whom were nominally free, and these the Dutch Governor demanded should
+be put ashore, to prevent the mischiefs and cruelties of the heathen,
+their friends, who might avenge themselves for the deportation on those
+who remained in the colony. The English claimed that these people went
+of their own free will, and that some of them were much attached to
+their white masters, which was probably true. Besides these, most of
+whom were got off against the Governor's protests, there were ten Jews
+with 322 slaves, in preventing the departure of whom he was more
+successful. They were not, strictly speaking, British subjects, although
+they had lived under the flag for many years, and the commissioners did
+not insist on their admission.
+
+Finally, three vessels sailed away for Jamaica in September, 1675,
+carrying 1,231 people, including thirty-one Indians, and more negroes
+than whites. On arriving at that island they were granted lands in St.
+Elizabeth, afterwards known as Surinam quarters, and thus Guiana again
+became a factor in the development of the English islands. As for the
+Jews, even they were afterwards allowed to depart when they memorialised
+the king and got him to press the matter.
+
+Even yet, however, the last had not been heard of this detention, for it
+cropped up again in the case of Jeronomy Clifford, one of those who
+actually left with the others for Jamaica. He was then a lad, and went
+off with his father, returning again to the colony as the second husband
+of an Englishwoman who had property there. It appears that, as surgeon
+of a Dutch vessel, he was so kind to a dying planter named Charles
+Maasman, that his widow went to London and married him in August, 1683.
+
+Not getting on very well in Surinam, Clifford and his wife resolved to
+sell out and take their slaves with them to Jamaica, but in this they
+were frustrated. The Dutch felt very sore about the former migration,
+especially when Jamaica plumed herself on her great acquisition, and
+taunted them with the fact that they got little by the transfer of the
+colony. When, therefore, Clifford made known his intention, the Governor
+told him he could not remove his wife's property because she had
+inherited it from a Dutch subject. Clifford had some of that doggedness
+which has been observed so often in Englishmen, and was determined to
+obtain what he considered his rights. Under the capitulation he might
+leave at any time, and he did not consider that this right had been in
+any way forfeited.
+
+However, the Dutch Governor said otherwise, and, to prevent the
+alienation or removal of his property, put it in trust, and then
+endeavoured to set his wife against him so that she might refuse to
+leave. By some tittle-tattle about a female cousin of Clifford, her
+jealousy was aroused, and she petitioned for a divorce on the grounds of
+cruelty and adultery. However, when she found out the object of the
+traducers of her husband, she asked that her petition be annulled and
+made void, because she had been misled and drawn away by the ill advices
+of others--now she was sorry, and well satisfied and content with him.
+This having been read before the Court of Justice, a council of Dutch
+planters, they showed their animus by deciding that Mrs. Clifford was a
+weak and silly woman, and that it appeared to them that her husband, to
+the prejudice of his wife and that land, had endeavoured to remove his
+goods, which they would willingly prevent. They therefore ordered the
+plantation to be appraised and put in commission, forbidding either
+Clifford or his wife from diminishing, removing, or making away with the
+estate, but only to enjoy the interest and produce as long as they lived
+and corresponded well with each other. They also wished the wife much
+joy of her reconciliation, and condemned her to pay the costs both
+present and future. Finally, considering her frowardness and ill-nature,
+and for an example to all other like-natured women, they condemned her
+to pay a fine of five thousand pounds of sugar.
+
+Clifford, who yet stood by what he considered his right, was now
+subjected to a number of petty persecutions. His wife went to England,
+leaving him her attorney, and he began to pester the Governor to remove
+the illegal arrest on his estate. At last this importunity led to his
+arrest, and he was sentenced by this same Court of Justice to be hanged,
+as a mutineer and disturber of the public peace. But, being "more
+inclined to clemency than to carry things to the utmost rigour of
+justice," they commuted this sentence to imprisonment for seven years,
+with a fine of a hundred and fifty thousand pounds of sugar.
+
+As may be supposed, this arbitrary judgment only made Clifford more
+exasperated. He still went on petitioning and protesting that he was not
+a Dutch subject, as he had refused to take the oath of allegiance, and
+that therefore he was only standing up for his rights. However, he was
+imprisoned in the fort, where every effort was made to prevent his
+communicating with England or the English colonies. Notwithstanding
+these precautions he managed to send several letters, meanwhile
+threatening the Court that if they kept him any longer he would be
+forced to use such means of relief as he should be advised. After some
+delay his communications reached Barbados, Jamaica, and New York, from
+whence they at last reached King William, who soon got him released. But
+even then Clifford could not get back his estate, and although he went
+to London and petitioned the king, who directed inquiry of the
+ambassador at the Hague, he could never get any redress. For seventy
+years he, and his heirs after his death, kept up a stream of petitions
+and memorials, without result, in the end claiming for illegal
+detention, damages, and interest, over half a million pounds.
+
+During the short peace which followed the treaty of Westminster
+attention was again directed to the buccaneers, who were now called
+pirates, and treated as such even in Jamaica, with the result that many
+of them settled down. It has been stated that Charles the Second shared
+in their gains even after he had issued proclamations against them, but
+this sort of thing now came to an end. The French continued their
+depredations up to the year 1680, when the king issued a proclamation,
+forbidding the further granting of commissions, and recalling those
+which had been issued, at the same time ordering that those who
+persisted in the trade should be hanged as pirates. This tended to bring
+the less audacious to settle down, but even to the beginning of the
+present century piracy was still known in the West Indies.
+
+While Sir Henry Morgan was Acting Governor of Jamaica, in 1681, Everson,
+the Dutch pirate, came to Cow Bay on that island, but Morgan captured
+him and his crew and sent them off to Carthagena, to be punished by the
+authorities there for the ravages they had committed on the Spanish
+coasts and shipping. During the ex-buccaneer's administration he also
+got an Act passed to restrain privateers, and keep inviolable all
+treaties with foreign states. Any British subject who treated a foreign
+prince or State in a hostile manner should be punished with death as a
+felon.
+
+Peace did not last long, however, for in 1688 the French began to move
+against Holland, and the year following King William was also bound to
+declare war. Almost immediately the English were again driven out of St.
+Kitt's, the French, as on the former occasion, committing outrages quite
+unjustifiable among civilised nations even in war. They also took St.
+Eustatius from the Dutch.
+
+As if there were not enough pirates in the West Indies, the French
+brought some more from their own coast--the celebrated corsairs, who had
+held a position in Europe during the wars similar to that of the
+buccaneers in America. Some rovers, who had lately settled in Cayenne,
+were agreeably surprised at the beginning of the year 1689 by the
+arrival of Du Casse, who soon enrolled them under his banner and started
+to pillage the Dutch and English colonies.
+
+The first attack was made upon Surinam with nine vessels, but after
+three days' fighting the Dutch obliged the corsairs to retire, leaving
+one ship aground to be captured. Two of the squadron were, however,
+more successful in Berbice, which, after the enemy had destroyed one or
+two plantations, was obliged to pay a ransom of twenty thousand guilders
+(£1,666), which was settled by a draft on the proprietors in Amsterdam,
+and which curiously enough appears to have been afterwards paid. Another
+privateer destroyed the small settlement in the Pomeroon river, and
+obliged the few inhabitants to fly to Essequebo, and to afterwards
+abandon the place altogether. Du Casse then went on to the islands,
+where he did much damage to both Dutch and English, finally, in 1697,
+Spain being also on the other side, joining De Pointis to attack and
+capture Carthagena.
+
+The corsairs were privateers with proper commissions, authorised by the
+French Government to pillage and destroy and divide the plunder among
+themselves after setting aside the king's share. Up to the present
+France could hardly be said to have a navy, and these private
+adventurers to some extent filled its place. True, there were a few
+king's ships, but the treasury was often so bare that they could not be
+properly armed or manned without assistance from outside. Then, perhaps,
+one or more would be put at the disposal of a renowned corsair, on
+condition that the State should be put to no expense. Courtiers,
+ministers, and merchants would come forward and form a joint stock
+company, equip the ship or fleet as the case might be, and share the
+plunder.
+
+Du Casse settled down as Governor of the French part of Hispaniola,
+which by this time had been taken over, and he appears to have
+encouraged the buccaneers on account of their assistance to the colony.
+When that great corsair, Jacques Cassard came out, he was therefore
+enabled to supply him with as much help as he required.
+
+Cassard, in 1712, was supplied by the merchants of Marseilles with a
+large fleet, with which he sailed to the West Indies, beginning, as Du
+Casse had done, with Surinam, where he arrived on the 8th of October,
+with eight large and thirty small vessels. The Dutch were not so
+fortunate this time, for he sailed up and down the river for three
+weeks, burning, pillaging, and carrying off slaves, until most of the
+inhabitants took to the bush. Among other exploits he is said to have
+broken open the Jewish synagogue, killed a pig within the sacred
+precincts, and sprinkled its blood over the walls and ornaments. He was
+ultimately bought off for over £50,000, which, in the absence of enough
+coin, was paid in sugar, negro and Indian slaves, cattle, merchandise,
+provisions, stores, jewellery, and a very little cash.
+
+While remaining in Surinam Cassard sent three vessels to Berbice, which
+was easily captured, and for which a ransom of three hundred thousand
+guilders (£25,000) was demanded. But this settlement was far worse off
+than Surinam, and had neither goods nor money to pay such a large
+amount, which was out of all proportion to that of her neighbour. After
+raising 118,000 guilders in various ways, the balance was accepted in a
+bill of exchange on the proprietors, two of the leading planters of the
+colony being taken as hostages and security. Not satisfied with this,
+the corsairs insisted on a further sum of ten thousand guilders in
+cash, as ransom for the private estates, on the ground that they had
+been paid only for the fort and properties of the Government. There was
+not so much money in the whole river, and after collecting every bit of
+plate and jewellery they possessed, to the value of six thousand
+guilders, the enemy had to take the balance in sugar and stores.
+
+Now came the most curious part of this transaction. The two hostages
+died, and the proprietors refused to pay the draft--in fact, they said
+Berbice was not worth so much. Nevertheless the colony could not be
+taken over as a French possession, and even when the peace of Utrecht
+was signed in 1713, nothing could be done. Here was an anomaly--a Dutch
+settlement in the hands of French merchants as security for a debt. On
+account of trade restrictions its produce might not be brought to
+France, and the owners of the draft neither knew what to do with the
+document nor its security. The Dutch proprietors were equally at a loss,
+for they knew very well that, if they ignored the claim of the corsairs,
+revenge would be taken on the first opportunity--during the next war, if
+not before. At last one of the Marseilles merchants was deputed to go to
+Amsterdam, and after a great deal of haggling he sold the draft to a
+third party at a reduction of about forty per cent.
+
+Meanwhile Cassard had captured St. Eustatius, and exacted a large
+ransom. From thence he resolved to proceed to Curaçao, the great
+stronghold of the Dutch, and the depôt for goods used in the contraband
+traffic with the Spanish colonies. Here there were many Jews, who had
+large stocks of merchandise, and as the booty would be certainly great,
+Cassard resolved to risk everything on such an exploit. On his arrival
+he sent a boat ashore with a demand for the surrender of the island, to
+which the Governor sent a jeering reply, as he considered the place
+impregnable. However, the corsair fleet stood in for the harbour, but
+were greeted with such a heavy fire that Cassard was forced to retire
+and call a council. The balance of opinion was against going any
+farther. The officers said the Dutch guns were of heavier metal than
+theirs, the currents round the island rendered a landing almost
+impossible, and the entrance to the harbour was so narrow that it could
+easily be commanded by the two forts. However, Cassard himself and a few
+others were in favour of the attempt, and it was ultimately resolved to
+carry it out on the morrow.
+
+To deceive the Dutch, Cassard sent part of his fleet on a cruise round
+the island, while he with the remainder commenced to bombard the forts,
+keeping this up during the day as if that were his line of attack. The
+following night, however, he embarked most of his men in small craft,
+and keeping the lights on his ships burning, managed to land under cover
+of the darkness. Fortunately for him, this manoeuvre was not perceived
+by the Dutch, for he had quite enough to do in contending with a strong
+current and in avoiding sunken rocks, which made the landing so perilous
+that it is doubtful if even these hardy fellows would have attempted it
+during the day, when the dangers would be conspicuous. However, they
+got ashore without serious accident, and at once erected a breastwork
+for the light guns they had brought.
+
+Morning broke, and Cassard expected to see the second half of the
+squadron returned from its cruise, and ready to support him, instead of
+which it was visible several miles to leeward. To add to his
+difficulties, the Dutch had discovered the landing, had erected a
+powerful battery a mile away, and were preparing to attack him before
+his reinforcements could come up. Yet in face of all this he was
+undaunted. He must, however, attack at once, and this was done, with the
+result that the forts were taken. Cassard was wounded by a musket ball
+in the foot, yet he did not relinquish the command, but followed this
+first success by turning the guns of the forts on the town. At the same
+time he sent a flag of truce to the Governor, declaring, that if the
+place were not at once surrendered at discretion he would bombard it. In
+reply, the Dutch attacked the forts, but were repulsed with great loss,
+and at last terms were discussed, with the result that the ransom was
+fixed at 600,000 louis d'ors. This amount was considered so reasonable
+that the merchants hastened to pay it over and get rid of him, which
+they did in three days.
+
+On his arrival in Martinique, Cassard found he had been superseded in
+the command, and that the fleet was ordered home. Giving the buccaneers
+their share of the booty, he sailed for Brest, and on the way met an
+English squadron. The French admiral signalled his vessels not to
+fight, but Cassard, turning to his second in command of the vessel, said
+his duty to his king was above that to his admiral--he would fight His
+Majesty's foes wherever he met them. On that he bore down upon the
+English and captured two small craft before nightfall, afterwards making
+his voyage to Brest alone.
+
+This want of subordination so incensed the admiral that he preferred
+several charges against him, one being that he had retained more than
+his share of the booty. Whether this charge was true or not, the "Hero
+of Nantes," as he was called, fell into disgrace, followed by great
+poverty. Almost a beggar, he was at last sent to prison for importuning
+a cardinal and king's minister too much, by claiming what he considered
+his rights. There he ultimately died, and, like some others who have
+been as badly treated in life, has now a statue erected to his memory in
+his native town.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+IX.
+
+THE STRUGGLE FOR THE DARIEN TRADE.
+
+
+Carthagena and Porto Bello were the great trading stations for the
+Spaniards in the Indies. The latter had taken the place of Nombre de
+Dios, since that town had been destroyed by Drake, and was now the port
+to which the treasures of Peru were brought overland from Panama. The
+galleons from Spain, after calling at St. Domingo, went on to
+Carthagena, where the first great fair of the year was held. Here the
+traders from the inland provinces of New Granada came to get their
+supplies from Europe, which they paid for in gold, silver, emeralds, and
+produce. For the short time the vessels remained, the people of the town
+woke up from their year's inactivity, and made the most of the occasion.
+Stores were in demand, and lodging-houses required for the visitors, so
+that the cost of living went up by leaps and bounds. Those who had
+slaves got enormous profits by their hire, and even the negroes
+themselves made large sums beyond the amounts they had to pay their
+masters. The whole place lost its air of desertion and became the scene
+of such bustle and confusion as would hardly be conceivable to those
+who saw it as a "sleepy hollow" during the _tiempo muerto_, the dead
+time, as it was called.
+
+Having done with Carthagena, the galleons went on to Porto Bello, the
+beautiful haven, said to have been the most unhealthy place on the Main.
+By reason of its noxious air and barren soil there was a scarcity of
+provisions, which led to its desertion at ordinary times. In
+anticipation of the fleet, however, it woke up and became even more
+lively than Carthagena. The only reason for its existence was the trade
+across the isthmus, otherwise it would have been deservedly abandoned.
+Here was held the great fair, that at the other port being petty in
+comparison. The concourse of people was so great that a single chamber
+for a lodging during the busy time sometimes cost a thousand crowns,
+while a house would be worth five or six times as much. As the galleons
+came in sight, the people began to erect a great tent in the _Plaza_ to
+receive their cargoes, where they were assorted and delivered to the
+various consignees or their representatives. The crowd of men and
+animals soon became so great that movement was difficult. Droves of
+mules came over the isthmus loaded with cases of gold and silver, which
+were dumped down in the open streets or in the square, for want of
+storehouses. Yet, with all the confusion, it is said that theft was
+unknown, and losses through mistakes very rare. But not only were there
+thousands of mules and their drivers, but small vessels continually
+arrived from different parts of the coast, bringing goods and people,
+to increase the hubbub. Here was a cargo of cinchona bark, there
+another of cacao, and further on, by no means the least important, were
+boat-loads of fresh vegetables and fruits to supply the great assembly.
+This went on for forty days, after which the port was deserted and the
+town resumed its poverty-stricken air. Then two persons in the streets
+formed a crowd and half a dozen a mob. Solitude and silence reigned,
+where so lately the bustle and noise had been rampant, and the _tiempo
+muerto_ ruled until the following year.
+
+It can be easily understood that the influence of the Porto Bello fair
+was not only felt on the Gulf side, but on the shores of the Pacific as
+well. Panama was largely dependent on the transport business, which
+employed a great number of mules and slaves. Even in the absence of
+buccaneers and pirates the road was always difficult, and sometimes even
+dangerous. Heavy rains caused great floods, which delayed the traffic
+for days, and left the tracks on the hills so slippery that even that
+sure-footed animal the mule was often carried over a precipice. Then
+there were cannibal Indians and Simarons always lurking in the forest,
+ready to cut off stragglers. On the rumour of a buccaneer landing on the
+coast--it might be a hundred miles away--the traffic was at once stopped
+and the merchants began to "fear and sweat with a cold sweat," as Thomas
+Gage very quaintly puts it.
+
+The Spanish merchants no doubt deplored this state of things, and would
+have been thankful for a good road instead of such an unutterably
+worthless bridle track. There was, however, a side to the question
+which probably influenced them--a way that would be easy for them would
+also be more accessible to their enemies. Then, again, a good road
+should have been the work of the Spanish Government rather than of the
+settlers, but it was useless to expect anything from that direction.
+Nevertheless, a good road and even a canal were mooted before the end of
+the sixteenth century, thus anticipating the Panama railroad and canal
+of our own time. But, although the advantages were patent, the
+difficulties were so many as to be practically insurmountable, and
+nothing whatever was done.
+
+Towards the end of the seventeenth century came a sudden craze for
+carrying out gigantic schemes of various kinds, practicable or
+impracticable, useful or worthless, Utopian or utterly absurd. Among
+them was the Mississippi scheme in France and the South Sea Bubble in
+England, of which the latter was intimately connected with the Indies.
+The time had arrived when people began to think of trading on credit or
+pledges, and of combining together for carrying on banks and other
+commercial operations. Private banks had existed for several centuries,
+and more or less public establishments in the great commercial centres,
+such as Venice, Amsterdam, and Hamburg, but up to the present there was
+no Bank of England. In fact the great principle that allows an enormous
+trade to be carried on without the actual interchange of specie or
+commodities had just been discovered, and the people of France and
+England went mad over it.
+
+The pioneer of the system in England was William Paterson, who seems to
+have been acquainted with Dampier and Wafer, both of whom knew the
+isthmus of Darien very well. He is also said to have travelled in the
+West Indies himself, and even to have visited the Porto Bello fair, but
+this is not quite certain.
+
+Paterson first came into prominence by bringing forward a scheme which
+ultimately led to the establishment of the Bank of England on the 27th
+of July, 1694. From this he appears to have derived no actual benefit,
+however, although he was one of the first directors, upon a
+qualification of £2,000 stock, which he sold out after the first year,
+and thus withdrew. Probably he wanted his money to carry out the new
+project for a settlement on the isthmus of Darien.
+
+In the course of this history we have advisedly used the word "English"
+instead of "British," in speaking of our nation, because as yet
+Scotchmen were little concerned in colonisation schemes. In fact, except
+as transported rebels or convicts, they had hardly any interest in the
+plantations. This was the result of Navigation Acts, which debarred
+Scotch merchants and vessels from trading, by ordering that all traffic
+with the colonies should be carried on in English vessels and from
+English ports.
+
+Paterson's idea was to take possession of the isthmus of Darien,
+establish a Scotch colony at a convenient harbour on the Gulf side, and
+then open up a proper road by which the trade would be so much
+facilitated that it would become the great highway. Seated between the
+two vast oceans of the universe, he said, the isthmus is provided with
+excellent harbours on both sides, between the principal of which lie the
+more easy and convenient passes. If these ports and passes were
+fortified, the road could easily be secured and defended, thus affording
+the readiest and nearest means of gaining and keeping the command of the
+South Sea--the greatest and by far the richest side of the world. With
+the passes open, through them would flow at least two-thirds of the
+produce of both Indies. The time and expense of the voyage to China and
+Japan would be lessened more than half, and the consumption of European
+commodities soon doubled, and annually increased.
+
+He contended that Darien possessed great tracts of country up to that
+time unclaimed by any European, and that the Indians, the original
+proprietors, would welcome the honest and honourable settler to their
+fertile shore. The soil was rich to a fault, producing spontaneously the
+most delicious fruits, and required the hand of labour to chasten rather
+than stimulate its capabilities. There crystal rivers sparkled over
+sands of gold--there the traveller might wander for days under a canopy
+of fruit-laden branches, the trees bearing them being of inestimable
+value as timber. The waters also abounded in wealth. Innumerable shoals
+of fish disported themselves among the rocks, and the bottom was strewn
+with pearls. From the dawn of creation this enchanted country had lain
+secluded from mortals--now it was revealed and opened to Scottish
+enterprise. Let them enter and take possession of this promised land,
+and build a new city--a new Edinburgh, like Alexandria of old, which
+grew to prodigious wealth and power from its position on another
+isthmus--to soon become famous as the new emporium of a new world.
+
+The reader who has seen our account of Lionel Wafer's miserable journey
+will be able to discount these florid statements, but the Scotch people
+seem to have taken everything for gospel. Now, at last, they would have
+a colony--a plantation of more value than any of those that the English
+had begun to boast of. They were enthusiastic, and although poor, did
+their very best to contribute, actually promising the large sum of
+£400,000. England also subscribed to the extent of £300,000, and Holland
+and Hamburg £200,000. Everything looked bright, and at last a concession
+was obtained for the "Company of Scotland, trading to Africa and the
+Indies."
+
+Strange to say, Paterson entirely ignored the claims of Spain, although
+he must have known that she would strenuously object to such a
+settlement. It was all very well to say the place belonged to the
+Indians, but the very fact of its vicinity to the great trading centre
+and channel of communication with the Pacific coast should have made him
+anticipate trouble. Even if he argued that the buccaneers were
+practically unmolested along the Mosquito shore, he must also have known
+that their position was by no means secure, and even had this been the
+case, that it would have afforded to argument in favour of his project.
+
+To be successful he must also have had the support of the English
+Government, but unfortunately this was denied. Jealousy and envy between
+the two countries led to representations adverse to the scheme being
+made to King William, with the result that the Company was
+discountenanced, and that most of the promised subscriptions outside of
+Scotland were withdrawn. Then came dissensions among the leaders
+themselves, and this lost them half the amount from their own county.
+Yet with all that Paterson was undaunted, and, notwithstanding the
+diminished funds at command, he still resolved to go on.
+
+On the 26th of July, 1698, twelve hundred men in five ships sailed for a
+place near the entrance of the Gulf of Darien, a hundred miles to the
+east of Porto Bello. It was afterwards stated that the vessels were
+rotten and ill-found, although gaily decked with flags on the day of
+departure, which hid some of their deficiencies. The provision supply
+was bad, and, to crown all, the captains were coarse, brutal, and
+ignorant, continually quarrelling with each other. Through envy,
+Paterson had been prevented from having any voice in the arrangements,
+and although he went with the expedition, he entered the ship as
+ignorant of her equipment as any other passenger. But he evidently had
+his doubts, for he asked for an inspection of the stores, only to have
+his request treated with contempt.
+
+On the 27th of October the fleet came to anchor in a fair sandy bay
+three leagues west of the Gulf of Darien, now known as the Port
+D'Escocés. It was an excellent harbour surrounded by high mountains,
+and capable of holding a thousand sail in security from wind and
+tempest. The settlers named the district Caledonia, and considered it to
+be fertile and even healthy. They commenced at once to erect a fort, to
+which they gave the name of St. Andrews, and a cluster of houses for the
+town of New Edinburgh. These labours gave them little time for planting,
+and it naturally followed that they had to live on the provisions
+brought from Scotland, which, bad at the beginning, were now almost
+worthless. Paterson sent emissaries to the neighbouring Spanish
+settlements to ask for their friendship, and went himself into the
+interior to arrange treaties with the Indians, so that the Scotch might
+have a good title to the land. In this latter object he was successful,
+and it was agreed that peace should be kept between the natives and the
+colonists, "as long as rivers ran and gold was found in Darien."
+
+After six days' absence he returned to find a great change in the
+settlement. A spirit of mutiny and discontent had broken out, those who
+worked hard being naturally dissatisfied with others who did nothing.
+Then the provisions became rotten, and even then were so reduced in
+quantity that the people suffered from want and its consequent sickness.
+Four months passed, and nothing but daily discouragements were
+encountered; not even a little gold to enliven their spirits. Hard work
+under a tropical sun began to tell upon them, and although the friendly
+natives brought a little game, it was almost useless among so many.
+Every day, however, the number was reduced by death, fevers, and
+dysentery playing sad havoc, until those who remained were utterly
+dispirited.
+
+To add to their troubles they were refused supplies from Jamaica, King
+William having sent instructions to the Colonial Governors to
+discountenance the colony in every way. Paterson sent to Jamaica to get
+food for the starving people, and instead, his empty vessel brought
+copies of the Proclamation that had been issued in that island. This
+stated that as His Majesty knew nothing of the intentions and designs of
+the Scots at Darien, and as their settling on the isthmus was contrary
+to the peace of Spain, every one was commanded not to hold any
+communication with them, and not to supply arms, ammunition, provisions,
+or anything whatsoever, on their peril.
+
+In this desperate condition they awaited supplies from Scotland, but
+these did not arrive, for the ship had foundered on her way, and even
+Paterson began to be discouraged when day after day passed without
+relief. Even the reduced number could no longer exist, and with heavy
+hearts they prepared to leave. They had a ship, but no provisions for
+the voyage, and on account of the prohibition were prevented from
+victualling at one of the islands. At last, however, they got together
+as much barbecued fish and game as the Indians could procure, with a few
+fruits, and sailed away. But even now fate was against them. Hardly had
+they got out of the harbour before they were becalmed off this deadly
+shore for many days, their scanty supply of food diminishing when it was
+so much wanted for the long voyage. However, the remnant of about
+thirty, survivors of the twelve hundred, at last arrived at
+Charlestown, Carolina, in a most miserable condition. Paterson was
+himself so worn out that he lost his senses for a time, becoming quite
+childish, yet he recovered, to go back to Scotland and ask the Company
+for another expedition.
+
+This he urged on the ground that the first had failed simply through the
+want of supplies and the action of the English Government. Some were in
+favour of still carrying out the project, and these drew up a petition
+to the king, giving it for presentation to Lord Hamilton. William the
+Third, however, refused not only to receive the petition, but even to
+grant an audience to its bearer. Lord Hamilton would not be put off,
+however, but watched for his opportunity, and found it one day as the
+king was mounting his horse. He laid the petition on the saddle, which
+made His Majesty cry out, "Now, by heaven, this young man is too bold,"
+adding in a softer tone, "if a man can be too bold in the service of his
+country." With that he threw the document from him and rode off,
+afterwards, when memorial after memorial came from Scotland, issuing a
+Proclamation against the worry of such petitions.
+
+Notwithstanding this refusal, another expedition was sent out, the
+management of which was as bad as that of the first. But this time the
+Spaniards were on the alert, and hardly had the settlers begun to put
+things in order before the enemy was upon them in force. Famine and
+sickness again fell upon New Edinburgh, added to the horrors of a siege,
+which ultimately led to a capitulation on fair terms. But so weak were
+they as the Spaniards allowed them to embark, that their late enemies
+out of pity helped to heave their anchors and set their sails.
+
+It was long before the Scotch people forgot or forgave their sister
+kingdom for her action in thus frustrating their darling project.
+Besides impeding the Union, it is said to have strengthened the Jacobite
+feelings in the rebellions of 1715 and 1745. Even as late as the year
+1788, when it was proposed to erect a monument in Edinburgh to King
+William the Third and the "glorious revolution," the affair was
+remembered, and some one suggested that the pedestal should have on the
+one side a view of Glencoe, and on the other the Darien colony. Queen
+Anne, in 1702, tried to pacify her Scotch subjects by an autograph
+letter, stating that she regretted the Company's losses and
+disappointments, but this did not kill the ill-feeling. As for Paterson,
+in 1715 the English House of Commons voted him the sum of £18,241 as
+some indemnity for his losses, but as the bill was thrown out by the
+House of Lords, he got nothing.
+
+Thus ended one of the most disastrous of British attempts to colonise
+the Indies. From beginning to end it was an example of the Dutch caution
+of William of Orange, as contrasted with the recklessness of Queen
+Elizabeth's time or the sturdy defiance of Cromwell. The king was not
+prepared to risk war for an idea, yet at the same time he would not
+prohibit the expeditions.
+
+From 1702 to 1713 there was war between England and Holland on the one
+side, and France and Spain on the other. By the treaty of Utrecht,
+which again brought peace, the English received the concession for the
+exclusive supply of negro slaves to the Spanish colonies for thirty
+years. This _Assiento_ contract was given to the Great South Sea
+Company, which resulted from one of those joint-stock manias, now
+epidemic in France, England, and even Holland.
+
+The Company was projected by the Earl of Oxford in 1711, and, like the
+Mississippi scheme in France, was intended to assist the Government,
+which was virtually bankrupt. As yet there was no funded national debt,
+but large sums were owing to the army and navy, which had been
+provisionally settled by debentures, that could be discounted only at a
+serious loss to the owners. Down to the establishment of the Bank of
+England in 1693 no public loan existed, but this was commenced by
+borrowing the capital of that institution. At the peace of Ryswick, in
+1697, the public debt amounted to twenty millions, but by the time the
+South Sea Company was started the arrears of pay made it half as much
+again. Part of the great scheme was to advance this amount on security
+of English customs duties amounting to £600,000 per annum, and a
+monopoly of the Spanish trade in the Indies as far as the _Assiento_
+contract would permit.
+
+Whether the whole affair was a fraud from the commencement is doubtful;
+there were certainly misrepresentations in the prospectus, either wilful
+or possibly in good faith. Spain was to allow free trade to England in
+four ports on the Pacific, and three vessels besides slavers were to go
+to the isthmus every year--concessions never promised nor intended by
+Philip the Fifth. The slave trade was a fact, and according to the
+statements it would give fabulous profits.
+
+[Illustration: MAP OF TERRA FIRMA.
+
+(_From Gottfried's "Reisen."_)]
+
+Visions of boundless wealth now floated before the eyes of the English
+people, and they at once began to rival the French in their madness, as
+they had in their colonisation. The English Government was ready to make
+every possible concession because it wanted to be rid of the incubus of
+thirty millions, and therefore did nothing to check the Company. As the
+stock was issued it was at once bought up, and then sold again at a
+considerable advance. Everybody expected to make fortunes, therefore
+they must get shares at any price. Rumours of peace with Spain, and
+great concessions that would bring all the riches of Peru and Mexico
+into their coffers, roused them still more. Gold would soon be as
+plentiful as copper, and silver as iron. The shareholders would be the
+richest people the world ever saw, and every share would give dividends
+of hundreds per cent. per annum. The bill making the Government
+concessions was passed in April, 1720, when the stock was quoted at £310
+for a hundred pound share. Strange to say, it then began to fall, but
+the projectors put forth a rumour that England was about to exchange
+Gibraltar for a port in Peru, and confidence was restored at once. So
+great was the increased demand that another million was issued at £300
+per £100 share, and these were so much run after that the fortunate
+owners were at once offered double what they had paid. Then another
+million was offered at £400, and in a few hours applications were
+received for a million and a half.
+
+People were so eager to invest their money that they swallowed almost
+any bait thrown to them. Hundreds of bubble companies hovered on the
+outskirts of the parent, among them one for settling the barren islands
+of Blanco and Sal Tortugas, another to colonise Santa Cruz, and a third
+to fit out vessels for the suppression of piracy. But perhaps the most
+absurd was "a company for carrying on an undertaking of great advantage,
+but nobody to know what it is."
+
+Near their highest point the South Sea Shares were sold at £890, but so
+many wanted to sell at that price that they soon fell to £640. This put
+the directors again upon their mettle, and they set to work with fresh
+rumours and pushed them up to £1,000, from which they suddenly went
+down, with a few fluctuations, until utterly worthless. The treasurer of
+the Company ran away to France when the blow fell, but the directors
+were arrested and their estates ultimately confiscated. Thousands of
+people were ruined, and the public credit received a blow from which it
+took many years to recover.
+
+Meanwhile the South Sea Company had not been altogether idle. Besides
+the slave vessels they were entitled to send _one_ ship annually to the
+Carthagena and Porto Bello fairs, this being called the _Navio de
+permisso_. It was not to be larger than five hundred tons, yet the
+Company picked out the biggest they could find and filled it with goods,
+to the exclusion of food and water, which were carried in small store
+vessels that waited outside the harbour. This caused a great deal of
+dissatisfaction, as the English brought so much that they could
+under-sell the Spanish merchants in their own market. In 1715 the
+_Bedford_, nominally of six hundred tons, was seized at Carthagena on
+the ground that her burden was excessive. By the Spanish measurements
+the cargo was said to have amounted to 2,117-1/2 tons, and the excess
+was confiscated and ordered to be sold. However, the English protested,
+at the same time passing over some valuable presents to the authorities,
+with the result that a remeasurement was ordered, which made the amount
+only 460 tons.
+
+In 1716 the Spaniards took Campeachy and sixty English logwood vessels,
+which occasioned another war. The English claimed that they had an
+undoubted right to cut logwood at that place, and that former kings had
+always maintained them in this. For a long time they had quietly
+possessed a part of Yucatan, uninhabited by Spaniards, and they claimed
+not only the privilege of wood-cutting, but of settlement as well.
+Probably the little notice taken of their attack on the Darien colony
+made the Spanish authorities think England ready to bear any insult, but
+they soon found out their mistake. War was declared in 1718, and all the
+property of the South Sea Company, including debts, was confiscated, the
+whole amounting to £850,000. This would have been a great blow to the
+Company had it been genuine, but as we have seen, its mercantile
+transactions were secondary considerations.
+
+Peace was restored by the Treaty of Madrid in June 1721, when the
+_Assiento_ contract was renewed in favour of the Royal Company instead
+of that of the South Sea. So much dissatisfaction had been created by
+the concession for a trading ship, however, that the English did not
+insist upon its continuance, and therefore only slave vessels were to be
+permitted to visit the Indies in future. Everything that had been seized
+from the South Sea Company was to be restored, or its equivalent value
+paid, but the amount actually received only came to £200,000, which did
+not go far to help the unfortunate shareholders.
+
+Thus, this small measure of free trade with the Spanish Indies came to
+an end, and things went on much the same as before. English, Dutch, and
+French vessels still carried on the contraband traffic, doing all they
+could to evade the law, often with the assistance of the local
+authorities. The Spanish settlers got their supplies so much cheaper in
+this way than through the usual channels, that they were not likely to
+give up buying as long as the smugglers ran the risk. At last, however,
+the authorities received very strict orders to enforce the law, with the
+result that vessels were often captured, their cargoes confiscated, and
+crews imprisoned. Then the Spanish _guarda-costas_ claimed the right to
+search vessels of other nationalities, and to confiscate them if they
+found produce from their colonies on board, or other evidence that they
+were carrying on illicit trade.
+
+This led to another dispute with England, which claimed compensation for
+such seizures and the abolition of the right of search. English vessels
+had always resented this overhauling, and latterly several had fought
+the _guarda-costas_ rather than submit, with the result that, when
+captured, their crews were treated with a severity often amounting to
+cruelty. In 1739 several petitions were presented to the British
+Parliament, complaining of such outrages, and asking the Government to
+obtain redress. Among them was one from Captain Jenkins, the master of a
+Scottish vessel, who was examined by the House. His story was that he
+had been boarded by a _guarda-costa_, the Spaniards from which searched
+his vessel without finding anything contraband. Apparently enraged at
+their discomfiture, and possibly annoyed by the jeers of the English,
+they cut off one of Jenkins' ears and told him to carry it to his king
+with the message that they would do the same to him if he came near the
+Main. Finally, according to Jenkins' statement, he was further tortured
+and threatened with death. "What did you think when you found yourself
+in the hands of those barbarians?" asked a Member of the House; to which
+the captain replied, "I recommended my soul to God and my cause to my
+country." The severed ear he exhibited in Parliament as he had done
+elsewhere whenever he told the story.
+
+It was then stated that the losses from Spanish depredations by
+plundering and the taking of fifty-two vessels, since 1728, amounted to
+£340,000. In every case the masters and crews were brutally treated, and
+in some cases murdered. The English demand for compensation was met by
+the reply that the king had ordered inquiries to be made, and that if
+any of his subjects were found guilty they would be punished according
+to their deserts; also that orders would be given to conform exactly to
+the treaties. It was, however, claimed that the treaty of 1667 did not
+contain any clause bearing on the navigation and commerce of the Indies,
+and that the English had been wrong in supposing they had a right to
+sail and trade there; they were only permitted to sail to their own
+islands and plantations, and were therefore subject to confiscation if
+they changed their course to make for the Spanish possessions without
+necessity. There were then in Havana fifteen British vessels which had
+been detained on one pretext or another, and about the same time the
+_Success_ from London to Virginia was captured off Montserrat, and her
+captain and crew set adrift in an open boat to find their way ashore as
+best they could.
+
+In January, 1739, a convention between Great Britain and Spain was
+arranged, under which the latter agreed to pay £95,000 on account of
+these demands, less the value of certain vessels which they agreed to
+restore. This did not satisfy the West India merchants, and they
+petitioned against it. The indemnity was to be paid on the 10th of July,
+but that date having passed without a settlement, Great Britain issued
+letters of marque and ordered all Spanish vessels in her waters to be
+seized. Spain commenced reprisals the following month, and war was
+actually declared by Great Britain on the 19th of October. The
+declaration stated that for several years past unjust seizures and
+depredations had been carried on, and great cruelties exercised. The
+British colours had been ignominiously insulted, against the laws of
+nations and solemn treaties, and Spain had lately ordered British
+subjects from her dominions within a shorter period than had been
+covenanted by express stipulation in those treaties.
+
+In July previous a fleet under Admiral Vernon had sailed from Spithead,
+and after a short cruise off the Spanish coast, went over to the West
+Indies, arriving at Antigua the 27th of September. Going on to Jamaica,
+Vernon prepared for a grand raid on the Spanish settlements, leaving for
+Porto Bello on the 5th of November with six vessels and 2,500 men. They
+arrived on the 21st, and bombarded the forts, which made a stout
+resistance; but while this was going on, the British landed and took the
+town, thus compelling the forts to capitulate. Two warships and several
+other vessels were captured, as well as specie to the amount of ten
+thousand dollars, but the town was not pillaged, although the guns were
+either taken away or rendered useless, and the forts as far as possible
+demolished. This was virtually the end of that stronghold, as it was
+afterwards allowed to fall into decay, to be ultimately replaced by
+Chagres, Grey Town, and Colon. Later, also, the treasure from Peru had
+much diminished, and the isthmus sunk in importance, especially after
+the way round Cape Horn and through the Straits of Magellan was adopted
+more and more.
+
+As the dispute with Spain had arisen from her action in the Indies, so
+retaliation on the part of Great Britain was greatest on the Main. In
+February, 1740, Vernon again sailed from Jamaica, and on the 6th of
+March bombarded Santa Martha, but did not capture it. After repairing
+damages at Porto Bello he went on to Chagres, took a Spanish man-of-war
+from under the guns of the fort, captured the place, and demolished it.
+In January, 1741, Sir Chaloner Ogle came out from England with a fleet,
+and joined him, making a force of 12,000 men in twenty-nine
+sail-of-the-line besides smaller vessels.
+
+This great fleet sailed for Hispaniola in hopes of encountering that of
+Spain and France, but not finding it went on to Carthagena. This, the
+other great stronghold on the Main, was guarded by two powerful
+batteries, a boom across the entrance to the port, and four Spanish
+men-of-war just inside. After a long cannonading the batteries were
+silenced, a landing accomplished at night, and a passage made by which
+the fleet entered the harbour. Here, however, further progress was
+checked by sickness and disagreements among the commanders, with the
+result that the siege was raised and partial success ended in miserable
+failure. This was followed by another check at Santiago de Cuba, which
+virtually terminated all hopes of further great exploits, although
+attempts were made on La Guayra and Puerto Cabello.
+
+Yet with all this the Spaniards undoubtedly received a great lesson.
+Their men-of-war were captured from under their fortresses, and small
+English or colonial vessels performed such deeds of daring as had hardly
+been equalled since the Elizabethan age. The old spirit still existed
+although it might lie dormant for a time--the men were there when the
+hour came. In 1740 Captain Hall in a New England privateer came to an
+anchor under the fort of Puerto de la Plata, pretending to be a Caracas
+trader. He wanted to land in the night and surprise the town, but found
+that the inhabitants kept such a good watch that he had to give up that
+idea. However, the Governor was sick and sent to ask the loan of Hall's
+surgeon, and here was the opportunity he wanted. The surgeon,
+quartermaster, and an interpreter visited the Governor, and at the same
+time seven of Hall's crew landed and surprised the fort, dismounted the
+guns, marched into the town and plundered it, finally escaping with the
+loss of only one man.
+
+Peace was at last concluded on the 7th of October, 1748, but nothing was
+said in the treaty of the right of search. The _Assiento_ contract was
+confirmed, and one English trading ship allowed as formerly; free trade
+with the Indies, however, was still one of those things which could
+never be conceded.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+X.
+
+SLAVE INSURRECTIONS AND BUSH NEGROES.
+
+
+With war almost continuously raging at their very doors the West Indian
+planters not only risked their fortunes but their lives. During the
+seventeenth century England spent something like thirty-five years in
+fighting her enemies, and in the eighteenth, forty-six. As long as the
+quarrel was with Spain alone the colonists cared but little, but when
+France turned against them the struggle was much fiercer. The French
+were always most audacious in their assaults, and the consequences were
+all the more disastrous because they were such near neighbours. We have
+already spoken of St. Kitt's and the difficulties produced on that
+island by its division between the two nationalities. These were only
+terminated by its entire cession to England, which did not take place
+until the peace of Utrecht in 1713. Meanwhile, besides the two defeats
+of the English already mentioned, they were driven out in 1689, to
+return the following year and expel the enemy, retaining entire control
+until the peace of Ryswick gave France again her share. Then in 1702
+England once more held full possession until the island was assured to
+her entirely.
+
+Barbados, alone among the British West Indian islands, stands in the
+proud position of a colony that has never fallen into the hands of
+another nation. It has never even been seriously attacked beyond the
+attempt of De Ruyter. And yet the island was poorly fortified, as
+compared with the great strongholds of the West Indies such as
+Carthagena and Curaçao. Possibly "the game was not worth the candle,"
+for on the one hand there was little plunder to be had, and on the other
+a strong force of hardy Englishmen to be encountered. We have seen
+already how the Parliamentary fleet was kept at bay, and what an amount
+of trouble the islanders gave before they capitulated. Even then they
+were not actually conquered, although there could be no question as to
+the ultimate result.
+
+But not only had the colonists to stand up against the enemy from
+outside, but there was another danger which lay within their plantations
+and dwellings from which even Barbados was not free. The slaves had to
+be kept under subjection, and the planters must always be on the alert
+to anticipate riots and insurrections. For although the negro in most
+cases was submissive, at times he recovered that savage nature which had
+only been suppressed by force and discipline.
+
+When we read of flogging to death and other horrible cruelties of the
+planters and authorities, we are inclined to sympathise with the African
+and look upon his masters as worse than brutes. But to appreciate the
+full significance of these punishments we must judge them by the codes
+in existence at the time, remembering that nothing was ever done to the
+blacks that had not also been endured by whites for similar crimes.
+True, these punishments were retained for slaves after they had become
+obsolete for Europeans, but then the negro was undoubtedly stubborn and
+less amenable to persuasion than any other race. Like a mule he had to
+be broken in and trained, and like that stubborn animal he often gave
+great trouble in the process. There were differences of opinion as to
+various ways of teaching the negro, and it was only a long experience
+that ultimately led to gentle conciliation instead of flogging.
+
+[Illustration: A REBEL NEGRO
+
+(_From Stedman's "Surinam."_)]
+
+The slaves often ran away, and had to be hunted for and brought back. In
+the larger islands and on the Main they hid in the forest and swamp,
+where they formed communities, to which other runaways flocked until
+they became strong enough to hold their own. From these recesses they
+often came forth to pillage the plantations, murder the whites, and get
+the slaves to go off with them in a body. If the buccaneer was ferocious
+he had at least some method in his madness; the poor ignorant African,
+on the contrary, let his passions dominate him entirely. In revenge for
+fancied tyrannies he would commit the most atrocious crimes, torturing
+his prisoners by cutting them to pieces or even flaying while they still
+lived.
+
+Is it any wonder that when caught the bush negro or maroon was severely
+punished, and that the utmost rigour of the law was exercised? As for
+flogging, every one knows how common that was at the beginning of the
+present century. Some of us can even look back to a time when the use of
+the rod and whip on delicate children was a matter of course. Even fine
+ladies took their little ones to see executions that now horrify us to
+think of; in a similar way the planter's wife stood at her window to see
+the punishment of her house-servant.
+
+We could tell of negroes burnt to death, where a downpour of rain put
+out the fires and left them to linger in torment for hours, of taking
+pieces of flesh from the unhappy criminals with red-hot pincers, and,
+most horrible of all, breaking on the wheel. These punishments often
+took place in the middle of a town, but only on one occasion have we
+seen any mention of the horror of the scene, and this referred to the
+smell of burning flesh. Yet the criminals--for it must be remembered
+that they had been legally convicted and sentenced--showed a stoical
+indifference to pain almost incredible. As savages they gloried in
+showing their ability to endure torture, only craving sometimes for a
+pipe of tobacco to hold between their teeth until it fell.
+
+[Illustration: THE EXECUTION OF BREAKING ON THE RACK.
+
+(_From Stedman's "Surinam."_)]
+
+The maroons or bush negroes began to form communities on the Main and in
+the larger islands from very early times. In Jamaica they were the
+remnant of the Spanish slaves who ran away on the arrival of the
+English, with accessions from deserters at later periods; in Surinam
+some of those who had been sent into the forest to prevent their capture
+by French corsairs. In both places they maintained their independence,
+and ultimately made treaties with the colonial authorities, greatly to
+their own advantage. In Essequebo and Demerara they were kept down by
+subsidising Arawak Indian trackers, who hunted them from savannah to
+forest, and from forest to swamp, killing and capturing them almost as
+fast as they ran away. In the smaller and more settled islands the
+runaways were generally recaptured at once and severely punished as a
+warning to others. There the more daring plotted insurrections which
+often caused much trouble for a few days until suppressed. They did not
+last long, for the negroes were wanting in the power of combination,
+because they all wanted to be leaders. Then there was generally some
+faithful slave or white man's mistress to give the warning, which
+sometimes caused such prompt action that the outbreak did not occur at
+all. Yet with all that the danger was serious, and one that could hardly
+be coped with by forts and batteries.
+
+As early as the year 1649 a plot for a general rising in Barbados was
+discovered through the information of a bond-servant. All the whites
+were to have been murdered, but fortunately the ringleaders were
+arrested before the time fixed and eight of them condemned to death.
+Then in 1676, under the leadership of a Coromantee, it was arranged that
+on a certain fixed day, at a signal to be given by blowing shells, all
+the cane-fields should be set on fire, the white men killed, and their
+women retained by the negroes as their wives. This also was frustrated
+by information received from a house negress. Hearing two men talking
+of the matter, she made inquiries, and learnt of the plot in time to
+inform her master. Six of the prisoners were burnt alive and eleven
+beheaded, while five committed suicide by hanging themselves before the
+trial. The story was told in a pamphlet entitled, "Great Newes from the
+Barbados, or a true and faithful account of the great conspiracy." Yet
+again in 1693, after a fearful epidemic had much reduced the number of
+the whites, a third conspiracy was set on foot. The Governor was to have
+been killed, the magazine seized, and the forts surprised and taken.
+When the plot was nearly ripe two of the leaders were overheard
+conversing about it and instantly arrested. They were hung in chains for
+four days without food or drink, promises of pardon being made if they
+revealed their accomplices, which they did at the end of that time, with
+the result that some were executed and others cruelly tortured. We might
+go on to tell also of the abortive insurrection of 1702 and several
+others, but as there were never any very serious risings in Barbados, we
+must proceed to other colonies.
+
+In Jamaica several abortive attempts at general insurrections were made,
+some of them assisted by the maroons, who continually received
+accessions to their numbers from desertion. These people also made
+incursions on their own account, which led the Government to offer £5 a
+head for every one killed, the reward being payable on the production of
+his ears. In 1734 they destroyed several plantations and killed a
+hundred and fifty white men, which led to an attempt at suppressing
+them altogether. Captain Stoddart therefore took a detachment of
+soldiers into the mountains to the maroon town of Nanny. Arriving at
+night he planted a battery of swivel guns on a height that commanded the
+collection of huts, before the negroes were aware of his coming. They
+were rudely awakened from their sleep to find the place surrounded, and
+in alarm many flung themselves over precipices in their hurry to escape.
+Some were killed, a few captured, and the town utterly destroyed. About
+the same time a party of maroons from another place were so bold as to
+attack the barracks at Spanish Town.
+
+Two years later, under Captain Cudjo, the maroons became so formidable
+that two regiments of regular troops besides the island militia were
+employed to reduce them. The Assembly also ordered a line of
+block-houses or posts to be erected as near as possible to their haunts,
+at which packs of dogs were to be kept as part of the garrison. Then
+they sent to the Main for two hundred Mosquito Indians whom they engaged
+as trackers. This brought matters to a crisis, and Captain Cudjo was
+compelled to sue for peace, which was granted. A treaty was therefore
+made with them in 1738 at Trelawny town, by which they were to be
+considered as free on condition that they captured runaway slaves,
+assisted in repelling invasions, and allowed two white residents to
+remain in their towns. Thus peace was restored for a time, and the
+Mosquito Indians were allowed to go back to their country.
+
+However, Jamaica was not to be free from slave insurrections apart from
+the maroons, for in May, 1760, at St. Mary's, the slaves of General
+Forrest's plantation fell suddenly upon the overseer while he was at
+supper with some friends, and massacred the whole company. They were
+immediately joined by others, and commenced a career of plundering and
+burning all the plantations in the neighbourhood. Business in the island
+was at once suspended, martial law proclaimed, and every white man
+called out to assist in putting down the revolt. The negroes, however,
+tried to avoid an open conflict, trusting to hide in the forest, where,
+however, a large body was discovered and defeated. The maroons had been
+sent for, but did not arrive until this action had taken place, when
+they were sent in pursuit of the flying rebels. This they pretended to
+do, and in a few days returned with a collection of ears which they said
+had been taken from those whom they had slain, and for which they were
+paid. The story was found out afterwards to have been a falsehood, as
+instead of pursuing the fugitives they had simply cut off the ears of
+those who had been slain before they arrived. This led the authorities
+to think the maroons in league with the revolted slaves and afterwards
+to look upon them with distrust. However, by the aid of a body of free
+negroes, the rebels were at last captured, to be punished in the cruel
+manner so characteristic of the time. Some were burnt, some hung alive
+on gibbets, and about six hundred transported to the Bay of Honduras.
+Two were hung alive on the parade at Kingston, one to linger for seven
+days and the other for nine, during which time it was said "they behaved
+with a degree of hardened insolence and brutal insensibility." In the
+course of the whole insurrection about sixty whites and four hundred
+negroes were killed, and damage done to the amount of one hundred
+thousand pounds.
+
+In 1736 a slave revolt took place at Antigua, or rather it was
+discovered and anticipated. Five negroes were broken on the wheel, six
+hung in chains and starved to death, one of whom lived for nine days and
+eight nights, fifty-eight were burnt at the stake, and about a hundred
+and thirty imprisoned. These horrible punishments were intended as a
+warning to the others, and no doubt they had such an effect on that
+generation.
+
+Few of the early insurrections met with any success, notwithstanding
+that the negroes largely outnumbered the whites in every colony. At the
+most the blacks had a few days' liberty to murder, burn, and pillage,
+after which came the terrible retribution. There was, however, one
+conspicuous exception: poor Berbice was actually taken over, and every
+white man driven from the plantations.
+
+The Dutch were noted nigger drivers, and although the English were
+unable to boast much of their humanity, they stigmatised the Hollander
+as a cruel master. If a negro was obstinate, the Englishman threatened
+to sell him to a Dutchman or Jew, but the worst threat of all was to
+give him to a free negro. Whether this bad character was deserved or not
+is doubtful, but it is quite certain that the criminal law of the
+Netherlands permitted "the question" when a prisoner would not admit his
+guilt. This, however, was applicable to white as well as black, there
+being no particular slave code in the Dutch colonies.
+
+What was the immediate cause of the great rising of 1763, in Berbice,
+was never exactly ascertained, but vague complaints were made of
+ill-treatment by certain planters. It commenced on the 27th of February,
+on an estate in the river Canje, and from thence spread like wildfire
+over the whole colony. The population consisted of, besides the free
+Indians, 346 whites, 244 Indian slaves, and about 4,000 negro slaves.
+The garrison was supposed to consist of sixty soldiers besides officers,
+distributed at several forts and posts, but owing to sickness only about
+twenty were fit for duty when the rising took place.
+
+An epidemic of fever and dysentery had prevailed for two years among
+both whites and slaves, weakening the former in such a manner that they
+had no courage to contend with the revolted negroes, but mostly ran away
+to Fort Nassau when they heard of the rising. Almost out of their senses
+from fright, they urged Governor Hoogenheim to abandon the fort and
+colony at once. Only one of the councillors stood by the Governor, and
+it was as much as these two could accomplish to prevent even the
+soldiers from running away. As for moving against the rebels, this was
+impossible, for not one of the colonists would follow Councillor
+Abbinsetts in his attempt to do something. Their fright even affected
+the officials and soldiers in such a manner that the Governor could
+hardly escape their importunities to be allowed to leave.
+
+Four vessels lay in the river, two merchant ships and two slavers, but
+even their crews were sick, and the captain of one so utterly broken
+down that he could not attend to his duties. The Governor tried to get
+them to go up the river and do something, but they were almost as
+frightened as the colonists. Only in one place were the negroes opposed;
+a few whites taking refuge in the block-house at Peereboom, some
+distance above the fort, where their way of escape was cut off. But for
+want of a little assistance they were compelled to make terms with the
+negroes. Under the agreement the whites were to be allowed to go down to
+the fort in their own boats, but as soon as they began to embark the
+negroes fell upon them, men, women, and children, massacred some and
+took others prisoners, a few only managing to get across the river.
+
+Among the fugitives was a lad named Jan Abraham Charbon, whose story
+gives a graphic picture of the alarm and consternation produced by the
+insurrection, and of its results on himself.
+
+He was the son of a planter, and the alarm was brought to the estate at
+night by a faithful slave. The plantations below were all in the hands
+of the rebels, who were burning and murdering on both sides of the
+river. The whites from several neighbouring estates gathered together
+and decided to make a stand at Peereboom, hoping for assistance from
+Fort Nassau. They got to the block-house early in the morning, to the
+number of thirty whites, with a body of faithful slaves, who had not
+yet deserted them, although they did so later.
+
+Soon after their arrival the insurgents surrounded the house and
+attacked it, the whites making a successful defence until seven o'clock
+in the evening. Then one of Charbon's slaves came forward and asked if
+they wanted peace. On receiving a favourable reply the leaders on both
+sides came to the agreement above-mentioned. Next morning the whites
+were fired upon as they went to embark, and Charbon was wounded.
+However, he jumped into the river and swam across, hiding himself in the
+jungle, where he came upon another fugitive named Mittelholzer.
+
+For eight days the two wandered about the forest, losing their way and
+almost dying from hunger and thirst. They dared not approach the river
+for fear of the negroes. Once they came upon the back of a plantation
+and hurriedly gathered a few cobs of Indian corn, immediately afterwards
+running back into the bush to eat them. While lying down a negro with a
+sabre passed quite close without seeing them, but presently another with
+a gun peeped into the bushes and caught sight of them. On this
+Mittelholzer ran out with his drawn sabre and so furiously attacked the
+rebel that he cut off one of his hands, captured his gun, and put him to
+flight. However, this audacity did not save him, for he was captured
+soon afterwards, Charbon managing to escape into the forest. Alone the
+boy wandered about for six or seven days, until, again becoming
+desperate from hunger, he returned to the same plantation, to fall into
+the hands of the negroes. He was stripped of his clothes, put in the
+stocks, flogged, and threatened with death, but was finally spared on
+account of his youth, and because the rebel chief, "King" Coffee, wanted
+a secretary to write letters to Governor Hoogenheim, proposing terms.
+
+Meanwhile the poor Governor hardly knew what to do. He sent to Surinam
+and Demerara for assistance, but while awaiting this the military
+officers informed him that the fort was untenable against even a single
+assault. The wooden palisades were so rotten that a strong man could
+pull them down easily, and then the building was of wood and could
+easily be fired. He was ultimately obliged to destroy it and retire down
+the river, where he at first took possession of the lowest plantation,
+Dageraad, hoping to remain there until assistance arrived. But even here
+the rumours of an attack by the rebels made the people clamorous to be
+allowed to leave, and Hoogenheim had to retire to the mouth of the
+river, where there was a small guard-house, or signal station, near the
+site of what is now New Amsterdam. Thus the last hold on the plantations
+was given up, and the whole colony abandoned to the negroes.
+
+A month passed before the first arrival from Surinam. All that time the
+Governor and a few whites waited day after day, sometimes almost in
+despair. The vessels had, at the request of their captains, been allowed
+to leave, carrying with them some of the people, while others had gone
+off to Demerara. This desertion was almost necessary, as the food supply
+was very limited and of a poor quality--cowards were useless, and
+therefore no objection was made to their departure. Hoogenheim was at
+last somewhat relieved by the arrival of the English brigantine _Betsy_
+with a hundred soldiers from Surinam, and with this small contingent he
+at once began to retrace his steps with a view to recover the colony. He
+went back to Dageraad, and in a day or two after was attacked by seven
+hundred negroes, who fought from early morning to noon, when they
+retired after suffering a great loss in killed and wounded. It was after
+this battle that young Charbon arrived with a letter bringing "greetings
+from Coffee, Governor of the negroes of Berbice." The rebel chief said
+that as the negroes did not want war, he would give His Honour half the
+colony, while he himself would govern the other half and go up the river
+with his people, who were determined never again to be slaves. No notice
+was taken of this, and Charbon, who had been warned to bring back an
+answer at his peril, was too pleased to get back to his white friends to
+again wish for his post of secretary.
+
+Even now the Governor's situation was not only perilous, but most
+pitiful. St. Eustatius sent two vessels, but almost as soon as they
+arrived the men were attacked by sickness, and instead of being a help
+they had to be nursed, even the Governor himself taking his part in the
+necessary attendance. At one time there were not enough healthy soldiers
+to relieve guard, but fortunately Coffee had no means of knowing this,
+or all would certainly have been over with them.
+
+It was not until December that a fleet arrived from the Netherlands, and
+then a horrible vengeance overtook the rebels. There was not much
+difficulty in subduing them, especially when a large contingent of
+Indians was sent overland from Demerara to drive them from the forest.
+In March, 1764, the trials began with a hundred ringleaders, fifty of
+whom were sentenced to death. Fifteen of these were burnt, sixteen
+broken on the wheel, and twenty-two hanged. The following month they
+executed in similar ways thirty-four, and later again thirty-two. The
+chiefs were burnt at slow fires, punishment which they bore with the
+utmost stoicism. One named Atta, however, told the bystanders that he
+only suffered what he deserved. Finally, in December a general amnesty
+was proclaimed, which made the negroes cry out with joy, _Dankje!
+Dankje!_
+
+Berbice was of course utterly ruined for a time. The plantations were
+overrun with weeds, the buildings in ruins, and many of the slaves
+missing. Of the whites only 116 remained; the rest were dead from
+sickness, had been killed by the negroes, or had fled from the colony.
+The loss in killed was small, as the general fright prevented any show
+of resistance. What would have happened if the whites had fallen into
+the hands of the rebels was shown in one or two flagrant cases. One of
+the colony surgeons was said to have been flayed alive on the ground
+that he had poisoned the slaves by forcing them to take medicine. One
+poor girl who had been captured at Peereboom was compelled to submit to
+the embraces of King Coffee and driven mad, while another committed
+suicide to prevent a similar degradation. About eight hundred slaves
+were missing, most of whom had been killed, as very few managed to
+escape to the bush.
+
+[Illustration: MARCH THROUGH A SWAMP.
+
+(_From Stedman's "Surinam."_)]
+
+Behind the coast of Guiana is a long stretch of swamp, which in slavery
+times was the general resort of runaways. For miles extends a grassy
+plain like a meadow, the sedges entirely covering the two to four feet
+of water which would otherwise give it the appearance of a great lake.
+Except through the various streams that drain it, access is almost
+impossible during the rainy season, and even the Indians care little to
+explore its recesses beyond fishing in the canal-like creeks. However,
+here and there are little islands or sand reefs, and on these the
+runaway slaves took refuge. First, perhaps, a murderer would escape and
+hide himself for a time until the hue and cry had abated, returning now
+and again to the plantation at night for the purpose of getting
+provisions from his friends. Then others would follow, until a party of
+twenty to a hundred, with their wives, had established a little village.
+Towards the end of the last century a number of these communities of
+bush negroes had been formed in Demerara, and their depredations became
+so common that regular expeditions were sent against them, guided by
+Indian trackers. In 1795 they joined with the slaves to raise a general
+insurrection, but special measures were taken so that they were almost
+suppressed for a time.
+
+Before this they had formed a line of stations for seventy miles from
+the river Demerara to the Berbice. Every camp was naturally surrounded
+by water, and by driving pointed stakes in a circle, and leaving the
+entrance to wind through a double line under water, they were made
+almost impregnable. To reach them the attacking party had to wade up to
+their middles through perhaps a mile of ooze and water, to be cut with
+razor grass, and all the time at the mercy of the negroes. Only during
+the dry season was anything like success possible, and even then the
+negroes generally saved themselves by flight.
+
+Many of the slaves were friendly with the runaways, but they were much
+feared by the more timid. On one occasion a negro went to cut wood at
+the back of a plantation in Demerara and came suddenly upon the outpost
+of a camp, probably the entrance to the concealed path which led to the
+little sand reef. In walking along he stepped upon a bush-rope, and
+immediately after heard a bell ring above his head. Before he could get
+away a ferocious bush negro stood before him and demanded his business,
+but the poor slave was so frightened that he ran home and reported the
+occurrence to his master. Some of the slaves went so far as to enjoy
+hunting runaways--in fact, there was little love lost between the two
+parties. One of these was offered his freedom as a reward for the
+assistance he had given in an expedition, the Government engaging to
+purchase him of his owner provided they both consented. Tony, however,
+did not wish to leave a good master, and refused, stipulating, however,
+that he should retain the right to accept the kind offer at some future
+period. When his master ultimately left Demerara, some years afterwards,
+Tony claimed his promised freedom and got it.
+
+While the bush negroes in other parts of Guiana were kept within
+reasonable bounds, those of Surinam, like the maroons of Jamaica, had
+never been conquered. Treaties were agreed to by them in 1749 and 1761,
+but disputes continually occurred, with the result that the colonists
+were always more or less in fear of their raids. Then they carried off
+most of the slaves whenever they attacked a plantation, until their
+number became so great as to be a real danger. In 1773 the authorities
+in the Netherlands resolved to make a special effort to conquer them,
+and for this purpose raised a corps of all nationalities which was put
+under the command of Colonel Fourgeaud.
+
+That soldiers should be brought from Europe for such a service shows the
+utter ignorance of the Dutch authorities. If the colonists themselves
+could not put down the bush negroes, how could it be expected that this
+would be effected by fresh troops from a cold climate, who had no
+knowledge of the country, the mode of fighting, or the difficulties of
+travelling through the bush and swamp?
+
+Commissioners had visited them at different times to arrange the
+treaties, but there was generally something wrong with the presents
+(virtually blackmail), or else they were given to the wrong parties. In
+1761 the chief Araby had insisted on the commissioners binding
+themselves by his form of oath. This was done by each party tasting the
+blood of the other. With a sharp knife a few drops were drawn from the
+arm of each person into a calabash of water with a few particles of dry
+earth. After pouring a small quantity of this mixture on the ground as a
+libation, the calabash was handed round from one to another until all
+the company had taken a sip. Then the gadoman (priest) took heaven and
+earth--exemplified by the water and clay--to witness the agreement, and
+invoked the curse of God upon the first who broke it, the company and
+crowd of negroes around calling out _Da so!_ (that is so, or amen).
+
+Yet, after all this solemnity, quarrels soon arose again. One chief with
+his sixteen hundred people had come to terms, but these did not bind his
+neighbour, who perhaps had half as many. The different chiefs were not
+united in any way, and it followed, therefore, that, after thousands of
+guilders had been spent on one, the others made incursions to get a
+share of the good things for themselves. To the colonists they were all
+bush negroes, but among themselves they were as distinct as if they had
+been different nations. Even when at peace, and when the chiefs had
+received gold-headed canes as symbols of authority, they would often
+call at the outlying plantations and demand rum or anything else they
+fancied, which the whites dared not refuse.
+
+The immediate occasion for the special corps from the mother country was
+an insurrection of the slaves in 1772, who, after plundering and burning
+some of the plantations, and murdering their owners, fled in great
+numbers to join the bush negroes. The whole colony was a scene of horror
+and consternation--the colonists expected the rising to become general,
+and took refuge in Paramaribo, thus leaving their plantations
+unprotected. However, it was soon checked, mainly by raising a body of
+three hundred free negroes, called rangers, who were expert
+bushfighters, and therefore thoroughly well fitted to cope with the
+rebels.
+
+One of the chiefs named Baron had settled on an island in the swamp,
+such as we have described, where he defied the whole colony. There were
+no means of communication except hidden tracks under water, and in
+addition to the palisades the chief had erected a battery of swivel guns
+which he had stolen from the plantations. Thus triply defended by water,
+stakes, and guns, it is no wonder if he thought his position
+impregnable. However, he was discovered by a party of rangers, and
+assaulted by them and a large body of white soldiers. Camping first on
+the edge of the swamp about a mile away, they could see Baron's flag
+waving in defiance on the little island, while they were at their wits'
+ends to find a means of getting at him. A great many shots were wasted
+by both sides before they found the distance was too great, even for the
+swivel guns, and then the rangers began to act. Several weeks were
+passed in attempting to make a causeway by sinking fascines, but when
+the workers had come within range, so many were killed that it had to be
+abandoned. In despair of ever effecting anything, they were about to
+retire, when some of the rangers discovered the hidden pathway under
+water. A feint was now made of attacking one side by one party, while
+another crept along the track, and thus at last the fortress was
+stormed. A terrible hand-to-hand fight took place, in which many were
+killed on both sides, but even then Baron managed to escape with a good
+number of his followers.
+
+This defeat made little impression, for soon afterwards the slaves on
+three plantations killed their white masters, and, like the others, went
+off to join the bush negroes. It was now felt that something must be
+done or the colony would have to be abandoned. The bush negroes had to
+be hunted from their recesses, however difficult the task might be,
+otherwise there would be no safety even in the town itself. The
+expeditions could only move in Indian file, exposed to ambushes in the
+most difficult parts of the track, and firing from behind trees
+everywhere. There was no possibility of bringing the party together if
+attacked; it followed, therefore, that the long string of men went
+forward with the utmost caution. In front came two powerful blacks with
+machetes or cutlasses to clear the way, and immediately behind them the
+vanguard. These were followed by the main body alternating with
+ammunition bearers, and, finally, a long line of carriers with food,
+medicines, utensils, and kill-devil (rum) with the rearguard. Sometimes
+the party would flounder through a swamp for hours, holding their
+firearms above their heads to keep them dry. Then drenching showers
+would fall, and give the greatest trouble to prevent the powder from
+becoming useless. Creeks had to be passed on fallen trees, or the party
+would be detained until a trunk was felled and trimmed to afford a
+passage. Exposed to malaria, mosquitoes, bush ticks, and maribuntas,
+they went on day after day, only to find, on reaching the village of the
+bush negroes, that they had gone elsewhere, to perhaps turn up at some
+unprotected plantation. The European troops died off in great numbers,
+while the enemy were in their element. It followed, therefore, that
+little was done, and that the old system of conciliation had to be
+adopted, with the same unsatisfactory results. Finally, by utilising
+their mutual jealousies, about 1793 they were driven so far away from
+the settlements as to become almost harmless. Their descendants still
+exist almost as savages, with curious manners and customs, partly
+inherited from their African forefathers, and partly adopted from their
+neighbours the Indians.
+
+[Illustration: TRELAWNY TOWN.
+
+(_From Edwards' "West Indies."_)]
+
+We must now return to the maroons of Jamaica, who had not been
+conquered, although a nominal treaty existed, and the white residents
+remained at their posts. In July, 1795, two of them were flogged for
+pig-stealing, and this was considered a disgrace on the whole community.
+On the return of the pig-stealers to Trelawny they raised a great
+outcry, and the resident was at once ordered to leave on pain of death.
+Efforts were made to pacify them, but they sent a written defiance to
+the magistrates who had ordered the flogging and declared their
+intention to attack Montego Bay. The militia were called out and
+soldiers applied for, but before the preparations were completed, a body
+of maroons appeared and asked for an interview with four gentlemen whom
+they named.
+
+Hoping the matter might be prevented from going farther, these and
+several other whites went to the rendezvous, where they were received by
+three hundred armed men. The maroons complained of the disgrace on the
+whole body, through the flogging having been performed by a negro
+overseer in the presence of felons, and demanded reparation. They
+wanted, first, an addition to their lands, and, second, a dismissal of
+the then resident in favour of one they had formerly. Promising to
+forward their requests to the Governor, the gentlemen left, the maroons
+appearing as if pacified.
+
+However, this interview was only applied for to gain time, and
+especially to allow the departure of the British fleet which was then on
+the point of leaving, and might be detained if they moved too quickly.
+On the report that there was a probability of a settlement of the matter
+the fleet left, when the maroons immediately began to plot with the
+slaves for a general rising. Reports of this had been received by the
+Governor before, but just after the men-of-war had departed more
+definite news arrived, which induced him to send a fast-sailing boat to
+bring them back. Fortunately this was successfully accomplished, and at
+once confidence drove out the fear of murders, fires, and plundering
+which had alarmed the inhabitants. The slaves were correspondingly
+disheartened and left the maroons to fight alone.
+
+But even the maroons themselves became divided in opinion on the return
+of the military and naval force. The Governor taking advantage of this,
+issued a proclamation calling upon them to submit, but only thirty-eight
+old men came forward, the others being determined to fight. They set
+fire to their own town and commenced hostilities by attacking the
+outposts. This led to a pursuit in which the whites fell into an
+ambuscade, many being killed, without as far as was known doing any harm
+whatever to the enemy. Now commenced a series of raids on the
+plantations, in which even infants at the breast were massacred.
+
+[Illustration: PACIFICATION OF THE MAROONS.
+
+(_From Edwards' "West Indies."_)]
+
+The matter becoming serious, the General Assembly resolved to hunt the
+rebels with dogs, as had been intended before the treaty. They
+accordingly sent over to Cuba for huntsmen with their powerful
+blood-hounds, the descendants of those which had once worried the poor
+Indians, and afterwards assisted the buccaneers. Times had changed
+however, and a feeling grew up that hunting men with savage beasts was
+not quite the thing. This led to some expressions of opinion adverse to
+the action of the executive, but they excused themselves on the ground
+that the safety of the island demanded extreme measures. If war was
+justifiable at all, any and every means, they said, was allowable; in
+fact, "all was fair in war."
+
+Meanwhile the maroons had been driven to their strongholds in the
+mountains, where they had little to eat, and were virtually compelled to
+ravage the plantations for food. On the arrival of forty _chasseurs_
+with their hundred dogs, however, they became alarmed, and began to sue
+for mercy. It does not appear that there was any real necessity for
+using the animals, their presence being enough for the purpose. They
+were led _behind_ the troops, and on their appearance the maroons
+surrendered in great numbers, this putting an end to the insurrection.
+
+Now came the question of what was to be done with them. It was argued
+that no country could suffer people to live in it unless they could be
+controlled by law, and that obedience could not be expected from these
+people. To expect it was entirely out of the question; it was therefore
+resolved to transport them from the island. Accordingly, in June, 1796,
+six hundred were sent to Halifax, Nova Scotia, where lands were granted
+them and a subsistence allowed until crops could be raised. Not liking
+the climate, they were ultimately established in Sierra Leone, where
+they became the nucleus of the present colony. Those who had submitted
+remained in Jamaica, where their descendants are still well known.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+XI.
+
+THE SOVEREIGNTY OF THE SEAS.
+
+
+By the middle of the eighteenth century Spain had fallen behind, and
+even Holland had lost her prestige. It followed, therefore, that the
+only Power that could rival Great Britain was France, and she was an
+enemy that could never be despised. The struggle in the West Indies
+between these two Powers now became, if possible, more intense; and if
+the result gave the sovereignty of the seas to Britons, they have mainly
+to ascribe it to their naval training in this part of the world. The
+mistakes of Admiral Vernon were lessons which, being borne in mind by
+later admirals, tended to prevent similar disasters in the future.
+
+There was a short intermission in the struggle between 1748 and 1756,
+when the "Seven Years' War" commenced; but before the actual declaration
+hostilities had commenced between the two rivals in India and North
+America. Now arose one of England's great admirals, Rodney, who gained
+his laurels in the Caribbean Sea, and was mainly instrumental in putting
+France in the background as a naval power. He first came to the front in
+1759, when he bombarded Havre, and later, with that other great seaman,
+Sir Samuel Hood, he became a "household word" in the West Indies.
+
+Before they appeared, however, the British captured Guadeloupe, and
+commenced a general raid upon the French shipping. But, as usual, our
+gallant foes were by no means despicable, for in 1760 they claimed to
+have taken 2,539 English vessels, against a loss of only 944. On the 5th
+of January, 1762, Rodney sailed from Barbados for Martinique, in command
+of eighteen ships of the line, and on the 4th of the following month the
+island capitulated. Then Grenada was taken, to be followed by Dominica,
+Tobago, St. Vincent, and St. Lucia, thus giving the whole of the French
+Caribbees into the possession of Great Britain. Spain being also
+involved, Admiral Pococke attacked Havana in May, and, after a siege of
+twenty-nine days, took the Morro Castle, a fort hitherto considered
+impregnable. A fortnight later the Governor of Cuba was compelled to
+capitulate, thus giving the town also into the hands of the British.
+These exploits made France and Spain sue for peace, which was signed at
+Paris in February, 1763, when Grenada, St. Vincent, Dominica, and Tobago
+were ceded to Great Britain, the other captures being restored.
+
+After this war positive orders were sent to the British West Indies to
+break off all trade and intercourse with the French and Spanish
+settlements, with the result that contraband and other traffic was
+thrown into the hands of the Dutch and Danes. Then the Dutch islands of
+Curaçao and St. Eustatius began to flourish more and more, and those of
+the Danes, St. Thomas and St. John, became free ports. During the wars
+these islands rose to a pitch of prosperity hardly possible to any of
+those belonging to the combatants, on account of their neutrality.
+Naturally they were almost barren and of little account as plantations;
+but as _entrepôts_ they were exceedingly useful, not only to their
+owners, but to the belligerents as well. Here alone could French,
+Spanish, and British ships meet without fighting, and for them they
+could run when pursued by the enemy.
+
+The island of St. Thomas was first colonised in 1666, but for a long
+time it made little progress. It became useful to the pirates, however,
+mainly from its being a safe place at which to dispose of their
+captures. Then merchant vessels found it sometimes convenient to go in
+to escape these rovers, perhaps to be followed by them, and yet remain
+safe until an opportunity occurred for escaping their vigilance. Prizes
+were brought here and sold, the prospect of good bargains leading to the
+settlement of a number of rich merchants, and especially Jews. What with
+all this, and a little contraband traffic, the people of St. Thomas did
+very well, and soon the harbour became one of the busiest in the West
+Indies.
+
+And here we must mention that the Jews were a very important factor in
+the development of the early settlements. It will be remembered that
+large numbers of these people were driven from Spain after the conquest
+of Granada, and how they went to Portugal and the Netherlands. A large
+number also went to Brazil, where at first they had a measure of
+freedom in the exercise of their religion not granted in the mother
+country. When the Dutch captured Brazil, perfect freedom followed; but
+after Portugal took her own again, this was withdrawn, and in
+consequence many left for Surinam and the West Indian islands. Here they
+were joined by some of their co-religionists from Holland, and in time
+became a powerful body of planters, but more especially traders. To them
+were due many improvements in the manufacture of sugar, and even the
+introduction of the cane into some places. In every colony there was a
+small community, often with a synagogue, and their connection one with
+another, as well as their virtual neutrality, made their transactions
+more safe than those of other traders. As may be supposed, they had no
+love for the Spaniard, and consequently were the main financiers, not
+only of privateers, but even pirates.
+
+St. Thomas, Curaçao, and St. Eustatius lived by the misfortunes of
+others. No longer could the jolly buccaneer sell his prizes and booty at
+Jamaica; he must go elsewhere, and let other places reap the advantage
+of his free and easy bargains. For it was "easy come, easy go" with him,
+and the fortune he made was soon wasted in riotous living. This was all
+to the advantage of the wily Jew, who first haggled about the price of a
+cargo, and then got his money back by charging enormous profits on the
+supplies. The rover was as careless as the proverbial "Jack ashore," and
+could easily be induced to spend his last piece of eight on the luxuries
+so temptingly laid before him, utterly regardless of the consequences.
+He had only to go out and capture another vessel to be able to return
+and renew his jollification.
+
+In war time these harbours were crowded with the shipping of all
+nations, and many a fortune was made that enabled the merchant to go to
+Europe as a West Indian nabob. Then there was a great demand for neutral
+vessels, in which goods could be transhipped for conveyance to colonies
+where the belligerent flag might bring a crowd of privateers before the
+vessel got safely into harbour. Even physicians and surgeons made their
+piles, for there was always more or less sickness on board the vessels,
+and a hundred dollars a visit was a common fee.
+
+In 1774 began the dispute with the American colonies of Great Britain,
+and four years later France joined them, thus bringing trouble again
+upon the West Indies. The first important move was made by the French,
+who, in September, 1778, took Dominica, on which the English retaliated
+by capturing St. Lucia. Then a fleet was sent out from England under
+Admiral Byron, and another from France under Count de Grasse. The French
+took St. Vincent and Grenada, and every island of either nation was in a
+state of alarm and consternation. In July, 1779, Spain joined the others
+against England, on the ground that her flag had been insulted. To this
+it was replied that she harboured American privateers, and furnished
+them with false documents, under which they carried Spanish colours.
+Thus England had her hands full, for the Yankees alone gave her quite
+enough work, without the addition of these old rivals.
+
+As yet Rodney had not come out, but in the years 1778 and 1779 he
+pressed his claim on the Government to have a command in the West
+Indies. The seas were well known to him, and he had his views as to the
+proper mode of carrying out operations; but for some time his
+application was refused. Finally, however, in October, 1779, he was
+appointed to replace Admiral Byron, with supreme control over the
+operations in the Caribbean Sea, as well as freedom to intervene if
+necessary on the American coast.
+
+Rodney was at last satisfied, and he left in December with a convoy, the
+whole fleet numbering three hundred. In the centre were transports and
+merchant vessels, and on either side men-of-war. Off Cape Finisterre he
+captured a convoy of sixteen Spanish vessels, and beyond Cape St.
+Vincent fought with another squadron, and captured four men-of-war,
+including the admiral. On then to the relief of Gibraltar, from whence
+he sent part of the fleet into the Mediterranean, and where he remained
+until February 13, 1780, when he sailed for the West Indies.
+
+Arriving off St. Lucia on the 28th of March, he came upon the French
+fleet under De Guichen, which he attempted to engage, but was prevented
+from the want of skill in his captains. The result was that both fleets
+sailed away from each other without much damage to either, both stating
+that the other refused to fight. As, however, the French had thirty
+vessels to the English seventeen, they could have compelled an action;
+so that, although the affair was not creditable to either, it was
+perhaps a little more disgraceful to the larger fleet. Rodney was in a
+great rage. He attributed his failure to the incompetency of his
+subordinates, who had not been properly trained to make combined naval
+evolutions. Every captain, he said, thought himself fit to be Prime
+Minister of Britain.
+
+However, he continued his cruise, barring the way of the French, and
+driving De Guichen to St. Eustatius to refit. Now he began to teach his
+captains those naval manoeuvres in which he considered them so much
+wanting, which his assistant admiral, Sir Hyde Parker, did not
+altogether like. Rodney, it appears, treated all his subordinates as if
+they were raw recruits, and, while he gained obedience, created a great
+deal of ill-feeling. But, with all their training, they could not bring
+De Guichen to fight, even when they encountered him a second time; yet
+we may presume that the training was by no means wasted.
+
+As if Great Britain had not enough enemies, in December, 1780, she
+declared war with the Dutch, on the ground that they assisted the
+American colonies. What a formidable array--the Colonies, France, Spain,
+and Holland! Yet, somehow or other, she managed to cope with the whole.
+
+St. Eustatius was the great offender among the Dutch colonies.
+Notwithstanding that the home Government had sent out strict orders to
+all her settlements not to honour the flag of the revolted British
+colonies, or to supply them with contraband of war, there is no doubt
+that they were very loose in inquiring into such transactions. As we
+have said already, this and other islands were very useful to the
+belligerents; and, as we have just stated, De Guichen went to St.
+Eustatius to escape Rodney and refit. This was no doubt a sore point
+with the British admiral, who barred the enemy's passage to his own
+islands only to see him get what he needed from the Dutch.
+
+When the news of the declaration of war came out, Rodney was ready at
+once to pounce upon the offender; and on the 3rd of February, 1781,
+before the authorities of St. Eustatius had heard the news, he appeared
+in the harbour. The Governor could hardly believe his ears when an
+officer appeared to demand the surrender of the island to His Majesty of
+Great Britain, but being entirely unprepared, and quite unfitted to cope
+with such a force, he was obliged to surrender at discretion.
+
+Here was the opportunity for revenge, and Rodney embraced it. Even his
+best friends could hardly excuse the arbitrary doings which followed,
+and which were stigmatised as unworthy and almost dishonourable to a
+British admiral. Being determined to root out this nest of
+contrabandists, he confiscated all the property of the inhabitants, and
+ordered them to quit the island. The harbour was filled with shipping,
+and the stores with goods, the vessels numbering two hundred and fifty,
+and the contents of the stores worth about three million pounds. Here
+was indeed a disaster to the Jews, not only of St. Eustatius, but even
+of British islands, for they were all in correspondence. Rodney went so
+far as to say that many of the English merchants ought to have been
+hanged, for it was through their means, and the help of this neutral
+port, that the enemy were able to carry on the war.
+
+The people were astonished at such unheard-of treatment. Never before
+had such a thing happened, except in the raids of buccaneers and
+pirates. The Jews petitioned Rodney and General Vaughan to rescind their
+decision. They had received orders to give up the keys of their stores
+and inventories of the goods in them, as well as household furniture and
+plate; then they were to prepare themselves to quit the island. Such
+orders from British commanders, whose principal characteristics were
+mercy and humanity, had distressed them in the extreme, so that their
+families were absolutely in despair.
+
+This appeal had no effect, even when it was supported by some of the
+British officers, and such an auction now began as was never known
+before. The news reached Barbados and the other islands, and down came a
+horde of speculators, prepared to make their fortunes at once if
+possible. Such a haul did not occur every day, and they intended to take
+advantage of it. Thousands of bales of goods were brought out and sold,
+without either seller or buyer knowing anything of their contents. They
+might contain rich silks and velvets or the cheapest slave clothing. It
+was a grand lottery in which every bidder got a prize, although they
+were in some cases of little value. No one needed to despair of a
+bargain, however, for there was so much to sell as compared with the
+number of purchasers, that everything went cheap. Some few got bitten,
+but in the end hardly a tithe of the value of the goods was obtained.
+
+While this was going on at St. Eustatius, some Bristol privateers got
+information of the outbreak of hostilities, and pounced upon Demerara
+and Berbice, where they levied blackmail and captured most of the
+shipping. As usual with these plunderers, they had no authority to
+capture the colony, nor had they in this case even commissions against
+the Dutch. However, they put the inhabitants in a state of
+consternation, until, a few days later, two men-of-war arrived from
+Barbados to receive the capitulation, which was demanded on the same
+terms as that of St Eustatius, although neither party knew what these
+terms were. Nothing was left but submission, although the authorities
+protested against such an unheard-of manner of dictating unknown terms.
+The Governor of Barbados had heard from one of the inhabitants of that
+island that the Directeur-General of Demerara had expressed, at his
+dinner-table, his fears that in case of a war the river would be
+plundered by privateers, and of his preferring to surrender to one of
+the king's ships: for this reason he had sent the men-of-war. This was
+considered a bit of "sharp practice" by the Demerarians, but perhaps
+turned out for the best.
+
+Two commissioners were appointed by the colony to go in one of the
+English vessels to St. Eustatius and arrange the articles of
+capitulation, which were fortunately on altogether different lines from
+those of that island. Surinam, St. Martin's, Saba, and St.
+Bartholomew's also surrendered on the same unknown terms, but the
+admiral said that he and General Vaughan thought they ought to be put on
+a different footing. They would not treat them like the other, whose
+inhabitants, belonging to a State bound by treaty to assist Great
+Britain, had yet nevertheless assisted her public enemies and the rebels
+to her State, with every necessary and implement of war as well as
+provisions, thus perfidiously breaking the very treaties they had sworn
+to maintain.
+
+The treatment of St. Eustatius caused a great stir, not only in the West
+Indies, but in England as well. A remonstrance was sent to Rodney by the
+merchants of St. Kitt's, who claimed that a large quantity of their
+goods had been seized. Some of these were insured in England, and they
+considered their Excellencies responsible for their losses, for which
+they would seek redress by all the means in their power. It was
+impossible, they said, for many of them to be more utterly ruined than
+they then were, and they asked that certificates in reference to their
+property should be sent to England, in demanding which they were
+claiming a right rather than a favour. In reply, Rodney said he was
+surprised that gentlemen who called themselves subjects and merchants of
+Great Britain, should, when it was in their power to lodge their effects
+in the British islands to windward, under the protection of British
+laws, send them to leeward to St. Eustatius, where, in the eyes of
+reason and common sense, they could only be lodged to supply their
+king's and country's enemies. The island, he continued, was
+Dutch--everything in it was Dutch--all was under the Dutch flag. As
+Dutch it should be treated, and this was his firm resolution as a
+British admiral, who had no view whatever but to do his duty to his king
+and country.
+
+Two merchants from St. Eustatius went to London, where they were
+examined by the Attorney and Solicitor-Generals. They clamoured for
+justice, and got it, for one of them was committed on a charge of high
+treason for corresponding with the American agent at Amsterdam, and for
+furnishing the Americans with military stores and ammunition. Several
+attempts were made to injure Rodney with the king, but the blow on the
+enemy was so severe that His Majesty would not listen to the detractors.
+It is said that a cry of rage went up from the French and American
+colonies, and that Rodney gloried in his triumph. He was undoubtedly
+inclined to ride rough-shod over everybody and everything, but as long
+as he was successful, only the enemy complained.
+
+But the trouble was not yet over, for the merchants of St. Kitt's sent
+lawyers to file their claims in the Admiralty Courts. Then St. Eustatius
+was recaptured for Holland by the French, and the tide turned against
+the admiral. Now was the time to attack him, and his enemies took
+advantage of it. The mob that threw up their caps and shouted for joy at
+the glorious news of the capture, now lifted their hands in horror at
+Rodney's misdeeds. Even his friend Hood was guilty of the meanness of
+charging his comrade with carrying off vast sums of money, and never
+accounting for them. Rodney was recalled to England, where he arrived
+on the 19th of September, 1781, in ill-health, and rather downspirited.
+In December Burke moved the House of Commons for a committee to inquire
+into the affair, but although he pressed the motion with all his powers
+of oratory it was rejected.
+
+Meanwhile the French were turning the tables upon the late victors and
+having their revenge for the disasters which had fallen upon them. This
+led to Rodney being again consulted, with the result that on the 19th of
+February, 1782, he arrived in Barbados with twelve ships of the line.
+This was the most critical period during the whole war. On the 19th of
+October previous, Lord Cornwallis had surrendered to the Americans at
+Yorktown, and this disaster was followed not only by the loss of the
+West Indian captures, but of the British colonies of St. Kitt's, Nevis,
+Montserrat, Dominica, and St. Vincent. It was by the special request of
+the king that Rodney had been again sent out, and before his departure
+he declared that either the French admiral or himself should be
+captured. Lord Sandwich, to impress him the more, on the eve of his
+departure said: "The fate of this Empire is in your hands, and I have no
+wish that it should be in those of any other."
+
+Meanwhile the Count de Grasse was at Martinique, preparing a large fleet
+for the final reduction of the British by conquering Jamaica. He was
+expecting large reinforcements of French vessels and troops, which
+Rodney tried unsuccessfully to cut off. On the 8th of April the French
+were reported as having sailed for Hispaniola, where they were to be
+joined by a Spanish contingent, and Rodney at once sailed in pursuit.
+The result was that, at last, on the 12th, a decisive victory was gained
+off Dominica. Admiral de Grasse was captured, many of his fleet
+destroyed, and the whole expedition broken up. The British West Indies
+were thus saved, and the people of Jamaica erected a statue to the
+gallant admiral. Rodney, in concluding his despatch giving the account,
+said it was his most ardent wish that the British flag should for ever
+float in every part of the globe, and there is no doubt that this
+triumph conduced to such an end. It stands prominently forth as the
+greatest sea fight of the age, and was only eclipsed by those of Nelson,
+who we may state received much of his naval training in the West Indies.
+
+In January, 1783, peace was again restored. Great Britain lost her
+American colonies, restored those she had taken from France and Holland,
+and got back her own, except the island of Tobago, which was ceded to
+France. From Spain she got the right to cut logwood between the rivers
+Hondo and Belize, on the understanding that all other places on the
+coasts of Central America should be abandoned, and that no forts be
+erected on the concession.
+
+For ten years there was peace, and during that time the planting
+colonies were developed to a wonderful extent, while those dependent on
+the contraband traffic became much depressed. The English settlements
+increased in value so much, that in 1788 they were calculated to have
+under cultivation two million and a half acres, with five hundred and
+sixty thousand slaves. These were the palmy days of the slave-trade,
+when the importations leapt up year after year, with a corresponding
+increase in the export of produce. The property was valued at over
+eighty-six millions sterling, Jamaica coming first, but nearly every
+other island flourishing to an extent hardly credible to those who have
+only seen them after their downfall.
+
+What Jamaica was to the English, the western portion of Hispaniola
+became to the French, and even Spain increased her productions, now that
+things had become settled, and treasure seeking less remunerative.
+Altogether, the period from this time, to the end of the century, may be
+considered as the planter's best days, and the "good old times" of which
+we hear so much but find it so difficult to precisely indicate.
+
+On the 1st of February, 1793, peace was again broken by the French
+Convention, the declaration of war being made against England and
+Holland. Thus began that struggle which seemed interminable at the time,
+and which actually lasted twenty-two years. As usual the West Indies
+suffered, but this time they were not quite so much the scene of
+contention as they had been formerly. Tobago was captured from the
+French on the 15th of April, but during the remainder of the year little
+was done. In January, 1794, however, Admiral Sir John Jervis arrived at
+Barbados, and in the following month took Martinique after a severe
+struggle. Then he went on to St. Lucia, which also surrendered, and
+before the end of April Guadeloupe fell. Then came reverses; a French
+fleet arrived, and all were recaptured.
+
+Meanwhile France had invaded Holland, and established a sister republic
+on her own lines, rendering it necessary for the Stadtholder, the Prince
+of Orange, to fly off to England. From Kew, where the king had given him
+a residence, he wrote letters to all the Dutch colonies, asking the
+authorities to place them in the hands of the British, and treat people
+of that nationality as friends and allies. With these despatches British
+fleets were sent to all the possessions of Holland, but only one or two
+obeyed the command, the result being that the others had to be taken by
+force, until hardly a Dutch colony existed in any part of the world.
+
+In October, 1796, Spain joined France on the ground that the British, in
+their operations against the enemy, had injured her in several ways. One
+of the reasons given was so absurd that we can hardly conceive it to
+have been put forth seriously. Great Britain had captured Demerara, and
+this put her in a situation to possess positions of greater importance.
+Spain, however, got nothing by her taking up the quarrel, for her trade
+was absolutely swept from the seas, and communication with America
+almost cut off. This state of things became so troublesome that for the
+first time in her history neutral vessels were permitted to trade in her
+American colonies. She also lost the island of Trinidad, which had
+remained in her possession since the days of Ralegh.
+
+Soon the whole of the West Indies and Spanish Main were virtually under
+the control of Great Britain, little opportunity being given to her
+enemies of crossing the Atlantic. No longer could the Caribbean Sea be
+the scene of the great struggle--the forces of the combatants were
+wanted nearer home. Now again came the harvest of the little island of
+St. Thomas, until Denmark was also numbered among the enemies of the
+"Queen of the Seas." Then the United States came to get her pickings as
+a neutral, which gave such an impetus to her ship-building and commerce,
+that later the seamen trained under such auspices became formidable
+rivals to the British.
+
+The colonists did not altogether dislike this great war. True, freights
+and insurances were very high, but then the prices of produce were high
+also. There was a spice of danger in every voyage, but after all the
+risk was not so very great until the vessels came into the Channel. Then
+there was a convoy to protect them, and they might even get prize money
+by capturing traders of the enemy. Every vessel went armed, and many a
+privateer of the enemy got severely beaten by a gallant body of merchant
+seamen and passengers. This was a glorious time for the British navy,
+but the fleets in the West Indies had little to do after the beginning
+of the war. There was a great disturbance on the island of Hispaniola, a
+riot in Grenada, troubles in the French islands, and a few skirmishes
+here and there, but nothing of much consequence to the British.
+
+There were many small difficulties of course, and the navigation laws
+had to be relaxed generally in favour of neutrals, as otherwise
+provisions would have been scarce. The Dutch were not altogether
+displeased with British rule, for Curaçao, which had not been conquered,
+was captured from its French garrison in 1800, at the request of the
+inhabitants, whose trade had been entirely stopped. Then the Spanish
+colonies came to an arrangement by which much of their produce went
+through British hands, and this prevented the neutrals from getting
+everything.
+
+In 1802 the peace of Amiens gave France a rest for about ten months,
+when she got back her own and the Dutch colonies, leaving Trinidad as an
+addition to those of Great Britain. Hardly, however, had they taken
+possession, when the treaty was broken, and the British were again in
+their midst. A great deal of the work which had been undone by the peace
+had now to be undertaken afresh, but it was ultimately accomplished, so
+that things went on much the same as before.
+
+The year 1805 was notable for Nelson's trip across the Atlantic in
+search of the French fleet, which however fled before him and got back
+to Europe. The same year also saw the heroic defence of "H.M.S." Diamond
+Rock, which however was not a ship, but an improvised fortress, which
+after a long struggle was obliged to capitulate. Hundreds of gallant
+exploits were performed in the West Indies by both English and French,
+and thus the war went on year after year, until it became something to
+be calculated for in commercial transactions. People began to look upon
+it almost as a natural state of things, and fathers told their children
+that they had peace on one occasion long ago for as many as ten years.
+
+The British had undoubtedly become very arrogant. Their position on the
+sea was so supreme that they did much as they pleased with the few
+neutrals. This sort of thing did not suit the North American traders,
+who were Englishmen also, and like their forefathers resented any
+interference whatever. It resulted, therefore, that the United States
+declared war in January, 1813, and made the planters understand what
+took place "when Greek met Greek." Almost immediately every colony was
+pestered and worried by a number of fast-sailing schooners, as dangerous
+in a sense as had once been the fly-boats of the buccaneers. The heavy
+sugar boats going from plantation to port were captured in great
+numbers, and some of the harbours actually blockaded by the "Saucy
+Jack," the "Hornet," and other audacious Yankee craft with names as
+suggestive of their characters. Then, indeed, the West Indies were
+roused from their apathy--war was actually at their doors. However,
+peace came at last, and after 1815 it might be expected that the islands
+would go on prospering and to prosper.
+
+Such, however, was not the case. In 1807 a great difficulty had come
+upon them by the abolition of the slave-trade, which at once put a stop
+to all extensions, either in the way of new plantations or of the
+acreage under cultivation. This was the first great check, and with the
+fall in prices, which ensued when Britain became the consignee of almost
+every settlement, caused a cry of "Ruin!" to arise, which has continued
+with short intermissions down to the present day.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+XII.
+
+DOWNFALL OF HISPANIOLA.
+
+
+Before the abolition of the slave-trade had affected the British islands
+the French colonies were distracted by the results of their great
+revolution. Hispaniola, or rather that portion now known as Hayti, had
+become, as we before said, the most important colony; we must now give
+the story of its downfall. If this had happened by the fortune of war it
+would perhaps not have been so deplorable, but to be utterly ruined as
+it was, until even now, after the lapse of a century, it is behind its
+neighbours, is very sad.
+
+But, in the struggle for existence the straining after liberty has to be
+reckoned with, and although the process causes intense suffering to both
+lord and serf--master and slave--the fight is sure to come at some time
+or other. Miss Martineau uses the title, "The hour and the man," for her
+romance of the liberation of this once flourishing island. The hour had
+come, but we are afraid _the man_ has not yet appeared on Hispaniola.
+
+When the French people took the government from the hands of their king
+and summoned the States General, revolutionary ideas had already come
+to a head, and the matter of slavery received much consideration. In all
+the colonies were numbers of free coloured persons, who had been
+manumitted by their fathers, and in many cases sent to Europe for their
+education. In Paris they were brought into communication with a kind of
+anti-slavery society, called _L'Amis des noirs_, before which they had
+opportunities of ventilating their grievances. These consisted of civil
+disabilities which kept mulattoes in the background, and prevented their
+taking what they believed to be their proper positions in society. The
+time was fitted for such an agitation, the people were there, and it was
+only to be expected that their complaints would come in the long
+catalogue of charges against the aristocrats, among whom were included
+the West Indian planters. However, although there was little sympathy
+with the colonists, nothing particular was done as yet, except the issue
+of the celebrated declaration that all men were born, and continued to
+be, free and equal as to their political rights. It might be said,
+perhaps, that this alone gave freedom to the slave and civil equality to
+the mulatto, but as it did not specially apply to them, little trouble
+ensued. The planters, however, were sufficiently acute to see the
+logical outcome of the declaration, and were correspondingly troubled,
+as they felt that if published among the negroes it might convert them
+into implacable enemies, and bring on dangerous insurrections. They were
+soon pacified, however, by orders to convene provincial assemblies, and
+send representatives to Paris: this they thought would prevent
+mischief, as their interests could be made known and promoted in
+France.
+
+[Illustration: VIEW OF PART OF HISPANIOLA.
+
+(_From Andrews' "West Indies."_)]
+
+The free coloured people soon heard the news, and at once began to claim
+their rights as citizens, which the planters were by no means prepared
+to grant. On this refusal they began to arm themselves, and make
+demonstrations in various parts of Hayti, but at first were easily put
+down by the authorities. As yet there was little ill-feeling; the
+demonstrations were only alarming from their significance and their
+possible consequences. It followed, therefore, that little was done
+beyond a demand for submission, the mulattoes being allowed to disperse
+on promising to keep the peace. A few whites, however, who had been
+leaders in the agitation, were severely punished, and when a certain
+Mons. Dubois not only advocated the claims of the coloured people, but
+the slaves as well, he was banished from the colony.
+
+Mons. de Beaudierre, a _ci-devant_ magistrate, also helped to add to the
+trouble. He was enamoured of a coloured woman, who owned a valuable
+plantation, and wanted to marry her, but at the same time wished to see
+her free from all civil disabilities. Accordingly he drew up a memorial
+to the committee of his section, claiming for the mulattoes the full
+benefit of the national declaration of rights. This roused the
+authorities, who at once arrested him, but so strong was the feeling of
+the whites that they took the prisoner from gaol and put him to death.
+
+The agitation in Hayti as well as in Martinique led to petitions and
+remonstrances to the National Assembly, and on the 8th of March, 1790,
+the majority voted that it was never intended to comprehend the internal
+government of the colonies in the constitution of the mother country, or
+to subject them to laws incompatible with their local conditions. They
+therefore authorised the inhabitants of each colony to signify their
+wishes, and promised that, as long as the plans suggested were
+conformable to the mutual interests of the colonies and the metropolis,
+they would not cause any innovations.
+
+This of course raised a clamour among the friends of the blacks and
+mulattoes, who considered it as sanctioning the slave-trade, which they
+wanted to put down. In Hayti the General Assembly met and made some
+radical changes, which were opposed by many of the old colonists, and
+this brought discord among the whites. The Governor dissolved the
+Assembly, but this only brought more trouble, for the subordinate
+Western body took the part of the General Assembly, and went so far that
+the Governor tried to suppress it by force. But the members put
+themselves under the protection of the national guard who resisted the
+troops sent against them, and after a short skirmish drove them off.
+Thus all authority was put at defiance by the whites, when if they
+wanted to keep down the coloured and black people, it was of the
+greatest consequence that union should exist. The General Convention
+called the colony to arms, but, before actually commencing hostilities,
+they resolved to proceed to France, and lay the whole matter before the
+Convention. Accordingly to the number of eighty-five they sailed on the
+8th of August, 1790, the authorities also agreeing to await the result.
+
+Among the coloured residents in France was a young man named James Ogé,
+the son of a mulatto woman by a white man, whose mother owned a coffee
+plantation. He was a regular attendant at the meetings of the friends of
+the blacks, where, under such men as Lafayette and Robespierre, he had
+been initiated into the doctrine of the equal rights of men. On hearing
+of the vote of non-interference with the colonies, Ogé, maddened by the
+thought that the civil disabilities of people of his colour would be
+continued, resolved to go himself to Hayti. He was confident that the
+people there would join him, and going out by way of the United States
+he obtained there a good supply of arms, with which he arrived in
+October of the same year.
+
+Six weeks after his arrival he wrote to the Governor, demanding that all
+the privileges of the whites should be extended to every other person,
+without distinction. As representing the coloured people he made this
+request, and if their wrongs were not at once redressed, he said, they
+were prepared to take up arms. He had already been joined by his two
+brothers, and they were busy calling upon their friends to insist,
+assuring them that France approved of their claim. But with all his
+efforts he could get but few followers, the same difficulty cropping up
+here as in most of the slave insurrections--a want of the power of
+combination under one of their own race. However, he at last got
+together two hundred, and, receiving no answer from the Governor, they
+commenced a series of raids on the plantations. Ogé cautioned them
+against bloodshed, but the first white man that fell into their hands
+was murdered, and others soon met with the same fate. Even mulattoes,
+who refused to join the insurgents, were treated the same way; one man
+who pointed to his wife and six children, as a reason for his refusal,
+being murdered with them.
+
+The Governor now sent out a body of troops and militia to suppress the
+revolt, with the result that Ogé was defeated, and obliged to take
+refuge with the remnant of his followers in the Spanish colony of St.
+Domingo. The whites were now roused, and began to cry out for vengeance
+upon the coloured people in general, whether they had sympathised with
+Ogé or not. In self-defence they had to take up arms in several places,
+but by conciliation on the part of the authorities a general
+insurrection was averted for the time. A new Governor now arrived, and
+one of his first acts was to demand the extradition of Ogé by the
+Spaniards, which, being done, he was executed by breaking alive upon the
+wheel. In his last confession he is said to have stated that a plot was
+then hatching for the destruction of all the whites, but little notice
+was taken of this information. The whites believed that now the leader
+was dead things would go on in the old way, but, unfortunately for them,
+they were mistaken.
+
+Meanwhile the delegates had arrived in France, where they were
+honourably received. After an interview with a Committee of the
+Convention, however, they were informed that their decrees were
+reversed, the Haytian Assembly dissolved, and they themselves under
+arrest. This, when the news reached the colony, put the whites into a
+state of consternation, and for awhile it appeared as if Hayti would be
+the scene of a civil war. Captain Mauduit, who had led the force against
+the assembly, was murdered by his own troops, and preparations were made
+to resist the authorities.
+
+The planters thought these arbitrary measures of France very oppressive,
+but they had yet to learn how far the revolutionists might go. In May,
+1791, the matter of equal rights for the coloured people came up before
+the National Convention, and their claim was strongly advocated by
+Robespierre and others. It was now that the words, "Perish the colonies
+rather than sacrifice one of our principles," were uttered by that
+bloodthirsty revolutionist, to afterwards become a stock quotation of
+the extremist in every country. The result of the discussion was the
+decree of May the 15th, that the people of colour resident in the French
+colonies, and born of free parents, should be allowed all the privileges
+of French citizens; to have votes, and be eligible for election to the
+parochial and colonial assemblies.
+
+This brought on a crisis in Hayti. The coloured people were determined
+to obtain their rights, and the planters equally resolved that they
+should remain as before. The Governor was so much alarmed that he at
+once sent to France for further assistance, at the same time asking for
+the suspension of the obnoxious decree. Hearing of this, the mulattoes
+began to assemble and take up arms, and the Governor hardly dared to
+take action pending the result of his application.
+
+On the morning of the 23rd of August, 1791, the people of Cape François
+were alarmed by reports that the slaves in the neighbourhood were in
+open revolt, plundering the plantations and murdering the whites. The
+disturbance had commenced with the hewing in pieces of a young white
+apprentice on Pin. Noé, which murder was followed by a general massacre
+of every white man, except the surgeon, who was spared that he might
+become useful. From one estate to another the revolt spread, until the
+whole neighbourhood was a scene of murder, fire, and rapine. The white
+townspeople put their women and children on board the ships, and then
+united for a stubborn defence, but the coloured men wanted to remain
+neutral. This roused such a strong feeling that even at that critical
+time the whites had to be prevented by the authorities from murdering
+the mulattoes. By thus protecting the mulattoes their good-will was
+gained, and they volunteered to go out against the rebels.
+
+Amidst the glare of a hundred conflagrations a strong body of men was
+collected and sent against the negroes. They defeated one body of four
+hundred, but accessions were continually made to the side of the rebels,
+until their overpowering numbers compelled the whites to retreat, and do
+their best to save the town. The revolt had been continually spreading,
+and now extended over the whole country, coloured people joining the
+negroes in their work of destruction. One planter was nailed to a gate,
+and then had his limbs cut off, one after another; a carpenter was sawn
+asunder, on the ground that this mode of execution suited his trade; and
+two mulatto sons killed their white father, notwithstanding his prayers
+and promises. White, and even coloured children, were killed without
+mercy at the breasts of their mothers, and young women were violated
+before the eyes of their parents. Here and there the horror was relieved
+by kind actions on the part of faithful slaves, who, while joining in
+the revolt for their own safety, saved their masters and mistresses.
+
+The inhabitants of the town did all they could by sorties, but this was
+very little. The rebels would run away at the first onset, but only to
+return in overpowering numbers. A few were taken and broken on the
+wheel, others fell in the skirmishes, but the insurrection still went
+on. It spread to the neighbourhood of Port au Prince, but, on the
+inhabitants of that town agreeing to enforce the obnoxious decree, the
+rebels retired. This action was at last followed by those of Cape
+François, and a partial truce ensued. In two months, it was said, a
+thousand plantations were destroyed, and ten thousand blacks and two
+thousand whites killed.
+
+The news of this great disaster caused a revulsion of feeling in Paris,
+and the decree which had caused so much trouble was annulled on the 24th
+of September, before the results of the insurrection and the truces were
+known. The arrangement had been come to at Port au Prince on the 11th of
+the same month, and on the 20th at Cape François. Thus almost at the
+time when it was being repealed the colonists were promising to see it
+enforced.
+
+It is hardly necessary to say what could be the only result of the
+arrival of this revocation. The struggle was renewed, and all hopes of
+reconciliation were at an end. The coloured party charged the whites
+with treachery and duplicity; now they would fight until one or the
+other was exterminated. They captured Port St. Louis, but got a severe
+repulse from Port au Prince. Both sides were desperate, and although
+there were fewer massacres in cold blood the rebels fell in thousands.
+But as they were so numerous this slaughter made little impression.
+Even when the prisoners were tortured with a refinement of cruelty
+hardly credible, no good resulted from such examples. The time for all
+that had passed, yet the whites nailed one poor mulatto by the feet in a
+cart, and had him driven round the neighbourhood as a spectacle, before
+breaking him on the wheel.
+
+In January, 1792, three commissioners arrived from France to attempt a
+reconciliation, which they commenced by publishing the decree revoking
+the rights of the coloured people. Then they proclaimed a general
+amnesty for all who should surrender within a given time. Such utter
+ignorance as was thus shown has hardly been equalled in any age; we can
+only ascribe it to the fact that the scum had risen to the top. The
+mulattoes were roused to fury, and the whites equally exasperated. At
+Petit Goave the rebels held thirty-four white prisoners, and at once
+they were brought forth to be broken on the wheel, previous to which the
+proclamation of amnesty was read to them, their executioners mockingly
+claiming it as a pardon for the cruelties they were exercising.
+
+This sort of thing, however, could not go on very long. Most of the
+plantations and provision grounds had been destroyed, and both parties
+felt the want of food. Unless something were done they would all be
+starved; for without means of buying supplies even the whites could
+hardly exist, while the blacks did nothing to raise further crops in
+place of those they had eaten or destroyed. France again made an attempt
+to put matters straight by declaring, on the 4th of April, 1792, that
+the people of colour and free negroes ought to enjoy equal political
+rights with other citizens. New assemblies were to be called, in the
+election of which they should be allowed to vote; a new Governor of
+Hayti was appointed, and new commissioners sent out to inquire into the
+whole matter.
+
+The Governor and the commission arrived at Cape François on the 13th of
+September, and finding everything in confusion, they sent the late
+administrator to France as a prisoner, and called a new assembly. Then
+the commissioners put themselves in communication with the rebels, which
+made the whites think them about to emancipate the slaves. This was
+followed by a dispute between them and the Governor, and the appointment
+of yet another head, who arrived in May, 1793. He refused to recognise
+the commissioners, but they were not so easily set aside, for having the
+whole power of the colony under control, they took possession of Port au
+Prince, Jacmel, and Cape François, afterwards ordering the Governor to
+leave. This led to another war, in which the coloured rebels and even
+negroes were utilised by the commissioners, who thus, in a way,
+sanctioned the revolt. Similar atrocities to those formerly enacted were
+renewed, and again the colony was distracted in every part.
+
+The ruined planters now lost all hope, and began to leave for the United
+States, Jamaica, and other colonies. Some went to England, especially
+those Royalists who attributed all their disasters to the revolution.
+Here they began to urge the British to conquer Hayti, although as yet
+war had not been declared with France. In September, 1793, an
+expedition was sent from Jamaica, and on its arrival at Jeremie the
+British were apparently welcomed by the whites. But the colony was so
+utterly distracted that little could be done, and although they took
+Port au Prince they were repulsed at Cape Tiberon. Then sickness fell
+upon them--"Yellow Jack"--and this, with the delay of reinforcements,
+made all prospects of success quite hopeless. With a foreign enemy at
+hand the commissioners did all they could to reconcile the parties, and
+to this end, just before the landing of the British, proclaimed complete
+emancipation of all the slaves, which was ratified in Paris on the 4th
+of February, 1794. This brought the whole body of rebels together, and
+the position of the enemy became untenable. Finally came the cession of
+the Spanish part of the island to France, and now it might be supposed
+that something could be done to restore peace.
+
+This repulse of the British was greatly due to the influence of a very
+remarkable personage, Toussaint L'Ouverture, a pure negro, and lately a
+slave. He had joined the revolt from its commencement, and had succeeded
+in gaining such an influence over his race as had hitherto been unknown
+in any slave insurrection. As soon as the general emancipation had been
+declared, he was so grateful that he joined the French, heart and soul,
+drove out the British, put down the mulattoes, and was appointed
+Commander-in-chief of the united forces. In 1801 he became virtually
+Dictator of the whole island, and was made President for life, with the
+result that many plantations were re-established, and the colony was
+making slow progress towards recovery.
+
+Napoleon Buonaparte has been much lauded for his diplomacy, but he
+certainly knew nothing of the West Indies. After the peace of Amiens he
+had a little time to look after the colonies, and Hayti was among the
+first to receive attention. Toussaint was then almost at the height of
+his power, and had prepared a Constitution which was laid before
+Napoleon, on reading which the First Consul said it was an outrage on
+the honour of France, and the work of a revolted slave, whom they must
+punish. It was true that the black President was virtually independent.
+He lived in the palace at St. Domingo, and, with his councillors of all
+colours, enacted the part of a little sovereign. To crown his audacity,
+he, in July, 1801, proclaimed the independence of the island, and
+himself as supreme chief.
+
+This roused the anger of Napoleon, who retaliated by a proclamation
+re-establishing slavery in the island--a measure so foolish that even
+the planters themselves saw the impossibility of carrying it out. To
+reduce the negroes again to servitude was utterly impossible, even with
+all the power France could then bring into the island. However, it was
+attempted with a force of thirty thousand men and sixty-six ships of
+war. When this immense fleet arrived at Cape François the town was
+commanded by the negro Christophe, who, finding himself unable to cope
+with such a force, burnt the palace and withdrew. The French landed and
+sent two sons of Toussaint, who had been sent to France for their
+education, and to whom they had given a passage to their father,
+bearing a letter from Napoleon, offering him great honours if he would
+declare his allegiance. All that Toussaint said in reply was that he
+would be faithful to his brethren and his God, and with that he allowed
+his sons to return.
+
+As yet the declaration that slavery was to be re-established had not
+been published, and the negroes were working the plantations on a share
+of the crop, with penalties for idleness. The French tried to put the
+negroes against Toussaint, in which they succeeded to some extent, the
+result being that civil war was renewed, and that the power of the black
+chieftain was broken. Then the general thought it time to issue the
+proclamation, which fell upon his negro allies like a thunder-clap, and
+made them again rally round Toussaint. Thus almost everything which had
+been gained was utterly and for ever lost.
+
+Now the French tried a little double-dealing. The general stated in a
+new proclamation that ignorance had led him hastily to fall into error,
+and that to prevent anything of the same kind, and to provide for the
+future welfare and liberty of all, he convened an assembly of
+representatives of all the inhabitants, regardless of colour. This won
+over the leaders, and finally peace was concluded with Toussaint. The
+fallen president wished to retire to his estate and into private life,
+but having been cordially invited to meet the general to discuss with
+him the welfare of the colony, he was seized at the interview and put on
+board a French frigate, which immediately sailed for France. Here he
+was imprisoned for life without trial, and finally allowed to starve by
+withholding food and water for four days.
+
+The negroes again rose, and the soldiers were by this time so weakened
+by yellow fever, which even carried off the Governor, that little could
+be done against the rebels. Yet everything possible was attempted.
+Bloodhounds were brought from Cuba to worry the rebels to death; they
+were shot and taken into the sea to be drowned in strings. Dessalines
+had now become their leader, and on the 29th of November, 1803, he with
+Christophe and Clervaux, the other rebel chiefs, issued the St. Domingo
+declaration of independence. Restored to their primitive dignity the
+black and coloured people proclaimed their rights, and swore never to
+yield them to any power on earth. "The frightful veil of prejudice is
+torn to pieces, and is so for ever; woe be to whomsoever would dare
+again to put together its bloody tatters." The landholders were not
+forbidden to return if they renounced their old errors and acknowledged
+the justice of the cause for which the blacks had been spilling their
+blood for twelve years. As for those who affected to believe themselves
+destined by Heaven to be masters and tyrants, if they came it would be
+to meet chains or to be quickly expelled. They had sworn not to listen
+to clemency for those who dared to speak of the restoration of slavery.
+Nothing was too costly a sacrifice for liberty, and every means was
+lawful to employ against those who wished to suppress it. Were they to
+cause rivers and torrents of blood to flow--were they to fire half the
+globe to maintain it--they would be innocent before the tribunal of
+Providence.
+
+This declaration was followed on the 30th of March, 1804, by an address
+of Dessalines, in which he said that everything that reminded them of
+France also reminded them of the cruelties of Frenchmen. There still
+remained, he said, Frenchmen on their island--creatures, alas! of their
+indulgence; when would they be tired of breathing the same air? Their
+cruelty, when compared with the patient moderation of the blacks--their
+difference in colour--everything said that they were not brothers, and
+would never become so. If they continued to find an asylum, troubles and
+dissensions would be sure to continue. "Citizens, inhabitants of Hayti,
+men, women, girls, children, cast your eyes upon each point of the
+island! Seek in it, you, your wives; you, your husbands; you, your
+sisters!" Their ashes were in the grave, and they had not avenged their
+deaths. Let the blacks learn that they had done nothing if they did not
+give the nations a terrible but just example of the vengeance of a brave
+people, who had recovered liberty, and were jealous to maintain it.
+
+They were again roused, and from the 29th of April to the 14th of May an
+indiscriminate massacre of the whites took place, as many as 2,500 being
+killed during the fifteen days. On the 28th of April Dessalines issued a
+manifesto congratulating them on their success. At length, he said, the
+hour of vengeance had arrived, and the implacable enemies of the rights
+of man had suffered the punishment due to their crimes. His arm had too
+long delayed to strike, but at the signal, which the justice of God had
+urged, they had brought the axe to bear upon the ancient tree of slavery
+and prejudice. In vain had time and the infernal politics of Europe
+surrounded it with triple brass. They had become, like their natural
+enemies, cruel and merciless. Like a mighty torrent their vengeful fury
+had carried away everything in its impetuous course. "Thus perish all
+tyrants over innocence and all oppressors of mankind!" Where was that
+evil and unworthy Haytian who thought he had not accomplished the
+decrees of the Eternal by exterminating those bloodthirsty tigers? "If
+there be one, let him fly--indignant nature discards him from our
+bosom--let him hide his shame far from hence! The air we breathe is not
+suited to his gross organs--it is the pure air of liberty, august and
+triumphant." Yes, they had rendered war for war, crime for crime,
+outrage for outrage. He had saved his country--he had avenged America.
+He made this avowal in the face of earth and heaven--it was his pride
+and glory. Black and yellow, whom the duplicity of Europeans had
+endeavoured to divide, now made but one family--he advised them to
+maintain that precious concord and happy harmony. In order to strengthen
+the tie let them call to remembrance the catalogue of atrocities--the
+abominable project of massacring the whole population, unblushingly
+proposed to him by the French authorities. Let that nation which was mad
+enough to attack him, come--let them bring their cohorts of homicides.
+He would allow them to land, but woe to those who approached the
+mountains! "Never again shall a colonist or a European set his foot
+upon this territory with the title of master or proprietor."
+
+On the 8th of October the writer of these bloodthirsty addresses was
+crowned as Jacques the First, Emperor of Hayti.
+
+In 1808 an attempt was made on the part of Spain to regain her old
+colony on the eastern part of the island, where France still maintained
+a nominal supremacy. Spain was now an ally of Great Britain, and, with
+the aid of British troops, she took St. Domingo and retained this part
+of the island until 1821, when a revolution took place and it became
+independent, to be almost immediately united with its sister republic.
+
+Meanwhile the Emperor Jacques did not long enjoy his throne in peace,
+for he was murdered by his coloured soldiers on the 17th of October,
+1806. A republic followed, under the presidency of General Petion, who
+was at the head of the mulattoes, but did not agree with the blacks.
+This led to a division, the north, with Cape François as the capital,
+coming into the hands of the negro Christophe, who got himself crowned
+as the Emperor Henry the First; the southern district, with Port au
+Prince, forming a republic under President Petion.
+
+Henry was a man of good common sense, but like most negroes, much
+inclined to ape the whites. One of his toasts at a dinner was
+characteristic: "My brother, the king of Great Britain, and may he be
+successful against Buonaparte, and continue the barrier between that
+tyrant and this kingdom." He created a legion of honour, called the
+Order of St. Henry, built a palace, and began to acquire a fleet; he
+gave balls and encouraged operas, had a great seal, gave titles of
+nobility, and procured a set of regalia and jewels, with velvet robes
+and all other appendages of royalty. Under his rule the country
+flourished, for he would have no idlers. Yet he was a tyrant, and at
+last, in 1820, he was attacked by his own guard, and committed suicide
+to prevent falling into their hands. President Boyer, who had succeeded
+Petion, now took advantage of the confusion to incorporate the two
+districts, and two years later he added the revolted Spanish portion,
+thus bringing the whole island under one rule, the presidency of which
+he held for twenty-two years.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+XIII.
+
+EMANCIPATION OF THE SPANISH MAIN.
+
+
+The influence of the French Revolution was felt in most of the other
+islands, but nowhere did it lead to such disasters as befel Hispaniola.
+In 1795 there was an insurrection in the island of Grenada, where the
+coloured people, under French influence, nearly drove the English out of
+the colony. Even when defeated they held their own in the mountains for
+about a year, committing many atrocities on the whites who fell into
+their hands. In most of the French islands there were insurrections more
+or less dangerous, some of which were put down by the British
+conquerors, who thus helped to keep the peace. It could not be expected,
+however, that small places like Martinique and Guadeloupe would ever
+have made such stubborn resistance as the great island of Hispaniola.
+
+A very great impression was made on the Spanish colonies, who during the
+war, owing to the distracted condition of the mother country, attained
+to a degree of freedom hitherto beyond their reach. This led to
+unfavourable comparisons between past and present, and the feeling that
+grew up was fomented by the British, who now had many opportunities
+from the measure of free trade which resulted from the peculiar
+circumstances of that period. Secret societies were then common all over
+Europe, and in Spain they were not wanting. In the early years of this
+century one of the most energetic members was Francisco Miranda, a
+native of Caracas, who had been a soldier under Washington, and had
+distinguished himself by his prominence in many of the revolutionary
+projects of the time. He was the prime organiser of the Creoles of South
+America, and under his auspices the "Gran Reunion Americana" was founded
+in London. Bolivar and San Martin were initiated into this society, and
+took its oath to fight for the emancipation of South America. Miranda
+did his best to ensure the co-operation of Great Britain and the United
+States, but failing in this, determined to get up one or more
+insurrections without their assistance.
+
+On the 27th of March, 1806, he sailed with three vessels and two hundred
+men from Jacmel, Hayti, and on the 11th of April arrived at the Dutch
+island of Aruba, from whence the little company proceeded to Puerto
+Cabello. The demonstration, however, was nipped in the bud, for two of
+his vessels being almost immediately captured by the Spaniards, Miranda
+was obliged to fly in the other to Barbados. Here he met Admiral
+Cochrane, with whom he entered into an arrangement for British
+assistance. Conceiving that it might be mutually advantageous to Great
+Britain and the Spanish provinces that the latter should be freed from
+the yoke of Spain, the admiral agreed to support him in a descent on
+Venezuela, between the coasts opposite Trinidad and Aruba. The only
+stipulation was for free trade with Great Britain as against her
+enemies, and with that Miranda went off to Trinidad.
+
+Here he hoped to gain recruits from among the Spanish people of the
+island, to whom he issued an address. The glorious opportunity, he said,
+presented itself of relieving from oppression and arbitrary government a
+people who were worthy of a better fate, but who were shackled by a
+despotism too cruel for human nature longer to endure. Groaning under
+their afflictions they hailed with extended arms the noble cause of
+freedom and independence, and called upon them to share the God-like
+action of relieving them.
+
+This stirring address made little impression, and consequently few
+followers were enrolled. However, he got eight armed vessels and two
+traders, and sailed from Trinidad on the 25th of July, 1806, for Coro on
+the Main. The fort and city were taken, but the people, instead of
+joyfully welcoming their deliverers, ran away and could not be induced
+to return. Miranda, finding the place untenable, went over to Aruba, of
+which he took possession as a basis for further operations. But the
+British authorities looked upon his scheme as impracticable, especially
+as it tended to injure their trade, and in November Miranda was
+compelled to disband his little company of less than three hundred at
+Trinidad.
+
+The time for a revolution had not yet arrived, but it was fast
+approaching. It could not be expected that Great Britain would assist
+filibustering against her ally, which Spain now became, and without some
+outside assistance Miranda found it impossible to do anything. However,
+the people themselves were at last aroused, and on the 19th of April,
+1810, the city of Caracas deposed the captain-general and appointed a
+Junta to rule in the name of the king. This body invited the other
+provinces to join and form a league for mutual protection against the
+French, who now had virtual possession of the mother country. Other
+provinces took the Government side and prepared to suppress the revolt,
+which led Caracas to ask the assistance of Great Britain and the United
+States.
+
+Among the Venezuelans was Simon Bolivar, who afterwards became the most
+important personage in the struggle for independence. Like Miranda, he
+was a native of South America, and like him had imbibed revolutionary
+ideas in Paris. He was a planter, and had taken no part in the overthrow
+of the captain-general, but from his principles being well known, he was
+appointed with others to proceed to London in the interests of the
+Junta. On their arrival they were answered cautiously, the authorities
+not wishing to commit themselves under the circumstances. Here Bolivar
+met Miranda, and took the oath of the "Gran Reunion," promising to work
+for the independence of South America, notwithstanding his nominal
+position as an advocate of the king of Spain against Napoleon.
+
+Meanwhile the Spanish Regency had proclaimed the leaders of the movement
+to be rebels, declaring war against them and blockading their ports.
+The Central Junta responded by raising an army, which was defeated with
+considerable loss at Coro and had to retire on Caracas. This caused some
+discouragement, but Miranda now arrived, was welcomed with an ovation,
+and appointed lieutenant-general of the army. He was also asked to draw
+up a constitution and to become one of the deputies at the first
+congress of Venezuela to be held in March, 1811.
+
+[Illustration: LA GUAYRA ON THE MAIN.
+
+(_From Andrews' "West Indies."_)]
+
+No longer was there any question of the French, the struggle was for
+entire independence. A civil war began, which raged with varying
+fortunes for twelve years, in the course of which were enacted scenes
+more worthy of the days of buccaneers than the beginning of the
+nineteenth century. In 1812 Caracas was destroyed by an earthquake, and
+in another locality perished the greater portion of a thousand men,
+marching against the Spaniards. It was reported that those provinces
+where the revolution had most influence suffered greatest, while those
+more loyal almost escaped. This was due to the fact that the mountainous
+region, in which Caracas is situated, felt the full effect of the
+earthquake, but the priests, who were mostly loyalists, told the
+ignorant peasantry that it was a judgment on the Patriots. The result
+was that large bodies deserted, until the whole Patriot army became
+disorganised. Miranda was captured and sent to Spain, where he died in
+prison in 1816, but Bolivar managed to escape.
+
+New Granada had revolted before Venezuela and was more successful. It
+was to this province that Bolivar retired after the downfall of the
+Patriot cause in Venezuela. Then the Spanish captain-general,
+Monteverde, who was called "the Pacificator," commenced his work by
+imprisoning so many Patriots that the gaols were choked, and many died
+of hunger and suffocation. In the country districts he let his troops
+ravage and plunder like hordes of banditti. Even his superiors were at
+length compelled to recall him on account of the numerous complaints and
+petitions. At last the people were again fairly roused, until there came
+a war of extermination, in which both parties tried to outvie the other
+in murder and rapine.
+
+Off the peninsula of Paria lay the small island of Chacachacare, and on
+it forty-five fugitives took refuge, where they consulted as to the
+renewal of the war. With only six muskets and some pistols, they landed
+on the coast on the 13th of March, 1813, surprised the guard of Güiria,
+took their arms and marched into the town, where they were joined by the
+garrison, making their number two hundred. Thus began the second war, in
+which the Patriots, assisted by the return of Bolivar and a body of
+troops from New Granada, again took possession of a large part of the
+province. On the 15th of June Bolivar proclaimed extermination to the
+Royalists, and named the year, the third of independence and first of
+the war to the death. This severity created many enemies in Venezuela,
+as well as in other countries, and even Bolivar himself afterwards said
+that the proclamation had been issued in a delirium. However, the result
+was that both sides became more ferocious than ever, especially when the
+Indians were induced to join the Patriots.
+
+On the 6th of August Bolivar entered Caracas in triumph. The bells rang,
+cannons roared, and the people cheered him as their liberator. His path
+was strewn with flowers, blessings were called down upon his head, and
+beautiful girls, dressed in white and the national colours, led his
+horse and crowned him with laurel. The prison doors were opened, the
+Patriots set free, and, in spite of his proclamation, no act of
+retaliation sullied his triumph. Two days later he re-established the
+republic and proclaimed himself Dictator as well as liberator.
+
+There were now two Dictators in Venezuela, Marino in the east and
+Bolivar in the west, but the Spaniards were by no means conquered.
+Bolivar published another decree on the 6th of September, that all
+Americans who were even suspected of being Royalists were traitors to
+their country, and should be treated as such. Ten days later twelve
+thousand men arrived from Spain, and Bolivar, who had been besieging
+Puerto Cabello, was forced to retire. This encouraged the Royalists, who
+got the llaneros of the Orinoco on their side by promises of freedom to
+kill and plunder in the cause of the king, and threats of punishing by
+death all who disregarded the call to arms.
+
+Bolivar was captain-general, but he shared his power with Marino, the
+rights of both resting on force alone. To put an end to this, an
+assembly of notables was convened at Caracas, to whom he resigned his
+office, and then accepted it again at their request. But the Patriots,
+even when united, were as yet unable to stand before the Spanish army,
+and very shortly afterwards their flag was only visible on the island
+of Margarita. Bolivar again took refuge in New Granada, where he was
+elected captain-general, and entitled Liberator and Illustrious
+Pacificator. He, however, quarrelled with the Governor of Carthagena,
+and was forced to fly to Jamaica, saying before his departure that
+Carthagena preferred her own destruction to obedience to the federal
+government.
+
+In 1815, after the great peace, Marshal Morillo came out with 10,600 men
+selected from the army that had fought against Napoleon. He was to
+reduce the whole of the Main from Spanish Guiana to Darien, dealing
+first with Margarita. In the course of a year he did this, committing
+such atrocities as made his name a byword over the whole of South
+America. In the siege of Carthagena, which lasted about three months,
+the Patriots suffered greatly, hundreds dying of starvation; but at
+last, on the 6th of December, 1815, it was captured. An amnesty was
+proclaimed, but in spite of that four hundred old men, women, and
+children who surrendered were all killed, while most of the stronger men
+who survived managed to escape.
+
+The remnant of the Patriots was now scattered over the country as
+guerillas, and while Morillo was subduing New Granada a fresh signal for
+a general revolt was given. The Royalist Governor, in November, 1815,
+ordered the arrest of Arismendi, who had been pardoned, and at once the
+Margaritans rose, took possession of a part of the island, captured the
+fort, and killed the whole garrison. At the same time the guerillas
+united under Paez, who now came to the front as a llanero and leader of
+his class. Thus the struggle was resumed with all its former virulence.
+
+Bolivar, when he heard of the fall of Carthagena, went over to
+Hispaniola to meet President Petion, who was an ardent supporter of the
+revolution. Here he received assistance of arms and money, with which he
+began to fit out an expedition to recover his lost position. There were
+many refugees from the Main on that island, but they were not altogether
+friendly with the late Dictator, however Petion managed to secure their
+co-operation. It followed, therefore, that on the 16th of March, 1816,
+three hundred Patriots left for Margarita, where they captured two
+Spanish vessels and united with their fellow-countrymen under Arismendi.
+Going over to the Main they soon got together a powerful force which
+overran the whole country and ultimately achieved its independence.
+
+But before this happened the Patriots met with many reverses. Sometimes
+it appeared as if they would be utterly exterminated; then the tide
+turned in their favour and they were again successful. The country was
+devastated by both parties, until cultivation was abandoned in many
+districts. Provisions for the armies were often unattainable, and this
+drove the soldiers to plunder wherever there was an opportunity, no
+matter that the sufferers were of their own party.
+
+The struggle was watched with sympathy by the people of England, and
+Canning went so far as to make a declaration of neutrality favourable to
+the Patriots. Then came a systematic attempt to raise British
+volunteers, and, as there were many officers and men who had been
+disbanded since the great peace, a considerable force was raised.
+Carried away by enthusiasm they would hear nothing of the difficulties
+and dangers they had to encounter, but rushed to fight in the ranks of a
+people striving to liberate themselves from the grossest oppression. The
+country was represented as a perfect paradise, and the officers were
+promised grants of land in this delightful Eden, while the men had
+offers of double the pay of the British army. A similar call was also
+made in Germany with good results, and it was expected that what with
+the British Legion and this other contingent the result would be no
+longer doubtful.
+
+On their arrival at Margarita, however, they at once began to perceive
+that poverty reigned everywhere, and that no provision whatever had been
+made for them. The Patriots foraged for themselves, and anything like a
+commissariat was virtually unknown; but British soldiers were not
+accustomed to such a state of things. Then the food supply was at the
+best only live cattle, which they had to kill for themselves, cassava
+bread, and a few roots such as yams. The rations were so irregular, that
+one or two days would pass without any supply whatever, and this
+ultimately led to complaints and something like a mutiny, which was put
+down with the "cat."
+
+After some delay the British Legion was sent on to the Main, where they
+were worse off than in Margarita. Instead of welcoming them, the
+Patriots seemed to be jealous, and did not even give them the
+opportunity of fighting as they wished. When posted before Cumaná they
+were exposed to the burning sun and drenching rains, without tents or
+any other shelter; their drinking water was stagnant and brackish, and
+for rations had only a pound of beef per day for each man, from oxen
+which they had to butcher. They were also greatly shocked at the
+enormities of the Patriots, who carried on the struggle in a manner
+suggestive of the Middle Ages rather than modern days. Prisoners were
+indiscriminately massacred, their murderers enjoying the work as if it
+were a recreation. It is true that in the then condition of the country
+large bodies of prisoners could neither be fed nor guarded; still the
+British could not but feel that the cause they had joined was not
+altogether what it had been represented. Want of proper food led to
+sickness, and soon they became quite broken down. Many died of fever and
+dysentery, some deserted and got away as best they could, the general
+result being that little benefit was derived from the British Legion by
+Venezuela.
+
+If such was the experience of the foreigners, what must have been that
+of the Patriots? They were certainly more used to the country and its
+food, and therefore suffered less from sickness; but this advantage was
+lost when it came to actual starvation. With the men engaged in the
+struggle, only the women and children were left to cultivate enough
+cassava to keep body and soul together. Even this little was often
+stolen by a foraging party, who did not hesitate to murder the whole
+family if any objection was made. Fugitives, if not cut off, made their
+way in canoes to Trinidad and Demerara, often arriving almost dead from
+the privations they had endured. Delicate Spanish ladies and little
+children sometimes arrived--their pitiable condition causing an outflow
+of sympathy from the planters, and a feeling of detestation for their
+persecutors.
+
+At the commencement of the year 1820 the Columbian Republic had become
+an accomplished fact, and on the 25th of November an armistice was
+concluded between Morillo and Bolivar, which virtually ended the
+struggle. The United States had looked upon it with favour, and
+Lafayette in France said that opposition to the independence of the New
+World would only cause suffering, but not imperil the idea. In 1823 the
+celebrated Monroe doctrine was formulated, and Canning said in the same
+year that the battle was won and Spanish America was free.
+
+Central America had not suffered like Venezuela and New Granada. From
+Mexico to Panama was the old captain-generalship of Guatemala, but
+little interest was taken in the province, Spain leaving it almost
+entirely in the hands of the Catholic Missions. It was not until
+Columbia had gained her independence that Guatemala moved in the same
+direction, although there were slight disturbances in Costa Rica and
+Nicaragua from 1813 to 1815. At first there was a project to found a
+kingdom, but this gave way to the proposal for union with Mexico under
+the Emperor Iturbide, which was carried out, but did not last long. In
+1823 Central America established a Federal Republic, and at once
+abolished slavery and declared the slave-trade to be piracy--a decision
+to which the other revolted colonies came about the same time.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+XIV.
+
+ABOLITION OF SLAVERY.
+
+
+Negro slavery, although it formed the sinews and backbone of the
+plantations, was, as we have seen, considered unjust by the French
+republicans and immoral by a large section of the benevolent in Great
+Britain and the United States. In both countries the Society of Friends,
+or Quakers, commenced to influence public opinion against its
+continuance as early as about 1770, and had it not been for the French
+Revolution it is probable that emancipation would have taken place early
+in this century. The premature and inconsiderate action of the French in
+Hayti lost to France her most valuable plantation, for some years giving
+such an example of what might happen were emancipation to be granted
+elsewhere, that those in favour of the system could always point to it
+with the finger of warning. Yet with all that the friends of the slave
+were undaunted; and as a beginning, in 1807, they procured the abolition
+of the slave-trade as far as Great Britain and her colonies were
+concerned, and then went on to get the traffic prohibited by other
+nations. Denmark had led the van by declaring it unlawful as early as
+1792, but little impression was made until the nation most concerned
+took action.
+
+This was a great blow to the British West Indies. The labour question
+had always been of the first importance, and to put a sudden stop to the
+supply meant a check to all progress. For twenty years before a great
+impetus had been given to planting, which was much assisted by the
+downfall of Hayti and consequent reduction of her produce to such an
+extent that she no longer affected the market. Now that the planters
+could get no more negroes, anything like enlargement of the acreage
+under cultivation was impossible. Latterly, also, produce had diminished
+in price, which made cheap labour all the more important. They had great
+difficulty in making their estates pay, and when sugar fell to half its
+former value a cry of "Ruin!" went forth all over the West Indies. It is
+interesting to note that the panacea which they expected would save them
+was free trade. At that time the British warehouses were filled with
+sugar and other tropical produce, while every continental port was
+closed by Napoleon, and the United States by the navigation laws. Not
+only did Great Britain store the produce of her own colonies, but that
+from those of the French and Dutch as well. In 1812 it was stated that
+the sugar consumption of Great Britain amounted to 225,000 hogsheads,
+while the production of her colonies was 150,000 in excess of this. The
+Southern States had just taken up cotton cultivation, and brought the
+price of that article too low for the West Indian planter, and, as if
+that were not enough, coffee also fell in price to an alarming extent.
+
+Sugar paid best, and was therefore fostered to the exclusion of the
+other products; and now began the plantation system which became so
+obnoxious to the anti-slavery party. Hitherto, with a full supply of
+labour, the negroes did little work as compared with their
+capabilities--now something like the factory system of the mother
+country was introduced. The old methods would no longer enable the
+planter to get a profit, and he must make the best of his labour supply.
+Great administrative ability, more careful management, attention to
+economy, and concentration, were all necessary to prevent losses, and
+that these were not wanting can easily be seen from the results. The
+slaves were driven into the field in gangs, and kept at work by the
+threat of the driver's whip, while the overseers and manager gave most
+careful attention to the whole system.
+
+Not only did the negroes work, but the whites also; in fact, on the part
+of the latter there was a continual strain after a fortune on which to
+retire from this tiresome and harassing work of nigger-driving. Where
+one succeeded, ten failed; many died of the exposure and of the
+_anti-malarial_ drinks they imbibed so plentifully. So great was the
+mortality that the colonies became proverbial for their number of
+widows, some of whom, however, were not above managing their own
+plantations. It was a race for wealth, to which everything else was
+secondary.
+
+The slaves diminished every year in the absence of additions from
+outside, as the whites would have done under similar circumstances.
+That there was no natural increase was mainly due to the fact that the
+sexes were unequal, and then, again, maternal affection was sadly
+wanting in the women, who seemed to care less for their children than
+some domestic animals. This state of things was mainly the outcome of
+the system, which was undoubtedly immoral, but the mental disabilities
+of the race must also be taken into consideration. The anti-slavery
+party considered that environment was everything; if they could only
+free the negro from compulsory servitude he would at once become an
+industrious labourer. Yes, in their opinion, if he had the incentive of
+wages, it would make him a credit to himself and his community. The
+slaves, they said, were worked to death, yet as free men they would do
+more and perform their tasks better. Their experience with free workmen
+led to these conclusions, but this could not apply to the West Indies
+nor to the negro race.
+
+The anti-slavery party was very strong, and although it is not stated
+that they took "Perish the colonies!" for their motto, it is very
+certain that they cared little about the future of either white or black
+as long as they carried their object. To this end every possible case of
+oppression and ill-treatment was exaggerated, and spoken of as if it
+were common, notwithstanding that the case only came to their notice
+through the trial and punishment of the offender. The fact was the
+planter could not afford to ill-treat his slave--no other animal of his
+live stock was of so much value. If a valuable horse were killed
+another could be obtained to replace him, but this was almost impossible
+in the case of the negro. Formerly, when he cost about £20, it might
+have paid to work him to death; now that his price was five or six times
+as much, self-interest alone prevented ill-treatment. There was a strong
+public opinion in every colony which prevented cruelty, and there were
+societies in some which gave prizes to those in charge of estates who
+raised the greatest number of children in proportion to their negroes.
+This breeding of negroes was necessarily very slow work, and did little
+to make up for the stoppage of importation. It followed, therefore, that
+every year the amount of available labour became less.
+
+In 1815 the anti-slavery party commenced a further agitation in favour
+of the negro, with the result that a Registrar of slaves was appointed
+for each colony, and ultimately a Protector. By obtaining an annual
+census they hoped to have some check on the decrease, and at the same
+time see if any Africans were surreptitiously imported. In some places
+there was already a slave registration for the purpose of adjusting the
+head-tax; here the planters did not oppose the measure, although they
+resented interference. Others, like Barbados, protested against the
+innovation as something quite unnecessary, or even if desirable, not to
+be imposed upon them from outside. This led to a great deal of
+discussion at the planters' tables, where the slave waiters listened to
+what was said, and from thence carried garbled reports to the others.
+
+In every colony were numbers of free negroes and coloured people, some
+of whom were loafers and spongers on the slaves, while others went about
+the country peddling. Having nothing to do, they became the
+news-carriers and circulators of garbled reports. In 1815 there lived in
+Barbados a free coloured man named Washington Franklin, who, like many
+negroes, was possessed of a good memory and a great power of
+declamation. Getting hold of the English and colonial newspapers, he
+would read the speeches of Wilberforce and others, and after putting his
+own construction on them, retail them in language tending to rouse the
+slaves. To him was due an impression that prevailed in Barbados,
+probably from a misunderstanding of the Registry Bill, that they were
+all to be free at the beginning of the year 1816. When New Year's Day
+had passed they became dissatisfied, believing that their masters had
+received orders to set them free, but would not execute them. They had
+heard of the successful rising in Hayti, and were determined to attempt
+a similar revolt in Barbados.
+
+After waiting for the expected freedom until the 14th of April, they
+determined on that day to have a general rising, which was signalled by
+burning heaps of cane-trash in the parish of St. Philip. Soon the fields
+were set on fire, and frenzied mobs, continually increasing in numbers,
+went from one plantation to another seeking arms. This went on for two
+days, but on the arrival of the militia they dispersed, leaving a waste
+behind. As usual a great many of the negroes were executed, although it
+does not appear that any whites got killed in the revolt. However, the
+Registry Act was delayed for two years, to be ultimately passed in
+January, 1817.
+
+Towards the end of the last century a new class of men appeared in the
+West Indies--the Protestant missionaries. Catholic missions had been
+established in the Spanish possessions since the time of Columbus, but
+hitherto, with the exception of a few Moravians, no other Church had
+done anything to convert the slaves in the British colonies. Between
+1780 and 1790, Methodist societies were established in most of the
+islands, notwithstanding the opposition of the planters, who in some
+cases appear to have thought that baptized Christians could no longer be
+held in slavery. This vulgar error, however, was not the real cause of
+the antagonism to these teachers, but rather the feeling natural to a
+master which makes him resent any outside interference between himself
+and his servants. The best and kindest were the first to feel this. The
+slaves were their children, and to them they applied, in all their
+troubles and difficulties, as to a great father. It followed, therefore,
+that when the missionaries came and proclaimed themselves friends to the
+slaves, giving them advice in secular as well as religious matters, the
+cordial feeling was broken. "Massa" was much put out, for he liked to
+hold the position of a little god to these poor ignorant creatures over
+whom he held such power. The slaves were sometimes whipped as bad
+children when they did wrong, and as children they cared little for a
+flogging. It is easily conceivable that a humane missionary might feel
+more pain at witnessing such a punishment than the culprit himself, but
+it is a fact that cruel punishment was never mentioned by the slaves as
+an excuse for a revolt.
+
+The missionaries were shocked at the apparent nakedness and destitution
+of the negroes, as a visitor to the West Indies will be even now. They
+did not remember that their clothing and houses were well suited to the
+climate, and that a home in the English sense of the word would not have
+been appreciated by them. These things were reported to the societies at
+home, the members of which knew no more about the tropics than the
+merchant who once sent a consignment of warming-pans to Barbados. Those
+who wanted to raise a cry of cruelty to the poor slave, circulated these
+facts, and put their own construction upon them, one going so far as to
+state that there were no chimneys to the houses, as if this omission
+were a slave disability or oppression, although any visitor to the
+colonies could have told him that these conveniences were hardly found
+anywhere.
+
+The negro willingly listened to his friend the missionary, and felt
+eager to perform the rites and ceremonies of the little congregation.
+The Established Church was that of England, and although in some places
+there were special services for the blacks, in others "slaves and dogs"
+were refused admission. This exclusiveness threw the slaves into the
+hands of the Moravians, Baptists, Methodists, and the agents of the
+London Missionary Society. The Church government of some of these was in
+the hands of the congregation, and as this was a sort of playing at
+"Massa," the slave took to them all the more readily.
+
+No doubt these ministers were very good men, and animated by a great
+love for the negroes, but this did not prevent their being misunderstood
+by both master and slave. Then many of them were connected with the
+anti-slavery society, and however careful they might be not to offend
+local prejudices, by speaking against the obnoxious system, as
+conscientious men they could not help showing their bias. The
+established clergymen, on the contrary, when they preached to the
+slaves, told them to "be subject to the powers that be," and to remain
+content in the condition where Providence had placed them.
+
+At first most of the planters only sneered at these attempts to convert
+the slaves, but when they saw what an attraction the chapels became,
+they opposed them openly. Gangs of young fellows would attend, and
+sometimes break up the meetings by jeering at the preacher. In 1807 an
+ordinance was passed in Jamaica "for preventing the profanation of
+religious rites and false worshipping of God, under the pretence of
+preaching and teaching, by illiterate, ignorant, and ill-disposed
+persons, and of the mischief consequent thereupon." Considering it the
+first duty of all magistrates to encourage the solemn exercise of
+religion, and whereas nothing tended more to bring it into disrepute
+than the pretended preaching and expounding of the Word of God by
+ignorant persons and false enthusiasts, to persons of colour and slaves,
+it was enacted that, after the 1st of July, no unauthorised person
+should presume to teach, preach, offer public prayer, or sing psalms to
+any assembly of these people, on pain of a fine of a hundred pounds,
+imprisonment for six months, or whipping. Similar punishments were also
+to be inflicted on any one preaching in an unlicensed building, as well
+as on the owner of a house or yard in which it had been permitted.
+
+Another way of stopping the assembly of slaves was to pass a law against
+their meeting at night, and punish them if they left the estate without
+a written permission. There were always excuses for this apparent
+harshness, as plots had been arranged at nocturnal meetings, some of
+which had given a great deal of trouble. Even if a pass were granted to
+attend chapel, the estate's authorities could hardly be expected to
+follow and see that the slave did not go elsewhere. The missionaries
+took it that all this was done to hamper their work, but such was not
+the case altogether.
+
+The anti-slavery party became very strong about the year 1820, and every
+obnoxious regulation was a text for discourses on the infamy of the
+whole system. If a planter were punished, the case was trumpeted over
+the country to promote a greater antagonism. How absurd this really was
+could only be seen by the West Indians themselves, and if they attempted
+to say anything they were put down as liars, becaused they were biassed
+in favour of the other side. One writer pertinently remarked that, among
+the hundreds of military and naval officers stationed in the West
+Indies, not one had borne out the statements of the missionaries, and we
+may call attention to the curious fact that Captain Marryat, who was
+well acquainted with every colony, speaks always of the negro as a happy
+fellow. The genial novelist does not mince matters when he speaks of
+oppression on board ship, and it is not to be supposed that he would go
+out of his way to screen the planters.
+
+Some of the colonies passed laws against indiscriminate manumissions,
+and these were declaimed against as tyranny. Yet their wisdom was so
+patent that, under the system, they could only be heartily approved by
+every one competent to judge. There is one little fact that stands out
+most prominently as a redeeming point, if such a thing be
+possible--under slavery there was no poverty--there were no tramps nor
+beggars. The owner of the plantation had to feed his people in sickness
+and in health, in childhood and old age. If manumissions could be given
+by the mere stroke of a pen, many a poor sick or broken-down creature
+would have been cast adrift to become a burden upon the community. Now
+and again we yet hear some old woman complain that if this were slavery
+time, she would not be half-starved as she is to-day, notwithstanding
+the poor relief.
+
+It may perhaps be thought that we are attempting the defence of slavery;
+we only wish to show that it was not quite so black as it has been
+painted. It had its dark side; but, on the other hand, many a bright
+gleam can be perceived by those who have seen some who were born into
+servitude and heard their stories. They were well fed, had as much
+clothing as they really required, were as a matter of policy well
+treated as a rule, and were quite as happy as they are to-day.
+Magistrates, policemen, and gaols were almost unknown; the planter gave
+the negro a slight flogging now and then, and this ended the tale of
+his misdemeanours. A bad master might be cruel as a bad husband may be
+also, but we should not condemn marriage on account of its abuses. The
+great argument against slavery was the degradation it produced on the
+minds of both parties. However, we are not writing the history of
+slavery, but the story of the West Indies, and must apologise for the
+digression.
+
+In 1823 the House of Commons, on a motion of Fowell Buxton, "that the
+state of slavery is repugnant to the principles of the British
+Constitution, and of the Christian religion," resolved to ameliorate the
+condition of the slave by giving him civil rights and privileges. As a
+result of this, orders were sent out to abolish the flogging of women,
+and discontinue the use of the whip in the field.
+
+Already the West Indian planters were alarmed at the interference of the
+British Government, and the overriding of colonial laws by Orders in
+Council. In 1819 they had petitioned against being compelled to manumit
+their slaves in cases where they wished to buy their freedom, but their
+protests went for nothing. Now also they had to submit, although they
+did so with a bad grace. The British Government left the carrying out of
+the provisions of the resolutions to the colonial legislatures, but at
+the same time giving them to understand that there was no option.
+
+In 1811, when the Governor and Court of Policy of Demerara neglected to
+issue a proclamation allowing negroes to attend chapel in the evening,
+they received a sharp reprimand, and the Governor was superseded; now
+they knew that nothing was left but to obey orders.
+
+When, therefore, the despatch containing these resolutions arrived in
+Demerara, a meeting of the legislature was at once convened to prepare
+the necessary ordinance. There was no attempt to evade this duty or
+delay compliance, but such a radical change required great
+consideration, especially in regard to the control of females without
+the use of the whip. Negresses were, as a rule, less amenable to
+discipline than the men, and it was thought that something must be done
+to prevent insubordination. Several meetings took place from the 21st of
+July, 1823, to early in August, at which the ordinance was prepared and
+passed, but up to the 18th of the latter month it had not been
+published. Such a delay, however, did not imply any intention of evading
+the duty, for three or four weeks often elapse from the time of passing
+to the publication of a Bill.
+
+Meanwhile the negroes got an idea that something had been done in
+England for their benefit. Like the slaves in Barbados and other
+colonies, they heard discussions at their masters' tables, and supposed
+that the something which had taken place meant their total emancipation.
+"The king had freed them, but the planters refused to carry out the
+order." On the East Coast of Demerara there was then a small chapel
+belonging to the London Missionary Society, under the charge of the Rev.
+John Smith. This chapel was a rendezvous for the negroes of the
+neighbouring plantations, who not only came to service, but met
+afterwards for a little gossip. Some who could read gave their ideas of
+what they had gleaned from their masters' newspapers, while others told
+what had been said at the dinner-tables. It does not appear that Mr.
+Smith had told them anything of the new resolutions, nor is there
+evidence that the deacons of the chapel knew of them. It followed,
+therefore, that all the information they had was these garbled reports
+of their own people.
+
+On Sunday, the 17th of August, a number of the bolder spirits met after
+service and discussed a plot which had been already under consideration,
+for a general rising at eight o'clock next evening. Their idea was to
+put their masters in the stocks, arm themselves, and, when the Governor
+came, demand their supposed rights.
+
+On Monday morning a coloured servant informed his master of the plot, on
+which he at once rode off to Georgetown and interviewed the Governor.
+Warnings were sent to most of the planters, and preparations made to
+suppress the revolt if it took place, but such reports were not
+uncommon, and although the whites looked after their weapons they did
+not feel much alarm. As a matter of policy it was better to assume
+indifference, as anything like desertion of the estates, even so far as
+the sending away of women and children, would have encouraged the
+negroes.
+
+The signal was given by a fire near the chapel, on which the slaves
+assembled in great mobs, over-powered their masters, put them in the
+stocks, and took all the firearms and other weapons they could find. The
+Governor was already in the neighbourhood with a small party of
+cavalry, and on seeing the signal proceeded to inquire into its meaning.
+On the way he was met by an armed mob, who, on being asked what they
+wanted, answered, "Our right!" He told them of the new law, and promised
+a full explanation on the morrow if they would disperse and come to him
+at a neighbouring plantation. There was a slight hesitation for a few
+moments, but presently, with cries of "No! no!" and the blowing of
+shells, they drowned his voice. Then some of the more moderate advised
+him to go away, which he was obliged to do, as his whole company
+numbered hardly a dozen.
+
+Bearing in mind the disasters of the Berbice insurrection, the people of
+Georgetown were much alarmed. Placing their women and children on board
+vessels in the river, the men prepared to resist to the death. Martial
+law was proclaimed, and every person, without distinction, called upon
+to enrol at once in the militia, all exemptions being cancelled. They
+responded heartily, and soon the town put on an appearance as if
+deserted, except at those places where guards were stationed. The stores
+were closed, the slaves kept indoors, and, save for the arrival and
+departure of mounted orderlies, not a sound could be heard. Even the
+negroes themselves, in their kitchens and outbuildings, were overawed,
+and hardly spoke above a whisper.
+
+The Methodist ministers came forward and enrolled themselves in the
+militia, but they were not called upon to perform any duty. The Rev.
+John Smith, however, took no notice of the proclamation, although he
+admitted having seen it. On the evening of the revolt he went for a walk
+with his wife, and on his return found that the manager's house was
+being attacked by a mob of slaves. He succeeded by expostulation in
+preventing their doing much injury, and even rescued the manager from
+their hands, but instead of sending notice of the rising to the
+neighbouring estates he went quietly home. As far as he knew no one had
+been warned of the revolt, and he was certainly remiss in his duty when
+he did nothing whatever. When, on the following day, he was visited by a
+militia officer, and ordered to enrol himself in accordance with the
+Governor's proclamation, he refused on the ground of his exemption,
+although he knew that all exemptions had been cancelled.
+
+As usual the rebels had no proper leaders, and for some reason or
+other--the missionaries ascribed it to religious teaching--they did not
+burn the houses or destroy the crops. One or two whites who resisted
+were wounded, one at least fatally, but here again the insurgents were
+forbearing. Fortunately they were soon suppressed, and this no doubt
+prevented such atrocities as had been committed elsewhere. What with the
+soldiers, the militia, and crews of vessels in the river, the force
+brought against them was overwhelming. Only one attempt was made to
+fight, but the first volley of the troops sent the rioters scattering
+into a cotton field. In about two days the insurrection was over, and
+then came the hunt for fugitives, who as usual took to the swamp at the
+back of the estates. A large body of Indians was employed, and in the
+end most of them were captured, some to be hanged at once and others
+after sentence by court-martial.
+
+Mr. Smith's behaviour was considered as something more than
+suspicious--he was believed to have had knowledge of the plot, and
+charged with an intention to side with the negroes if he saw any
+prospect of their success. On his refusal to take part in the defence of
+the colony he was taken prisoner, and after the negroes had been tried
+and sentenced, his case was brought before a court-martial. He was
+charged with promoting discontent among the slaves, conspiring to bring
+about a revolt, knowing of the plot the day before and not reporting it,
+and holding communication with one of the leaders after it had broken
+out without attempting to capture him. The case created a great stir,
+public opinion being universal that he was the prime mover in the whole
+affair.
+
+His trial lasted over a month, at the end of which he was found guilty
+and sentenced to be hanged. This sentence, however, seems to have been
+given to satisfy the people; it was not published, nor was it intended
+to be executed without reference to the home Government. This is proved
+by the report in the "Royal Gazette" of the colony, which stated that
+the trial was over, but the nature of the proceedings was such as to
+render it imperative on the Governor to transmit them for His Majesty's
+consideration. The public were not informed of the verdict, but it is
+not to be supposed that they were ignorant of the result of the trial;
+on the contrary, the sentence met with their approval, and they
+complained of the delay in carrying it out, as compared with the hasty
+executions of the negroes. Mr. Smith was ultimately reprieved, on the
+understanding that he removed himself from the West Indies, and engaged
+never to come back to Guiana or go to any of the islands. But the poor
+missionary was sick, and under treatment before the insurrection, and it
+may be presumed that the worry of the trial hastened his end. He died in
+prison before the king's answer arrived, and was buried at night to
+prevent a hostile demonstration.
+
+We have been thus particular in giving the facts of the Demerara East
+Coast Insurrection, because it made such an impression in England. The
+anti-slavery party used the case of the "Martyr" Smith as a watchword,
+and it was a prime factor in hurrying on emancipation. The immediate
+result was an Order in Council to enable slaves to contract legal
+marriage, to hold property, to buy their freedom on a valuation by
+disinterested parties, and to put them under a Protector, whose duty was
+to see that their rights were not infringed. They were now citizens,
+their only civil disabilities being compulsory labour and a tie to the
+plantation or their masters.
+
+This, however, did not satisfy the anti-slavery party, and they went on
+with their struggle for total emancipation, in which they at last
+succeeded. In 1833 an Act of Parliament was passed, by which, after the
+1st of August, 1834, slavery was to give place to an apprenticeship of
+four or six years, according to the status of the slave, the former
+term for house-servants and the latter for labourers on the
+plantations, or "predials." Every child born after that date was to be
+entirely free, and here came in one of the greatest blemishes of the
+law. These poor infants belonged to nobody; their mothers cared little
+for them, and it could not be expected that the planters would pay to
+keep up the old system of superintendence. Even those who had been
+instrumental in getting the law passed now began to make comparisons
+between the position of the child-bearing woman under the old and new
+systems. Hitherto they were unable to find words harsh enough to use in
+condemning slavery--now they began to find that it had its good points.
+Then the new system required new administrators, and, to prevent any
+suspicion of bias, magistrates were brought from England. Yet these very
+same unbiassed gentlemen ordered flogging for the men and the treadmill
+and dark cell for the women. The Quaker delegates sent out to inspect
+the result of their work were horrified. They said that the cat was
+worse than the old whip, and that the apprenticeship system caused ten
+times more suffering than slavery.
+
+And such was really the case. The negroes could no longer be kept under
+subordination--they even claimed entire freedom at once. Several
+disturbances took place before they could be made to understand that
+they had to work seven and a half hours every day, to pay for their
+homes, provision grounds, and other allowances. In Demerara the Governor
+addressed them as erring children, telling them that they could not
+all be masters, and that every one must work. They had never seen a
+white man handle the shovel or the hoe--he was free--now they had
+attained to the same condition, the same coveted freedom from hard
+labour must be theirs also. True, there were free negroes, some of whom
+had learnt trades, but even they were above working in the field. Why
+should free negroes work? Certainly not for their wives and children.
+The women got their allowances, and the planter had hitherto looked
+after the children. The negro had no house rent to pay, his two suits of
+clothing came regularly every year, and if he was sick the doctor
+attended to him. Except to deck himself with finery, he had no use for
+money; a few would work overtime when they wanted something of that
+sort, but the majority did as little as possible.
+
+[Illustration: THE FIRST OF AUGUST.
+
+(_From Madden's "West Indies."_)]
+
+In 1838, when the house servants were to be freed, while the predials
+must serve two years longer, the difficulties of such an arrangement
+became insurmountable. A daughter or wife might be entirely free, and
+the father or husband an "apprentice." Then came the difficulty of
+classification, which the commissioners appointed to arrange the
+divisions necessarily decided against the opinion of one or the other
+disputant, driving him to appeal. All this rendered a continuance of the
+system impossible, and slavery was terminated altogether on the 1st of
+August, 1838, the planters receiving from the British people twenty
+millions sterling as compensation, being about one-third of the
+estimated value of the slaves.
+
+The French had received such a lesson from the revolt of Hayti that
+they did little for their negroes. However, after the downfall of Louis
+Philippe in 1848, the revolutionary Government abolished slavery
+throughout the colonies, without compensation.
+
+[Illustration: A RELIC OF THE SLAVERY DAYS--OLD SLAVE BUYING FISH.]
+
+After freedom had been secured in the British colonies the slaves in
+neighbouring places naturally became discontented. There were not many
+desertions from the islands, but in Guiana, where the Dutch negroes were
+slaves on one side of the river Corentyne, and the British free on the
+other, the runaways from the former caused a great deal of trouble to
+the Dutch. Whenever an opportunity occurred, a party of slaves stole a
+boat and made off to the British side, until the Surinam planters became
+much alarmed. Ultimately a Dutch gunboat was stationed at the boundary
+river, and this put an end to the migration.
+
+Some of the islands were much affected, especially those of the Danes,
+which were frequented by British vessels, and were largely English in
+their sympathies. Here the negroes soon learnt what had happened, and
+began to express dissatisfaction with their own position. However,
+Denmark saw that something had to be done, and in 1847 enacted laws for
+gradual emancipation in her islands. From the 28th of July of that year
+all children born of slaves were to be free, and at the end of twelve
+years from that time slavery was to cease altogether.
+
+This did not satisfy the negroes, who became more discontented, and in
+1848 an insurrection took place on the island of St. Croix. On the 2nd
+of July it was rumoured that the slaves would refuse to work next day,
+and in the evening the whites were alarmed by the ringing of bells and
+blowing of conch shells. At first it was considered as an alarm of fire,
+but on inquiry the whites found that the negroes had revolted, and were
+demanding their freedom. Later, people came in from the country
+districts with the news that there were noisy demonstrations, but that
+as yet no actual violence had been committed. So little alarm was as yet
+felt that no precautions were taken, although some persons became
+uneasy.
+
+Next morning the negroes streamed into Christiansted in great numbers,
+and commenced to demolish the police office. An officer coming into town
+was attacked by a woman with an axe, which fortunately missed him, but
+the crowd was so good-humoured that, on his treating the matter coolly
+he was allowed to pass: this apparent good feeling made the authorities
+hesitate in taking extreme measures, even when the mob came round the
+fort, shouting and calling for freedom. Now, however, they began to
+collect trash for the purpose of setting fire to a house, and the
+Stadthauptman and a Roman Catholic priest went among them to try
+remonstrances. All the answer they got was that the slaves could not
+fight the soldiers, but they intended to burn and destroy everything if
+freedom were not given them. One of the mob carried a British flag as an
+emblem of liberty, and several English sailors were reported as forming
+part of the crowd. Soon all their good-humour was gone, and they
+commenced plundering the stores, the whites running away to vessels in
+the harbour.
+
+About three o'clock in the afternoon the Governor arrived from St.
+Thomas, and went among the crowd telling them that they were free, at
+the same time ordering them to disperse quietly. For a few hours there
+was a lull, but next morning they reassembled in the country districts
+as if in doubt whether the Governor really meant what he had said. Some
+planters now brought their families to town, leaving their houses to be
+plundered. Parties of soldiers were sent out, and hundreds of prisoners
+were taken, the mobs, which in some cases numbered two or three
+thousand, dispersing at their appearance. Martial law was declared,
+Porto Rico sent six hundred Spanish troops, the insurrection was at last
+quelled, and peace restored. The Governor stood his trial in Denmark, to
+be acquitted, and to have his declaration of complete emancipation
+confirmed.
+
+Slavery still continued in the Dutch possessions until 1863, and even
+then it was only replaced by compulsory labour for ten years, leaving
+the final emancipation until 1873. Yet with all that there were no
+disturbances to hurry on the process or cause trouble. In Cuba a law was
+passed in 1870 to give freedom to all above the age of sixty, as well as
+to children born after the passing of the Act. This, however, was not
+enforced on account of internal dissensions, and although Porto Rico
+gave her slaves their liberty on the 23rd of March, 1873, the Cuban
+Emancipation Bill was not passed by the Spanish Senate until February,
+1880, and under that law slavery only came to an end on the 6th of
+October, 1886.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+XV.
+
+RESULTS OF EMANCIPATION.
+
+
+The slave emancipation was a terrible blow to the West Indies, and one
+from which many of the islands have not yet recovered. It was, the
+planters said, the second attempt to ruin them, the first having been
+the abolition of the slave-trade. The party who brought it about looked
+to see their _protégées_ become a contented, hard-working peasantry, in
+place of driven cattle, as they called them. The planters, on the
+contrary, were morally certain that as free men they would not work, and
+without a labour supply their estates would be utterly ruined. The
+British taxpayer grumbled at having to pay twenty millions, but this was
+a mere sop for the estate owners. With the loss of their human chattels
+the plantations in many cases became utterly valueless; for the negroes
+congregated round certain centres, leaving most of the outlying places
+without enough people to keep up the cultivation. Labour had been
+degraded by the system, and now the full effects of such influence began
+to be felt.
+
+[Illustration: NEGRESS, GUIANA.]
+
+[Illustration: NEGRESS FISH-SELLERS, GUIANA.]
+
+The compensation money, in many cases, went towards paying off mortgages
+and other claims, the holders of which saw the impending ruin and
+hastened to save themselves as far as possible. But it was not enough
+even for that, for many plantations had liens of half the appraised
+value of the land, buildings, and slaves. The last security being
+entirely gone the others became worthless, and, as no one cared to
+advance money on such risks, the nominal owners could not even get as
+much as to pay wages. A plantation valued at perhaps £60,000 a few years
+before, and easily mortgaged for half that amount, received £16,000 for
+compensation with which to pay off the claim, and then wanted cash to
+carry on as well. Banks were established, but only solvent estates could
+get help from them, and consequently hundreds were abandoned in the
+larger colonies, and hardly one, with the exception of those in
+Barbados, could produce as much sugar as formerly. West Indian Nabobs,
+who had been getting their ten thousand a year and living in England,
+went out to see what could be done. Their incomes were entirely gone,
+and with them all hopes for the future. Widows and children lost their
+only means of support, and ruin fell on hundreds of families in England
+as well as in the West Indies. But not only did this downfall affect the
+owners and their relations, but merchants as well. Old firms shook to
+their very foundations, while many became bankrupt, to bring suffering
+to the homes of thousands who had hardly known of the sugar colonies
+beyond the invectives of the anti-slavery society. Many who had been
+strong advocates of emancipation now wished they had never said anything
+about it, but the die was cast, and there could never again be anything
+like the shilly-shallying of the French at Hayti.
+
+[Illustration: CHINESE WOOD-CARRIER.]
+
+[Illustration: EAST INDIAN COOLIE.]
+
+The negroes would not work, and there were no means of forcing them to
+do so. The anti-slavery party still had their delegates in the West
+Indies to see that the "poor negro" was not oppressed in any way, and
+their representatives in Parliament to call the Government to account if
+they allowed any vagrancy laws, or even the shadow of a coercive measure
+in the colonies. One ordinance after another for this purpose was
+disallowed, until every planter was in despair.
+
+[Illustration: EAST INDIAN COOLIE FAMILY.]
+
+[Illustration: COOLIE BARBER.]
+
+To retain their labourers was a matter of life or death. Some continued
+the old slave allowances to put them in good humour, but as these made
+the negroes independent of wages, the privilege was abused. They took
+everything and did nothing in return. Some went so far as to say that
+the Queen had promised that their late masters should supply them as
+usual, entirely regardless of the amount of work they did. This made the
+planters sore. What with one trouble and another the few who survived
+the wreck hardly knew how to act. They must not do anything to drive
+their people away, for there were many inducements offered by others in
+the same predicament. The negro was master, and he knew it. So much
+depended on him that he was enticed to labour, by high wages and greater
+privileges, until this bidding of one against another produced the very
+result which it was intended to avoid.
+
+[Illustration: EAST INDIAN COOLIE GIRL.]
+
+[Illustration: COOLIE WOMEN, BRITISH GUIANA.]
+
+Something had to be done. First, the allowances of those who would not
+work were stopped; then their houses and provision grounds were taken
+away. Thousands of fruit-trees were destroyed to prevent their living on
+mangoes and bananas during the season. Then the planters attempted to
+combine to bring wages to a paying level, and this led to strikes of
+the negroes. Everything tended to further estrangement until employer
+and labourer drifted far apart. In British Guiana the negroes bought
+some of the abandoned plantations and established villages; in some
+cases they even attempted to carry them on as sugar estates, but as all
+wanted to be masters they in every case failed.
+
+[Illustration: COOLIE VEGETABLE SELLERS, BRITISH GUIANA.]
+
+[Illustration: EAST INDIAN COOLIES, TRINIDAD.]
+
+As if this were not enough, the British Government went in for free
+trade, and allowed foreign slave-grown sugar to compete with that of the
+colonies. It seemed as if the French revolutionary cry of "Perish the
+colonies!" had now been introduced into the British Parliament. From one
+point of view the planters had been amply paid with the compensation
+money. Some went so far as to say that twenty millions could have bought
+all the estates in the West Indies, implying that the colonists had no
+further claim upon them. Even the anti-slavery party would not see that
+they were encouraging the slave system in other countries by opening
+their markets. This completed the ruin begun by emancipation, but as
+long as the principles were adhered to it did not matter.
+
+[Illustration: EAST INDIAN COOLIE, TRINIDAD.]
+
+Most of the remaining plantations now fell into the hands of those who
+had liens upon them, and they, not liking to lose their money
+altogether, commenced the uphill work of again bringing them into
+cultivation. Even a few colonists continued the struggle in hopes of
+better times. In Demerara there were two cases where eminent
+lawyers--the legal profession, by the bye, doing well when everything
+else was on the verge of ruin--spent all their profits in keeping their
+sugar estates from utter abandonment. One of these got so heavily in
+debt that at one time he could not pay his house rent, and as the
+landlord dared not sue him, he had metaphorically to go on his knees and
+beg him to quit.
+
+[Illustration: TRINIDAD COOLIES.]
+
+However, the sturdy English spirit survived in a few, and they set to
+work to obtain labourers from other parts of the world. At first they
+thought of Africa, but the anti-slavery party would not hear of
+immigration from the "dark continent," for fear of abuses. Then India
+was tried, with the result that a few coolies were brought over by
+private parties, notably to Demerara by John Gladstone. But again the
+cry of slavery went forth, due to the managers leaving the new-comers in
+the hands of their headmen or sirdars. It was charged against them that
+they beat their underlings, and of course the planters had to bear the
+responsibility. The result was that East Indian immigration was
+prohibited for a time. After a hard struggle on the part of the planters
+it was renewed, and in the end prevented Trinidad and British Guiana
+from utter abandonment.
+
+Besides Hindoo coolies, Chinese were also imported, as well as Maltese,
+Madeirans, and a few Germans. At first the negro thought little of this
+competition, but when he gradually dropped into the background, with his
+missionary friends, he commenced to protest against it. His friends
+said, and it was the truth, that there was enough labour in the colonies
+to carry on the estates, but the difficulty was that it could not be
+depended upon. Then the wages demanded by the negroes was entirely
+beyond the means of the planters--the price of sugar would not admit of
+them. It was a case of cheap labour or the alternative of giving up the
+struggle, and with the East Indians, British Guiana, and Trinidad
+recovered from the brink of ruin to become more flourishing in some
+respects than in the years immediately preceding emancipation. Jamaica,
+the greatest of the British colonies, suffered the most as she got but
+few immigrants, and it is only during the last decade that she has again
+begun to hold up her head. Without healthy competition with other races,
+the negroes sunk back, until they became even more degraded than those
+of British Guiana and Trinidad.
+
+In Barbados, on the contrary, the population was so dense that the
+freedman must either work or starve. There were no waste lands and few
+absentee proprietors, nor were any of the estates abandoned. Labour was
+plentiful and cheap; it followed, therefore, that the island soon
+recovered from the check and went on prospering. The compulsion of the
+whip gave way to the force of circumstances, and the struggle for
+existence which ensued has made the Barbadian negro the most industrious
+in the West Indies. Not only is he this, but he is, like his former
+masters, intensely loyal to Great Britain and "Little England." All the
+black, coloured, and white people in the other islands call themselves
+Creoles, but he is "neither Crab (Carib) nor Creole, but true Barbadian
+born."
+
+In the French, Danish, and Dutch colonies labour laws were enforced
+after emancipation, and generally with good results. They felt the
+change, but not to such an extent as their neighbours, and recovered all
+the sooner. Then they were not utterly disheartened by the unhealthy
+competition of slave-grown products like the English. Possibly, however,
+the British freedman would not have borne coercion, for even the Danes
+resented it.
+
+We have seen already that the negroes of the island of St. Croix were by
+no means willing to submit to what they considered injustice, and how
+they forced on their own emancipation. However, down to 1878 they were
+bound to the soil as it were under annual engagements, from which they
+were not released without proper notice, even after the term had
+expired. They had houses, provision grounds, allowances, and very low
+wages, and were bound to work five days a week. The engagement expired
+annually on the 1st of October, and on that day those who did not renew
+their contract assembled in the two towns of the island for a
+jollification, where something like the old "mop" or hiring fair of
+England took place.
+
+In 1878 they somehow got the impression that the labour law was about to
+be relaxed, but there does not seem to have been any combination among
+them to obtain such an end; they were dissatisfied, and that was all.
+About the same time the Government were so assured of their peaceable
+disposition that they reduced the garrison of Christiansted, the
+capital, to sixty men. When the 1st of October arrived the negroes
+assembled as usual in Frederiksted, round the rum shops, appearing
+good-humoured, although noisy, as such a crowd always must be. Nothing
+particular happened until, at about three o'clock in the afternoon, a
+cry went up that one of their number had been beaten by a policeman, on
+which they attacked the peace officers, and drove them into the fort,
+which was police-station and barracks. Some of the principal whites came
+out and remonstrated with them, and at first they seemed as if they
+would disperse, but just then the police-master, his assistant, and two
+soldiers rode into their midst, brandishing swords and ordering them to
+move off at once. Infuriated by this, the mob attacked the horsemen with
+stones, and drove them back into the fort, which they now stormed. The
+British Vice-Consul then went among them, and, after a little parleying,
+induced them to go with him to the outskirts of the town. Here he got a
+statement of their grievances, which were--first, that their wages were
+too low (only ten cents a day); second, that the annual contract was
+slavery; third, that the manager of the estate could fine them at will;
+and fourth, that if they wanted to leave the island they were
+obstructed. Having promised to do all he could for them, the Vice-Consul
+begged them to disperse.
+
+[Illustration: BARBADOS.
+
+(_From Andrews' "West Indies."_)]
+
+[Illustration: ST. LUCIA.
+
+(_From Andrews' "West Indies."_)]
+
+They were apparently leaving the town, when a woman came running up with
+the report that the man who had been beaten by the police had just died
+in the hospital. This made them furious, and all further hopes of their
+pacification had to be given up. They invaded the hospital, knocked down
+the sick-nurse and a patient who inquired their business, and demanded
+to see the murdered man. They were informed that he was not dead but
+only dead drunk, and would soon recover if left alone. On being
+convinced of this, they again went off and attacked the fort. The
+defenders, when assailed with stones, fired over their heads, but this
+only made them all the more violent. The outer gate was broken down and
+some of the negroes were shot. Just at that moment a planter came up,
+intending to enter the fort, and at once they beat him with sticks until
+he was nearly killed.
+
+However, the bullets checked them, but only to throw the attack on other
+parts of the town. Stores were pillaged and set fire to, until a great
+portion of the town was in flames. From some of the stores they took
+weapons in the shape of cane-bills, and in one were alarmed for a few
+moments by an explosion of gunpowder. The whole of Bay Street was soon
+in flames, and like troops of fiends the negroes went dancing round the
+fires, in some places pouring on them cans of petroleum if the houses
+did not blaze up fast enough. Then the rum casks began to burst, and
+streams of burning spirit ran down the gutters, adding to the horror of
+the scene. The women were always the most reckless--they danced and
+howled with mingled joy and rage. The men added to the din by clashing
+their sticks together or against the burning stores, some blowing shells
+as a sort of rallying signal. "Our side!" was the watchword, and all who
+could not or would not repeat it were severely beaten. Most of the
+whites, however, had fled, leaving them entirely unchecked in their
+destructive work.
+
+Meanwhile the police-master had sent to Christiansted for assistance,
+and while he waited the mob again assailed the fort and again without
+success. All through the night the disturbance continued, and it was not
+until six o'clock in the morning that a small band of twenty soldiers
+arrived. At their first volley the mob dispersed, flying precipitately
+from the town to carry the riot all over the island. Two soldiers left
+in charge of a waggon were killed; and on learning this the soldiers
+were roused to a state of fury almost as great as that of the rioters.
+They hunted them from one plantation to another, invaded their huts,
+stabbed through the mattresses, and killed every negro who came in their
+way, without taking the trouble to inquire whether they had been
+concerned in the affair or not. Three hundred prisoners were taken, and
+on the 5th of October a proclamation was issued calling on all the
+negroes to return to their houses or be treated as rebels, after which
+the disturbance was quelled. Twelve hundred were sentenced to death, and
+a Commission of Inquiry was sent out from Denmark, the result of their
+report being that the obnoxious labour law was repealed.
+
+We have been thus particular in our account of this riot, because it
+exemplifies the character of the negro and is a type of such
+disturbances in other colonies. There is generally some ill-feeling at
+the bottom, but as a rule no conspiracy beforehand. When the
+dissatisfaction reaches a certain point, little is required to raise the
+passions of the black man, and that little thing is almost sure to
+occur. Unlike the European, he does not proclaim his grievances, except
+in a general way, among his own people--he has not yet arrived at that
+stage where civilised man uses the platform and press. It follows,
+therefore, that his passions smoulder for weeks and months, until some
+trifle--often a misunderstanding--brings them to the surface.
+
+At St. Croix there does not appear to have been anything like race
+prejudice, or that envious feeling which makes the negro think himself
+down-trodden by his rivals; but that is a characteristic of most riots,
+and is strikingly exemplified in two that have taken place in Demerara.
+
+After the emancipation the negro in British Guiana became of less and
+less importance as more and more immigrants arrived, until he grew quite
+sore. No longer could he demand extortionate wages, for the labour
+market was virtually governed by the current rates paid to the coolies.
+These people, however, were quite able to hold their own, and the negro
+knew this; it followed, therefore, that he vented his spite upon the
+most inoffensive people in the colony.
+
+The Portuguese from Madeira came to British Guiana absolutely destitute
+just after the failure of the vines on their island. They found the
+negro more prosperous than perhaps he has ever been since, for this was
+the time when, if he worked, he could always save money if he chose. In
+fact, many did so, and bought land which is still in the hands of some
+of their descendants, on which houses much superior to those now in
+existence were erected. The Portuguese could not endure the hard labour
+of sugar-planting, but soon found openings as small shopkeepers or
+pedlars. Hitherto there was little competition in these businesses, but
+the few who carried them on were negroes or coloured persons. These were
+soon ousted out, and the Portuguese became almost the only small trader
+in the colony. This was a grievance to the negro, who could not see that
+he himself reaped the benefit--certainly he took advantage of the
+reduced prices while abusing the sellers.
+
+At the beginning of the year 1856 the negroes of Georgetown were excited
+by the arrival of an anti-Popery agitator, who had become notorious in
+England, Scotland, and the United States. John Sayers Orr, known as "the
+Angel Gabriel," because he blew a trumpet to call the people together,
+was a native of Demerara, and soon found out what a strong antipathy to
+the Portuguese existed among the people. This suited his ideas exactly,
+for were they not Roman Catholics--the very body which he had been
+declaiming everywhere against?
+
+Soon his horn-blowing brought crowds into the market square every
+Sunday, where his harangues roused his hearers to such a pitch of fury
+that the authorities became alarmed. He was therefore arrested, brought
+before a magistrate, charged with convening an illegal assembly, and
+committed for trial. This committal of the popular hero was the spark
+which set all the negroes' passions in a blaze, but, strange to say,
+they did not attack the authorities. Their spite was against the
+Portuguese, and soon almost the whole colony was the scene of a general
+raid upon their shops. Hardly any escaped, but one after another was
+broken open and the goods either carried away or destroyed. Some went so
+far as to use the Governor's name, as if he had authorised the raid, and
+in this way got ignorant people in the country districts to help them to
+seize boats, provisions, and even the produce of the farms of the
+obnoxious Portuguese.
+
+The riot was ultimately quelled, but not before the damage amounted to
+over a quarter of a million dollars. Hundreds of prisoners were
+captured, but beyond the shooting of one policeman there does not appear
+to have been any serious casualties, neither were there any executions.
+It is interesting to note that the idea of poisoning, which is connected
+with Obeah superstition, was conspicuous here as in the Berbice slave
+insurrection. One black man charged a Portuguese with threatening to
+poison his customers with the provisions he sold them; but all the
+satisfaction the negro got was a reprimand from the magistrate.
+
+The second great riot in Georgetown is notable for its similarity to
+that at St. Croix. The feeling of antipathy to the Portuguese still
+continued, and the negro had a special grievance on account of the
+reprieve of a murderer of that nationality. If he had been black he
+would have been hanged, they said--it was colour prejudice. However, no
+disturbance took place for several months, and even then it only came
+about through a misunderstanding. A black boy buying a cent roll of
+bread in the market, snatched one of the penny rolls instead, when the
+Portuguese stall-keeper struck him down with a stick. The boy was taken
+up senseless and carried to the hospital, while his assailant through
+some misunderstanding was not arrested. At once there was a cry of
+"Portugee kill black man; Binney (the clerk of the market) let he go,"
+and they began to assail the clerk with sticks and stones.
+
+The police arrived, dispersed the mob, and shut up the market, but this
+only led to their scattering throughout the city. The report that the
+black boy was dead was carried into every yard, and at once swarms of
+women and boys, with comparatively few men, began to smash the
+Portuguese shops. The authorities did next to nothing, beyond sending
+out a few special constables, armed only with sticks, to fight against
+overpowering crowds better provided with weapons than themselves. The
+consequence was that for two days Georgetown was in the power of
+thousands of negroes, and damage resulted to the amount of nearly fifty
+thousand dollars. The disturbance was finally checked by arming the
+police, and issuing a proclamation that they were authorised to fire on
+the rioters. Not a single shot was fired, however; the threat was quite
+sufficient for the purpose.
+
+It will be seen from these cases that of late years the negroes have
+not perpetrated such massacres as once characterised their
+insurrections, but the insurrection at St. Thomas-in-the-East in Jamaica
+seems to show that the old spirit was not dead in 1865.
+
+For several years previous Jamaica had been much depressed--in fact, she
+had hardly begun to recover from the ruin which followed emancipation.
+Then came a two years' drought, which caused some distress among the
+people, who had no other means of support than what was derived from
+their small provision fields. The Baptist connexion was very strong in
+the island, and Dr. Underhill, the Secretary of its Missionary Society,
+went out, and on his return published reports blaming the Government for
+the distress, which he appears to have highly exaggerated. This tended
+to produce more dissatisfaction and to give the negroes an object on
+which they could vent their feelings. In one of Dr. Underhill's letters
+he said the people seemed to be overwhelmed with discouragement, and
+that he feared they were giving up their long struggle with injustice
+and fraud in despair. Thus a feeling was produced which only required
+some little incident to bring on a serious disturbance.
+
+On the 7th of October a black man was brought up for trial before the
+Custos of St. Thomas-in-the-East, when a somewhat orderly mob marched
+into the town to, if possible, release the prisoner. They crowded round
+the court-house and made such a disturbance that one of them was taken
+in charge, only, however, to be rescued at once by his friends. Nothing
+more was done on that day, but warrants having been issued for the arrest
+of the leaders, their execution was forcibly resisted. The negroes now
+seem to have planned a general rising and issued notices calling their
+people to arms. "Blow your shells, roll your drums; house to house take
+out every man! War is at us; my black skin, war is at hand. Every black
+man must turn at once, for the oppression is too great." They were, they
+said, ground down by an overbearing and oppressive foreigner, and if
+they did not get justice would burn and kill.
+
+On the 11th of October a mob assembled at the same court-house, and
+being resisted by a small body of volunteers, they killed the Custos,
+and every white man who opposed them, to the number of twenty-eight,
+released all the prisoners and burnt the building. Immediately
+afterwards there was a general rising in the district, which spread for
+about fifty miles.
+
+Governor Eyre, when he heard the news, at once determined to suppress
+the insurrection before it affected the whole island. Martial law was
+declared, a body of maroons employed, and within a few days the riots
+were suppressed. Many of the negroes were shot as they tried to escape,
+others taken and hanged at once, their villages burnt to the ground, and
+altogether they received such a lesson as effectually put a stop to
+anything of the kind in the future. It was stated that 439 people were
+killed and 600 flogged; a thousand houses were burnt and a great deal of
+property destroyed by both parties.
+
+The severity of Governor Eyre caused a great outcry in England,
+especially among the Baptists. Among those who were executed was Mr.
+Gordon, a member of the Assembly, who no doubt fell a victim to the
+feeling aroused among the whites. He was charged with being a prime
+instigator of the revolt, but it does not appear that he went beyond
+what is generally allowed to a political agitator. Such agitation,
+however, amongst ignorant people, who are easily excited, is
+particularly dangerous, and likely to recoil on the heads of those who
+initiate it, who must be prepared to risk the consequences.
+
+Governor Eyre was recalled, and prosecuted without success. He
+undoubtedly saved the island, and, although such executions as were
+committed can hardly be excused, yet when we consider the alarm and
+excitement, we must make some allowances. And, after all, it must be
+remembered that the loss of life would probably have been much greater
+had not the insurrection been nipped in the bud.
+
+Barbados is unique in several respects, and as may be supposed there is
+something remarkable even about her riots. The patriotism of the
+inhabitants, both black and white, is proverbial all over the West
+Indies. There is no place in the world to equal Barbados--no colony but
+what has been conquered by the enemy at some time or other. "Little
+England" was said to have offered an asylum to King George the Third
+when Buonaparte intended to invade England, and no doubt if such an
+offer was ever made it was done in all sincerity. Barbadians are proud
+of their constitution, and jealous of its infringement in the slightest
+degree. This feeling led to a disturbance in 1876, which was the
+nearest approach to an insurrection on that island in late years.
+
+It has often been suggested that a confederation of the British West
+Indies would be advantageous in many ways, and in 1876 the Secretary of
+State was of opinion that a closer union of Barbados and the other
+Windward Islands was desirable. The Governor of all the islands was then
+Mr. Pope Hennessy, who had lately been appointed, and who had been
+directed to obtain the consent of Barbados to a partial union. The
+measures proposed were of little importance, consisting only of the
+amalgamation of the prisons, lunatic asylums, and lazarettos, and the
+extension of the powers of the Chief Justice, Auditor-General, and the
+police force to cover the whole of the islands.
+
+An outsider would suppose that there was nothing offensive in these
+changes, but that, on the contrary, they would be beneficial in many
+ways, but most of the Barbadians opposed them strongly. Barbados, they
+said, was solvent, while some of the islands were on the verge of
+bankruptcy--their island should not be taxed to support paupers. They
+held meetings at which six points were agreed to, and on which the
+leaders harangued crowds throughout the island. These were, first, that
+their Court of Appeal would be abolished; second, that all the mad
+people from other islands would have to be supported by them; third,
+that all the lepers would come there; fourth, that the officials of
+other islands would live on them; fifth, that the power would be taken
+from the people and given to the Governor; and sixth, that as the House
+of Assembly had always been faithful they resented any interference with
+it.
+
+The Governor was desirous of carrying his project, and possibly went
+farther than was consistent with his instructions, which were to bring
+about the arrangement in an amicable manner. He did all he could to
+create a party in its favour, and was charged by the other side with
+using underhand means to this end. The main point, however, on which he
+laid stress, and which seems to have caused the trouble, was the
+advantage to the Barbadians of having the other islands so close as to
+become virtually like their own parishes, so that the surplus population
+would be able to take up lands that were then useless, and lying waste.
+
+Barbados is densely populated. All the lands are occupied, and it is
+very difficult to procure even a small lot--this makes the people all
+the more eager to get possession of a little freehold. Yet, with all
+this, they will not settle in other islands, where they can get a piece
+of ground for next to nothing.
+
+Somehow or other the more ignorant people seem to have got the notion
+that the Governor was promising them land in Barbados, and this made
+them enthusiastic for his project. Something like communism would, they
+thought, follow if the Confederation Act were passed, and this was the
+reason in their opinion why the other party fought against it. The
+planters spoke as if Mr. Hennessy had laid himself open to such a
+misunderstanding, and that made them all the more virulent against him.
+
+The anti-Confederation party said that it had always been the pride and
+glory of Barbados to have a separate political existence, and if under
+their own institutions they had achieved a success which made them the
+envy of their neighbours, why should they change? The majority of the
+House of Assembly were on their side, and it is difficult to understand
+why the Governor pressed the matter in the way he did. The opposition
+was no doubt foolish, but still, if the people chose to be silly, he
+could not overcome their prejudices. Party feeling ran high, only the
+mob shouting for Hennessy and Confederation. Those on one side would
+hiss him as he appeared--the others took the horses from his carriage
+and drew him along in triumph. It was reported that he never went out
+without a guard, and that even his wife lived in continual fear. She had
+been threatened with the abduction of her child, and one ruffian went so
+far as to pelt the little one as he was driven along the street, for
+which he was prosecuted.
+
+At last, on the 18th of April, 1876, when the party feeling had existed
+over six weeks, matters came to a crisis. A man went into the yard of
+Byde Mill plantation, flourishing a cane-cutter, and bearing a red flag.
+He was, he said, a Confederation man, had just come from the Governor,
+and wanted some liquor (cane juice). Getting nothing he went out and
+brought his brother who bore a sword, and the two quarrelled with the
+man in the boiling-house, the one with the sword attempting to stab him.
+They defied a constable who came to arrest them, and one blew a shell
+which brought a mob of women and children, who went into a field of
+sweet-potatoes and began to carry them off. Three mounted police
+arrived, but they were pelted with stones, and one who attempted to
+arrest the man with the sword got wounded. A magistrate then came and
+read the Riot Act, but the mob refused to disperse. As usual there were
+grievances, some complained that their pay had been stopped, which the
+manager said was because they could not work the mill full time for want
+of wind.
+
+Two cane-fields were now set on fire, and the disturbance spread, its
+great characteristic being raids upon the potato fields. In several
+places live stock were killed, dwellings broken into, and everything
+chopped or broken to pieces. A few shots were exchanged, but no one
+appears to have been killed, although many got wounds and bruises from
+sticks and stones. Everywhere the mob declared they had the authority of
+the Governor for what they were doing, and the sufferers from their
+depredations charged Mr. Hennessy with delay in putting down the
+disturbance. This, however, was probably due to the effect of the
+persecution of Governor Eyre, which has made every West Indian Governor
+hesitate before going to extremes. However, when the people from the
+country districts began to fly to Bridgetown he sent out a few soldiers
+who very quickly dispersed the mobs. A sensational telegram to London
+stated that five hundred prisoners had been taken, forty people killed
+and wounded, rioting was suspended, but their position was threatened,
+and that confidence in the Government had entirely gone. This was highly
+exaggerated, but a great deal of property was destroyed or injured,
+fifty estates pillaged, and probably over fifty persons received more or
+less serious blows.
+
+Quite a storm fell upon Hennessy, who on the 26th of April had to issue
+a proclamation threatening to direct the law officers to take prompt
+measures against those who libelled him, by saying that he had sent
+emissaries through the island to mislead the people, and that he
+countenanced and abetted the disgraceful and lawless acts of the
+marauders.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+XVI.
+
+THE ISTHMUS TRANSIT SCHEMES.
+
+
+By the second half of the last century the supply of gold and silver
+from Peru had much diminished, and the road across the isthmus almost
+fell into disuse. In 1780, during the great war, the British appear to
+have had some vague notion that it would be good policy to secure the
+track across Nicaragua, for which purpose an expedition was fitted out.
+Early in that year Nelson sailed from Jamaica with five hundred men, and
+after getting a number of Indians from the Mosquito shore and a
+reinforcement of British troops, the party made the difficult ascent of
+the San Juan river, and captured the fort of the same name. But, through
+ignorance, the whole affair proved disastrous--the fort was useless, and
+the losses through sickness very great. Of eighteen hundred men only
+three hundred and eighty survived, and Nelson himself nearly lost his
+life. He was obliged to go home to recruit, and it was only after
+spending two or three months at Bath that he recovered to continue that
+glorious career which made him so famous.
+
+However, it was not long afterwards that a project for utilising the
+isthmus was brought under the consideration of the British Government by
+General Miranda, of whom we have spoken in another chapter. He wanted
+Pitt to assist him in his projects for the emancipation of the Spanish
+colonies, and, as a means to this end, in 1790, proposed that the
+British should take possession of Darien, and thus further their
+commerce in the Pacific. Nothing was done at that time, and a few years
+later Miranda made a second proposition that the United States should
+join with Great Britain, and open roads and canals for both nations.
+
+Mr. Pitt seems to have agreed to this, and was only prevented from
+attempting to carry it out by the delay of President Adams. The United
+States were to furnish ten thousand men, and Great Britain money and
+ships. In 1801, under Lord Sidmouth, an expedition was actually set on
+foot, only to collapse at the Peace of Amiens. Again, in 1804, Pitt
+tried to carry out the project with Miranda, but the condition of Europe
+stood in the way of expeditions to the Spanish Main.
+
+[Illustration: ATLANTIC ENTRANCE TO DARIEN CANAL.
+
+(_From Cullen's "Darien Canal."_)]
+
+In enumerating the advantages likely to accrue from the emancipation of
+South America, a writer in the _Edinburgh Review_ of January, 1809, laid
+great stress upon a passage across the isthmus. It was the most
+important to the peaceful intercourse of nations of anything that
+presented itself to the enterprise of man. So far from being a romantic
+and chimerical project, it was not only practicable, but easy. The river
+Chagré, about eighteen leagues westward of Porto Bello, was navigable as
+far as Cruzes, within five leagues of Panama. But there was even a
+better route; at about five leagues from its mouth the Chagré received
+the river Trinidad, which was navigable to Embarcadero, from which
+Panama was only distant thirty miles through a level country. The ground
+had been surveyed, and not the practicability only, but the facility of
+the work _completely ascertained_. Further north was the grand lake of
+Nicaragua, which by itself almost extended the navigation from sea to
+sea. The Governor of St. John's Castle (Fort San Juan) had been
+instructed by the king of Spain to refuse permission to any British
+subject desirous of passing up or down this lake, "for if ever the
+English came to a knowledge of its importance and value they would soon
+make themselves masters of this part of the country."
+
+But not only had the best places for a canal been selected at this early
+time, but the many advantages to be derived from its construction had
+been well considered. The same writer went on to say that from this
+splendid and not difficult enterprise, not merely the commerce of the
+western shores of America would be brought, as it were, to their doors,
+but that of the South Sea whalers, who would be saved the tedious and
+dangerous voyage round Cape Horn. Then the whole of the vast interests
+of Asia would increase in value to a degree that was then difficult to
+conceive, by having a direct route across the Pacific. It would be as
+if, by some great revolution of the globe, they were brought nearer.
+Immense would be the traffic which immediately would begin to cover the
+ocean--all the riches of India and China moving towards America. Then
+also the commodities of Europe and America would be carried towards
+Asia. As a result of this, vast depôts would be formed at the two
+extremities of the canal, to soon develop into great commercial cities.
+Never before had such an opportunity been offered to a nation as Great
+Britain had then before her, owing to a wonderful combination of
+circumstances.
+
+Mr. Robinson, a United States merchant, in 1821, said that the most
+ardent imagination would fail in an attempt to portray all the
+important and beneficial consequences of such a work, the magnitude and
+grandeur of which were worthy the profound attention of every commercial
+nation. The powers of the old and new world should discard all selfish
+considerations, and unite to execute it on a magnificent scale, so that
+when completed it might become, like the ocean, a highway of nations,
+the enjoyment of which should be guaranteed by all, and be exempt from
+the caprice or regulation of any one kingdom or state.
+
+Such were the views promulgated at the beginning of this century, but
+nothing was done until about 1850, when the pressure of circumstances
+again brought the isthmus into note.
+
+Darien and Panama are in the Republic of New Granada, but north of these
+come the small states of Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, San Salvador,
+and Guatemala. All of these are inhabited by true Americans--native
+races who have to a considerable extent absorbed the slight admixture of
+European blood introduced by their conquerors. Some places are so
+inaccessible as to be virtually outside the pale of civilisation. The
+roads are nothing but mule tracks, full of quagmires where the animals
+have to wade up to their girths in mud--in fact, little better than the
+paths so well described by Lionel Wafer. The rivers are numerous, and,
+on account of the heavy rainfall, their currents are very strong, and
+all the more dangerous from the numerous sandbanks and rapids which
+obstruct their course. Since the states gained their independence they
+have passed through so many changes of government that at the beginning
+hardly a month passed without a revolution in one or the other. This
+went on until 1848 without interference from outside, but with the
+discovery of gold in California came an invasion of ruffians of all
+nations.
+
+The old freebooters almost seemed to have come to life again. Hardy
+adventurers from all parts of the world rushed off to the new "El
+Dorado," woke the sleepy Nicaraguans on the San Juan river, and roused
+the people of Chagres. Over the isthmus of Panama or through the
+Nicaragua lake they flocked by thousands, necessitating the
+establishment of Transit Companies to provide them with mules, boats,
+and steamers. The easiest, although longest, route was through
+Nicaragua, which was controlled by the Vanderbilt Company, and during
+the time the "rush" lasted they took over two or three thousand per
+month. The Company had steamers on the lake to meet the throng of
+diggers as they arrived, and they passed through at regular intervals
+like a tide. The overland part of the route presented a strange
+spectacle, with their pack mules and horses. Men of all nationalities,
+armed with pistols and knives, which they were prepared to use on the
+Greasers (natives) at the slightest provocation, put these altogether in
+the background. A traveller has spoken of them as a string of romantic
+figures that could not be matched in any other part of the world. Some
+glowed with fervent passion, as if on fire, others were hard, cold, and
+rugged as the rocky passes they traversed, while a few were worn, old,
+and decaying, under the effects of the hardships and reverses of their
+stormy existence. Every line in their faces had a meaning, if it could
+only have been interpreted, telling of sin and suffering--of adventures
+more terrible than were ever portrayed by the pen of the romantic
+writer, and of experiences as fascinating as they had been dangerous.
+
+Among the results of this rush through Nicaragua was the expedition of
+William Walker, the great filibuster of this century. With fifty-five
+men he went forth from California to conquer Central America, and in the
+end nearly succeeded. He got himself elected President of Nicaragua, but
+ultimately raised such a storm that he was brought to bay by some forces
+from Honduras and Costa Rica, and had to surrender to the captain of a
+British man-of-war, by whom he was handed over to his enemies to be
+shot.
+
+With this wonderful traffic across the isthmus arose the old canal
+schemes, as well as a new one for a railway. Easy and rapid transit must
+be obtained in some way or other, and this time being in the age of
+steam, it naturally followed that the project for a railway gained
+immediate support. It was commenced in 1850, at which time the terminus
+on the Gulf side was settled, and the foundations of the new town of
+Aspinwall or Colon laid a few miles east of Chagres. The difficulties
+were enormous, on account of the marshy ground and the number of rivers
+to be crossed. The wooden bridges were almost immediately attacked by
+wood ants, floods carried away the timbers, but more distressing than
+all was the loss of life through sickness. Chinese labourers were
+imported in great numbers, only to fall victims to the same deadly
+climate which had given Porto Bello and the isthmus generally their evil
+reputation. However, the railway was completed in 1864, at the enormous
+cost of $7,500,000, although its length is only 47-1/2 miles. Thus one
+part of the great project was carried out, and a good road provided for
+passengers and light goods, the annual value of which latter is now
+about £15,000,000.
+
+But those in favour of a canal were not sleeping all this time. The old
+routes were again mooted, that through Lake Nicaragua being put down at
+194 miles in length, while the other, since known as the Panama, was
+only 51. Dr. Edward Cullen, however, in 1850 went out and made some
+surveys, with the result that he advocated the old Darien line as the
+shortest and most practicable. He would start from the same Port de
+Escoces that witnessed the downfall of William Paterson's scheme, and
+which he said was a most commodious harbour for the terminus of a canal.
+The isthmus was here only 39 miles across, and free from many of the
+difficulties which beset the other routes.
+
+As a result of Dr. Cullen's reports, in 1852 it was proposed to
+establish "The Atlantic and Pacific Junction Company," with a capital of
+fifteen millions sterling. The prospectus stated that the period had
+arrived when the spread of commerce and the flow of emigration to the
+western shores of America, Australasia, and China, demanded a passage
+more direct than those by way of the Cape of Good Hope and Cape Horn.
+Various projects had been formed for uniting the two oceans, but all
+these were open to the objection that they fell short of supplying a
+continuous channel from sea to sea, for vessels of all dimensions, by
+which alone transhipment could be obviated. Sir Charles Fox, Mr. John
+Henderson, Mr. Thomas Brassey, and Dr. Cullen had received a concession
+of territory from New Ganada to the extent of 200,000 acres, on
+condition that a deposit of £24,000 be made within twelve months. It was
+believed that the work could be completed for twelve millions.
+
+The _Times_ spoke disparagingly of the new Company, and this probably
+prevented its acceptance by the financial world. The line, it said, had
+not been actually surveyed, but only superficially examined, and, after
+all, if it were finished, it could only come into competition with the
+Nicaragua Canal, every foot of which had been the subject of precise
+estimates, and which would only cost _four millions_. Several letters
+from the projectors and supporters of the Company followed, with other
+leaders, the result being that the Darien Canal never went beyond a
+project. Presently also the rush for California abated, and the railway
+met the wants of the passengers; all the canal schemes were therefore
+again shelved for a time.
+
+Then came an almost Utopian project for a ship railway, the cars of
+which would run down into the water, take up the largest vessel, and
+carry it over without trouble or difficulty. This met with little
+encouragement, and was soon dropped.
+
+In 1879 Ferdinand de Lesseps, who had achieved such a glorious success
+with the Suez Canal, took up the matter of a canal between the two
+oceans, and summoned a congress of savants, engineers and seamen, to
+inquire into and discuss the questions of its possibility, and of the
+most suitable place for its excavation. A number of projects were
+considered, among them that of Dr. Cullen, brought forward by M. de
+Puydt, which, however, did not receive much attention, as there was a
+difference of opinion as to the reliability of the figures.
+
+The schemes were ultimately reduced to two--those for the Nicaragua and
+Panama routes. The position of the great lake caused the former to be
+thoroughly discussed; but there were several almost insurmountable
+difficulties in the way of its adoption. To clear the San Juan river,
+and make it into a great canal, would entail great labour and expense,
+and then seven or eight locks would be required. On the Pacific side
+locks would also be required for the Rivas, while the harbours of
+Greytown on the Gulf side, and Brito on the Pacific, were quite unsuited
+as termini for a canal. The total length would be 182-1/2 miles, and the
+time occupied in the passage four and a half days. There was also
+another great draw-back: Nicaragua was and is subject to earthquakes,
+which would be likely at times to interfere greatly with such heavy
+works as were required. It followed, therefore, that notwithstanding the
+powerful support of the Americans, this line was abandoned in favour of
+that from Port Simon to Panama, not far from the railway.
+
+Two French officers, MM. Wyse and Reclus, had explored the country, and
+proposed to carry the canal through the Chagres river, and thence, by
+means of a great tunnel, into the valley of the Rio Grande; but, on
+consideration, the tunnel was abandoned in favour of a deep cutting,
+which would not exceed 290 feet. The great objection to this was the
+floods of the Chagres river, which sometimes rose twenty-five feet in a
+single night; but this was got over by arranging for a separate bed for
+the canal. There were a few other difficulties, but propositions were
+made to obviate them; and at last the sub-commission reported that "the
+Panama Canal on the level technically presents itself under the most
+satisfactory conditions, and ensures every facility, as it gives every
+security, for the transit of vessels from one sea to another."
+
+Now came the question of cost. The Nicaragua Canal was estimated at
+£32,000,000, and that at Panama £40,000,000. (The reader will compare
+these with former estimates, especially that of Nicaragua as stated by
+the _Times_.) The former was rejected absolutely, on account of the
+necessity for locks, and all further discussion was concerned with the
+latter. It was then calculated that, with transit dues of fifteen francs
+per ton, the net annual profit would be £1,680,000.
+
+M. de Lesseps was elected to the Academy in 1885, when M. Renan said he
+had been born to pierce isthmuses, and that antiquity would have made
+him a god. Carried away by enthusiasm, the great projector saw no
+difficulties; he had already completed a work which had been declared
+almost impossible, now he would carry out a project similar to that
+proposed by William Paterson. However, Panama was not Suez, a rainless
+desert, but a place where floods, marshes, and quagmires took the place
+of almost level sands.
+
+M. Wyse had vainly tried to start a Company; but when Lesseps, with all
+the prestige of his Suez Canal, joined him, there was comparatively
+little difficulty. Personally, Lesseps seems to have known little of
+Panama--all his knowledge was gained at second hand. The first public
+subscription was invited in July, 1879, the capital being 400,000,000
+francs (£16,000,000), in 800,000 shares at 500 francs each. This large
+sum, however, was not obtained at once, only £3,200,000 being applied
+for. However, Lesseps was not discouraged, but determined to go on with
+the work, trusting that money would flow in as it was wanted, which
+ultimately proved to be the case, until the project appeared hopeless.
+He visited the isthmus, and made a triumphal progress over the line; he
+even witnessed one of the great floods of the Chagres river, which rose
+forty feet and covered the railway. Undaunted by this, he went over to
+Panama, and on the 5th of January, 1880, inaugurated the great canal
+with a ceremony and _fête_. He then stated that success was assured, and
+declared, upon his word of honour, that the work would be much easier on
+the isthmus than in the desert of Suez.
+
+In March following he visited New York, where he was but coldly
+received, on account of American jealousy of European influence. The
+President said that the capital invested in such an enterprise by
+corporations or citizens of other countries must be protected by one or
+more of the great Powers, but no European Power could intervene for such
+protection without adopting means which the United States would deem
+inadmissible. This did not damp his enthusiasm; if other countries would
+not assist, all the credit would go to France. The Company had a
+concession from the Columbian Republic for twelve years, and the United
+States would not be likely to interfere.
+
+It will be interesting here to compare the estimates for the canal by
+different persons and at different times within two years:--
+
+    M. Wyse, 1879                              £17,080,000
+    The Paris Congress, 1879                    41,760,000
+    The Lesseps Commission, February, 1880      33,720,000
+    M. de Lesseps himself,     "        "       26,320,000
+    Rectified estimate, September, 1880         21,200,000
+
+Lesseps said he had an offer from a contractor to complete the work for
+twenty millions. Backed by the press and the deputies, the Company's
+shares sold freely, and on the 3rd of March, 1881, it was fully
+established. It was promised that in the course of that year the line of
+the canal should be cleared, and dredging commenced. Lesseps expected to
+finish in 1887, but in 1884 and the two following years he was obliged
+to advance the time to 1890. The canal was to be 47 miles long, 70 feet
+wide at the bottom, and 29 feet deep.
+
+Little was done in 1881, but the work was divided into five sections,
+and in the following year dredging and excavating were commenced. But,
+even thus early, it was found to be more difficult than had been
+expected. Up to March, 1883, only 659,703 metres had been excavated,
+which was reckoned to be about 1/130th of the whole. This would not do,
+as it meant that over a century would pass before its completion. About
+seven thousand labourers, mostly Jamaica negroes, were employed at that
+time, and this number was increased until, in 1888, there were 11,500.
+In 1884 the average amount excavated was 600,000 metres per month,
+against Lesseps' estimate of two millions. Yet, with all that, it was
+calculated that in this year only 1/180th of the material had been taken
+out.
+
+The difficulties were enormous. First, there was trouble to find dumping
+places, where the earth would not be again washed into the excavations
+by heavy floods. Then came the rank vegetation, which was continually
+stretching from either side to choke the clearing. Weeds grew six to
+eight feet high in a rainy season, and these, with the straggling vines,
+kept a little army at work to clear them away from the embankments and
+tracks. The workmen suffered greatly from yellow and other fevers, and
+£600,000 was spent on hospitals and their appurtenances. Money was spent
+profusely on such things as grand offices and a magnificent house to
+lodge the President, if he should ever come to inspect the works. All
+along the route were ornamental bungalows, and the director-general at
+Panama had a salary of £20,000, besides a house and other allowances.
+Even he suffered from fever, and his wife and daughter died of it.
+
+Up to 1888 about fifty millions sterling had been spent, and hardly a
+fifth of the work was finished. Then financial difficulties led to an
+arrangement for merging it in a new Company, which proposed to complete
+the canal on a new plan. Notwithstanding all the objections to locks, it
+was now proposed to save such an immense work of excavation by erecting
+four on either side, thus bringing the highest water level to 123 feet.
+Eighteen and a half miles were said to have been completed, of which
+five were on the Pacific side and the remainder on the Gulf. To carry
+out the new plan, £36,000,000 more were required, but, as a matter of
+fact, only a third of the work necessary for this revised scheme had
+been done.
+
+Then came the downfall, which has been compared to that of the South Sea
+Bubble. When the Company went into liquidation, scores of shady
+transactions came to light. Editors of newspapers and deputies had been
+bribed to gain their support, and money had been wasted in almost every
+possible manner. In February, 1893, M. Ferdinand de Lesseps and four
+other directors were prosecuted, with the result that he, MM. C. de
+Lesseps, Fontaine, and Cottin, were convicted of breach of trust and
+swindling, the two former being sentenced to five years' imprisonment
+and 3,000 francs fines each, and the latter two years and 20,000 francs
+fines. M. Eiffel, the architect of the great tower of Paris, was found
+guilty of breach of trust, and sentenced to two years' imprisonment and
+a fine of 20,000 francs. Nine persons were then charged with receiving
+bribes, one of whom, M. Baïhaut, admitted that he got 375,000 francs.
+Three were found guilty, sentenced to imprisonment, fines, and to pay
+the liquidators of the company the amount of M. Baïhaut's bribe. Charles
+de Lesseps appealed against the charges of swindling, and these were
+quashed on the ground that the transactions had occurred more than five
+years before, thus getting the longer terms of imprisonment and fines of
+the three principals reduced.
+
+Ferdinand de Lesseps hardly knew what was going on; he was old, feeble,
+and in a state of apathy and stupor. Pity for his condition prevented
+the carrying out of the sentence as far as he was concerned, and he died
+on the 7th of December, 1894. The _Times_, in noticing his death, said
+the story was a most pitiful one. The blame of the Panama affair must be
+laid upon the people and the public temper. Bribery and corruption were
+symptoms of a thoroughly unhealthy state of things. An infatuated public
+provided enormous sums; when these were spent, more went the same way,
+and to get these contributions everything possible was done. Lesseps was
+no engineer, but a diplomatist, planning great schemes and the means of
+carrying them out. He was the man of the moment in France. He was
+neither a financier nor an engineer, neither an impostor nor a swindler.
+He was a man of great originality, of indomitable perseverance, of
+boundless faith in himself, and of singular powers of fascination over
+others.
+
+Meanwhile several attempts had been made to get money to carry on the
+work, one of which was by means of a lottery. But the French people were
+discouraged, and were no longer prepared to throw good money after bad.
+It followed, therefore, that although in 1894 a new company, with a
+capital of sixty-five million francs, was proposed, and that it was
+announced in August that eight hundred workmen were engaged, it does not
+appear that anything is being done. If, as has been stated, only a third
+of the work has been accomplished for, say, thirty millions, allowing
+for waste of money, it can hardly be expected that double this amount
+will ever be obtained. What with the heavy floods and rank vegetation, a
+great deal will have to be done to recover lost ground; in fact, some of
+the excavations must be filled up by this time. Those who know the
+country can easily understand that the handsome bungalows, hospitals,
+and workmen's houses must be overrun by wood-ants, and that the
+machinery is mostly spoilt by rust. Even if the canal is ever finished
+with locks, it is doubtful whether it could pay a dividend, as the work
+of keeping it open by dredging would be very expensive. No doubt it
+would be a boon to the world if it were finished, but capitalists expect
+profit, and will hardly be inclined to assist without such expectations.
+
+[Illustration: EUROPE SUPPORTED BY AFRICA AND AMERICA.
+
+(_From Stedman's "Surinam."_)]
+
+The Nicaragua canal has been in course of excavation for several years
+past by an American Company. As finally adopted, it is to have a total
+length of 169.4 miles, of which 56-1/2 will be through the lake, and 64½
+through the San Juan river. There are to be three locks on either side,
+which may cause trouble in case of a violent earthquake; and then,
+again, the length of the journey will be against it as compared with
+that of Panama. It has been attempted in the United States to make it a
+national work, and the sum of a hundred million dollars is asked from
+the American Government, or at least a guarantee on the issue of bonds
+to that amount. We believe that very little enthusiasm for the project
+has been shown. In August, 1893, the Company was unable to meet its
+obligations, and a receiver was appointed, since which time we believe
+the work is being continued, and that it has been decided to complete it
+as soon as possible. M. de Varigny, in _L'Illustration_ of June the 1st,
+1895, gives the following opinion on the work and its political
+importance:--
+
+"That the Washington statesmen take account of the fact that the cutting
+of the isthmus is difficult, costly, and, in case of a rupture with
+England, dangerous, we cannot doubt. But such is the fascination of
+great enterprises, of grand words and grand theories, that senators and
+representatives hesitate to oppose the current of opinion that is
+bearing along the masses.
+
+"The work has begun, and we can only hope that it will succeed. There
+cannot be too many gates of communication between different peoples. The
+United States undertake to open this. Can they do it, and doing it, will
+they give up the advantages they will thereby acquire? The future will
+show."
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+    Acosta, Pedro de, explorer of the Orinoco, 43
+
+    African slavery, 157
+
+    Aguirre the Tyrant, 38
+
+    Alfinger, Ambrosio de, searches for "El Dorado," 34
+
+    Altienza, Donna Inez de, murdered by Aguirre, 39
+
+    Amazon Company, 83
+
+    Amazon, expedition of Ursua and Aguirre, 38
+
+    American Indian, his character, 1
+
+    _Amis des Noirs_, 257
+
+    "Angel Gabriel," John Sayers Orr, rouses the negroes of Demerara, 335
+
+    Antigua, 165
+
+    Anti-slavery party, 289, 298
+
+    Apprenticeship, negro, 306
+
+    Araby, a leader of bush negroes, 227
+
+    Arawaks,
+      their character, 2;
+      Columbus tries to enslave them, 9;
+      the Spanish sovereign's good feeling for them, 9;
+      their treatment by the first colonists, 11;
+      did not lay up provisions, 12;
+      thinks Spaniards gods, 12;
+      refuse to be slaves, 18;
+      die off in great numbers, 18;
+      in Guiana, 23, 75
+
+    Araya, Dutch at, 75
+
+    Armada, Spanish, 63, 64
+
+    Aruba, 277
+
+    Aspinwall, 352
+
+    _Assiento_ contract to supply slaves, 196
+
+    Ayscue, Sir George, reduces Barbados for the Parliament, 124
+
+
+    Bahamas,
+      natives kidnapped, 19;
+      settled by English, 86;
+      resort of buccaneers, 96;
+      captured by Spaniards, 117
+
+    Baïhaut, M., bribed by Panama Canal Company, 361
+
+    Bannister, Major, English Governor of Surinam, 169
+
+    Barbados,
+      first colonised, 85;
+      protests against grant to Earl of Carlisle, 117;
+      result of the English revolution, 117;
+      Charles II. proclaimed king, 122;
+      Sir George Ayscue arrives to subdue the island, 124;
+      attack on Hole Town, 126;
+      the island surrenders, 128;
+      sufferings of a bond-servant in, 151;
+      De Ruyter driven off from, 161;
+      its unique position, 208;
+      negro plots, 213;
+      anti-slavery insurrection, 293;
+      result of emancipation, 328;
+      confederation disturbances, 341
+
+    Barker, Andrew, a rover, 62
+
+    Baron, a bush negro chief, 229
+
+    Basco, Michael de, a buccaneer, 99, 102
+
+    Baskerville, Sir Thomas, a companion of Drake, 65
+
+    Beaudierre, Mons. de, a sympathiser with the coloured people of
+      Hayti, 259
+
+    Berbice,
+      supplies cut off during war, 170;
+      captured by French corsairs, 178, 179;
+      great slave insurrection, 218
+
+    Belize, 250
+
+    Berrie, one of Ralegh's captains, 74
+
+    Berrio, Antonio de, Spanish Governor of Trinidad, 69
+
+    Bolivar, Simon, Liberator of Venezuela, 279
+
+    Bond-servants, 149
+
+    Boyer, President of Hayti, 275
+
+    Brethren of the coast, 93
+
+    British Guiana, 328, 334
+
+    British Legion in Venezuela, 286
+
+    Bull of Partition,
+      its terms, 48;
+      disputed, 49;
+      practically revoked, 134
+
+    Bush negroes, 225
+
+    Buxton, Fowell, 300
+
+    Byam, Major, Governor of Surinam, 128
+
+    Byron, Admiral, 241, 242
+
+
+    Caciques of the Indians, their position, 4
+
+    California rush, 351
+
+    Campeachy, Bay of, 96, 200
+
+    Cannibals, 20, 31
+
+    Canning's declaration of neutrality, 285
+
+    Caribana, 75
+
+    Caribbee Islands, 20, 85
+
+    Caribs,
+      their character, 6;
+      cannibalism, 20, 31;
+      hatred of Spaniards, 20;
+      in Guiana, 23, 75;
+      in St. Kitt's, 88
+
+    Carlisle, Earl of, Grantee of Caribbee Islands, 85, 122
+
+    Carthagena,
+      taken by French, 178;
+      great fair, 184;
+      attacked by Admiral Vernon, 205
+
+    Cary, Colonel, favours the buccaneers, 165
+
+    Casas, Las, 46
+
+    Cassard, Jacques,
+      the corsair, 179;
+      captures St. Eustatius, 180;
+      Curaçao, 181
+
+    Cattle, wild, 21
+
+    "Cavaliers" and "Roundheads" in Barbados, 119
+
+    Central American Republics, 288
+
+    Chagres, 352
+
+    Charbon, Jan Abraham, 219
+
+    Charles I. and the Colonies, 114
+
+    Charles II.
+      declared king in the Bermudas and Virginia, 117;
+      Barbados, 122;
+      his interest in the plantations, 135
+
+    Chinese labourers introduced, 327
+
+    Christianity forced on the natives, 8, 27
+
+    Christophe, a Haytian leader, 269, 274
+
+    Clervaux, a Haytian leader, 271
+
+    Clifford, Jeronomy, case of, 173
+
+    Cochrane, Admiral, 277
+
+    Codrington, Colonel, 119
+
+    Coffee, 143
+
+    Coffee, leader of rebel slaves in Berbice, 221, 223
+
+    Coke, John, 84
+
+    Colon, 352
+
+    Colonies, Spanish, in Hispaniola, 11, 14
+
+    Coloured people in Hayti, 257
+
+    Columbian Republic, 288
+
+    Columbus' opinion of the natives, 6
+
+    Confederation in Barbados, 341
+
+    Contraband trade with Spanish colonies, 53, 57, 201
+
+    Convict labour, 147
+
+    Coolies, East Indian, 327
+
+    Cooper, Anthony Ashley, 147
+
+    Corsairs, 49, 177
+
+    Corteso, Juan, an "El Dorado" seeker, 45
+
+    Costa Rica, 288
+
+    Cottin, M., 360
+
+    Cotton, 15, 18, 141
+
+    Council for Plantations, 135, 146
+
+    Cromwell and the West Indies, 129
+
+    Cudjo, a maroon chief, 215
+
+    Cuba, 20
+
+    Cullen, Dr. E., projector of the Darien Canal, 353
+
+    Curaçao, 115, 152, 165, 180, 238
+
+
+    Darbey, John, an English prisoner in Cuba, 171
+
+    Darien Canal, 353
+
+    Darien scheme, 188
+
+    Delgado, Augustine, an "El Dorado" seeker, 46
+
+    Demerara, 213, 246, 252, 301
+
+    Dessalines,
+      a chief in the Haytian insurrection, 271;
+      crowned emperor, 274
+
+    Dogs,
+      hunt Indians, 16;
+      run wild, 22;
+      hunt maroons, 235;
+      hunt rebel negroes, 271
+
+    Dominica, 91, 116, 238, 241, 249
+
+    _Dominus Vobiscum_, one of the first English vessels in the West
+      Indies, 49
+
+    D'Oyley, Governor of Jamaica, 134
+
+    Drake, Sir Francis,
+      voyage with Hawkins, 57;
+      raid on Nombre de Dios, 59;
+      great expedition to the West Indies, 63;
+      captures St. Domingo, 64;
+      last voyage, 65;
+      death, 65
+
+    Drax, Colonel, 120
+
+    Du Casse, a French corsair, 177
+
+    Dudley, Sir Robert, 66
+
+    Dutch, 67, 75, 84, 86, 115, 129, 166
+
+
+    Edwards, Bryan, 157
+
+    Eiffel, M., 360
+
+    "El Dorado,"
+      the quest for, 23;
+      dangers, 24;
+      germ of the story, 32;
+      Martinez' report, 44
+
+    Elizabeth, Queen, 67
+
+    Emancipation,
+      Great Britain, 289;
+      France, 310;
+      Denmark, 312;
+      Holland, 313;
+      Spain, 313
+
+    Enambuc, M. d', first French settler, 87-8, 116
+
+    Enciso, Bachelor, 29
+
+    English and Dutch, 67, 68, 114
+
+    Essequebo, 213
+
+    Everson, a Dutch pirate, 177
+
+    Eyre, Governor of Jamaica, 339
+
+
+    Fedreman, Nicholas, an "El Dorado" seeker, 35
+
+    Ferdinand and Isabella,
+      kind feelings towards the Indians, 10;
+      grant from the Pope, 48
+
+    Fontaine, Father, a Catholic missionary, 134
+
+    Fontaine, M., a Panama defaulter, 360
+
+    Fourgeaud, Colonel, 227
+
+    Franklin, Washington, 294
+
+    Free trade, 324
+
+    French,
+      in the West Indies, 49-51, 87;
+      company for settling the islands, 116;
+      character of, 167;
+      revolution, its influence on Hayti, effect on the Spanish Main, 276
+
+
+    George of Spires, an "El Dorado" seeker, 35
+
+    German knights in Venezuela, 33
+
+    Gold-hunting, 11, 15, 23, 29, 73
+
+    Gordon, Mr., a Member of the Jamaica Assembly, executed, 340
+
+    Grasse, Count de, 241, 249
+
+    Grenada, 238
+
+    Groenwegel, Commander of Essequebo, 86
+
+    Guadeloupe, 238, 251
+
+    _Guanin_, 23
+
+    Guatavita, Lake of, 32
+
+    Guatemala, 288
+
+    Guiana, 23, 69
+
+    Guianians, 44
+
+    Guichen, Admiral de, 241, 249
+
+    Güiria, 282
+
+    Guzman, Fernando de, 38
+
+
+    Haïti, Hayti, or Hispaniola,
+      its inhabitants, 3;
+      colonised, 11;
+      gold found, 11;
+      almost ruined by becoming depopulated, 21;
+      a resort of buccaneers, 91;
+      under the French, 251;
+      downfall, 257;
+      British invasion, 268;
+      republics and empires, 274
+
+    Hall, Captain, exploit of, 206
+
+    Harcourt, Robert, in Guiana, 76
+
+    Harry, a Guiana Indian, in London, 77, 78
+
+    Hartop, Job, a prisoner in Mexico, 58
+
+    Havana,
+      ransomed, 50;
+      sacked and burnt, 51
+
+    Hawkins, Sir John,
+      first voyage, 53;
+      second, 54;
+      third, 57;
+      final trip with Drake, and death, 65
+
+    Hawkins, William, voyage to Brazil, 52
+
+    Hennessy, Governor John Pope, of Barbados, 341, 345
+
+    Henri I. (Christophe), Emperor of Hayti, 274
+
+    Henry VIII. of England sends an expedition to the West Indies, 49
+
+    Herera, Alonzo de, 45
+
+    Hogs naturalised in Hispaniola, see Haïti
+
+    Hondo river, 250
+
+    Hood, Sir Samuel, 238
+
+    Hoogenheim, Wolfert Simon van, Governor of Berbice, 218
+
+    Huten, Philip von, an "El Dorado" seeker, 36
+
+
+    Iala, Father, an "El Dorado" seeker, 45
+
+    Indian, character of, 1
+
+
+    Jackson, Colonel, captures Santiago de la Vega, 116
+
+    Jacques I. (Dessalines), Emperor of Hayti, 274
+
+    Jamaica,
+      Valdivia wrecked off the coast, 30;
+      attacked by Colonel Jackson, 116;
+      captured by English, 131;
+      Spanish attempt to recapture, 133;
+      the first real British colony, 136;
+      progress of, 155;
+      authorities refuse help to the Darien colony, 193;
+      slave revolts, 214;
+      serious negro insurrection, 338
+
+    James I.,
+      friendship for Spain, 82, 114;
+      dispute with Spain about the West Indies and Virginia, 113
+
+    Jeffreys, Judge, sends prisoners to Barbados, 150
+
+    Jenkins, Captain, and his ear, 202
+
+    Jervis, Admiral Sir John, 251
+
+    Jews in the West Indies, 239, 245
+
+
+    Keymis, Captain, a follower of Ralegh, 74, 77-9, 81
+
+    Kyk-over-al, Dutch fort in Essequebo, 76
+
+
+    Labour difficulties, 14, 137, 321
+
+    Lafayette, 260
+
+    Lawrence, Captain, an English pirate, 99
+
+    Legrand, Pierre, a French pirate, 99
+
+    Leigh, Charles, first English settler in Guiana, 76
+
+    Lesseps, Ferdinand de, and his Panama scheme, 356
+
+    Lolonois, the great pirate, 101
+
+
+    Macatoa, reported a very rich city, 36
+
+    Madeirans imported into British Guiana, 327
+
+    Maltese imported into British Guiana, 327
+
+    Manoa, city of, fabulous residence of "El Dorado," 44
+
+    Margarita, 114, 152
+
+    Marino, Dictator of Venezuela, 283
+
+    Maroons or Simarons, 59, 211, 232
+
+    Martinez, Juan de, his report of "El Dorado," 43
+
+    Martinique, 116, 182, 238, 251, 259
+
+    Mauduit, Captain, murdered in the Haytian revolt, 262
+
+    Merrifield, Ralph, one of the first settlers in St. Kitt's, 85
+
+    Methodists, 295
+
+    Miranda, Francisco, leader of the revolution in Venezuela, 277, 347
+
+    Missionaries, Protestant, 295, 327
+
+    Montbar, the French pirate, 100
+
+    Montserrat, 161, 165, 249
+
+    Morgan, Captain (afterwards Sir Henry), the English buccaneer, 102, 177
+
+    Morgan, Colonel, 162
+
+    Morillo, Marshal, Spanish leader in Venezuela, 284
+
+
+    _Navio de permisso_, 199
+
+    Negro slavery, 52, 59, 139, 156, 210
+
+    Negroes, free, difficulties with, 329
+
+    Nelson, Lord,
+      flying trip to the West Indies, 254;
+      his expedition to Nicaragua, 346
+
+    Nevis, 161, 249
+
+    New Edinburgh, 192
+
+    New Granada, 32, 33, 281, 288
+
+    New World, 1
+
+    Nicaragua and the canal scheme, 288, 346, 351, 355, 362
+
+    North, Roger, a settler in Guiana, 83, 85
+
+    _Nueva Dorado_, 70
+
+
+    Ojeda, Alonzo de, 27
+
+    Omaguas, reported a rich nation, 36
+
+    Ophir, 15, 23
+
+    Ordas, Diego de, explores the Orinoco, 43
+
+    Orders in Council, 300
+
+    Orr, John Sayers, "the Angel Gabriel," creates a disturbance in
+    Demerara, 335
+
+    Ouverture, Toussaint L', leader of the Haytian negroes, 268
+
+    Oxenham or Oxnam, John, crosses the Isthmus, 61
+
+    Oyapok, English colonies in the, 76, 83
+
+
+    Panama, 186, 347, 350
+
+    Panama Canal, 347, 353, 355
+
+    Panama Railway, 352
+
+    Parima Lake, 33
+
+    Paterson, William, and the Darien scheme, 188
+
+    Penn and Venables, Generals, expedition to the West Indies, 130
+
+    Perez, Diego, a gallant Spaniard, 50
+
+    Petion, President of Hayti, 274, 285
+
+    Philips, Miles, an English prisoner in Mexico, 58
+
+    Pirates in the West Indies, 49, 90
+
+    Pitman, Henry, a bond-servant, 150
+
+    Pitt, in favour of a Panama Canal, 347
+
+    Plantations, 143, 154, 291
+
+    Pointis, de, a leader of buccaneers, 178
+
+    Pomeroon, 75, 161
+
+    Pope, The,
+      issues Bull of Partition, 48;
+      acknowledges French rights in the West Indies, 134
+
+    Popham, Captain, captures Spanish letters, 69
+
+    Porto Bello,
+      its fair, 185;
+      captured by Vernon, 204
+
+    Porto Rico, 20, 49
+
+    Prince of Orange in England, 252
+
+    Privateers, 96, 98
+
+    Proclamations to the Indians, 27, 30
+
+    Providence Island, 86
+
+    Puerto Cabello, 277
+
+
+    Quesada, Herman de, an "El Dorado" seeker, 36
+
+
+    Ralegh Sir Walter,
+      at Trinidad, 66;
+      his "Letters Patent," 68;
+      his interest in Guiana, 69;
+      captures Trinidad, 70;
+      searches for "El Dorado," 72;
+      sent to the Tower, 76;
+      liberated, 77;
+      goes again to Guiana, 78;
+      capture of St. Thome, 79;
+      his execution, 82
+
+    Reclus, M., a Panama Canal projector, 356
+
+    Regapo, Leonard, a Guiana Indian, in London, 77
+
+    _Repartimientos_, 15
+
+    Robespierre, 260
+
+    Rodney, Admiral, 237, 242
+
+    Rossy, Sieur du, 116
+
+    Route of Spanish trade, 49
+
+    Rovers to the Main, 49, 66
+
+    Royal African Company for introducing slaves, 149
+
+    Rupert, Prince, 124
+
+    Ruyter, Admiral de, attacks Barbados, 161
+
+
+    St. Christopher's, or St. Kitt's,
+      settled by Thomas Warner, 84;
+      granted to the Earl of Carlisle, 85;
+      d'Enambuc arrives, 87;
+      divided between English and French, 88;
+      attacked by Spaniards, 114;
+      granted to a French Company, 116;
+      bond-servants in, 153;
+      quarrels between English and French, 162, 177, 207;
+      captured by French, 249
+
+    St. Croix or Santa Cruz, riots in, 311, 329
+
+    St. Domingo,
+      captured by Drake, 64;
+      attempted by Penn and Venables, 131
+
+    St. Eustatius, 86, 161, 181, 238, 243
+
+    St. Lucia, 238, 241, 251
+
+    St. Martin's, 115, 116
+
+    St. Thomas, 239
+
+    St. Vincent, 238
+
+    Salle, General de la, French Governor of St. Kitt's, 162
+
+    San Juan river, 346
+
+    Santa Martha, captured by French pirates, 51
+
+    Santiago de Cuba, gallant fight at, 50
+
+    Santiago de la Vega captured by English, 116
+
+    Savile, Henry, his "Libel of Spanish Lies," 66
+
+    Sedenno, Antonio, an "El Dorado" seeker, 45
+
+    Serfdom, 137, 145
+
+    Shelley, Colonel, a "Cavalier" in Barbados, 121
+
+    Simarons, _see_ Maroons
+
+    Slaves,
+      Indian, 19;
+      negro, 52, 59, 139, 156, 210, 289;
+      white (bond-servants), 146;
+      insurrections, 213, 294, 302;
+      abolition of the African trade, 255, 289;
+      runaways, 210;
+      Registrar and Protector of, 293;
+      emancipation of, 309;
+      reviews of slavery, 289
+
+    Smith, Rev. John, a missionary sentenced to death in connection with
+      a slave revolt, 303-6
+
+    South Sea Bubble, 187, 196
+
+    Spain,
+      character of her people, 9;
+      introducing Christianity, 9;
+      wanton cruelty to the natives, 18;
+      hardiness of Spaniards, 25;
+      their audacity, 30;
+      Spanish claim to supremacy, 114;
+      interference with their trade, 133;
+      Spanish cruelty to prisoners of war, 171
+
+    "Spiriting" or kidnapping white servants, 146;
+      made felony 147
+
+    Sugar cane, 19, 141
+
+    Suicides, 18
+
+    Surinam, 161, 165, 167, 171, 179
+
+    Sylva, Gaspar de, an "El Dorado" seeker, 45
+
+
+    Tison, Thomas, first English trader to West Indies, 49
+
+    Tobacco, 141
+
+    Tobago, 115, 238, 251
+
+    Toledo, Don Frederic de, captures St. Kitt's, 114
+
+    Tortuga, the great rendezvous of the buccaneers, 95, 102, 165
+
+    Trade forced upon the Spanish settlers, 53, 57
+
+    Transported convicts, 147
+
+    Treasure seeking, 23
+
+    Trelawny Town, 232
+
+    Tribute imposed on natives, 15
+
+    Trinidad, 70, 328
+
+
+    Ursua, Pedro de, murdered by the tyrant Aguirre, 38
+
+    Utrecht, treaty of, 196
+
+
+    Valdivia, his shipwreck, 30
+
+    Van Horn the pirate, 103
+
+    Vanderbilt Transit Company, 351
+
+    Venables and Penn, Generals, their expedition, 130
+
+    Venezuela,
+      the treasure seekers in, 23;
+      her struggle for independence, 277
+
+    Vernon, Admiral, 204, 205, 337
+
+    Virgin Islands, 96
+
+    Virginia, 113
+
+
+    Wafer, Lionel, his journey across the Isthmus, 105
+
+    Walker, William, the modern filibuster, 352
+
+    Walrond, Colonel, a "Cavalier" in Barbados, 121
+
+    Warner, Thomas, founder of the colony of St. Kitt's, 84, 85, 88
+
+    Wars,
+      England and Spain, 63, 114, 130;
+      Holland and Spain, 87, 114;
+      France and Spain, 116;
+      England and Holland, 129, 160;
+      England and France against Holland and Spain, 170;
+      France against England and Holland, 177;
+      Spain, England, and Holland against France, 178;
+      England and Holland against France and Spain, 195;
+      England and Spain, 203;
+      England and her revolted colonies, 241;
+      France, Spain, and Holland join in the quarrel, 243;
+      commencement of the great French war, 251;
+      England and the United States, 255
+
+    Watts, Governor, of St. Kitt's, 162
+
+    Welsers of Augsburg, 33
+
+    West India Company of Holland, 87
+
+    William III. and the Darien scheme, 194
+
+    Willoughby, Lord, Governor of Barbados, 122, 124-8, 164
+
+    Wyse, M., a Panama Canal projector, 356
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The Gresham Press,
+
+UNWIN BROTHERS,
+
+WOKING AND LONDON.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The West Indies and the Spanish Main
+[1899], by James Rodway
+
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The West Indies and the Spanish Main [1899], by 
+James Rodway
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The West Indies and the Spanish Main [1899]
+
+Author: James Rodway
+
+Release Date: June 14, 2010 [EBook #32809]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WEST INDIES ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Steven Gibbs, Jane Hyland and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i">[Pg i-iii]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>The Story of the Nations</h3>
+
+<h2>THE WEST INDIES<br /><br /></h2>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 70px;">
+<img src="images/p_i.jpg" width="70" height="67" alt="" title="" />
+<br /></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 451px;">
+<img src="images/frontispiece.jpg" width="451" height="312" alt="RECEPTION OF SPANIARDS BY ARAWAKS." title="" />
+<span class="caption">RECEPTION OF SPANIARDS BY ARAWAKS.<br />
+(<i>From Gottfried's "Reisen."</i>)</span></div>
+
+<h1><br />THE WEST INDIES<br /></h1>
+
+<h4>AND THE</h4>
+
+<h1>SPANISH MAIN<br /><br /></h1>
+
+<h4>BY</h4>
+
+<h3>JAMES RODWAY</h3>
+
+<h4><i>SECOND IMPRESSION</i><br /></h4>
+
+<h2>London</h2>
+
+<h3><br />T. FISHER UNWIN</h3>
+
+<h4>PATERNOSTER SQUARE</h4>
+
+<h5>MDCCCXCIX</h5>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[Pg iv-vi]</a></span><br /></p>
+<h4><span class="smcap">Copyright by T. Fisher Unwin</span>, 1896<br />
+(For Great Britain).<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Copyright by G.P. Putnam's Sons</span>, 1896<br />
+(For the United States of America).<br /></h4>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>INTRODUCTION</h2>
+
+
+<p>The story of the West Indies and Spanish Main
+is one to stir the hearts of many nations. The shores
+of the Caribbean Sea have been the scene of marvellous
+adventures, of intense struggles between races
+and peoples, of pain, trouble, and disaster of almost
+every description. No wonder that the romance
+writer has laid his scenes upon its beautiful islands
+and deep blue waters, for nowhere in the world,
+perhaps, could he find such a wealth of incident.
+From "Robinson Crusoe" to Marryat's genial stories,
+and down to "Westward Ho!" and "Treasure
+Island," old and young have been entranced for
+many generations with its stories of shipwrecks,
+pirates, sea-fights, and treasure-seekers. Yet with
+all this the field has not been exhausted, for hardly
+a year passes without a new romance dealing more
+or less with the "Indies."</p>
+
+<p>Under this name of the Indies the islands and
+continent were first known to the Spaniards, and it
+was not until some years had passed that the mainland
+received the name of <i>Terra Firma</i>. The string
+of islands facing the Atlantic were the Antilles, so<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span>
+called from a traditional island to the west of the
+Azores, marked on maps and globes of the fifteenth
+century. This "Bow of Ulysses," as Froude called
+the islands, was divided into the Greater and Lesser
+Antilles, the latter being also known as the Caribbees,
+from their original inhabitants. Other divisions were
+made later into Windward and Leeward Islands, but
+these differed so much in the descriptions of different
+nations that it would be as well to leave them out of
+the question. Perhaps the best way would be to
+name the whole the Antilles or West Indian Islands
+and divide them, in going from north to south, into
+the Bahamas, the Greater Antilles, and the Caribbees.</p>
+
+<p>When we think of these beautiful islands and
+shores they recall those of that other "Great Sea"
+which was such a mighty factor in the development
+of Greece and Rome, Ph&oelig;nicia and Carthage, Venice
+and Genoa. As Ulysses and &AElig;neas wandered about
+the Mediterranean, so the early voyagers sailed along
+the coasts of the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of
+Mexico in fear of anthropophagoi, amazons, giants,
+and fiery dragons. As the Indies were the scene of
+struggles between great nations and the raids of buccaneers,
+so also was the Mediterranean a battlefield for
+Christian and Turk, and a centre for piracy.</p>
+
+<p>Reports of golden cities, pearls and emeralds in
+profusion, and wealth that passed all description, led
+the Spaniards to explore every island and river, until
+the cannibals became less alarming. Yet their sufferings
+were terrible. Hurricanes sunk their frail craft
+on the sea and earthquakes wrung their very souls on
+land. Starvation, with its consequent sickness and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span>
+death, destroyed one party after another, but they
+still went on. The discovery of the riches of Mexico
+and Peru led them to look for other rich nations, and
+to travel thousands of miles on the mainland, guided
+by the reports of the Indians. Undaunted by suffering
+and failure, they would often try again and again,
+perhaps only to perish in the attempt at last.</p>
+
+<p>The treasures of the Indies made Spain the greatest
+nation in Europe. With her riches she could do
+almost anything. Other nations bowed down before
+her, and she became sovereign of the seas and mistress
+of the world. No matter how it was obtained, gold
+and silver flowed into her coffers; what did she care
+that it was obtained by the bloody sweat of the poor
+Indians?</p>
+
+<p>Then came envy and jealousy. Why should Spain
+claim the whole of the New World? England,
+Holland, and France began to dispute her supremacy
+and determined to get a share of the good things.
+The "invincible domination" of Spain led her to
+declare war against England, with the result that the
+hardy sea-dogs of that time began to worry the fat
+galleons at sea, and to pillage the treasure dep&ocirc;ts on
+the Main.</p>
+
+<p>And here we must mention that there were two
+important places in the Indies where Spain was
+most vulnerable&mdash;the Mona Passage between Hispaniola
+and Porto Rico and the Isthmus of Darien.
+Through the first came the outward fleets with
+supplies, and on their return with gold and silver,
+while on the Isthmus was the dep&ocirc;t for merchandise
+and the great treasure store. At these two points the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[Pg x]</a></span>
+enemy congregated, either as ships of war, buccaneers,
+corsairs, or pirates, and in their neighbourhood some
+of the most bitter struggles took place. There was
+no peace in the Indies, whatever might nominally be
+the case in Europe. Englishmen's blood boiled at
+the atrocities of the Spaniards, but we are afraid it
+was not love for the oppressed alone that made them
+massacre the Spaniards whenever they got an opportunity.
+The poor Indian received but a scant measure
+of justice from these very people, when as a matter of
+convenience they required possession of the Caribbee
+islands.</p>
+
+<p>Other nations took possession of smaller islands,
+unoccupied by Spain, and from these centres continued
+their raids, as privateers in war, and as pirates
+at other times. Sometimes they were united among
+themselves against the common enemy, sometimes
+at war with each other. France and Holland against
+England, England and Holland against France&mdash;nothing
+but quarrels and fighting. Now an island
+changed hands, and again it was restored or recaptured.
+The planters were never sure of being able to reap
+their crops, and often had literally to superintend the
+estate work, armed with sword and arquebuse, while
+their black and white slaves cultivated the soil.</p>
+
+<p>Now the West Indies became the great training
+ground for three maritime nations&mdash;England, France,
+and Holland. Spain lost her prestige, and the
+struggle lay among her enemies for over a century.
+At first the three disputants for her place were equally
+matched; then Holland dropped behind, leaving
+England and France to fight it out. The struggle<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</a></span>
+was a very close one, which only ended with the fall
+of Napoleon, and it was in the Caribbean Sea where
+the great check to France took place. Here Rodney
+defeated De Grasse, and here Nelson and many
+another naval officer gained that experience which
+served them so well in other parts of the world.</p>
+
+<p>Here also was the scene of that great labour experiment,
+the African slave-trade. The atrocities of
+the Spaniards caused the depopulation of the Greater
+Antilles, and led to the importation of negroes.
+Whatever may be said against slavery, there can
+hardly be any question that the African has been
+improved by his removal to another part of the world
+and different surroundings. True, he has not progressed
+to the extent that was expected by his
+friends when they paid such an enormous sum for
+his enfranchisement; still, there are undoubtedly signs
+of progress.</p>
+
+<p>The white colonists in the West Indies never
+settled down to form the nucleus of a distinct people.
+Since the emancipation the islands have been more
+and more abandoned to the negroes and coloured
+people, with the result that although the government
+is mostly in the hands of the whites, they are in such
+a minority as to be almost lost. In Cuba there
+appears to be such a feeling of patriotism towards
+their own island that probably we shall soon hear
+of a new republic, but elsewhere in the islands our
+hopes for the future must lie in the negroes and
+coloured people.</p>
+
+<p>On the mainland the original inhabitants were not
+exterminated as in the large islands, and consequently<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[Pg xii]</a></span>
+we have there a most interesting process in course of
+accomplishment&mdash;the development of one or more
+nations. Here are the true Americans, and as the
+Gaul was merged in the Frank, and the Briton in the
+Saxon, so the Spaniard has been or will ultimately
+be lost in the American. At present the so-called
+Spanish republics are in their birth-throes&mdash;they are
+feeling their way. Through trouble and difficulty&mdash;revolution
+and tyranny&mdash;they have to march on,
+until they become stronger and more fitted to take
+their places among other nations. Out of the struggle
+they must ultimately come, and it will be a most
+interesting study for those who see the result.</p>
+
+<p>In Hispaniola we have also a nation in the course
+of development&mdash;an alien race from the old world.
+More backward than the Americans, the Africans of
+Ha&iuml;ti are struggling to gain a position among other
+nations, apparently without any good result. The
+nation is yet unborn, and its birth-throes are distressing.
+We look upon that beautiful island and
+feel sad that such a paradise should have fallen so
+low. As a race the negro has little of that internal
+power that makes for progress&mdash;he must be compelled
+to move on. Some are inclined to look upon him as
+in the course of degenerating into the savage, but
+we, on the contrary, believe him to be progressing
+slowly.</p>
+
+<p>In the islands belonging to European nations the
+influence of the dominant power is visible in the negro
+even when he has no trace of white blood. The
+French, English, or Dutch negro may be recognised
+by his manners, and even features. In some places<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[Pg xiii]</a></span>
+East Indians and Chinese have been imported, but
+these stand alone and make little impression. They
+are aliens as yet, and take little part in the development
+of the colonies.</p>
+
+<p>Latterly the West Indies have sunk into neglect
+by Europe. Except for the difficulties of the planters
+their history is almost a blank sheet. Few know
+.anything about the beautiful islands or the grand
+forests of the mainland. Even the discovery of gold
+in Guiana, which goes to confirm the reports of
+Ralegh, three centuries ago, is only known to a few.
+Ruin and desolation have fallen upon them since the
+peace of 1815 and the emancipation. Even the negro&mdash;the
+<i>prot&eacute;g&eacute;</i> of the benevolent&mdash;is no longer the
+object of interest he once was. Cane sugar is being
+gradually ousted by that from the beet, and hardly
+anything has been done to replace its cultivation by
+other tropical products.</p>
+
+<p>Yet the islands are still as lovely as they were four
+centuries ago, and on the continent is a wealth of
+interest to the naturalist and lover of the beautiful.
+Now and again a tourist goes the round of the islands
+and publishes the result in a book of travel; but the
+countries are out of the track of civilisation and
+progress. Possibly if the Panama or Nicaragua Canal
+is ever finished things may be a little better, but at
+present the outlook is very dismal.</p>
+
+<p>In attempting to compress the story of the West
+Indies and Spanish Main within the covers of one
+volume we have undertaken a task by no means easy.
+Every island and every province has its own tale, and
+to do them all justice would require a hundred books.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[Pg xiv]</a></span>
+Every West Indian will find something missing&mdash;some
+event unmentioned which is of the greatest
+importance to his particular community. This is
+only to be expected, yet we believe that the reader
+will get a fairer idea of their importance when they
+are comprehended in one great whole. The photo
+block illustrations are from negatives prepared by
+Mr. Thomas B. Blow, F.L.S.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="80%" summary="toc">
+
+<tr><td align="center"><h2>CONTENTS</h2></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" style="width: 60%;"><br /><a href="#I">I</a></td><td align="right" style="width: 10%;"><br /><span class="smcap">page</span></td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td style="text-align:center"><span class="smcap">The Spaniards and their Victims</span></td><td style="text-align:right">1-22</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td style="text-align:left">The native Americans&mdash;The Arawak and the Carib&mdash;Their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">[Pg xv]</a></span>
+independent spirit&mdash;Their country&mdash;The character of the
+Spaniard&mdash;He wants to convert the natives to Christianity&mdash;"A
+ton of gold"&mdash;First Spanish settlers in Hispaniola&mdash;They
+ravage the island and are entirely cut off&mdash;The
+second colony oppresses the Indians&mdash;Repartimientos&mdash;Cruelties
+to the Indian slaves&mdash;Decrease of the population&mdash;Slave-hunting
+in other islands and on the Main&mdash;Resistance
+of the cannibals&mdash;Decline of Hispaniola.</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td style="text-align:center"><br /><a href="#II">II</a></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td style="text-align:center"><span class="smcap">The Quest for "El Dorado"</span></td><td style="text-align:right">23-47</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td style="text-align:left">Treasure-seeking and its dangers&mdash;Alonzo de Ojeda&mdash;The
+proclamation to the Indians&mdash;Disastrous voyage of Valdivia&mdash;A
+cannibal story&mdash;"El Dorado," the gilded one&mdash;The
+German knights&mdash;Ambrosio de Alfinger&mdash;George of Spires&mdash;Nicholas
+Fedreman and others&mdash;Pedro de Ursua and
+Lope de Aguirre&mdash;Pedro de Acosta&mdash;Diego de Ordas and
+Juan Martinez&mdash;The quest and its dangers.</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td style="text-align:center"><br /><a href="#III">III</a></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td style="text-align:center"><span class="smcap">Singeing the Spaniard's Beard</span></td><td style="text-align:right">48-67</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td style="text-align:left">The Papal Bull of partition&mdash;English and French seamen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi">[Pg xvi]</a></span>
+in the Indies&mdash;Raids on the Spanish possessions&mdash;Master
+William Hawkins goes to Brazil&mdash;The Caribs friendly to
+the enemies of Spain&mdash;John Hawkins carries negroes from
+Africa&mdash;Francis Drake's attack on Nombre de Dios&mdash;The
+Simaroons&mdash;Drake captures the Panama train&mdash;John Oxenham&mdash;Andrew
+Barker&mdash;Drake's second voyage&mdash;He
+captures St. Domingo and Carthagena&mdash;Last voyage of
+Drake and Hawkins&mdash;Death of Drake&mdash;Exploits of other
+adventurers.</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td style="text-align:center"><br /><a href="#IV">IV</a></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td style="text-align:center"><span class="smcap">Ralegh and the First British Colonies</span></td><td style="text-align:right">68-89</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td style="text-align:left">"Letters Patent" to Ralegh&mdash;"El Dorado" again&mdash;Ralegh's
+first voyage to Guiana&mdash;Keymis and Berrie&mdash;The
+Dutch in Guiana&mdash;Charles Leigh founds a settlement&mdash;Robert
+Harcourt's colony&mdash;Ralegh's imprisonment&mdash;He
+is released to again visit Guiana&mdash;Disastrous results&mdash;Roger
+North's colony&mdash;King James's want of policy&mdash;Changes
+after his death&mdash;St. Christopher's and Barbados
+&mdash;North's colony again&mdash;The Bahamas&mdash;The French and
+Dutch settlements&mdash;Rise of the Dutch&mdash;The French and
+English at St. Christopher's.</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td style="text-align:center"><br /><a href="#V">V</a></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td style="text-align:center"><span class="smcap">Buccaneers, Filibusters, and Pirates</span></td><td style="text-align:right">90-112</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td style="text-align:left">The buccaneers of Hispaniola&mdash;Tortuga&mdash;Bay of Campeachy&mdash;Privateers
+turning pirates&mdash;Pierre Legrand&mdash;Captains
+de Basco and Brouage&mdash;Captain Lawrence&mdash;Montbar
+the "Exterminator"&mdash;Lolonois&mdash;Morgan storms
+and captures Panama&mdash;He settles down in Jamaica&mdash;Van
+Horn&mdash;Raid on the South Sea&mdash;Lionel Wafer's journey
+across the Isthmus.</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td style="text-align:center"><br /><a href="#VI">VI</a></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td style="text-align:center"><span class="smcap">War in the Young Colonies</span></td><td style="text-align:right">113-136</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td style="text-align:left">Spanish raids&mdash;Effects of the "Great English Revolution"&mdash;The
+Caribbee Islands in revolt&mdash;Cavaliers and Roundheads<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xvii" id="Page_xvii">[Pg xvii]</a></span>
+in Barbados&mdash;Charles the Second declared king&mdash;Lord
+Willoughby arrives with a Commission from the
+fugitive&mdash;Persecution of the Roundheads&mdash;Sir George
+Ayscue sent out with a fleet to reduce Barbados&mdash;The
+island blockaded&mdash;Its surrender&mdash;Surinam held for the
+king&mdash;Cromwell and Spain&mdash;The Expedition to St. Domingo&mdash;Capture
+of Jamaica&mdash;Colonisation of the island&mdash;The
+Council for foreign plantations.</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td style="text-align:center"><br /><a href="#VII">VII</a></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td style="text-align:center"><span class="smcap">The Planters and their Slaves</span></td><td style="text-align:right">137-159</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td style="text-align:left">First adventurers not agriculturalists&mdash;Slaves wanted&mdash;Negroes
+imported&mdash;Sugar&mdash;Cotton&mdash;Tobacco&mdash;First plantations&mdash;Kidnapping&mdash;Prisoners
+transported&mdash;English
+slave-trade&mdash;Comparative cost of negroes and whites&mdash;Rebels&mdash;Story
+of Henry Pitman&mdash;Condition of the bond-servants&mdash;Life
+of the planter&mdash;Dangers of the voyage&mdash;Jamaica&mdash;Slavery
+in Africa&mdash;Treatment of the West Indian
+slave.</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td style="text-align:center"><br /><a href="#VIII">VIII</a></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td style="text-align:center"><span class="smcap">The Struggle for Supremacy</span></td><td style="text-align:right">160-183</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td style="text-align:left">Trade disputes between England and Holland&mdash;War&mdash;The
+buccaneers employed&mdash;Repulse of De Ruyter at Barbados&mdash;Capture
+of Dutch colonies by English&mdash;The French drive
+the English from St. Kitt's&mdash;Abortive attempts for its recapture&mdash;Peace
+of Breda&mdash;The value of the buccaneers to
+Jamaica&mdash;Character of the three nations now contending
+for supremacy&mdash;Case of Surinam&mdash;English refused permission
+to leave with their slaves&mdash;War again&mdash;Peace
+of Westminster and the exodus from Surinam&mdash;Case of
+Jeronomy Clifford&mdash;Sir Henry Morgan represses buccaneering&mdash;Another
+war&mdash;Du Casse and the Corsairs&mdash;Jacques
+Cassard&mdash;Curious position of Berbice&mdash;Cassard takes
+Cura&ccedil;ao&mdash;His downfall.</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td style="text-align:center"><br /><a href="#IX">IX</a></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td style="text-align:center"><span class="smcap">The Struggle for the Darien Trade</span></td><td style="text-align:right">184-206</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td style="text-align:left">Carthagena and Porto Bello fairs&mdash;The trade of the Isthmus&mdash;The
+joint-stock mania&mdash;William Paterson and the Darien<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xviii" id="Page_xviii">[Pg xviii]</a></span>
+scheme&mdash;Caledonia and New Edinburgh founded&mdash;Destruction
+of the colony&mdash;The <i>Assiento</i> contract&mdash;The Great South
+Sea Bubble&mdash;Vain attempts of the English to obtain free
+trade with the Spanish provinces&mdash;Attacks on the logwood
+cutters of Campeachy&mdash;War with Spain&mdash;Contraband
+traders and their losses&mdash;Captain Jenkins' ear&mdash;Another
+war with Spain&mdash;Admiral Vernon takes Porto Bello&mdash;His
+failure at Carthagena&mdash;English exploits.</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td style="text-align:center"><br /><a href="#X">X</a></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td style="text-align:center"><span class="smcap">Slave Insurrections and Bush Negroes</span></td><td style="text-align:right">207-236</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td style="text-align:left">Sufferings of the planters from war&mdash;Barbados alone as
+having never fallen to the enemy&mdash;Internal difficulties&mdash;Ferocity
+of slaves and cruelty of their punishments&mdash;The
+Maroons of Jamaica and bush negroes in Guiana&mdash;Slave
+insurrections&mdash;Abortive plots in Barbados&mdash;Troubles in
+Jamaica&mdash;Revolt in Antigua&mdash;The great slave insurrection
+in Berbice&mdash;The whites driven from the colony&mdash;Haunts of
+the Guiana bush negroes&mdash;Surinam in continual fear of
+their raids&mdash;Expeditions sent against them&mdash;Treaties&mdash;Great
+insurrection in Jamaica and suppression of the
+Maroons.</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td style="text-align:center"><br /><a href="#XI">XI</a></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td style="text-align:center"><span class="smcap">The Sovereignty of the Seas</span></td><td style="text-align:right">237-255</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td style="text-align:left">Downfall of Spain&mdash;England and France&mdash;Contraband
+traffic of the Dutch and Danes&mdash;Advantages of neutrality&mdash;The
+Jews in the islands&mdash;They support the buccaneers&mdash;The
+great war&mdash;England against the world&mdash;Admiral
+Rodney&mdash;His abortive fights with De Guichen&mdash;The training
+of his fleet&mdash;He captures St. Eustatius and confiscates
+private property&mdash;Capture of Demerara&mdash;Outcry against
+Rodney&mdash;British disasters&mdash;Rodney appears again&mdash;His
+decisive victory over De Grasse&mdash;Peace and its results&mdash;The
+great struggle with France and her allies&mdash;British
+supremacy&mdash;Peace of Amiens&mdash;War again&mdash;Nelson in the
+West Indies&mdash;The American war&mdash;Decline of the plantations
+from the abolition of the slave-trade.</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td style="text-align:center"><br /><a href="#XII">XII</a></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td style="text-align:center"><span class="smcap">Downfall of Hispaniola</span></td><td style="text-align:right">256-275</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td style="text-align:left">Results of the French Revolution&mdash;The friends of the blacks&mdash;The
+rights of man&mdash;Civil disabilities of free coloured<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xix" id="Page_xix">[Pg xix]</a></span>
+people&mdash;Agitation in the French colonies&mdash;James Og&eacute;&mdash;Demand
+of the coloured people for equal rights&mdash;Civil war
+in Hispaniola&mdash;"Perish the colonies"&mdash;Great slave insurrection&mdash;The
+whites concede equal rights, but the Convention
+revokes their original decree&mdash;Truce broken&mdash;The
+struggle renewed&mdash;Devastation of the colony&mdash;The British
+expedition and its failure&mdash;Toussaint L'Ouverture&mdash;Slavery
+abolished&mdash;It is re-established by Napoleon&mdash;Treachery to
+L'Ouverture and the negroes&mdash;Dessalines and Christophe
+declare the independence of Hayti&mdash;Massacre of the whites&mdash;The
+Empire and Republic.</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td style="text-align:center"><br /><a href="#XIII">XIII</a></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td style="text-align:center"><span class="smcap">Emancipation of the Spanish Main</span></td><td style="text-align:right">276-288</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td style="text-align:left">Influence of the French Revolution on Spanish America&mdash;Miranda
+vainly attempts to rouse Venezuela&mdash;Revolution
+at Caracas&mdash;Simon Bolivar&mdash;Struggle for independence&mdash;Atrocities
+of both parties&mdash;Bolivar proclaims extermination
+to the Royalists&mdash;Spanish successes&mdash;The British Legion&mdash;Devastation
+of the country&mdash;The Columbian Republic&mdash;Guatemala.</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td style="text-align:center"><br /><a href="#XIV">XIV</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td style="text-align:center"><span class="smcap">Abolition of Slavery</span></td><td style="text-align:right">289-313</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td style="text-align:left">Agitation against slavery by the Quakers&mdash;Abolition of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xx" id="Page_xx">[Pg xx]</a></span>
+African slave-trade&mdash;Effects of this on the plantations&mdash;Condition
+of the slave&mdash;Registration&mdash;Rising in Barbados&mdash;The
+Protestant missionaries arrive&mdash;Opposition of the
+planters&mdash;Ordinance against preaching and teaching slaves
+passed in Jamaica&mdash;The anti-slavery party in England&mdash;Amelioration
+of the condition of the slave&mdash;Insurrection in
+Demerara&mdash;Prosecution and conviction of the Rev. John
+Smith&mdash;Emancipation in the British colonies&mdash;Its effect on
+colonies of other nationalities&mdash;Insurrection at St. Croix&mdash;Total
+abolition of slavery in the West Indies.</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td style="text-align:center"><br /><a href="#XV">XV</a></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td style="text-align:center"><span class="smcap">Results of Emancipation</span></td><td style="text-align:right">314-345</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td style="text-align:left">Ruin of the planters&mdash;Difficulty of procuring labour&mdash;Abolition
+of the differential duties&mdash;Immigration&mdash;Barbados
+an exception when ruin fell on the other colonies&mdash;Labour
+laws in French, Danish, and Dutch colonies&mdash;Another
+insurrection in St. Croix&mdash;Race prejudice causes riots in
+Demerara&mdash;Insurrection at Jamaica&mdash;Confederation riot at
+Barbados.</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td style="text-align:center"><br /><a href="#XVI">XVI</a></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td style="text-align:center"><span class="smcap">The Isthmus Transit Schemes</span></td><td style="text-align:right">346-364</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td style="text-align:left">Nelson's expedition to the San Juan&mdash;Miranda's project&mdash;Importance
+of a canal&mdash;Central America&mdash;Effects of the
+discovery of gold in California&mdash;The Panama railway&mdash;Canal
+projects&mdash;Darien again&mdash;The <i>Times</i> and the
+Nicaragua project&mdash;Ship railway&mdash;Lesseps and the Panama
+Canal&mdash;Difficulties of the work&mdash;Its downfall&mdash;Character
+of Lesseps&mdash;The Nicaragua Canal.</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+</table></div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS" id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="80%" summary="illustrations">
+<tr><td align='left' >1.</td><td align='left'>Reception of Spaniards by Arawaks. From Gottfried's "Reisen"</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_i"><i>Frontispiece</i></a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xxi" id="Page_xxi">[Pg xxi]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>2.</td><td align='left'>Reception of Spaniards by Caribs. From Gottfried's "Reisen"</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_5">5</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>3.</td><td align='left'>A corner of Paradise. The Victoria Regia</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_8">8</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>4.</td><td align='left'><i>En route</i> to the goldfields of Guiana. Passing the rapids of the Essequebo</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>5.</td><td align='left'>Worrying the natives with dogs. From Gottfried's "Reisen"</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>6.</td><td align='left'>A modern alluvial gold washing</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>7.</td><td align='left'>Suicides. From Gottfried's "Reisen"</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>8.</td><td align='left'>A Guiana river. The Tumatamari falls</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>9.</td><td align='left'>Inhabitants of the Spanish Main. From Colijn's "Reisen"</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>10.</td><td align='left'>"El Dorado." From Gottfried's "Reisen"</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_37">37</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xxii" id="Page_xxii">[Pg xxii]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>11.</td><td align='left'>Negro woman returning from market</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_53">53</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>12.</td><td align='left'>Negro barber</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>13.</td><td align='left'>Negro family on holiday</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_55">55</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>14.</td><td align='left'>Negresses gossiping</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_56">56</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>15.</td><td align='left'>Ralegh in Trinidad. From Gottfried's "Reisen"</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_71">71</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>16.</td><td align='left'>Gold hunting. From Gottfried's "Reisen"</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_80">80</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>17.</td><td align='left'>Carib attack on a settlement. From Gottfried's "Reisen"</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>18.</td><td align='left'>St. Kitt's. From Andrews' "West Indies"</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_118">118</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>19.</td><td align='left'>A Surinam planter. From Stedman's "Surinam"</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_138">138</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>20.</td><td align='left'>A negro festival. From Edwards' "West Indies"</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_140">140</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>21.</td><td align='left'>Voyage of the sable Venus. From Edwards' "West Indies"</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_142">142</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>22.</td><td align='left'>Slaves landing from the ship. From Stedman's "Surinam"</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>23.</td><td align='left'>Map of <i>Terra Firma</i>. From Gottfried's "Reisen"</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_197">197</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xxiii" id="Page_xxiii">[Pg xxiii]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>24.</td><td align='left'>A rebel negro. From Stedman's "Surinam"</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_209">209</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>25.</td><td align='left'>The execution of breaking on the rack. From Stedman's "Surinam"</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_212">212</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>26.</td><td align='left'>March through a swamp. From Stedman's "Surinam"</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_224">224</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>27.</td><td align='left'>Trelawny town. From Edwards' "West Indies"</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_231">231</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>28.</td><td align='left'>Pacification of the Maroons. From Edwards' "West Indies"</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_234">234</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>29.</td><td align='left'>View of part of Hispaniola. From Andrews' "West Indies"</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_258">258</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>30.</td><td align='left'>La Guayra on the Main. From Andrews' "West Indies"</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_280">280</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>31.</td><td align='left'>The First of August. From Madden's "West Indies"</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_308">308</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>32.</td><td align='left'>A relic of the slavery days old slave buying fish</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_310">310</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>33.</td><td align='left'>Negress, Guiana</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_315">315</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>34.</td><td align='left'>Negress fish-sellers, Guiana</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_316">316</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>35.</td><td align='left'>Chinese wood-carrier</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_317">317</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xxiv" id="Page_xxiv">[Pg xxiv]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>36.</td><td align='left'>East Indian coolie</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_318">318</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>37.</td><td align='left'>East Indian coolie family</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_319">319</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>38.</td><td align='left'>Coolie barber</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_320">320</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>39.</td><td align='left'>East Indian coolie girl</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_321">321</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>40.</td><td align='left'>Coolie women, British Guiana</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_322">322</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>41.</td><td align='left'>Coolie vegetable sellers, British Guiana</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_323">323</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>42.</td><td align='left'>East Indian coolies, Trinidad</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_324">324</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>43.</td><td align='left'>East Indian coolie, Trinidad</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_325">325</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>44.</td><td align='left'>Trinidad coolies</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_326">326</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>45.</td><td align='left'>Barbados. From Andrews' "West Indies"</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_330">330</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>46.</td><td align='left'>St. Lucia. From Andrews' "West Indies"</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_331">331</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>47.</td><td align='left'>Atlantic entrance to Darien Canal. From Cullen's "Darien Canal"</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_348">348</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>48.</td><td align='left'>Europe supported by Africa and America. From Stedman's "Surinam"</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_363">363</a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h1>THE WEST INDIES</h1>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3><a name="I" id="I"></a>I</h3>
+
+<h3>THE SPANIARDS AND THEIR VICTIMS</h3>
+
+
+<p>When the early writers spoke of America as the
+new world, <i>mundus novus</i>, they could hardly have appreciated
+the full meaning of the name. True, it was
+a new world to them, with new animals, new plants,
+and a new race of mankind; but the absolute distinctness
+of everything, especially in the tropical regions,
+was not understood. With our fuller knowledge the
+ideas of strangeness and novelty are more and more
+impressed, and we are ready to exclaim, Yes! it is
+indeed a new world.</p>
+
+<p>Unlike those of the eastern hemisphere, the peoples
+of the West are of one race. Apart from every other,
+the development of the American Indian has gone
+on different lines, the result being a people self-contained,
+as it were, and unmodified until the
+arrival of the European. The American is perhaps
+the nearest to the natural man, and his character
+is the result of nature's own moulding. When com<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span>pared
+with the European or Asiatic he seems to
+be far behind, yet the civilisation of Peru and Mexico
+was in some respects in advance of that of their
+conquerors. This was brought about by a dense
+population which forced men into collision with each
+other&mdash;in other parts of the continent and on the
+islands they were more isolated and therefore less
+civilised.</p>
+
+<p>In the forest region of the Spanish Main, and on
+the West Indian islands, the communities were, as
+a rule, very small and isolated one from another.
+A kind of patriarchal system prevented much communication,
+and inter-tribal disputes were a bar to
+union. Every community distrusted every other,
+and even when one tribe fought against its neighbour
+there were few attempts to bring the sections together
+against the common enemy.</p>
+
+<p>On the coasts and islands of the Caribbean Sea,
+at the time of their discovery, lived two distinct
+peoples, the Arawaks and the Caribs. There were
+also a few other tribes of minor importance, such as
+the Warrows, but these made little impression, and
+may therefore be left out of consideration. The
+remnants of the two great stocks still exist in Guiana
+and at the mouth of the Orinoco, living to-day in
+much the same manner as they did when the country
+was first discovered by the Spaniards.</p>
+
+<p>Four centuries ago the Greater Antilles were exclusively
+inhabited by Arawaks, and the Lesser by
+Caribs. The Arawak, as his name implies, was more
+or less an agriculturalist&mdash;a meal-eater, a cultivator
+of vegetables, mainly cassava. From the poisonous<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span>
+root of this plant bread, drink, and a preservative
+sauce for meat, were prepared, so that, with game or
+fish, it formed the staff of life. The probable course
+of his migration was from Yucatan or Mexico to the
+south-east, terminating in Guiana, and from thence
+north through the whole of the Antilles. When
+Columbus arrived people of this stock filled the
+larger islands and the Bahamas, but along the coast
+and in the island of Trinidad they disputed the
+occupation of the territories with the Caribs. In
+Porto Rico also the Caribs had become aggressive,
+and even in Hispaniola the Arawaks had to defend
+their shores against that warlike people. If we
+believe the accounts of the Spaniards the inhabitants
+of the Greater Antilles were not altogether a savage
+people. Whether they had destroyed all the larger
+game, or whether they found none on their arrival,
+the fact remains that they were agriculturalists rather
+than huntsmen. They were, however, expert in
+fishing, and built great canoes with sails, in which
+they carried on their operations even in comparatively
+rough water. Their provision grounds were highly
+praised by the Spaniards in language that could
+hardly apply to little clearings like those in the
+Guiana forest. In them were grown, besides cassava,
+yams, sweet potatoes, and maize, while other things
+such as cotton and tobacco were also largely cultivated.
+The natives had also acquired several arts
+besides that of canoe building, which, when we consider
+their want of proper implements, was almost
+wonderful. Cotton was spun and woven into cloth
+for their scanty garments, gold cast and hammered<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span>
+into figures and ornaments, and wood and stone idols
+and weapons were also carved. All this was done
+with stone implements, even to the work of hollowing
+great logs for their canoes, and shaping planks. We
+read of axe-heads made of <i>guanin</i>, an alloy of gold
+and copper, and also of attempts to make similar
+tools of silver, but these were very rare, and could
+hardly have been utilised to any good purpose.
+When we appreciate the labour and pains taken in
+excavating a large canoe, with only fire and the stone
+adze, we can see that these people were by no means
+idle. Nor were they altogether wanting in appreciation
+of art, for the figures on their baskets and pottery
+were beautifully true geometrical patterns, and their
+so-called idols, although grotesque and rude, often
+striking.</p>
+
+<p>On the mainland the Arawaks lived in small
+communities, only electing a war-chief as occasion
+required&mdash;in Ha&iuml;ti the Cacique seems to have been
+leader and ruler as well. And here we must mention
+the most striking characteristic of the American
+Indian&mdash;his utter abhorrence of anything like coercion.
+Even in childhood his parents let him do as
+he pleases, never attempting to govern him in any
+way. It followed therefore that neither war-captain
+nor Cacique had any real power to compel them to a
+course they disliked, and that discipline was entirely
+wanting. The traveller in Guiana at the present day
+can thoroughly understand this trait of character, for
+he has to take it into account if he wishes to get
+their assistance. They must be treated as friends,
+not as servants, and the greatest care taken not to
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5-6]</a><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6"></a></span>offend their dignity, unless he wishes to be left alone
+in the forest.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 458px;">
+<img src="images/p005.jpg" width="458" height="309" alt="RECEPTION OF SPANIARDS BY CARIBS." title="" />
+<span class="caption">RECEPTION OF SPANIARDS BY CARIBS.<br />
+(<i>From Gottfried&#39;s &quot;Reisen.&quot;)</i></span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>They quarrelled little among themselves, and only
+fought against the Caribs; they were peaceable, kind,
+and gentle, so hospitable to strangers that Columbus
+could hardly say enough in their favour. "A better
+race there cannot be," he declared to his sovereigns,
+and this opinion was confirmed by all who came into
+contact with them. In fact if you do nothing to
+offend him, the Arawak of to-day is the same quiet
+and gentle fellow who met the voyagers on their
+arrival at Guanahani.</p>
+
+<p>The Caribs were a stronger race, and had probably
+followed the same track as the Arawaks in a later
+migration. At the time of the discovery they appear
+to have driven the more gentle race from the smaller
+islands south of Porto Rico, and had taken their
+women as wives. All along the coast the two tribes
+fought with each other, but on account of the greater
+stretch of country there was nothing like the extermination
+which took place in the Lesser Antilles.
+The Arawaks retired up the rivers and creeks, leaving
+their enemies to take possession of the coast, which
+they did to such good purpose that the Spaniards
+were unable to get a footing in Guiana. All the
+early writers agree that the Caribs were man-eaters&mdash;in
+fact the word cannibal seems to have been derived
+from their name. In the smaller islands they had
+eaten all the men of the gentler tribe, and now made
+periodical raids on the larger, from whence they
+carried off prisoners to be cooked and devoured at
+leisure. These raids led to combinations on the part<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span>
+of the inhabitants of Ha&iuml;ti and Porto Rico, and
+hitherto they had been successful in preventing anything
+like an occupation of these islands by their
+enemies. Whether these successes would have continued
+is doubtful; the arrival of the Spaniards upset
+everything.</p>
+
+<p>The Carib was not so entirely dependent on the
+produce of the soil as the meal-eater. He was a
+hunter and fisherman, but above everything else a
+warrior. His women had provision grounds like
+those of the Arawak, possibly because they came
+from that stock. The Carib's hunting grounds were
+circumscribed and poor, and his craving for meat
+could only be appeased in one way&mdash;by eating his
+enemies. Probably this made him all the more
+fierce and bloodthirsty, as a flesh diet is certainly
+more stimulating than one of fish and starchy tubers.</p>
+
+<p>If the Arawak was impatient of control, the Carib
+was even more independent. The former would pine
+away and die under coercion, the latter refused
+absolutely to be a slave. He would die fighting for
+his liberty, but never admit that he was conquered.
+It was not he who welcomed the Spaniards to the
+West Indies&mdash;on the contrary, he did everything possible
+to prevent their landing on his shores. His
+so-called treachery caused many difficulties to the
+new-comers, but taken altogether he was much respected
+by them as a foe worthy of their steel.</p>
+
+<p>These two peoples lived in a country which
+Columbus described as a veritable paradise&mdash;in fact
+he thought he had discovered the site of the Garden
+of Eden. Into this beautiful world he let loose a
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span>band of robbers and murderers, to depopulate and
+make it a wilderness. They were the product of an
+entirely different environment&mdash;a continent in which
+every man's hand was against that of his neighbour.
+For a long time Spain had been a battlefield, on
+which the most warlike instincts of mankind came to
+the front. Her soldiers understood the advantages of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span>
+discipline, and would follow their leaders wherever
+anything was to be gained, yet at the same time they
+were individuals, and as such fought for their own
+hands as well.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 268px;">
+<img src="images/p008.jpg" width="268" height="357" alt="A CORNER OF PARADISE. THE VICTORIA REGIA." title="" />
+<span class="caption">A CORNER OF PARADISE. THE VICTORIA REGIA.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Like the rest of Christendom Spain was very
+religious, and after treasure-seeking, the adventurers
+of that nation meant to convert the heathen. The
+cross was erected everywhere on landing, and religious
+services held to pray for help in their undertakings.
+If the cruelties that followed were not quite in
+accordance with Christ's teachings we must put it
+down to the manners and customs of the age. Ignorance
+was really the great characteristic of that period,
+and the brilliancy of the few only shone out the
+brighter because of the dark background. The
+majority were steeped in superstition, and almost
+entirely dominated by their passions.</p>
+
+<p>Columbus was continually harping upon the desirability
+of making the natives of the new world
+Christians. "Your Highness," he said, in one of his
+letters, "ought to rejoice that they will soon become
+Christians, and that they will be taught the good
+customs of your kingdom." He took nine of them to
+Spain, on his return from the first voyage, who were
+baptized and taught the Spanish language. The king
+and queen told him to deal lovingly with those in
+the Indies, and to severely punish any who ill-treated
+them. More were sent to Spain and allowed to go
+back for the purpose of "gaining souls." Columbus,
+however, did not altogether agree with his sovereigns&mdash;his
+project was to send enough as slaves to pay the
+expenses of his expeditions, and he actually shipped<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span>
+four lots for that purpose. But Ferdinand and
+Isabella would not have this, and even went so far as
+to prohibit the deportation of the Caribs notwithstanding
+the admiral's argument that they were
+unworthy of the royal clemency, because they ate
+men and were enemies of the friendly Arawaks.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 311px;">
+<img src="images/p010.jpg" width="311" height="269" alt="EN ROUTE TO THE GOLDFIELDS OF GUIANA. PASSING THE RAPIDS
+OF THE ESSEQUEBO." title="" />
+<span class="caption">EN ROUTE TO THE GOLDFIELDS OF GUIANA. PASSING THE RAPIDS
+OF THE ESSEQUEBO.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>How the new world was discovered in 1492 has
+been told so often that it is hardly necessary to repeat
+the story. Ha&iuml;ti, named Hispaniola or Little Spain,
+was chosen from the first as the island on which a
+settlement should be planted. Here Columbus left<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span>
+thirty-nine colonists under the command of Diego de
+Arana, and under the protection of the great Cacique
+Guacanagari. He "trusted to God" that on his return
+he would find a ton of gold and a large quantity of
+spices, with the proceeds of which his sovereigns
+might undertake the conquest of Jerusalem from the
+infidels.</p>
+
+<p>A ton of gold! This was the whole end and aim
+of his expedition. Everything else was subordinate
+to this. He had seen the natives wearing gold ornaments,
+and found that the precious metal could be
+gathered from certain streams on the island. But,
+could he estimate the amount of labour required to
+procure such an enormous quantity, by people who
+had no other appliances than baskets? This alone
+was enough to bring trouble upon the peaceful island.</p>
+
+<p>But this was not all. The colonists quarrelled
+among themselves, interfered with the Indian women,
+went hunting for gold all over the country, took
+it wherever it could be found, and stole provisions
+when their friends did not bring them enough. Not
+satisfied with the district of the friendly Cacique,
+they ravaged that of Caonabo, the Carib chieftain
+of another clan, a man of a different stamp. He resented
+the insults at once by attacking the Spaniards,
+who, notwithstanding the assistance of their allies,
+were utterly exterminated. When Columbus arrived,
+instead of a ton of gold, he found nothing but the
+blackened ruins of the fort and houses.</p>
+
+<p>This should have been a lesson to the Spaniards,
+but unfortunately it only led to further quarrels. The
+new-comers did not intend to cultivate the soil; their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span>
+main object was treasure, and they expected the
+natives to provide them with food. And here we
+must mention the fact that the people of tropical
+climes <i>never</i> have any store of provisions laid up&mdash;this
+is only necessary where winter prevails for half
+the year. It follows therefore that however liberal
+they may feel towards strangers, their supplies being
+restricted to their own wants leave little to give
+away. Up to a certain point the Indian gives freely,
+but when this means privation to himself he withholds
+his hand. The want of a full appreciation of this fact
+caused great trouble in many of the early settlements,
+and in some cases led to their destruction. The natives
+promised food supplies; but when they found themselves
+starving, naturally withheld further assistance.
+The settlers considered this a breach of faith, and
+made incursions on the provision grounds, taking
+what they wanted, and seriously injuring the crops.
+This the Indians resented, and deadly quarrels ensued,
+which ended in their driving out the colonists
+or deserting the place altogether. In the latter case
+the food supply was necessarily cut off, and often led
+ultimately to the abandonment of the colony.</p>
+
+<p>To the kindly people of Hispaniola the new-comers
+were gods, and their horses and cattle preternatural
+creatures. While wondering and admiring, they were
+at the same time frightened at these out-of-the-way
+men and animals, especially when the soldiers exhibited
+themselves on horseback. At first they
+thought them immortal, and were disagreeably surprised
+when they fell before the army of Caonabo.
+But even the proverbial worm will turn, and soon the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13-14]</a><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14"></a></span>oppressions of the second colonists drove the poor
+Ha&iuml;tians to resist. To labour in the field was beneath
+the dignity of the adventurous treasure-seekers&mdash;the
+natives must supply them with provisions. What
+they had brought from Spain was soon spoilt in such
+a hot climate&mdash;no one had yet learned how to pack
+for long voyages. They must get food, and what was
+the good of having thousands of people, and acres of
+cultivated land in their neighbourhood, if the natives
+did not bring in as much as was required? At first
+they were supplied willingly, but when the results of
+this profuse hospitality began to tell upon themselves,
+the poor Ha&iuml;tians withheld their hands. Then the
+Spaniards began complaining to the Cacique, who,
+however, had no real authority over his people in a
+matter of this kind, and therefore could do nothing.
+Driven by want the Spaniards made incursions on
+the provision grounds, where they spoilt as much as
+they took away, and left a waste behind. Sometimes
+they met with resistance, and the defenders were cut
+down without mercy. The spoilers only wanted an
+excuse for fleshing their swords; they were even
+anxious to show their powers, and make the natives
+feel that at last they had masters.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 418px;">
+<img src="images/p013.jpg" width="418" height="316" alt="WORRYING THE NATIVES WITH DOGS." title="" />
+<span class="caption">WORRYING THE NATIVES WITH DOGS.<br />
+(<i>From Gottfried&#39;s &quot;Reisen.&quot;</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Before two years had passed the Spaniards were
+beset with difficulties. The Indian looked despairingly
+at his wasted fields, and refused to cultivate
+them any longer. Why should he plant for others
+when he himself was starving? Some fled into the
+mountains and forests of the interior, others died of
+want. This naturally told upon the white men, who
+had not yet learnt that they must cultivate the soil if<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span>
+they wanted its produce. They could not demean
+themselves to this, but must have the power to compel
+the inhabitants and owners of this beautiful island to
+work for them.</p>
+
+<p>The home authorities knew what was going on,
+and did their best according to their lights to provide
+a remedy. At first they gave large tracts of land to
+the settlers, <i>repartimientos</i> as they were called, but
+what was the use of these if their owners could get
+no labourers? Then to every grant was allotted a
+certain number of Indians as slaves, and thus the
+cruel system that ultimately depopulated the Greater
+Antilles and the Bahamas was introduced.</p>
+
+<p>Those who were not allotted as slaves were compelled
+to pay tribute. In the neighbourhood of the
+gold-washings this was to consist of a little bellful of
+gold; in other places of an arroba (28 lbs.) of cotton,
+once a quarter for every person above the age of
+fourteen. Metal tokens to hang upon the neck were
+given as receipts, and when these were absent the
+people were severely punished. Thus this gentle and
+independent race was enslaved.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 273px;">
+<img src="images/p016.jpg" width="273" height="355" alt="A MODERN ALLUVIAL GOLD WASHING." title="" />
+<span class="caption">A MODERN ALLUVIAL GOLD WASHING.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Even with modern appliances and the use of quicksilver,
+gold-washing is a most precarious business;
+what then could it have been here with nothing but a
+basket and gourd? Columbus had such exaggerated
+ideas that, when he saw the gold-washings of Cibao,
+he came to the conclusion they were the Ophir of the
+Bible; from his reports the king and queen thought
+nothing of demanding this small tribute. To the
+Indian, however, the gleaning of the tribute meant
+the labour of days and weeks, and when there were
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span>so many seekers it was found utterly impossible for
+each to gather his amount. Then they ran away,
+and were hunted with dogs, brought back, and compelled
+to wash the gravel under surveillance, subject
+to the pricks of a sword if they were not active
+enough. But, even with all this, the returns were
+not equal to what was expected, and the tribute had
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span>ultimately to be abandoned. However, it was stated
+that as much as the value of a million crowns per
+annum was extracted during the best years, at a cost
+of pain and suffering awful to contemplate.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 459px;">
+<img src="images/p017.jpg" width="459" height="326" alt="SUICIDES." title="" />
+<span class="caption">SUICIDES.<br />
+(<i>From Gottfried&#39;s &quot;Reisen.&quot;</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The cotton tribute had also to be abandoned, and
+even the <i>repartimientos</i> were not a success. If they
+had been willing, the natives could hardly have performed
+steady work, and as slaves they were almost
+valueless. In their natural condition they laboured
+when they chose, wasting time as we should say with
+little good result. Now their masters demanded
+heavy tasks which prevented their working on their
+own provision grounds, and yet provided little or
+nothing in the way of rations. Hundreds died of
+starvation; thousands committed suicide. Some
+jumped from high precipices; they hanged, stabbed,
+drowned, and poisoned themselves; mothers destroyed
+their babes to save them from the misery
+of living. If caught in such attempts they were
+flogged, had boiling water or melted lead poured over
+them, and were otherwise tortured until death came
+to their relief. Their cruel masters, however, rarely
+wished to kill them outright&mdash;they were too valuable.
+No, they must break down this dogged, stubborn
+spirit&mdash;treat them as horses and mules, until they
+bent themselves to the yoke.</p>
+
+<p>It was left for bands of soldiers on foraging expeditions
+to kill in mere wantonness. A company
+would be travelling through the island and come
+upon a village, where perhaps they stopped for a
+short rest. The people looked on, admiring their
+shining armour and weapons, wondering what sort<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span>
+of creatures these were that so quietly cropped the
+grass and shrubs. One of the soldiers would take
+out his sword, feel its keen edge, and think what a
+pity it was that the weapon should be used so little.
+Behind him comes a little boy. The temptation is
+great; in a moment the sharp weapon flashes and
+the child lies dead. The Indians fly, and the whole
+party follows, chasing and slaughtering to their heart's
+content, not knowing nor caring why. In a few
+minutes fifty are killed, the soldiers return to their
+bivouac, and if they inquire into the matter at all pass
+it off as a good jest.</p>
+
+<p>Is it any wonder that the population decreased to
+a wonderful degree in a few years? The sugar-cane
+had been introduced by Columbus on his second
+voyage, and labour was soon required for cultivating
+this and other crops. As long as slaves were procurable
+the planters throve, and as by that time Hispaniola
+had become the great centre of the Indies, the
+settlers were in a fair way to make fortunes. But
+the decrease in the population became alarming, and
+something had to be done; then, new settlers were
+continually arriving who also wanted slaves. It followed,
+therefore, that some of the more audacious of
+the adventurers took up the trade of kidnapping the
+Indians from other islands and the mainland. A host
+of disappointed treasure-seekers had ransacked every
+shore, and were now well prepared for the business of
+man-hunting.</p>
+
+<p>The first people to suffer were those who so kindly
+welcomed Columbus on his arrival&mdash;the gentle inhabitants
+of the Bahamas. They were even more<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span>
+peaceful than the Ha&iuml;tians, because they had not
+suffered from Carib invasions. When the slave
+hunters told them to come to the south and live with
+their ancestors, they willingly allowed themselves to
+be carried off to suffer like their neighbours. Some
+ran away and got to the northern shores of Hispaniola,
+where they stretched out their hands to their beautiful
+homes and then died of grief.</p>
+
+<p>Having entirely depopulated the smaller islands,
+and being prevented from kidnapping the people of
+Cuba, Porto Rico, and Jamaica, by the settlers on
+those islands, they tried the Caribbees. Here they
+met their match. No longer was it the gentle Arawak
+whom they encountered, but the ferocious cannibal.
+Like his foes he had been trained in war for many
+generations. Not only did he refuse to work for the
+stranger, but even went so far as to oppose his landing.
+On his islands was little to attract the treasure-seeker,
+and if he would not submit to be a slave,
+nothing was to be gained by interfering with him.
+This the Spaniard found out by bitter experience.
+A few vessels were wrecked on these inhospitable
+shores, the crews of which escaped to land only to be
+killed and eaten, after being tortured with all the
+ingenuity of the savage. Even a landing for fresh
+water had to be made in the most cautious manner,
+and the carriers protected by a strong guard. No
+doubt the Caribs had heard of the white man's cruelties
+from their Arawak prisoners, and were therefore
+all the more ready to repel their invasions. This was
+particularly noticeable later when the English and
+French arrived and found them by no means so<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span>
+ferocious as the Spaniards had reported. Possibly
+they knew these people to be enemies to their foes,
+and were therefore all the more ready to be friendly
+as long as no attempts were made to oppress them.</p>
+
+<p>Hispaniola rose to some importance very quickly,
+and almost as quickly declined. The settlers depopulated
+the island, and then complained of the want of
+labourers. The gold-seekers went elsewhere, and
+Mexico and the isthmus of Darien became of more
+importance. Some writers have attempted to give
+the number of Indians exterminated in the early
+years of the sixteenth century, but little reliance can
+be placed on their statistics. Generally, they range
+from one to three millions, but it is doubtful whether
+even the lowest figure is not too high. Yet, when we
+read the statement of Columbus that crowds of people
+(in one place two thousand) came forth to meet him,
+and his description of the large area of cultivated land,
+as well as the broad and good roads, it is not difficult
+to conceive that a million people lived in these great
+islands.</p>
+
+<p>With the destruction of the labourers down fell the
+plantations. Cattle had been introduced and throve
+wonderfully; now they ran wild over the islands,
+especially Hispaniola, until they became innumerable.
+On the abandoned provision grounds of the
+Indians they found a virgin pasturage. Hogs also
+took to the woods, and increased even faster than the
+cattle. At first there were neither huntsmen nor
+carnivorous animals to check this wonderful development.
+The once domesticated animals recovered
+some of the powers and capacities of their wild ances<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span>tors,
+and only required enemies to assist in bringing
+out other latent characters. And these were not long
+wanting. Large and powerful hounds had been imported
+from Spain to hunt the runaway Indians, and
+now that their occupation was gone, they also took to
+the woods and savannahs. Like their ancestors and
+cousins, the wolves, they combined into packs and
+fought the cattle and hogs. Both hunters and hunted
+became stronger and fiercer&mdash;the dogs learnt how best
+to attack, and their prey to defend themselves. It
+was a struggle like that between the cannibals and
+meal-eaters&mdash;nature's method of preserving the
+balance of life. This equalisation no doubt would
+have been the result had not man interfered; how
+this happened we must leave to another chapter.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3><a name="II" id="II"></a>II</h3>
+
+<h3>THE QUEST FOR "EL DORADO"</h3>
+
+
+<p>Ophir was not found in the islands, and the bands
+of adventurers went over to <i>terra firma</i> or the mainland
+to continue the search. Along the coast of
+Guiana and Venezuela they again came across the
+gentle Arawak and ferocious Carib, the latter making
+himself respected everywhere, while his poor-spirited
+fellow-countryman was alternately caressed and
+plundered. In every place the Spaniards found gold
+ornaments, and every tribe told them that the precious
+metal was only obtainable in some far distant country.
+The Ha&iuml;tians sent Columbus to the south in search of
+the <i>guanin</i> country, and it was there he discovered the
+coast of Paria and the delta of the mighty Orinoco.
+But he was not fated to come across the treasure
+cities of the Indies.</p>
+
+<p>Others followed to at last conquer Mexico and
+Peru, but even then it was generally believed that
+nations existed who had more riches to be plundered
+than those of the Inca and Montezuma. To find
+these golden regions the voyagers wandered in every
+direction, contributing much to the knowledge of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span>
+coasts and rivers, but always coming back disappointed.</p>
+
+<p>The horrors of this search can hardly be appreciated
+nowadays. The ships were so small and ill-found
+that we should hardly care to use them for coasters,
+yet in them these pioneers crossed the Atlantic and
+encountered the hurricanes of the West Indies.
+Decked only at bow and stern, the waves dashed into
+the hold and wetted the provisions, while the sun
+poured down upon the water casks and burst their
+wooden hoops. The butter and cheese stank, the
+flour in sacks became mouldy, and the bacon and salt
+fish putrid. Then the hull of the vessel was unprotected,
+and the teredo, or ship worm, bored it through
+and through, until nothing but careening and caulking
+could save the poor craft from sinking. When we
+understand the privations and dangers of this navigation
+we are not surprised that the adventurers often
+came to grief, but rather wonder that any of them
+survived.</p>
+
+<p>Living in the West Indies, we have often thought
+of the pain and suffering it would produce if we were
+compelled to walk or sit in the burning sun armed as
+were the soldiers at that period. We can hardly
+believe that they wore steel body armour, yet the
+evidence is too strong to be refuted. True, they gave
+it up afterwards in favour of quilted cotton, but before
+they did so how hot they must have felt! We can
+fancy the sentry standing exposed to the full blaze
+of the sun, his helmet and breastplate burning hot
+and his woollen underclothing saturated with perspiration.
+Then there would be the open boat ascending<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span>
+a river. The occupants dared not row in the shade
+for fear of cannibals shooting at them with poisoned
+arrows from the thicket, and out in the river they must
+have felt as if in a furnace. Even with our white
+clothing and light hats a long journey in an open boat
+when the sun is high often ends in fever, and almost
+invariably in a headache. The neck and backs of the
+hands get blistered, and become sore, the glare on the
+water dazzles the eye, and we feel faint.</p>
+
+<p>In one of the accounts of such a boating expedition
+on a river in Guiana we read of the men
+finding some yellow plums floating on the water, and
+of their being much refreshed by them. We also
+have come across these hog-plums when almost
+exhausted by a long exposure on the open river, and
+when even our negro steersman was nodding as he
+held the paddle. Suddenly we came to our destination,
+the mouth of a creek, and were under an arcade
+of vegetation, beneath which the plums floated on the
+cool dark water.</p>
+
+<p>The men of the sixteenth century must have been
+stronger than ourselves, or they could hardly have
+endured such pain and privation. They lay down on
+the bare earth night after night, and on board ship
+went to sleep on naked planks. As they could endure
+pain and discomfort, so also could they inflict it on
+others. The rough seamen learnt to bear hardships
+which blunted their feelings of humanity and made
+them inclined to torture others. When in the hands
+of the cannibals they were almost as stoical as the
+savage himself, their ruling passion being a desire for
+revenge. If cruelly treated by one tribe they retaliated<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span>
+on others; in the same way the Indians killed one
+party of Spaniards to avenge the insults of their
+countrymen. This led to a great deal of trouble and
+made the voyages of the treasure-seekers dangerous
+to all. However free from blame one party might be,
+they were liable to suffer for previous wrong-doings<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span>
+and they in turn left behind them injuries to be
+avenged on the next comers.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 263px;">
+<img src="images/p026.jpg" width="263" height="359" alt="A GUIANA RIVER. THE TUMATAMARI FALLS." title="" />
+<span class="caption">A GUIANA RIVER. THE TUMATAMARI FALLS.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>And then, how very audacious these adventurers
+were! Alonzo de Ojeda was perhaps the most
+striking example of utter recklessness in face of
+danger. In 1509 he entered the harbour of Carthagena
+in spite of a warning that its shores were
+inhabited by a ferocious tribe who fought with palm-wood
+swords and poisoned arrows. It was even
+stated that the women mingled in the battle, and
+could use the bow and a kind of lance.</p>
+
+<p>These people had been irritated by another party
+of Spaniards, and on sight of the vessels were up in
+arms at once. However, Ojeda was undaunted, and
+landed at once with his men and some friars, who
+had been sent to convert the Indians. In front stood
+the enemy brandishing their weapons, and prepared
+for the first hostile movement. Yet, even under these
+critical circumstances, he ordered the usual proclamation
+to be read to the Indians in a language of which
+they knew nothing. He, Alonzo de Ojeda, servant
+of the most high and mighty sovereigns of Castile
+and Leon, conquerors of barbarous nations, notified
+them that God had given St. Peter the supreme
+power over the world, which power was exercised by
+the Pope, who had given all that part of the world to
+these sovereigns. They were called upon to acknowledge
+this sovereignty at once, which, if they refused
+to do, he would bring upon them the horrors of
+war, desolation to their houses, confiscation of their
+property, and slavery to their wives and children.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 530px;">
+<img src="images/p028.jpg" width="530" height="209" alt="INHABITANTS OF THE SPANISH MAIN." title="" />
+<span class="caption">INHABITANTS OF THE SPANISH MAIN.<br />
+(<i>From Colijn&#39;s &quot;Reisen.&quot;</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>While one of the friars read this address the
+savages stood on the defensive, no doubt wondering
+what the delay meant. Ojeda knew not their language,
+and they took little notice of his signs of amity. As
+they still brandished their weapons, the intrepid
+adventurer led on an attack, calling the Virgin to his
+aid, and in a few minutes put them to flight, killing a
+few and taking others prisoners. Not content with
+this, he followed them through the forest to their
+village, and after a deadly fight, drove them out and
+burnt their dwellings. Still undaunted, he went on
+to another village, which he found deserted, but while
+his men were searching for plunder he was attacked
+by the enemy in overwhelming numbers. All his
+followers were killed, and he himself wounded with a
+poisoned arrow, yet he managed to escape into the
+forest to suffer hunger and thirst in addition to the
+pain of his wound.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile his men on board the ships were
+wondering what had become of their leader and his
+party. They were afraid to venture far into the woods
+on account of the yells and shouts of the Indians,
+who were celebrating their triumph. At last, however,
+they commenced a search, and found their
+captain in a mangrove swamp, lying on a tangle of
+roots, speechless and dying of hunger, yet still
+clutching his naked sword and bearing his buckler.
+Notwithstanding all this, he ultimately recovered, to
+go on as eagerly as ever in making fresh conquests.</p>
+
+<p>Later, the proclamation to the Indians was interpreted
+to them, sometimes eliciting replies very much
+to the point. When the Bachelor Enciso went in
+search of the country of Zenu, where gold was so<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span>
+plentiful that it could be collected in the rainy season
+in nets stretched across the river, he was opposed by
+two Caciques, to whom the paper was read. They
+listened courteously, and, when it had been expounded,
+said they were quite willing to admit that there was
+one God, the ruler of heaven and earth, whose
+creatures they were. But as to the Pope's regency
+and his donation of <i>their</i> country to the king of
+Spain, that was another thing altogether. The Pope
+must have been drunk when he gave away what was
+not his, and the king could only have been mad
+to ask him for the territory of others. They, the
+Caciques, were the rulers of these territories, and
+needed no other sovereign: if their king came to
+take possession they would cut off his head and
+stick it on a pole, as they did the heads of their
+other enemies, at the same time pointing to a row of
+grisly skulls impaled close by. Their arguments,
+however, were useless, for Enciso attacked, routed
+them, and took one of the Caciques prisoner.</p>
+
+<p>The accounts of the early voyagers are full of such
+examples of audacity as well as of endurance of
+suffering. The perils of the sea were as great as
+those of the land, but few voyages were as disastrous
+as that of Valdivia, who in 1512 sailed from Darien
+for Hispaniola. When in sight of Jamaica, his vessel
+was caught in a hurricane and driven upon some
+shoals called the Vipers, where it was dashed to
+pieces. He and his twenty men barely escaped with
+their lives in a boat without sails, oars, water, or
+provisions. For thirteen days they drifted about,
+until seven were dead and the remainder helpless.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span>
+Then the boat stranded on the coast of Yucatan, and
+the poor wretches were captured by Indians, to be
+taken before their Cacique. They were now put into
+a kind of pen to fatten for the cannibal festival.
+Valdivia and four others were taken first, and the
+horror produced on their comrades led them to risk
+everything and break out of their prison in the night.
+Having succeeded in reaching the forest, they were
+almost as badly off, for no food could be had, and
+they dared not run the risk of going near the villages.
+Almost perishing with hunger, they at last reached
+another part of the country, to be again captured,
+and kept as slaves. Finally they all died except two,
+one of whom at last escaped to tell the tale almost by
+a miracle.</p>
+
+<p>One of the stories is suggestive of "Robinson
+Crusoe." In 1499 Ni&ntilde;o and Guerra sailed from
+Spain in a bark of fifty tons, and, while exploring
+the Gulf of Paria, came across eighteen Carib canoes
+filled with armed men. The savages assailed them
+with flights of arrows, but the sudden boom of the
+cannon frightened them away at once. One canoe,
+however, was captured, in which they took a Carib
+prisoner, and found an Arawak captive lying bound
+at the bottom. On being liberated, the Arawak
+informed the Spaniards, through their interpreter,
+that he was the last of seven who had been taken by
+the cannibals. The other six had been killed and
+eaten one after another, and he had been reserved for
+the next evening meal. The Spaniards, incensed
+against the man-eater, gave him into the hands
+of the Arawak, at the same time handing him a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span>
+cudgel, leaving his enemy unarmed. Immediately
+the Arawak sprang upon him, knocked him sprawling,
+trod his breath out of his body, and at the same time
+beat him with his fist until nothing but a shapeless
+corpse remained. But, not yet satisfied, he tore the
+head off and stuck it on a pole as a trophy.</p>
+
+<p>After the conquest of Mexico and Peru had
+rewarded Cortez and Pizarro, others wished to be
+equally fortunate. From the Indians came reports of
+golden countries in the interior, and land expeditions
+were projected. These reports grew into shape, and
+at last a quest as romantic as that for the Holy Grail,
+led one adventurer after another on and on, to starvation,
+sickness, and death.</p>
+
+<p>The germ of the story of "El Dorado," the lake
+of golden sands, and the glittering city of Manoa,
+appears to have first arisen in New Granada. Here
+was the Lake of Guatavita, and before the arrival
+of the Spaniards this was the scene of an annual
+religious festival. To the genius of the lake the
+Cacique of the neighbouring district offered a holy
+sacrifice on a certain day. In the morning he anointed
+his body with balsam, and then rolled himself in gold
+dust until he became a "gilded king." Then, embarking
+in a canoe with his nobles, he was paddled
+to the centre of the lake, crowds of people thronging
+its shores and honouring him with songs and the din
+of rude instrumental music. Offerings to the god of
+the lake were made from the canoe, gold, emeralds,
+pearls, and everything precious being scattered upon
+the water. Finally, the Cacique jumped in himself
+and washed the gold from his body, while the people<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span>
+shouted for joy. To wind up the festival a great
+drinking bout was held, when canoesful of piwarree,
+the Indian's beer, were drunk, and every one made
+merry.</p>
+
+<p>Such was the tradition&mdash;for the ceremony had
+been discontinued half a century before&mdash;which
+had so impressed itself over the northern shores of
+South America, as to be told from the Amazon to
+the isthmus of Darien. "El Dorado" was gilded
+every morning, and his city was full of beautiful
+golden palaces. It stood on the edge of the great
+salt lake Parima, the sands of which were composed
+of the precious metal. Some went so far as to say
+that they had seen the glittering city from a distance,
+and were only prevented from reaching it by the
+peculiar difficulties of the way. Not to mention
+tigers and alligators, starvation and sickness, there
+were "anthropophagoi and men whose heads do
+grow beneath their shoulders," besides amazons and
+fiery dragons. Wherever the story was told the
+golden city was located at a far distance, and it
+seemed ever to recede before the eager seekers. They
+sought it in the forest and on the savannah, over the
+lofty peaks of the Andes, and along the banks of the
+mighty rivers. The whole of the Spanish Main was
+explored, and places then visited which have hardly
+been seen again by the white man down to the present
+date.</p>
+
+<p>The quest began in New Granada, and from thence
+it shifted to Venezuela. The most daring seekers
+were German knights, the Welsers of Augsburg.
+They had received charters from Charles the Fifth,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span>
+under which they were empowered to found cities,
+erect forts, work mines, and make slaves of the
+Indians. One of their representatives, Ambrosio de
+Alfinger, set out in 1530, accompanied by two hundred
+Spaniards, and a larger number of Indians, laden with
+provisions and other necessaries. On the journey
+the party committed such brutalities upon the poor
+natives that the reports afterwards helped to fire the
+blood of Englishmen, and make them bitterly cruel.
+To prevent the bearers from running away they were
+strung together on chains, running through rings
+round their necks. If one of them dropped from
+sickness or exhaustion, his head was cut off, the
+ring loosened, and thus the trouble of interfering with
+the chain saved. If he were to be left behind, it did
+not matter whether he was alive or dead. At one
+place on the river Magdalena the frightened natives
+took refuge on some islands, but the Spaniards swam
+their horses across and killed or took prisoners the
+whole of them. From their Cacique Alfinger got
+booty to the value of sixty thousand dollars, with
+which he sent back for further supplies. But, although
+he waited for a year his messengers did not
+return, and the company were reduced to such straits
+that many died for want of bare food. But the
+Indians fared much worse, for their provision grounds
+were utterly destroyed, and what with murders and
+starvation the surrounding country was quite depopulated
+and desolate.</p>
+
+<p>Even Alfinger had to give up waiting for his
+supplies and move on at last, for these had been
+utilised by his lieutenant on an expedition of his own.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span>
+The party eked out a bare subsistence with wild fruits
+and game. If they found a village they plundered
+it of everything it contained, dug up the provisions
+from the fields, and left the survivors of the massacre
+to starve. Not that they themselves were in a much
+better plight; fever, the result of want and exposure,
+carried them off in continually increasing numbers.
+At last they got into a mountain region, and the poor
+naked bearers were frozen to death. Descending
+again they encountered stronger and fiercer tribes, by
+whom they were defeated, the cruel Alfinger himself
+dying two days afterwards from his wounds. A
+small remnant only returned after two years' absence,
+leaving a track of pain and suffering to make their
+memory accursed for many generations.</p>
+
+<p>George of Spires now fitted out a great expedition
+of three hundred infantry and two hundred cavalry,
+which started in 1536. They also went a long distance
+into the interior, braving hardships and dangers
+almost incredible. Jaguars carried off their horses,
+and even went so far as to attack and kill several
+of the Indian bearers and one Spaniard. Like their
+predecessors, they also encountered savage Indians,
+and died of starvation and sickness. After journeying
+fifteen hundred miles from the coast they had to
+return unsuccessful; but as their leader was less
+cruel than Alfinger, the losses of the party were not
+so great. Instead of dying on the journey he lived
+to become Governor of Venezuela.</p>
+
+<p>Nicholas Fedreman followed the last party with
+supplies, but took them to go treasure-seeking on his
+own account. He wandered about for three years,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span>
+and at last returned with some wonderful stories
+which induced others to continue the search. Herman
+de Quesada also travelled about for a year, and returned
+like his predecessors. Then Philip von Huten,
+who had gone already with George of Spires, fitted
+out a great expedition. His party was at one time
+so utterly famished that they had to eat ants, which
+they captured by placing corn cobs near the nests of
+these little creatures. They travelled in a great circle
+without knowing where they went, and at the end of
+a year came back to the place from whence they had
+started. Hearing, however, of a rich city called
+Macatoa, Von Huten started again, and found streets
+of houses with about eight hundred inhabitants, but
+no treasure. The people here sent him on farther,
+with their tales of the Omaguas, a warlike people
+living away in the south. On he went for five days,
+and at last came upon what he thought must be the
+golden city. It stretched away as far as the eye
+could reach, and in the centre was a great temple.
+But, although the little party charged gallantly down
+a hill and into the town, the Omaguas came out in
+such force that they had to retreat, bearing their
+wounded leader in a hammock. Continually harassed
+by Indians, they at last got back, to tell such stories
+of the dangers of the quest that the Omaguas seem
+to have been afterwards left alone.</p>
+
+<p>Our account of the search for "El Dorado" is
+necessarily short and imperfect, as it would be impossible
+even to enumerate all the expeditions.
+There is one, however, that was so tragic and awful,
+that, although it was fitted out in Peru, it must yet be
+mentioned in the story of the Spanish Main.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 458px;">
+<img src="images/p037.jpg" width="458" height="315" alt="&quot;EL DORADO.&quot;" title="" />
+<span class="caption">&quot;EL DORADO.&quot;<br />
+(<i>From Gottfried&#39;s &quot;Reisen.&quot;</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span></p>
+<p>Notwithstanding the enormous quantities of gold
+and silver found in Peru, the crowds of needy
+treasure-seekers who went to that country gave some
+trouble to the Viceroy, who appears to have been
+willing to get rid of them at any cost. Whether he
+purposely sent them on a "wild goose chase," or
+whether he really believed the "El Dorado" story, is
+doubtful, but it is certain that he thought it prudent
+to give them employment in some way, to prevent
+mischief in his province.</p>
+
+<p>The expedition was put in command of Pedro de
+Ursua, and was intended to go down the Amazon in
+search of treasure cities. Embarking on the river
+Huallaga, in the year 1560, they had hardly passed
+the mouth of Ucayali before Ursua found he had a
+most unprincipled gang of scoundrels under his
+command. A little farther down the river they
+mutinied, under the leadership of Lope de Aguirre,
+and murdered Ursua and his lieutenant, appointing
+Guzman as captain. Being dissatisfied, however, with
+their new commander, they also killed him a little
+later, together with most of his adherents.</p>
+
+<p>Now Aguirre became leader&mdash;a ruffian whose
+character was of the blackest. Father Pedro Simon
+delineates his features and character, making him
+out to be a very devil. He was about fifty years of
+age, short of stature and sparsely built, ill-featured,
+his face small and lean, his beard black, and his eyes
+as piercing as those of a hawk. When he looked at
+any one he fixed his gaze sternly, particularly when
+annoyed; he was a noisy talker and boaster, and
+when well supported very bold and determined, but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span>
+otherwise a coward. Of a very hardy constitution,
+he could bear much fatigue, either on foot or horseback.
+He was never without one or two coats of
+mail or a steel breastplate, and always carried a sword,
+dagger, arquebuse, or lance. His sleep was mostly
+taken in the day, as he was afraid to rest at night,
+although he never took off his armour altogether nor
+put away his weapons. Simon said he had always
+been of a turbulent disposition; a lover of revolts
+and mutinies; an enemy to all good men and good
+actions.</p>
+
+<p>Such was the Tyrant or Traitor Aguirre&mdash;virtually
+a madman&mdash;who now became the leader of a band
+of wretches like-minded to himself. They journeyed
+down the mighty river, now and again murdering
+one or another of the party, on the least suspicion of
+their dislike to their proceedings, and ill-treating the
+natives everywhere.</p>
+
+<p>Aguirre was not ashamed to boast that he had
+murdered a woman&mdash;not an Indian, but a beautiful
+Spanish lady, who had accompanied her lover on
+this arduous journey. Donna Inez de Altienza, a
+young widow, fell passionately in love with Ursua,
+who was brave, generous, and handsome; and loath
+to part with him, she undertook the hitherto unheard-of
+journey of thousands of miles in a strange
+and savage country. No fears or terrors daunted
+this devoted woman until after the death of her
+lover. Aguirre then picked a quarrel on the ground
+that her mattress was too large for the boat, and she
+also was murdered. The Spanish poet, Castellanos,
+thus laments the cruel deed:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span>&mdash;</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left:4em">
+"The birds mourned on the trees;<br />
+The wild beasts of the forest lamented;<br />
+The waters ceased to murmur;<br />
+The fishes beneath the waters groaned;<br />
+The winds execrated the deed<br />
+When Llamoso cut the veins of her white neck.<br />
+Wretch! wert thou born of woman?<br />
+No! what beast could have such a wicked son?<br />
+How was it that thou didst not die<br />
+In imagining a treason so enormous?<br />
+Her two women, 'midst lamentation and grief,<br />
+Gathered flowers to cover her grave,<br />
+And cut her epitaph in the bark of a tree&mdash;<br />
+'These flowers cover one whose faithfulness<br />
+And beauty were unequalled,<br />
+Whom cruel men slew without a cause.'"<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>Whether Aguirre reached the mouth of the Amazon
+is doubtful&mdash;the evidence is in favour of his getting
+out of that river into the Rio Negro, and from thence
+into the Orinoco. However this may have been, he
+arrived at last in the Gulf of Paria and proceeded to
+the island of Margarita. Here, true to his character,
+he and his men commenced to plunder and kill
+the inhabitants, going so far as to defy the local
+authorities and even the king of Spain himself. To
+even enumerate the deeds of this band of outlaws
+would fill a chapter, but we cannot omit giving an
+extract from Aguirre's letter to his king, one of the
+most curious productions ever written:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"I firmly believe that thou, O Christian king and
+lord, hast been very cruel and ungrateful to me and
+my companions for such good service, and that all
+those who write to thee from this land deceive thee
+much, because thou seest things from too far off. I
+and my companions, no longer able to suffer the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span>
+cruelties which thy judges and governors exercise
+in thy name, are resolved to obey thee no longer....
+Hear me! O hear me! thou king of Spain. Be not
+cruel to thy vassals.... Remember, King Philip,
+that thou hast no right to draw revenues from these
+provinces, since their conquest has been without
+danger to thee. I take it for certain that few kings
+go to hell, only because they are few in number; if
+they were many, none of them would go to heaven.
+For I believe that you are all worse than Lucifer, and
+that you hunger and thirst after human blood; and
+further, I think little of you and despise you all; nor
+do I look upon your government as more than an air
+bubble....</p>
+
+<p>"In the year 1559 the Marquis of Canete entrusted
+the expedition of the river of Amazons to Pedro de
+Ursua, a Navarrese, or, rather, a Frenchman, who
+delayed the building of his vessels till 1560. These
+vessels were built in the province of the Motilones,
+which is a wet country, and, as they were built in the
+rainy season, they came to pieces, and we therefore
+made canoes and descended the river. We navigated
+the most powerful river in Peru, and it seemed to us
+that we were in a sea of fresh water. We descended
+the river for three hundred leagues. This bad
+governor was capricious, vain, and inefficient, so that
+we could not suffer it, and we gave him a quick and
+certain death. We then raised Don Fernando de
+Guzman to be our king.... Because I did not
+consent to their evil deeds they desired to murder
+me. I therefore killed the new king, the captain of
+his guard, his lieutenant-general, four captains, his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>
+major-domo, his chaplain who said mass, a woman,
+a knight of the Order of Rhodes, an admiral, two
+ensigns, and five or six of his servants. I named
+captains and sergeants, but these men also wanted to
+kill me, and I hanged them. We continued our
+course while this evil fortune was befalling us, and
+it was eleven months and a half before we reached
+the mouths of the river, having travelled for more
+than a hundred days over more than fifteen hundred
+leagues. This river has a course of two thousand
+leagues of fresh water, the greater part of the shores
+being uninhabited, and God only knows how we
+ever escaped out of that fearful lake. I advise thee
+not to send any Spanish fleet up this ill-omened river,
+for, on the faith of a Christian, I swear to thee, O
+king and lord, that if a hundred thousand men should
+go up, not one would escape....</p>
+
+<p>"We shall give God thanks if, by our arms, we
+attain the rewards which are due to us, but which
+thou hast denied us; and because of thine ingratitude
+I am a rebel against thee until death."</p>
+
+<p>He and his band of outlaws ravaged the settlements
+of Venezuela for some time, until at last, on
+a promise of pardon, all left him save Llamoso, the
+murderer of Lady Inez. Aguirre had a daughter, a
+girl of twelve to fourteen, and when he found that
+all was lost he resolved to kill her. They were living
+at a country house, and when Llamoso brought the
+news of the desertion of his men, he snatched up a
+loaded arquebuse and rushed into his child's room,
+saying, "Commend thyself to God, my daughter, for
+I am about to kill thee, that thou mayest not be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span>
+pointed at with scorn, nor that it be in the power of
+any one to call thee the daughter of a traitor." A
+woman snatched the weapon from his hand, but,
+drawing his poniard, he stabbed the girl in the breast,
+saying, "Die! because I must die!" Rushing then
+to the door, he found the house surrounded by
+Spanish soldiers, who compelled him to surrender,
+and almost immediately took him out to be shot.</p>
+
+<p>This put an end to treasure-seeking on the
+Amazon, but the search for "El Dorado" had been
+going on and was still continued along the banks of
+the Orinoco. The first attempt to reach the golden
+city by this river appears to have been made by
+Pedro de Acosta about the year 1530, but after most
+of his men had been killed and eaten by the cannibals,
+he was compelled to abandon his project. After him
+came Diego de Ordas, the following year, whose expedition
+became afterwards famous. He, however,
+found nothing himself, although he went as far as
+the mouth of the Caroni&mdash;it was from one of his men
+that the "El Dorado" story was gleaned. By some
+accident the whole of the gunpowder was exploded,
+and this being attributed to the negligence of the
+munitioner, Juan Martinez, he was sentenced to be
+put in a canoe, without paddles or food, and allowed
+to drift at the mercy of the current.</p>
+
+<p>What became of the culprit was not known, but
+some months afterwards a strange white man was
+brought by some Indians to Margarita. He was
+wasted by sickness, naked, and apparently destitute,
+but, through the kindness of a ship-captain, he got a
+passage to Porto Rico, and was there placed in a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span>
+religious house, under the care of some Dominican
+friars. Here he became worse, but when on the
+point of death he presented his friends with two
+gourdsful of gold beads to pay for the repose of his
+soul; he also declared himself to be Juan Martinez,
+and told the wonderful story of his adventures.</p>
+
+<p>After being cast adrift, the canoe floated down the
+stream until evening, when it attracted the attention
+of some Indians, who paddled out from the shore
+and rescued Martinez from his perilous situation.
+These were Guianians, who had never before seen a
+white man, and therefore resolved to take him to
+their king as a curiosity. He was, however, blind-folded
+to prevent his seeing the direction they were
+taking, and led on and on, through forest and over
+mountain, for fifteen days, until a great city was
+reached. Arriving here at noon, his bandage was
+taken off, and Martinez feasted his eyes upon a great
+plain covered with houses, the roofs of which glittered
+in the sun as if made of gold. As far as his eye
+could reach stretched this marvellous assemblage of
+palaces. In the centre dwelt the great king, but,
+although the party travelled the whole of that and
+the next day, they did not reach the palace until
+evening.</p>
+
+<p>Here Martinez was well treated, and allowed to
+walk about the city, but not beyond it. He remained
+for seven months, saw the great lake on the shore
+of which the city of Manoa stood, and handled its
+golden sands. However, he was not content to remain,
+and after repeated petitions to be allowed to
+depart, was at last furnished with guides and as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span>
+much gold as they could carry. Arrived at the
+Orinoco, the cannibals fell upon the party, stole all
+the treasure save that hidden under some provisions
+in the two gourds, and left them destitute. After
+enduring many privations Martinez, however, got a
+passage in an Indian canoe to Margarita, from
+whence he expected to go to Spain and report his
+discovery to the king.</p>
+
+<p>What amount of truth, if any at all, was contained
+in the story is doubtful. It does not appear to have
+been told at once, but gradually leaked out, becoming
+more marvellous as it spread over the West Indies.
+Adventurers flocked to the Orinoco, and at least a
+score of expeditions went in search of "El Dorado."
+Under the command of bold adventurers one party
+after another entered into the forest, some never to
+return or to be heard of again. The remnant sometimes
+came back starving, and broken down with sickness.
+We read of one Juan Corteso that he marched
+into the country, but neither he nor any of his company
+did return again. Gaspar de Sylva and his two
+brothers sought El Dorado, but fell down to Trinidad,
+where all three were buried. Jeronimo Ortal, after
+great travail and spending all his substance, died on
+a sudden at St. Domingo. Father Iala, a friar, with
+only one companion and some Indian guides, returned
+with gold eagles, idols, and other jewels, but
+when he essayed to pass a second time was slain by
+Indians. Alonzo de Herera endured great misery,
+but never entered one league into the country; he
+also was at last slain by Indians. Antonio Sedenno
+got much gold and many Indian prisoners, whom he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span>
+manacled in irons, and of whom many died on the
+way. The tigers being fleshed with the dead carcases
+assaulted the Spaniards, who with much trouble hardly
+defended themselves from them. Sedenno was buried
+within the precincts of the empire of the gilded king,
+and most of his people perished likewise. Augustine
+Delgado came to an Indian Cacique, who entertained
+him with kindness and gave him rich jewels, six
+seemly pages, ten young slaves, and three nymphs
+very beautiful. To requite these manifold courtesies
+he took all the gold he could get and all the Indians
+he could lay hold on, to sell for slaves. He was afterwards
+shot in the eye by an Indian, of which hurt he
+died.</p>
+
+<p>And so we might go on to tell of the thousands
+of people murdered and tens of thousands carried off
+as slaves; Every gold ornament was stolen, provision
+grounds destroyed, and the forest tracks strewn with
+the corpses of those who had been massacred, and
+marked out by the graves of their murderers. Sometimes
+treasure and slaves were recaptured and no one
+left to tell the tale, but more often a few escaped
+to fight over the booty and perhaps be hanged as
+mutineers on their return.</p>
+
+<p>The men of that age were undoubtedly great&mdash;great
+warriors, great ruffians, great villains. Only
+here and there can we distinguish a good man like
+Las Casas, who did his very best for the Indians
+against the opposition of the settlers and the lukewarmness
+of the Spanish Court. He was horrified
+at the atrocities in the Indies, but the kings wanted
+their tithes and cared little how they were obtained.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span>
+"Get it honestly if you can, but get it," seems to have
+been their motto, and it was not for many years that
+anything like humanity was shown, and then only by
+a few priests.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3><a name="III" id="III"></a>III</h3>
+
+<h3>"SINGEING THE SPANIARD'S BEARD"</h3>
+
+
+<p>On the discovery of the Indies, Ferdinand and
+Isabella at once applied to Pope Alexander the
+Sixth to secure the rights of Spain in the new
+countries against every other nation, but more
+especially against Portugal. Accordingly, the celebrated
+"Bull of partition" was issued on the 4th
+of May, 1493, giving, conceding, and assigning for
+ever, to them and their successors, all the islands
+and mainlands already found or that might be discovered
+in future, to the west of a line, stretching
+from the north to the south poles, a hundred leagues
+from the Azores or Cape de Verde Islands, provided
+they were not in the possession of any other Christian
+prince. The sovereigns were commanded to appoint
+upright, God-fearing, skilful, and learned men to instruct
+the inhabitants in the Catholic faith, and all
+unauthorised persons were forbidden to traffic on or
+even approach the territories. If they did so they
+would incur the indignation of Almighty God and of
+the blessed Apostles Peter and Paul.</p>
+
+<p>Such was the gist of the document under which
+the enormities mentioned in the preceding chapters<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span>
+were committed. Portugal, except for some disputes
+about Brazil, accepted this arrangement, but the other
+great nations of Europe, especially England, disputed
+it from the very beginning. Nevertheless, the
+governments, as long as they were at peace with
+Spain, took no active part in the matter, but left the
+work to individuals, even going so far in some instances
+as to disclaim their responsibility for piracies
+committed beyond the seas.</p>
+
+<p>English and French seamen, hearing of the treasure
+continually imported into Spain, soon found their
+way to the new world, and as early as the year
+1526 precautions had to be taken against them.
+Orders were sent to build castles on the coasts and
+strong houses, not only for defence against the cannibals,
+who continued to ravage the larger islands,
+but to protect the settlements from French corsairs
+who had already commenced their depredations.
+The tract of the Spanish fleets led them first to St.
+Domingo, and thence on to the isthmus of Darien
+or Panama, where at first the chief port was Nombre
+de Dios. At these two points it was of great importance
+that fortifications should be erected, and
+this was done in the first half of the sixteenth
+century.</p>
+
+<p>An English merchant named Thomas Tison
+seems to have been the first of our nation who
+went to the West Indies, but he got his goods sent
+from Bristol to Spain. In 1527 King Henry VIII.
+fitted out the <i>Dominus Vobiscum</i> and another vessel
+for those parts, but little is known of their course.
+It was, however, reported that they went to Porto<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span>
+Rico, and got there a cargo of brazil wood, and
+then proceeded to St. Domingo, where permission
+was asked to trade. After waiting for the license
+two days the Spanish batteries fired upon them,
+driving them off to go back to Porto Rico, where
+the inhabitants were more friendly.</p>
+
+<p>From this time the corsairs and rovers became
+more numerous and audacious every year. Some
+went trading among the Indians of the mainland,
+others, more bold, forced their goods upon the
+Spanish settlements under threats of pillage. In
+1536 the inhabitants of Havana paid seven hundred
+ducats to a French corsair to save the city,
+and because later the pirate was chased by three
+Spanish vessels, which he captured, he returned and
+exacted a second ransom.</p>
+
+<p>In 1538 there was a gallant fight in the harbour of
+Santiago de Cuba, between a Spaniard and a French
+corsair. The two vessels fought with each other the
+first day until sunset, when a truce was agreed to, and
+civilities exchanged between the captains. They sent
+each other presents of wine and fruit, were very
+friendly, and mutually agreed to fight only by day
+with swords and lances. Artillery, they agreed, was
+an invention of cowards&mdash;they would show their
+valour, and the one who conquered should have the
+other's vessel. The second day they fought again
+until evening without either being conquered, and
+again they exchanged courtesies. That night, however,
+the Spanish captain, Diego Perez, sent to the
+people of the city asking if they would compensate
+him for the loss of his ship if the corsair got the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span>
+better of him; if they agreed to do this he would
+risk his life in their service. Were he not poor and
+without any other property, he would not have asked
+them, and as they would be gainers by his victory,
+he did not think his request at all extravagant. But
+the authorities refused to pledge themselves to anything,
+leaving Perez to fight for his own honour, life,
+and property. The battle continued the whole of the
+third day, each giving the other time for rest and refreshment,
+yet neither was conquered, although many
+had fallen on both sides. After similar courtesies
+the fight went on next morning, and when evening
+came the Frenchman promised to continue it next
+morning. Feeling, however, that the Spaniard was
+likely to get the better of him, he slipped his cable
+in the night and made off, leaving Perez to grieve
+at the drawn battle.</p>
+
+<p>The same year Havana was sacked and burnt,
+and three years later both English and French did
+great injury to the Spanish trade. Even Portugal
+did not escape, but when complaints were sent to
+the king of France, he said he intended to follow
+those conquests and navigations which by right belonged
+to him. In 1545 five French vessels captured
+the pearl-fishing fleet near the Main, which the
+owners were compelled to ransom; at the same time
+they were forced to buy seventy negroes from the
+captors. The Frenchmen then took Santa Martha
+and got a thousand ducats as ransom.</p>
+
+<p>One raid after another took place until the Spaniards
+were at their wits' ends. Forts were built, <i>guarda-costas</i>
+stationed, and other precautions taken, but the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span>
+depredations and forced traffic still continued. They
+cruelly punished all who fell into their hands, and
+this led to retaliation, not only for their own injuries,
+but to avenge the slaughter of the innocent natives.</p>
+
+<p>About the year 1530 Master William Hawkins
+made three long and famous voyages in the ship
+<i>Paul</i>. Hakluyt said he went to Brazil&mdash;a thing very
+rare in those days to our English nation. He became
+so friendly with the Indians that one of their kings
+came to England in his vessel, and was exhibited
+to King Henry, who marvelled to see this savage
+representative of royalty. Unfortunately the poor
+fellow died on the return voyage, which made Hawkins
+fear for the white hostage he had left behind.
+However, his explanation was accepted, and his man
+given back unharmed&mdash;a result all the more pleasing,
+as he knew so little of the language, and might easily
+have been misunderstood.</p>
+
+<p>This is an example of the good feeling of these
+people towards Englishmen and all who treated them
+fairly. Even the cannibals became more gentle under
+good treatment, and would allow the enemies of
+Spain to land on their shores without opposition.
+By this time the natives of the Greater Antilles were
+gone, and with them the thousands of captives
+from the mainland. Then began the importation
+of negroes, first from Spain, where the Portuguese
+had sold a fair number during the previous century,
+and then from Africa. Spain could not send and
+fetch the negroes on account of the Papal Bull, which
+reserved the savage countries east of the line to
+Portugal. It followed, therefore, that, as Spain<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span>
+claimed the Indies, so her sister country claimed
+the whole of Africa&mdash;a claim as little respected by
+other nations as that of her neighbour.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 258px;">
+<img src="images/p053.jpg" width="258" height="302" alt="NEGRO WOMAN RETURNING FROM MARKET." title="" />
+<span class="caption">NEGRO WOMAN RETURNING FROM MARKET.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Hearing that there was a good market for negroes
+in the West, Captain (afterwards Sir) John Hawkins,
+in 1563, got up an expedition to supply this demand.
+With three vessels of 120, 100, and 40 tons respectively,
+he sailed to Sierra Leone, and partly by the
+sword and partly by other means, got three hundred
+slaves, whom he carried to Hispaniola. Here he had
+a reasonable sale, probably forced, for he trusted the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span>
+Spaniards no farther than he thought prudent, considering
+his strength. His returns were so good,
+however, that he not only loaded his own vessels
+with hides, ginger, sugar, and some pearls, but also
+freighted two hulks to send to Spain.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 259px;">
+<img src="images/p054.jpg" width="259" height="353" alt="NEGRO BARBER" title="" />
+<span class="caption">NEGRO BARBER</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 266px;"><br />
+<img src="images/p055.jpg" width="266" height="351" alt="NEGRO FAMILY ON HOLIDAY." title="" />
+<span class="caption">NEGRO FAMILY ON HOLIDAY.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>This success induced him to make another venture
+on a larger scale with the <i>Jesus</i> of Lubeck, of 700,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span>and three other vessels of 140, 50, and 30 tons. He
+sailed for Africa in October, 1564, to kidnap slaves,
+yet all the time he was very religious in a way. His
+orders concluded with the commands to "serve God
+daily; love one another; preserve your victuals;
+beware of fire; and keep good company"&mdash;<i>i.e.</i>, do
+not stray from others of the fleet. At several places
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span>he took negroes by force, losing a few of his men
+in the fights, and with a good number set off for
+the West Indies. Fortunately, he said, although they
+were in great danger from a gale on this voyage,
+they arrived without many deaths of either the
+negroes or themselves. For "the Almighty God,
+who never suffereth His elect to perish, sent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>
+us, on the 16th of February (1565), the ordinary
+breeze."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 266px;">
+<img src="images/p056.jpg" width="266" height="355" alt="NEGRESSES GOSSIPING." title="" />
+<span class="caption">NEGRESSES GOSSIPING.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The first land they sighted was Dominica, where
+they watered, and then went on to Margarita, the
+Governor of which island refused them permission
+to trade. They then tried several other places,
+including Hispaniola and Cuman&aacute;, but also without
+success. At Barbarota they forced the people to
+traffic, and here they were joined by Captain Bontemps,
+a French corsair, with whom they went to
+Cura&ccedil;ao, and forced a hundred slaves upon the
+inhabitants. Finally they went to Rio de la Hacha
+and defeated a body of Spanish troops, after which
+the remainder of Hawkins' cargo was freely sold.</p>
+
+<p>In his third voyage, on which he started in
+October, 1567, Hawkins was accompanied by Francis
+Drake and several other gentlemen adventurers. He
+took a similar course to that of his former voyages,
+joined some African chiefs in storming a town, and
+received, as his share of the booty, five hundred
+prisoners, with whom he again sailed for the Indies.
+The alarmed Spaniards dared not refuse to trade,
+and consequently he soon sold his negroes at a good
+profit. On his return, however, he was caught in
+a storm near the coast of Florida and had to take
+shelter in the harbour of Vera Cruz, where at first
+his vessels were taken for a Spanish fleet then daily
+expected. Under this mistake several influential persons
+came on board, two of whom were retained as
+hostages.</p>
+
+<p>Next day the Spanish fleet, consisting of thirteen
+sail, arrived, and on board one of them was the new<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span>
+Viceroy of Mexico. From this high authority Hawkins
+got permission to repair his ships, victual, and
+refit, provided the English kept themselves to a small
+island in the harbour, for the due performance of
+which they gave twelve hostages.</p>
+
+<p>But the Spaniards were not prepared to let their
+enemies off so easily, and made preparations for a
+surprise. Hawkins, becoming suspicious, sent to
+inquire about certain shady transactions, and was
+at once attacked by something like a thousand men.
+The Spaniards sunk three of his vessels, seriously
+damaged the fourth, and left him with only one
+leaky ship in which to find his way home. A great
+number of his men were killed and others captured,
+the prisoners to be taken to Mexico and there cruelly
+used. Two of them&mdash;Miles Philips and Job Hortop&mdash;managed
+to escape and return to England, where
+they gave long accounts of their sufferings, the latter
+comparing himself to his namesake the patriarch.
+As for Hawkins, in speaking of his return voyage,
+he said, that "if all the miserable and troublesome
+affairs of this sorrowful voyage should be perfectly
+and thoroughly written, there should need a painful
+man with his pen, and as great a time as he had that
+wrote the lives and deaths of the martyrs."</p>
+
+<p>This disaster put an end to Hawkins' slave-trading,
+but made no impression on the other adventurers
+to the Indies. Francis Drake now took up the
+quarrel, and in the year 1572 "singed the Spaniard's
+beard" to some purpose. Knowing already something
+of the state of affairs near the isthmus, he
+resolved to gain his spurs in that direction. He<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span>
+cared not for a forced trade in negroes, but virtually
+went in for piracy, for although the relations of the
+mother countries were at that time somewhat strained,
+war had not yet been declared.</p>
+
+<p>Drake sailed straight for Nombre de Dios, the
+treasure port, arrived suddenly before the inhabitants
+had any warning, and landed a hundred and fifty
+men in the night. Suddenly the town was roused
+to the fact that the enemy were in possession, and
+as the people ran off to the forest, they asked each
+other what was the matter. Unfortunately for Drake,
+however, through a misunderstanding, the English
+were alarmed and took to their vessels, so that all
+the advantage of the surprise was lost. Undaunted
+by this failure, he determined to attempt something
+even more audacious&mdash;the capture of the Panama
+train.</p>
+
+<p>We have already seen that African slaves had
+been imported in considerable numbers; we have
+now to mention that on the continent they often
+escaped into the forest. Here they lived like the
+Indians, and were often in friendship with them,
+going under the name of Simerons, or afterwards
+Maroons. Always at enmity with the masters whom
+they had deserted, they were a terror to the settlers
+on account of their continual raids on the plantations.</p>
+
+<p>Drake determined to get the assistance of these
+people, which was freely given, and he was enabled
+to traverse the pathless forest and to lie in wait for
+the train of mules carrying gold and silver from
+Panama to Nombre de Dios. This he captured,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span>
+but, on account of the difficulties of the way, was
+obliged to leave the silver behind, and content himself
+with the gold. Then he attacked some merchants,
+burnt their goods to the value of two hundred
+thousand ducats, and got safely back to his ships just
+as the dilatory Spaniards sent out three hundred men
+for his capture. It was on this excursion that he saw
+the Great South Sea, and determined to carry English
+ships into that immense Spanish preserve. How
+he carried out his resolve, and appeared suddenly off
+the Peruvian coast five years later, is a story we must
+leave, as it belongs to another part of the new world.</p>
+
+<p>When Drake returned to Plymouth the news of his
+adventures, and the more substantial evidence of the
+gold he had brought, roused others to follow his
+example. Among them was one John Oxnam, or
+Oxenham, who has been immortalised by Kingsley
+in "Westward Ho!" Arriving at the isthmus in
+1575, in a vessel of 140 tons, he went to an out-of-the-way
+river, and hid his bark among the great
+trees. Landing with his seventy men, he went in
+search of the Simerons, who took him to a river
+which flowed into the South Sea, where a pinnace
+was built. In this the English pulled down to the
+Pacific, with the intention of capturing one of the
+treasure ships coming to Panama. They succeeded
+so far as to get sixty thousand dollars in gold from
+one bark, and a hundred thousand from another. Not
+yet satisfied, they went to the Pearl Islands, attacked
+the negro divers, and took a few pearls, with which
+they at last returned up the river.</p>
+
+<p>Unfortunately for Oxenham the negroes of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span>
+Pearl Islands carried the news of his presence to
+Panama, and in two days four boats with a hundred
+men were sent in pursuit. They found the two barks,
+which had been released, and from their captains
+learnt where the Englishmen had gone. Following up
+the river they were at a loss when they came to three
+branches, but spying some freshly plucked feathers
+floating down one of the streams, they followed that
+until they came upon the pinnace. Six men were on
+guard, one of whom was killed, but the other five
+escaped and gave the alarm to their comrades. Pursuing
+their track through the forest the Spaniards
+found the store of treasure hidden away under boughs
+of trees. With this they would have gone back had
+not Oxenham attacked them with two hundred
+Simerons before they reached their boats. Being
+more skilful in bush fighting than the English, the
+Spaniards repulsed the party, killing eleven and
+taking seven prisoners, from whom they learnt that
+the delay was caused by the difficulty of transporting
+the treasure.</p>
+
+<p>Now the news was sent to Nombre de Dios, and the
+authorities there found the English vessel and brought
+her away, thus cutting off the means of escape for
+those still lurking in the forest. Then an expedition
+was sent in search of them, and they were found
+building canoes. Some were sick and could make no
+resistance, the others fled and took refuge with the
+negroes, by whom they were ultimately betrayed and
+taken to Panama. Here Oxenham was interrogated
+as to his authority for the raid, and was obliged to
+admit that he had not his Queen's license. All<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span>
+except five boys were executed, the men at once, and
+the officers a little while afterwards at Lima.</p>
+
+<p>Thus ended one of the most audacious attacks on
+the Spaniards which only failed through a little want
+of calculation. Hakluyt, who wrote the account,
+said the enemy marvelled much to see that although
+many Frenchmen had come to these countries, yet
+never one durst put foot upon land; only Drake and
+Oxenham performed such exploits. When the news
+reached Spain the king was so alarmed that he sent
+out two galleys to guard the coast, which in the first
+year after their arrival took six or seven French
+vessels, and put a stop to their piracies for a time.</p>
+
+<p>There was another class of raids in the Indies, of
+which that of Andrew Barker, of Bristol, was an
+example. He, and one Captain Roberts, going to
+trade in the Canary Islands, had their goods confiscated,
+and were put in prison, from which Roberts
+escaped and Barker was ultimately discharged. To
+recoup his losses and revenge himself, Barker fitted
+out several vessels in 1576, in which he went trading
+to the Main, and afterwards committed acts of piracy.
+He took a small vessel off Margarita and a frigate
+near Carthagena, from which he got five hundred
+pounds' weight of gold and some emeralds. Now,
+following the example of Drake, he landed on the
+isthmus to get help from the Simerons, but could find
+none. Then, from the unhealthiness of the climate,
+most of his men fell sick, and eight or nine died,
+which made him give up this part of his project.
+Embarking again he took another Spanish vessel
+with some gold, but after that the party got into<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span>
+difficulties. Barker quarrelled with his ship-master,
+and one of the vessels became so leaky that they had
+to let her sink, first removing the cargo into the
+last Spanish prize. They, however, captured another
+vessel with a hundred pounds of silver and some provisions,
+but after that the crews mutinied and put
+Barker ashore with some others, where they were
+attacked by Spaniards, and nine, including the captain,
+killed. The mutineers then went on to Truxillo,
+which they surprised, but could find no treasure, and
+were soon driven to flight by a Spanish vessel. On
+their way home the Spanish vessel sunk, carrying
+down two thousand pounds' worth of their booty, and
+on their arrival at Plymouth they were imprisoned
+as accessories to their captain's death. Although
+none were executed, yet, says the worthy Hakluyt,
+"they could not avoid the heavy judgment of God,
+but shortly after came to miserable ends."</p>
+
+<p>Open war soon came, and culminated in the invasion
+of England by the "Invincible Armada" of
+1588. No longer could there be any question of the
+Queen's license, and in 1585 Drake, now Sir Francis,
+fitted out a great fleet to cripple the power of Spain
+in the Indies. The Spanish authorities were no longer
+unprepared, but ready to give him a warm reception
+all along his expected course. The fleet consisted of
+twenty-five vessels, with two thousand three hundred
+men, among whom could be found many whose names
+are famous in the annals of Queen Elizabeth. At
+the Cape de Verde Islands they burnt the town of
+Santiago in revenge for the murder of a boy, and
+after this baptism of fire, proceeded to the island of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span>
+St. Christopher's, where they landed the sick, cleaned
+their vessels, and spent Christmas. Leaving at the
+end of December, on the 1st of January, 1586, they
+arrived off Hispaniola with the intention of attacking
+St. Domingo. The English landed about ten miles
+distant from that city, marched upon the Spaniards
+unawares, and took it by surprise, notwithstanding
+every preparation that had been made, and the careful
+watch for enemies from the sea.</p>
+
+<p>Drake demanded a large ransom, and because it
+was not paid at once, commenced to demolish the
+buildings, which brought the inhabitants to their senses
+and made them offer the sum of 25,000 ducats (about
+&pound;7,000), which he accepted. From thence the fleet
+sailed to Carthagena, where no opposition was made
+until the troops landed, when a great struggle took
+place in the streets. The Spaniards had erected
+barricades, behind which they succeeded in doing
+some execution, but only delayed the surrender for
+a short time. After a portion of the town had been
+burnt, 110,000 ducats were paid as ransom for the
+remainder, and after a few less brilliant exploits, the
+fleet went back to England, being thus hurried on
+account of sickness among the men. Otherwise,
+Drake had intended to capture Nombre de Dios and
+Panama, but from this disability had to be content
+with booty to the amount of &pound;60,000, which would
+mean something like a quarter of a million at the
+present value of money. He arrived in time to help
+in repelling the Armada, and this invasion kept most
+of the English about their own shores for a year or
+two.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In 1595, when there were no longer any fears of
+a Spanish landing, Drake determined on another
+voyage, and this time with Sir John Hawkins. Getting
+together six of the Queen's ships and twenty-one
+other vessels, they arrived safely at the Caribbee
+Islands, where Hawkins became sick and died.
+Drake then went on to Porto Rico and attacked the
+capital, but could do nothing more than capture a few
+vessels from under the guns of the forts. Going to
+the Main he captured Rio de la Hacha and a fishing
+village named Rancheria. These he held for ransom,
+but was dissatisfied with the number of pearls offered
+by private persons, the Governor refusing to give
+anything, and burnt both town and village. Santa
+Martha was also taken, and then Nombre de Dios,
+but he found that the treasure had been removed, the
+inhabitants taking to the forest when they heard his
+fearful name. Sir Thomas Baskerville took seven
+hundred and fifty men to go over to Panama, but
+returned much discouraged by the difficulties of the
+road. Drake finally burnt Nombre de Dios and every
+vessel in the harbour down to the smallest boats.</p>
+
+<p>After that, sickness began to tell upon the expedition,
+and Drake himself was stricken with dysentery.
+When on the point of death he rose from his bed, put
+on his full dress of admiral, called his men and gave
+them a farewell address, then, sinking down exhausted
+he died immediately afterwards. Several captains and
+other important officers also died, and they even lost
+the chief surgeon; after that, nothing was left but to
+return home. Off Cuba they were attacked by a
+Spanish fleet of twenty vessels, sent out to intercept<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span>
+them, with which they kept up a running fight until
+the enemy were left behind.</p>
+
+<p>On their arrival in England in May, 1596, the sad
+news of the death of Drake overshadowed all the
+glory of the expedition. In Spain, however, it was
+published for general information, and the people
+congratulated each other that at last their enemy
+was gone. Henry Savile, in his "Libel of Spanish
+Lies," said "it did ease the stomachs of the timorous
+Spaniards greatly to hear of the death of him whose
+life was a scourge and a continual plague to them." No
+wonder that the news was so grateful, for none was so
+daring, and no name like that of Drake ever came to
+be used as a bogey with which to frighten their
+children.</p>
+
+<p>Yet there were many gallant adventurers in the
+Indies at that very time. Sir Robert Dudley and
+Sir Walter Ralegh were both at Trinidad in 1595,
+and for several years before and after the English
+rovers were plentiful in the Gulf of Mexico. In
+1591 the <i>Content</i> was successfully defended against
+six Spanish men-of-war, and the galleons were
+obliged to sail in large squadrons. What with the
+dangers of storms and the enemy, it was stated that
+of a hundred and twenty-three vessels expected in
+Spain during that year, only twenty-five arrived
+safe.</p>
+
+<p>The number of rovers became at last so great that
+plunder was difficult to obtain. The Spanish settlers
+were in continual fear, and naturally took every precaution
+against their enemies, hiding the treasure on
+the least alarm, and taking to the forest. The French<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span>
+corsairs were not far behind the English, although as
+yet they had no proper licenses, and only fought for
+their own hands. Latterly, also, the Dutch and
+Flemings had arrived, and although mainly occupied
+in trading, they did not hesitate to fight on occasion,
+especially when attempts were made to prevent their
+traffic. While under the rule of Charles the Fifth they
+had been free to go to and from the Indies, and no doubt
+use the knowledge thus gained to further their own
+interests since their revolt. Like the English, they
+were at enmity with Spain, but there was also another
+bond of union&mdash;both were Protestant. Queen Elizabeth
+assisted Holland in gaining her independence,
+and therefore at this period the relations between
+English and Dutch were very cordial. But the
+fellow-feeling of enmity to Spain made even the
+French corsair unite with the two others, so that
+pirates, privateers, and traders all combined against
+the common foe.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3><a name="IV" id="IV"></a>IV</h3>
+
+<h3>RALEGH AND THE FIRST BRITISH COLONIES</h3>
+
+
+<p>The first grant made by Queen Elizabeth for a
+settlement in America was given to Sir Humphrey
+Gilbert in 1578, but the father of English colonisation
+was Sir Walter Ralegh. Although considered a
+rover, or pirate, by the Spaniards, he was of a
+different type to Drake, Hawkins, and the other
+adventurers of the sixteenth century. Not only was
+he famous as a brave warrior, but at the same time
+as one of the most learned men of his time; as
+enterprising in the arts of peace as on the battlefield.</p>
+
+<p>The "Letters Patent" to Walter Ralegh, Esquire,
+dated the 25th of March, 1584, may be considered
+as the first charter of the English colonies. Under
+them he was empowered to discover, occupy, and
+possess barbarous countries not actually in the
+possession of any Christian prince, or inhabited by
+Christian people, on condition that he reserved to
+Her Majesty a fifth of all the gold and silver found
+therein. He was also given all the rights of civil and
+criminal jurisdiction, and empowered to govern and
+make laws as long as these laws did not conflict<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>
+with those of the mother country, or with the true
+Christian faith of the Church of England. Under
+this charter the first settlement in Virginia was
+undertaken, and thus England threw down the
+gauntlet in the face of Spain.</p>
+
+<p>However, Ralegh did not confine himself to North
+America&mdash;there were other countries not in the
+actual possession of any Christian prince, the most
+notable being Guiana. Ralegh had heard the story
+of "El Dorado" and of the failures of the many
+German and Spanish knights. He would succeed
+where they had failed. Englishmen had displayed
+their mettle in the Indies&mdash;if the treasures of Peru
+and Mexico had raised their enemy to be "mistress
+of the world" and "sovereign of the seas," why
+should not he also find other golden countries for
+the benefit of his virgin queen and country? Because
+two rich provinces had been discovered, it did
+not follow that there were no others; on the contrary,
+the rumours of "El Dorado" were so many that they
+could not be treated with contempt. And then the
+natives of the "Great Wild Coast," although cannibals,
+were friendly to the English, who had always treated
+them fairly, and there they had the advantage over
+Spain. The country was open to them, although
+strictly guarded against their rivals.</p>
+
+<p>The stories had been lately revived by the expeditions
+of Antonio de Berrio, Governor of Trinidad
+and Guiana, who had made explorations of the river
+Orinoco, and possibly exaggerated his reports for the
+purpose of getting settlers. Captain Popham took
+some letters from a Spanish vessel in 1594, wherein<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span>
+were found accounts of the "Nueva Dorado," which
+were spoken of as incredibly rich. Ralegh saw these,
+and was induced by their reports and his own knowledge
+of the Indies, which he had gained in working
+at his colonisation schemes, to go out and look up
+the matter.</p>
+
+<p>The occupation of Guiana, he said, had other
+ground and assurance of riches than the voyages to
+the West Indies. The king of Spain was not so
+impoverished as the English supposed by their
+taking two or three ports, neither were the riches of
+Peru or New Spain to be picked up on the sea-shore.
+The burning of towns on the coast did not impoverish
+Spain one ducat, for it was within the country that
+the land was rich and populous. Therefore England
+should endeavour to get possession of this yet unspoiled
+country, instead of wasting her energies on
+adventures that were of no real benefit, and that
+hardly touched the real source of her enemy's greatness.</p>
+
+<p>Ralegh arrived at Trinidad in March, 1595, and as
+a matter of precaution captured the Spanish town of
+St. Joseph, and the Governor, De Berrio, from whom
+he heard more stories of El Dorado. Here also he
+began those conciliatory measures with the natives
+which characterised all his dealings. He released
+five chiefs, who had been imprisoned in chains and
+tortured by dropping melted fat on their bodies, and
+thus gained their friendship. Unlike other adventurers
+he thought it necessary to excuse himself for
+burning St. Joseph, which he did in rather quaint
+language. Considering that if he entered Guiana by
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71-72]</a><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72"></a></span>small boats and left a garrison of the enemy at his
+back, he "should have savoured very much of the
+ass," he took the place, and at the instance of the
+natives set it on fire.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 447px;">
+<img src="images/p071.jpg" width="447" height="313" alt="RALEGH IN TRINIDAD." title="" />
+<span class="caption">RALEGH IN TRINIDAD.<br />
+(<i>From Gottfried&#39;s &quot;Reisen.&quot;</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Now began a weary voyage up the Orinoco, first
+through the delta, which is such a maze that they
+might have wandered for months without getting
+into the main river had they not secured an Indian
+pilot. Exposed alternately to burning sun and
+drenching showers in open boats, they toiled against
+the powerful stream. Ralegh everywhere tried his
+best to ingratiate himself with the Indians, succeeding
+so well that his name became known over the
+whole of Guiana. He told them that he had been
+sent by a great queen, the powerful Cacique of the
+north, and a virgin, whose chieftains were more
+numerous than the trees of the forest. She was an
+enemy to the Spaniards, had freed other nations from
+their oppression, and had now sent to rescue them.
+To confirm his statement he gave each Cacique a
+coin so that they could possess the queen's likeness,
+and these were treasured and even worshipped for a
+century afterwards.</p>
+
+<p>Everywhere he heard of El Dorado, but it was
+always receding farther and farther, until his men
+became so disheartened that he had to rouse them by
+saying that they would be shamed before their comrades
+if they gave up so easily. However, after
+reaching the mouth of the Caroni and getting specimens
+of gold ore, he had to return without doing
+more than locating the city of Manoa several hundred
+miles to the east of his farthest point. This was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span>
+done in so exact a manner that the great lake of
+Parima, as large as the Caspian Sea, was retained
+upon the maps of South America down to the
+beginning of the present century. His ore was
+probably stream quartz, and in representing it as
+taken from the rock he probably reported what the
+Indians had told him. When, therefore, he said that
+the assay gave its value as &pound;13,000 a ton, there is no
+reason to suppose a mistake or untruth, for pieces
+quite as valuable may still be picked up. His "Discoverie
+of Guiana" is such a mixture of close and
+accurate observation with the hearsay of the Indians,
+that it is difficult in some cases to separate truth from
+fiction. Yet, although historians have charged him
+with wilful lying, there can be no doubt of his good
+faith. It has been left to the present century to
+prove that gold-mines exist on the site of the fabled
+El Dorado, for it is there that the well-known Caratal
+diggings are situated.</p>
+
+<p>Ralegh asked the people of England to judge for
+themselves. He had spent much time and money,
+with no other object than to serve his queen and
+country. When they considered that it was the
+Spaniard's gold which endangered and disturbed all
+the nations of Europe, that "purchaseth intelligence,
+creepeth into councils and setteth bound loyalty at
+liberty," they would see the advantage of these
+provinces he had discovered. Guiana was a country
+that had never yet been sacked, turned, or wrought.
+The face of the earth had not been torn, nor the
+virtue and salt of the soil spent by manurance; the
+graves had not been opened for gold, the mines not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span>
+touched with sledges, or the images pulled down from
+the temples. It was so easily defensible that it could
+be protected by two forts at the mouth of a river, and
+thus the whole empire be guarded. The country
+was already discovered, many nations won to Her
+Majesty's love and obedience, and those Spaniards
+who had laboured on the conquest were beaten, discouraged,
+and disgraced. If Her Majesty took up
+the enterprise, he doubted not that after the first or
+second year there would be a Contractation House
+for Guiana in London, with larger receipts than that
+for the Indies at Seville.</p>
+
+<p>Such was Ralegh's dream. Another Peru to be
+conquered, and England to be raised to the highest
+point of wealth and importance. But unfortunately
+he could get no assistance to carry out the grand project.
+Yet he was undoubtedly sincere, for did he not
+send out two expeditions under Captains Keymis and
+Berrie the following year, to assure the Indians that
+he had not forgotten them? Keymis found one tribe
+keeping a festival in honour of the great princess of
+the north, and anxiously waiting for the return of
+Gualtero, which name, by the by, was similar to their
+word for friend. They made fires, and, sitting in their
+hammocks, each man with his companion, they recounted
+the worthy deeds and deaths of their ancestors,
+execrating their enemies most spitefully, and
+magnifying their friends with all the titles of honour
+they could devise. Thus they sat talking and smoking
+tobacco until their cigars (their measure of time)
+went out, during which they were not to be disturbed,
+"for this is their religion and prayers which they now<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span>
+celebrated, keeping a precise fast one whole day in
+honour of the great princess of the north, their
+patron and defender."</p>
+
+<p>The explorations of Ralegh and his captains were
+published all over Europe, with the result that attention
+was generally drawn to Guiana. Already some Dutchmen
+had been trading on the coast for many years, and
+it was even reported that they had established a post
+in the river Pomeroon, the centre of the province of
+Caribana. As early as 1542 Flemings had settled at
+Araya on the coast of Venezuela, where they collected
+salt and were left undisturbed as long as the
+Netherlands belonged to Spain. Ralegh seems to
+have purposely ignored the presence of these people
+in Guiana, probably to prevent any question of prior
+rights on the part of a friendly nation. But, after all,
+the Dutchmen could only have been there on their
+own responsibility, and their temporary occupation
+had no meaning from a national point of view.</p>
+
+<p>Now that Guiana was made known, vessels of other
+nationalities went trading along the coast, everywhere
+meeting with a hearty welcome from the Indians as
+long as the visitors were not Spanish. They were only
+so many additions to their friends&mdash;their enemies were
+confined to Trinidad and the Orinoco, leaving the
+whole coast of Guiana to its rightful owners. In
+fact, the Spaniards could no more subdue the Caribs
+of the Main than they could those of the islands.
+Only in Trinidad, where the Arawak was employed
+against the cannibal, was a settlement made possible.</p>
+
+<p>Ralegh was unable to carry out his great project,
+but others were not backward in attempting to settle<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span>
+in the country. First came Charles Leigh, who in
+1604 founded a colony in the river Oyapok, which
+failed partly from the lack of assistance from England
+and partly from too great a dependence on the
+promises of the Indians to supply food. Sickness
+followed on starvation, Leigh died, and a mutiny
+took place, after which the survivors got back to
+Europe in a Dutch trader, which fortunately arrived
+when all hope of succour had been abandoned.
+Robert Harcourt followed to the same river in 1609,
+like Leigh, getting promises of assistance from the
+Indians by using the name of Ralegh. With their
+consent he took possession of the country, "by twig
+and turf," in the name of King James. This ceremony
+was performed by first cutting a branch from a
+tree, and then turning up a sod with the sword, thus
+claiming everything in and on the earth.</p>
+
+<p>Harcourt's colony lasted several years, and in 1613
+he received from James the First a grant of all that
+part of Guiana lying between the rivers Amazons and
+Essequebo, on the usual condition of the fifth of all
+gold and silver being handed over to the king. In the
+same year the Dutch trading factory at Kyk-over-al
+on the river Essequebo was established, and this was
+probably the reason why the English grant made that
+river the boundary of their possessions, leaving the
+Hollander to establish himself between the Essequebo
+and the Orinoco.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, in 1603, poor Ralegh had been tried on
+a charge of aiding and abetting the plot to raise
+Arabella Stuart to the throne of England, on the
+death of Queen Elizabeth. Any one who reads the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span>
+account of his trial will perceive at once the absurdity
+of the charge, yet Ralegh was convicted and sentenced
+to be hanged, drawn, and quartered. However, even
+with all his hatred for the knight, King James dared
+not carry out the sentence, but instead, kept him
+imprisoned in the Tower.</p>
+
+<p>Here Ralegh still hankered after the treasures of
+Guiana, and in 1611 he made a proposition to the
+Government to send Captain Keymis to find the rich
+gold mine which had been pointed out to him by an
+Indian. If Keymis should live to arrive at the place
+and fail to bring half a ton or more of that rich ore
+of which he had shown a sample, Ralegh himself
+would bear all the expense of the journey. "Though,"
+said he, "it be a difficult matter of exceeding difficulty
+for any man to find the same acre of ground
+again, in a country desolate and overgrown, which he
+hath seen but once, and that sixteen years since&mdash;which
+were hard enough to do upon Salisbury Plain&mdash;yet
+that your lordships may be satisfied of the truth,
+I am contented to adventure all I have (but my
+reputation) upon Keymis's memory."</p>
+
+<p>This proposition was rejected, and the poor knight
+lingered on in the Tower, attended during part of the
+time by two Guiana Indians, Harry and Leonard
+Regapo. In 1616, however, he at last recovered his
+liberty on condition that he went to Guiana and
+brought back gold, but at the same time the king refused
+to pardon him. Nevertheless he took up the
+matter with an amount of enthusiasm which showed
+his entire confidence in its ultimate success. All his
+own money and as much of his wife's as could be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span>
+spared was spent in fitting out the expedition, and he
+also got contributions from many of his friends. The
+king even went so far as to give him a commission to
+undertake a voyage to the south parts of America, or
+elsewhere in America, inhabited by heathen and
+savage people, with all the necessary rights of
+government and jurisdiction; yet with all this the
+old sentence hung over his head.</p>
+
+<p>The expedition of fourteen vessels started in March,
+1617, but even from the commencement the voyage
+was disastrous. First a gale was encountered, which
+drove the fleet to take refuge in Cork Harbour,
+where it lay until August. This seems to have put a
+damper on the commander, who now began to realise
+how much depended on his success. He was twenty-two
+years older than when he went on his first voyage
+to Guiana, and most of those years he had spent in
+captivity. Is it any wonder that when the excitement
+attendant on his release had gone off he became sick
+and utterly prostrated? Such was his condition when
+the fleet arrived at Cayenne, where he went to look
+for his Indian boy Harry, who had gone back to his
+people and was now wanted as interpreter.</p>
+
+<p>So low was Ralegh's condition that he had to be
+carried ashore, and although he soon became a little
+better under a course of fresh meat and fruits, he
+never wholly recovered. So great was his weakness,
+both of mind and body, that he deputed Keymis to
+lead the party up the Orinoco, while he rested at
+Cayenne; in a few days he would go on to Trinidad
+and wait there until they returned. Keymis accordingly
+went on, accompanied by young Walter Ralegh,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span>
+a number of other gentlemen, and four hundred
+soldiers. They arrived at the site of the supposed
+gold mine without accident, but found that since the
+first expedition some Spaniards had built "a town of
+sticks, covered with leaves," and this stood in the way
+of their approach to the mine. Possibly Keymis
+now thought of his master's expression in regard to
+St. Joseph, and did not care to "savour of an ass" by
+leaving the enemy to interfere with his work. He
+therefore attacked this town of St. Thome, and set it
+on fire. Unfortunately young Ralegh was killed in
+the fight, and the thought of how he could tell this
+bad news preyed upon the mind of Keymis until all
+relish for gold-seeking was lost. The Spaniards took
+to the bush, from whence they sallied forth on any
+small party of the English, and ultimately put them
+into a state of confusion. The mine could not be
+found, the adventurers began to complain that they
+had been fooled, and Keymis was so troubled that he
+seemed neither to know nor care anything about
+treasure-seeking.</p>
+
+<p>Ralegh had meanwhile arrived in the Gulf of Paria,
+where he received the news of the burning of St.
+Thome and the death of his son from some Indians.
+Presently Keymis arrived, utterly dejected, to find
+his master broken down and more woe-begone than
+himself. Ralegh said he was undone, and that
+Keymis was entirely to blame. Not even a sample of
+ore&mdash;the king would believe him a liar and a cheat.
+Then, this attack on a Spanish town! Did not
+Keymis remember that these were not the days of
+the virgin queen, when to "singe the Spaniard's
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80-81]</a><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81"></a></span>beard" was worthy of praise? Did he not know
+that James was friendly with the king of Spain and
+wanted to get from him a princess for his son
+Henry?</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 445px;">
+<img src="images/p080.jpg" width="445" height="322" alt="GOLD HUNTING." title="" />
+<span class="caption">GOLD HUNTING.<br />
+(<i>From Gottfried&#39;s &quot;Reisen.&quot;</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Keymis had been the intimate friend of Ralegh
+through all his troubles. He had remained faithful
+even when threatened with the rack at the time of
+the trial. As a kind of steward he had administered
+the prisoner's estate, and was a trusted friend and
+confidant of the family. He had seen young Walter
+grow up to manhood, and now through his fault the
+youth had been killed. For the first time the bereaved
+father was angry with his captain; perhaps
+if Keymis died the whole blame would be laid upon
+his shoulders, and Ralegh be exonerated. He went
+to the cabin allotted to him, loaded a pistol, shot
+himself, and then, as he feared the wound was not
+mortal, finished the suicide by driving a long knife
+into his heart.</p>
+
+<p>Thus died poor Keymis, but unfortunately this
+did not make any difference to his master. If Ralegh
+had been prepared to throw all the responsibility on
+his lieutenant, the king could only be satisfied with
+treasure. Even if James had been inclined to over-look
+the affair, the Spanish ambassador would not
+condone such an offence. He is said to have rushed
+into the royal presence with the cry of "Piracy!
+piracy! piracy!" at the same time demanding the
+immediate capture and punishment of the raiders. It
+followed, therefore, that Ralegh was arrested immediately
+on his return, and finally executed under the
+old sentence, but by decapitation instead of hanging.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>His last days were passed with resignation and
+fortitude. His old spirit was entirely broken, and
+although he petitioned the king for grace and pardon,
+he did so in a hopeless way. He had many sympathisers,
+and to satisfy them the king's printers issued
+a little book entitled "A Declaration of the Demeanour
+and Carriage of Sir Walter Raleigh," obviously
+inspired by the king himself. Here was a thing
+unheard of before or since; a sovereign excusing
+himself for his actions! If anything were required to
+prove the prisoner's innocence, this was sufficient.
+Did James want to salve his own conscience, or was
+it intended to satisfy those who clamoured on account
+of the injustice of the execution? No doubt many of
+the old sea dogs who had served under Drake and
+Hawkins were still living, and remembered when
+Plymouth bells rang at the news of fresh arrivals
+from the Indies. "But now, forsooth, you must not
+burn down a thatched hovel without a great to-do
+being made." If Spain wanted peace, why did her
+people murder a ship's company in cold blood a little
+while before? Out upon it! The good old days had
+passed and England was going to ruin.</p>
+
+<p>However, even King James's sneaking friendship
+for Spain could not keep back colonisation altogether.
+Something like moderation was introduced, and only
+pirates pure and simple kept up the old traditions.
+As for the king he hardly knew how to steer, what
+with the petitions for reprisals from English seamen
+on the one hand, and complaints of the Spanish
+ambassadors on the other. The result of this want
+of policy is well shown in the case of Roger North<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span>
+one of the adventurers in the last expedition of
+Ralegh, who, in 1619, wished to re-establish the
+colony in the Oyapok, which had virtually sunk to
+nothing. An association called the Amazon Company
+was formed, and, notwithstanding Spanish protests,
+the king granted "Letters Patent," under which
+North got up an expedition in four vessels. Then
+the Spanish ambassador began to storm, and the
+weak king revoked the patent, calling upon the members
+of the Company to renounce their rights. North,
+who had been warned that something was going on,
+hurried up his preparations, and was off so quickly
+that he sailed on the 30th of April, 1620, fifteen days
+before the proclamation revoking his license was
+published.</p>
+
+<p>On his return in January following he was arrested
+and sent to the Tower, where he remained until July.
+Meanwhile his cargo from Guiana was seized on the
+ground that it had been obtained from Spanish possessions,
+but with all his willingness to oblige Spain
+the king could not get the case proven. It followed,
+therefore, that North was released, and his goods restored,
+but as the cargo was mainly tobacco it had
+become much damaged by neglect.</p>
+
+<p>This detention of North, and the consequent delay
+in sending out supplies to the Oyapok, led to the
+downfall of the infant colony. Hearing nothing from
+England the settlers became disheartened, and if it
+had not happened that Dutch traders arrived there
+occasionally they would have been starved. Even as
+it was one left after another until few remained, and
+when, six years later, "the Company of Noblemen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span>
+and Gentlemen of England for the Plantation of
+Guiana" was formed, the settlement had to be commenced
+anew. However, some of those who left
+carried the English flag to the island of St. Christopher's,
+where a settlement was commenced in 1624
+by Thomas Warner. Thus, as Ralegh was the father
+of English colonisation, so his beloved Guiana became
+the parent of the British West Indies.</p>
+
+<p>James the First died in March, 1625, and with him
+went the English subservience to Spain, never to be
+restored. During his reign British enterprise had
+been kept back; now it broke down all obstructions.
+True, New England and Bermuda were settled during
+his reign, but they owed little to him or his government.
+As soon as the Royal obstructionist was dead,
+colonisation schemes came to the front. Before even
+a month had passed, on the 14th of April, John Coke
+came forward with a proposition to incorporate a
+company for the defence and protection of the West
+Indies, for establishing a trade there, and for fitting
+out a fleet to attack the Spanish settlements. About
+the same time, also, the Attorney-General made some
+"notes" on the advantages derived by the Spaniards
+and Dutch from their West Indian trade, showing
+that it was neither safe nor profitable to England for
+them to remain absolute lords of those parts, and
+suggesting that the new king should entertain the
+matter and openly interpose, or else permit it to be
+done underhand; then if it prospered he could make
+it his own at pleasure.</p>
+
+<p>What was done in these particular cases does not
+appear, but that a new policy was introduced is cer<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span>tain.
+In September following the case of St. Christopher's
+was brought before the Privy Council, which
+apparently confirmed what had been done, in taking
+possession of the island. In the "information" laid
+over it was stated that Thomas Warner had discovered
+that island, as well as Nevis, Barbados, and
+Montserrat, and had begun the planting and colonising
+of these islands, until then only inhabited by
+savages. King Charles was asked to take them under
+his royal protection and grant Thomas Warner their
+custody as his lieutenant, with the usual powers of
+jurisdiction.</p>
+
+<p>The result was not altogether to the liking of the
+petitioners, Ralph Merrifield and Thomas Warner,
+for in July, 1627, a grant of all the Caribbees was
+made to the Earl of Carlisle. This was sweeping
+enough, however, to suit those who wanted English
+colonies, however it ignored the rights of the first
+settlers in St. Kitt's and Barbados, which latter
+island had been settled a few months after the first.</p>
+
+<p>Now, also, Roger North came forward with his
+story and got the revoked patent renewed, so that he
+could go on with the settlement in the Oyapok. For
+a time it did very well, but the tide had turned in
+favour of the islands, and Guiana was soon abandoned
+to the Dutch and French.</p>
+
+<p>The most important of the two islands first colonised
+was Barbados, which, fortunately for her comfort,
+never suffered from such calamities as befel the
+sister island of St. Christopher's. As far as the
+English were concerned Barbados was discovered by
+a vessel going out to Leigh's settlement, in Guiana, in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span>
+1605. A pillar was erected with the inscription,
+"James, King of England and this island," but
+nothing was done in the way of a settlement until
+immediately after Warner commenced planting in
+St. Kitt's. The most intimate connection existed
+between Barbados and Guiana from the earliest
+times, as in fact it does to the present day, for
+Captain Powell, the commander of the little company
+of pioneers, sent to his Dutch friend, Groenwegel, in
+Essequebo, for a party of Arawak Indians to teach
+the new-comers how to plant provisions, cotton, and
+tobacco.</p>
+
+<p>In 1630 another group of islands was added by the
+granting of a patent to the "Governor and Company of
+Adventurers for the Plantation of the Islands of Providence,
+Henrietta, and the adjacent islands." Under
+this charter possession was taken of the Bahamas, but
+little was done in the way of settling them for about
+a century. Thus West Indian colonisation was commenced,
+and claims made to all the smaller islands
+on behalf of England.</p>
+
+<p>But it is not to be supposed that France and
+Holland were going to let everything go by default&mdash;on
+the contrary, they soon began to settle in some
+of the very islands which had been granted to the
+Earl of Carlisle. The Dutch, as we have seen, were
+traders from the beginning, preferring the so-called
+contraband traffic with the natives and Spanish
+colonists to anything like the raids of English or
+French. Yet, in their plodding way they went on
+steadily, and as early as the year 1600 took possession
+of the island of St. Eustatius. When the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span>
+Spaniards awoke to the fact that the Dutch were
+injuring their trade, they began to enforce all the
+old prohibitions and seized the smugglers. But the
+Hollander commenced to feel his power, and gave
+his enemy several lessons, which made him feel that
+the United Provinces with their symbol of a bundle
+of darts were not to be despised.</p>
+
+<p>In 1615 the Dutch took the capital of Porto Rico,
+and in 1621 their West India Company was formed
+with territorial and trading rights over all the unoccupied
+countries of Africa and America. Suddenly as it
+were the despised Hollander became a power in the
+West Indies, and the Company was soon strong
+enough to conquer Brazil, which it must be remembered
+was, with Portugal and all her colonies, then in
+the hands of Spain. About the year 1627 Piet Heyn
+destroyed a Spanish fleet in Mata&ccedil;a Bay, Cuba, the
+booty from which was something enormous. Altogether,
+the West India Company was said to have
+captured 547 vessels, mainly off the coast of America,
+the prize money from which amounted to thirty
+million guilders (&pound;2,500,000), while the damage to
+Spain was at least six times as much.</p>
+
+<p>Now also the French began to claim their share.
+In 1625 Mons. d'Enambuc went on a piratical expedition
+to the Caribbean Sea, but without any intention
+of founding a colony. However, off the Cayman's
+islands he was attacked by a Spanish galleon of
+much superior force, and although he succeeded at
+last in driving her off, his vessel was so crippled that
+he had to put into St. Christopher's for repairs. Here
+he found Warner already established, and with him a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span>
+few Frenchmen. On account of his condition and
+the beauty of the island, he became inclined to settle,
+and as the English and French were then on good
+terms, Warner saw no objection. The consequence
+was that St. Kitt's became divided between the two
+nationalities, with results in the future most disastrous
+to both.</p>
+
+<p>At first, however, the assistance of the French was
+very welcome. The Caribs were still a power in the
+smaller islands and gave a great deal of trouble to the
+young colony. At first they were friendly, but when
+the settlers wished to oppress them by taking away
+their lands and compelling them to supply provisions,
+open war began. Hearing from an Indian woman
+that a conspiracy was forming to destroy all the white
+men, Warner determined to be beforehand with them.
+He massacred a hundred and twenty of the men, took
+the women as slaves, and drove the remainder off the
+island. But these powerful savages were by no mean
+conquered, for those who escaped soon came back
+with three or four thousand of their friends from
+neighbouring islands, and at first it appeared as if the
+whites would have been utterly exterminated. By a
+supreme effort of both French and English, however,
+this great invasion was repelled, the defenders killing
+about two thousand, and capturing fifteen large periaguas,
+with a loss to themselves of about a hundred,
+most of whom died from poisoned arrows. This was
+a bond of union between French and English, and
+Warner and d'Enambuc amicably divided the island
+between them.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 444px;">
+<img src="images/p089.jpg" width="444" height="306" alt="CARIB ATTACK ON A SETTLEMENT" title="" />
+<span class="caption">CARIB ATTACK ON A SETTLEMENT<br />
+(<i>From Gottfried&#39;s &quot;Reisen.&quot;</i>)</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3><a name="V" id="V"></a>V</h3>
+
+<h3>BUCCANEERS, FILIBUSTERS, AND PIRATES</h3>
+
+
+<p>Now that settlements were commenced the old
+system of piracy was somewhat discountenanced by
+the home governments, and many of the adventurers
+began to become a little more civilised. But there
+was still a large number of them who became known
+as buccaneers, filibusters, freebooters, marooners, and
+brethren of the coast, who continued to worry the
+Spaniards, and even to attack other nationalities on
+occasion. They had taken to the trade, and, when
+no longer able to carry it on in a quasi-legitimate
+manner, did so on their own lines.</p>
+
+<p>The claim of Spain to the whole of America was
+the great cause of offence. Had she been content
+with what her people could occupy, there would have
+been little trouble, but the "dog in the manger"
+policy could hardly be recognised by other nations.
+It followed, therefore, that when complaints were
+made to France and England of the ravages on the
+Spanish coasts, the sovereigns told the king of Spain
+to protect his own shores, disclaiming on their own
+parts any responsibility whatever.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest accounts of the buccaneers are con<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span>fused
+with those of the French corsairs, of which
+mention has been already made. They sailed along
+the coast from one island to another, trading a little,
+capturing Spanish vessels, fighting the guarda-costas,
+and now and again repairing to some out-of-the-way
+place to put their ships in order or even to assist the
+Caribs in their raids. The advantages of combination
+were soon felt, and with these also the necessity for
+places of rendezvous. Even the English adventurers
+became accustomed to obtain wood and water from
+Dominica, but this island was not conveniently
+situated for the French corsairs. They wanted an
+uninhabited place near enough to Hispaniola and the
+track of the Spanish vessels for them to be quickly
+pounced upon and for the corsairs to as quickly
+escape. Then there must be a food supply, and on
+the great island of Hispaniola were countless herds
+of wild cattle which ranged over a wilderness utterly
+depopulated.</p>
+
+<p>The palmy days of the Hispaniola planter were
+over, and although he imported negro slaves to some
+extent, he was virtually ruined. One after another
+left for the newly discovered countries on the Main,
+and for Peru and Mexico, leaving the island to a few
+merchants and wealthy planters, who found it to
+their interest to remain. Hispaniola was little more
+than a house of call on the road to the treasure
+countries, which meant that although the port of
+St. Domingo was fortified, the greater portion of the
+island was open to any one who chose to occupy it.</p>
+
+<p>Salt was a scarce commodity in those times, but it
+could be obtained in some of the smaller islands,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span>
+notably Tortuga, which for that reason became the
+resort of the buccaneers. But the Indians had learnt
+how to preserve meat without this useful substance,
+by smoking it over a fire of green branches and
+leaves. Even Europeans knew something of this
+process, although we believe they never preserved
+their beef and bacon entirely without salt as did the
+Indians their game. The process was very simple.
+Four sticks with forked ends were pushed into the
+ground, and on these uprights a sort of rack of other
+sticks was laid to make an open platform, where the
+pieces of meat were laid above a fire until well dried
+and impregnated with smoke. This stage was called
+a boucan, or barbecue, and from their using it to
+prepare supplies for their voyages the corsairs became
+known as buccaneers.</p>
+
+<p>There were no tinned provisions in those days, nor
+had the proper means of keeping food on long
+voyages been yet perfected. It followed, therefore,
+that a food supply in the Indies had to be provided,
+and the Spaniards unintentionally did good service
+to their enemies by placing hogs on most of the
+islands to breed and be available in emergencies.</p>
+
+<p>It is obvious that the hunting of semi-wild animals
+and curing their meat required time, and for that
+reason a division of labour was initiated. While one
+party went cruising in search of Spanish vessels,
+another ranged the country to capture and prepare
+the supplies against their return. Thus a rendezvous
+became necessary, and in time plantations were
+established in this neighbourhood to gradually develop
+into a settlement. Now and again the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span>
+Spaniards discovered these places, but as they were
+generally of little value, their loss was of no importance;
+if destroyed the buccaneers could easily
+escape to another locality. When the enemy burnt
+their vessels, they easily built canoes with which they
+soon captured others and became as strong as before.
+The hunters grew to like their hardy life with its
+perfect liberty, and became so inured to the climate
+and open air as to be utterly unlike the effeminate
+planters. They were even little subject to the
+diseases of the country, and could live for months
+at a time on nothing but meat. As for clothes, they
+made these from the skins of animals, and all they
+really required from outside was powder and lead for
+their firearms.</p>
+
+<p>They became known as the brethren of the coast
+from their custom of each choosing one comrade as a
+bosom friend and brother. Everything gained by
+either was common to both, and the company were
+very strict in enforcing their law against unfaithfulness
+in a companion, or unfair dealing in any way
+among themselves. Sometimes they marooned a
+culprit by leaving him alone on some small island to
+die of hunger, or perhaps to become a "Crusoe" for
+many years. The wounded received compensation
+according to a fixed tariff, from the common stock or
+from contributions; thus the loss of an arm was
+valued at five hundred crowns, and other mutilations
+at corresponding rates.</p>
+
+<p>As the attacks of the Spaniards became more
+common, the small bands united, and division of
+labour became more exact. Some were hunters of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span>
+wild boars, others of cattle, a few became planters,
+but the main body were always sea rovers. At first
+the hunters were on good terms with the Spanish
+planters and entered into engagements to supply
+them with meat. A party would go off into the
+interior and stay away for months at a time,
+eventually returning with large supplies borne on
+the backs of their horses. During all this time they
+lived in rough shelters which could be erected in an
+afternoon, and were much exposed to the vicissitudes
+of the weather. Now they made up for their long
+term of privation by carousing to their hearts'
+content, and when drunk, often fought and killed
+each other. In the settlements there were generally
+a few women, and these often became the cause of
+contentions; there were also bond-servants who were
+treated most cruelly.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes they made incursions on the Spanish
+settlements, which led to stronger efforts for their
+extermination that at last considerably reduced their
+numbers. In fact, had it not been for the continual
+accessions they would soon have died out, or have
+given up their trade and settled down as planters.
+Hispaniola became at last almost untenable, for the
+Spaniards, unable to find any other way of putting
+them down, organised several hunting parties with
+the view to utterly destroy the wild cattle and thus
+deprive them of their means of living. Not that this
+was easily done, for it took many years, during which
+the hunting parties from both sides fought and killed
+each other, committing enormities which made the
+quarrel all the more bitter.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>About the year 1632 a party of buccaneers
+captured the island of Tortuga from the Spaniards,
+the garrison of twenty-five men surrendering without
+a blow. Here was now the grand rendezvous of the
+French, for which it was perfectly suitable from its
+proximity to the food supply and the track of the
+Spanish vessels. It was situated on the north of the
+western portion of Hispaniola, and not very well
+suited for plantations, although good tobacco was
+grown there. There were, however, plenty of sea
+fowl and turtle to be had, as well as their eggs, which
+formed a large portion of the diet of the inhabitants.</p>
+
+<p>This island became a veritable pandemonium&mdash;the
+sink of the West Indies. It was the place of call for
+rovers of all nations, the market for their booty, and
+the storehouse for everything in the way of supplies.
+The merchants pandered to the tastes of their
+customers, and drinking and gambling went on
+continually. But in 1638 it was surprised by the
+Spaniards, who began to be alarmed at this nest of
+pirates at their very doors. They chose a time when
+most of the rovers were away on a cruise, and the
+buccaneers gone hunting in Hispaniola. All they
+captured were killed&mdash;even those who surrendered
+being hanged as pirates. Only a few escaped by
+hiding among the rocks and bushes to come forth
+after the enemy had left, which they did without
+leaving a garrison.</p>
+
+<p>A grand attempt to expel the hunters from the
+main island was now organised, in which a corps of
+five hundred lancers ranged the island in bands of
+fifties. Many of the buccaneers were killed, but the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span>
+remainder combined together under an Englishman
+named Willis and again took possession of Tortuga.</p>
+
+<p>From this rendezvous near Hispaniola the main
+passages between the islands were under observation,
+but a similar station was required near the Isthmus,
+and this was established about 1630 in the Bay of
+Campeachy. Like that at Tortuga its beginnings are
+lost in obscurity. At first one or more of the small
+islands or keys was used on occasion&mdash;later fortifications
+were erected, and a watch always kept for the
+enemy. The excuse for the settlement was the logwood
+trade, but this did not become of much importance
+until after the English conquest of Jamaica.</p>
+
+<p>Like the true buccaneers these pirates were fond
+of hunting, but their game was principally Indians,
+whom they attacked and carried off from the Main,
+the men to sell to the plantations and the women
+to keep for themselves. When they arrived after a
+cruise and sold their booty, they would have a jolly
+time with drinking, gambling, and firing of guns,
+until the island would seem to be the habitation of
+devils rather than human beings.</p>
+
+<p>There were also other pirate resorts, notably the
+Virgin Islands and the Bahamas, but these were
+generally used only by one company, and never rose
+to the position of general resorts. It is to these that
+most of the romances refer, but the stories of Pirate
+and Treasure islands rarely have much foundation in
+fact.</p>
+
+<p>How privateers became pirates is well shown by a
+case that occurred in the latter half of the seventeenth
+century. A vessel went cruising from the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span>
+Carolinas, and after being out for eighteen months
+had gained so few prizes that the crew began to
+complain. After discussing the situation, they resolved
+to try the South Sea, where they hoped to
+find the Spaniards less prepared. Meeting with very
+bad weather at the entrance of the Strait of Magellan,
+they were, however, obliged to turn back, and then
+the majority decided to become pirates. Eight men
+who refused to agree were marooned on the island
+of Fernando Po, their late comrades leaving them a
+small boat in which they expected to be able to get
+to some English colony.</p>
+
+<p>The vessel left, and commenced her piratical work
+at once by capturing a Portuguese ship larger than
+herself, the crew being brought and landed on the
+same island. In the night the Portuguese made off,
+taking with them the Englishmen's boat as well as
+their own, leaving the eight privateers to do the best
+they could. However, they were not easily daunted,
+and at once began to cut down trees and build a sloop
+of four tons, which they finished in six weeks, meanwhile
+living on sea fowl and their eggs, which were
+plentiful. Finally they sailed for Tobago, but missing
+that island got to Tortuga, where they arrived almost
+perishing with hunger and thirst, having had nothing
+to eat or drink for six days. Even then they were
+not discouraged, but after resting awhile, set sail in
+the same boat for New England, passing along the
+Spanish islands, often unable to land for water on
+account of the enemy, and lying under cover of the
+mangroves, to be almost devoured by mosquitoes.
+Even with all this care they were taken at last,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span>
+stripped, thrust down in the hold of a Spanish
+<i>guarda-costa</i>, and finally kept as slaves in the island
+of Cuba.</p>
+
+<p>In the early years of the seventeenth century few
+of the adventurers had any commissions, but as the
+mother countries began to establish settlements, letters
+of marque were granted when there was a war. The
+corsairs and pirates then became privateers, only to go
+back to their old trade when peace was nominally
+restored. Some played fast and loose with these
+commissions, sometimes having both French and
+English at the same time, either to be used according
+to circumstances. The French Governors went so
+far as to sell these documents signed and sealed, but
+without names, so that they passed from hand to
+hand ready to be filled up when the pirate wished to
+escape the yard-arm. The young colonies were too
+weak to incur their displeasure&mdash;in fact they were glad
+to encourage their visits, as the settlers could always
+pick up good bargains when they sold their booty.
+Yet, with all that, there was a dread of them, even
+among their own countrymen, which prevented that
+feeling of safety which best consists with the progress
+of a colony.</p>
+
+<p>We can say little of individuals, as there were so
+many, but we may mention a few of the most striking
+characters and their daring exploits. They inspired
+such dread among the Spaniards that at last the
+latter hardly dared to defend themselves against them,
+but on their approach immediately surrendered. If
+the cargo was rich, quarter was granted, but if otherwise,
+or anything was found secreted, the whole com<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span>pany,
+officers, crew, and passengers, were forced to
+leap overboard. Pierre Legrand with his twenty-eight
+men once attacked a great Spanish galleon,
+and before going alongside scuttled his own vessel so
+that it sunk as the pirates leapt on to the enemy's
+deck. With no possibility of retreat the men fought
+like devils and quickly got possession of the galleon,
+with the usual result.</p>
+
+<p>When other nations had compelled respect from
+Spain their vessels were sometimes chartered to carry
+rich cargoes, which thus sailed under the protection
+of another flag. But the pirates were not to be
+cheated so easily, for they had their spies on the
+look-out, and often managed to glean information.
+On one occasion Captains Michael de Basco and
+Brouage heard of two Dutch vessels leaving Carthagena
+with treasure and at once followed, attacked
+and captured them. Exasperated at being beaten
+by a force much smaller than their own, the Dutch
+captains told Michael that he could not have overcome
+them if he had been alone. "Very well," said
+the audacious Frenchman, "let us begin the fight
+again, and Captain Brouage shall look on. But if I
+conquer I will not only have the Spanish silver you
+carry, but your own ships as well." The Dutch were
+not inclined to accept this challenge, but made off as
+soon as they could after the treasure had been taken
+into the pirate vessels, fearing they might otherwise
+lose their opportunity.</p>
+
+<p>Captain Lawrence was once unexpectedly overtaken
+by two Spanish sixty-gun ships, the crews of
+which numbered fifteen hundred. Addressing his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span>
+men, he said&mdash;"You have experience enough to be
+aware of your danger, and too much courage to fear.
+On this occasion we must avail ourselves of every
+circumstance, hazard everything, and attack and
+defend at the same time. Valour, artifice, rashness,
+and even despair itself must now be employed. Let
+us fear the disgrace of a defeat; let us dread the cruelty
+of our enemy; and let us fight that we may escape
+him." After he was applauded with loud cheers,
+Lawrence took aside one of the bravest of his men,
+and in the presence of all, gave him strict orders to
+fire the gunpowder at a given signal, thus telling them
+plainly they must fight or be blown up. Meanwhile
+the enemy had approached very close, and Lawrence,
+ranging his men on both sides of the vessel, steered
+between the two great monsters, firing a broadside
+on either hand as he passed, which they could not
+return for fear of damaging each other. He did not
+succeed in capturing them, but they were so demoralised
+by his determined attitude, and the number of
+killed and wounded, that they were glad to make
+off.</p>
+
+<p>Montbar was a Frenchman who had heard of the
+atrocities of the Spaniards and the exploits of the
+buccaneers, and determined to go out to the West
+Indies to join in the fray. On his voyage from
+France he met a Spanish vessel which he attacked
+and boarded with a sabre in his hand. Passing twice
+from bow to stern, he carved his way through the
+enemy, entirely reckless of danger, and by his
+example animated his comrades until the vessel was
+taken. Then standing apart while the spoil was being<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span>
+divided, he gloated with savage pleasure over the
+corpses that lay on the deck.</p>
+
+<p>Arrived at Hispaniola he heard from the buccaneers
+that they could do little in the way of planting because
+of the continual attacks on their settlements. "Why
+then," said Montbar, roughly, "do you tamely submit
+to such insults?" "We do not!" they answered;
+"the Spaniards have experienced what kind of men
+we are, and therefore take advantage of the time when
+we go hunting. But we are going to join with some
+of our companions, who have been even worse treated
+than ourselves, and then we shall have hot work."
+"If such be the case let me lead you," said Montbar,
+"not as a commander, but first in the post of
+danger."</p>
+
+<p>They were quite willing to have him as leader, and
+the very same day he went at the head of a party to
+find the enemy. Meeting a small body of Spaniards
+he rushed upon them with such fury that hardly one
+escaped, and this at once justified them in their choice.
+He afterwards became such a terror all over the West
+Indies as to be known as "the Exterminator."</p>
+
+<p>Lolonois was another ruffian, who commenced his
+career by taking a Spanish frigate with only two
+canoes and twenty-two men. This vessel had sailed
+from Havana especially to put down the buccaneers,
+and had on board a negro executioner who was
+engaged to hang the prisoners. Hearing this from
+the negro, Lolonois ordered all the Spaniards to be
+brought before him, and going down the line, he
+struck off one head after another, licking his sword
+after each blow. He afterwards went to Port au<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span>
+Prince, where four vessels were fitting out for his
+capture. These he took and threw all their crews
+into the sea, except one man, whom he sent to the
+Governor of Havana with the news, and a warning
+that he would treat the Governor himself in the same
+way if he had the opportunity.</p>
+
+<p>After this he ran the best prizes aground and sailed
+for Tortuga in the frigate, where he joined Michael
+de Basco. With four hundred and forty men this
+worthy pair sailed for the Main, where they plundered
+the coast of Venezuela, set fire to Gibraltar, and held
+Maracaybo for ransom. They carried off all the
+crosses, pictures, plate, ornaments, and even bells
+from the churches, with the intention of using them
+in a great cathedral to be erected on Tortuga.</p>
+
+<p>Although the buccaneers were mostly French they
+were not confined to that nationality. The famous
+or notorious Captain Morgan was a Welshman, who
+began his career in the West Indies as a bond-servant.
+One of his greatest exploits was the capture
+of Porto Bello, which had taken the place of Nombre
+de Dios after that town had been burnt by Drake.
+He even out-did Drake and every other adventurer
+before him by storming Panama, from whence he
+obtained a very rich booty. Here he fell in love with
+a Spanish lady, who, however, threatened to stab herself
+rather than yield to his embraces. Even when
+he tried the gentlest measures which such a ruffian
+could think of, she still refused to yield, so that he
+had ultimately to comply with the wishes of his companions
+and leave her. Panama was burnt, the
+retreat across the isthmus safely performed without<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span>
+any serious misadventure, and Morgan sailed away
+to Jamaica with the lion's share of the plunder.</p>
+
+<p>In this great expedition the buccaneers of all
+nations united to form a combination hitherto unknown.
+But, as this was the first time that such a
+thing had occurred, so also was it the last. As for
+Morgan his career was ended; his comrades charged
+him with treachery and made it unsafe for him to
+come within their reach. He therefore settled down
+in Jamaica, made himself right with the authorities
+there and in England, was knighted by King Charles
+the Second, and professed now to have a great dislike
+to piracy. On two occasions Sir Henry Morgan
+became acting Governor of Jamaica, and in that
+capacity did his best to discountenance buccaneering.</p>
+
+<p>In 1683 a great expedition was organised at
+Tortuga by Van Horn, a Fleming, noted for his
+courage and ferocity. In the heat of an engagement
+he would pace the deck, and urge his men to fight by
+shooting any one who even flinched from a ball. He
+thus made himself a terror to cowards and the admiration
+of the brave; like Montbar, gaining the respect
+and confidence of his followers. Like the French
+leader also, he was careless about his own share of
+the booty, leaving everything to his men, which
+naturally increased his popularity. With twelve
+hundred men in six vessels he sailed for Vera Cruz,
+and surprised the town at night. Most of the inhabitants
+took refuge in the churches, and the buccaneers
+posted sentries with barrels of gunpowder in
+front of each, giving orders to blow up the buildings
+on the least sign of an attempt to escape. After<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span>
+plundering the houses they demanded about half a
+million pounds from the prisoners as ransom for
+their lives and liberties. This was not obtained, however,
+for while waiting the collection a large body of
+troops was seen approaching from the interior, and a
+fleet of seventeen vessels came into the harbour from
+Spain. Yet the buccaneers were determined to get
+something towards the ransom, and to this end seized
+fifteen hundred slaves, with which they quietly sailed
+away in defiance of the enemy, promising to call
+again for the balance of the ransom. The Spanish
+fleet let them pass without firing a single gun, and
+they went back to Tortuga, there to spend a year in
+rioting and carousing.</p>
+
+<p>When their money was all spent they resolved to
+try the most arduous of adventures, a raid on the
+ports of the Great South Sea. And it happened
+curiously that at that very time the English pirates
+were getting ready for a similar venture, without
+either having knowledge of that of the other party.
+About four thousand men were engaged, some going
+by way of the Straits of Magellan and others across
+the isthmus. The English and French met, and at
+first agreed to work together, but for want of one
+leader who could command and be respected by both
+parties, the expedition proved almost a failure. Possibly
+also the French had not forgotten Morgan's
+treachery, and this caused distrust and prevented
+any cordial feeling.</p>
+
+<p>Those who travelled across the isthmus stole boats
+on the other side, and with them captured larger
+vessels, until this little frequented sea became almost<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span>
+as dangerous to Spanish ships as the Caribbean.
+Most of the smaller ports were surprised, and even
+Guayaquil was captured, mainly because they were not
+provided with forts and other defences. In fact, the
+people were so unacquainted with war and so wrapped
+up by the supposed security of their position, that
+even when the alarm was given little could be done.
+Silver became so common that nothing but gold,
+pearls, and precious stones would satisfy the spoilers,
+yet with all their easy conquests they got little real
+benefit. Some died of sickness, and many from the
+results of drunkenness and debauchery. The storms
+of Cape Horn and the Straits wrecked several vessels,
+and drowned both spoil and spoilers, while those who
+attempted to return by land were equally unfortunate.
+They died in the bush of fever and dysentery, or were
+cut off by ambuscades of the enemy, often losing their
+booty if they escaped with their lives.</p>
+
+<p>What a journey across the isthmus really meant at
+that time is well exemplified in the case of Lionel
+Wafer. In 1681 he was a surgeon on board an
+English vessel under Captain Sharp, one of those
+privateers who went cruising in the South Sea.
+After spending some time there the party divided,
+one portion deciding to cross overland, and the other
+to continue the cruise.</p>
+
+<p>Wafer went with those who intended crossing the
+isthmus, the whole numbering forty-four white men
+and three Indians. They marched from the Pacific
+shore one afternoon, and towards night arrived at the
+foot of a hill, where they put up several rough sheds.
+Rain had already begun to fall&mdash;such rain as is only<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span>
+known in the tropics&mdash;and they had to crouch under
+these imperfect shelters until midnight, with streams
+of water running down their backs and rivulets flowing
+about their feet. By morning they felt less discomfort
+and were glad to warm their chilled limbs by
+walking up the hill. Here they came upon an Indian
+path which led to a village, where they were gratified
+with food and a drink made of Indian corn. After
+resting awhile they agreed with one of the Indians to
+guide them on the next day's journey, and that night
+rested in the village.</p>
+
+<p>Next morning they went on again, and at mid-day
+arrived at an Indian hut, the owner of which was so
+morose and surly that at first he refused to have
+anything to do with them. After they had spoken
+kindly and asked him to guide them on their journey,
+he roughly answered that he was prepared to lead
+them to the Spanish settlements. This of course
+would never do, and they offered him beads, money,
+axes, and knives to gain his good-will, but all without
+effect, until a sky-blue petticoat was dangled before
+the eyes of his wife. This turned the scale, for her
+persuasions being added to theirs, he at last consented
+to procure a guide, excusing himself from the task on
+the plea that he was lame from a cut. He wished to
+detain them with him for the day, as it still rained,
+but they were in so great a dread of being discovered
+by the enemy that, having obtained the guide, they
+marched three miles farther before stopping for the
+night.</p>
+
+<p>On the fourth morning the weather was fairer, and
+they travelled for twelve miles over hills and through<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span>
+slushy morasses, crossing one river after another to
+the number of about thirty. Rain poured down
+again in the afternoon and during the greater part of
+the night, so that they had much ado to keep their
+fires from going out. What with the discomforts of
+their situation, the want of proper food, and the
+chilliness preceding intermittent fever, they even forgot
+for the time their fears of the Spaniards. However,
+as the sun rose they went on again until, after
+travelling seven miles through the forest, they reached
+the hut of a Spanish Indian, who supplied them
+with yams, sweet potatoes, and plantains, but no meat
+except the flesh of two monkeys, which they gave to
+the weak and sickly.</p>
+
+<p>While resting here Wafer met with an accident.
+One of the company, in drying some gunpowder on a
+silver plate, carelessly placed it near the fire where he
+was sitting, with the result that it exploded and tore
+the skin and flesh from one of his thighs, rendering
+him almost helpless. He had a few medicines in his
+knapsack and dressed the wound as well as he could
+under the circumstances, but rest and proper food
+were needed, and these he could not have. The
+consequence was that, after struggling along with the
+others until he sank down exhausted and suffering
+from excruciating torture, he was left behind with
+two sick men at an Indian village, where they
+were presently joined by two others who had broken
+down.</p>
+
+<p>Observing the condition of Wafer's wound, the
+Indians treated it with a poultice of chewed herbs
+on a plantain leaf, and in twenty days it was healed.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span>
+Nevertheless, although they did him this kindness,
+they were not over civil, but on the contrary treated
+the five white men with contempt, throwing them
+their refuse provisions as if they were dogs. One
+young Indian proved kinder, and got them some ripe
+bananas now and then, but the others were annoyed
+because the main body had compelled some inhabitants
+of the village to go with them as guides against
+their will. The weather was then so bad that even
+the Indians considered travelling almost impossible,
+and this annoyed them all the more, especially when
+the guides did not return.</p>
+
+<p>Day after day passed, and the Indians becoming
+more incensed at the non-arrival of their people,
+began to think of avenging themselves on Wafer
+and his comrades. Thinking that the guides had
+been murdered, they determined to burn them to
+death, and even went so far as to erect a great pile
+of wood for the purpose. But almost at the last
+moment their chief interposed, and offered to send
+away the Englishmen in charge of two guides.</p>
+
+<p>Accordingly they set out, their only food supply a
+little dry Indian corn, and their only resting-place at
+night the wet ground, still exposed to drenching rains
+which fell every day. The third night they went to
+sleep on a low mound, and in the morning woke to
+find it a little island with water extending as far as
+their eyes could reach. To add to their trouble, the
+Indian guides had disappeared, leaving them to
+remain here without shelter and almost starved for
+three days. Then the waters fell and they commenced
+the weary work of steering to the north by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span>
+means of a pocket compass&mdash;a task the difficulty of
+which can only be appreciated by one who has attempted
+it.</p>
+
+<p>However, they soon reached the bank of a deep
+river, the stream of which was rushing along like a
+mill race. Here a lately-felled tree lying across
+showed them where their comrades had passed, and
+they commenced to climb over astride as the trunk
+was so slippery. One of the party was so weak and
+so overburdened by four hundred pieces of eight
+(silver dollars) that he fell, and was immediately
+carried down the stream out of sight.</p>
+
+<p>Giving him up as lost, the four survivors went
+wandering about, looking for the footprints of their
+comrades, but could find no trace of them, probably
+on account of the floods. Fearing a mistake, they
+again crossed the river and recommenced the search
+on the other side, where they were surprised to come
+upon their lost companion sitting on the bank,
+which he had managed to gain by grasping the
+bough of a tree as he was borne swiftly past. Finding
+no signs of a trail, they again went on working with
+the compass as before. On the fifth day they had
+nothing to eat but a few wild berries, and the day
+following arrived at another great river where not
+even a tree lay across to give them a passage. They
+had only their long knives, but with them they set to
+work and cut down bamboos, with which rafts were
+made by binding the sticks with bush-ropes. They
+had just finished and were resting awhile, when a
+terrible storm came on. The rain fell as if from a cascade,
+thunder rolled and lightning flashed, accompanied<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span>
+by a sulphurous odour which almost choked them.
+There was no shelter but the trees of the forest, and
+the fire was put out at once, leaving these half-starved
+wretches to shiver and shake with ague all through
+the afternoon and up to midnight.</p>
+
+<p>Then the waters began to rise, and in the darkness&mdash;that
+total absence of light under the canopy of
+foliage, where two men sitting together only know of
+each other's presence by feeling, for the din of the
+elements is absolutely deafening&mdash;Wafer began to
+appreciate the fact that the swirl of the flood had
+reached his feet. With no possibility of communicating
+with the others, he felt his way to a hollow
+silk-cotton tree, into which he crawled, and climbed
+upon a heap of debris that stood in the centre. Here
+he fell asleep from sheer exhaustion, or more probably,
+perhaps, fainted. When he awoke he said it was
+impossible for words to paint the terrors that overwhelmed
+his mind. The water reached to his knees,
+notwithstanding that the mound was five feet above
+the ground level, and he was afraid it would reach
+still higher. However, as the sun rose the flood went
+down, and presently he was glad to crawl out and
+stretch his chilled limbs. But he was all alone, and
+at first thought his comrades had been drowned.
+He shouted, but no answer came back, except the
+echo of his own voice. Giving way to despair, he
+threw himself on the buttress of a tree, from which
+condition he was roused by the appearance of first
+one and then another, until the little company was
+again complete. They also had found similar refuges
+and now came to look after their rafts.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>But the bundles of canes had become water-logged
+and useless, so they resolved to retrace their steps if
+possible to the Indian village. On their way they
+unfortunately missed shooting a deer which lay beside
+the path, and had nothing to eat but macaw berries
+and the pith of a tree. Seeing the track of a wild
+hog they followed that, and ultimately came upon
+two provision fields. But even with this prospect of
+food they were so much depressed that, although
+perishing with hunger, they were afraid to venture
+near the Indian huts, and lingered about for some
+time. However, at last Wafer summoned enough
+courage to go into one of them, when almost immediately
+he was so affected by the close atmosphere
+and the odour of some meat cooking over the fire,
+that he fainted.</p>
+
+<p>The kindly Indians assisted in his recovery, and
+gave him something to eat, when he was pleasantly
+surprised to find there the very same guides on whose
+account he and his comrades had been nearly roasted
+to death. On telling them where the others were,
+the Indians went out and brought back three, but
+had to carry food to the fourth before he could gain
+enough strength to walk the short distance. Here
+they were treated with the greatest humanity and
+tenderness, and after resting a week they again
+started with four guides, to reach the same river that
+had before checked their progress, in one day. Here,
+finding a canoe, they proceeded up stream until,
+arriving at the dwelling of the chief who had saved
+them from torture, they were told it was impossible to
+go on in such weather.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Wafer and his companions stopped here for several
+months&mdash;in fact the chief wished to retain them altogether.
+As a physician, Wafer was respected and
+loved; but at last, wishing to depart, by repeated
+importunities and the promise to come back with
+some good hunting-dogs, and then to marry the
+chief's daughter, he was at last furnished with guides.
+Over high mountains, along the edges of precipices,
+and through dense forests they toiled until they came
+to a river flowing north, on which they embarked, and
+reached the shores of the Gulf of Darien two days
+later. Here they were overjoyed to find an English
+vessel, the crew of which gave them a hearty welcome,
+making up to some extent for their long and perilous
+journey.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3><a name="VI" id="VI"></a>VI</h3>
+
+<h3>WAR IN THE YOUNG COLONIES</h3>
+
+
+<p>At the beginning of the seventeenth century Spain
+was nominally at peace with the other great powers,
+except the Netherlands, which had not yet come to
+the front. By the treaty of 1604 Queen Elizabeth
+made up the English quarrel, and in 1609 even
+Holland was conceded a truce for nine years.</p>
+
+<p>Thus amity was supposed to exist, and the raids
+of licensed privateers came to an end. Yet there
+was "no peace beyond the line." Not to mention
+corsairs and pirates, the English were as determined
+on their part to get a share of America as were
+the Spaniards to keep them out if possible. The
+founders of Virginia were resolute to lose their lives
+rather than abandon so noble a colony. Even King
+James dared not give it up, although in 1612 and the
+following year there was a hot contention with the
+Spanish Secretary of State on the matter. Spain was
+discontented that the colony should have the royal
+sanction, and at the same time demanded its removal,
+accompanying this with a threat to drive out the
+settlers, as well as those in the Bermudas. But
+James could not admit the Papal Bull, and as the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span>
+English were firm, the claimants of the whole of
+America contented themselves with protests.</p>
+
+<p>In the West Indies, however, Spain went farther.
+Here she had undoubtedly the right by discovery,
+although not by actual possession, save in the Greater
+Antilles. The weak English king who succeeded the
+strong-minded Tudor princess was not prepared to
+contest the Spanish supremacy here, but simply
+answered the complaints against English adventurers
+by disclaiming all responsibility. Neither England
+nor France had officially taken the ground that only
+actual possession created territorial rights, but many
+Englishmen were clamouring loudly to that effect.
+We have already noticed in another chapter James's
+policy, or want of policy, and the change which took
+place a few weeks after his death&mdash;we have now to
+deal with the results of that alteration.</p>
+
+<p>In 1621 hostilities were renewed between Spain
+and the Netherlands, but even during the nominal
+truce the Dutch invaded Margarita, and demolished
+the fort, but without, however, taking actual possession.
+When the truce was over hostilities were
+recommenced with a vigour that rather astonished
+Spain, for in the interval the Netherlands had progressed
+wonderfully. In 1625, the year of his
+accession, Charles the First entered into a treaty,
+offensive and defensive, with the United Provinces,
+which of course brought England into collision with
+Spain, and open war began again in the West Indies.
+In 1629 a fleet of thirty-five vessels under Don
+Frederic de Toledo conquered the island of St.
+Christopher's and removed most of the English<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span>
+settlers, only a few of whom managed to escape
+to the mountains, while the French got off in two
+of their vessels. The French refugees suffered a
+great deal from the want of preparation for their
+hurried flight, and arrived at the island of St.
+Martin's perishing with hunger and thirst. Here
+they dug holes in the sand and obtained a supply
+of brackish water, which was so unwholesome that
+some died from drinking it in excessive quantities.
+After the Spaniards left they returned to St. Christopher's
+to find a few English, who, annoyed at their
+desertion, wanted to keep the island to themselves,
+but the French were too numerous and soon took
+possession of their old quarters.</p>
+
+<p>In 1632 the Dutch took possession of Tobago, and
+two years later of Cura&ccedil;ao, which latter island soon
+became their great stronghold in the West Indies,
+and the principal dep&ocirc;t for the contraband traffic
+with Venezuela. At that time no Spanish vessels
+went to this part of the Main, but finding that the
+trade was of some importance to the Dutch, the
+authorities now granted licenses to drive their rivals
+out of the market. But the Spanish traders could
+not compete with the Hollanders, and this so annoyed
+the authorities that they determined to extinguish
+smuggling at any cost. This they were unable to do
+by catching the delinquents, but they could punish
+those who dealt with them. The result was the
+infliction of heavy fines and confiscation, with disgraceful
+punishments, from which many were ruined.
+Yet with all that the trade was so lucrative to both
+parties that neither was inclined to give it up&mdash;the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span>
+Dutch took care of themselves, while cheap commodities
+could generally command a market, whatever
+the risk. The fact was the mother country
+imposed so many restrictions, and exacted such
+heavy fees for licenses, that the cost of an article
+was doubled or trebled as compared with that of
+the Hollander.</p>
+
+<p>In 1627 a French Association was incorporated
+under the title of "The Company of the Islands of
+America." They appointed the Sieurs d'Enambuc
+and du Rossy to settle the islands of St. Christopher's
+and Barbados as well as others situated at the
+"entrance of Peru." Nothing was done at Barbados,
+as the English were already in possession, but
+in 1634 examinations of Dominica, Martinique, and
+Guadeloupe were made, which ended in the two
+latter islands becoming French colonies in 1635.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, in November, 1630, a treaty was signed
+at Madrid between England and Spain, after which
+peace was supposed to again prevail. Nothing was
+said about the West Indies, probably because Spain
+knew that further protests were useless. Hardly had
+this been settled before, in 1635, France declared war
+against the common foe, and her corsairs could now
+legally carry on their work of pillage and destruction.
+In 1638 the island of St. Martin's, which had
+been partly occupied by French and Dutch, was
+captured by Spaniards, who expelled the inhabitants
+and replaced them by a strong garrison. In the same
+year Colonel Jackson, with a force from the English
+islands, captured Santiago de la Vega in Jamaica,
+and plundered it of everything valuable, after which,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span>
+in retaliation, the island of New Providence, one of
+the Bahamas, was captured by Spain. Neither place
+was, however, occupied by the captors, who only did
+as much damage as they could and then left.</p>
+
+<p>Almost from the commencement of their settlements
+the French had quarrelled among themselves,
+but until the struggle which ended in the execution of
+Charles the First, there had been few difficulties in
+the English islands. The Barbadians, it is true,
+protested against the claim of the Earl of Carlisle, in
+which they were joined by the people of St. Kitt's,
+but this was settled without disturbance. Now, however,
+the effects of "the great rebellion" began to be
+felt across the seas, and disaffection towards the Parliament,
+and loyalty to the king, were promoted by
+a number of Royalists who had fled from the disturbance
+in the mother country.</p>
+
+<p>In 1650 the West Indies were virtually in revolt
+against the Parliament, and on the 10th of September
+an embargo was declared in England against vessels
+bound for the Caribbee Islands, Bermuda, and
+Virginia. This was followed on the 27th by an Act
+prohibiting all commerce with these colonies because
+of their rebellion against the Commonwealth. Virginia
+and the Bermudas had declared for King Charles
+the Second after the execution of his father, and sent
+emissaries to Barbados for the purpose of inciting
+them to join in the revolt.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 551px;">
+<img src="images/p118.jpg" width="551" height="281" alt="ST. KITT&#39;S." title="" />
+<span class="caption">ST. KITT&#39;S.<br />
+(<i>From Andrews&#39; &quot;West Indies.&quot;</i>)</span>
+</div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>At the commencement of that year Barbados
+was in a state of ferment, waiting only for the spark
+which would plunge the island into civil war. Even
+at this early period the inhabitants of Little England,
+as it is called, were very loyal, and had something of
+the conceit which has characterised them ever since.
+True, there were "Roundheads" on the island, but
+hitherto party differences had been put in the background&mdash;now
+they were brought into prominence.
+When the agent of the Bermudians asked that
+Barbados should declare for the king, the majority
+were in favour of the project, but, as a matter of
+course, the others, who were of considerable importance,
+refused. At first the Royalists went so far as
+to advocate the banishment of their opponents, but
+were unable to find any reasonable excuse for such a
+high-handed proceeding. However they brought in
+an Act to imprison all who went to a conventicle, or
+who seduced others from repairing to the Public
+Congregation or from receiving the Holy Sacrament.
+For a second offence the penalty was forfeiture of all
+lands, goods, chattels, and debts by those whom they
+called "the enemy to the peace of the island."</p>
+
+<p>This was to have been published on April 15, 1650,
+and kept secret until proclaimed, to prevent trouble.
+But it appears that Colonel Codrington, a member of
+the Assembly, divulged it in his cups, for which he
+was fined twenty thousand pounds of sugar, and
+banished from the island. A deputation of Parliamentarians
+then waited upon the Governor, to enter
+their protest against the new law, and were asked
+to leave the matter in his hands, as he had to deal
+with "violent spirits." Finally, the proclamation was
+delayed, on the ground that there were many errors
+in the copy, and the two parties stood at bay.</p>
+
+<p>On the 23rd of April the Roundheads petitioned<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span>
+the Governor to issue his writ for a new Assembly,
+on the ground that the present body had sat for its
+full term. This he agreed to do, and thus alienated
+the Cavaliers, who said he was a most emphatic
+Roundhead and enemy to the king. Handbills and
+posters now began to be circulated calling attention
+to the "damnable designe" of the Independents, of
+which, they said, Colonel Drax, "that devout zealot
+(of the deeds of the Devil, and the cause of that seven-headed
+Dragon at Westminster), is the Agent." One
+of the writers declared that he should think his best
+rest but disquiet until he had sheathed his sword in
+the bowels of the same obnoxious personage.</p>
+
+<p>The Cavaliers were still adding to their numbers
+by the arrival of more refugees, while Colonel Drax
+and his friends fell into the background. The new-comers
+had mostly been ruined by the civil war, and
+were naturally desirous of doing something to retrieve
+their fortunes; it followed, therefore, that anything
+that led to the confiscation of the estates of the
+obnoxious party would be to their advantage. The
+Cavaliers set to work to rouse the island by going
+about on horseback, fully armed, everywhere challenging
+those they met to drink the health of Charles
+the Second and confusion to the Independent dogs.
+This, with the rumours of a Roundhead plot and the
+various manifestoes, induced the Governor to issue a
+proclamation declaring that in future if any persons
+spread such scandalous papers they would be proceeded
+against as enemies of the public peace, at the
+same time forbidding any one to take up arms in a
+hostile manner.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>This produced little effect, for the leader of one of
+the roving bands, Colonel Shelley, refused to disband.
+On this the Governor issued commissions to raise a
+militia for the preservation of order, but by the time
+that a hundred men had been collected an alarm
+went forth that the Cavaliers were advancing on
+Bridgetown. This was the 1st of May, and by that
+time the Cavaliers were prepared to act. Their
+leader was Colonel Walrond, who, on being sent for
+by the Governor, and saying they had no evil intention,
+was allowed to depart. However, they took
+possession of the town, and then came forward with
+the demand that all Independents and other disturbers
+of the peace should be at once disarmed. To
+this the Governor agreed, provided the well-affected
+should vouch for their safety. They also stipulated
+that the magazine on the bridge should be put under
+their protection, that those who obstructed the peace
+and laboured to ruin the loyal colonists should be
+punished, that twenty persons whose names they
+gave should be forthwith arrested, and that the
+Governor should speedily call together the Assembly
+to try them; meanwhile they refused to disperse until
+these things were done. The Governor could do
+nothing but accede to these demands, but even then
+there was something more which they considered the
+climax&mdash;"that our lawful soveraigne Charles the
+Second be instantly in a solemn manner proclaimed
+king."</p>
+
+<p>This staggered the Governor, who said it was a
+matter for the General Assembly, in which opinion
+he got them at last to agree. However, they were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span>
+not yet content, but insisted that at the dissolution
+of the present Assembly only such men as were
+known to be well-affected to His Majesty and conformers
+to the Church of England should be chosen
+and admitted. After that they must be promised an
+"Act of oblivion" for the lawful taking up of arms,
+safe-conduct for all officers on legislative business,
+and, finally, that the Governor must come to them
+without the companionship of any disaffected person
+and put himself under their care.</p>
+
+<p>All this was perforce agreed to, and on the 3rd of
+May Charles the Second was declared king of
+England, &amp;c., as well as of Barbados, and at the
+same time the Book of Common Prayer was proclaimed
+to be the only pattern of true worship.</p>
+
+<p>Behind all this was a fact which no one mentioned,
+but which probably everybody knew&mdash;on the 29th of
+April Lord Willoughby had arrived in the harbour,
+bearing a commission as Governor of the Caribbee
+Islands, from the fugitive King Charles and the Earl
+of Carlisle. No doubt the whole demonstration was
+got up on his account, the Cavaliers wanting to have
+the king proclaimed first, so that there should be no
+difficulty about the commission. Everything was
+ready now, and nothing was heard but uproarious
+drinking of His Majesty's health, the Cavaliers going
+from house to house and compelling others to follow
+their example. As for Lord Willoughby, he left the
+Governor to carry out the stipulated measures, while
+he went to look after the other islands under his
+jurisdiction.</p>
+
+<p>Now the Royalists of Barbados began to persecute<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span>
+the leaders of the obnoxious party, beginning with
+the twenty they had named to the Governor. Some,
+seeing their danger, had got off to England, but
+those who remained were sentenced to pay a million
+pounds of sugar and to be banished. Then nearly a
+hundred others were indicted and ordered to leave
+before the 2nd of July, while all their commissions
+of the peace or in the militia were cancelled. Wives
+were banished with their husbands, and unless the
+estate-owners humbly submitted, paid their fines, and
+appointed well-affected persons as attorneys, their
+properties were confiscated. Yet with all that, when
+an attempt was made to get to the bottom of the
+rumoured plot, no trace of it could be found. Some
+of the more moderate of the Royalists even began to
+doubt whether they were not going too far, but they
+salved their consciences by saying that everything
+was done in the interest of the king.</p>
+
+<p>When the news arrived in England it created a
+great stir. In November some merchants and planters
+interested in the island asked for permission to make
+reprisals on their own account. They wanted licenses
+to trade there with five or six able ships, and letters
+of marque to use in case of obstruction, or a refusal to
+comply with certain demands. These demands were
+to repeal all Acts dishonourable to the Commonwealth,
+to renounce obedience to Charles Stuart, to acknowledge
+the supreme authority of the Parliament, to
+banish certain "active incendiaries in the late troubles,"
+and, finally, to recall those who had suffered, so that
+they might enjoy the same rights as the other inhabitants.
+A further petition asked for the removal of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span>
+Lord Willoughby in favour of Edward Winslow, a
+man of approved fidelity to the Commonwealth.</p>
+
+<p>The Parliamentary Government did not adopt
+these proposals, as they intended to reduce the
+island in a regular manner. In January, 1651, a
+fleet was made ready for this purpose, but being
+employed in the reduction of the Scilly Islands, it
+could not be got ready for the West Indies until June
+following.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile Lord Willoughby had returned, and
+was doing his best to conciliate the Barbadians of
+both parties. He did not altogether approve of what
+had been done, but repealed the Acts of sequestration,
+thus putting the inhabitants in good spirits for
+the expected invasion. It was rumoured that Prince
+Rupert was coming out from Marseilles, and this
+made things appear brighter, encouraging them to
+put their forts in order.</p>
+
+<p>The English fleet did not actually leave Plymouth
+until the 5th of August. It was under the command
+of Sir George Ayscue, who took six or seven merchant
+vessels under convoy, probably those referred
+to in the petition. He reached Barbados on the 15th
+of October, when as yet no news had been heard of
+Prince Rupert; in fact, that great seaman had been
+dissuaded from crossing the Atlantic. Fourteen
+Dutch vessels were captured in Carlisle Bay, the
+sudden arrival of the fleet preventing their escape.</p>
+
+<p>Willoughby had some six thousand foot and four
+hundred horse stationed at different parts of the
+island, and was determined to hold it for the king,
+looking forward daily to see Prince Rupert arrive<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span>.
+He had heard from a Dutch vessel that the king
+was marching on London with an army of Scots:
+this also tended to make his resistance all the more
+stubborn. From a few Roundheads, who managed
+to come off in the night, Ayscue learnt this, but he
+was as equally determined to subdue the island as
+Willoughby was to defend it.</p>
+
+<p>On being called upon to surrender the island for
+the use of the Parliament of England, the Governor
+replied that he acknowledged no supremacy over
+Englishmen save the king and those having commissions
+from him, directing the letter to the admiral
+on board His Majesty's ship the <i>Rainbow</i>. He also
+said that he had expected some overtures of reparation
+for the hostile acts upon the ships in the bay.
+After this defiance nothing was left but to prepare
+first for a strict blockade, and then to effect a landing.
+The strength on shore was too great for any open
+attack, and Ayscue managed to send a proclamation
+addressed to the freeholders and inhabitants, urging
+them to accept in time his offers of peace and mercy.
+In answer to this the Assembly met and passed a
+declaration to "sticke to" Lord Willoughby and
+defend the island to the utmost.</p>
+
+<p>In England a great deal of interest was felt in the
+struggle, and the demand for news of the expedition
+created a supply giving circumstantial accounts of
+what had <i>not</i> taken place. One of them was headed,
+"Bloody news from the Barbados, being a true relation
+of a great and terrible fight between the Parliament's
+Navie, commanded by Sir George Ayscue, and
+the King of Scots' Forces under the command of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span>
+Lord Willoughby; with the particulars of the fight,
+the storming of the Island, the manner how the
+Parliament's Forces were repulsed and beaten off
+from Carlisle Bay and the Block House, and the
+number killed and wounded." And all this before
+any attempt had been made beyond the blockade!</p>
+
+<p>On the receipt of the news of the battle of Worcester,
+Ayscue sent another flag of truce to give Willoughby
+the information, saying that he did so as a friend
+rather than as an enemy. He was acting in that
+quality, by stating the true condition of England, and
+leaving him and his friends to judge of the necessity
+for due obedience to the State of England; otherwise
+they would be swallowed up in the destruction so
+shortly and inevitably coming upon them.</p>
+
+<p>In reply, Willoughby said he had never served his
+king so much in expectation of prosperity as in consideration
+of duty, and that he would not be the
+means of increasing the sad affliction of His Majesty
+by giving up that island. To this Ayscue rejoined,
+that if there were such a person as the king,
+Willoughby's retention of that place signified nothing
+to his advantage, and therefore the surrender could
+be small grief to him. He well knew the impossibility
+of the island subsisting without the patronage of
+England, and the admiral's great desire was to save
+it from ruin and destruction.</p>
+
+<p>As Willoughby refused to surrender, Ayscue
+determined to attack the Hole or James's Town,
+which he did on the 2nd of November, beating off
+its defenders, taking thirty prisoners, and spiking the
+four guns of the fort. On the 1st of December the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span>
+fleet which had been sent to reduce Virginia arrived,
+and on the temporary addition of this force, Ayscue
+again sent to Willoughby, as he stated, for the last
+time. In reply he was told that the Assembly would
+consider the matter in two or three days, but this
+reply did not please the admiral, so he tried to hurry
+up the decision by landing at Speight's Town. Against
+the stubborn opposition of twelve hundred men he
+stormed and took the fort, which he held for two
+days, ultimately retiring, however, after burning the
+houses, demolishing the fortifications, and throwing
+the guns into the sea.</p>
+
+<p>After that the correspondence was continued,
+Ayscue entreating Willoughby to spare the good
+people of the island the horrors of war. To this the
+Governor replied, that they only took up arms in
+their own defence; the guilt of the blood and ruin
+would be at the doors of those who brought force to
+bear. Then the Virginia fleet sailed for its destination,
+and Ayscue recommenced hostilities by again
+occupying Speight's Town.</p>
+
+<p>By this time, however, there was a party on the
+island in favour of peace, and they began to bestir
+themselves, thus making the Royalists more determined.
+They put forth a proclamation inviting
+the inhabitants to endure the troubles of war for a
+season, rather than by base submission to let the
+deceitful enemy make them slaves for ever. But the
+Roundheads now began to assemble under Colonel
+Modiford at his house, to the number of six hundred
+men, who declared for the Parliament, and threatened
+to bring Willoughby to reason, the admiral going so<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span>
+far as to visit them surreptitiously to read his commission.
+Hearing of this, Willoughby got two
+thousand four hundred men together and appeared
+near the house, but did not venture to attack it, as by
+this time he had become somewhat disheartened.</p>
+
+<p>This brought things to a crisis, and on the 10th of
+January arrangements were made for a commission
+from both sides to make arrangements for terms.
+After a great deal of hesitation on the part of the
+admiral, the capitulation was at last signed, the
+articles being exceedingly favourable both to the
+inhabitants and Lord Willoughby. So lenient were
+they that Ayscue had to excuse himself to the home
+authorities for fear that he might have been misunderstood.
+They were, in short, liberty of conscience,
+continuation of the old government, and of the old
+Courts of Justice, no taxation without consent of
+the Assembly, no confiscations, all suits to be decided
+on the island, no acts of indemnity, no oaths against
+their consciences, a temporary cessation of all civil
+suits, and finally that Lord Willoughby should retain
+all his private property in the islands as well as in
+Surinam, with full liberty to go to England. These
+articles were signed on the 11th of January, 1652, and
+the "storm in a teapot" came to an end, the Barbadians
+proudly boasting that they had been able to
+defy the mighty power of the Commonwealth. Most of
+the leaders were banished from the island, some going
+to Surinam, where a colony had been established by
+Lord Willoughby soon after his arrival in Barbados.
+Among them was Major Byam, who became Governor,
+and virtually held the settlement for the king until he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span>
+came to his own again. This is all the more curious
+because Cromwell knew the circumstances, yet made
+no effort to bring the people under submission. At
+first the settlers established a little Commonwealth of
+their own, with Major Byam as president, but when
+his term had expired, instead of giving place to another
+he declared he had a commission as Governor from
+the king, although he refused to show the document
+to any one. With enough Royalists to back him, he
+thus held office until the Restoration, notwithstanding
+the complaints of the Parliamentary faction and their
+requests to the home authorities for redress.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, early in 1652 England went to war
+with the Dutch, and this seriously interfered with the
+trade of that nationality in the West Indies. The
+Navigation Act was another blow to them, although
+it could not yet be enforced altogether. Cromwell
+made himself respected in such a manner that peace
+with Holland was restored in April, 1654, thus leaving
+him free to carry out his designs against the old
+enemy&mdash;Spain.</p>
+
+<p>Since Queen Elizabeth's time the English Governments
+had done little in the way of worrying the
+Spaniards, although pirates had been busy almost
+without intermission. Now, however, Cromwell was
+at liberty, and he began to see that they wanted a little
+correction to prevent their having too much of their
+own way in America. The Spanish ambassador
+was cringing enough when he saw what a powerful
+leader had arisen, and did his best to avert the impending
+storm. It is even stated that he assured the
+Protector of his master's friendship, and declared that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span>
+if he took the Crown of England Spain would be first
+in her approval. Cromwell was not to be mollified
+by soft speeches; he had got peace at home, and was
+determined to have it across the seas as well. He
+was quite willing to arrange for a treaty, but it must
+be on his own terms, not at the dictation of Spain.
+A commission was appointed to meet the ambassador
+and discuss the grounds of the agreement, and they
+began at once with the West Indies. A long list of
+depredations was produced for which the English
+demanded satisfaction before going farther. The
+English had been treated as enemies wherever the
+Spaniards met them in the West Indies, even when
+going to and from their own plantations, notwithstanding
+the former treaty, and the Commission
+insisted on a proper indemnity. The English must
+be free to trade everywhere&mdash;in fact the old claim of
+Spain to the whole of America must be finally
+abandoned.</p>
+
+<p>The Spanish ambassador replied that the inquisition
+and trade to the West Indies were his master's
+two eyes, and that nothing different from the practice
+of former times could be permitted. On hearing this
+Cromwell, seeing that neither indemnity for the past
+nor promises of amendment in the future could be
+obtained, prepared for war, and commenced by fitting
+out an expedition to conquer Hispaniola.</p>
+
+<p>In December, 1654, we find the first mention of a
+special service under the command of Generals Penn
+and Venables, and early in the following year the
+fleet sailed for Barbados. With five thousand men
+from England, and as many from the West Indies,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span>
+the expedition arrived near St. Domingo on the 13th
+of April, 1655, frightening the inhabitants so much
+that they fled to the woods on its approach. However,
+the affair was so badly managed that no benefit
+accrued from following the example of Drake, which
+appears to have been the object of the leaders. Like
+the great Elizabethan hero, they landed at a distance
+from the town with the intention of marching along
+the shore, but instead of landing ten miles off they
+went as far as thirty. For four days the troops
+wandered through the mangrove bushes, without
+guides, and even without provisions, thus giving the
+runaway Spaniards time to rally from their fright and
+come out after them. Weary, entangled in the
+swamps, and utterly unfit to cope with an enemy,
+the English became an easy prey; the slaughter was
+considerable, and it was even stated that those killed
+were mostly shot in the back while trying to escape.</p>
+
+<p>Unwilling to attempt anything further in Hispaniola,
+Penn and Venables took off the dispirited remnant
+and sailed for Jamaica, hoping to do something there
+to prevent failure altogether. Not that there were
+any laurels to be gained in that direction, for the
+inhabitants only numbered three thousand, and half
+of these were negro slaves. A few shots were fired,
+and then the inhabitants took to flight, leaving the
+English in possession of the island. A capitulation
+was agreed upon with the old Spanish Governor, who
+was brought in a hammock to sign it, but many of
+the people took to the woods with their slaves, and
+refused to be bound by the articles. A body of two
+thousand men was then sent to scour the interior<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span>
+and bring them back, but they could find nothing
+save great herds of wild cattle. Afterwards, in pure
+wantonness, the churches and religious buildings were
+demolished, the cattle killed or driven far away, and
+the provision grounds devastated, with the result that
+the invaders were soon starving. In less than a
+month two thousand were sick, many had died, and
+the remainder had become mutinous. Altogether
+the whole affair was so badly managed that Cromwell
+became almost mad at the news, and sent both commanders
+to the Tower on their return.</p>
+
+<p>However, Jamaica was captured, and for the first
+time in the history of the West Indies a Spanish
+possession went into the hands of another nation.
+Some thought the island of no importance as compared
+with Hispaniola&mdash;it was certainly of little value
+to the Spaniards. However, a few English people
+foresaw something of its future importance, and did
+their best to develop the island. In October Cromwell
+issued a proclamation offering certain advantages
+to settlers from the other islands, or from England, so
+that it might be occupied as soon as possible. It
+stated that by the providence of God Jamaica had
+come into the possession of the State, and that they
+were satisfied of its fertility and commodiousness for
+trade; it had therefore been resolved to plant it. To
+this end it was made known to the people of the
+English islands and colonies the encouragements
+offered to those who removed their habitations there
+within two years from the 29th of September, 1656.
+Twenty acres of land would be granted to every adult,
+and ten for each child, they would have freedom to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span>
+hunt wild cattle and horses, be given the privilege of
+mining except for gold and silver, and freedom from
+taxes for three years.</p>
+
+<p>It resulted from this that many planters from
+Barbados and St. Kitt's went over, and in a very
+few years Jamaica was more prosperous than it had
+ever been while in the possession of Spain. In November,
+1656, Cromwell ordered the Scotch Government
+to apprehend all known idle masterless robbers and
+vagabonds, male or female, and to transport them
+there, and at the same time the Council of State
+ordered that a thousand girls and as many young
+men should be enlisted in Ireland for the same purpose.
+As for the adventurers who went with the expedition,
+they were reported as being so lazy "that it
+could not enter into the heart of any Englishman
+that such blood should run in the veins of his
+countrymen"&mdash;they were so unworthy, slothful, and
+basely secure, out of a strange kind of spirit desiring
+rather to die than live. As for planting, little was
+done by them, although every possible inducement
+and encouragement was given.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile letters of marque were issued to privateers
+for the West Indies, which drove the Spaniards
+to send their treasure from Peru to Buenos Ayres,
+a route that had been abandoned since the time of
+Queen Elizabeth. Now also they began to make
+efforts for the recovery of Jamaica, and in May, 1658,
+thirty companies of infantry, under the command of
+the late Governor, landed on the north side of the
+island. Here in a small harbour they entrenched
+themselves, and built a little fort before their pre<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span>sence
+became known to the English. However,
+Governor D'Oyley at last heard of the invasion, but
+it was nearly two months after their arrival before he
+could proceed to approach them by sea. When he
+arrived, however, with seven hundred and fifty men,
+he at once stormed their fortress and drove them to
+their vessels, in which they fled to Cuba. This put
+an end to the matter; but the old Governor returned,
+and lived with the remnant of the Spaniards and
+their slaves in the mountains.</p>
+
+<p>Now at last even the Pope had to acknowledge
+other sovereignty than that of Spain, and this he did
+in a letter to Father Fontaine, of the Dominican Mission,
+on the 25th of July, 1658. Therein he acknowledged
+the king of France as ruler of the conquests
+and colonies his subjects had made in the American
+islands. Thus was the Bull of partition at last cancelled
+by the successor of its original promulgator,
+and the ground for the exclusive claim to America
+cut away. At this time France was also at war with
+Spain, but the following year a treaty was signed, and
+in 1660, on the restoration of Charles the Second,
+peace was restored with England.</p>
+
+<p>At the first private audience of the Spanish ambassador
+with the king, he delivered a memorial demanding
+the restoration of Jamaica to his master, on the
+ground that it had been taken by his rebel subjects,
+contrary to the treaty between the two Crowns. Instead
+of doing this, however, Charles despatched a
+vessel with letters to the Governors of the Caribbee
+islands, asking them to encourage all persons willing
+to transplant themselves to the larger islands. At<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span>
+the same time the Royal African Company, the great
+slave-trading corporation of that time, was asked to
+make Jamaica its headquarters for the sale of negroes.
+Then it was arranged to send women from England
+to be wives for the planters, Newgate and Bridewell
+to be spared as much as possible, so that poor maids
+might have a chance, with whom it was stated that
+few English parishes were unburdened.</p>
+
+<p>On the 1st of December, 1660, King Charles the
+Second made a move which must be considered as of the
+greatest importance to the development of the British
+Colonial Empire&mdash;he founded the "Council for foreign
+plantations," which later developed into the Colonial
+Office. This Council were to inform themselves of
+the state of the plantations and of how they were
+governed, keeping copies of all grants in a book.
+They were to write to every Governor asking for
+exact accounts of their proceedings, the nature of
+their laws and government, as well as statistics. They
+must establish a correspondence with the colonies, so
+that the king might be informed of all complaints,
+their wants, what they cultivated, their commodities,
+and their trade, so that all might be regulated upon
+common grounds and principles. They must adopt
+means for rendering them and England mutually
+helpful, and bring them into a more uniform government,
+with a better distribution of justice. Especial
+care was to be taken for the execution of the Navigation
+Act, and consideration given to the best means
+of providing servants, to which end care was to be
+taken that no persons were forced or enticed away by
+unlawful means. Those willing to be transported<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span>
+were, however, to be encouraged, and a legal course
+was to be settled for sending over vagrants and
+others who were noxious and unprofitable in England.
+Learned and orthodox ministers were also to
+be sent, and instructions given for regulating and
+repressing the debaucheries of planters and servants.
+The Council were also to consider how the natives
+and slaves might be invited to, and made capable of,
+baptism in the Christian faith, and finally to dispose
+of all matters relating to the good government, improvement,
+and management of the plantations.</p>
+
+<p>Thus England commenced her great career of
+colonisation, the results of which we see to-day.
+While taking all due account of Virginia and New
+England, we cannot but note that it was in the West
+Indies where the "prentice hand" was first tried.
+Jamaica was the main object of these provisions&mdash;to
+that island the king's attention had been specially
+directed, and it was here that many difficulties had to
+be encountered before it could be made a worthy
+appendage of the Crown. Most of the other islands
+were in the hands of private persons or companies,
+while this was under the control of the State. No
+matter that the island had been annexed by rebels,
+Charles the Second was determined to hold it fast
+for England, in spite of all the protests of Spain.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3><a name="VII" id="VII"></a>VII</h3>
+
+<h3>THE PLANTERS AND THEIR SLAVES</h3>
+
+
+<p>When the first European adventurers went to the
+West Indies, serfdom was still common in Spain.
+The peasantry were, as a rule, bound to the soil, and
+could neither be taken away by their lords nor remove
+at their own will. The consequence was that
+only soldiers, mariners, and free men from the
+towns took part in the first expeditions. The townsmen
+had mostly been brought up to the trades of
+their fathers, and were hardly fit to cultivate the land
+even in Spain, much less, therefore, were they suited
+to the tropics. They could not demean themselves
+by performing anything so servile, but must get their
+land cultivated by others. As the serfs were not
+available, first Indians and then negro slaves and
+white bond-servants were employed.</p>
+
+<p>We have seen how the Indians were exterminated,
+and how the first planters in Hispaniola were ruined
+by the want of labour. Even the Spanish priests
+could see that the poor Arawak's nature was quite
+distinct from that of the European peasant. The
+serf had been kept under subjection for centuries; his
+father and grandfather had worked in the fields, and
+he must do the same. The armourer, the mason, and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138-139]</a><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139"></a></span>the weaver carried on their trades, because they had
+been born into the respective guilds as it were. The
+Indians, on the contrary, were free, and had always
+been so; yes, more free than any people in the old
+world. They died, and the planter had to look elsewhere
+for his labour supply. Then commenced the
+cry which has been continually rising from the plantations
+ever since&mdash;More servants! More slaves!
+More coolies!</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 313px;">
+<img src="images/p138.jpg" width="313" height="418" alt="A SURINAM PLANTER." title="" />
+<span class="caption">A SURINAM PLANTER.<br />
+(<i>From Stedman&#39;s &quot;Surinam.&quot;</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>For many years the Portuguese had been kidnapping
+negroes on the west coast of Africa. By
+their connection with Morocco they had learnt that
+the natives of the interior were brought to and openly
+sold in the Moorish towns&mdash;possibly they themselves
+had purchased some of them. To bring home a
+number after every voyage to the coast was therefore
+nothing strange, nor was it anything novel to sell
+them in Portugal to help pay the expense of the
+voyage. From Portugal to Spain this negro slavery
+spread, until it became fairly common in both
+countries.</p>
+
+<p>When the cry for labourers came over the Atlantic&mdash;even
+before the extermination of the natives&mdash;a few
+negroes were sent out. Finding them more docile
+and better able to endure hard labour than the
+Indians, more were called for, the benevolent priests
+also urging the matter to save the remnant of the
+Arawaks. The demand created a supply, and soon
+the Portuguese found themselves embarked in a lucrative
+trade, of which they commanded the monopoly.
+Thus began a traffic which has been unreservedly
+condemned by the most enlightened of humanity,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140-141]</a><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141"></a></span>and praised alone by those whose very livelihood
+depended upon it.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 315px;">
+<img src="images/p140.jpg" width="315" height="369" alt="A NEGRO FESTIVAL." title="" />
+<span class="caption">A NEGRO FESTIVAL.<br />
+(<i>From Edwards&#39; &quot;West Indies.&quot;</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>On his second voyage Columbus carried the sugar
+cane, which was destined to have such an influence
+for good and evil on the West Indies. Its produce
+was at first known as a kind of honey, and recognised
+as an expectorant and comforting medicine. Now it
+had made its way into the kitchens of the great, where
+it was considered as one of the spices, and with them
+became more and more used every year. In early
+times the cane was cultivated on the warmer shores
+of the Mediterranean, and, after their discovery, in
+the Canary and Cape de Verde islands. At the
+period of the discovery of America sugar was sold
+at about eightpence a pound, equivalent to something
+like three shillings nowadays. As the demand continued
+to increase large plantations were laid out in
+Hispaniola, until it became the staple product of the
+colony.</p>
+
+<p>Cotton was known in the old world, but as yet had
+hardly come into use in Europe. In the West Indies
+it was generally cultivated in a small way by every
+native, and on being forwarded to Spain, the "tree
+wool," as it was called, soon came into use. Then
+came another product, tobacco, which was quite new
+at that time, although probably known in the far
+East. It seemed strange to the new-comers that
+people should carry firebrands in their mouths, and
+at first they took tobacco-smokers for juggling fire-eaters,
+until they also learnt the sustaining power of
+the "weed." This soon took place, and by the year
+1550 tobacco was well known in Spain and Italy.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142-143]</a><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143"></a></span>Probably also the Dutch knew it quite as early, for it
+was in the Netherlands that it became more quickly
+appreciated than in any other country, probably on
+account of its particularly comforting properties in
+marshy districts. Soon afterwards Jean Nicot introduced
+it into France, and probably Master Hawkins
+brought samples into England from Brazil, although
+Ralegh is stated to have been the first English
+smoker. Towards the end of the sixteenth century
+its use became so common all over Europe that Popes
+and Churchmen thundered their curses against the
+"filthy habit," and later poor King James wrote his
+"Counterblast to Tobacco," which only had the effect
+of making it better known.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 310px;">
+<img src="images/p142.jpg" width="310" height="382" alt="VOYAGE OF THE SABLE VENUS." title="" />
+<span class="caption">VOYAGE OF THE SABLE VENUS.<br />
+(<i>From Edwards&#39; &quot;West Indies.&quot;</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Here at the beginning were two commercial
+products which grew well in the West Indies, with
+a doubtful third to come to the front as soon as it
+became known. As yet coffee had not been introduced&mdash;this
+followed in the next century. Notwithstanding
+the large profit on sugar the Spaniard would
+not labour in the field, and in the end the plantations
+became fewer and fewer until only one or two were
+left. This falling off tended to keep up the price,
+and although the Dutch bought much cotton and
+tobacco from the Indians of the Main, and the
+Portuguese began to grow sugar in Brazil, the supply
+was always limited.</p>
+
+<p>There was room for more plantations, and the first
+people to take advantage of this opening were the
+English. Their many different colonies in Guiana
+all commenced planting with tobacco: Virginia and
+the Bermudas did the same. All through the reign
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144-145]</a><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145"></a></span>of James the First, however, the trade was obstructed
+in so many ways that a great deal of their produce
+was sent to the Netherlands and thus escaped the
+English duties. Probably also the smuggling of
+tobacco, so notorious at a later period, began at this
+time, as the Dutch were always noted free-traders,
+not only on the Spanish Main, but in Europe as
+well.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 314px;">
+<img src="images/p144.jpg" width="314" height="432" alt="SLAVES LANDING FROM THE SHIP." title="" />
+<span class="caption">SLAVES LANDING FROM THE SHIP.<br />
+(<i>From Stedman&#39;s &quot;Surinam.&quot;</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Like the Spaniards, the English adventurers were
+soldiers and sailors, and therefore did not work in the
+field. Subject to the raids of the European claimants
+of the territory as well as the incursions of ferocious
+cannibals, they went about literally with pistols in
+their belts and swords at their thighs. Now they
+had to show a good face to some buccaneer company,
+and anon to fight the French or Dutch when war
+broke out. Later, when there was no fear of enemies
+from without, they had a continual dread of slave
+insurrections. It followed, therefore, that the planter
+was always on the alert, and, even if he felt inclined,
+could do little in the way of cultivation.</p>
+
+<p>In England serfdom had virtually come to an end,
+and the agricultural labourer might go where he
+pleased. But the love of country, the unknown but
+magnified perils of a sea voyage, and stories of cruel
+Spaniards and man-eating Caribs, prevented many
+from going to the Indies, notwithstanding the great
+inducements offered. The English planters found
+it difficult to get negroes, as their enemy controlled
+the trade. As for the Indians, they had to deal with
+cannibals whose women cultivated small clearings,
+but resented anything like coercion, while no labour<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span>
+whatever could be got from the men. Something
+had to be done. If the English labourer would not
+come willingly, he might be kidnapped, and the
+carrying out of this work led to the organisation
+of bands of ruffians, who went sailing along the
+coasts, especially of Scotland and Ireland, to pick
+up likely fellows wherever they found opportunity.
+However, this caused such an outcry that extraordinary
+efforts were made on the part of the Government
+to put down "spiriting," as it was called.</p>
+
+<p>In June, 1661, the Council for foreign plantations
+considered the best means of encouraging and furnishing
+people for the colonies, and they thought that
+felons condemned for small offences, and sturdy
+beggars, might be sent. They had several complaints
+of men, women, and children being spirited away
+from their masters and parents, and later the Mayor
+of Bristol and the Lord Mayor of London petitioned
+the king for authority to examine ships, with the
+view of finding out whether the passengers went of
+their own free will. It was stated that husbands
+forsook their wives, wives fled from their husbands,
+children and apprentices ran away, while unwary and
+credulous persons were often tempted on board by
+men-stealers. Many who had been pursued by hue
+and cry for robberies, burglaries, and breaking prison,
+also escaped to the plantations. Certain persons,
+called spirits, inveigled, and by lewd subtleties
+enticed, away young persons, whereby great tumults
+and uproars were raised in London, to the breach of
+the peace and the hazard of men's lives.</p>
+
+<p>These abuses led to an Order in Council, published<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span>
+in September, 1664, for registering persons going
+voluntarily, and commissions were given to the Lord
+High Admiral and the officers of the ports to establish
+registration offices and give certificates. Yet
+the spiriting still went on, for in April, 1668, Sir
+Anthony Ashley Cooper was asked to move the
+House of Commons to make the offence capital.
+His petitioner, said he, had found one lost child, and
+after much expense and trouble, freed him, but there
+were several others in the same ship, and other ships
+in the river at the same work. Even if the parents
+found their children, they could not recover them
+without money, and he was sure that if such a law
+were passed the mercy to these innocents would
+ground a blessing on those concerned in introducing
+it. This Act was finally passed on the 1st of March,
+1670, punishing the spirits with death without benefit
+of clergy.</p>
+
+<p>There were, however, other means of procuring
+servants. In 1649, when Cromwell took Drogheda
+by storm, about thirty prisoners were saved from the
+massacre to be shipped to Barbados, and in 1651
+seven or eight thousand Scots, taken at the battle
+of Worcester, were reserved for a similar fate. After
+the Restoration, however, there was an intermission
+in such supplies, and the planters began to look to
+Newgate and Bridewell for their labour supply.</p>
+
+<p>The supply was by no means equal to the demand,
+for the agents in London of the planters of Virginia,
+Barbados, St. Christopher's, and other islands were
+equally clamorous for their share. As for King
+Charles the Second, he granted the prisoners as a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span>
+privilege to his favourites, and even mistresses, who
+generally sold it to the highest bidder. The agent
+must have had influence to get into the presence
+of the holder, say of a hundred prisoners sentenced
+to transportation, and this was only obtainable by
+largess to door-keepers and servants. Then came
+the trouble of obtaining delivery from the prison
+authorities, and here again fees were demanded. In
+one case that is recorded the amount paid to the
+gaoler of Newgate was fifty-five shillings a head.
+But even now the trouble was only beginning. The
+prisoners were supposed to be delivered at the door
+of the gaol, and the planter was under a heavy bond
+not to allow one to escape. He must account for
+each by a certificate of death on the voyage or of
+landing in Barbados, on penalty of five hundred
+pounds for every one missing. It followed, therefore,
+that a sufficiently strong guard had to be provided,
+and provision made for attempts at rescue by the
+prisoners' friends. Even this was not all, for the
+concession simply granted a certain number, and
+it rested with the gaoler to palm off the old, weak,
+and infirm on those who were at all wanting in
+liberality. Then, at the best the prisoners were
+hatters, tailors, and haberdashers, rather than agricultural
+labourers, many of whom ultimately proved
+valueless. If a large number was available, and there
+were several applicants, the competition became quite
+spirited&mdash;every one wanted his pick before the others,
+and the gaoler made the best of the occasion, leaving
+those to whom he allotted the refuse to curse their
+evil fortune.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Up to the passing of the Navigation Act the
+Dutch had been free to trade with English colonies,
+and had brought a fair number of negroes; and
+afterwards the king established the Royal African
+Company to prevent the supply being cut off. The
+average price of the African was then about &pound;16 or
+2,400 pounds of sugar, but the Dutch sold their slaves
+for a little less, which led the planters to evade the
+Navigation Act when they had opportunities.</p>
+
+<p>The white bond-servant was valued at about 2,200
+pounds of sugar, very little less than the slave for life,
+although he had generally but five years to serve.
+The cost of transport was about &pound;5 per head; it
+followed, therefore, that if the London agent got his
+prisoners cheap he made a good profit. There was
+also another way of making money in this business.
+Some of the gaol-birds had friends who were willing
+to pay good sums on consideration that the convict
+should be virtually freed on his arrival. Many a
+sum of fifty pounds was obtained in this way, sometimes
+without helping the bond-servant in the least.
+How were the relations to prove that the promise
+had not been fulfilled, and if they did so what redress
+could be obtained? They certainly could not go to
+law, as the whole transaction was illegal.</p>
+
+<p>We have seen how Charles the Second tried to
+people Jamaica with free settlers, but this did not
+prevent the transportation of criminals. In 1665
+four young men, who had been convicted of interrupting
+and abusing a preacher, were whipped
+through the streets of Edinburgh and afterwards
+sent to Barbados, and in 1684 some of the Rye<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span>
+House plotters were reprieved on condition that they
+served ten years in the West Indies. When these
+plotters arrived in Jamaica, the Governor, "by His
+Majesty's command," directed the Assembly to pass
+an Act "to prevent all clandestine releasements or
+buying out of their time," so that their punishment
+should not be evaded. But it was after the Monmouth
+rebellion, in 1685, that the greatest deportation
+took place. The miserable followers of the duke
+were executed by Judge Jeffreys until even his thirst
+for blood was somewhat slackened, when the remainder
+were sent to the plantations. The story
+of one of these unfortunates gives such a graphic
+picture of the life of a bond-servant that we cannot
+do better than give an outline of the "Relation of
+the great sufferings and strange adventures of Henry
+Pitman, surgeon to the late Duke of Monmouth."</p>
+
+<p>Having been taken prisoner after the battle of
+Sedgemoor, he was committed to Ilchester Gaol, had
+his pockets rifled, his clothes torn off his back, and
+was remanded until the Wells assizes. While in
+gaol he was inveigled into telling all he knew, by
+promises of pardon, and then his acknowledgments
+were treated as a confession. Those who pleaded
+not guilty on the first day of the trial were convicted
+and executed the same afternoon; others who confessed
+were equally condemned. After two hundred
+and thirty had been hanged the remainder were ordered
+to be transported to the Caribbee islands, of whom Pitman
+was one. With some others, including his brother,
+he was disposed of to an agent who took &pound;60 from
+his friends to set him free on his arrival at Barbados.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The Legislative Assembly of that island, however,
+in consequence of the "most horrid, wicked, and execrable
+rebellion," lately raised, and because many of
+the rebels had been transported for ten years, passed
+a special Act, under which they were bound to serve,
+notwithstanding any bargain to the contrary. If they
+attempted to escape they were to be flogged, and
+burnt in the forehead with the letters "F.T.," meaning
+"Fugitive Traitor."</p>
+
+<p>By this law Pitman's hopes were frustrated, and,
+utterly disheartened, he was not inclined to work at
+his profession for the master to whom he had been
+sold. Although the status of a surgeon was not then
+as high as it is now, it was yet a great downfall to
+practise the profession on rations of five pounds of
+salt beef or fish per week, with nothing else but corn
+meal. As for the fees, which were large, the master
+pocketed them, leaving Pitman to endure the discomforts
+of a tropical residence and semi-starvation
+as best he could. On one occasion he refused to go
+on with his work, and for this he was beaten by his
+master until the cane used was broken in pieces.
+Then the master became bankrupt, and, with his
+brother, Pitman was sent back to the merchant to
+whom they had been first consigned.</p>
+
+<p>Here his brother died of the hardships he had
+experienced, and Pitman resolved to escape, notwithstanding
+the risk of attempting such a thing.
+Having made the acquaintance of a poor man who
+was willing to help, he got a consignment of goods
+from his friends in England, with which to raise the
+means. A boat was purchased for twelve pounds;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span>
+but this led to inquiries, as the buyer was known to
+be poor, and his creditors began to come down upon
+him. However, Pitman contributed enough to satisfy
+them, meanwhile postponing his departure until suspicion
+had been lulled.</p>
+
+<p>On the evening of the 9th of May, 1687&mdash;this being
+a holiday, when most of the people were revelling&mdash;he
+and seven other bond-servants got safely off in
+their open boat, with a small supply of provisions and
+water, a few tools, a compass, and a chart. They
+intended to make for the Dutch island of Cura&ccedil;ao,
+six hundred miles distant; but even before they were
+out of Carlisle Bay their frail craft began to leak, and
+they had to tear up their clothes to stop the gaping
+seams. At sunrise they were out of sight from the
+land, but so enervated by sea-sickness that some
+would willingly have gone back. However, they
+went on as best they could, with nothing but their
+hats to bale out the water, which still continued to
+trickle into the boat. They were a little more comfortable
+as the sun rose, but when night came a gale
+arose which kept them employed baling for their
+lives. To add to their difficulties the rudder broke,
+and they had to steer with an oar.</p>
+
+<p>Five days passed in this manner, the refugees
+hardly able to get an hour's rest for the baling and
+continual fear that the boat would sink if left alone.
+On the sixth morning they saw Margarita, but could
+not land on account of the rocky shore, which nearly
+wrecked them on their making the attempt. Sheering
+off, they next day sighted Saltatudos island, one of the
+Dry Tortugas, where they met a boat manned with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span>
+privateers, who treated them very kindly, and wanted
+them to join their company. To this, however, Pitman
+and his companions would not agree, and this
+annoyed the privateers, who burnt their boat and
+virtually kept them as prisoners. When they went
+on a cruise the refugees were left in charge of four
+men, and had much ado to find enough turtle to keep
+them from starving. After remaining here for three
+months an English privateer arrived, and, at their
+request, took them on to New Providence, to which
+the inhabitants had just returned after being driven
+off by Spaniards. Pitman at last got to Amsterdam,
+and from thence to England, where the revolution
+had just taken place, and his friends had succeeded
+in obtaining a free pardon.</p>
+
+<p>The white bond-servant, being under a short
+engagement, was generally worked to his utmost
+capacity. No matter if he died before the end of
+his term as long as he paid for the expense incurred.
+But Englishmen were no more inclined to be slaves
+then than they are now, and the planters of St.
+Kitt's found them so troublesome to manage that
+they soon became afraid of buying, and showed a
+preference for negroes. Some of the English servants
+committed suicide, and it is recorded that a pious
+master told one of them, who had expressed his
+intention of destroying himself, that he trusted that
+God would give him more grace, than, for a short
+term of trouble in this life, to precipitate himself into
+hell.</p>
+
+<p>Even in the earliest times some of the planters
+were absentees, living in England. The system was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span>
+always more or less fortune-hunting, the whole end
+and aim being to get rich and return to the old
+country. There were, as we have seen, many difficulties
+and dangers to encounter, and not the least
+of the drawbacks was the want of good society. We
+who live in an age when there is daily communication
+with the whole world, can hardly conceive how entirely
+these pioneers were cut off from their friends.
+The long voyage was full of discomfort, and at the
+best uncertain as to its termination. The words
+still found on bills of lading, "the act of God or the
+queen's enemies," had a meaning then hardly appreciable
+by the present generation. Barbary pirates
+and French corsairs ranged the Channel; in the
+broad Atlantic storms shook the crazy vessels to
+pieces; and when they escaped these dangers, it was
+often to fall into the hands of the buccaneers when in
+sight of their destination. Then there were hurricanes
+on both sea and land, and earthquakes on some of
+the islands. Vessels were sunk in harbour, houses
+blown away, and sugar buildings torn down. As for
+the negro huts, they were carried off altogether, and
+the crops injured so as to become useless. Then, perhaps,
+when the planter had strained himself to the
+utmost to put things straight, another tornado would
+put him in a worse plight than before.</p>
+
+<p>Yet with all this the planter struggled on, generally
+doing his best to carry the traditions and fashions of
+the mother country into his new home. We have
+already noticed Barbados, and how it was affected by
+the "great rebellion." Many other examples might be
+noted had we sufficient space. The planter was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span>
+nearly always a gentleman, even if he had begun
+his career as a transported rebel. Some were
+gallants, and dressed in the extreme of London
+fashion, often living beyond their means. Others
+were merchants, trading with their own vessels, and
+selling their surplus goods for produce to make up
+cargoes. With their own sugar, and as much as
+they could procure from others, they filled their ships
+for the homeward voyage, and in return got enough
+merchandise for trading. These were the fortune-hunters,
+who were always looking forward to that
+happy time when, with money in their pouches, they
+could once more settle down in Merry England. The
+old country was always "home," as it is still for the
+West Indian, although perhaps neither himself nor
+his parents ever saw it&mdash;then it was the will-o'-the-wisp
+that drove him to endure all the discomforts of
+a life in the tropics, often to die of fever before his
+work was hardly begun.</p>
+
+<p>While Jamaica was under the dominion of Spain
+little was done to develop the island. The Indians
+were exterminated, as in Hispaniola, to be replaced
+by wild cattle and horses, and fifteen hundred negroes
+were introduced to cultivate provision grounds. From
+these, passing vessels, which called in on their way
+to Mexico, got their supplies. As yet it was not a
+rendezvous for buccaneers, and taken altogether it
+was quite insignificant. Thousands of white men
+and tens of thousands of negroes were required
+before it became the important island which ultimately
+rivalled Hispaniola. However, although the
+Spaniard was driven out he left his sting behind in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span>
+the shape of his slaves, who took to the mountains,
+to be afterwards known as Maroons, and to worry the
+English colonists for over a century.</p>
+
+<p>And here, as we are dealing with the planter and
+his labour supply, we must say something of the
+negro slaves, to whom the West Indies were indebted
+for their very existence as European colonies. Unlike
+the American, the African had known slavery
+for ages. Prisoners taken in war were kept in servitude
+as a matter of course; debtors were slaves to
+their creditors, and even children were sold by their
+parents. Yet there were great differences between the
+tribes&mdash;the Coromantees, for example, were particularly
+troublesome, and the Foulahs often dangerous.
+The first slave-traders took their cargoes from the
+more northern coasts, and from this cause, perhaps,
+as well as the want of proper supervision in the
+Indies, runaways, or Simerons, were mentioned at
+very early periods. Later, the trade was carried on
+in a particularly judicious manner, and the more
+docile tribes selected, to be sold in the colonies as
+"Prime Gold Coast Negroes."</p>
+
+<p>In their native countries these people were all
+virtually slaves to their chiefs, and as such were
+liable to be sold at any time. The authority was
+unlimited; the slightest offence meant slavery;
+death was the only alternative. Often when, for
+some reason or other, the negro was rejected by the
+trader, he was executed at once. Adultery was
+punished by the sale of both offenders, and debtors
+could be sold by their creditors. Bryan Edwards,
+author of a history of the West Indies, took much<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span>
+pains to procure information from the slaves themselves,
+through an interpreter; and as they had no
+reason to misrepresent their cases, we can safely give
+the outlines of one.</p>
+
+<p>The most interesting story is, perhaps, that of the
+boy Adam, a Congo, about fourteen years of age
+when he was brought to Jamaica. His country was
+named Sarri, and was situated a long distance from
+the coast. While walking one morning through a
+path, about three miles from his native village, the
+boy was captured by one of his countrymen. With
+his prisoner the man hid himself in the woods during
+the whole of the day, and at night stole away from
+the neighbourhood, going on like this for a whole
+month. Then he came to the country of another
+tribe, where he sold the boy for a gun, some powder
+and shot, and a little salt. His new owner afterwards
+sold Adam for a keg of brandy to another black man
+who was going about collecting slaves, and when
+twenty had been collected they were taken to the
+coast and sold to a Jamaica captain.</p>
+
+<p>Of the five-and-twenty interrogated by Bryan
+Edwards, fifteen frankly declared that they had
+been born in slavery, and were sold to pay the
+debts, or bartered to supply the wants, of their
+owners. Five were secretly kidnapped in the interior,
+and sold to black merchants; the other five
+fell into the hands of the enemy in some of those
+petty wars which were continually going on, when, if
+there had been no market for their sale, they would
+almost certainly have been killed.</p>
+
+<p>It is hardly necessary to state that in giving these<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span>
+statements we are not attempting the impossible
+task of vindicating slavery either of the black or
+white man. It would be well, however, if, in mitigation
+of the offence against the negro, his former
+condition were taken into consideration, and the
+undoubted fact that he was better treated by the
+West India planter than by his own countrymen.
+His lot was by no means so hard as slavery had
+been to the Indian and white bond-servant. He did
+not sink under the hardships of a life of toil in the
+burning sun, but was happy in his way, and in most
+cases better off than his descendant, the West Indian
+peasant of to-day. He was certainly treated as a
+domestic animal, but his value was always high
+enough to prevent anything like ill-usage. There
+were certainly people who could be cruel to their
+negroes, as there are yet men so low as to brutally
+flog valuable horses, but that such were common is
+a statement utterly without foundation. As a well-kept
+animal, the planter took a pride in him, fed and
+doctored him, patted him on the back, and proudly
+showed him to his friends. All this appears very
+degrading to humanity, but after all the negro did
+not see it in that light. On the contrary, he took
+a pride in exhibiting his strong muscles and in
+showing the "buccras" what a fine nigger massa
+had got.</p>
+
+<p>The slave of the rich planter, like the horse of the
+English gentleman, was undoubtedly very comfortable.
+First, he was a picked lot&mdash;the healthiest,
+strongest, and most suitable for his work&mdash;one of
+those "pieces d'India," as the best negroes were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span>
+called by the traders. Then, as an expensive chattel,
+everything was done to make him still more valuable,
+and to prevent his deteriorating. But unfortunately
+there was another class&mdash;the miserable, broken-down
+creatures sold cheap as refuse lots to poor white
+men or even to slaves. Yes, the slaves bought their
+diseased fellow-countrymen, to work on their own
+allotments, treating them as the costermonger sometimes
+does his donkey. Half-starved, hard-worked,
+and covered with sores, they lingered in misery until
+death came to make them free. Some were so disfigured
+with yaws, or leprosy, that none but a negro
+could bear the sight of them; these were kept out
+of the way and treated worse than mangy dogs.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3><a name="VIII" id="VIII"></a>VIII</h3>
+
+<h3>THE STRUGGLE FOR SUPREMACY</h3>
+
+
+<p>By the time of the Dutch war of 1665 the pretensions
+of Spain to the exclusive possession of the
+Indies had been entirely ignored. Now began the
+great struggle of other nations for supremacy, and
+the position of "sovereign of the seas," the islands
+and Guiana becoming scenes of contention between
+English, French, and Dutch. To these struggles is
+greatly due the positions the naval powers of the
+world hold to-day, and especially that of Britain.</p>
+
+<p>As it was mainly a demand for free trade which led
+to so many attacks on the Spanish possessions, so it
+was now the same question which led to the struggle
+between the two great mercantile nations which
+succeeded Spain and Portugal, as these had followed
+Venice and Genoa. In the West Indies there was
+no line of demarcation between these new powers,
+and consequently their interests often clashed, but
+on the whole the colonists were favourable to the
+Dutch, and did all they could to evade the Navigation
+Act.</p>
+
+<p>Early in 1665 preparations were made in Barbados
+to repel an expected invasion by the Dutch. Vessels<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span>
+were ordered to keep together and protect each other,
+and men-of-war were sent out to afford convoy.
+Already the English buccaneers had been somewhat
+discountenanced by the home government, although
+they were generally encouraged by the colonies,
+especially Jamaica, which derived considerable advantage
+from their sales of booty. Now that
+there was a demand for all the forces that could
+be gathered together, the Governor of that island
+gave the rovers letters of marque, under which they
+were empowered to ravage the Dutch colonies. At
+St. Eustatius they succeeded in carrying off everything
+portable, including nine hundred slaves, and
+even such heavy articles as sugar coppers and stills.
+De Ruyter made an attempt on Barbados on the
+20th of April, but the people there made such a
+stand that he had to retire. He commenced the
+attack at ten o'clock in the morning with his fourteen
+vessels, but by three in the afternoon the fleet was
+so much damaged that he was forced to move away
+his own ship, with a hole in her side "as big as a
+barn-door." He then went on to Montserrat and
+Nevis, where he captured sixteen ships, but did not
+take either of the islands.</p>
+
+<p>In Guiana, the English from Barbados captured
+the Dutch trading factory in the river Essequebo, as
+well as the young sugar colony in the Pomeroon,
+and in retaliation the Dutch took Surinam. In
+January, 1666, France joined the Netherlands, and
+an English fleet was sent out to protect Barbados,
+which now began to feel alarmed at the possible
+result of such a powerful combination.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Then came the critical period for the island of St.
+Kitt's, which, as we have before stated, had been
+divided between English and French, the former
+holding the middle portion with the enemy on either
+side. As soon as the news of the declaration of war
+arrived, the relations between the two nationalities,
+which had often before been much strained, became
+ruptured. The English Governor, Watts, gave his
+rival three days' notice, and prepared to attack him,
+with the assistance of five hundred men from Nevis,
+and two hundred buccaneers. General de la Salle,
+on the French side, asked and obtained forty-eight
+hours' longer grace, and took advantage of this to
+steal into the English territory with a large body of
+horse and foot, as well as a mob of negroes armed
+with bills and hoes. The slaves also carried firebrands,
+and were said to have been promised, in
+return for their assistance, freedom, English women
+as wives, and the liberty to plunder and burn. At
+the town of St. Nicholas a gentlewoman with three
+or four children, on trying to escape, was forced back
+into her blazing house and kept there until the whole
+family were burnt to death. A party of English,
+who advanced to check their progress, was overwhelmed
+by the number of the enemy and driven
+back, thus leaving them to advance over the island
+with fire and sword.</p>
+
+<p>Governor Watts took things so coolly, that Colonel
+Morgan (not the famous Sir Henry), who led the
+buccaneers, went to rouse him, and found he was
+lounging about in dressing-gown and slippers. Presenting
+a pistol to his breast, Morgan called the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span>
+Governor a coward and a traitor, at the same time
+swearing he would shoot him dead if he did not at
+once take his place at the head of the forces. The
+contingent from Nevis had already gone over to the
+French quarter near Sandy Point, and, after a hard
+struggle, had taken the post, when the Governor at
+last followed behind. Coming up late his men fired
+on the mingled French and English, indiscriminately
+slaughtering both. After that everything was confused,
+neither party distinguishing friend from foe,
+with the result that the Governor, Colonel Morgan,
+several other officers, and most of the English, were
+killed. After that the main body of the French
+arrived, driving before them a confused mob of
+women and children, who ran shrieking to their
+friends for help. Nothing remained for the English
+now but to fly or sue for quarter, and the French
+became masters of the whole island, with a body of
+prisoners twice as numerous as themselves.</p>
+
+<p>In 1667 a petition was forwarded to Charles the
+Second on behalf of several thousand distressed
+people, lately inhabitants of St. Christopher's. In
+this it was stated that the island had been one of the
+most flourishing colonies&mdash;the first and best earth
+that ever was inhabited by Englishmen among the
+heathen cannibals of America. They prayed that
+a colony so ancient and loyal, the mother island of
+all those parts, the fountain from whence all the
+other islands had been watered with planters, might
+not remain in the hands of another nation. Since
+the surrender they had been continually oppressed,
+until thousands had left for other parts. Many had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span>
+sold their estates for almost nothing, and had been
+stripped and plundered at sea of the little they had
+saved. If the inhumanities of the French nation
+were examined, their bloody and barbarous usage
+of the Indians, their miserable cruelties to prisoners
+of war, all nations would abhor their name. They
+would make Christians grind their mills instead of
+cattle, leave thousands to starve for want, and send
+other thousands to uninhabited lands.</p>
+
+<p>In 1666 Lord Willoughby, who had gone back to
+Barbados on the restoration of Charles the Second,
+fitted out an expedition to recapture St. Kitt's, but
+his fleet encountered a hurricane, and neither his
+vessel nor one of his company was ever heard of
+again. The following year his nephew, Henry
+Willoughby, made an unsuccessful attempt for the
+same object. On the 10th of May of the same year
+a fight took place between the English and French
+fleets off Nevis. On the English side were ten men-of-war
+and one fire-ship, while the enemy had more
+than double that number. One of the English
+vessels was blown up, but, undaunted by this disaster,
+they drove the enemy before them to the very
+shores of St. Kitt's, where they took shelter under
+the guns of Basse-terre.</p>
+
+<p>Peace was signed at Breda in July, 1667. The
+gains of territory by any one of the three nations
+were not considerable, and the result went to prove
+that England could hold her own against the only
+two powers who were able to dispute her supremacy.
+During the war she had captured New Amsterdam
+(now New York) from the Dutch, and they in turn<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span>
+had taken Surinam. As it was agreed with Holland
+that both parties should retain what was then in their
+possession, Surinam was virtually exchanged for what
+is now the capital of the United States. Antigua
+and Montserrat, which had been taken by the French,
+were now restored to England, and St. Christopher's
+returned to its former condition, but without the
+least prospect of the two nationalities ever being
+again on friendly terms.</p>
+
+<p>Now that the war was over the trade of the
+privateers came to an end, and further efforts were
+made to make them settle down. Having received
+orders to discountenance them, the Governor of
+Jamaica deputed Colonel Cary to report on the
+matter. Cary thought they should not be discouraged,
+as already harm had been done to Jamaica
+by such attempts, and in the future the want of their
+help might be prejudicial. On the news that the
+commissions against the Spaniards were called in,
+several English privateers resolved never to return to
+Jamaica, unless there was a war, but in future to
+carry on their operations from Tortuga. To divert
+them from injuring the Spaniards, the Governor had,
+during the late war, appointed Cary to treat with
+them for the reduction of Cura&ccedil;ao, to which they at
+first consented, but afterwards disagreed. If, said
+Cary, they had two of His Majesty's nimble fifth-rate
+frigates, they would be able to keep the
+privateers to their obedience, observe the enemy's
+movements, and guard their own coasts from rovers.
+There was no profitable employment for the privateers
+against the French and Dutch; these fellows,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span>
+being people that would not be brought to plant,
+must prey upon the Spaniard, whether they were
+countenanced at Jamaica or not. There was such
+an inveterate hatred of the English in those parts
+by the Spaniard, that he would not hear of trade
+or reconciliation, but, on the contrary, inhumanly
+butchered any of the islanders he could cowardly
+surprise. The French interest daily increased in
+the Caribbees, Hispaniola, and Tortuga, and if this
+was suffered to grow it would in a short time prove
+of dangerous consequence.</p>
+
+<p>Here we have plain speaking. It was not to the
+interest of England for the pirates to become too
+closely connected with the French, as they would
+then be helping to build up the prosperity of a nation
+that might any day become our enemy. As for the
+rovers themselves, they cared little or nothing for
+the interests of their country; they were willing to
+plunder the Spanish possessions because they got
+something worth having; with those of the French
+and Dutch it was another thing. It is evident that
+Cary troubled himself but little as to how a cargo
+was obtained as long as Jamaica profited by the
+transaction.</p>
+
+<p>We may here also call attention to the differences
+between the characters of the nations which now
+commenced a great struggle for mastery in these
+parts. The Dutch were, above everything else, an
+association of traders, and although they could
+fight on occasion, they hardly ever went out of their
+way to pick a quarrel. Their wars with England
+were brought about by mercantile disputes, the first<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span>
+two, as we have already seen, mainly on account of
+the Navigation Acts. The English, "the nation of
+shopkeepers," were naturally rival traders, but they
+did not altogether confine themselves to traffic, being
+rather inclined to alternate or mix it up with something
+like piracy. Such transactions as those of
+Hawkins were not carried on by any other nation,
+the Hollander being more inclined to take advantage
+of the swiftness of his fly boat than the metal of his
+guns. The French were rarely traders, for even
+their plantations were largely supported by buccaneering.
+When, after a peace, some of the rovers
+settled down for a time, they were always ready to
+abandon their fields at the first rumour of a war.
+England thus stood between the two others as a
+stumbling-block; she interfered with the trade of the
+one and offended the dignity of the other; thus
+coming in for many blows, which only made her
+all the more able to resist and conquer.</p>
+
+<p>The character of the Dutchman is well shown in
+the curious difficulty which hastened a third breach
+of the peace with England in 1672. In 1667 a fleet
+from the Netherlands captured Surinam, and forced
+the authorities of the colony to capitulate on favourable
+terms. By these articles the inhabitants were
+at liberty to sell or transport, when or where they
+pleased, all or any part of their possessions. After
+the peace, a few went to Barbados, but the majority
+found it difficult to dispose of their plantations, and
+therefore remained in hopes of a better market
+on the arrival of new Dutch settlers. At that time
+the Dutchmen were few and mostly poor; they had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span>
+been ruined by the war, and in many cases driven
+from their settlements by the English. It followed,
+therefore, that there were no buyers, and the plantation
+owners, trusting to the capitulation, decided to
+wait rather than abandon their flourishing properties.</p>
+
+<p>In June, 1669, the Dutch Governor issued a proclamation
+calling upon all the English who intended to
+leave to give notice within six months, after which a
+like term was given them to dispose of their goods,
+when they might leave for English colonies under
+free passes from the authorities of both nations.
+In case they were unable to sell their slaves, the
+Governor would take them over at the market price,
+but only those negroes who had been in their possession
+at the rendition of the colony could come under
+this arrangement.</p>
+
+<p>At first sight this looked very fair, but the English
+saw at once that something was wrong. In the first
+place they understood that under the capitulation
+they were free to take away all their property, including
+slaves, and at the then market prices they
+saw that a forced sale would be a serious loss.
+Although not expressly intimated, they also understood
+that the Governor meant they were not to
+carry them away, and this at once caused much
+dissatisfaction. Things were, however, in such a
+critical state that little notice was taken of the
+proclamation; in fact, the people had not as yet
+made up their minds what to do. Such a sacrifice
+as was required from those who had flourishing
+properties, naturally made them hesitate; and when
+the English Government inquired about the matter,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span>
+they were told by the Dutch authorities that the
+people were so well satisfied that they intended to
+remain.</p>
+
+<p>Such was, however, not the case, and when the
+year of grace had expired, and they were virtually
+prevented from leaving with or without their negroes,
+they sent memorials to King Charles the Second
+asking for his interference. It was another case of
+Egyptian bondage; the Dutch would not let the
+people go&mdash;except a few of the poorest. It can
+easily be understood that it was not very pleasant to
+lose the best colonists and have nothing left but a
+lot of abandoned plantations. This would have been
+a poor exchange for New York, and it is evident
+that the Dutch knew very well what they were
+doing, and had the welfare of Surinam at heart.
+But, in face of the capitulation, they were undoubtedly
+wrong, and when they began to oppress
+the English for claiming their rights, they went a
+great deal too far.</p>
+
+<p>When Major Bannister, who had been acting
+Governor under the English, protested against this,
+he was arrested and transported to Holland, where
+he obtained his release only by the intervention of
+the English ambassador. Then complaints were
+made to the Dutch Government, but it was two years
+before permission was granted for commissioners
+from England to go out and transport those who
+wanted to leave. Even then secret orders were sent
+to put every possible obstruction in their way, which
+was done by bringing suits for debt, and otherwise
+putting the English in positions which made it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span>
+impossible for them to wind up their affairs. It
+followed, therefore, that only a few more went away,
+carrying with them the prayers of the more important
+to be delivered from such bondage.</p>
+
+<p>Matters now came to a crisis. Other questions
+had arisen between the two powers, notably some
+in connection with the Eastern trade, and the refusal
+of Holland to honour the English flag. War broke
+out in 1672, and this time the French joined England
+against the Dutch, who had to stand alone. French
+and English buccaneers were let loose to plunder the
+colonies, and they made the seas so dangerous that
+hardly one of the enemy's vessels could show herself
+in the West Indies. The Dutch colonies were thus
+cut off, and even the settlements of Essequebo and
+Berbice had to go without their usual supplies. This
+deprivation caused much dissatisfaction among the
+garrison of the latter colony, and led to a mutiny,
+which resulted in the incarceration of the Governor,
+who was not released until next year, when the
+belated supplies arrived.</p>
+
+<p>Spain was also involved in the war the following
+year, and thus all the nations interested in the West
+Indies were fighting at once&mdash;Holland and Spain
+against France and England. The French buccaneers
+had already gained a footing on Hispaniola; now
+they attempted to get possession of the whole island,
+but could not succeed. However, they went on to
+Trinidad, which had always been a Spanish island,
+and plundered it of a hundred thousand dollars.</p>
+
+<p>The Spanish and Dutch colonies suffered greatly,
+but Englishmen by no means escaped altogether.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span>
+As an example of their treatment by the enemy, the
+case of John Darbey is interesting. In April, 1674,
+he and six others were taken by a Dutchman from a
+small English vessel, while sailing from St. Thomas
+to Antigua, and carried to Havana. There they
+were kept in irons for five weeks, and then set to
+work as slaves on the fortifications. After enduring
+great misery for three months, they were removed to
+work on board a ship, which was captured by the
+French off St. Domingo, when they were of course
+released, and finally carried to Jamaica. Here they
+told of the sufferings they had endured and witnessed&mdash;the
+story of which more and more embittered the
+English feeling against Spain. On one occasion
+Darbey had seen eight men brought in from a New
+England bark, who afterwards attempted to escape.
+They marched along the shore hoping to attract the
+notice of some friendly vessel, but the Governor sent
+a party of soldiers in pursuit, and they were all
+murdered at once save the master, who was brought
+back, executed, and his head stuck on a pole. He
+also saw the commander of a man-of-war bring in a
+New England vessel and hang five men at the yard-arm,
+where the corpses were used as targets by him
+and his officers. The same captain wanted himself
+and several other Englishmen to sail with them, but
+because they indignantly refused, he deliberately
+stabbed one of them with his sword, killing him at
+once.</p>
+
+<p>In February, 1674, a treaty was signed at Westminster
+in which there was a special clause bearing
+on the English in Surinam. To the intent that there<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span>
+might be no more mistakes, the States General
+agreed that the articles of capitulation should not
+only be executed without any more prevarication,
+but also that His Majesty of Great Britain should
+be free to depute commissioners to examine into the
+condition of his subjects and agree with them as to
+the time of their departure. Also that no special
+laws should be made to hamper them in any way in
+the sale of their lands, payments of their debts, or
+barter of their goods, and that vessels should be
+as free to go to Surinam, as they and their servants
+should also be free to depart.</p>
+
+<p>Accordingly, in March, 1675, three commissioners
+were instructed to proceed there, and were enjoined
+to see that the provisions of the treaty were properly
+carried out, to press for debts owing to the English,
+and to endeavour to get over the difficulty of their
+obligations to the Dutch. Vessels were provided to
+carry the settlers wherever they wished, and provision
+made for victualling them on the voyage, as well as
+for a short time after their landing in their new
+homes.</p>
+
+<p>Now at last it might be presumed that the exodus
+could be freely managed; yet even then the Dutch
+authorities tried to put obstructions in the way.
+Among the servants of the English were many
+Indians, some of whom were nominally free, and
+these the Dutch Governor demanded should be put
+ashore, to prevent the mischiefs and cruelties of the
+heathen, their friends, who might avenge themselves
+for the deportation on those who remained in the
+colony. The English claimed that these people went<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span>
+of their own free will, and that some of them were
+much attached to their white masters, which was
+probably true. Besides these, most of whom were
+got off against the Governor's protests, there were
+ten Jews with 322 slaves, in preventing the departure
+of whom he was more successful. They were not,
+strictly speaking, British subjects, although they had
+lived under the flag for many years, and the commissioners
+did not insist on their admission.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, three vessels sailed away for Jamaica in
+September, 1675, carrying 1,231 people, including
+thirty-one Indians, and more negroes than whites.
+On arriving at that island they were granted lands in
+St. Elizabeth, afterwards known as Surinam quarters,
+and thus Guiana again became a factor in the development
+of the English islands. As for the Jews, even
+they were afterwards allowed to depart when they
+memorialised the king and got him to press the
+matter.</p>
+
+<p>Even yet, however, the last had not been heard of
+this detention, for it cropped up again in the case of
+Jeronomy Clifford, one of those who actually left with
+the others for Jamaica. He was then a lad, and
+went off with his father, returning again to the
+colony as the second husband of an Englishwoman
+who had property there. It appears that, as surgeon
+of a Dutch vessel, he was so kind to a dying planter
+named Charles Maasman, that his widow went to
+London and married him in August, 1683.</p>
+
+<p>Not getting on very well in Surinam, Clifford and
+his wife resolved to sell out and take their slaves with
+them to Jamaica, but in this they were frustrated.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span>
+The Dutch felt very sore about the former migration,
+especially when Jamaica plumed herself on her great
+acquisition, and taunted them with the fact that they
+got little by the transfer of the colony. When, therefore,
+Clifford made known his intention, the Governor
+told him he could not remove his wife's property
+because she had inherited it from a Dutch subject.
+Clifford had some of that doggedness which has been
+observed so often in Englishmen, and was determined
+to obtain what he considered his rights. Under the
+capitulation he might leave at any time, and he did
+not consider that this right had been in any way
+forfeited.</p>
+
+<p>However, the Dutch Governor said otherwise, and,
+to prevent the alienation or removal of his property,
+put it in trust, and then endeavoured to set his wife
+against him so that she might refuse to leave. By
+some tittle-tattle about a female cousin of Clifford,
+her jealousy was aroused, and she petitioned for a
+divorce on the grounds of cruelty and adultery.
+However, when she found out the object of the
+traducers of her husband, she asked that her petition
+be annulled and made void, because she had been
+misled and drawn away by the ill advices of others&mdash;now
+she was sorry, and well satisfied and content
+with him. This having been read before the Court
+of Justice, a council of Dutch planters, they showed
+their animus by deciding that Mrs. Clifford was a
+weak and silly woman, and that it appeared to them
+that her husband, to the prejudice of his wife and
+that land, had endeavoured to remove his goods,
+which they would willingly prevent. They therefore<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span>
+ordered the plantation to be appraised and put in
+commission, forbidding either Clifford or his wife
+from diminishing, removing, or making away with
+the estate, but only to enjoy the interest and produce
+as long as they lived and corresponded well
+with each other. They also wished the wife much
+joy of her reconciliation, and condemned her to pay
+the costs both present and future. Finally, considering
+her frowardness and ill-nature, and for an
+example to all other like-natured women, they condemned
+her to pay a fine of five thousand pounds of
+sugar.</p>
+
+<p>Clifford, who yet stood by what he considered his
+right, was now subjected to a number of petty persecutions.
+His wife went to England, leaving him her
+attorney, and he began to pester the Governor to
+remove the illegal arrest on his estate. At last this
+importunity led to his arrest, and he was sentenced
+by this same Court of Justice to be hanged, as a
+mutineer and disturber of the public peace. But,
+being "more inclined to clemency than to carry things
+to the utmost rigour of justice," they commuted this
+sentence to imprisonment for seven years, with a fine
+of a hundred and fifty thousand pounds of sugar.</p>
+
+<p>As may be supposed, this arbitrary judgment only
+made Clifford more exasperated. He still went on
+petitioning and protesting that he was not a Dutch
+subject, as he had refused to take the oath of allegiance,
+and that therefore he was only standing up for
+his rights. However, he was imprisoned in the fort,
+where every effort was made to prevent his communicating
+with England or the English colonies. Not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span>withstanding
+these precautions he managed to send
+several letters, meanwhile threatening the Court that
+if they kept him any longer he would be forced to use
+such means of relief as he should be advised. After
+some delay his communications reached Barbados,
+Jamaica, and New York, from whence they at last
+reached King William, who soon got him released.
+But even then Clifford could not get back his estate,
+and although he went to London and petitioned the
+king, who directed inquiry of the ambassador at the
+Hague, he could never get any redress. For seventy
+years he, and his heirs after his death, kept up a
+stream of petitions and memorials, without result, in
+the end claiming for illegal detention, damages, and
+interest, over half a million pounds.</p>
+
+<p>During the short peace which followed the treaty
+of Westminster attention was again directed to the
+buccaneers, who were now called pirates, and treated
+as such even in Jamaica, with the result that many of
+them settled down. It has been stated that Charles
+the Second shared in their gains even after he had
+issued proclamations against them, but this sort of
+thing now came to an end. The French continued
+their depredations up to the year 1680, when the
+king issued a proclamation, forbidding the further
+granting of commissions, and recalling those which
+had been issued, at the same time ordering that
+those who persisted in the trade should be hanged
+as pirates. This tended to bring the less audacious
+to settle down, but even to the beginning of the
+present century piracy was still known in the West
+Indies.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>While Sir Henry Morgan was Acting Governor of
+Jamaica, in 1681, Everson, the Dutch pirate, came to
+Cow Bay on that island, but Morgan captured him
+and his crew and sent them off to Carthagena, to be
+punished by the authorities there for the ravages they
+had committed on the Spanish coasts and shipping.
+During the ex-buccaneer's administration he also
+got an Act passed to restrain privateers, and keep
+inviolable all treaties with foreign states. Any British
+subject who treated a foreign prince or State in a
+hostile manner should be punished with death as a
+felon.</p>
+
+<p>Peace did not last long, however, for in 1688 the
+French began to move against Holland, and the year
+following King William was also bound to declare
+war. Almost immediately the English were again
+driven out of St. Kitt's, the French, as on the former
+occasion, committing outrages quite unjustifiable
+among civilised nations even in war. They also
+took St. Eustatius from the Dutch.</p>
+
+<p>As if there were not enough pirates in the West
+Indies, the French brought some more from their own
+coast&mdash;the celebrated corsairs, who had held a position
+in Europe during the wars similar to that of the
+buccaneers in America. Some rovers, who had lately
+settled in Cayenne, were agreeably surprised at the
+beginning of the year 1689 by the arrival of Du
+Casse, who soon enrolled them under his banner and
+started to pillage the Dutch and English colonies.</p>
+
+<p>The first attack was made upon Surinam with
+nine vessels, but after three days' fighting the Dutch
+obliged the corsairs to retire, leaving one ship<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span>
+aground to be captured. Two of the squadron were,
+however, more successful in Berbice, which, after the
+enemy had destroyed one or two plantations, was
+obliged to pay a ransom of twenty thousand guilders
+(&pound;1,666), which was settled by a draft on the proprietors
+in Amsterdam, and which curiously enough
+appears to have been afterwards paid. Another
+privateer destroyed the small settlement in the
+Pomeroon river, and obliged the few inhabitants to
+fly to Essequebo, and to afterwards abandon the
+place altogether. Du Casse then went on to the
+islands, where he did much damage to both Dutch
+and English, finally, in 1697, Spain being also on the
+other side, joining De Pointis to attack and capture
+Carthagena.</p>
+
+<p>The corsairs were privateers with proper commissions,
+authorised by the French Government to
+pillage and destroy and divide the plunder among
+themselves after setting aside the king's share. Up
+to the present France could hardly be said to have a
+navy, and these private adventurers to some extent
+filled its place. True, there were a few king's ships,
+but the treasury was often so bare that they could
+not be properly armed or manned without assistance
+from outside. Then, perhaps, one or more would be
+put at the disposal of a renowned corsair, on condition
+that the State should be put to no expense.
+Courtiers, ministers, and merchants would come forward
+and form a joint stock company, equip the ship
+or fleet as the case might be, and share the plunder.</p>
+
+<p>Du Casse settled down as Governor of the French
+part of Hispaniola, which by this time had been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span>
+taken over, and he appears to have encouraged the
+buccaneers on account of their assistance to the
+colony. When that great corsair, Jacques Cassard
+came out, he was therefore enabled to supply him
+with as much help as he required.</p>
+
+<p>Cassard, in 1712, was supplied by the merchants of
+Marseilles with a large fleet, with which he sailed to
+the West Indies, beginning, as Du Casse had done,
+with Surinam, where he arrived on the 8th of October,
+with eight large and thirty small vessels. The Dutch
+were not so fortunate this time, for he sailed up and
+down the river for three weeks, burning, pillaging,
+and carrying off slaves, until most of the inhabitants
+took to the bush. Among other exploits he is said
+to have broken open the Jewish synagogue, killed a
+pig within the sacred precincts, and sprinkled its
+blood over the walls and ornaments. He was ultimately
+bought off for over &pound;50,000, which, in the
+absence of enough coin, was paid in sugar, negro and
+Indian slaves, cattle, merchandise, provisions, stores,
+jewellery, and a very little cash.</p>
+
+<p>While remaining in Surinam Cassard sent three
+vessels to Berbice, which was easily captured, and for
+which a ransom of three hundred thousand guilders
+(&pound;25,000) was demanded. But this settlement was
+far worse off than Surinam, and had neither goods
+nor money to pay such a large amount, which was
+out of all proportion to that of her neighbour. After
+raising 118,000 guilders in various ways, the balance
+was accepted in a bill of exchange on the proprietors,
+two of the leading planters of the colony being taken
+as hostages and security. Not satisfied with this, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span>
+corsairs insisted on a further sum of ten thousand
+guilders in cash, as ransom for the private estates,
+on the ground that they had been paid only for the
+fort and properties of the Government. There was
+not so much money in the whole river, and after
+collecting every bit of plate and jewellery they
+possessed, to the value of six thousand guilders, the
+enemy had to take the balance in sugar and stores.</p>
+
+<p>Now came the most curious part of this transaction.
+The two hostages died, and the proprietors refused to
+pay the draft&mdash;in fact, they said Berbice was not
+worth so much. Nevertheless the colony could not
+be taken over as a French possession, and even when
+the peace of Utrecht was signed in 1713, nothing
+could be done. Here was an anomaly&mdash;a Dutch
+settlement in the hands of French merchants as
+security for a debt. On account of trade restrictions
+its produce might not be brought to France, and the
+owners of the draft neither knew what to do with
+the document nor its security. The Dutch proprietors
+were equally at a loss, for they knew very well that, if
+they ignored the claim of the corsairs, revenge would
+be taken on the first opportunity&mdash;during the next
+war, if not before. At last one of the Marseilles
+merchants was deputed to go to Amsterdam, and
+after a great deal of haggling he sold the draft to a
+third party at a reduction of about forty per cent.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile Cassard had captured St. Eustatius,
+and exacted a large ransom. From thence he
+resolved to proceed to Cura&ccedil;ao, the great stronghold
+of the Dutch, and the dep&ocirc;t for goods used in the
+contraband traffic with the Spanish colonies. Here<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span>
+there were many Jews, who had large stocks of
+merchandise, and as the booty would be certainly
+great, Cassard resolved to risk everything on such
+an exploit. On his arrival he sent a boat ashore
+with a demand for the surrender of the island, to
+which the Governor sent a jeering reply, as he
+considered the place impregnable. However, the
+corsair fleet stood in for the harbour, but were
+greeted with such a heavy fire that Cassard was
+forced to retire and call a council. The balance of
+opinion was against going any farther. The officers
+said the Dutch guns were of heavier metal than
+theirs, the currents round the island rendered a
+landing almost impossible, and the entrance to the
+harbour was so narrow that it could easily be
+commanded by the two forts. However, Cassard
+himself and a few others were in favour of the
+attempt, and it was ultimately resolved to carry it
+out on the morrow.</p>
+
+<p>To deceive the Dutch, Cassard sent part of his
+fleet on a cruise round the island, while he with the
+remainder commenced to bombard the forts, keeping
+this up during the day as if that were his line of
+attack. The following night, however, he embarked
+most of his men in small craft, and keeping the
+lights on his ships burning, managed to land under
+cover of the darkness. Fortunately for him, this
+man&oelig;uvre was not perceived by the Dutch, for he
+had quite enough to do in contending with a strong
+current and in avoiding sunken rocks, which made
+the landing so perilous that it is doubtful if even
+these hardy fellows would have attempted it during<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span>
+the day, when the dangers would be conspicuous.
+However, they got ashore without serious accident,
+and at once erected a breastwork for the light guns
+they had brought.</p>
+
+<p>Morning broke, and Cassard expected to see the
+second half of the squadron returned from its cruise,
+and ready to support him, instead of which it was
+visible several miles to leeward. To add to his
+difficulties, the Dutch had discovered the landing,
+had erected a powerful battery a mile away, and
+were preparing to attack him before his reinforcements
+could come up. Yet in face of all this he
+was undaunted. He must, however, attack at once,
+and this was done, with the result that the forts were
+taken. Cassard was wounded by a musket ball in
+the foot, yet he did not relinquish the command,
+but followed this first success by turning the guns of
+the forts on the town. At the same time he sent a
+flag of truce to the Governor, declaring, that if the
+place were not at once surrendered at discretion he
+would bombard it. In reply, the Dutch attacked
+the forts, but were repulsed with great loss, and at
+last terms were discussed, with the result that the
+ransom was fixed at 600,000 louis d'ors. This
+amount was considered so reasonable that the
+merchants hastened to pay it over and get rid of
+him, which they did in three days.</p>
+
+<p>On his arrival in Martinique, Cassard found he had
+been superseded in the command, and that the fleet
+was ordered home. Giving the buccaneers their
+share of the booty, he sailed for Brest, and on the
+way met an English squadron. The French admiral<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span>
+signalled his vessels not to fight, but Cassard, turning
+to his second in command of the vessel, said his duty
+to his king was above that to his admiral&mdash;he would
+fight His Majesty's foes wherever he met them. On
+that he bore down upon the English and captured
+two small craft before nightfall, afterwards making
+his voyage to Brest alone.</p>
+
+<p>This want of subordination so incensed the admiral
+that he preferred several charges against him, one
+being that he had retained more than his share of
+the booty. Whether this charge was true or not,
+the "Hero of Nantes," as he was called, fell into
+disgrace, followed by great poverty. Almost a
+beggar, he was at last sent to prison for importuning
+a cardinal and king's minister too much, by claiming
+what he considered his rights. There he ultimately
+died, and, like some others who have been as badly
+treated in life, has now a statue erected to his memory
+in his native town.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3><a name="IX" id="IX"></a>IX</h3>
+
+
+<h3>THE STRUGGLE FOR THE DARIEN TRADE</h3>
+
+
+<p>Carthagena and Porto Bello were the great
+trading stations for the Spaniards in the Indies.
+The latter had taken the place of Nombre de Dios,
+since that town had been destroyed by Drake, and
+was now the port to which the treasures of Peru
+were brought overland from Panama. The galleons
+from Spain, after calling at St. Domingo, went on to
+Carthagena, where the first great fair of the year
+was held. Here the traders from the inland provinces
+of New Granada came to get their supplies
+from Europe, which they paid for in gold, silver,
+emeralds, and produce. For the short time the
+vessels remained, the people of the town woke up
+from their year's inactivity, and made the most of the
+occasion. Stores were in demand, and lodging-houses
+required for the visitors, so that the cost of
+living went up by leaps and bounds. Those who
+had slaves got enormous profits by their hire, and even
+the negroes themselves made large sums beyond the
+amounts they had to pay their masters. The whole
+place lost its air of desertion and became the scene
+of such bustle and confusion as would hardly be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span>
+conceivable to those who saw it as a "sleepy hollow"
+during the <i>tiempo muerto</i>, the dead time, as it was
+called.</p>
+
+<p>Having done with Carthagena, the galleons went
+on to Porto Bello, the beautiful haven, said to have
+been the most unhealthy place on the Main. By
+reason of its noxious air and barren soil there was a
+scarcity of provisions, which led to its desertion at
+ordinary times. In anticipation of the fleet, however,
+it woke up and became even more lively than Carthagena.
+The only reason for its existence was the
+trade across the isthmus, otherwise it would have
+been deservedly abandoned. Here was held the
+great fair, that at the other port being petty in
+comparison. The concourse of people was so great
+that a single chamber for a lodging during the busy
+time sometimes cost a thousand crowns, while a
+house would be worth five or six times as much.
+As the galleons came in sight, the people began to
+erect a great tent in the <i>Plaza</i> to receive their
+cargoes, where they were assorted and delivered to
+the various consignees or their representatives. The
+crowd of men and animals soon became so great
+that movement was difficult. Droves of mules came
+over the isthmus loaded with cases of gold and
+silver, which were dumped down in the open streets
+or in the square, for want of storehouses. Yet, with
+all the confusion, it is said that theft was unknown,
+and losses through mistakes very rare. But not
+only were there thousands of mules and their drivers,
+but small vessels continually arrived from different
+parts of the coast, bringing goods and people, to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span>
+increase the hubbub. Here was a cargo of cinchona
+bark, there another of cacao, and further on, by no
+means the least important, were boat-loads of fresh
+vegetables and fruits to supply the great assembly.
+This went on for forty days, after which the port was
+deserted and the town resumed its poverty-stricken
+air. Then two persons in the streets formed a crowd
+and half a dozen a mob. Solitude and silence
+reigned, where so lately the bustle and noise had
+been rampant, and the <i>tiempo muerto</i> ruled until the
+following year.</p>
+
+<p>It can be easily understood that the influence of
+the Porto Bello fair was not only felt on the Gulf
+side, but on the shores of the Pacific as well.
+Panama was largely dependent on the transport
+business, which employed a great number of mules
+and slaves. Even in the absence of buccaneers and
+pirates the road was always difficult, and sometimes
+even dangerous. Heavy rains caused great floods,
+which delayed the traffic for days, and left the tracks
+on the hills so slippery that even that sure-footed
+animal the mule was often carried over a precipice.
+Then there were cannibal Indians and Simarons
+always lurking in the forest, ready to cut off
+stragglers. On the rumour of a buccaneer landing
+on the coast&mdash;it might be a hundred miles away&mdash;the
+traffic was at once stopped and the merchants
+began to "fear and sweat with a cold sweat," as
+Thomas Gage very quaintly puts it.</p>
+
+<p>The Spanish merchants no doubt deplored this
+state of things, and would have been thankful for a
+good road instead of such an unutterably worthless<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span>
+bridle track. There was, however, a side to the
+question which probably influenced them&mdash;a way
+that would be easy for them would also be more
+accessible to their enemies. Then, again, a good
+road should have been the work of the Spanish
+Government rather than of the settlers, but it was
+useless to expect anything from that direction.
+Nevertheless, a good road and even a canal were
+mooted before the end of the sixteenth century, thus
+anticipating the Panama railroad and canal of our
+own time. But, although the advantages were patent,
+the difficulties were so many as to be practically
+insurmountable, and nothing whatever was done.</p>
+
+<p>Towards the end of the seventeenth century came
+a sudden craze for carrying out gigantic schemes of
+various kinds, practicable or impracticable, useful
+or worthless, Utopian or utterly absurd. Among
+them was the Mississippi scheme in France and the
+South Sea Bubble in England, of which the latter
+was intimately connected with the Indies. The time
+had arrived when people began to think of trading
+on credit or pledges, and of combining together for
+carrying on banks and other commercial operations.
+Private banks had existed for several centuries, and
+more or less public establishments in the great
+commercial centres, such as Venice, Amsterdam, and
+Hamburg, but up to the present there was no Bank
+of England. In fact the great principle that allows
+an enormous trade to be carried on without the
+actual interchange of specie or commodities had just
+been discovered, and the people of France and England
+went mad over it.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The pioneer of the system in England was William
+Paterson, who seems to have been acquainted with
+Dampier and Wafer, both of whom knew the isthmus
+of Darien very well. He is also said to have travelled
+in the West Indies himself, and even to have visited
+the Porto Bello fair, but this is not quite certain.</p>
+
+<p>Paterson first came into prominence by bringing
+forward a scheme which ultimately led to the establishment
+of the Bank of England on the 27th of
+July, 1694. From this he appears to have derived
+no actual benefit, however, although he was one of
+the first directors, upon a qualification of &pound;2,000
+stock, which he sold out after the first year, and thus
+withdrew. Probably he wanted his money to carry
+out the new project for a settlement on the isthmus
+of Darien.</p>
+
+<p>In the course of this history we have advisedly
+used the word "English" instead of "British," in
+speaking of our nation, because as yet Scotchmen
+were little concerned in colonisation schemes. In
+fact, except as transported rebels or convicts, they
+had hardly any interest in the plantations. This
+was the result of Navigation Acts, which debarred
+Scotch merchants and vessels from trading, by
+ordering that all traffic with the colonies should be
+carried on in English vessels and from English
+ports.</p>
+
+<p>Paterson's idea was to take possession of the
+isthmus of Darien, establish a Scotch colony at a
+convenient harbour on the Gulf side, and then open
+up a proper road by which the trade would be so
+much facilitated that it would become the great<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span>
+highway. Seated between the two vast oceans of
+the universe, he said, the isthmus is provided with
+excellent harbours on both sides, between the
+principal of which lie the more easy and convenient
+passes. If these ports and passes were fortified, the
+road could easily be secured and defended, thus
+affording the readiest and nearest means of gaining
+and keeping the command of the South Sea&mdash;the
+greatest and by far the richest side of the world.
+With the passes open, through them would flow at
+least two-thirds of the produce of both Indies. The
+time and expense of the voyage to China and Japan
+would be lessened more than half, and the consumption
+of European commodities soon doubled,
+and annually increased.</p>
+
+<p>He contended that Darien possessed great tracts
+of country up to that time unclaimed by any
+European, and that the Indians, the original proprietors,
+would welcome the honest and honourable
+settler to their fertile shore. The soil was rich to
+a fault, producing spontaneously the most delicious
+fruits, and required the hand of labour to chasten
+rather than stimulate its capabilities. There crystal
+rivers sparkled over sands of gold&mdash;there the traveller
+might wander for days under a canopy of fruit-laden
+branches, the trees bearing them being of inestimable
+value as timber. The waters also abounded in wealth.
+Innumerable shoals of fish disported themselves
+among the rocks, and the bottom was strewn with
+pearls. From the dawn of creation this enchanted
+country had lain secluded from mortals&mdash;now it was
+revealed and opened to Scottish enterprise. Let<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span>
+them enter and take possession of this promised land,
+and build a new city&mdash;a new Edinburgh, like Alexandria
+of old, which grew to prodigious wealth and
+power from its position on another isthmus&mdash;to soon
+become famous as the new emporium of a new world.</p>
+
+<p>The reader who has seen our account of Lionel
+Wafer's miserable journey will be able to discount
+these florid statements, but the Scotch people seem
+to have taken everything for gospel. Now, at last,
+they would have a colony&mdash;a plantation of more
+value than any of those that the English had begun
+to boast of. They were enthusiastic, and although
+poor, did their very best to contribute, actually
+promising the large sum of &pound;400,000. England
+also subscribed to the extent of &pound;300,000, and
+Holland and Hamburg &pound;200,000. Everything looked
+bright, and at last a concession was obtained for the
+"Company of Scotland, trading to Africa and the
+Indies."</p>
+
+<p>Strange to say, Paterson entirely ignored the
+claims of Spain, although he must have known that
+she would strenuously object to such a settlement.
+It was all very well to say the place belonged to the
+Indians, but the very fact of its vicinity to the great
+trading centre and channel of communication with
+the Pacific coast should have made him anticipate
+trouble. Even if he argued that the buccaneers were
+practically unmolested along the Mosquito shore, he
+must also have known that their position was by no
+means secure, and even had this been the case, that it
+would have afforded to argument in favour of his
+project.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>To be successful he must also have had the support
+of the English Government, but unfortunately this
+was denied. Jealousy and envy between the two
+countries led to representations adverse to the scheme
+being made to King William, with the result that the
+Company was discountenanced, and that most of the
+promised subscriptions outside of Scotland were withdrawn.
+Then came dissensions among the leaders
+themselves, and this lost them half the amount from
+their own county. Yet with all that Paterson was
+undaunted, and, notwithstanding the diminished funds
+at command, he still resolved to go on.</p>
+
+<p>On the 26th of July, 1698, twelve hundred men in
+five ships sailed for a place near the entrance of
+the Gulf of Darien, a hundred miles to the east of
+Porto Bello. It was afterwards stated that the vessels
+were rotten and ill-found, although gaily decked with
+flags on the day of departure, which hid some of their
+deficiencies. The provision supply was bad, and, to
+crown all, the captains were coarse, brutal, and ignorant,
+continually quarrelling with each other. Through
+envy, Paterson had been prevented from having any
+voice in the arrangements, and although he went
+with the expedition, he entered the ship as ignorant
+of her equipment as any other passenger. But he
+evidently had his doubts, for he asked for an inspection
+of the stores, only to have his request treated
+with contempt.</p>
+
+<p>On the 27th of October the fleet came to anchor
+in a fair sandy bay three leagues west of the Gulf
+of Darien, now known as the Port D'Escoc&eacute;s. It
+was an excellent harbour surrounded by high moun<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span>tains,
+and capable of holding a thousand sail in
+security from wind and tempest. The settlers named
+the district Caledonia, and considered it to be fertile
+and even healthy. They commenced at once to erect
+a fort, to which they gave the name of St. Andrews,
+and a cluster of houses for the town of New Edinburgh.
+These labours gave them little time for
+planting, and it naturally followed that they had
+to live on the provisions brought from Scotland,
+which, bad at the beginning, were now almost worthless.
+Paterson sent emissaries to the neighbouring
+Spanish settlements to ask for their friendship, and
+went himself into the interior to arrange treaties with
+the Indians, so that the Scotch might have a good title
+to the land. In this latter object he was successful, and
+it was agreed that peace should be kept between the
+natives and the colonists, "as long as rivers ran and
+gold was found in Darien."</p>
+
+<p>After six days' absence he returned to find a great
+change in the settlement. A spirit of mutiny and
+discontent had broken out, those who worked hard
+being naturally dissatisfied with others who did
+nothing. Then the provisions became rotten, and
+even then were so reduced in quantity that the
+people suffered from want and its consequent sickness.
+Four months passed, and nothing but daily
+discouragements were encountered; not even a little
+gold to enliven their spirits. Hard work under a
+tropical sun began to tell upon them, and although
+the friendly natives brought a little game, it was
+almost useless among so many. Every day, however,
+the number was reduced by death, fevers, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span>
+dysentery playing sad havoc, until those who remained
+were utterly dispirited.</p>
+
+<p>To add to their troubles they were refused supplies
+from Jamaica, King William having sent instructions to
+the Colonial Governors to discountenance the colony
+in every way. Paterson sent to Jamaica to get food
+for the starving people, and instead, his empty vessel
+brought copies of the Proclamation that had been
+issued in that island. This stated that as His Majesty
+knew nothing of the intentions and designs of the
+Scots at Darien, and as their settling on the isthmus
+was contrary to the peace of Spain, every one was
+commanded not to hold any communication with them,
+and not to supply arms, ammunition, provisions, or
+anything whatsoever, on their peril.</p>
+
+<p>In this desperate condition they awaited supplies
+from Scotland, but these did not arrive, for the ship
+had foundered on her way, and even Paterson began
+to be discouraged when day after day passed without
+relief. Even the reduced number could no longer
+exist, and with heavy hearts they prepared to leave.
+They had a ship, but no provisions for the voyage,
+and on account of the prohibition were prevented
+from victualling at one of the islands. At last, however,
+they got together as much barbecued fish and
+game as the Indians could procure, with a few fruits,
+and sailed away. But even now fate was against
+them. Hardly had they got out of the harbour
+before they were becalmed off this deadly shore
+for many days, their scanty supply of food diminishing
+when it was so much wanted for the long voyage.
+However, the remnant of about thirty, survivors of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span>
+the twelve hundred, at last arrived at Charlestown,
+Carolina, in a most miserable condition. Paterson
+was himself so worn out that he lost his senses for
+a time, becoming quite childish, yet he recovered, to
+go back to Scotland and ask the Company for another
+expedition.</p>
+
+<p>This he urged on the ground that the first had
+failed simply through the want of supplies and the
+action of the English Government. Some were in
+favour of still carrying out the project, and these
+drew up a petition to the king, giving it for presentation
+to Lord Hamilton. William the Third, however, refused
+not only to receive the petition, but even to grant
+an audience to its bearer. Lord Hamilton would not
+be put off, however, but watched for his opportunity,
+and found it one day as the king was mounting his
+horse. He laid the petition on the saddle, which
+made His Majesty cry out, "Now, by heaven, this
+young man is too bold," adding in a softer tone, "if
+a man can be too bold in the service of his country."
+With that he threw the document from him and rode
+off, afterwards, when memorial after memorial came
+from Scotland, issuing a Proclamation against the
+worry of such petitions.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding this refusal, another expedition
+was sent out, the management of which was as bad
+as that of the first. But this time the Spaniards were
+on the alert, and hardly had the settlers begun to put
+things in order before the enemy was upon them in
+force. Famine and sickness again fell upon New
+Edinburgh, added to the horrors of a siege, which
+ultimately led to a capitulation on fair terms. But<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span>
+so weak were they as the Spaniards allowed them to
+embark, that their late enemies out of pity helped to
+heave their anchors and set their sails.</p>
+
+<p>It was long before the Scotch people forgot or
+forgave their sister kingdom for her action in thus
+frustrating their darling project. Besides impeding
+the Union, it is said to have strengthened the Jacobite
+feelings in the rebellions of 1715 and 1745. Even as
+late as the year 1788, when it was proposed to erect
+a monument in Edinburgh to King William the
+Third and the "glorious revolution," the affair was
+remembered, and some one suggested that the pedestal
+should have on the one side a view of Glencoe,
+and on the other the Darien colony. Queen Anne,
+in 1702, tried to pacify her Scotch subjects by an
+autograph letter, stating that she regretted the Company's
+losses and disappointments, but this did not
+kill the ill-feeling. As for Paterson, in 1715 the
+English House of Commons voted him the sum of
+&pound;18,241 as some indemnity for his losses, but as
+the bill was thrown out by the House of Lords, he
+got nothing.</p>
+
+<p>Thus ended one of the most disastrous of British
+attempts to colonise the Indies. From beginning
+to end it was an example of the Dutch caution of
+William of Orange, as contrasted with the recklessness
+of Queen Elizabeth's time or the sturdy defiance
+of Cromwell. The king was not prepared to risk
+war for an idea, yet at the same time he would not
+prohibit the expeditions.</p>
+
+<p>From 1702 to 1713 there was war between England
+and Holland on the one side, and France and Spain<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span>
+on the other. By the treaty of Utrecht, which again
+brought peace, the English received the concession
+for the exclusive supply of negro slaves to the Spanish
+colonies for thirty years. This <i>Assiento</i> contract was
+given to the Great South Sea Company, which resulted
+from one of those joint-stock manias, now epidemic
+in France, England, and even Holland.</p>
+
+<p>The Company was projected by the Earl of Oxford
+in 1711, and, like the Mississippi scheme in France,
+was intended to assist the Government, which was
+virtually bankrupt. As yet there was no funded
+national debt, but large sums were owing to the
+army and navy, which had been provisionally settled
+by debentures, that could be discounted only at a
+serious loss to the owners. Down to the establishment
+of the Bank of England in 1693 no public loan
+existed, but this was commenced by borrowing the
+capital of that institution. At the peace of Ryswick,
+in 1697, the public debt amounted to twenty millions,
+but by the time the South Sea Company was started
+the arrears of pay made it half as much again. Part
+of the great scheme was to advance this amount
+on security of English customs duties amounting
+to &pound;600,000 per annum, and a monopoly of the
+Spanish trade in the Indies as far as the <i>Assiento</i>
+contract would permit.</p>
+
+<p>Whether the whole affair was a fraud from the
+commencement is doubtful; there were certainly
+misrepresentations in the prospectus, either wilful or
+possibly in good faith. Spain was to allow free trade
+to England in four ports on the Pacific, and three
+vessels besides slavers were to go to the isthmus
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197-198]</a></span>every year&mdash;concessions never promised nor intended
+by Philip the Fifth. The slave trade was a fact, and
+according to the statements it would give fabulous
+profits.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/p197.jpg" width="600" height="430" alt="MAP OF TERRA FIRMA." title="" />
+<span class="caption">MAP OF TERRA FIRMA.<br />
+(<i>From Gottfried&#39;s &quot;Reisen.&quot;</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Visions of boundless wealth now floated before the
+eyes of the English people, and they at once began
+to rival the French in their madness, as they had in
+their colonisation. The English Government was
+ready to make every possible concession because it
+wanted to be rid of the incubus of thirty millions,
+and therefore did nothing to check the Company.
+As the stock was issued it was at once bought
+up, and then sold again at a considerable advance.
+Everybody expected to make fortunes, therefore they
+must get shares at any price. Rumours of peace
+with Spain, and great concessions that would bring
+all the riches of Peru and Mexico into their coffers,
+roused them still more. Gold would soon be as
+plentiful as copper, and silver as iron. The shareholders
+would be the richest people the world ever
+saw, and every share would give dividends of hundreds
+per cent. per annum. The bill making the Government
+concessions was passed in April, 1720, when the
+stock was quoted at &pound;310 for a hundred pound share.
+Strange to say, it then began to fall, but the projectors
+put forth a rumour that England was about
+to exchange Gibraltar for a port in Peru, and confidence
+was restored at once. So great was the
+increased demand that another million was issued at
+&pound;300 per &pound;100 share, and these were so much run
+after that the fortunate owners were at once offered
+double what they had paid. Then another million<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span>
+was offered at &pound;400, and in a few hours applications
+were received for a million and a half.</p>
+
+<p>People were so eager to invest their money that
+they swallowed almost any bait thrown to them.
+Hundreds of bubble companies hovered on the outskirts
+of the parent, among them one for settling the
+barren islands of Blanco and Sal Tortugas, another to
+colonise Santa Cruz, and a third to fit out vessels for
+the suppression of piracy. But perhaps the most
+absurd was "a company for carrying on an undertaking
+of great advantage, but nobody to know what
+it is."</p>
+
+<p>Near their highest point the South Sea Shares were
+sold at &pound;890, but so many wanted to sell at that
+price that they soon fell to &pound;640. This put the
+directors again upon their mettle, and they set to
+work with fresh rumours and pushed them up to
+&pound;1,000, from which they suddenly went down, with
+a few fluctuations, until utterly worthless. The
+treasurer of the Company ran away to France when
+the blow fell, but the directors were arrested and
+their estates ultimately confiscated. Thousands of
+people were ruined, and the public credit received a
+blow from which it took many years to recover.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the South Sea Company had not been
+altogether idle. Besides the slave vessels they were
+entitled to send <i>one</i> ship annually to the Carthagena
+and Porto Bello fairs, this being called the <i>Navio de
+permisso</i>. It was not to be larger than five hundred
+tons, yet the Company picked out the biggest they
+could find and filled it with goods, to the exclusion
+of food and water, which were carried in small store<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span>
+vessels that waited outside the harbour. This caused
+a great deal of dissatisfaction, as the English brought
+so much that they could under-sell the Spanish
+merchants in their own market. In 1715 the <i>Bedford</i>,
+nominally of six hundred tons, was seized at
+Carthagena on the ground that her burden was
+excessive. By the Spanish measurements the cargo
+was said to have amounted to 2,117&frac12; tons, and the
+excess was confiscated and ordered to be sold.
+However, the English protested, at the same time
+passing over some valuable presents to the authorities,
+with the result that a remeasurement was
+ordered, which made the amount only 460 tons.</p>
+
+<p>In 1716 the Spaniards took Campeachy and sixty
+English logwood vessels, which occasioned another
+war. The English claimed that they had an undoubted
+right to cut logwood at that place, and that
+former kings had always maintained them in this.
+For a long time they had quietly possessed a part of
+Yucatan, uninhabited by Spaniards, and they claimed
+not only the privilege of wood-cutting, but of settlement
+as well. Probably the little notice taken of
+their attack on the Darien colony made the Spanish
+authorities think England ready to bear any insult,
+but they soon found out their mistake. War was
+declared in 1718, and all the property of the South
+Sea Company, including debts, was confiscated, the
+whole amounting to &pound;850,000. This would have
+been a great blow to the Company had it been
+genuine, but as we have seen, its mercantile transactions
+were secondary considerations.</p>
+
+<p>Peace was restored by the Treaty of Madrid in June<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span>
+1721, when the <i>Assiento</i> contract was renewed in
+favour of the Royal Company instead of that of the
+South Sea. So much dissatisfaction had been created
+by the concession for a trading ship, however, that
+the English did not insist upon its continuance, and
+therefore only slave vessels were to be permitted to
+visit the Indies in future. Everything that had been
+seized from the South Sea Company was to be
+restored, or its equivalent value paid, but the amount
+actually received only came to &pound;200,000, which did
+not go far to help the unfortunate shareholders.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, this small measure of free trade with the
+Spanish Indies came to an end, and things went on
+much the same as before. English, Dutch, and
+French vessels still carried on the contraband
+traffic, doing all they could to evade the law, often
+with the assistance of the local authorities. The
+Spanish settlers got their supplies so much cheaper
+in this way than through the usual channels, that
+they were not likely to give up buying as long as the
+smugglers ran the risk. At last, however, the authorities
+received very strict orders to enforce the law,
+with the result that vessels were often captured, their
+cargoes confiscated, and crews imprisoned. Then the
+Spanish <i>guarda-costas</i> claimed the right to search
+vessels of other nationalities, and to confiscate them
+if they found produce from their colonies on board,
+or other evidence that they were carrying on illicit
+trade.</p>
+
+<p>This led to another dispute with England, which
+claimed compensation for such seizures and the abolition
+of the right of search. English vessels had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span>
+always resented this overhauling, and latterly several
+had fought the <i>guarda-costas</i> rather than submit,
+with the result that, when captured, their crews were
+treated with a severity often amounting to cruelty.
+In 1739 several petitions were presented to the British
+Parliament, complaining of such outrages, and asking
+the Government to obtain redress. Among them was
+one from Captain Jenkins, the master of a Scottish
+vessel, who was examined by the House. His story
+was that he had been boarded by a <i>guarda-costa</i>, the
+Spaniards from which searched his vessel without
+finding anything contraband. Apparently enraged
+at their discomfiture, and possibly annoyed by the
+jeers of the English, they cut off one of Jenkins'
+ears and told him to carry it to his king with the
+message that they would do the same to him if he
+came near the Main. Finally, according to Jenkins'
+statement, he was further tortured and threatened
+with death. "What did you think when you found
+yourself in the hands of those barbarians?" asked a
+Member of the House; to which the captain replied,
+"I recommended my soul to God and my cause to my
+country." The severed ear he exhibited in Parliament
+as he had done elsewhere whenever he told the
+story.</p>
+
+<p>It was then stated that the losses from Spanish
+depredations by plundering and the taking of fifty-two
+vessels, since 1728, amounted to &pound;340,000. In
+every case the masters and crews were brutally
+treated, and in some cases murdered. The English
+demand for compensation was met by the reply that
+the king had ordered inquiries to be made, and that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span>
+if any of his subjects were found guilty they would
+be punished according to their deserts; also that
+orders would be given to conform exactly to the
+treaties. It was, however, claimed that the treaty of
+1667 did not contain any clause bearing on the navigation
+and commerce of the Indies, and that the
+English had been wrong in supposing they had a
+right to sail and trade there; they were only permitted
+to sail to their own islands and plantations,
+and were therefore subject to confiscation if they
+changed their course to make for the Spanish possessions
+without necessity. There were then in Havana
+fifteen British vessels which had been detained on one
+pretext or another, and about the same time the
+<i>Success</i> from London to Virginia was captured off
+Montserrat, and her captain and crew set adrift in an
+open boat to find their way ashore as best they
+could.</p>
+
+<p>In January, 1739, a convention between Great
+Britain and Spain was arranged, under which the
+latter agreed to pay &pound;95,000 on account of these
+demands, less the value of certain vessels which they
+agreed to restore. This did not satisfy the West
+India merchants, and they petitioned against it. The
+indemnity was to be paid on the 10th of July, but that
+date having passed without a settlement, Great Britain
+issued letters of marque and ordered all Spanish
+vessels in her waters to be seized. Spain commenced
+reprisals the following month, and war was actually
+declared by Great Britain on the 19th of October.
+The declaration stated that for several years past
+unjust seizures and depredations had been carried on,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span>
+and great cruelties exercised. The British colours
+had been ignominiously insulted, against the laws of
+nations and solemn treaties, and Spain had lately
+ordered British subjects from her dominions within a
+shorter period than had been covenanted by express
+stipulation in those treaties.</p>
+
+<p>In July previous a fleet under Admiral Vernon had
+sailed from Spithead, and after a short cruise off the
+Spanish coast, went over to the West Indies, arriving
+at Antigua the 27th of September. Going on to
+Jamaica, Vernon prepared for a grand raid on the
+Spanish settlements, leaving for Porto Bello on the
+5th of November with six vessels and 2,500 men.
+They arrived on the 21st, and bombarded the forts,
+which made a stout resistance; but while this was
+going on, the British landed and took the town, thus
+compelling the forts to capitulate. Two warships and
+several other vessels were captured, as well as specie
+to the amount of ten thousand dollars, but the town
+was not pillaged, although the guns were either taken
+away or rendered useless, and the forts as far as
+possible demolished. This was virtually the end of
+that stronghold, as it was afterwards allowed to fall
+into decay, to be ultimately replaced by Chagres,
+Grey Town, and Colon. Later, also, the treasure
+from Peru had much diminished, and the isthmus
+sunk in importance, especially after the way round
+Cape Horn and through the Straits of Magellan was
+adopted more and more.</p>
+
+<p>As the dispute with Spain had arisen from her
+action in the Indies, so retaliation on the part of
+Great Britain was greatest on the Main. In February,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span>
+1740, Vernon again sailed from Jamaica, and on the
+6th of March bombarded Santa Martha, but did not
+capture it. After repairing damages at Porto Bello
+he went on to Chagres, took a Spanish man-of-war
+from under the guns of the fort, captured the place,
+and demolished it. In January, 1741, Sir Chaloner
+Ogle came out from England with a fleet, and joined
+him, making a force of 12,000 men in twenty-nine
+sail-of-the-line besides smaller vessels.</p>
+
+<p>This great fleet sailed for Hispaniola in hopes of
+encountering that of Spain and France, but not
+finding it went on to Carthagena. This, the other
+great stronghold on the Main, was guarded by two
+powerful batteries, a boom across the entrance to the
+port, and four Spanish men-of-war just inside. After
+a long cannonading the batteries were silenced, a
+landing accomplished at night, and a passage made
+by which the fleet entered the harbour. Here, however,
+further progress was checked by sickness and
+disagreements among the commanders, with the
+result that the siege was raised and partial success
+ended in miserable failure. This was followed by
+another check at Santiago de Cuba, which virtually
+terminated all hopes of further great exploits, although
+attempts were made on La Guayra and
+Puerto Cabello.</p>
+
+<p>Yet with all this the Spaniards undoubtedly
+received a great lesson. Their men-of-war were
+captured from under their fortresses, and small
+English or colonial vessels performed such deeds
+of daring as had hardly been equalled since the
+Elizabethan age. The old spirit still existed al<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span>though
+it might lie dormant for a time&mdash;the men
+were there when the hour came. In 1740 Captain
+Hall in a New England privateer came to an anchor
+under the fort of Puerto de la Plata, pretending to be
+a Caracas trader. He wanted to land in the night
+and surprise the town, but found that the inhabitants
+kept such a good watch that he had to give up that
+idea. However, the Governor was sick and sent to
+ask the loan of Hall's surgeon, and here was the
+opportunity he wanted. The surgeon, quartermaster,
+and an interpreter visited the Governor, and at the
+same time seven of Hall's crew landed and surprised
+the fort, dismounted the guns, marched into the town
+and plundered it, finally escaping with the loss of only
+one man.</p>
+
+<p>Peace was at last concluded on the 7th of October,
+1748, but nothing was said in the treaty of the right
+of search. The <i>Assiento</i> contract was confirmed, and
+one English trading ship allowed as formerly; free
+trade with the Indies, however, was still one of those
+things which could never be conceded.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3><a name="X" id="X"></a>X</h3>
+
+<h3>SLAVE INSURRECTIONS AND BUSH NEGROES</h3>
+
+
+<p>With war almost continuously raging at their very
+doors the West Indian planters not only risked their
+fortunes but their lives. During the seventeenth
+century England spent something like thirty-five
+years in fighting her enemies, and in the eighteenth,
+forty-six. As long as the quarrel was with Spain
+alone the colonists cared but little, but when France
+turned against them the struggle was much fiercer.
+The French were always most audacious in their
+assaults, and the consequences were all the more
+disastrous because they were such near neighbours.
+We have already spoken of St. Kitt's and the
+difficulties produced on that island by its division
+between the two nationalities. These were only
+terminated by its entire cession to England, which
+did not take place until the peace of Utrecht in
+1713. Meanwhile, besides the two defeats of the
+English already mentioned, they were driven out in
+1689, to return the following year and expel the
+enemy, retaining entire control until the peace of
+Ryswick gave France again her share. Then in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span>
+1702 England once more held full possession until
+the island was assured to her entirely.</p>
+
+<p>Barbados, alone among the British West Indian
+islands, stands in the proud position of a colony
+that has never fallen into the hands of another
+nation. It has never even been seriously attacked
+beyond the attempt of De Ruyter. And yet the
+island was poorly fortified, as compared with the
+great strongholds of the West Indies such as Carthagena
+and Cura&ccedil;ao. Possibly "the game was
+not worth the candle," for on the one hand there
+was little plunder to be had, and on the other a
+strong force of hardy Englishmen to be encountered.
+We have seen already how the Parliamentary fleet
+was kept at bay, and what an amount of trouble
+the islanders gave before they capitulated. Even
+then they were not actually conquered, although
+there could be no question as to the ultimate result.</p>
+
+<p>But not only had the colonists to stand up against
+the enemy from outside, but there was another danger
+which lay within their plantations and dwellings from
+which even Barbados was not free. The slaves had
+to be kept under subjection, and the planters must
+always be on the alert to anticipate riots and insurrections.
+For although the negro in most cases
+was submissive, at times he recovered that savage
+nature which had only been suppressed by force
+and discipline.</p>
+
+<p>When we read of flogging to death and other
+horrible cruelties of the planters and authorities,
+we are inclined to sympathise with the African
+and look upon his masters as worse than brutes.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209-210]</a><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210"></a></span>But to appreciate the full significance of these
+punishments we must judge them by the codes in
+existence at the time, remembering that nothing
+was ever done to the blacks that had not also been
+endured by whites for similar crimes. True, these
+punishments were retained for slaves after they had
+become obsolete for Europeans, but then the negro
+was undoubtedly stubborn and less amenable to
+persuasion than any other race. Like a mule he
+had to be broken in and trained, and like that
+stubborn animal he often gave great trouble in the
+process. There were differences of opinion as to
+various ways of teaching the negro, and it was only
+a long experience that ultimately led to gentle
+conciliation instead of flogging.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 320px;">
+<img src="images/p209.jpg" width="320" height="449" alt="A REBEL NEGRO" title="" />
+<span class="caption">A REBEL NEGRO<br />
+(<i>From Stedman&#39;s &quot;Surinam.&quot;</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The slaves often ran away, and had to be hunted
+for and brought back. In the larger islands and on
+the Main they hid in the forest and swamp, where
+they formed communities, to which other runaways
+flocked until they became strong enough to hold
+their own. From these recesses they often came
+forth to pillage the plantations, murder the whites,
+and get the slaves to go off with them in a body.
+If the buccaneer was ferocious he had at least some
+method in his madness; the poor ignorant African,
+on the contrary, let his passions dominate him entirely.
+In revenge for fancied tyrannies he would
+commit the most atrocious crimes, torturing his
+prisoners by cutting them to pieces or even flaying
+while they still lived.</p>
+
+<p>Is it any wonder that when caught the bush negro
+or maroon was severely punished, and that the utmost<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span>
+rigour of the law was exercised? As for flogging,
+every one knows how common that was at the beginning
+of the present century. Some of us can even
+look back to a time when the use of the rod and
+whip on delicate children was a matter of course.
+Even fine ladies took their little ones to see executions
+that now horrify us to think of; in a similar
+way the planter's wife stood at her window to see
+the punishment of her house-servant.</p>
+
+<p>We could tell of negroes burnt to death, where a
+downpour of rain put out the fires and left them to
+linger in torment for hours, of taking pieces of flesh
+from the unhappy criminals with red-hot pincers,
+and, most horrible of all, breaking on the wheel.
+These punishments often took place in the middle
+of a town, but only on one occasion have we seen
+any mention of the horror of the scene, and this
+referred to the smell of burning flesh. Yet the
+criminals&mdash;for it must be remembered that they
+had been legally convicted and sentenced&mdash;showed
+a stoical indifference to pain almost incredible. As
+savages they gloried in showing their ability to
+endure torture, only craving sometimes for a pipe
+of tobacco to hold between their teeth until it fell.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 310px;">
+<img src="images/p212.jpg" width="310" height="425" alt="THE EXECUTION OF BREAKING ON THE RACK." title="" />
+<span class="caption">THE EXECUTION OF BREAKING ON THE RACK.<br />
+(<i>From Stedman&#39;s &quot;Surinam.&quot;</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span></p>
+<p>The maroons or bush negroes began to form communities
+on the Main and in the larger islands from
+very early times. In Jamaica they were the remnant
+of the Spanish slaves who ran away on the arrival of
+the English, with accessions from deserters at later
+periods; in Surinam some of those who had been
+sent into the forest to prevent their capture by
+French corsairs. In both places they maintained
+their independence, and ultimately made treaties
+with the colonial authorities, greatly to their own
+advantage. In Essequebo and Demerara they were
+kept down by subsidising Arawak Indian trackers,
+who hunted them from savannah to forest, and from
+forest to swamp, killing and capturing them almost
+as fast as they ran away. In the smaller and more
+settled islands the runaways were generally recaptured
+at once and severely punished as a warning
+to others. There the more daring plotted
+insurrections which often caused much trouble for
+a few days until suppressed. They did not last
+long, for the negroes were wanting in the power of
+combination, because they all wanted to be leaders.
+Then there was generally some faithful slave or
+white man's mistress to give the warning, which
+sometimes caused such prompt action that the outbreak
+did not occur at all. Yet with all that the
+danger was serious, and one that could hardly be
+coped with by forts and batteries.</p>
+
+<p>As early as the year 1649 a plot for a general
+rising in Barbados was discovered through the information
+of a bond-servant. All the whites were
+to have been murdered, but fortunately the ringleaders
+were arrested before the time fixed and
+eight of them condemned to death. Then in 1676,
+under the leadership of a Coromantee, it was arranged
+that on a certain fixed day, at a signal to be given
+by blowing shells, all the cane-fields should be set
+on fire, the white men killed, and their women retained
+by the negroes as their wives. This also was
+frustrated by information received from a house<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span>
+negress. Hearing two men talking of the matter,
+she made inquiries, and learnt of the plot in time
+to inform her master. Six of the prisoners were
+burnt alive and eleven beheaded, while five committed
+suicide by hanging themselves before the
+trial. The story was told in a pamphlet entitled,
+"Great Newes from the Barbados, or a true and
+faithful account of the great conspiracy." Yet
+again in 1693, after a fearful epidemic had much
+reduced the number of the whites, a third conspiracy
+was set on foot. The Governor was to have
+been killed, the magazine seized, and the forts surprised
+and taken. When the plot was nearly ripe
+two of the leaders were overheard conversing about
+it and instantly arrested. They were hung in chains
+for four days without food or drink, promises of
+pardon being made if they revealed their accomplices,
+which they did at the end of that time, with
+the result that some were executed and others cruelly
+tortured. We might go on to tell also of the abortive
+insurrection of 1702 and several others, but as
+there were never any very serious risings in Barbados,
+we must proceed to other colonies.</p>
+
+<p>In Jamaica several abortive attempts at general
+insurrections were made, some of them assisted by
+the maroons, who continually received accessions to
+their numbers from desertion. These people also
+made incursions on their own account, which led
+the Government to offer &pound;5 a head for every one
+killed, the reward being payable on the production
+of his ears. In 1734 they destroyed several plantations
+and killed a hundred and fifty white men, which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span>
+led to an attempt at suppressing them altogether.
+Captain Stoddart therefore took a detachment of
+soldiers into the mountains to the maroon town of
+Nanny. Arriving at night he planted a battery of
+swivel guns on a height that commanded the collection
+of huts, before the negroes were aware of his
+coming. They were rudely awakened from their
+sleep to find the place surrounded, and in alarm
+many flung themselves over precipices in their hurry
+to escape. Some were killed, a few captured, and
+the town utterly destroyed. About the same time
+a party of maroons from another place were so bold
+as to attack the barracks at Spanish Town.</p>
+
+<p>Two years later, under Captain Cudjo, the maroons
+became so formidable that two regiments of regular
+troops besides the island militia were employed to
+reduce them. The Assembly also ordered a line of
+block-houses or posts to be erected as near as
+possible to their haunts, at which packs of dogs
+were to be kept as part of the garrison. Then they
+sent to the Main for two hundred Mosquito Indians
+whom they engaged as trackers. This brought
+matters to a crisis, and Captain Cudjo was compelled
+to sue for peace, which was granted. A
+treaty was therefore made with them in 1738 at
+Trelawny town, by which they were to be considered
+as free on condition that they captured runaway
+slaves, assisted in repelling invasions, and
+allowed two white residents to remain in their towns.
+Thus peace was restored for a time, and the Mosquito
+Indians were allowed to go back to their
+country.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>However, Jamaica was not to be free from slave
+insurrections apart from the maroons, for in May,
+1760, at St. Mary's, the slaves of General Forrest's
+plantation fell suddenly upon the overseer while he
+was at supper with some friends, and massacred the
+whole company. They were immediately joined by
+others, and commenced a career of plundering and
+burning all the plantations in the neighbourhood.
+Business in the island was at once suspended, martial
+law proclaimed, and every white man called out to
+assist in putting down the revolt. The negroes,
+however, tried to avoid an open conflict, trusting
+to hide in the forest, where, however, a large body
+was discovered and defeated. The maroons had
+been sent for, but did not arrive until this action
+had taken place, when they were sent in pursuit of
+the flying rebels. This they pretended to do, and
+in a few days returned with a collection of ears
+which they said had been taken from those whom
+they had slain, and for which they were paid. The
+story was found out afterwards to have been a falsehood,
+as instead of pursuing the fugitives they had
+simply cut off the ears of those who had been slain
+before they arrived. This led the authorities to
+think the maroons in league with the revolted slaves
+and afterwards to look upon them with distrust.
+However, by the aid of a body of free negroes, the
+rebels were at last captured, to be punished in the
+cruel manner so characteristic of the time. Some
+were burnt, some hung alive on gibbets, and about
+six hundred transported to the Bay of Honduras.
+Two were hung alive on the parade at Kingston,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span>
+one to linger for seven days and the other for nine,
+during which time it was said "they behaved with
+a degree of hardened insolence and brutal insensibility."
+In the course of the whole insurrection
+about sixty whites and four hundred negroes were
+killed, and damage done to the amount of one
+hundred thousand pounds.</p>
+
+<p>In 1736 a slave revolt took place at Antigua, or
+rather it was discovered and anticipated. Five negroes
+were broken on the wheel, six hung in chains and
+starved to death, one of whom lived for nine days and
+eight nights, fifty-eight were burnt at the stake, and
+about a hundred and thirty imprisoned. These
+horrible punishments were intended as a warning to
+the others, and no doubt they had such an effect
+on that generation.</p>
+
+<p>Few of the early insurrections met with any success,
+notwithstanding that the negroes largely outnumbered
+the whites in every colony. At the most the blacks
+had a few days' liberty to murder, burn, and pillage,
+after which came the terrible retribution. There was,
+however, one conspicuous exception: poor Berbice
+was actually taken over, and every white man driven
+from the plantations.</p>
+
+<p>The Dutch were noted nigger drivers, and although
+the English were unable to boast much of their
+humanity, they stigmatised the Hollander as a cruel
+master. If a negro was obstinate, the Englishman
+threatened to sell him to a Dutchman or Jew,
+but the worst threat of all was to give him to a
+free negro. Whether this bad character was deserved
+or not is doubtful, but it is quite certain that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span>
+the criminal law of the Netherlands permitted "the
+question" when a prisoner would not admit his guilt.
+This, however, was applicable to white as well as
+black, there being no particular slave code in the
+Dutch colonies.</p>
+
+<p>What was the immediate cause of the great rising
+of 1763, in Berbice, was never exactly ascertained,
+but vague complaints were made of ill-treatment by
+certain planters. It commenced on the 27th of
+February, on an estate in the river Canje, and from
+thence spread like wildfire over the whole colony.
+The population consisted of, besides the free Indians,
+346 whites, 244 Indian slaves, and about 4,000 negro
+slaves. The garrison was supposed to consist of
+sixty soldiers besides officers, distributed at several
+forts and posts, but owing to sickness only about
+twenty were fit for duty when the rising took place.</p>
+
+<p>An epidemic of fever and dysentery had prevailed
+for two years among both whites and slaves, weakening
+the former in such a manner that they had no
+courage to contend with the revolted negroes, but
+mostly ran away to Fort Nassau when they heard
+of the rising. Almost out of their senses from fright,
+they urged Governor Hoogenheim to abandon the
+fort and colony at once. Only one of the councillors
+stood by the Governor, and it was as much as these
+two could accomplish to prevent even the soldiers
+from running away. As for moving against the
+rebels, this was impossible, for not one of the colonists
+would follow Councillor Abbinsetts in his attempt to
+do something. Their fright even affected the officials
+and soldiers in such a manner that the Governor<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span>
+could hardly escape their importunities to be allowed
+to leave.</p>
+
+<p>Four vessels lay in the river, two merchant ships
+and two slavers, but even their crews were sick, and
+the captain of one so utterly broken down that he
+could not attend to his duties. The Governor tried
+to get them to go up the river and do something, but
+they were almost as frightened as the colonists. Only
+in one place were the negroes opposed; a few whites
+taking refuge in the block-house at Peereboom, some
+distance above the fort, where their way of escape
+was cut off. But for want of a little assistance they
+were compelled to make terms with the negroes.
+Under the agreement the whites were to be allowed
+to go down to the fort in their own boats, but as soon
+as they began to embark the negroes fell upon them,
+men, women, and children, massacred some and took
+others prisoners, a few only managing to get across
+the river.</p>
+
+<p>Among the fugitives was a lad named Jan Abraham
+Charbon, whose story gives a graphic picture of the
+alarm and consternation produced by the insurrection,
+and of its results on himself.</p>
+
+<p>He was the son of a planter, and the alarm was
+brought to the estate at night by a faithful slave.
+The plantations below were all in the hands of the
+rebels, who were burning and murdering on both
+sides of the river. The whites from several neighbouring
+estates gathered together and decided to
+make a stand at Peereboom, hoping for assistance
+from Fort Nassau. They got to the block-house
+early in the morning, to the number of thirty whites,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span>
+with a body of faithful slaves, who had not yet deserted
+them, although they did so later.</p>
+
+<p>Soon after their arrival the insurgents surrounded
+the house and attacked it, the whites making a
+successful defence until seven o'clock in the evening.
+Then one of Charbon's slaves came forward and asked
+if they wanted peace. On receiving a favourable
+reply the leaders on both sides came to the agreement
+above-mentioned. Next morning the whites were
+fired upon as they went to embark, and Charbon was
+wounded. However, he jumped into the river and
+swam across, hiding himself in the jungle, where he
+came upon another fugitive named Mittelholzer.</p>
+
+<p>For eight days the two wandered about the forest,
+losing their way and almost dying from hunger and
+thirst. They dared not approach the river for fear
+of the negroes. Once they came upon the back of
+a plantation and hurriedly gathered a few cobs of
+Indian corn, immediately afterwards running back
+into the bush to eat them. While lying down a
+negro with a sabre passed quite close without seeing
+them, but presently another with a gun peeped into
+the bushes and caught sight of them. On this
+Mittelholzer ran out with his drawn sabre and so
+furiously attacked the rebel that he cut off one of his
+hands, captured his gun, and put him to flight. However,
+this audacity did not save him, for he was captured
+soon afterwards, Charbon managing to escape
+into the forest. Alone the boy wandered about for
+six or seven days, until, again becoming desperate
+from hunger, he returned to the same plantation, to
+fall into the hands of the negroes. He was stripped<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span>
+of his clothes, put in the stocks, flogged, and threatened
+with death, but was finally spared on account of his
+youth, and because the rebel chief, "King" Coffee,
+wanted a secretary to write letters to Governor
+Hoogenheim, proposing terms.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the poor Governor hardly knew what
+to do. He sent to Surinam and Demerara for assistance,
+but while awaiting this the military officers
+informed him that the fort was untenable against
+even a single assault. The wooden palisades were
+so rotten that a strong man could pull them down
+easily, and then the building was of wood and could
+easily be fired. He was ultimately obliged to destroy
+it and retire down the river, where he at first took
+possession of the lowest plantation, Dageraad, hoping
+to remain there until assistance arrived. But even
+here the rumours of an attack by the rebels made the
+people clamorous to be allowed to leave, and Hoogenheim
+had to retire to the mouth of the river, where
+there was a small guard-house, or signal station, near
+the site of what is now New Amsterdam. Thus the
+last hold on the plantations was given up, and the
+whole colony abandoned to the negroes.</p>
+
+<p>A month passed before the first arrival from Surinam.
+All that time the Governor and a few whites
+waited day after day, sometimes almost in despair.
+The vessels had, at the request of their captains, been
+allowed to leave, carrying with them some of the
+people, while others had gone off to Demerara. This
+desertion was almost necessary, as the food supply
+was very limited and of a poor quality&mdash;cowards were
+useless, and therefore no objection was made to their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span>
+departure. Hoogenheim was at last somewhat relieved
+by the arrival of the English brigantine <i>Betsy</i> with a
+hundred soldiers from Surinam, and with this small
+contingent he at once began to retrace his steps with
+a view to recover the colony. He went back to
+Dageraad, and in a day or two after was attacked by
+seven hundred negroes, who fought from early morning
+to noon, when they retired after suffering a great
+loss in killed and wounded. It was after this battle
+that young Charbon arrived with a letter bringing
+"greetings from Coffee, Governor of the negroes of
+Berbice." The rebel chief said that as the negroes
+did not want war, he would give His Honour half the
+colony, while he himself would govern the other half
+and go up the river with his people, who were determined
+never again to be slaves. No notice was taken
+of this, and Charbon, who had been warned to bring
+back an answer at his peril, was too pleased to get
+back to his white friends to again wish for his post
+of secretary.</p>
+
+<p>Even now the Governor's situation was not only
+perilous, but most pitiful. St. Eustatius sent two vessels,
+but almost as soon as they arrived the men were
+attacked by sickness, and instead of being a help they
+had to be nursed, even the Governor himself taking
+his part in the necessary attendance. At one time
+there were not enough healthy soldiers to relieve
+guard, but fortunately Coffee had no means of knowing
+this, or all would certainly have been over with
+them.</p>
+
+<p>It was not until December that a fleet arrived from
+the Netherlands, and then a horrible vengeance over<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span>took
+the rebels. There was not much difficulty in
+subduing them, especially when a large contingent
+of Indians was sent overland from Demerara to drive
+them from the forest. In March, 1764, the trials
+began with a hundred ringleaders, fifty of whom were
+sentenced to death. Fifteen of these were burnt,
+sixteen broken on the wheel, and twenty-two hanged.
+The following month they executed in similar ways
+thirty-four, and later again thirty-two. The chiefs
+were burnt at slow fires, punishment which they bore
+with the utmost stoicism. One named Atta, however,
+told the bystanders that he only suffered what
+he deserved. Finally, in December a general amnesty
+was proclaimed, which made the negroes cry out with
+joy, <i>Dankje! Dankje!</i></p>
+
+<p>Berbice was of course utterly ruined for a time.
+The plantations were overrun with weeds, the buildings
+in ruins, and many of the slaves missing. Of
+the whites only 116 remained; the rest were dead
+from sickness, had been killed by the negroes, or
+had fled from the colony. The loss in killed was
+small, as the general fright prevented any show of
+resistance. What would have happened if the whites
+had fallen into the hands of the rebels was shown in
+one or two flagrant cases. One of the colony surgeons
+was said to have been flayed alive on the ground that
+he had poisoned the slaves by forcing them to take
+medicine. One poor girl who had been captured at
+Peereboom was compelled to submit to the embraces
+of King Coffee and driven mad, while another committed
+suicide to prevent a similar degradation.
+About eight hundred slaves were missing, most of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224-225]</a><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225"></a></span>whom had been killed, as very few managed to escape
+to the bush.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 311px;">
+<img src="images/p224.jpg" width="311" height="428" alt="MARCH THROUGH A SWAMP." title="" />
+<span class="caption">MARCH THROUGH A SWAMP.<br />
+(<i>From Stedman&#39;s &quot;Surinam.&quot;</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Behind the coast of Guiana is a long stretch of
+swamp, which in slavery times was the general resort
+of runaways. For miles extends a grassy plain like
+a meadow, the sedges entirely covering the two to
+four feet of water which would otherwise give it the
+appearance of a great lake. Except through the
+various streams that drain it, access is almost impossible
+during the rainy season, and even the Indians
+care little to explore its recesses beyond fishing in
+the canal-like creeks. However, here and there are
+little islands or sand reefs, and on these the runaway
+slaves took refuge. First, perhaps, a murderer would
+escape and hide himself for a time until the hue and
+cry had abated, returning now and again to the plantation
+at night for the purpose of getting provisions
+from his friends. Then others would follow, until
+a party of twenty to a hundred, with their wives, had
+established a little village. Towards the end of the
+last century a number of these communities of bush
+negroes had been formed in Demerara, and their depredations
+became so common that regular expeditions
+were sent against them, guided by Indian trackers.
+In 1795 they joined with the slaves to raise a general
+insurrection, but special measures were taken so that
+they were almost suppressed for a time.</p>
+
+<p>Before this they had formed a line of stations for
+seventy miles from the river Demerara to the Berbice.
+Every camp was naturally surrounded by
+water, and by driving pointed stakes in a circle, and
+leaving the entrance to wind through a double line<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span>
+under water, they were made almost impregnable.
+To reach them the attacking party had to wade up
+to their middles through perhaps a mile of ooze and
+water, to be cut with razor grass, and all the time at
+the mercy of the negroes. Only during the dry
+season was anything like success possible, and even
+then the negroes generally saved themselves by flight.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the slaves were friendly with the runaways,
+but they were much feared by the more timid.
+On one occasion a negro went to cut wood at the
+back of a plantation in Demerara and came suddenly
+upon the outpost of a camp, probably the
+entrance to the concealed path which led to the little
+sand reef. In walking along he stepped upon a
+bush-rope, and immediately after heard a bell ring
+above his head. Before he could get away a ferocious
+bush negro stood before him and demanded his business,
+but the poor slave was so frightened that he ran
+home and reported the occurrence to his master.
+Some of the slaves went so far as to enjoy hunting
+runaways&mdash;in fact, there was little love lost between
+the two parties. One of these was offered his
+freedom as a reward for the assistance he had given
+in an expedition, the Government engaging to purchase
+him of his owner provided they both consented.
+Tony, however, did not wish to leave a good master,
+and refused, stipulating, however, that he should retain
+the right to accept the kind offer at some future
+period. When his master ultimately left Demerara,
+some years afterwards, Tony claimed his promised
+freedom and got it.</p>
+
+<p>While the bush negroes in other parts of Guiana<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span>
+were kept within reasonable bounds, those of Surinam,
+like the maroons of Jamaica, had never been conquered.
+Treaties were agreed to by them in 1749 and
+1761, but disputes continually occurred, with the result
+that the colonists were always more or less in
+fear of their raids. Then they carried off most of the
+slaves whenever they attacked a plantation, until
+their number became so great as to be a real danger.
+In 1773 the authorities in the Netherlands resolved to
+make a special effort to conquer them, and for this
+purpose raised a corps of all nationalities which was
+put under the command of Colonel Fourgeaud.</p>
+
+<p>That soldiers should be brought from Europe for
+such a service shows the utter ignorance of the Dutch
+authorities. If the colonists themselves could not put
+down the bush negroes, how could it be expected that
+this would be effected by fresh troops from a cold
+climate, who had no knowledge of the country, the
+mode of fighting, or the difficulties of travelling
+through the bush and swamp?</p>
+
+<p>Commissioners had visited them at different times
+to arrange the treaties, but there was generally something
+wrong with the presents (virtually blackmail),
+or else they were given to the wrong parties. In 1761
+the chief Araby had insisted on the commissioners
+binding themselves by his form of oath. This was
+done by each party tasting the blood of the other.
+With a sharp knife a few drops were drawn from the
+arm of each person into a calabash of water with a
+few particles of dry earth. After pouring a small
+quantity of this mixture on the ground as a libation,
+the calabash was handed round from one to another<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span>
+until all the company had taken a sip. Then the gadoman
+(priest) took heaven and earth&mdash;exemplified by
+the water and clay&mdash;to witness the agreement, and
+invoked the curse of God upon the first who broke it,
+the company and crowd of negroes around calling out
+<i>Da so!</i> (that is so, or amen).</p>
+
+<p>Yet, after all this solemnity, quarrels soon arose
+again. One chief with his sixteen hundred people
+had come to terms, but these did not bind his neighbour,
+who perhaps had half as many. The different
+chiefs were not united in any way, and it followed,
+therefore, that, after thousands of guilders had been
+spent on one, the others made incursions to get a
+share of the good things for themselves. To the
+colonists they were all bush negroes, but among themselves
+they were as distinct as if they had been different
+nations. Even when at peace, and when the
+chiefs had received gold-headed canes as symbols of
+authority, they would often call at the outlying
+plantations and demand rum or anything else they
+fancied, which the whites dared not refuse.</p>
+
+<p>The immediate occasion for the special corps from
+the mother country was an insurrection of the slaves
+in 1772, who, after plundering and burning some of
+the plantations, and murdering their owners, fled in
+great numbers to join the bush negroes. The whole
+colony was a scene of horror and consternation&mdash;the
+colonists expected the rising to become general, and
+took refuge in Paramaribo, thus leaving their plantations
+unprotected. However, it was soon checked,
+mainly by raising a body of three hundred free
+negroes, called rangers, who were expert bush<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span>fighters,
+and therefore thoroughly well fitted to cope
+with the rebels.</p>
+
+<p>One of the chiefs named Baron had settled on an
+island in the swamp, such as we have described, where
+he defied the whole colony. There were no means of
+communication except hidden tracks under water, and
+in addition to the palisades the chief had erected a
+battery of swivel guns which he had stolen from the
+plantations. Thus triply defended by water, stakes,
+and guns, it is no wonder if he thought his position
+impregnable. However, he was discovered by a party
+of rangers, and assaulted by them and a large body
+of white soldiers. Camping first on the edge of the
+swamp about a mile away, they could see Baron's
+flag waving in defiance on the little island, while they
+were at their wits' ends to find a means of getting at
+him. A great many shots were wasted by both sides
+before they found the distance was too great, even for
+the swivel guns, and then the rangers began to act.
+Several weeks were passed in attempting to make a
+causeway by sinking fascines, but when the workers
+had come within range, so many were killed that it
+had to be abandoned. In despair of ever effecting
+anything, they were about to retire, when some of the
+rangers discovered the hidden pathway under water.
+A feint was now made of attacking one side by one
+party, while another crept along the track, and thus at
+last the fortress was stormed. A terrible hand-to-hand
+fight took place, in which many were killed on both
+sides, but even then Baron managed to escape with a
+good number of his followers.</p>
+
+<p>This defeat made little impression, for soon after<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span>wards
+the slaves on three plantations killed their white
+masters, and, like the others, went off to join the bush
+negroes. It was now felt that something must be done
+or the colony would have to be abandoned. The bush
+negroes had to be hunted from their recesses, however
+difficult the task might be, otherwise there would be
+no safety even in the town itself. The expeditions
+could only move in Indian file, exposed to ambushes
+in the most difficult parts of the track, and firing from
+behind trees everywhere. There was no possibility of
+bringing the party together if attacked; it followed,
+therefore, that the long string of men went forward
+with the utmost caution. In front came two powerful
+blacks with machetes or cutlasses to clear the way,
+and immediately behind them the vanguard. These
+were followed by the main body alternating with
+ammunition bearers, and, finally, a long line of carriers
+with food, medicines, utensils, and kill-devil (rum)
+with the rearguard. Sometimes the party would
+flounder through a swamp for hours, holding their
+firearms above their heads to keep them dry. Then
+drenching showers would fall, and give the greatest
+trouble to prevent the powder from becoming useless.
+Creeks had to be passed on fallen trees, or the party
+would be detained until a trunk was felled and
+trimmed to afford a passage. Exposed to malaria,
+mosquitoes, bush ticks, and maribuntas, they went on
+day after day, only to find, on reaching the village of
+the bush negroes, that they had gone elsewhere, to
+perhaps turn up at some unprotected plantation. The
+European troops died off in great numbers, while the
+enemy were in their element. It followed, therefore,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231-232]</a><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232"></a></span>that little was done, and that the old system of conciliation
+had to be adopted, with the same unsatisfactory
+results. Finally, by utilising their mutual
+jealousies, about 1793 they were driven so far away
+from the settlements as to become almost harmless.
+Their descendants still exist almost as savages, with
+curious manners and customs, partly inherited from
+their African forefathers, and partly adopted from
+their neighbours the Indians.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 429px;">
+<img src="images/p231.jpg" width="429" height="308" alt="TRELAWNY TOWN." title="" />
+<span class="caption">TRELAWNY TOWN.<br />
+(<i>From Edwards&#39; &quot;West Indies.&quot;</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>We must now return to the maroons of Jamaica,
+who had not been conquered, although a nominal
+treaty existed, and the white residents remained at
+their posts. In July, 1795, two of them were flogged
+for pig-stealing, and this was considered a disgrace on
+the whole community. On the return of the pig-stealers
+to Trelawny they raised a great outcry, and
+the resident was at once ordered to leave on pain of
+death. Efforts were made to pacify them, but they sent
+a written defiance to the magistrates who had ordered
+the flogging and declared their intention to attack
+Montego Bay. The militia were called out and
+soldiers applied for, but before the preparations were
+completed, a body of maroons appeared and asked for
+an interview with four gentlemen whom they named.</p>
+
+<p>Hoping the matter might be prevented from going
+farther, these and several other whites went to the
+rendezvous, where they were received by three hundred
+armed men. The maroons complained of the disgrace
+on the whole body, through the flogging having
+been performed by a negro overseer in the presence
+of felons, and demanded reparation. They wanted,
+first, an addition to their lands, and, second, a dis<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span>missal
+of the then resident in favour of one they had
+formerly. Promising to forward their requests to the
+Governor, the gentlemen left, the maroons appearing
+as if pacified.</p>
+
+<p>However, this interview was only applied for to
+gain time, and especially to allow the departure of
+the British fleet which was then on the point of
+leaving, and might be detained if they moved too
+quickly. On the report that there was a probability
+of a settlement of the matter the fleet left, when the
+maroons immediately began to plot with the slaves
+for a general rising. Reports of this had been received
+by the Governor before, but just after the
+men-of-war had departed more definite news arrived,
+which induced him to send a fast-sailing boat to bring
+them back. Fortunately this was successfully accomplished,
+and at once confidence drove out the fear of
+murders, fires, and plundering which had alarmed the
+inhabitants. The slaves were correspondingly disheartened
+and left the maroons to fight alone.</p>
+
+<p>But even the maroons themselves became divided
+in opinion on the return of the military and naval
+force. The Governor taking advantage of this, issued
+a proclamation calling upon them to submit, but only
+thirty-eight old men came forward, the others being
+determined to fight. They set fire to their own town
+and commenced hostilities by attacking the outposts.
+This led to a pursuit in which the whites fell into an
+ambuscade, many being killed, without as far as was
+known doing any harm whatever to the enemy. Now
+commenced a series of raids on the plantations, in
+which even infants at the breast were massacred.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 302px;">
+<img src="images/p234.jpg" width="302" height="364" alt="PACIFICATION OF THE MAROONS." title="" />
+<span class="caption">PACIFICATION OF THE MAROONS.<br />
+(<i>From Edwards&#39; &quot;West Indies.&quot;</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span></p>
+<p>The matter becoming serious, the General Assembly
+resolved to hunt the rebels with dogs, as had been intended
+before the treaty. They accordingly sent over
+to Cuba for huntsmen with their powerful blood-hounds,
+the descendants of those which had once
+worried the poor Indians, and afterwards assisted the
+buccaneers. Times had changed however, and a
+feeling grew up that hunting men with savage beasts
+was not quite the thing. This led to some expressions
+of opinion adverse to the action of the executive,
+but they excused themselves on the ground that
+the safety of the island demanded extreme measures.
+If war was justifiable at all, any and every means,
+they said, was allowable; in fact, "all was fair in
+war."</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the maroons had been driven to their
+strongholds in the mountains, where they had little
+to eat, and were virtually compelled to ravage the
+plantations for food. On the arrival of forty <i>chasseurs</i>
+with their hundred dogs, however, they became
+alarmed, and began to sue for mercy. It does not
+appear that there was any real necessity for using
+the animals, their presence being enough for the purpose.
+They were led <i>behind</i> the troops, and on their
+appearance the maroons surrendered in great numbers,
+this putting an end to the insurrection.</p>
+
+<p>Now came the question of what was to be done
+with them. It was argued that no country could
+suffer people to live in it unless they could be controlled
+by law, and that obedience could not be
+expected from these people. To expect it was entirely
+out of the question; it was therefore resolved<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span>
+to transport them from the island. Accordingly, in
+June, 1796, six hundred were sent to Halifax, Nova
+Scotia, where lands were granted them and a subsistence
+allowed until crops could be raised. Not
+liking the climate, they were ultimately established
+in Sierra Leone, where they became the nucleus of
+the present colony. Those who had submitted remained
+in Jamaica, where their descendants are still
+well known.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3><a name="XI" id="XI"></a>XI</h3>
+
+<h3>THE SOVEREIGNTY OF THE SEAS</h3>
+
+
+<p>By the middle of the eighteenth century Spain
+had fallen behind, and even Holland had lost her
+prestige. It followed, therefore, that the only Power
+that could rival Great Britain was France, and she
+was an enemy that could never be despised. The
+struggle in the West Indies between these two
+Powers now became, if possible, more intense; and
+if the result gave the sovereignty of the seas to
+Britons, they have mainly to ascribe it to their naval
+training in this part of the world. The mistakes of
+Admiral Vernon were lessons which, being borne in
+mind by later admirals, tended to prevent similar
+disasters in the future.</p>
+
+<p>There was a short intermission in the struggle
+between 1748 and 1756, when the "Seven Years'
+War" commenced; but before the actual declaration
+hostilities had commenced between the two
+rivals in India and North America. Now arose one
+of England's great admirals, Rodney, who gained his
+laurels in the Caribbean Sea, and was mainly instrumental
+in putting France in the background as a
+naval power. He first came to the front in 1759,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span>
+when he bombarded Havre, and later, with that other
+great seaman, Sir Samuel Hood, he became a "household
+word" in the West Indies.</p>
+
+<p>Before they appeared, however, the British captured
+Guadeloupe, and commenced a general raid
+upon the French shipping. But, as usual, our gallant
+foes were by no means despicable, for in 1760 they
+claimed to have taken 2,539 English vessels, against
+a loss of only 944. On the 5th of January, 1762,
+Rodney sailed from Barbados for Martinique, in
+command of eighteen ships of the line, and on the
+4th of the following month the island capitulated.
+Then Grenada was taken, to be followed by Dominica,
+Tobago, St. Vincent, and St. Lucia, thus
+giving the whole of the French Caribbees into the
+possession of Great Britain. Spain being also involved,
+Admiral Pococke attacked Havana in May,
+and, after a siege of twenty-nine days, took the
+Morro Castle, a fort hitherto considered impregnable.
+A fortnight later the Governor of Cuba was compelled
+to capitulate, thus giving the town also into
+the hands of the British. These exploits made
+France and Spain sue for peace, which was signed at
+Paris in February, 1763, when Grenada, St. Vincent,
+Dominica, and Tobago were ceded to Great Britain,
+the other captures being restored.</p>
+
+<p>After this war positive orders were sent to the
+British West Indies to break off all trade and intercourse
+with the French and Spanish settlements,
+with the result that contraband and other traffic was
+thrown into the hands of the Dutch and Danes.
+Then the Dutch islands of Cura&ccedil;ao and St. Eustatius<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span>
+began to flourish more and more, and those of the
+Danes, St. Thomas and St. John, became free ports.
+During the wars these islands rose to a pitch of
+prosperity hardly possible to any of those belonging
+to the combatants, on account of their neutrality.
+Naturally they were almost barren and of little
+account as plantations; but as <i>entrep&ocirc;ts</i> they were
+exceedingly useful, not only to their owners, but to
+the belligerents as well. Here alone could French,
+Spanish, and British ships meet without fighting, and
+for them they could run when pursued by the
+enemy.</p>
+
+<p>The island of St. Thomas was first colonised in
+1666, but for a long time it made little progress. It
+became useful to the pirates, however, mainly from
+its being a safe place at which to dispose of their
+captures. Then merchant vessels found it sometimes
+convenient to go in to escape these rovers, perhaps to
+be followed by them, and yet remain safe until an
+opportunity occurred for escaping their vigilance.
+Prizes were brought here and sold, the prospect of
+good bargains leading to the settlement of a number
+of rich merchants, and especially Jews. What with
+all this, and a little contraband traffic, the people of
+St. Thomas did very well, and soon the harbour
+became one of the busiest in the West Indies.</p>
+
+<p>And here we must mention that the Jews were a
+very important factor in the development of the
+early settlements. It will be remembered that large
+numbers of these people were driven from Spain after
+the conquest of Granada, and how they went to
+Portugal and the Netherlands. A large number also<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span>
+went to Brazil, where at first they had a measure of
+freedom in the exercise of their religion not granted
+in the mother country. When the Dutch captured
+Brazil, perfect freedom followed; but after Portugal
+took her own again, this was withdrawn, and in consequence
+many left for Surinam and the West
+Indian islands. Here they were joined by some of
+their co-religionists from Holland, and in time became
+a powerful body of planters, but more especially
+traders. To them were due many improvements in
+the manufacture of sugar, and even the introduction
+of the cane into some places. In every colony there
+was a small community, often with a synagogue, and
+their connection one with another, as well as their
+virtual neutrality, made their transactions more safe
+than those of other traders. As may be supposed,
+they had no love for the Spaniard, and consequently
+were the main financiers, not only of privateers, but
+even pirates.</p>
+
+<p>St. Thomas, Cura&ccedil;ao, and St. Eustatius lived by
+the misfortunes of others. No longer could the jolly
+buccaneer sell his prizes and booty at Jamaica; he
+must go elsewhere, and let other places reap the
+advantage of his free and easy bargains. For it was
+"easy come, easy go" with him, and the fortune he
+made was soon wasted in riotous living. This was
+all to the advantage of the wily Jew, who first
+haggled about the price of a cargo, and then got his
+money back by charging enormous profits on the
+supplies. The rover was as careless as the proverbial
+"Jack ashore," and could easily be induced to spend
+his last piece of eight on the luxuries so temptingly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span>
+laid before him, utterly regardless of the consequences.
+He had only to go out and capture
+another vessel to be able to return and renew his
+jollification.</p>
+
+<p>In war time these harbours were crowded with the
+shipping of all nations, and many a fortune was
+made that enabled the merchant to go to Europe
+as a West Indian nabob. Then there was a great
+demand for neutral vessels, in which goods could be
+transhipped for conveyance to colonies where the
+belligerent flag might bring a crowd of privateers
+before the vessel got safely into harbour. Even
+physicians and surgeons made their piles, for there
+was always more or less sickness on board the
+vessels, and a hundred dollars a visit was a common
+fee.</p>
+
+<p>In 1774 began the dispute with the American
+colonies of Great Britain, and four years later France
+joined them, thus bringing trouble again upon the
+West Indies. The first important move was made
+by the French, who, in September, 1778, took Dominica,
+on which the English retaliated by capturing
+St. Lucia. Then a fleet was sent out from England
+under Admiral Byron, and another from France
+under Count de Grasse. The French took St. Vincent
+and Grenada, and every island of either nation
+was in a state of alarm and consternation. In July,
+1779, Spain joined the others against England, on
+the ground that her flag had been insulted. To this
+it was replied that she harboured American privateers,
+and furnished them with false documents,
+under which they carried Spanish colours. Thus<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span>
+England had her hands full, for the Yankees alone
+gave her quite enough work, without the addition
+of these old rivals.</p>
+
+<p>As yet Rodney had not come out, but in the years
+1778 and 1779 he pressed his claim on the Government
+to have a command in the West Indies. The
+seas were well known to him, and he had his views as
+to the proper mode of carrying out operations; but
+for some time his application was refused. Finally,
+however, in October, 1779, he was appointed to replace
+Admiral Byron, with supreme control over the
+operations in the Caribbean Sea, as well as freedom to
+intervene if necessary on the American coast.</p>
+
+<p>Rodney was at last satisfied, and he left in December
+with a convoy, the whole fleet numbering three
+hundred. In the centre were transports and merchant
+vessels, and on either side men-of-war. Off
+Cape Finisterre he captured a convoy of sixteen
+Spanish vessels, and beyond Cape St. Vincent fought
+with another squadron, and captured four men-of-war,
+including the admiral. On then to the relief of
+Gibraltar, from whence he sent part of the fleet into
+the Mediterranean, and where he remained until
+February 13, 1780, when he sailed for the West
+Indies.</p>
+
+<p>Arriving off St. Lucia on the 28th of March, he
+came upon the French fleet under De Guichen, which
+he attempted to engage, but was prevented from the
+want of skill in his captains. The result was that
+both fleets sailed away from each other without much
+damage to either, both stating that the other refused
+to fight. As, however, the French had thirty vessels<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span>
+to the English seventeen, they could have compelled
+an action; so that, although the affair was not creditable
+to either, it was perhaps a little more disgraceful
+to the larger fleet. Rodney was in a great rage. He
+attributed his failure to the incompetency of his
+subordinates, who had not been properly trained to
+make combined naval evolutions. Every captain, he
+said, thought himself fit to be Prime Minister of
+Britain.</p>
+
+<p>However, he continued his cruise, barring the way
+of the French, and driving De Guichen to St. Eustatius
+to refit. Now he began to teach his captains
+those naval man&oelig;uvres in which he considered them
+so much wanting, which his assistant admiral, Sir
+Hyde Parker, did not altogether like. Rodney, it
+appears, treated all his subordinates as if they were
+raw recruits, and, while he gained obedience, created
+a great deal of ill-feeling. But, with all their training,
+they could not bring De Guichen to fight, even
+when they encountered him a second time; yet we
+may presume that the training was by no means
+wasted.</p>
+
+<p>As if Great Britain had not enough enemies, in
+December, 1780, she declared war with the Dutch,
+on the ground that they assisted the American
+colonies. What a formidable array&mdash;the Colonies,
+France, Spain, and Holland! Yet, somehow or
+other, she managed to cope with the whole.</p>
+
+<p>St. Eustatius was the great offender among the
+Dutch colonies. Notwithstanding that the home
+Government had sent out strict orders to all her
+settlements not to honour the flag of the revolted<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span>
+British colonies, or to supply them with contraband
+of war, there is no doubt that they were very loose in
+inquiring into such transactions. As we have said
+already, this and other islands were very useful to
+the belligerents; and, as we have just stated, De
+Guichen went to St. Eustatius to escape Rodney and
+refit. This was no doubt a sore point with the
+British admiral, who barred the enemy's passage to
+his own islands only to see him get what he needed
+from the Dutch.</p>
+
+<p>When the news of the declaration of war came
+out, Rodney was ready at once to pounce upon the
+offender; and on the 3rd of February, 1781, before
+the authorities of St. Eustatius had heard the news,
+he appeared in the harbour. The Governor could
+hardly believe his ears when an officer appeared to
+demand the surrender of the island to His Majesty of
+Great Britain, but being entirely unprepared, and
+quite unfitted to cope with such a force, he was
+obliged to surrender at discretion.</p>
+
+<p>Here was the opportunity for revenge, and Rodney
+embraced it. Even his best friends could hardly
+excuse the arbitrary doings which followed, and
+which were stigmatised as unworthy and almost
+dishonourable to a British admiral. Being determined
+to root out this nest of contrabandists, he
+confiscated all the property of the inhabitants, and
+ordered them to quit the island. The harbour was
+filled with shipping, and the stores with goods, the
+vessels numbering two hundred and fifty, and the
+contents of the stores worth about three million
+pounds. Here was indeed a disaster to the Jews,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span>
+not only of St. Eustatius, but even of British islands,
+for they were all in correspondence. Rodney went
+so far as to say that many of the English merchants
+ought to have been hanged, for it was through their
+means, and the help of this neutral port, that the
+enemy were able to carry on the war.</p>
+
+<p>The people were astonished at such unheard-of
+treatment. Never before had such a thing happened,
+except in the raids of buccaneers and pirates. The
+Jews petitioned Rodney and General Vaughan to
+rescind their decision. They had received orders to
+give up the keys of their stores and inventories of
+the goods in them, as well as household furniture and
+plate; then they were to prepare themselves to quit
+the island. Such orders from British commanders,
+whose principal characteristics were mercy and
+humanity, had distressed them in the extreme, so
+that their families were absolutely in despair.</p>
+
+<p>This appeal had no effect, even when it was supported
+by some of the British officers, and such an
+auction now began as was never known before. The
+news reached Barbados and the other islands, and
+down came a horde of speculators, prepared to make
+their fortunes at once if possible. Such a haul did
+not occur every day, and they intended to take
+advantage of it. Thousands of bales of goods were
+brought out and sold, without either seller or buyer
+knowing anything of their contents. They might
+contain rich silks and velvets or the cheapest slave
+clothing. It was a grand lottery in which every
+bidder got a prize, although they were in some cases
+of little value. No one needed to despair of a bargain,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span>
+however, for there was so much to sell as compared
+with the number of purchasers, that everything went
+cheap. Some few got bitten, but in the end hardly
+a tithe of the value of the goods was obtained.</p>
+
+<p>While this was going on at St. Eustatius, some
+Bristol privateers got information of the outbreak of
+hostilities, and pounced upon Demerara and Berbice,
+where they levied blackmail and captured most of
+the shipping. As usual with these plunderers, they
+had no authority to capture the colony, nor had they
+in this case even commissions against the Dutch.
+However, they put the inhabitants in a state of
+consternation, until, a few days later, two men-of-war
+arrived from Barbados to receive the capitulation,
+which was demanded on the same terms as that of
+St Eustatius, although neither party knew what
+these terms were. Nothing was left but submission,
+although the authorities protested against such an
+unheard-of manner of dictating unknown terms.
+The Governor of Barbados had heard from one of
+the inhabitants of that island that the Directeur-General
+of Demerara had expressed, at his dinner-table,
+his fears that in case of a war the river would
+be plundered by privateers, and of his preferring to
+surrender to one of the king's ships: for this reason
+he had sent the men-of-war. This was considered a
+bit of "sharp practice" by the Demerarians, but perhaps
+turned out for the best.</p>
+
+<p>Two commissioners were appointed by the colony
+to go in one of the English vessels to St. Eustatius
+and arrange the articles of capitulation, which were
+fortunately on altogether different lines from those<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span>
+of that island. Surinam, St. Martin's, Saba, and St.
+Bartholomew's also surrendered on the same unknown
+terms, but the admiral said that he and General
+Vaughan thought they ought to be put on a different
+footing. They would not treat them like the other,
+whose inhabitants, belonging to a State bound by
+treaty to assist Great Britain, had yet nevertheless
+assisted her public enemies and the rebels to her
+State, with every necessary and implement of war as
+well as provisions, thus perfidiously breaking the very
+treaties they had sworn to maintain.</p>
+
+<p>The treatment of St. Eustatius caused a great stir,
+not only in the West Indies, but in England as well.
+A remonstrance was sent to Rodney by the merchants
+of St. Kitt's, who claimed that a large quantity of
+their goods had been seized. Some of these were
+insured in England, and they considered their
+Excellencies responsible for their losses, for which
+they would seek redress by all the means in their
+power. It was impossible, they said, for many of
+them to be more utterly ruined than they then were,
+and they asked that certificates in reference to their
+property should be sent to England, in demanding
+which they were claiming a right rather than a favour.
+In reply, Rodney said he was surprised that gentlemen
+who called themselves subjects and merchants
+of Great Britain, should, when it was in their power
+to lodge their effects in the British islands to windward,
+under the protection of British laws, send them
+to leeward to St. Eustatius, where, in the eyes of
+reason and common sense, they could only be lodged
+to supply their king's and country's enemies. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span>
+island, he continued, was Dutch&mdash;everything in it
+was Dutch&mdash;all was under the Dutch flag. As Dutch
+it should be treated, and this was his firm resolution
+as a British admiral, who had no view whatever but
+to do his duty to his king and country.</p>
+
+<p>Two merchants from St. Eustatius went to London,
+where they were examined by the Attorney and
+Solicitor-Generals. They clamoured for justice, and
+got it, for one of them was committed on a charge of
+high treason for corresponding with the American
+agent at Amsterdam, and for furnishing the
+Americans with military stores and ammunition.
+Several attempts were made to injure Rodney with
+the king, but the blow on the enemy was so severe
+that His Majesty would not listen to the detractors.
+It is said that a cry of rage went up from the French
+and American colonies, and that Rodney gloried in
+his triumph. He was undoubtedly inclined to ride
+rough-shod over everybody and everything, but as
+long as he was successful, only the enemy complained.</p>
+
+<p>But the trouble was not yet over, for the merchants
+of St. Kitt's sent lawyers to file their claims in the
+Admiralty Courts. Then St. Eustatius was recaptured
+for Holland by the French, and the tide
+turned against the admiral. Now was the time to
+attack him, and his enemies took advantage of it.
+The mob that threw up their caps and shouted for
+joy at the glorious news of the capture, now lifted
+their hands in horror at Rodney's misdeeds. Even
+his friend Hood was guilty of the meanness of charging
+his comrade with carrying off vast sums of money,
+and never accounting for them. Rodney was recalled<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span>
+to England, where he arrived on the 19th of September,
+1781, in ill-health, and rather downspirited. In
+December Burke moved the House of Commons for
+a committee to inquire into the affair, but although
+he pressed the motion with all his powers of oratory
+it was rejected.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the French were turning the tables
+upon the late victors and having their revenge for
+the disasters which had fallen upon them. This led
+to Rodney being again consulted, with the result that
+on the 19th of February, 1782, he arrived in Barbados
+with twelve ships of the line. This was the most
+critical period during the whole war. On the 19th of
+October previous, Lord Cornwallis had surrendered
+to the Americans at Yorktown, and this disaster was
+followed not only by the loss of the West Indian
+captures, but of the British colonies of St. Kitt's,
+Nevis, Montserrat, Dominica, and St. Vincent. It
+was by the special request of the king that Rodney
+had been again sent out, and before his departure he
+declared that either the French admiral or himself
+should be captured. Lord Sandwich, to impress him
+the more, on the eve of his departure said: "The
+fate of this Empire is in your hands, and I have no
+wish that it should be in those of any other."</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the Count de Grasse was at Martinique,
+preparing a large fleet for the final reduction of the
+British by conquering Jamaica. He was expecting
+large reinforcements of French vessels and troops,
+which Rodney tried unsuccessfully to cut off. On
+the 8th of April the French were reported as having
+sailed for Hispaniola, where they were to be joined<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span>
+by a Spanish contingent, and Rodney at once sailed
+in pursuit. The result was that, at last, on the 12th,
+a decisive victory was gained off Dominica. Admiral
+de Grasse was captured, many of his fleet destroyed,
+and the whole expedition broken up. The British
+West Indies were thus saved, and the people of
+Jamaica erected a statue to the gallant admiral.
+Rodney, in concluding his despatch giving the
+account, said it was his most ardent wish that the
+British flag should for ever float in every part of the
+globe, and there is no doubt that this triumph conduced
+to such an end. It stands prominently forth
+as the greatest sea fight of the age, and was only
+eclipsed by those of Nelson, who we may state
+received much of his naval training in the West
+Indies.</p>
+
+<p>In January, 1783, peace was again restored. Great
+Britain lost her American colonies, restored those
+she had taken from France and Holland, and got
+back her own, except the island of Tobago, which
+was ceded to France. From Spain she got the right
+to cut logwood between the rivers Hondo and Belize,
+on the understanding that all other places on the
+coasts of Central America should be abandoned, and
+that no forts be erected on the concession.</p>
+
+<p>For ten years there was peace, and during that
+time the planting colonies were developed to a
+wonderful extent, while those dependent on the
+contraband traffic became much depressed. The
+English settlements increased in value so much, that
+in 1788 they were calculated to have under cultivation
+two million and a half acres, with five hundred<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span>
+and sixty thousand slaves. These were the palmy
+days of the slave-trade, when the importations leapt
+up year after year, with a corresponding increase in
+the export of produce. The property was valued at
+over eighty-six millions sterling, Jamaica coming
+first, but nearly every other island flourishing to an
+extent hardly credible to those who have only seen
+them after their downfall.</p>
+
+<p>What Jamaica was to the English, the western
+portion of Hispaniola became to the French, and even
+Spain increased her productions, now that things had
+become settled, and treasure seeking less remunerative.
+Altogether, the period from this time, to the end of the
+century, may be considered as the planter's best days,
+and the "good old times" of which we hear so much
+but find it so difficult to precisely indicate.</p>
+
+<p>On the 1st of February, 1793, peace was again
+broken by the French Convention, the declaration of
+war being made against England and Holland. Thus
+began that struggle which seemed interminable at
+the time, and which actually lasted twenty-two years.
+As usual the West Indies suffered, but this time they
+were not quite so much the scene of contention as
+they had been formerly. Tobago was captured from
+the French on the 15th of April, but during the
+remainder of the year little was done. In January,
+1794, however, Admiral Sir John Jervis arrived at
+Barbados, and in the following month took Martinique
+after a severe struggle. Then he went on to St. Lucia,
+which also surrendered, and before the end of April
+Guadeloupe fell. Then came reverses; a French
+fleet arrived, and all were recaptured.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile France had invaded Holland, and
+established a sister republic on her own lines,
+rendering it necessary for the Stadtholder, the Prince
+of Orange, to fly off to England. From Kew, where
+the king had given him a residence, he wrote letters
+to all the Dutch colonies, asking the authorities to
+place them in the hands of the British, and treat
+people of that nationality as friends and allies.
+With these despatches British fleets were sent to all
+the possessions of Holland, but only one or two
+obeyed the command, the result being that the
+others had to be taken by force, until hardly a Dutch
+colony existed in any part of the world.</p>
+
+<p>In October, 1796, Spain joined France on the
+ground that the British, in their operations against
+the enemy, had injured her in several ways. One of
+the reasons given was so absurd that we can hardly
+conceive it to have been put forth seriously. Great
+Britain had captured Demerara, and this put her in
+a situation to possess positions of greater importance.
+Spain, however, got nothing by her taking up the
+quarrel, for her trade was absolutely swept from the
+seas, and communication with America almost cut
+off. This state of things became so troublesome that
+for the first time in her history neutral vessels were
+permitted to trade in her American colonies. She
+also lost the island of Trinidad, which had remained
+in her possession since the days of Ralegh.</p>
+
+<p>Soon the whole of the West Indies and Spanish
+Main were virtually under the control of Great
+Britain, little opportunity being given to her enemies
+of crossing the Atlantic. No longer could the Carib<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span>bean
+Sea be the scene of the great struggle&mdash;the
+forces of the combatants were wanted nearer home.
+Now again came the harvest of the little island of St.
+Thomas, until Denmark was also numbered among
+the enemies of the "Queen of the Seas." Then the
+United States came to get her pickings as a neutral,
+which gave such an impetus to her ship-building and
+commerce, that later the seamen trained under such
+auspices became formidable rivals to the British.</p>
+
+<p>The colonists did not altogether dislike this great
+war. True, freights and insurances were very high,
+but then the prices of produce were high also. There
+was a spice of danger in every voyage, but after all
+the risk was not so very great until the vessels came
+into the Channel. Then there was a convoy to protect
+them, and they might even get prize money by
+capturing traders of the enemy. Every vessel went
+armed, and many a privateer of the enemy got severely
+beaten by a gallant body of merchant seamen and
+passengers. This was a glorious time for the British
+navy, but the fleets in the West Indies had little to
+do after the beginning of the war. There was a great
+disturbance on the island of Hispaniola, a riot in
+Grenada, troubles in the French islands, and a few
+skirmishes here and there, but nothing of much consequence
+to the British.</p>
+
+<p>There were many small difficulties of course, and
+the navigation laws had to be relaxed generally in
+favour of neutrals, as otherwise provisions would have
+been scarce. The Dutch were not altogether displeased
+with British rule, for Cura&ccedil;ao, which had not
+been conquered, was captured from its French garrison<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span>
+in 1800, at the request of the inhabitants, whose trade
+had been entirely stopped. Then the Spanish colonies
+came to an arrangement by which much of their produce
+went through British hands, and this prevented
+the neutrals from getting everything.</p>
+
+<p>In 1802 the peace of Amiens gave France a rest
+for about ten months, when she got back her own
+and the Dutch colonies, leaving Trinidad as an addition
+to those of Great Britain. Hardly, however, had
+they taken possession, when the treaty was broken,
+and the British were again in their midst. A great
+deal of the work which had been undone by the peace
+had now to be undertaken afresh, but it was ultimately
+accomplished, so that things went on much the same
+as before.</p>
+
+<p>The year 1805 was notable for Nelson's trip across
+the Atlantic in search of the French fleet, which however
+fled before him and got back to Europe. The
+same year also saw the heroic defence of "H.M.S."
+Diamond Rock, which however was not a ship, but an
+improvised fortress, which after a long struggle was
+obliged to capitulate. Hundreds of gallant exploits
+were performed in the West Indies by both English
+and French, and thus the war went on year after year,
+until it became something to be calculated for in
+commercial transactions. People began to look upon
+it almost as a natural state of things, and fathers told
+their children that they had peace on one occasion
+long ago for as many as ten years.</p>
+
+<p>The British had undoubtedly become very arrogant.
+Their position on the sea was so supreme that they
+did much as they pleased with the few neutrals. This<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span>
+sort of thing did not suit the North American traders,
+who were Englishmen also, and like their forefathers
+resented any interference whatever. It resulted, therefore,
+that the United States declared war in January,
+1813, and made the planters understand what took
+place "when Greek met Greek." Almost immediately
+every colony was pestered and worried by a number
+of fast-sailing schooners, as dangerous in a sense
+as had once been the fly-boats of the buccaneers.
+The heavy sugar boats going from plantation
+to port were captured in great numbers, and
+some of the harbours actually blockaded by the
+"Saucy Jack," the "Hornet," and other audacious
+Yankee craft with names as suggestive of their
+characters. Then, indeed, the West Indies were
+roused from their apathy&mdash;war was actually at their
+doors. However, peace came at last, and after 1815
+it might be expected that the islands would go on
+prospering and to prosper.</p>
+
+<p>Such, however, was not the case. In 1807 a great
+difficulty had come upon them by the abolition of the
+slave-trade, which at once put a stop to all extensions,
+either in the way of new plantations or of the acreage
+under cultivation. This was the first great check, and
+with the fall in prices, which ensued when Britain
+became the consignee of almost every settlement,
+caused a cry of "Ruin!" to arise, which has continued
+with short intermissions down to the present day.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3><a name="XII" id="XII"></a>XII</h3>
+
+<h3>DOWNFALL OF HISPANIOLA</h3>
+
+
+<p>Before the abolition of the slave-trade had affected
+the British islands the French colonies were distracted
+by the results of their great revolution. Hispaniola,
+or rather that portion now known as Hayti, had
+become, as we before said, the most important colony;
+we must now give the story of its downfall. If this
+had happened by the fortune of war it would perhaps
+not have been so deplorable, but to be utterly ruined
+as it was, until even now, after the lapse of a century,
+it is behind its neighbours, is very sad.</p>
+
+<p>But, in the struggle for existence the straining after
+liberty has to be reckoned with, and although the
+process causes intense suffering to both lord and serf&mdash;master
+and slave&mdash;the fight is sure to come at some
+time or other. Miss Martineau uses the title, "The
+hour and the man," for her romance of the liberation
+of this once flourishing island. The hour had come,
+but we are afraid <i>the man</i> has not yet appeared on
+Hispaniola.</p>
+
+<p>When the French people took the government from
+the hands of their king and summoned the States<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span>
+General, revolutionary ideas had already come to a
+head, and the matter of slavery received much consideration.
+In all the colonies were numbers of free
+coloured persons, who had been manumitted by their
+fathers, and in many cases sent to Europe for their
+education. In Paris they were brought into communication
+with a kind of anti-slavery society, called
+<i>L'Amis des noirs</i>, before which they had opportunities
+of ventilating their grievances. These consisted of
+civil disabilities which kept mulattoes in the background,
+and prevented their taking what they believed
+to be their proper positions in society. The time was
+fitted for such an agitation, the people were there, and
+it was only to be expected that their complaints
+would come in the long catalogue of charges against
+the aristocrats, among whom were included the West
+Indian planters. However, although there was little
+sympathy with the colonists, nothing particular was
+done as yet, except the issue of the celebrated declaration
+that all men were born, and continued to be, free
+and equal as to their political rights. It might be
+said, perhaps, that this alone gave freedom to the slave
+and civil equality to the mulatto, but as it did not
+specially apply to them, little trouble ensued. The
+planters, however, were sufficiently acute to see the
+logical outcome of the declaration, and were correspondingly
+troubled, as they felt that if published
+among the negroes it might convert them into implacable
+enemies, and bring on dangerous insurrections.
+They were soon pacified, however, by orders to
+convene provincial assemblies, and send representatives
+to Paris: this they thought would prevent mis<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span>chief,
+as their interests
+could be made known and
+promoted in France.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 498px;">
+<img src="images/p258.jpg" width="498" height="142" alt="VIEW OF PART OF HISPANIOLA." title="" />
+<span class="caption">VIEW OF PART OF HISPANIOLA.<br />
+(<i>From Andrews&#39; &quot;West Indies.&quot;</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The free coloured people soon heard the news, and at once began to claim
+their rights as citizens, which the planters were by no means prepared
+to grant. On this refusal they began to arm themselves, and make
+demonstrations in various parts of Hayti, but at first were easily put
+down by the authorities. As yet there was little ill-feeling; the
+demonstrations were only alarming from their significance and their
+possible consequences. It followed, therefore, that little was done
+beyond a demand for submission, the mulattoes being allowed to
+disperse<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span> on promising to keep the peace. A few whites, however,
+who had been leaders in the agitation, were severely punished, and when
+a certain Mons. Dubois not only advocated the claims of the coloured
+people, but the slaves as well, he was banished from the colony.</p>
+
+<p>Mons. de Beaudierre, a <i>ci-devant</i> magistrate, also
+helped to add to the trouble. He was enamoured of
+a coloured woman, who owned a valuable plantation,
+and wanted to marry her, but at the same time wished
+to see her free from all civil disabilities. Accordingly
+he drew up a memorial to the committee of his section,
+claiming for the mulattoes the full benefit of
+the national declaration of rights. This roused the
+authorities, who at once arrested him, but so strong
+was the feeling of the whites that they took the
+prisoner from gaol and put him to death.</p>
+
+<p>The agitation in Hayti as well as in Martinique
+led to petitions and remonstrances to the National
+Assembly, and on the 8th of March, 1790, the
+majority voted that it was never intended to comprehend
+the internal government of the colonies in
+the constitution of the mother country, or to subject
+them to laws incompatible with their local conditions.
+They therefore authorised the inhabitants of each
+colony to signify their wishes, and promised that, as
+long as the plans suggested were conformable to the
+mutual interests of the colonies and the metropolis,
+they would not cause any innovations.</p>
+
+<p>This of course raised a clamour among the friends
+of the blacks and mulattoes, who considered it as
+sanctioning the slave-trade, which they wanted to put<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span>
+down. In Hayti the General Assembly met and
+made some radical changes, which were opposed by
+many of the old colonists, and this brought discord
+among the whites. The Governor dissolved the
+Assembly, but this only brought more trouble, for the
+subordinate Western body took the part of the General
+Assembly, and went so far that the Governor tried
+to suppress it by force. But the members put themselves
+under the protection of the national guard who
+resisted the troops sent against them, and after a
+short skirmish drove them off. Thus all authority
+was put at defiance by the whites, when if they
+wanted to keep down the coloured and black people,
+it was of the greatest consequence that union should
+exist. The General Convention called the colony to
+arms, but, before actually commencing hostilities,
+they resolved to proceed to France, and lay the whole
+matter before the Convention. Accordingly to the
+number of eighty-five they sailed on the 8th of
+August, 1790, the authorities also agreeing to await
+the result.</p>
+
+<p>Among the coloured residents in France was a
+young man named James Og&eacute;, the son of a mulatto
+woman by a white man, whose mother owned a coffee
+plantation. He was a regular attendant at the meetings
+of the friends of the blacks, where, under such
+men as Lafayette and Robespierre, he had been
+initiated into the doctrine of the equal rights of men.
+On hearing of the vote of non-interference with the
+colonies, Og&eacute;, maddened by the thought that the
+civil disabilities of people of his colour would be continued,
+resolved to go himself to Hayti. He was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span>
+confident that the people there would join him, and
+going out by way of the United States he obtained
+there a good supply of arms, with which he arrived in
+October of the same year.</p>
+
+<p>Six weeks after his arrival he wrote to the Governor,
+demanding that all the privileges of the whites should
+be extended to every other person, without distinction.
+As representing the coloured people he
+made this request, and if their wrongs were not at
+once redressed, he said, they were prepared to take
+up arms. He had already been joined by his two
+brothers, and they were busy calling upon their
+friends to insist, assuring them that France approved
+of their claim. But with all his efforts he could get
+but few followers, the same difficulty cropping up
+here as in most of the slave insurrections&mdash;a want
+of the power of combination under one of their own
+race. However, he at last got together two hundred,
+and, receiving no answer from the Governor, they
+commenced a series of raids on the plantations. Og&eacute;
+cautioned them against bloodshed, but the first white
+man that fell into their hands was murdered, and
+others soon met with the same fate. Even mulattoes,
+who refused to join the insurgents, were treated the
+same way; one man who pointed to his wife and six
+children, as a reason for his refusal, being murdered
+with them.</p>
+
+<p>The Governor now sent out a body of troops and
+militia to suppress the revolt, with the result that
+Og&eacute; was defeated, and obliged to take refuge with
+the remnant of his followers in the Spanish colony of
+St. Domingo. The whites were now roused, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span>
+began to cry out for vengeance upon the coloured
+people in general, whether they had sympathised
+with Og&eacute; or not. In self-defence they had to take
+up arms in several places, but by conciliation on the
+part of the authorities a general insurrection was
+averted for the time. A new Governor now arrived,
+and one of his first acts was to demand the extradition
+of Og&eacute; by the Spaniards, which, being done,
+he was executed by breaking alive upon the wheel.
+In his last confession he is said to have stated that a
+plot was then hatching for the destruction of all the
+whites, but little notice was taken of this information.
+The whites believed that now the leader was dead
+things would go on in the old way, but, unfortunately
+for them, they were mistaken.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the delegates had arrived in France,
+where they were honourably received. After an
+interview with a Committee of the Convention, however,
+they were informed that their decrees were
+reversed, the Haytian Assembly dissolved, and they
+themselves under arrest. This, when the news
+reached the colony, put the whites into a state of
+consternation, and for awhile it appeared as if Hayti
+would be the scene of a civil war. Captain Mauduit,
+who had led the force against the assembly, was
+murdered by his own troops, and preparations were
+made to resist the authorities.</p>
+
+<p>The planters thought these arbitrary measures of
+France very oppressive, but they had yet to learn
+how far the revolutionists might go. In May, 1791,
+the matter of equal rights for the coloured people
+came up before the National Convention, and their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span>
+claim was strongly advocated by Robespierre and
+others. It was now that the words, "Perish the
+colonies rather than sacrifice one of our principles,"
+were uttered by that bloodthirsty revolutionist, to
+afterwards become a stock quotation of the extremist
+in every country. The result of the discussion was
+the decree of May the 15th, that the people of colour
+resident in the French colonies, and born of free
+parents, should be allowed all the privileges of French
+citizens; to have votes, and be eligible for election to
+the parochial and colonial assemblies.</p>
+
+<p>This brought on a crisis in Hayti. The coloured
+people were determined to obtain their rights, and the
+planters equally resolved that they should remain as
+before. The Governor was so much alarmed that he
+at once sent to France for further assistance, at the
+same time asking for the suspension of the obnoxious
+decree. Hearing of this, the mulattoes began to
+assemble and take up arms, and the Governor hardly
+dared to take action pending the result of his application.</p>
+
+<p>On the morning of the 23rd of August, 1791, the
+people of Cape Fran&ccedil;ois were alarmed by reports
+that the slaves in the neighbourhood were in open
+revolt, plundering the plantations and murdering
+the whites. The disturbance had commenced with
+the hewing in pieces of a young white apprentice
+on Pin. No&eacute;, which murder was followed by a general
+massacre of every white man, except the surgeon,
+who was spared that he might become useful. From
+one estate to another the revolt spread, until the
+whole neighbourhood was a scene of murder, fire, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span>
+rapine. The white townspeople put their women
+and children on board the ships, and then united for
+a stubborn defence, but the coloured men wanted to
+remain neutral. This roused such a strong feeling
+that even at that critical time the whites had to be
+prevented by the authorities from murdering the
+mulattoes. By thus protecting the mulattoes their
+good-will was gained, and they volunteered to go out
+against the rebels.</p>
+
+<p>Amidst the glare of a hundred conflagrations a
+strong body of men was collected and sent against
+the negroes. They defeated one body of four
+hundred, but accessions were continually made to
+the side of the rebels, until their overpowering
+numbers compelled the whites to retreat, and do
+their best to save the town. The revolt had been
+continually spreading, and now extended over the
+whole country, coloured people joining the negroes
+in their work of destruction. One planter was nailed
+to a gate, and then had his limbs cut off, one after
+another; a carpenter was sawn asunder, on the
+ground that this mode of execution suited his trade;
+and two mulatto sons killed their white father, notwithstanding
+his prayers and promises. White, and
+even coloured children, were killed without mercy at
+the breasts of their mothers, and young women were
+violated before the eyes of their parents. Here and
+there the horror was relieved by kind actions on the
+part of faithful slaves, who, while joining in the
+revolt for their own safety, saved their masters and
+mistresses.</p>
+
+<p>The inhabitants of the town did all they could by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span>
+sorties, but this was very little. The rebels would
+run away at the first onset, but only to return in
+overpowering numbers. A few were taken and
+broken on the wheel, others fell in the skirmishes,
+but the insurrection still went on. It spread to the
+neighbourhood of Port au Prince, but, on the inhabitants
+of that town agreeing to enforce the obnoxious
+decree, the rebels retired. This action was
+at last followed by those of Cape Fran&ccedil;ois, and a
+partial truce ensued. In two months, it was said,
+a thousand plantations were destroyed, and ten
+thousand blacks and two thousand whites killed.</p>
+
+<p>The news of this great disaster caused a revulsion
+of feeling in Paris, and the decree which had caused
+so much trouble was annulled on the 24th of September,
+before the results of the insurrection and the
+truces were known. The arrangement had been
+come to at Port au Prince on the 11th of the same
+month, and on the 20th at Cape Fran&ccedil;ois. Thus
+almost at the time when it was being repealed the
+colonists were promising to see it enforced.</p>
+
+<p>It is hardly necessary to say what could be the
+only result of the arrival of this revocation. The
+struggle was renewed, and all hopes of reconciliation
+were at an end. The coloured party charged the
+whites with treachery and duplicity; now they would
+fight until one or the other was exterminated. They
+captured Port St. Louis, but got a severe repulse
+from Port au Prince. Both sides were desperate, and
+although there were fewer massacres in cold blood
+the rebels fell in thousands. But as they were so
+numerous this slaughter made little impression.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span>
+Even when the prisoners were tortured with a refinement
+of cruelty hardly credible, no good resulted
+from such examples. The time for all that had
+passed, yet the whites nailed one poor mulatto by
+the feet in a cart, and had him driven round the
+neighbourhood as a spectacle, before breaking him
+on the wheel.</p>
+
+<p>In January, 1792, three commissioners arrived from
+France to attempt a reconciliation, which they commenced
+by publishing the decree revoking the rights
+of the coloured people. Then they proclaimed a
+general amnesty for all who should surrender within
+a given time. Such utter ignorance as was thus
+shown has hardly been equalled in any age; we can
+only ascribe it to the fact that the scum had risen
+to the top. The mulattoes were roused to fury, and
+the whites equally exasperated. At Petit Goave the
+rebels held thirty-four white prisoners, and at once
+they were brought forth to be broken on the wheel,
+previous to which the proclamation of amnesty was
+read to them, their executioners mockingly claiming
+it as a pardon for the cruelties they were exercising.</p>
+
+<p>This sort of thing, however, could not go on very
+long. Most of the plantations and provision grounds
+had been destroyed, and both parties felt the want
+of food. Unless something were done they would
+all be starved; for without means of buying supplies
+even the whites could hardly exist, while the blacks
+did nothing to raise further crops in place of those
+they had eaten or destroyed. France again made
+an attempt to put matters straight by declaring, on
+the 4th of April, 1792, that the people of colour and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span>
+free negroes ought to enjoy equal political rights
+with other citizens. New assemblies were to be
+called, in the election of which they should be
+allowed to vote; a new Governor of Hayti was
+appointed, and new commissioners sent out to inquire
+into the whole matter.</p>
+
+<p>The Governor and the commission arrived at Cape
+Fran&ccedil;ois on the 13th of September, and finding
+everything in confusion, they sent the late administrator
+to France as a prisoner, and called a new
+assembly. Then the commissioners put themselves
+in communication with the rebels, which made the
+whites think them about to emancipate the slaves.
+This was followed by a dispute between them and
+the Governor, and the appointment of yet another
+head, who arrived in May, 1793. He refused to
+recognise the commissioners, but they were not so
+easily set aside, for having the whole power of the
+colony under control, they took possession of Port
+au Prince, Jacmel, and Cape Fran&ccedil;ois, afterwards
+ordering the Governor to leave. This led to another
+war, in which the coloured rebels and even negroes
+were utilised by the commissioners, who thus, in a
+way, sanctioned the revolt. Similar atrocities to
+those formerly enacted were renewed, and again the
+colony was distracted in every part.</p>
+
+<p>The ruined planters now lost all hope, and began
+to leave for the United States, Jamaica, and other
+colonies. Some went to England, especially those
+Royalists who attributed all their disasters to the
+revolution. Here they began to urge the British to
+conquer Hayti, although as yet war had not been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span>
+declared with France. In September, 1793, an expedition
+was sent from Jamaica, and on its arrival at
+Jeremie the British were apparently welcomed by the
+whites. But the colony was so utterly distracted
+that little could be done, and although they took
+Port au Prince they were repulsed at Cape Tiberon.
+Then sickness fell upon them&mdash;"Yellow Jack"&mdash;and
+this, with the delay of reinforcements, made all
+prospects of success quite hopeless. With a foreign
+enemy at hand the commissioners did all they could
+to reconcile the parties, and to this end, just before
+the landing of the British, proclaimed complete
+emancipation of all the slaves, which was ratified in
+Paris on the 4th of February, 1794. This brought
+the whole body of rebels together, and the position
+of the enemy became untenable. Finally came the
+cession of the Spanish part of the island to France,
+and now it might be supposed that something could
+be done to restore peace.</p>
+
+<p>This repulse of the British was greatly due to the
+influence of a very remarkable personage, Toussaint
+L'Ouverture, a pure negro, and lately a slave. He
+had joined the revolt from its commencement, and
+had succeeded in gaining such an influence over his
+race as had hitherto been unknown in any slave
+insurrection. As soon as the general emancipation
+had been declared, he was so grateful that he joined
+the French, heart and soul, drove out the British, put
+down the mulattoes, and was appointed Commander-in-chief
+of the united forces. In 1801 he became
+virtually Dictator of the whole island, and was made
+President for life, with the result that many plan<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span>tations
+were re-established, and the colony was
+making slow progress towards recovery.</p>
+
+<p>Napoleon Buonaparte has been much lauded for
+his diplomacy, but he certainly knew nothing of the
+West Indies. After the peace of Amiens he had a
+little time to look after the colonies, and Hayti was
+among the first to receive attention. Toussaint was
+then almost at the height of his power, and had prepared
+a Constitution which was laid before Napoleon,
+on reading which the First Consul said it was an
+outrage on the honour of France, and the work of a
+revolted slave, whom they must punish. It was true
+that the black President was virtually independent.
+He lived in the palace at St. Domingo, and, with his
+councillors of all colours, enacted the part of a little
+sovereign. To crown his audacity, he, in July, 1801,
+proclaimed the independence of the island, and himself
+as supreme chief.</p>
+
+<p>This roused the anger of Napoleon, who retaliated
+by a proclamation re-establishing slavery in the island&mdash;a
+measure so foolish that even the planters themselves
+saw the impossibility of carrying it out. To
+reduce the negroes again to servitude was utterly
+impossible, even with all the power France could then
+bring into the island. However, it was attempted
+with a force of thirty thousand men and sixty-six
+ships of war. When this immense fleet arrived at
+Cape Fran&ccedil;ois the town was commanded by the
+negro Christophe, who, finding himself unable to cope
+with such a force, burnt the palace and withdrew. The
+French landed and sent two sons of Toussaint, who
+had been sent to France for their education, and to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span>
+whom they had given a passage to their father, bearing
+a letter from Napoleon, offering him great honours if
+he would declare his allegiance. All that Toussaint
+said in reply was that he would be faithful to his
+brethren and his God, and with that he allowed his
+sons to return.</p>
+
+<p>As yet the declaration that slavery was to be re-established
+had not been published, and the negroes
+were working the plantations on a share of the crop,
+with penalties for idleness. The French tried to put
+the negroes against Toussaint, in which they succeeded
+to some extent, the result being that civil war
+was renewed, and that the power of the black chieftain
+was broken. Then the general thought it time to
+issue the proclamation, which fell upon his negro
+allies like a thunder-clap, and made them again
+rally round Toussaint. Thus almost everything
+which had been gained was utterly and for ever
+lost.</p>
+
+<p>Now the French tried a little double-dealing. The
+general stated in a new proclamation that ignorance
+had led him hastily to fall into error, and that to prevent
+anything of the same kind, and to provide for
+the future welfare and liberty of all, he convened an
+assembly of representatives of all the inhabitants,
+regardless of colour. This won over the leaders, and
+finally peace was concluded with Toussaint. The
+fallen president wished to retire to his estate and into
+private life, but having been cordially invited to meet
+the general to discuss with him the welfare of the
+colony, he was seized at the interview and put on
+board a French frigate, which immediately sailed for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span>
+France. Here he was imprisoned for life without
+trial, and finally allowed to starve by withholding
+food and water for four days.</p>
+
+<p>The negroes again rose, and the soldiers were by
+this time so weakened by yellow fever, which even
+carried off the Governor, that little could be done
+against the rebels. Yet everything possible was
+attempted. Bloodhounds were brought from Cuba
+to worry the rebels to death; they were shot and
+taken into the sea to be drowned in strings. Dessalines
+had now become their leader, and on the
+29th of November, 1803, he with Christophe and
+Clervaux, the other rebel chiefs, issued the St.
+Domingo declaration of independence. Restored to
+their primitive dignity the black and coloured people
+proclaimed their rights, and swore never to yield
+them to any power on earth. "The frightful veil of
+prejudice is torn to pieces, and is so for ever; woe be
+to whomsoever would dare again to put together its
+bloody tatters." The landholders were not forbidden
+to return if they renounced their old errors and
+acknowledged the justice of the cause for which the
+blacks had been spilling their blood for twelve years.
+As for those who affected to believe themselves
+destined by Heaven to be masters and tyrants, if they
+came it would be to meet chains or to be quickly
+expelled. They had sworn not to listen to clemency
+for those who dared to speak of the restoration of
+slavery. Nothing was too costly a sacrifice for liberty,
+and every means was lawful to employ against those
+who wished to suppress it. Were they to cause rivers
+and torrents of blood to flow&mdash;were they to fire half<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span>
+the globe to maintain it&mdash;they would be innocent
+before the tribunal of Providence.</p>
+
+<p>This declaration was followed on the 30th of March,
+1804, by an address of Dessalines, in which he said
+that everything that reminded them of France also
+reminded them of the cruelties of Frenchmen. There
+still remained, he said, Frenchmen on their island&mdash;creatures,
+alas! of their indulgence; when would they
+be tired of breathing the same air? Their cruelty,
+when compared with the patient moderation of the
+blacks&mdash;their difference in colour&mdash;everything said
+that they were not brothers, and would never become
+so. If they continued to find an asylum, troubles and
+dissensions would be sure to continue. "Citizens,
+inhabitants of Hayti, men, women, girls, children,
+cast your eyes upon each point of the island! Seek
+in it, you, your wives; you, your husbands; you,
+your sisters!" Their ashes were in the grave, and
+they had not avenged their deaths. Let the blacks
+learn that they had done nothing if they did not give
+the nations a terrible but just example of the vengeance
+of a brave people, who had recovered liberty,
+and were jealous to maintain it.</p>
+
+<p>They were again roused, and from the 29th of April
+to the 14th of May an indiscriminate massacre of the
+whites took place, as many as 2,500 being killed
+during the fifteen days. On the 28th of April Dessalines
+issued a manifesto congratulating them on
+their success. At length, he said, the hour of vengeance
+had arrived, and the implacable enemies of the
+rights of man had suffered the punishment due to
+their crimes. His arm had too long delayed to strike,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span>
+but at the signal, which the justice of God had urged,
+they had brought the axe to bear upon the ancient
+tree of slavery and prejudice. In vain had time and
+the infernal politics of Europe surrounded it with
+triple brass. They had become, like their natural
+enemies, cruel and merciless. Like a mighty torrent
+their vengeful fury had carried away everything in
+its impetuous course. "Thus perish all tyrants over
+innocence and all oppressors of mankind!" Where
+was that evil and unworthy Haytian who thought he
+had not accomplished the decrees of the Eternal by
+exterminating those bloodthirsty tigers? "If there
+be one, let him fly&mdash;indignant nature discards him
+from our bosom&mdash;let him hide his shame far from
+hence! The air we breathe is not suited to his gross
+organs&mdash;it is the pure air of liberty, august and triumphant."
+Yes, they had rendered war for war, crime
+for crime, outrage for outrage. He had saved his
+country&mdash;he had avenged America. He made this
+avowal in the face of earth and heaven&mdash;it was his
+pride and glory. Black and yellow, whom the
+duplicity of Europeans had endeavoured to divide,
+now made but one family&mdash;he advised them to maintain
+that precious concord and happy harmony. In
+order to strengthen the tie let them call to remembrance
+the catalogue of atrocities&mdash;the abominable
+project of massacring the whole population, unblushingly
+proposed to him by the French authorities. Let
+that nation which was mad enough to attack him,
+come&mdash;let them bring their cohorts of homicides. He
+would allow them to land, but woe to those who
+approached the mountains! "Never again shall a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</a></span>
+colonist or a European set his foot upon this territory
+with the title of master or proprietor."</p>
+
+<p>On the 8th of October the writer of these bloodthirsty
+addresses was crowned as Jacques the First,
+Emperor of Hayti.</p>
+
+<p>In 1808 an attempt was made on the part of Spain
+to regain her old colony on the eastern part of the
+island, where France still maintained a nominal supremacy.
+Spain was now an ally of Great Britain, and,
+with the aid of British troops, she took St. Domingo
+and retained this part of the island until 1821, when
+a revolution took place and it became independent, to
+be almost immediately united with its sister republic.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the Emperor Jacques did not long enjoy
+his throne in peace, for he was murdered by his
+coloured soldiers on the 17th of October, 1806. A
+republic followed, under the presidency of General
+Petion, who was at the head of the mulattoes, but did
+not agree with the blacks. This led to a division, the
+north, with Cape Fran&ccedil;ois as the capital, coming into
+the hands of the negro Christophe, who got himself
+crowned as the Emperor Henry the First; the
+southern district, with Port au Prince, forming a
+republic under President Petion.</p>
+
+<p>Henry was a man of good common sense, but like
+most negroes, much inclined to ape the whites. One
+of his toasts at a dinner was characteristic: "My
+brother, the king of Great Britain, and may he be successful
+against Buonaparte, and continue the barrier
+between that tyrant and this kingdom." He created
+a legion of honour, called the Order of St. Henry,
+built a palace, and began to acquire a fleet; he gave<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</a></span>
+balls and encouraged operas, had a great seal, gave
+titles of nobility, and procured a set of regalia
+and jewels, with velvet robes and all other appendages
+of royalty. Under his rule the country
+flourished, for he would have no idlers. Yet he was
+a tyrant, and at last, in 1820, he was attacked by his
+own guard, and committed suicide to prevent falling
+into their hands. President Boyer, who had succeeded
+Petion, now took advantage of the confusion
+to incorporate the two districts, and two years later
+he added the revolted Spanish portion, thus bringing
+the whole island under one rule, the presidency of
+which he held for twenty-two years.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3><a name="XIII" id="XIII"></a>XIII</h3>
+
+<h3>EMANCIPATION OF THE SPANISH MAIN</h3>
+
+
+<p>The influence of the French Revolution was felt in
+most of the other islands, but nowhere did it lead to
+such disasters as befel Hispaniola. In 1795 there
+was an insurrection in the island of Grenada, where
+the coloured people, under French influence, nearly
+drove the English out of the colony. Even when
+defeated they held their own in the mountains for
+about a year, committing many atrocities on the
+whites who fell into their hands. In most of the
+French islands there were insurrections more or less
+dangerous, some of which were put down by the
+British conquerors, who thus helped to keep the
+peace. It could not be expected, however, that small
+places like Martinique and Guadeloupe would ever
+have made such stubborn resistance as the great
+island of Hispaniola.</p>
+
+<p>A very great impression was made on the Spanish
+colonies, who during the war, owing to the distracted
+condition of the mother country, attained to a degree
+of freedom hitherto beyond their reach. This led to
+unfavourable comparisons between past and present,
+and the feeling that grew up was fomented by the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</a></span>
+British, who now had many opportunities from the
+measure of free trade which resulted from the peculiar
+circumstances of that period. Secret societies
+were then common all over Europe, and in Spain
+they were not wanting. In the early years of this
+century one of the most energetic members was Francisco
+Miranda, a native of Caracas, who had been
+a soldier under Washington, and had distinguished
+himself by his prominence in many of the revolutionary
+projects of the time. He was the prime
+organiser of the Creoles of South America, and
+under his auspices the "Gran Reunion Americana"
+was founded in London. Bolivar and San Martin
+were initiated into this society, and took its oath to
+fight for the emancipation of South America. Miranda
+did his best to ensure the co-operation of Great Britain
+and the United States, but failing in this, determined
+to get up one or more insurrections without their
+assistance.</p>
+
+<p>On the 27th of March, 1806, he sailed with three
+vessels and two hundred men from Jacmel, Hayti,
+and on the 11th of April arrived at the Dutch island
+of Aruba, from whence the little company proceeded
+to Puerto Cabello. The demonstration, however, was
+nipped in the bud, for two of his vessels being almost
+immediately captured by the Spaniards, Miranda was
+obliged to fly in the other to Barbados. Here he
+met Admiral Cochrane, with whom he entered into
+an arrangement for British assistance. Conceiving
+that it might be mutually advantageous to Great
+Britain and the Spanish provinces that the latter
+should be freed from the yoke of Spain, the admiral<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</a></span>
+agreed to support him in a descent on Venezuela,
+between the coasts opposite Trinidad and Aruba.
+The only stipulation was for free trade with Great
+Britain as against her enemies, and with that Miranda
+went off to Trinidad.</p>
+
+<p>Here he hoped to gain recruits from among the
+Spanish people of the island, to whom he issued an
+address. The glorious opportunity, he said, presented
+itself of relieving from oppression and
+arbitrary government a people who were worthy of
+a better fate, but who were shackled by a despotism
+too cruel for human nature longer to endure. Groaning
+under their afflictions they hailed with extended
+arms the noble cause of freedom and independence,
+and called upon them to share the God-like action of
+relieving them.</p>
+
+<p>This stirring address made little impression, and
+consequently few followers were enrolled. However,
+he got eight armed vessels and two traders, and
+sailed from Trinidad on the 25th of July, 1806, for
+Coro on the Main. The fort and city were taken,
+but the people, instead of joyfully welcoming their
+deliverers, ran away and could not be induced to
+return. Miranda, finding the place untenable, went
+over to Aruba, of which he took possession as a basis
+for further operations. But the British authorities
+looked upon his scheme as impracticable, especially
+as it tended to injure their trade, and in November
+Miranda was compelled to disband his little company
+of less than three hundred at Trinidad.</p>
+
+<p>The time for a revolution had not yet arrived, but
+it was fast approaching. It could not be expected<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</a></span>
+that Great Britain would assist filibustering against
+her ally, which Spain now became, and without some
+outside assistance Miranda found it impossible to do
+anything. However, the people themselves were at
+last aroused, and on the 19th of April, 1810, the city
+of Caracas deposed the captain-general and appointed
+a Junta to rule in the name of the king.
+This body invited the other provinces to join and
+form a league for mutual protection against the
+French, who now had virtual possession of the
+mother country. Other provinces took the Government
+side and prepared to suppress the revolt, which
+led Caracas to ask the assistance of Great Britain and
+the United States.</p>
+
+<p>Among the Venezuelans was Simon Bolivar, who
+afterwards became the most important personage in
+the struggle for independence. Like Miranda, he
+was a native of South America, and like him had
+imbibed revolutionary ideas in Paris. He was a
+planter, and had taken no part in the overthrow of
+the captain-general, but from his principles being
+well known, he was appointed with others to proceed
+to London in the interests of the Junta. On their
+arrival they were answered cautiously, the authorities
+not wishing to commit themselves under the circumstances.
+Here Bolivar met Miranda, and took the
+oath of the "Gran Reunion," promising to work for
+the independence of South America, notwithstanding
+his nominal position as an advocate of the king of
+Spain against Napoleon.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the Spanish Regency had proclaimed
+the leaders of the movement to be rebels, declaring
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg 280-281]</a><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281"></a></span>war against them and blockading their ports. The
+Central Junta responded by raising an army, which
+was defeated with considerable loss at Coro and had
+to retire on Caracas. This caused some discouragement,
+but Miranda now arrived, was welcomed with
+an ovation, and appointed lieutenant-general of the
+army. He was also asked to draw up a constitution
+and to become one of the deputies at the first congress
+of Venezuela to be held in March, 1811.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 538px;">
+<img src="images/p280.jpg" width="538" height="317" alt="LA GUAYRA ON THE MAIN." title="" />
+<span class="caption">LA GUAYRA ON THE MAIN.<br />
+(<i>From Andrews&#39; &quot;West Indies.&quot;</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>No longer was there any question of the French,
+the struggle was for entire independence. A civil
+war began, which raged with varying fortunes for
+twelve years, in the course of which were enacted
+scenes more worthy of the days of buccaneers than
+the beginning of the nineteenth century. In 1812
+Caracas was destroyed by an earthquake, and in
+another locality perished the greater portion of a
+thousand men, marching against the Spaniards. It
+was reported that those provinces where the revolution
+had most influence suffered greatest, while those
+more loyal almost escaped. This was due to the fact
+that the mountainous region, in which Caracas is
+situated, felt the full effect of the earthquake, but the
+priests, who were mostly loyalists, told the ignorant
+peasantry that it was a judgment on the Patriots.
+The result was that large bodies deserted, until the
+whole Patriot army became disorganised. Miranda
+was captured and sent to Spain, where he died in
+prison in 1816, but Bolivar managed to escape.</p>
+
+<p>New Granada had revolted before Venezuela and
+was more successful. It was to this province that
+Bolivar retired after the downfall of the Patriot cause<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</a></span>
+in Venezuela. Then the Spanish captain-general,
+Monteverde, who was called "the Pacificator," commenced
+his work by imprisoning so many Patriots
+that the gaols were choked, and many died of hunger
+and suffocation. In the country districts he let his
+troops ravage and plunder like hordes of banditti.
+Even his superiors were at length compelled to recall
+him on account of the numerous complaints and petitions.
+At last the people were again fairly roused,
+until there came a war of extermination, in which both
+parties tried to outvie the other in murder and rapine.</p>
+
+<p>Off the peninsula of Paria lay the small island of
+Chacachacare, and on it forty-five fugitives took
+refuge, where they consulted as to the renewal of the
+war. With only six muskets and some pistols, they
+landed on the coast on the 13th of March, 1813, surprised
+the guard of G&uuml;iria, took their arms and
+marched into the town, where they were joined by
+the garrison, making their number two hundred.
+Thus began the second war, in which the Patriots,
+assisted by the return of Bolivar and a body of troops
+from New Granada, again took possession of a large
+part of the province. On the 15th of June Bolivar
+proclaimed extermination to the Royalists, and
+named the year, the third of independence and first
+of the war to the death. This severity created many
+enemies in Venezuela, as well as in other countries,
+and even Bolivar himself afterwards said that the proclamation
+had been issued in a delirium. However,
+the result was that both sides became more ferocious
+than ever, especially when the Indians were induced
+to join the Patriots.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>On the 6th of August Bolivar entered Caracas in
+triumph. The bells rang, cannons roared, and the
+people cheered him as their liberator. His path was
+strewn with flowers, blessings were called down upon
+his head, and beautiful girls, dressed in white and the
+national colours, led his horse and crowned him with
+laurel. The prison doors were opened, the Patriots
+set free, and, in spite of his proclamation, no act of
+retaliation sullied his triumph. Two days later he
+re-established the republic and proclaimed himself
+Dictator as well as liberator.</p>
+
+<p>There were now two Dictators in Venezuela,
+Marino in the east and Bolivar in the west, but the
+Spaniards were by no means conquered. Bolivar
+published another decree on the 6th of September,
+that all Americans who were even suspected of being
+Royalists were traitors to their country, and should
+be treated as such. Ten days later twelve thousand
+men arrived from Spain, and Bolivar, who had been
+besieging Puerto Cabello, was forced to retire. This
+encouraged the Royalists, who got the llaneros of the
+Orinoco on their side by promises of freedom to kill
+and plunder in the cause of the king, and threats of
+punishing by death all who disregarded the call to
+arms.</p>
+
+<p>Bolivar was captain-general, but he shared his
+power with Marino, the rights of both resting on
+force alone. To put an end to this, an assembly of
+notables was convened at Caracas, to whom he
+resigned his office, and then accepted it again at their
+request. But the Patriots, even when united, were as
+yet unable to stand before the Spanish army, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</a></span>
+very shortly afterwards their flag was only visible on
+the island of Margarita. Bolivar again took refuge
+in New Granada, where he was elected captain-general,
+and entitled Liberator and Illustrious Pacificator.
+He, however, quarrelled with the Governor of
+Carthagena, and was forced to fly to Jamaica, saying
+before his departure that Carthagena preferred her
+own destruction to obedience to the federal government.</p>
+
+<p>In 1815, after the great peace, Marshal Morillo
+came out with 10,600 men selected from the army
+that had fought against Napoleon. He was to reduce
+the whole of the Main from Spanish Guiana to Darien,
+dealing first with Margarita. In the course of a year
+he did this, committing such atrocities as made his
+name a byword over the whole of South America.
+In the siege of Carthagena, which lasted about three
+months, the Patriots suffered greatly, hundreds dying
+of starvation; but at last, on the 6th of December,
+1815, it was captured. An amnesty was proclaimed,
+but in spite of that four hundred old men, women,
+and children who surrendered were all killed, while
+most of the stronger men who survived managed to
+escape.</p>
+
+<p>The remnant of the Patriots was now scattered
+over the country as guerillas, and while Morillo was
+subduing New Granada a fresh signal for a general
+revolt was given. The Royalist Governor, in November,
+1815, ordered the arrest of Arismendi, who had
+been pardoned, and at once the Margaritans rose,
+took possession of a part of the island, captured the
+fort, and killed the whole garrison. At the same time<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</a></span>
+the guerillas united under Paez, who now came to the
+front as a llanero and leader of his class. Thus the
+struggle was resumed with all its former virulence.</p>
+
+<p>Bolivar, when he heard of the fall of Carthagena,
+went over to Hispaniola to meet President Petion,
+who was an ardent supporter of the revolution. Here
+he received assistance of arms and money, with which
+he began to fit out an expedition to recover his lost
+position. There were many refugees from the Main
+on that island, but they were not altogether friendly
+with the late Dictator, however Petion managed to
+secure their co-operation. It followed, therefore, that
+on the 16th of March, 1816, three hundred Patriots
+left for Margarita, where they captured two Spanish
+vessels and united with their fellow-countrymen under
+Arismendi. Going over to the Main they soon got
+together a powerful force which overran the whole
+country and ultimately achieved its independence.</p>
+
+<p>But before this happened the Patriots met with
+many reverses. Sometimes it appeared as if they
+would be utterly exterminated; then the tide turned
+in their favour and they were again successful. The
+country was devastated by both parties, until cultivation
+was abandoned in many districts. Provisions for
+the armies were often unattainable, and this drove the
+soldiers to plunder wherever there was an opportunity,
+no matter that the sufferers were of their own party.</p>
+
+<p>The struggle was watched with sympathy by the
+people of England, and Canning went so far as to
+make a declaration of neutrality favourable to the
+Patriots. Then came a systematic attempt to raise
+British volunteers, and, as there were many officers<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</a></span>
+and men who had been disbanded since the great
+peace, a considerable force was raised. Carried away
+by enthusiasm they would hear nothing of the difficulties
+and dangers they had to encounter, but rushed
+to fight in the ranks of a people striving to liberate
+themselves from the grossest oppression. The country
+was represented as a perfect paradise, and the officers
+were promised grants of land in this delightful Eden,
+while the men had offers of double the pay of the
+British army. A similar call was also made in
+Germany with good results, and it was expected
+that what with the British Legion and this other
+contingent the result would be no longer doubtful.</p>
+
+<p>On their arrival at Margarita, however, they at once
+began to perceive that poverty reigned everywhere,
+and that no provision whatever had been made for
+them. The Patriots foraged for themselves, and anything
+like a commissariat was virtually unknown; but
+British soldiers were not accustomed to such a state
+of things. Then the food supply was at the best only
+live cattle, which they had to kill for themselves,
+cassava bread, and a few roots such as yams. The
+rations were so irregular, that one or two days would
+pass without any supply whatever, and this ultimately
+led to complaints and something like a mutiny, which
+was put down with the "cat."</p>
+
+<p>After some delay the British Legion was sent on
+to the Main, where they were worse off than in
+Margarita. Instead of welcoming them, the Patriots
+seemed to be jealous, and did not even give them the
+opportunity of fighting as they wished. When posted
+before Cuman&aacute; they were exposed to the burning<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</a></span>
+sun and drenching rains, without tents or any other
+shelter; their drinking water was stagnant and
+brackish, and for rations had only a pound of beef
+per day for each man, from oxen which they had
+to butcher. They were also greatly shocked at the
+enormities of the Patriots, who carried on the struggle
+in a manner suggestive of the Middle Ages rather
+than modern days. Prisoners were indiscriminately
+massacred, their murderers enjoying the work as if it
+were a recreation. It is true that in the then condition
+of the country large bodies of prisoners could
+neither be fed nor guarded; still the British could not
+but feel that the cause they had joined was not altogether
+what it had been represented. Want of proper
+food led to sickness, and soon they became quite
+broken down. Many died of fever and dysentery,
+some deserted and got away as best they could, the
+general result being that little benefit was derived
+from the British Legion by Venezuela.</p>
+
+<p>If such was the experience of the foreigners, what
+must have been that of the Patriots? They were
+certainly more used to the country and its food, and
+therefore suffered less from sickness; but this advantage
+was lost when it came to actual starvation.
+With the men engaged in the struggle, only the
+women and children were left to cultivate enough
+cassava to keep body and soul together. Even this
+little was often stolen by a foraging party, who did
+not hesitate to murder the whole family if any objection
+was made. Fugitives, if not cut off, made their
+way in canoes to Trinidad and Demerara, often arriving
+almost dead from the privations they had endured.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</a></span>
+Delicate Spanish ladies and little children sometimes
+arrived&mdash;their pitiable condition causing an outflow
+of sympathy from the planters, and a feeling of detestation
+for their persecutors.</p>
+
+<p>At the commencement of the year 1820 the Columbian
+Republic had become an accomplished fact, and
+on the 25th of November an armistice was concluded
+between Morillo and Bolivar, which virtually ended
+the struggle. The United States had looked upon it
+with favour, and Lafayette in France said that opposition
+to the independence of the New World would
+only cause suffering, but not imperil the idea. In
+1823 the celebrated Monroe doctrine was formulated,
+and Canning said in the same year that the battle was
+won and Spanish America was free.</p>
+
+<p>Central America had not suffered like Venezuela
+and New Granada. From Mexico to Panama was
+the old captain-generalship of Guatemala, but little
+interest was taken in the province, Spain leaving it
+almost entirely in the hands of the Catholic Missions.
+It was not until Columbia had gained her independence
+that Guatemala moved in the same direction,
+although there were slight disturbances in Costa
+Rica and Nicaragua from 1813 to 1815. At first
+there was a project to found a kingdom, but this
+gave way to the proposal for union with Mexico
+under the Emperor Iturbide, which was carried out,
+but did not last long. In 1823 Central America
+established a Federal Republic, and at once abolished
+slavery and declared the slave-trade to be piracy&mdash;a
+decision to which the other revolted colonies came
+about the same time.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3><a name="XIV" id="XIV"></a>XIV</h3>
+
+<h3>ABOLITION OF SLAVERY</h3>
+
+
+<p>Negro slavery, although it formed the sinews and
+backbone of the plantations, was, as we have seen,
+considered unjust by the French republicans and
+immoral by a large section of the benevolent in
+Great Britain and the United States. In both
+countries the Society of Friends, or Quakers, commenced
+to influence public opinion against its continuance
+as early as about 1770, and had it not been
+for the French Revolution it is probable that emancipation
+would have taken place early in this century.
+The premature and inconsiderate action of the French
+in Hayti lost to France her most valuable plantation,
+for some years giving such an example of what might
+happen were emancipation to be granted elsewhere,
+that those in favour of the system could always point
+to it with the finger of warning. Yet with all that
+the friends of the slave were undaunted; and as a
+beginning, in 1807, they procured the abolition of the
+slave-trade as far as Great Britain and her colonies
+were concerned, and then went on to get the traffic
+prohibited by other nations. Denmark had led the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</a></span>
+van by declaring it unlawful as early as 1792, but
+little impression was made until the nation most
+concerned took action.</p>
+
+<p>This was a great blow to the British West Indies.
+The labour question had always been of the first
+importance, and to put a sudden stop to the supply
+meant a check to all progress. For twenty years
+before a great impetus had been given to planting,
+which was much assisted by the downfall of Hayti
+and consequent reduction of her produce to such an
+extent that she no longer affected the market. Now
+that the planters could get no more negroes, anything
+like enlargement of the acreage under cultivation was
+impossible. Latterly, also, produce had diminished
+in price, which made cheap labour all the more important.
+They had great difficulty in making their
+estates pay, and when sugar fell to half its former
+value a cry of "Ruin!" went forth all over the West
+Indies. It is interesting to note that the panacea
+which they expected would save them was free trade.
+At that time the British warehouses were filled with
+sugar and other tropical produce, while every continental
+port was closed by Napoleon, and the United
+States by the navigation laws. Not only did Great
+Britain store the produce of her own colonies, but
+that from those of the French and Dutch as well. In
+1812 it was stated that the sugar consumption of
+Great Britain amounted to 225,000 hogsheads, while
+the production of her colonies was 150,000 in excess
+of this. The Southern States had just taken up
+cotton cultivation, and brought the price of that
+article too low for the West Indian planter, and, as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</a></span>
+if that were not enough, coffee also fell in price to an
+alarming extent.</p>
+
+<p>Sugar paid best, and was therefore fostered to the
+exclusion of the other products; and now began the
+plantation system which became so obnoxious to the
+anti-slavery party. Hitherto, with a full supply of
+labour, the negroes did little work as compared with
+their capabilities&mdash;now something like the factory
+system of the mother country was introduced. The
+old methods would no longer enable the planter to
+get a profit, and he must make the best of his labour
+supply. Great administrative ability, more careful
+management, attention to economy, and concentration,
+were all necessary to prevent losses, and that
+these were not wanting can easily be seen from the
+results. The slaves were driven into the field in
+gangs, and kept at work by the threat of the driver's
+whip, while the overseers and manager gave most
+careful attention to the whole system.</p>
+
+<p>Not only did the negroes work, but the whites also;
+in fact, on the part of the latter there was a continual
+strain after a fortune on which to retire from this tiresome
+and harassing work of nigger-driving. Where
+one succeeded, ten failed; many died of the exposure
+and of the <i>anti-malarial</i> drinks they imbibed
+so plentifully. So great was the mortality that
+the colonies became proverbial for their number of
+widows, some of whom, however, were not above
+managing their own plantations. It was a race for
+wealth, to which everything else was secondary.</p>
+
+<p>The slaves diminished every year in the absence of
+additions from outside, as the whites would have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</a></span>
+done under similar circumstances. That there was
+no natural increase was mainly due to the fact that
+the sexes were unequal, and then, again, maternal
+affection was sadly wanting in the women, who
+seemed to care less for their children than some
+domestic animals. This state of things was mainly
+the outcome of the system, which was undoubtedly
+immoral, but the mental disabilities of the race must
+also be taken into consideration. The anti-slavery
+party considered that environment was everything;
+if they could only free the negro from compulsory
+servitude he would at once become an industrious
+labourer. Yes, in their opinion, if he had the incentive
+of wages, it would make him a credit to himself
+and his community. The slaves, they said, were
+worked to death, yet as free men they would do more
+and perform their tasks better. Their experience with
+free workmen led to these conclusions, but this could
+not apply to the West Indies nor to the negro
+race.</p>
+
+<p>The anti-slavery party was very strong, and
+although it is not stated that they took "Perish
+the colonies!" for their motto, it is very certain that
+they cared little about the future of either white or
+black as long as they carried their object. To this
+end every possible case of oppression and ill-treatment
+was exaggerated, and spoken of as if it were
+common, notwithstanding that the case only came to
+their notice through the trial and punishment of the
+offender. The fact was the planter could not afford
+to ill-treat his slave&mdash;no other animal of his live
+stock was of so much value. If a valuable horse<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</a></span>
+were killed another could be obtained to replace him,
+but this was almost impossible in the case of the
+negro. Formerly, when he cost about &pound;20, it might
+have paid to work him to death; now that his price
+was five or six times as much, self-interest alone prevented
+ill-treatment. There was a strong public
+opinion in every colony which prevented cruelty, and
+there were societies in some which gave prizes to
+those in charge of estates who raised the greatest
+number of children in proportion to their negroes.
+This breeding of negroes was necessarily very slow
+work, and did little to make up for the stoppage of
+importation. It followed, therefore, that every year
+the amount of available labour became less.</p>
+
+<p>In 1815 the anti-slavery party commenced a
+further agitation in favour of the negro, with the
+result that a Registrar of slaves was appointed for
+each colony, and ultimately a Protector. By obtaining
+an annual census they hoped to have some check
+on the decrease, and at the same time see if any
+Africans were surreptitiously imported. In some
+places there was already a slave registration for the
+purpose of adjusting the head-tax; here the planters
+did not oppose the measure, although they resented
+interference. Others, like Barbados, protested against
+the innovation as something quite unnecessary, or
+even if desirable, not to be imposed upon them from
+outside. This led to a great deal of discussion at
+the planters' tables, where the slave waiters listened
+to what was said, and from thence carried garbled
+reports to the others.</p>
+
+<p>In every colony were numbers of free negroes and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</a></span>
+coloured people, some of whom were loafers and
+spongers on the slaves, while others went about the
+country peddling. Having nothing to do, they
+became the news-carriers and circulators of garbled
+reports. In 1815 there lived in Barbados a free
+coloured man named Washington Franklin, who,
+like many negroes, was possessed of a good memory
+and a great power of declamation. Getting hold of
+the English and colonial newspapers, he would read
+the speeches of Wilberforce and others, and after
+putting his own construction on them, retail them in
+language tending to rouse the slaves. To him was
+due an impression that prevailed in Barbados, probably
+from a misunderstanding of the Registry Bill,
+that they were all to be free at the beginning of the
+year 1816. When New Year's Day had passed they
+became dissatisfied, believing that their masters had
+received orders to set them free, but would not execute
+them. They had heard of the successful rising
+in Hayti, and were determined to attempt a similar
+revolt in Barbados.</p>
+
+<p>After waiting for the expected freedom until the
+14th of April, they determined on that day to have
+a general rising, which was signalled by burning
+heaps of cane-trash in the parish of St. Philip. Soon
+the fields were set on fire, and frenzied mobs, continually
+increasing in numbers, went from one plantation
+to another seeking arms. This went on for two
+days, but on the arrival of the militia they dispersed,
+leaving a waste behind. As usual a great many of
+the negroes were executed, although it does not
+appear that any whites got killed in the revolt.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</a></span>
+However, the Registry Act was delayed for two
+years, to be ultimately passed in January, 1817.</p>
+
+<p>Towards the end of the last century a new class
+of men appeared in the West Indies&mdash;the Protestant
+missionaries. Catholic missions had been established
+in the Spanish possessions since the time of Columbus,
+but hitherto, with the exception of a few Moravians,
+no other Church had done anything to convert the
+slaves in the British colonies. Between 1780 and
+1790, Methodist societies were established in most of
+the islands, notwithstanding the opposition of the
+planters, who in some cases appear to have thought
+that baptized Christians could no longer be held in
+slavery. This vulgar error, however, was not the real
+cause of the antagonism to these teachers, but rather
+the feeling natural to a master which makes him
+resent any outside interference between himself and
+his servants. The best and kindest were the first to
+feel this. The slaves were their children, and to them
+they applied, in all their troubles and difficulties, as to
+a great father. It followed, therefore, that when the
+missionaries came and proclaimed themselves friends
+to the slaves, giving them advice in secular as well as
+religious matters, the cordial feeling was broken.
+"Massa" was much put out, for he liked to hold
+the position of a little god to these poor ignorant
+creatures over whom he held such power. The
+slaves were sometimes whipped as bad children when
+they did wrong, and as children they cared little for
+a flogging. It is easily conceivable that a humane
+missionary might feel more pain at witnessing such a
+punishment than the culprit himself, but it is a fact<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</a></span>
+that cruel punishment was never mentioned by the
+slaves as an excuse for a revolt.</p>
+
+<p>The missionaries were shocked at the apparent
+nakedness and destitution of the negroes, as a visitor
+to the West Indies will be even now. They did
+not remember that their clothing and houses were
+well suited to the climate, and that a home in the
+English sense of the word would not have been
+appreciated by them. These things were reported to
+the societies at home, the members of which knew no
+more about the tropics than the merchant who once
+sent a consignment of warming-pans to Barbados.
+Those who wanted to raise a cry of cruelty to the
+poor slave, circulated these facts, and put their own
+construction upon them, one going so far as to state
+that there were no chimneys to the houses, as if this
+omission were a slave disability or oppression, although
+any visitor to the colonies could have told him that
+these conveniences were hardly found anywhere.</p>
+
+<p>The negro willingly listened to his friend the
+missionary, and felt eager to perform the rites and
+ceremonies of the little congregation. The Established
+Church was that of England, and although in
+some places there were special services for the blacks,
+in others "slaves and dogs" were refused admission.
+This exclusiveness threw the slaves into the hands of
+the Moravians, Baptists, Methodists, and the agents of
+the London Missionary Society. The Church government
+of some of these was in the hands of the congregation,
+and as this was a sort of playing at "Massa,"
+the slave took to them all the more readily.</p>
+
+<p>No doubt these ministers were very good men, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</a></span>
+animated by a great love for the negroes, but this did
+not prevent their being misunderstood by both master
+and slave. Then many of them were connected with
+the anti-slavery society, and however careful they
+might be not to offend local prejudices, by speaking
+against the obnoxious system, as conscientious men
+they could not help showing their bias. The established
+clergymen, on the contrary, when they preached
+to the slaves, told them to "be subject to the powers
+that be," and to remain content in the condition where
+Providence had placed them.</p>
+
+<p>At first most of the planters only sneered at these
+attempts to convert the slaves, but when they saw
+what an attraction the chapels became, they opposed
+them openly. Gangs of young fellows would attend,
+and sometimes break up the meetings by jeering at
+the preacher. In 1807 an ordinance was passed in
+Jamaica "for preventing the profanation of religious
+rites and false worshipping of God, under the pretence
+of preaching and teaching, by illiterate, ignorant, and
+ill-disposed persons, and of the mischief consequent
+thereupon." Considering it the first duty of all magistrates
+to encourage the solemn exercise of religion,
+and whereas nothing tended more to bring it into
+disrepute than the pretended preaching and expounding
+of the Word of God by ignorant persons
+and false enthusiasts, to persons of colour and
+slaves, it was enacted that, after the 1st of July, no
+unauthorised person should presume to teach, preach,
+offer public prayer, or sing psalms to any assembly
+of these people, on pain of a fine of a hundred
+pounds, imprisonment for six months, or whipping.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</a></span>
+Similar punishments were also to be inflicted on any
+one preaching in an unlicensed building, as well as
+on the owner of a house or yard in which it had been
+permitted.</p>
+
+<p>Another way of stopping the assembly of slaves
+was to pass a law against their meeting at night, and
+punish them if they left the estate without a written
+permission. There were always excuses for this
+apparent harshness, as plots had been arranged at
+nocturnal meetings, some of which had given a great
+deal of trouble. Even if a pass were granted to
+attend chapel, the estate's authorities could hardly be
+expected to follow and see that the slave did not go
+elsewhere. The missionaries took it that all this was
+done to hamper their work, but such was not the case
+altogether.</p>
+
+<p>The anti-slavery party became very strong about
+the year 1820, and every obnoxious regulation was
+a text for discourses on the infamy of the whole
+system. If a planter were punished, the case was
+trumpeted over the country to promote a greater
+antagonism. How absurd this really was could only
+be seen by the West Indians themselves, and if they
+attempted to say anything they were put down as
+liars, becaused they were biassed in favour of the other
+side. One writer pertinently remarked that, among
+the hundreds of military and naval officers stationed
+in the West Indies, not one had borne out the statements
+of the missionaries, and we may call attention
+to the curious fact that Captain Marryat, who was
+well acquainted with every colony, speaks always of
+the negro as a happy fellow. The genial novelist<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</a></span>
+does not mince matters when he speaks of oppression
+on board ship, and it is not to be supposed that he
+would go out of his way to screen the planters.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the colonies passed laws against indiscriminate
+manumissions, and these were declaimed
+against as tyranny. Yet their wisdom was so patent
+that, under the system, they could only be heartily
+approved by every one competent to judge. There is
+one little fact that stands out most prominently as a
+redeeming point, if such a thing be possible&mdash;under
+slavery there was no poverty&mdash;there were no tramps
+nor beggars. The owner of the plantation had to
+feed his people in sickness and in health, in childhood
+and old age. If manumissions could be given
+by the mere stroke of a pen, many a poor sick or
+broken-down creature would have been cast adrift to
+become a burden upon the community. Now and
+again we yet hear some old woman complain that
+if this were slavery time, she would not be half-starved
+as she is to-day, notwithstanding the poor
+relief.</p>
+
+<p>It may perhaps be thought that we are attempting
+the defence of slavery; we only wish to show that it
+was not quite so black as it has been painted. It had
+its dark side; but, on the other hand, many a bright
+gleam can be perceived by those who have seen some
+who were born into servitude and heard their stories.
+They were well fed, had as much clothing as they
+really required, were as a matter of policy well treated
+as a rule, and were quite as happy as they are to-day.
+Magistrates, policemen, and gaols were almost
+unknown; the planter gave the negro a slight<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</a></span>
+flogging now and then, and this ended the tale of his
+misdemeanours. A bad master might be cruel as a
+bad husband may be also, but we should not condemn
+marriage on account of its abuses. The great
+argument against slavery was the degradation it produced
+on the minds of both parties. However, we
+are not writing the history of slavery, but the story
+of the West Indies, and must apologise for the
+digression.</p>
+
+<p>In 1823 the House of Commons, on a motion of
+Fowell Buxton, "that the state of slavery is repugnant
+to the principles of the British Constitution, and
+of the Christian religion," resolved to ameliorate the
+condition of the slave by giving him civil rights and
+privileges. As a result of this, orders were sent out
+to abolish the flogging of women, and discontinue the
+use of the whip in the field.</p>
+
+<p>Already the West Indian planters were alarmed at
+the interference of the British Government, and the
+overriding of colonial laws by Orders in Council.
+In 1819 they had petitioned against being compelled
+to manumit their slaves in cases where they wished to
+buy their freedom, but their protests went for nothing.
+Now also they had to submit, although they did so
+with a bad grace. The British Government left the
+carrying out of the provisions of the resolutions to
+the colonial legislatures, but at the same time giving
+them to understand that there was no option.</p>
+
+<p>In 1811, when the Governor and Court of Policy of
+Demerara neglected to issue a proclamation allowing
+negroes to attend chapel in the evening, they received
+a sharp reprimand, and the Governor was super<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</a></span>seded;
+now they knew that nothing was left but to
+obey orders.</p>
+
+<p>When, therefore, the despatch containing these
+resolutions arrived in Demerara, a meeting of the
+legislature was at once convened to prepare the
+necessary ordinance. There was no attempt to evade
+this duty or delay compliance, but such a radical
+change required great consideration, especially in
+regard to the control of females without the use of
+the whip. Negresses were, as a rule, less amenable
+to discipline than the men, and it was thought that
+something must be done to prevent insubordination.
+Several meetings took place from the 21st of July,
+1823, to early in August, at which the ordinance was
+prepared and passed, but up to the 18th of the latter
+month it had not been published. Such a delay,
+however, did not imply any intention of evading the
+duty, for three or four weeks often elapse from the
+time of passing to the publication of a Bill.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the negroes got an idea that something
+had been done in England for their benefit. Like
+the slaves in Barbados and other colonies, they
+heard discussions at their masters' tables, and supposed
+that the something which had taken place
+meant their total emancipation. "The king had
+freed them, but the planters refused to carry out the
+order." On the East Coast of Demerara there was
+then a small chapel belonging to the London Missionary
+Society, under the charge of the Rev. John
+Smith. This chapel was a rendezvous for the negroes
+of the neighbouring plantations, who not only came
+to service, but met afterwards for a little gossip.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[Pg 302]</a></span>
+Some who could read gave their ideas of what they
+had gleaned from their masters' newspapers, while
+others told what had been said at the dinner-tables.
+It does not appear that Mr. Smith had told them
+anything of the new resolutions, nor is there evidence
+that the deacons of the chapel knew of them. It
+followed, therefore, that all the information they had
+was these garbled reports of their own people.</p>
+
+<p>On Sunday, the 17th of August, a number of the
+bolder spirits met after service and discussed a plot
+which had been already under consideration, for a
+general rising at eight o'clock next evening. Their
+idea was to put their masters in the stocks, arm
+themselves, and, when the Governor came, demand
+their supposed rights.</p>
+
+<p>On Monday morning a coloured servant informed
+his master of the plot, on which he at once rode
+off to Georgetown and interviewed the Governor.
+Warnings were sent to most of the planters, and
+preparations made to suppress the revolt if it took
+place, but such reports were not uncommon, and
+although the whites looked after their weapons they
+did not feel much alarm. As a matter of policy it
+was better to assume indifference, as anything like
+desertion of the estates, even so far as the sending
+away of women and children, would have encouraged
+the negroes.</p>
+
+<p>The signal was given by a fire near the chapel,
+on which the slaves assembled in great mobs, over-powered
+their masters, put them in the stocks, and
+took all the firearms and other weapons they could
+find. The Governor was already in the neighbour<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[Pg 303]</a></span>hood
+with a small party of cavalry, and on seeing
+the signal proceeded to inquire into its meaning.
+On the way he was met by an armed mob, who,
+on being asked what they wanted, answered, "Our
+right!" He told them of the new law, and promised
+a full explanation on the morrow if they
+would disperse and come to him at a neighbouring
+plantation. There was a slight hesitation for a few
+moments, but presently, with cries of "No! no!"
+and the blowing of shells, they drowned his voice.
+Then some of the more moderate advised him to
+go away, which he was obliged to do, as his whole
+company numbered hardly a dozen.</p>
+
+<p>Bearing in mind the disasters of the Berbice insurrection,
+the people of Georgetown were much
+alarmed. Placing their women and children on
+board vessels in the river, the men prepared to
+resist to the death. Martial law was proclaimed,
+and every person, without distinction, called upon to
+enrol at once in the militia, all exemptions being
+cancelled. They responded heartily, and soon the
+town put on an appearance as if deserted, except
+at those places where guards were stationed. The
+stores were closed, the slaves kept indoors, and, save
+for the arrival and departure of mounted orderlies,
+not a sound could be heard. Even the negroes
+themselves, in their kitchens and outbuildings, were
+overawed, and hardly spoke above a whisper.</p>
+
+<p>The Methodist ministers came forward and enrolled
+themselves in the militia, but they were not
+called upon to perform any duty. The Rev. John
+Smith, however, took no notice of the proclamation,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[Pg 304]</a></span>
+although he admitted having seen it. On the evening
+of the revolt he went for a walk with his wife,
+and on his return found that the manager's house
+was being attacked by a mob of slaves. He succeeded
+by expostulation in preventing their doing
+much injury, and even rescued the manager from
+their hands, but instead of sending notice of the
+rising to the neighbouring estates he went quietly
+home. As far as he knew no one had been warned
+of the revolt, and he was certainly remiss in his
+duty when he did nothing whatever. When, on the
+following day, he was visited by a militia officer, and
+ordered to enrol himself in accordance with the
+Governor's proclamation, he refused on the ground
+of his exemption, although he knew that all exemptions
+had been cancelled.</p>
+
+<p>As usual the rebels had no proper leaders, and for
+some reason or other&mdash;the missionaries ascribed it to
+religious teaching&mdash;they did not burn the houses or
+destroy the crops. One or two whites who resisted
+were wounded, one at least fatally, but here again
+the insurgents were forbearing. Fortunately they
+were soon suppressed, and this no doubt prevented
+such atrocities as had been committed elsewhere.
+What with the soldiers, the militia, and crews of
+vessels in the river, the force brought against them
+was overwhelming. Only one attempt was made to
+fight, but the first volley of the troops sent the rioters
+scattering into a cotton field. In about two days
+the insurrection was over, and then came the hunt
+for fugitives, who as usual took to the swamp at the
+back of the estates. A large body of Indians was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[Pg 305]</a></span>
+employed, and in the end most of them were
+captured, some to be hanged at once and others
+after sentence by court-martial.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Smith's behaviour was considered as something
+more than suspicious&mdash;he was believed to have
+had knowledge of the plot, and charged with an
+intention to side with the negroes if he saw any
+prospect of their success. On his refusal to take
+part in the defence of the colony he was taken
+prisoner, and after the negroes had been tried and
+sentenced, his case was brought before a court-martial.
+He was charged with promoting discontent
+among the slaves, conspiring to bring about a
+revolt, knowing of the plot the day before and not
+reporting it, and holding communication with one of
+the leaders after it had broken out without attempting
+to capture him. The case created a great stir,
+public opinion being universal that he was the prime
+mover in the whole affair.</p>
+
+<p>His trial lasted over a month, at the end of which
+he was found guilty and sentenced to be hanged.
+This sentence, however, seems to have been given
+to satisfy the people; it was not published, nor was
+it intended to be executed without reference to the
+home Government. This is proved by the report in
+the "Royal Gazette" of the colony, which stated
+that the trial was over, but the nature of the proceedings
+was such as to render it imperative on the
+Governor to transmit them for His Majesty's consideration.
+The public were not informed of the
+verdict, but it is not to be supposed that they were
+ignorant of the result of the trial; on the contrary,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[Pg 306]</a></span>
+the sentence met with their approval, and they complained
+of the delay in carrying it out, as compared
+with the hasty executions of the negroes. Mr. Smith
+was ultimately reprieved, on the understanding that
+he removed himself from the West Indies, and engaged
+never to come back to Guiana or go to any
+of the islands. But the poor missionary was sick,
+and under treatment before the insurrection, and it
+may be presumed that the worry of the trial hastened
+his end. He died in prison before the king's answer
+arrived, and was buried at night to prevent a hostile
+demonstration.</p>
+
+<p>We have been thus particular in giving the facts
+of the Demerara East Coast Insurrection, because
+it made such an impression in England. The anti-slavery
+party used the case of the "Martyr" Smith
+as a watchword, and it was a prime factor in hurrying
+on emancipation. The immediate result was an
+Order in Council to enable slaves to contract legal
+marriage, to hold property, to buy their freedom on
+a valuation by disinterested parties, and to put them
+under a Protector, whose duty was to see that their
+rights were not infringed. They were now citizens,
+their only civil disabilities being compulsory labour
+and a tie to the plantation or their masters.</p>
+
+<p>This, however, did not satisfy the anti-slavery
+party, and they went on with their struggle for total
+emancipation, in which they at last succeeded. In
+1833 an Act of Parliament was passed, by which,
+after the 1st of August, 1834, slavery was to give
+place to an apprenticeship of four or six years,
+according to the status of the slave, the former term<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[Pg 307]</a></span>
+for house-servants and the latter for labourers on
+the plantations, or "predials." Every child born
+after that date was to be entirely free, and here
+came in one of the greatest blemishes of the law.
+These poor infants belonged to nobody; their
+mothers cared little for them, and it could not be
+expected that the planters would pay to keep up the
+old system of superintendence. Even those who
+had been instrumental in getting the law passed now
+began to make comparisons between the position of
+the child-bearing woman under the old and new
+systems. Hitherto they were unable to find words
+harsh enough to use in condemning slavery&mdash;now
+they began to find that it had its good points. Then
+the new system required new administrators, and, to
+prevent any suspicion of bias, magistrates were
+brought from England. Yet these very same unbiassed
+gentlemen ordered flogging for the men
+and the treadmill and dark cell for the women.
+The Quaker delegates sent out to inspect the result
+of their work were horrified. They said that the
+cat was worse than the old whip, and that the
+apprenticeship system caused ten times more suffering
+than slavery.</p>
+
+<p>And such was really the case. The negroes could
+no longer be kept under subordination&mdash;they even
+claimed entire freedom at once. Several disturbances
+took place before they could be made to understand
+that they had to work seven and a half hours every
+day, to pay for their homes, provision grounds, and
+other allowances. In Demerara the Governor addressed
+them as erring children, telling them that
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[Pg 308-309]</a><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309"></a></span>they could not all be masters, and that every one
+must work. They had never seen a white man
+handle the shovel or the hoe&mdash;he was free&mdash;now
+they had attained to the same condition, the same
+coveted freedom from hard labour must be theirs
+also. True, there were free negroes, some of whom
+had learnt trades, but even they were above working
+in the field. Why should free negroes work?
+Certainly not for their wives and children. The
+women got their allowances, and the planter had
+hitherto looked after the children. The negro had
+no house rent to pay, his two suits of clothing came
+regularly every year, and if he was sick the doctor
+attended to him. Except to deck himself with
+finery, he had no use for money; a few would work
+overtime when they wanted something of that sort,
+but the majority did as little as possible.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 319px;">
+<img src="images/p308.jpg" width="319" height="471" alt="THE FIRST OF AUGUST." title="" />
+<span class="caption">THE FIRST OF AUGUST.<br />
+(<i>From Madden&#39;s &quot;West Indies.&quot;</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In 1838, when the house servants were to be freed,
+while the predials must serve two years longer, the
+difficulties of such an arrangement became insurmountable.
+A daughter or wife might be entirely
+free, and the father or husband an "apprentice."
+Then came the difficulty of classification, which the
+commissioners appointed to arrange the divisions
+necessarily decided against the opinion of one or the
+other disputant, driving him to appeal. All this
+rendered a continuance of the system impossible,
+and slavery was terminated altogether on the 1st of
+August, 1838, the planters receiving from the British
+people twenty millions sterling as compensation, being
+about one-third of the estimated value of the slaves.</p>
+
+<p>The French had received such a lesson from the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[Pg 310]</a></span>
+revolt of Hayti that they did little for their negroes.
+However, after the downfall of Louis Philippe in
+1848, the revolutionary Government abolished slavery
+throughout the colonies, without compensation.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 266px;">
+<img src="images/p310.jpg" width="266" height="315" alt="A RELIC OF THE SLAVERY DAYS&mdash;OLD SLAVE BUYING FISH." title="" />
+<span class="caption">A RELIC OF THE SLAVERY DAYS&mdash;OLD SLAVE BUYING FISH.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>After freedom had been secured in the British
+colonies the slaves in neighbouring places naturally
+became discontented. There were not many desertions
+from the islands, but in Guiana, where the
+Dutch negroes were slaves on one side of the river
+Corentyne, and the British free on the other, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[Pg 311]</a></span>
+runaways from the former caused a great deal of
+trouble to the Dutch. Whenever an opportunity
+occurred, a party of slaves stole a boat and made
+off to the British side, until the Surinam planters
+became much alarmed. Ultimately a Dutch gunboat
+was stationed at the boundary river, and this
+put an end to the migration.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the islands were much affected, especially
+those of the Danes, which were frequented by British
+vessels, and were largely English in their sympathies.
+Here the negroes soon learnt what had happened,
+and began to express dissatisfaction with their own
+position. However, Denmark saw that something
+had to be done, and in 1847 enacted laws for gradual
+emancipation in her islands. From the 28th of July
+of that year all children born of slaves were to be
+free, and at the end of twelve years from that time
+slavery was to cease altogether.</p>
+
+<p>This did not satisfy the negroes, who became more
+discontented, and in 1848 an insurrection took place
+on the island of St. Croix. On the 2nd of July it
+was rumoured that the slaves would refuse to work
+next day, and in the evening the whites were alarmed
+by the ringing of bells and blowing of conch shells.
+At first it was considered as an alarm of fire, but on
+inquiry the whites found that the negroes had revolted,
+and were demanding their freedom. Later, people
+came in from the country districts with the news
+that there were noisy demonstrations, but that as
+yet no actual violence had been committed. So little
+alarm was as yet felt that no precautions were taken,
+although some persons became uneasy.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[Pg 312]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Next morning the negroes streamed into Christiansted
+in great numbers, and commenced to
+demolish the police office. An officer coming into
+town was attacked by a woman with an axe, which
+fortunately missed him, but the crowd was so good-humoured
+that, on his treating the matter coolly
+he was allowed to pass: this apparent good feeling
+made the authorities hesitate in taking extreme
+measures, even when the mob came round the fort,
+shouting and calling for freedom. Now, however,
+they began to collect trash for the purpose of setting
+fire to a house, and the Stadthauptman and a Roman
+Catholic priest went among them to try remonstrances.
+All the answer they got was that the slaves could not
+fight the soldiers, but they intended to burn and
+destroy everything if freedom were not given them.
+One of the mob carried a British flag as an emblem
+of liberty, and several English sailors were reported
+as forming part of the crowd. Soon all their good-humour
+was gone, and they commenced plundering
+the stores, the whites running away to vessels in the
+harbour.</p>
+
+<p>About three o'clock in the afternoon the Governor
+arrived from St. Thomas, and went among the crowd
+telling them that they were free, at the same time
+ordering them to disperse quietly. For a few hours
+there was a lull, but next morning they reassembled
+in the country districts as if in doubt whether the
+Governor really meant what he had said. Some
+planters now brought their families to town, leaving
+their houses to be plundered. Parties of soldiers
+were sent out, and hundreds of prisoners were taken,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[Pg 313]</a></span>
+the mobs, which in some cases numbered two or three
+thousand, dispersing at their appearance. Martial
+law was declared, Porto Rico sent six hundred
+Spanish troops, the insurrection was at last quelled,
+and peace restored. The Governor stood his trial in
+Denmark, to be acquitted, and to have his declaration
+of complete emancipation confirmed.</p>
+
+<p>Slavery still continued in the Dutch possessions
+until 1863, and even then it was only replaced by
+compulsory labour for ten years, leaving the final
+emancipation until 1873. Yet with all that there
+were no disturbances to hurry on the process or
+cause trouble. In Cuba a law was passed in 1870
+to give freedom to all above the age of sixty, as well
+as to children born after the passing of the Act. This,
+however, was not enforced on account of internal
+dissensions, and although Porto Rico gave her slaves
+their liberty on the 23rd of March, 1873, the Cuban
+Emancipation Bill was not passed by the Spanish
+Senate until February, 1880, and under that law
+slavery only came to an end on the 6th of October,
+1886.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[Pg 314]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3><a name="XV" id="XV"></a>XV</h3>
+
+<h3>RESULTS OF EMANCIPATION</h3>
+
+
+<p>The slave emancipation was a terrible blow to the
+West Indies, and one from which many of the islands
+have not yet recovered. It was, the planters said, the
+second attempt to ruin them, the first having been
+the abolition of the slave-trade. The party who
+brought it about looked to see their <i>prot&eacute;g&eacute;es</i> become
+a contented, hard-working peasantry, in place of
+driven cattle, as they called them. The planters, on
+the contrary, were morally certain that as free men
+they would not work, and without a labour supply
+their estates would be utterly ruined. The British
+taxpayer grumbled at having to pay twenty millions,
+but this was a mere sop for the estate owners. With
+the loss of their human chattels the plantations in
+many cases became utterly valueless; for the negroes
+congregated round certain centres, leaving most of
+the outlying places without enough people to keep
+up the cultivation. Labour had been degraded by
+the system, and now the full effects of such influence
+began to be felt.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 263px;">
+<img src="images/p315.jpg" width="263" height="326" alt="NEGRESS, GUIANA." title="" />
+<span class="caption">NEGRESS, GUIANA.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 265px;"><br />
+<img src="images/p316.jpg" width="265" height="315" alt="NEGRESS FISH-SELLERS, GUIANA." title="" />
+<span class="caption">NEGRESS FISH-SELLERS, GUIANA.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The compensation money, in many cases, went
+towards paying off mortgages and other claims, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[Pg 315]</a></span>
+holders of which saw the impending ruin and hastened
+to save themselves as far as possible. But it was not
+enough even for that, for many plantations had liens
+of half the appraised value of the land, buildings, and
+slaves. The last security being entirely gone the
+others became worthless, and, as no one cared to
+advance money on such risks, the nominal owners
+could not even get as much as to pay wages. A
+plantation valued at perhaps &pound;60,000 a few years
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[Pg 316]</a></span>before, and easily mortgaged for half that amount,
+received &pound;16,000 for compensation with which to
+pay off the claim, and then wanted cash to carry on
+as well. Banks were established, but only solvent
+estates could get help from them, and consequently
+hundreds were abandoned in the larger colonies, and
+hardly one, with the exception of those in Barbados,
+could produce as much sugar as formerly. West
+Indian Nabobs, who had been getting their ten
+thousand a year and living in England, went out<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</a></span>
+to see what could be done. Their incomes were
+entirely gone, and with them all hopes for the future.
+Widows and children lost their only means of support,
+and ruin fell on hundreds of families in England as
+well as in the West Indies. But not only did this
+downfall affect the owners and their relations, but
+merchants as well. Old firms shook to their very
+foundations, while many became bankrupt, to bring
+suffering to the homes of thousands who had hardly
+known of the sugar colonies beyond the invectives of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[Pg 318]</a></span>
+the anti-slavery society. Many who had been strong
+advocates of emancipation now wished they had
+never said anything about it, but the die was cast,
+and there could never again be anything like the
+shilly-shallying of the French at Hayti.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 265px;">
+<img src="images/p317.jpg" width="265" height="288" alt="CHINESE WOOD-CARRIER." title="" />
+<span class="caption">CHINESE WOOD-CARRIER.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 265px;"><br />
+<img src="images/p318.jpg" width="265" height="343" alt="EAST INDIAN COOLIE." title="" />
+<span class="caption">EAST INDIAN COOLIE.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The negroes would not work, and there were no
+means of forcing them to do so. The anti-slavery
+party still had their delegates in the West Indies to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[Pg 319]</a></span>
+see that the "poor negro" was not oppressed in any
+way, and their representatives in Parliament to call
+the Government to account if they allowed any
+vagrancy laws, or even the shadow of a coercive
+measure in the colonies. One ordinance after another
+for this purpose was disallowed, until every planter
+was in despair.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 258px;">
+<img src="images/p319.jpg" width="258" height="323" alt="EAST INDIAN COOLIE FAMILY." title="" />
+<span class="caption">EAST INDIAN COOLIE FAMILY.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 260px;"><br />
+<img src="images/p320.jpg" width="260" height="350" alt="COOLIE BARBER." title="" />
+<span class="caption">COOLIE BARBER.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>To retain their labourers was a matter of life or
+death. Some continued the old slave allowances<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[Pg 320]</a></span>
+to put them in good humour, but as these made the
+negroes independent of wages, the privilege was
+abused. They took everything and did nothing in
+return. Some went so far as to say that the Queen
+had promised that their late masters should supply
+them as usual, entirely regardless of the amount of
+work they did. This made the planters sore. What<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[Pg 321]</a></span>
+with one trouble and another the few who survived
+the wreck hardly knew how to act. They must not
+do anything to drive their people away, for there
+were many inducements offered by others in the
+same predicament. The negro was master, and he
+knew it. So much depended on him that he was
+enticed to labour, by high wages and greater privi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[Pg 322]</a></span>leges,
+until this bidding of one against another
+produced the very result which it was intended to
+avoid.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 262px;">
+<img src="images/p321.jpg" width="262" height="353" alt="EAST INDIAN COOLIE GIRL." title="" />
+<span class="caption">EAST INDIAN COOLIE GIRL.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 264px;"><br />
+<img src="images/p322.jpg" width="264" height="335" alt="COOLIE WOMEN, BRITISH GUIANA." title="" />
+<span class="caption">COOLIE WOMEN, BRITISH GUIANA.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Something had to be done. First, the allowances
+of those who would not work were stopped; then
+their houses and provision grounds were taken away.
+Thousands of fruit-trees were destroyed to prevent
+their living on mangoes and bananas during the
+season. Then the planters attempted to combine<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[Pg 323]</a></span>
+to bring wages to a paying level, and this led to
+strikes of the negroes. Everything tended to further
+estrangement until employer and labourer drifted far
+apart. In British Guiana the negroes bought some
+of the abandoned plantations and established villages;
+in some cases they even attempted to carry them on
+as sugar estates, but as all wanted to be masters they
+in every case failed.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 263px;">
+<img src="images/p323.jpg" width="263" height="330" alt="COOLIE VEGETABLE SELLERS, BRITISH GUIANA." title="" />
+<span class="caption">COOLIE VEGETABLE SELLERS, BRITISH GUIANA.</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[Pg 324]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 303px;"><br />
+<img src="images/p324.jpg" width="303" height="266" alt="EAST INDIAN COOLIES, TRINIDAD." title="" />
+<span class="caption">EAST INDIAN COOLIES, TRINIDAD.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>As if this were not enough, the British Government
+went in for free trade, and allowed foreign slave-grown
+sugar to compete with that of the colonies.
+It seemed as if the French revolutionary cry of
+"Perish the colonies!" had now been introduced into
+the British Parliament. From one point of view the
+planters had been amply paid with the compensation
+money. Some went so far as to say that twenty
+millions could have bought all the estates in the
+West Indies, implying that the colonists had no
+further claim upon them. Even the anti-slavery
+party would not see that they were encouraging the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[Pg 325]</a></span>
+slave system in other countries by opening their
+markets. This completed the ruin begun by emancipation,
+but as long as the principles were adhered to
+it did not matter.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 274px;">
+<img src="images/p325.jpg" width="274" height="354" alt="EAST INDIAN COOLIE, TRINIDAD." title="" />
+<span class="caption">EAST INDIAN COOLIE, TRINIDAD.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Most of the remaining plantations now fell into the
+hands of those who had liens upon them, and they,
+not liking to lose their money altogether, commenced<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[Pg 326]</a></span>
+the uphill work of again bringing them into cultivation.
+Even a few colonists continued the struggle in
+hopes of better times. In Demerara there were two
+cases where eminent lawyers&mdash;the legal profession,
+by the bye, doing well when everything else was on
+the verge of ruin&mdash;spent all their profits in keeping
+their sugar estates from utter abandonment. One of
+these got so heavily in debt that at one time he could
+not pay his house rent, and as the landlord dared not
+sue him, he had metaphorically to go on his knees
+and beg him to quit.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 303px;">
+<img src="images/p326.jpg" width="303" height="267" alt="TRINIDAD COOLIES." title="" />
+<span class="caption">TRINIDAD COOLIES.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>However, the sturdy English spirit survived in a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[Pg 327]</a></span>
+few, and they set to work to obtain labourers from
+other parts of the world. At first they thought of
+Africa, but the anti-slavery party would not hear of
+immigration from the "dark continent," for fear of
+abuses. Then India was tried, with the result that
+a few coolies were brought over by private parties,
+notably to Demerara by John Gladstone. But again
+the cry of slavery went forth, due to the managers
+leaving the new-comers in the hands of their headmen
+or sirdars. It was charged against them that
+they beat their underlings, and of course the planters
+had to bear the responsibility. The result was that
+East Indian immigration was prohibited for a time.
+After a hard struggle on the part of the planters it
+was renewed, and in the end prevented Trinidad and
+British Guiana from utter abandonment.</p>
+
+<p>Besides Hindoo coolies, Chinese were also imported,
+as well as Maltese, Madeirans, and a few Germans.
+At first the negro thought little of this competition,
+but when he gradually dropped into the background,
+with his missionary friends, he commenced to protest
+against it. His friends said, and it was the truth,
+that there was enough labour in the colonies to carry
+on the estates, but the difficulty was that it could not
+be depended upon. Then the wages demanded by
+the negroes was entirely beyond the means of the
+planters&mdash;the price of sugar would not admit of them.
+It was a case of cheap labour or the alternative of
+giving up the struggle, and with the East Indians,
+British Guiana, and Trinidad recovered from the brink
+of ruin to become more flourishing in some respects
+than in the years immediately preceding emancipation.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[Pg 328]</a></span>
+Jamaica, the greatest of the British colonies, suffered
+the most as she got but few immigrants, and it is
+only during the last decade that she has again begun
+to hold up her head. Without healthy competition
+with other races, the negroes sunk back, until they
+became even more degraded than those of British
+Guiana and Trinidad.</p>
+
+<p>In Barbados, on the contrary, the population was
+so dense that the freedman must either work or
+starve. There were no waste lands and few absentee
+proprietors, nor were any of the estates abandoned.
+Labour was plentiful and cheap; it followed, therefore,
+that the island soon recovered from the check
+and went on prospering. The compulsion of the
+whip gave way to the force of circumstances, and
+the struggle for existence which ensued has made
+the Barbadian negro the most industrious in the
+West Indies. Not only is he this, but he is, like his
+former masters, intensely loyal to Great Britain and
+"Little England." All the black, coloured, and white
+people in the other islands call themselves Creoles,
+but he is "neither Crab (Carib) nor Creole, but true
+Barbadian born."</p>
+
+<p>In the French, Danish, and Dutch colonies labour
+laws were enforced after emancipation, and generally
+with good results. They felt the change, but not to
+such an extent as their neighbours, and recovered all
+the sooner. Then they were not utterly disheartened
+by the unhealthy competition of slave-grown products
+like the English. Possibly, however, the British
+freedman would not have borne coercion, for even the
+Danes resented it.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[Pg 329]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>We have seen already that the negroes of the island
+of St. Croix were by no means willing to submit to
+what they considered injustice, and how they forced
+on their own emancipation. However, down to 1878
+they were bound to the soil as it were under annual
+engagements, from which they were not released
+without proper notice, even after the term had expired.
+They had houses, provision grounds, allowances,
+and very low wages, and were bound to work
+five days a week. The engagement expired annually
+on the 1st of October, and on that day those who did
+not renew their contract assembled in the two towns
+of the island for a jollification, where something like
+the old "mop" or hiring fair of England took place.</p>
+
+<p>In 1878 they somehow got the impression that the
+labour law was about to be relaxed, but there does
+not seem to have been any combination among them
+to obtain such an end; they were dissatisfied, and that
+was all. About the same time the Government were
+so assured of their peaceable disposition that they
+reduced the garrison of Christiansted, the capital, to
+sixty men. When the 1st of October arrived the
+negroes assembled as usual in Frederiksted, round
+the rum shops, appearing good-humoured, although
+noisy, as such a crowd always must be. Nothing
+particular happened until, at about three o'clock in
+the afternoon, a cry went up that one of their number
+had been beaten by a policeman, on which they
+attacked the peace officers, and drove them into the
+fort, which was police-station and barracks. Some of
+the principal whites came out and remonstrated with
+them, and at first they seemed as if they would dis<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[Pg 330]</a></span>perse,
+but just then the police-master, his assistant, and two soldiers rode
+into their midst, brandishing swords and ordering them to move off at
+once. Infuriated by this, the mob attacked the horsemen with stones, and
+drove them back into the fort, which they now stormed. The British
+Vice-Consul then went among them, and, after a little parleying, induced
+them to go with him to the outskirts of the town. Here he got a
+statement of their grievances, which were&mdash;first, that their wages
+were too low (only ten cents a day); second, that the annual contract
+was slavery; third, that the manager of the estate could fine them at
+will; and fourth, that if they wanted to leave the island they were
+obstructed. Having promised to do all he could for them, the Vice-Consul
+begged them to disperse.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 545px;">
+<img src="images/p330.jpg" width="545" height="117" alt="BARBADOS." title="" />
+<span class="caption">BARBADOS.<br />
+(<i>From Andrews&#39; &quot;West Indies.&quot;</i>)</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[Pg 331]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 542px;"><br />
+<img src="images/p331.jpg" width="542" height="313" alt="ST. LUCIA." title="" />
+<span class="caption">ST. LUCIA.<br />
+(<i>From Andrews&#39; &quot;West Indies.&quot;</i>)</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[Pg 332]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>They were apparently leaving the town, when a
+woman came running up with the report that the
+man who had been beaten by the police had just died
+in the hospital. This made them furious, and all
+further hopes of their pacification had to be given up.
+They invaded the hospital, knocked down the sick-nurse
+and a patient who inquired their business, and
+demanded to see the murdered man. They were
+informed that he was not dead but only dead drunk,
+and would soon recover if left alone. On being convinced
+of this, they again went off and attacked the
+fort. The defenders, when assailed with stones, fired
+over their heads, but this only made them all the
+more violent. The outer gate was broken down and
+some of the negroes were shot. Just at that moment
+a planter came up, intending to enter the fort, and at
+once they beat him with sticks until he was nearly
+killed.</p>
+
+<p>However, the bullets checked them, but only to
+throw the attack on other parts of the town. Stores
+were pillaged and set fire to, until a great portion of
+the town was in flames. From some of the stores
+they took weapons in the shape of cane-bills, and in
+one were alarmed for a few moments by an explosion
+of gunpowder. The whole of Bay Street was
+soon in flames, and like troops of fiends the negroes
+went dancing round the fires, in some places pouring
+on them cans of petroleum if the houses did
+not blaze up fast enough. Then the rum casks
+began to burst, and streams of burning spirit ran
+down the gutters, adding to the horror of the
+scene. The women were always the most reck<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[Pg 333]</a></span>less&mdash;they
+danced and howled with mingled joy
+and rage. The men added to the din by clashing
+their sticks together or against the burning stores,
+some blowing shells as a sort of rallying signal.
+"Our side!" was the watchword, and all who could
+not or would not repeat it were severely beaten.
+Most of the whites, however, had fled, leaving them
+entirely unchecked in their destructive work.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the police-master had sent to Christiansted
+for assistance, and while he waited the mob
+again assailed the fort and again without success.
+All through the night the disturbance continued, and
+it was not until six o'clock in the morning that a
+small band of twenty soldiers arrived. At their first
+volley the mob dispersed, flying precipitately from the
+town to carry the riot all over the island. Two soldiers
+left in charge of a waggon were killed; and on learning
+this the soldiers were roused to a state of fury almost
+as great as that of the rioters. They hunted them from
+one plantation to another, invaded their huts, stabbed
+through the mattresses, and killed every negro who
+came in their way, without taking the trouble to
+inquire whether they had been concerned in the affair
+or not. Three hundred prisoners were taken, and on
+the 5th of October a proclamation was issued calling
+on all the negroes to return to their houses or be
+treated as rebels, after which the disturbance was
+quelled. Twelve hundred were sentenced to death,
+and a Commission of Inquiry was sent out from
+Denmark, the result of their report being that the
+obnoxious labour law was repealed.</p>
+
+<p>We have been thus particular in our account of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[Pg 334]</a></span>
+this riot, because it exemplifies the character of the
+negro and is a type of such disturbances in other
+colonies. There is generally some ill-feeling at the
+bottom, but as a rule no conspiracy beforehand.
+When the dissatisfaction reaches a certain point,
+little is required to raise the passions of the black
+man, and that little thing is almost sure to occur.
+Unlike the European, he does not proclaim his
+grievances, except in a general way, among his own
+people&mdash;he has not yet arrived at that stage where
+civilised man uses the platform and press. It follows,
+therefore, that his passions smoulder for weeks and
+months, until some trifle&mdash;often a misunderstanding&mdash;brings
+them to the surface.</p>
+
+<p>At St. Croix there does not appear to have been
+anything like race prejudice, or that envious feeling
+which makes the negro think himself down-trodden
+by his rivals; but that is a characteristic of most
+riots, and is strikingly exemplified in two that have
+taken place in Demerara.</p>
+
+<p>After the emancipation the negro in British Guiana
+became of less and less importance as more and
+more immigrants arrived, until he grew quite sore.
+No longer could he demand extortionate wages, for
+the labour market was virtually governed by the
+current rates paid to the coolies. These people, however,
+were quite able to hold their own, and the negro
+knew this; it followed, therefore, that he vented his
+spite upon the most inoffensive people in the colony.</p>
+
+<p>The Portuguese from Madeira came to British
+Guiana absolutely destitute just after the failure of
+the vines on their island. They found the negro<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[Pg 335]</a></span>
+more prosperous than perhaps he has ever been
+since, for this was the time when, if he worked, he
+could always save money if he chose. In fact, many
+did so, and bought land which is still in the hands
+of some of their descendants, on which houses much
+superior to those now in existence were erected. The
+Portuguese could not endure the hard labour of sugar-planting,
+but soon found openings as small shopkeepers
+or pedlars. Hitherto there was little competition in
+these businesses, but the few who carried them on
+were negroes or coloured persons. These were soon
+ousted out, and the Portuguese became almost the
+only small trader in the colony. This was a
+grievance to the negro, who could not see that he
+himself reaped the benefit&mdash;certainly he took advantage
+of the reduced prices while abusing the sellers.</p>
+
+<p>At the beginning of the year 1856 the negroes of
+Georgetown were excited by the arrival of an anti-Popery
+agitator, who had become notorious in England,
+Scotland, and the United States. John Sayers Orr,
+known as "the Angel Gabriel," because he blew a
+trumpet to call the people together, was a native of
+Demerara, and soon found out what a strong antipathy
+to the Portuguese existed among the people. This
+suited his ideas exactly, for were they not Roman
+Catholics&mdash;the very body which he had been declaiming
+everywhere against?</p>
+
+<p>Soon his horn-blowing brought crowds into the
+market square every Sunday, where his harangues
+roused his hearers to such a pitch of fury that the
+authorities became alarmed. He was therefore
+arrested, brought before a magistrate, charged with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[Pg 336]</a></span>
+convening an illegal assembly, and committed for
+trial. This committal of the popular hero was the
+spark which set all the negroes' passions in a blaze,
+but, strange to say, they did not attack the authorities.
+Their spite was against the Portuguese, and
+soon almost the whole colony was the scene of a
+general raid upon their shops. Hardly any escaped,
+but one after another was broken open and the goods
+either carried away or destroyed. Some went so far
+as to use the Governor's name, as if he had authorised
+the raid, and in this way got ignorant people in
+the country districts to help them to seize boats,
+provisions, and even the produce of the farms of the
+obnoxious Portuguese.</p>
+
+<p>The riot was ultimately quelled, but not before the
+damage amounted to over a quarter of a million
+dollars. Hundreds of prisoners were captured, but
+beyond the shooting of one policeman there does not
+appear to have been any serious casualties, neither
+were there any executions. It is interesting to note
+that the idea of poisoning, which is connected with
+Obeah superstition, was conspicuous here as in the
+Berbice slave insurrection. One black man charged
+a Portuguese with threatening to poison his customers
+with the provisions he sold them; but all the satisfaction
+the negro got was a reprimand from the
+magistrate.</p>
+
+<p>The second great riot in Georgetown is notable for
+its similarity to that at St. Croix. The feeling of
+antipathy to the Portuguese still continued, and the
+negro had a special grievance on account of the
+reprieve of a murderer of that nationality. If he had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[Pg 337]</a></span>
+been black he would have been hanged, they said&mdash;it
+was colour prejudice. However, no disturbance took
+place for several months, and even then it only came
+about through a misunderstanding. A black boy
+buying a cent roll of bread in the market, snatched
+one of the penny rolls instead, when the Portuguese
+stall-keeper struck him down with a stick. The boy
+was taken up senseless and carried to the hospital,
+while his assailant through some misunderstanding
+was not arrested. At once there was a cry of
+"Portugee kill black man; Binney (the clerk of the
+market) let he go," and they began to assail the
+clerk with sticks and stones.</p>
+
+<p>The police arrived, dispersed the mob, and shut up
+the market, but this only led to their scattering
+throughout the city. The report that the black boy
+was dead was carried into every yard, and at once
+swarms of women and boys, with comparatively few
+men, began to smash the Portuguese shops. The
+authorities did next to nothing, beyond sending out
+a few special constables, armed only with sticks, to
+fight against overpowering crowds better provided
+with weapons than themselves. The consequence
+was that for two days Georgetown was in the power
+of thousands of negroes, and damage resulted to the
+amount of nearly fifty thousand dollars. The disturbance
+was finally checked by arming the police,
+and issuing a proclamation that they were authorised
+to fire on the rioters. Not a single shot was fired,
+however; the threat was quite sufficient for the purpose.</p>
+
+<p>It will be seen from these cases that of late years<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[Pg 338]</a></span>
+the negroes have not perpetrated such massacres as
+once characterised their insurrections, but the insurrection
+at St. Thomas-in-the-East in Jamaica seems to
+show that the old spirit was not dead in 1865.</p>
+
+<p>For several years previous Jamaica had been much
+depressed&mdash;in fact, she had hardly begun to recover
+from the ruin which followed emancipation. Then
+came a two years' drought, which caused some
+distress among the people, who had no other means
+of support than what was derived from their small
+provision fields. The Baptist connexion was very
+strong in the island, and Dr. Underhill, the Secretary
+of its Missionary Society, went out, and on his return
+published reports blaming the Government for the
+distress, which he appears to have highly exaggerated.
+This tended to produce more dissatisfaction and to
+give the negroes an object on which they could vent
+their feelings. In one of Dr. Underhill's letters he
+said the people seemed to be overwhelmed with discouragement,
+and that he feared they were giving up
+their long struggle with injustice and fraud in despair.
+Thus a feeling was produced which only required
+some little incident to bring on a serious disturbance.</p>
+
+<p>On the 7th of October a black man was brought up
+for trial before the Custos of St. Thomas-in-the-East,
+when a somewhat orderly mob marched into the
+town to, if possible, release the prisoner. They
+crowded round the court-house and made such a
+disturbance that one of them was taken in charge,
+only, however, to be rescued at once by his friends.
+Nothing more was done on that day, but warrants
+having been issued for the arrest of the leaders, their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[Pg 339]</a></span>
+execution was forcibly resisted. The negroes now
+seem to have planned a general rising and issued
+notices calling their people to arms. "Blow your
+shells, roll your drums; house to house take out
+every man! War is at us; my black skin, war is at
+hand. Every black man must turn at once, for
+the oppression is too great." They were, they said,
+ground down by an overbearing and oppressive
+foreigner, and if they did not get justice would burn
+and kill.</p>
+
+<p>On the 11th of October a mob assembled at the
+same court-house, and being resisted by a small
+body of volunteers, they killed the Custos, and every
+white man who opposed them, to the number of
+twenty-eight, released all the prisoners and burnt
+the building. Immediately afterwards there was a
+general rising in the district, which spread for about
+fifty miles.</p>
+
+<p>Governor Eyre, when he heard the news, at once
+determined to suppress the insurrection before it
+affected the whole island. Martial law was declared,
+a body of maroons employed, and within a few days
+the riots were suppressed. Many of the negroes were
+shot as they tried to escape, others taken and hanged
+at once, their villages burnt to the ground, and
+altogether they received such a lesson as effectually
+put a stop to anything of the kind in the future. It
+was stated that 439 people were killed and 600
+flogged; a thousand houses were burnt and a great
+deal of property destroyed by both parties.</p>
+
+<p>The severity of Governor Eyre caused a great
+outcry in England, especially among the Baptists.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[Pg 340]</a></span>
+Among those who were executed was Mr. Gordon,
+a member of the Assembly, who no doubt fell a
+victim to the feeling aroused among the whites. He
+was charged with being a prime instigator of the
+revolt, but it does not appear that he went beyond
+what is generally allowed to a political agitator.
+Such agitation, however, amongst ignorant people,
+who are easily excited, is particularly dangerous, and
+likely to recoil on the heads of those who initiate it,
+who must be prepared to risk the consequences.</p>
+
+<p>Governor Eyre was recalled, and prosecuted without
+success. He undoubtedly saved the island, and,
+although such executions as were committed can
+hardly be excused, yet when we consider the alarm
+and excitement, we must make some allowances.
+And, after all, it must be remembered that the loss of
+life would probably have been much greater had not
+the insurrection been nipped in the bud.</p>
+
+<p>Barbados is unique in several respects, and as may
+be supposed there is something remarkable even
+about her riots. The patriotism of the inhabitants,
+both black and white, is proverbial all over the West
+Indies. There is no place in the world to equal
+Barbados&mdash;no colony but what has been conquered
+by the enemy at some time or other. "Little
+England" was said to have offered an asylum to
+King George the Third when Buonaparte intended
+to invade England, and no doubt if such an offer was
+ever made it was done in all sincerity. Barbadians
+are proud of their constitution, and jealous of its
+infringement in the slightest degree. This feeling
+led to a disturbance in 1876, which was the nearest<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[Pg 341]</a></span>
+approach to an insurrection on that island in late
+years.</p>
+
+<p>It has often been suggested that a confederation of
+the British West Indies would be advantageous in
+many ways, and in 1876 the Secretary of State was
+of opinion that a closer union of Barbados and the
+other Windward Islands was desirable. The Governor
+of all the islands was then Mr. Pope Hennessy, who
+had lately been appointed, and who had been directed
+to obtain the consent of Barbados to a partial union.
+The measures proposed were of little importance,
+consisting only of the amalgamation of the prisons,
+lunatic asylums, and lazarettos, and the extension of
+the powers of the Chief Justice, Auditor-General,
+and the police force to cover the whole of the
+islands.</p>
+
+<p>An outsider would suppose that there was nothing
+offensive in these changes, but that, on the contrary,
+they would be beneficial in many ways, but most of
+the Barbadians opposed them strongly. Barbados,
+they said, was solvent, while some of the islands were
+on the verge of bankruptcy&mdash;their island should not
+be taxed to support paupers. They held meetings
+at which six points were agreed to, and on which
+the leaders harangued crowds throughout the island.
+These were, first, that their Court of Appeal would be
+abolished; second, that all the mad people from
+other islands would have to be supported by them;
+third, that all the lepers would come there; fourth,
+that the officials of other islands would live on them;
+fifth, that the power would be taken from the people
+and given to the Governor; and sixth, that as the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[Pg 342]</a></span>
+House of Assembly had always been faithful they
+resented any interference with it.</p>
+
+<p>The Governor was desirous of carrying his project,
+and possibly went farther than was consistent with
+his instructions, which were to bring about the
+arrangement in an amicable manner. He did all
+he could to create a party in its favour, and was
+charged by the other side with using underhand
+means to this end. The main point, however, on
+which he laid stress, and which seems to have caused
+the trouble, was the advantage to the Barbadians of
+having the other islands so close as to become virtually
+like their own parishes, so that the surplus
+population would be able to take up lands that were
+then useless, and lying waste.</p>
+
+<p>Barbados is densely populated. All the lands are
+occupied, and it is very difficult to procure even a
+small lot&mdash;this makes the people all the more eager
+to get possession of a little freehold. Yet, with all
+this, they will not settle in other islands, where they
+can get a piece of ground for next to nothing.</p>
+
+<p>Somehow or other the more ignorant people seem
+to have got the notion that the Governor was promising
+them land in Barbados, and this made them
+enthusiastic for his project. Something like communism
+would, they thought, follow if the Confederation
+Act were passed, and this was the reason in their
+opinion why the other party fought against it. The
+planters spoke as if Mr. Hennessy had laid himself
+open to such a misunderstanding, and that made
+them all the more virulent against him.</p>
+
+<p>The anti-Confederation party said that it had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[Pg 343]</a></span>
+always been the pride and glory of Barbados to
+have a separate political existence, and if under their
+own institutions they had achieved a success which
+made them the envy of their neighbours, why should
+they change? The majority of the House of Assembly
+were on their side, and it is difficult to understand
+why the Governor pressed the matter in the way he
+did. The opposition was no doubt foolish, but still,
+if the people chose to be silly, he could not overcome
+their prejudices. Party feeling ran high, only the
+mob shouting for Hennessy and Confederation.
+Those on one side would hiss him as he appeared&mdash;the
+others took the horses from his carriage and drew
+him along in triumph. It was reported that he never
+went out without a guard, and that even his wife lived
+in continual fear. She had been threatened with the
+abduction of her child, and one ruffian went so far as
+to pelt the little one as he was driven along the street,
+for which he was prosecuted.</p>
+
+<p>At last, on the 18th of April, 1876, when the party
+feeling had existed over six weeks, matters came to
+a crisis. A man went into the yard of Byde Mill
+plantation, flourishing a cane-cutter, and bearing a
+red flag. He was, he said, a Confederation man, had
+just come from the Governor, and wanted some
+liquor (cane juice). Getting nothing he went out
+and brought his brother who bore a sword, and the
+two quarrelled with the man in the boiling-house,
+the one with the sword attempting to stab him.
+They defied a constable who came to arrest them,
+and one blew a shell which brought a mob of women
+and children, who went into a field of sweet-potatoes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[Pg 344]</a></span>
+and began to carry them off. Three mounted police
+arrived, but they were pelted with stones, and one
+who attempted to arrest the man with the sword got
+wounded. A magistrate then came and read the
+Riot Act, but the mob refused to disperse. As usual
+there were grievances, some complained that their
+pay had been stopped, which the manager said was
+because they could not work the mill full time for
+want of wind.</p>
+
+<p>Two cane-fields were now set on fire, and the disturbance
+spread, its great characteristic being raids
+upon the potato fields. In several places live stock
+were killed, dwellings broken into, and everything
+chopped or broken to pieces. A few shots were
+exchanged, but no one appears to have been killed,
+although many got wounds and bruises from sticks
+and stones. Everywhere the mob declared they had
+the authority of the Governor for what they were
+doing, and the sufferers from their depredations
+charged Mr. Hennessy with delay in putting down
+the disturbance. This, however, was probably due to
+the effect of the persecution of Governor Eyre, which
+has made every West Indian Governor hesitate before
+going to extremes. However, when the people from
+the country districts began to fly to Bridgetown he
+sent out a few soldiers who very quickly dispersed
+the mobs. A sensational telegram to London stated
+that five hundred prisoners had been taken, forty
+people killed and wounded, rioting was suspended,
+but their position was threatened, and that confidence
+in the Government had entirely gone. This was
+highly exaggerated, but a great deal of property was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[Pg 345]</a></span>
+destroyed or injured, fifty estates pillaged, and
+probably over fifty persons received more or less
+serious blows.</p>
+
+<p>Quite a storm fell upon Hennessy, who on the 26th
+of April had to issue a proclamation threatening to
+direct the law officers to take prompt measures
+against those who libelled him, by saying that he
+had sent emissaries through the island to mislead
+the people, and that he countenanced and abetted
+the disgraceful and lawless acts of the marauders.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[Pg 346]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3><a name="XVI" id="XVI"></a>XVI</h3>
+
+<h3>THE ISTHMUS TRANSIT SCHEMES</h3>
+
+
+<p>By the second half of the last century the supply
+of gold and silver from Peru had much diminished,
+and the road across the isthmus almost fell into disuse.
+In 1780, during the great war, the British
+appear to have had some vague notion that it would
+be good policy to secure the track across Nicaragua,
+for which purpose an expedition was fitted out.
+Early in that year Nelson sailed from Jamaica with
+five hundred men, and after getting a number of
+Indians from the Mosquito shore and a reinforcement
+of British troops, the party made the difficult ascent
+of the San Juan river, and captured the fort of the
+same name. But, through ignorance, the whole
+affair proved disastrous&mdash;the fort was useless, and
+the losses through sickness very great. Of eighteen
+hundred men only three hundred and eighty survived,
+and Nelson himself nearly lost his life. He
+was obliged to go home to recruit, and it was only
+after spending two or three months at Bath that he
+recovered to continue that glorious career which made
+him so famous.</p>
+
+<p>However, it was not long afterwards that a project<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[Pg 347]</a></span>
+for utilising the isthmus was brought under the
+consideration of the British Government by General
+Miranda, of whom we have spoken in another chapter.
+He wanted Pitt to assist him in his projects
+for the emancipation of the Spanish colonies, and, as
+a means to this end, in 1790, proposed that the
+British should take possession of Darien, and thus
+further their commerce in the Pacific. Nothing was
+done at that time, and a few years later Miranda
+made a second proposition that the United States
+should join with Great Britain, and open roads and
+canals for both nations.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Pitt seems to have agreed to this, and was
+only prevented from attempting to carry it out by
+the delay of President Adams. The United States
+were to furnish ten thousand men, and Great Britain
+money and ships. In 1801, under Lord Sidmouth,
+an expedition was actually set on foot, only to
+collapse at the Peace of Amiens. Again, in 1804,
+Pitt tried to carry out the project with Miranda, but
+the condition of Europe stood in the way of expeditions
+to the Spanish Main.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 536px;">
+<img src="images/p348.jpg" width="536" height="162" alt="ATLANTIC ENTRANCE TO DARIEN CANAL." title="" />
+<span class="caption">ATLANTIC ENTRANCE TO DARIEN CANAL.<br />
+
+(<i>From Cullen&#39;s &quot;Darien Canal.&quot;</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In enumerating the advantages likely to accrue
+from the emancipation of South America, a writer in
+the <i>Edinburgh Review</i> of January, 1809, laid great
+stress upon a passage across the isthmus. It was the
+most important to the peaceful intercourse of nations
+of anything that presented itself to the enterprise of
+man. So far from being a romantic and chimerical
+project, it was not only practicable, but easy. The
+river Chagr&eacute;, about eighteen leagues westward of
+Porto Bello, was navigable as far as Cruzes, within<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[Pg 348]</a></span>
+five leagues of
+Panama. But
+there was even a
+better route; at
+about five leagues
+from its mouth
+the Chagr&eacute; received
+the river
+Trinidad, which
+was navigable to
+Embarcadero,
+from which
+Panama was only
+distant thirty
+miles through a
+level country.
+The ground had
+been surveyed,
+and not the practicability
+only,
+but the facility
+of the work <i>completely
+ascertained</i>.
+Further north
+was the grand
+lake of Nicaragua,
+which by
+itself almost extended
+the navigation
+from sea
+to sea. The
+Governor of St.
+John's Castle<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[Pg 349]</a></span>
+(Fort San Juan) had been instructed by the king of
+Spain to refuse permission to any British subject
+desirous of passing up or down this lake, "for if ever
+the English came to a knowledge of its importance
+and value they would soon make themselves masters
+of this part of the country."</p>
+
+<p>But not only had the best places for a canal been
+selected at this early time, but the many advantages
+to be derived from its construction had been well
+considered. The same writer went on to say that
+from this splendid and not difficult enterprise, not
+merely the commerce of the western shores of
+America would be brought, as it were, to their doors,
+but that of the South Sea whalers, who would be
+saved the tedious and dangerous voyage round Cape
+Horn. Then the whole of the vast interests of Asia
+would increase in value to a degree that was then
+difficult to conceive, by having a direct route across
+the Pacific. It would be as if, by some great revolution
+of the globe, they were brought nearer. Immense
+would be the traffic which immediately would
+begin to cover the ocean&mdash;all the riches of India and
+China moving towards America. Then also the commodities
+of Europe and America would be carried
+towards Asia. As a result of this, vast dep&ocirc;ts would
+be formed at the two extremities of the canal, to
+soon develop into great commercial cities. Never
+before had such an opportunity been offered to a
+nation as Great Britain had then before her, owing to
+a wonderful combination of circumstances.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Robinson, a United States merchant, in 1821,
+said that the most ardent imagination would fail in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[Pg 350]</a></span>
+an attempt to portray all the important and beneficial
+consequences of such a work, the magnitude and
+grandeur of which were worthy the profound attention
+of every commercial nation. The powers of the
+old and new world should discard all selfish considerations,
+and unite to execute it on a magnificent
+scale, so that when completed it might become, like
+the ocean, a highway of nations, the enjoyment of
+which should be guaranteed by all, and be exempt
+from the caprice or regulation of any one kingdom or
+state.</p>
+
+<p>Such were the views promulgated at the beginning
+of this century, but nothing was done until about
+1850, when the pressure of circumstances again
+brought the isthmus into note.</p>
+
+<p>Darien and Panama are in the Republic of New
+Granada, but north of these come the small states of
+Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, San Salvador, and
+Guatemala. All of these are inhabited by true
+Americans&mdash;native races who have to a considerable
+extent absorbed the slight admixture of European
+blood introduced by their conquerors. Some places
+are so inaccessible as to be virtually outside the pale
+of civilisation. The roads are nothing but mule
+tracks, full of quagmires where the animals have to
+wade up to their girths in mud&mdash;in fact, little better
+than the paths so well described by Lionel Wafer.
+The rivers are numerous, and, on account of the
+heavy rainfall, their currents are very strong, and all
+the more dangerous from the numerous sandbanks
+and rapids which obstruct their course. Since the
+states gained their independence they have passed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[Pg 351]</a></span>
+through so many changes of government that at the
+beginning hardly a month passed without a revolution
+in one or the other. This went on until 1848
+without interference from outside, but with the discovery
+of gold in California came an invasion of
+ruffians of all nations.</p>
+
+<p>The old freebooters almost seemed to have come
+to life again. Hardy adventurers from all parts of
+the world rushed off to the new "El Dorado," woke
+the sleepy Nicaraguans on the San Juan river, and
+roused the people of Chagres. Over the isthmus of
+Panama or through the Nicaragua lake they flocked
+by thousands, necessitating the establishment of
+Transit Companies to provide them with mules,
+boats, and steamers. The easiest, although longest,
+route was through Nicaragua, which was controlled
+by the Vanderbilt Company, and during the time
+the "rush" lasted they took over two or three thousand
+per month. The Company had steamers on
+the lake to meet the throng of diggers as they
+arrived, and they passed through at regular intervals
+like a tide. The overland part of the route presented
+a strange spectacle, with their pack mules and
+horses. Men of all nationalities, armed with pistols
+and knives, which they were prepared to use on the
+Greasers (natives) at the slightest provocation, put
+these altogether in the background. A traveller has
+spoken of them as a string of romantic figures that
+could not be matched in any other part of the world.
+Some glowed with fervent passion, as if on fire,
+others were hard, cold, and rugged as the rocky
+passes they traversed, while a few were worn, old,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[Pg 352]</a></span>
+and decaying, under the effects of the hardships and
+reverses of their stormy existence. Every line in
+their faces had a meaning, if it could only have
+been interpreted, telling of sin and suffering&mdash;of
+adventures more terrible than were ever portrayed
+by the pen of the romantic writer, and of experiences
+as fascinating as they had been dangerous.</p>
+
+<p>Among the results of this rush through Nicaragua
+was the expedition of William Walker, the great
+filibuster of this century. With fifty-five men he
+went forth from California to conquer Central
+America, and in the end nearly succeeded. He got
+himself elected President of Nicaragua, but ultimately
+raised such a storm that he was brought to bay by
+some forces from Honduras and Costa Rica, and had
+to surrender to the captain of a British man-of-war,
+by whom he was handed over to his enemies to be
+shot.</p>
+
+<p>With this wonderful traffic across the isthmus
+arose the old canal schemes, as well as a new one
+for a railway. Easy and rapid transit must be
+obtained in some way or other, and this time being
+in the age of steam, it naturally followed that the
+project for a railway gained immediate support. It
+was commenced in 1850, at which time the terminus
+on the Gulf side was settled, and the foundations of
+the new town of Aspinwall or Colon laid a few miles
+east of Chagres. The difficulties were enormous, on
+account of the marshy ground and the number of
+rivers to be crossed. The wooden bridges were
+almost immediately attacked by wood ants, floods<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[Pg 353]</a></span>
+carried away the timbers, but more distressing than
+all was the loss of life through sickness. Chinese
+labourers were imported in great numbers, only to
+fall victims to the same deadly climate which had
+given Porto Bello and the isthmus generally their
+evil reputation. However, the railway was completed
+in 1864, at the enormous cost of $7,500,000, although
+its length is only 47&frac12; miles. Thus one part of the
+great project was carried out, and a good road provided
+for passengers and light goods, the annual
+value of which latter is now about &pound;15,000,000.</p>
+
+<p>But those in favour of a canal were not sleeping
+all this time. The old routes were again mooted,
+that through Lake Nicaragua being put down at
+194 miles in length, while the other, since known as
+the Panama, was only 51. Dr. Edward Cullen, however,
+in 1850 went out and made some surveys,
+with the result that he advocated the old Darien
+line as the shortest and most practicable. He
+would start from the same Port de Escoces that
+witnessed the downfall of William Paterson's scheme,
+and which he said was a most commodious harbour
+for the terminus of a canal. The isthmus was here
+only 39 miles across, and free from many of the difficulties
+which beset the other routes.</p>
+
+<p>As a result of Dr. Cullen's reports, in 1852 it was
+proposed to establish "The Atlantic and Pacific
+Junction Company," with a capital of fifteen
+millions sterling. The prospectus stated that the
+period had arrived when the spread of commerce and
+the flow of emigration to the western shores of
+America, Australasia, and China, demanded a pas<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[Pg 354]</a></span>sage
+more direct than those by way of the Cape of
+Good Hope and Cape Horn. Various projects had
+been formed for uniting the two oceans, but all these
+were open to the objection that they fell short of
+supplying a continuous channel from sea to sea,
+for vessels of all dimensions, by which alone transhipment
+could be obviated. Sir Charles Fox,
+Mr. John Henderson, Mr. Thomas Brassey, and Dr.
+Cullen had received a concession of territory from
+New Ganada to the extent of 200,000 acres, on
+condition that a deposit of &pound;24,000 be made within
+twelve months. It was believed that the work could
+be completed for twelve millions.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Times</i> spoke disparagingly of the new Company,
+and this probably prevented its acceptance by
+the financial world. The line, it said, had not been
+actually surveyed, but only superficially examined,
+and, after all, if it were finished, it could only come
+into competition with the Nicaragua Canal, every foot
+of which had been the subject of precise estimates,
+and which would only cost <i>four millions</i>. Several
+letters from the projectors and supporters of the Company
+followed, with other leaders, the result being
+that the Darien Canal never went beyond a project.
+Presently also the rush for California abated, and the
+railway met the wants of the passengers; all the canal
+schemes were therefore again shelved for a time.</p>
+
+<p>Then came an almost Utopian project for a ship
+railway, the cars of which would run down into the
+water, take up the largest vessel, and carry it over
+without trouble or difficulty. This met with little
+encouragement, and was soon dropped.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[Pg 355]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In 1879 Ferdinand de Lesseps, who had achieved
+such a glorious success with the Suez Canal, took up
+the matter of a canal between the two oceans, and
+summoned a congress of savants, engineers and seamen,
+to inquire into and discuss the questions of its
+possibility, and of the most suitable place for its
+excavation. A number of projects were considered,
+among them that of Dr. Cullen, brought forward by
+M. de Puydt, which, however, did not receive much
+attention, as there was a difference of opinion as to
+the reliability of the figures.</p>
+
+<p>The schemes were ultimately reduced to two&mdash;those
+for the Nicaragua and Panama routes. The
+position of the great lake caused the former to be
+thoroughly discussed; but there were several almost
+insurmountable difficulties in the way of its adoption.
+To clear the San Juan river, and make it into a great
+canal, would entail great labour and expense, and
+then seven or eight locks would be required. On
+the Pacific side locks would also be required for the
+Rivas, while the harbours of Greytown on the Gulf
+side, and Brito on the Pacific, were quite unsuited as
+termini for a canal. The total length would be 182&frac12;
+miles, and the time occupied in the passage four and
+a half days. There was also another great draw-back:
+Nicaragua was and is subject to earthquakes,
+which would be likely at times to interfere greatly
+with such heavy works as were required. It followed,
+therefore, that notwithstanding the powerful support
+of the Americans, this line was abandoned in favour
+of that from Port Simon to Panama, not far from the
+railway.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[Pg 356]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Two French officers, MM. Wyse and Reclus, had
+explored the country, and proposed to carry the canal
+through the Chagres river, and thence, by means of a
+great tunnel, into the valley of the Rio Grande; but,
+on consideration, the tunnel was abandoned in favour
+of a deep cutting, which would not exceed 290 feet.
+The great objection to this was the floods of the
+Chagres river, which sometimes rose twenty-five feet
+in a single night; but this was got over by arranging
+for a separate bed for the canal. There were a few
+other difficulties, but propositions were made to
+obviate them; and at last the sub-commission reported
+that "the Panama Canal on the level technically
+presents itself under the most satisfactory
+conditions, and ensures every facility, as it gives
+every security, for the transit of vessels from one sea
+to another."</p>
+
+<p>Now came the question of cost. The Nicaragua
+Canal was estimated at &pound;32,000,000, and that at
+Panama &pound;40,000,000. (The reader will compare
+these with former estimates, especially that of Nicaragua
+as stated by the <i>Times</i>.) The former was
+rejected absolutely, on account of the necessity for
+locks, and all further discussion was concerned with
+the latter. It was then calculated that, with transit
+dues of fifteen francs per ton, the net annual profit
+would be &pound;1,680,000.</p>
+
+<p>M. de Lesseps was elected to the Academy in
+1885, when M. Renan said he had been born to
+pierce isthmuses, and that antiquity would have made
+him a god. Carried away by enthusiasm, the great
+projector saw no difficulties; he had already com<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[Pg 357]</a></span>pleted
+a work which had been declared almost impossible,
+now he would carry out a project similar to
+that proposed by William Paterson. However,
+Panama was not Suez, a rainless desert, but a place
+where floods, marshes, and quagmires took the place
+of almost level sands.</p>
+
+<p>M. Wyse had vainly tried to start a Company; but
+when Lesseps, with all the prestige of his Suez Canal,
+joined him, there was comparatively little difficulty.
+Personally, Lesseps seems to have known little of
+Panama&mdash;all his knowledge was gained at second
+hand. The first public subscription was invited in
+July, 1879, the capital being 400,000,000 francs
+(&pound;16,000,000), in 800,000 shares at 500 francs each.
+This large sum, however, was not obtained at once,
+only &pound;3,200,000 being applied for. However, Lesseps
+was not discouraged, but determined to go on with
+the work, trusting that money would flow in as it was
+wanted, which ultimately proved to be the case,
+until the project appeared hopeless. He visited the
+isthmus, and made a triumphal progress over the
+line; he even witnessed one of the great floods of
+the Chagres river, which rose forty feet and covered
+the railway. Undaunted by this, he went over to
+Panama, and on the 5th of January, 1880, inaugurated
+the great canal with a ceremony and <i>f&ecirc;te</i>. He
+then stated that success was assured, and declared,
+upon his word of honour, that the work would be
+much easier on the isthmus than in the desert of
+Suez.</p>
+
+<p>In March following he visited New York, where he
+was but coldly received, on account of American<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[Pg 358]</a></span>
+jealousy of European influence. The President said
+that the capital invested in such an enterprise by
+corporations or citizens of other countries must be
+protected by one or more of the great Powers, but
+no European Power could intervene for such protection
+without adopting means which the United States
+would deem inadmissible. This did not damp his
+enthusiasm; if other countries would not assist, all
+the credit would go to France. The Company had a
+concession from the Columbian Republic for twelve
+years, and the United States would not be likely to
+interfere.</p>
+
+<p>It will be interesting here to compare the estimates
+for the canal by different persons and at different
+times within two years:&mdash;</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="estimates">
+<tr><td align='left'>M. Wyse, 1879</td><td align='right'>&pound;17,080,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>The Paris Congress, 1879</td><td align='right'>41,760,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>The Lesseps Commission, February, 1880</td><td align='right'>33,720,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>M. de Lesseps himself,&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>
+     <td align='right'>26,320,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Rectified estimate, September, 1880</td><td align='right'>21,200,000</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>Lesseps said he had an offer from a contractor to
+complete the work for twenty millions. Backed by
+the press and the deputies, the Company's shares sold
+freely, and on the 3rd of March, 1881, it was fully
+established. It was promised that in the course of
+that year the line of the canal should be cleared, and
+dredging commenced. Lesseps expected to finish in
+1887, but in 1884 and the two following years he was
+obliged to advance the time to 1890. The canal was
+to be 47 miles long, 70 feet wide at the bottom, and
+29 feet deep.</p>
+
+<p>Little was done in 1881, but the work was divided<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[Pg 359]</a></span>
+into five sections, and in the following year dredging
+and excavating were commenced. But, even thus
+early, it was found to be more difficult than had been
+expected. Up to March, 1883, only 659,703 metres
+had been excavated, which was reckoned to be about
+1/130th of the whole. This would not do, as it meant
+that over a century would pass before its completion.
+About seven thousand labourers, mostly Jamaica
+negroes, were employed at that time, and this number
+was increased until, in 1888, there were 11,500.
+In 1884 the average amount excavated was 600,000
+metres per month, against Lesseps' estimate of two
+millions. Yet, with all that, it was calculated that in
+this year only 1/180th of the material had been taken
+out.</p>
+
+<p>The difficulties were enormous. First, there was
+trouble to find dumping places, where the earth
+would not be again washed into the excavations by
+heavy floods. Then came the rank vegetation, which
+was continually stretching from either side to choke
+the clearing. Weeds grew six to eight feet high in a
+rainy season, and these, with the straggling vines,
+kept a little army at work to clear them away from the
+embankments and tracks. The workmen suffered
+greatly from yellow and other fevers, and &pound;600,000
+was spent on hospitals and their appurtenances.
+Money was spent profusely on such things as grand
+offices and a magnificent house to lodge the President,
+if he should ever come to inspect the
+works. All along the route were ornamental bungalows,
+and the director-general at Panama had a
+salary of &pound;20,000, besides a house and other allow<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[Pg 360]</a></span>ances.
+Even he suffered from fever, and his wife and
+daughter died of it.</p>
+
+<p>Up to 1888 about fifty millions sterling had been
+spent, and hardly a fifth of the work was finished.
+Then financial difficulties led to an arrangement for
+merging it in a new Company, which proposed to
+complete the canal on a new plan. Notwithstanding
+all the objections to locks, it was now proposed to
+save such an immense work of excavation by erecting
+four on either side, thus bringing the highest
+water level to 123 feet. Eighteen and a half miles
+were said to have been completed, of which five were
+on the Pacific side and the remainder on the Gulf.
+To carry out the new plan, &pound;36,000,000 more were
+required, but, as a matter of fact, only a third of the
+work necessary for this revised scheme had been
+done.</p>
+
+<p>Then came the downfall, which has been compared
+to that of the South Sea Bubble. When the Company
+went into liquidation, scores of shady transactions
+came to light. Editors of newspapers and deputies
+had been bribed to gain their support, and money
+had been wasted in almost every possible manner.
+In February, 1893, M. Ferdinand de Lesseps and
+four other directors were prosecuted, with the result
+that he, MM. C. de Lesseps, Fontaine, and Cottin,
+were convicted of breach of trust and swindling, the
+two former being sentenced to five years' imprisonment
+and 3,000 francs fines each, and the latter two
+years and 20,000 francs fines. M. Eiffel, the architect
+of the great tower of Paris, was found guilty of
+breach of trust, and sentenced to two years' imprison<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[Pg 361]</a></span>ment
+and a fine of 20,000 francs. Nine persons were
+then charged with receiving bribes, one of whom, M.
+Ba&iuml;haut, admitted that he got 375,000 francs. Three
+were found guilty, sentenced to imprisonment, fines,
+and to pay the liquidators of the company the amount
+of M. Ba&iuml;haut's bribe. Charles de Lesseps appealed
+against the charges of swindling, and these were
+quashed on the ground that the transactions had
+occurred more than five years before, thus getting the
+longer terms of imprisonment and fines of the three
+principals reduced.</p>
+
+<p>Ferdinand de Lesseps hardly knew what was going
+on; he was old, feeble, and in a state of apathy
+and stupor. Pity for his condition prevented the
+carrying out of the sentence as far as he was concerned,
+and he died on the 7th of December, 1894.
+The <i>Times</i>, in noticing his death, said the story was
+a most pitiful one. The blame of the Panama affair
+must be laid upon the people and the public temper.
+Bribery and corruption were symptoms of a thoroughly
+unhealthy state of things. An infatuated public provided
+enormous sums; when these were spent, more
+went the same way, and to get these contributions
+everything possible was done. Lesseps was no engineer,
+but a diplomatist, planning great schemes and
+the means of carrying them out. He was the man of
+the moment in France. He was neither a financier
+nor an engineer, neither an impostor nor a swindler.
+He was a man of great originality, of indomitable
+perseverance, of boundless faith in himself, and of
+singular powers of fascination over others.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile several attempts had been made to get<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[Pg 362]</a></span>
+money to carry on the work, one of which was by
+means of a lottery. But the French people were discouraged,
+and were no longer prepared to throw good
+money after bad. It followed, therefore, that although
+in 1894 a new company, with a capital of sixty-five
+million francs, was proposed, and that it was announced
+in August that eight hundred workmen were
+engaged, it does not appear that anything is being
+done. If, as has been stated, only a third of the work
+has been accomplished for, say, thirty millions, allowing
+for waste of money, it can hardly be expected
+that double this amount will ever be obtained. What
+with the heavy floods and rank vegetation, a great
+deal will have to be done to recover lost ground; in
+fact, some of the excavations must be filled up by
+this time. Those who know the country can easily
+understand that the handsome bungalows, hospitals,
+and workmen's houses must be overrun by wood-ants,
+and that the machinery is mostly spoilt by rust.
+Even if the canal is ever finished with locks, it is
+doubtful whether it could pay a dividend, as the
+work of keeping it open by dredging would be very
+expensive. No doubt it would be a boon to the
+world if it were finished, but capitalists expect profit,
+and will hardly be inclined to assist without such
+expectations.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[Pg 363-364]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 316px;">
+<img src="images/p363.jpg" width="316" height="436" alt="EUROPE SUPPORTED BY AFRICA AND AMERICA." title="" />
+<span class="caption">EUROPE SUPPORTED BY AFRICA AND AMERICA.<br />
+
+(<i>From Stedman&#39;s &quot;Surinam.&quot;</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Nicaragua canal has been in course of excavation
+for several years past by an American Company.
+As finally adopted, it is to have a total length of 169.4
+miles, of which 56&frac12; will be through the lake, and 64&frac12;
+through the San Juan river. There are to be three
+locks on either side, which may cause trouble in case
+of a violent earthquake; and then, again, the length of
+the journey will be against it as compared with that
+of Panama. It has been attempted in the United
+States to make it a national work, and the sum of a
+hundred million dollars is asked from the American
+Government, or at least a guarantee on the issue of
+bonds to that amount. We believe that very little
+enthusiasm for the project has been shown. In
+August, 1893, the Company was unable to meet its
+obligations, and a receiver was appointed, since which
+time we believe the work is being continued, and that
+it has been decided to complete it as soon as possible.
+M. de Varigny, in <i>L'Illustration</i> of June the 1st, 1895,
+gives the following opinion on the work and its
+political importance:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"That the Washington statesmen take account of
+the fact that the cutting of the isthmus is difficult,
+costly, and, in case of a rupture with England, dangerous,
+we cannot doubt. But such is the fascination
+of great enterprises, of grand words and grand
+theories, that senators and representatives hesitate to
+oppose the current of opinion that is bearing along
+the masses.</p>
+
+<p>"The work has begun, and we can only hope that
+it will succeed. There cannot be too many gates
+of communication between different peoples. The
+United States undertake to open this. Can they do
+it, and doing it, will they give up the advantages they
+will thereby acquire? The future will show."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[Pg 365]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h2>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Acosta, Pedro de, explorer of the Orinoco, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
+<li>African slavery, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li>
+<li>Aguirre the Tyrant, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
+<li>Alfinger, Ambrosio de, searches for "El Dorado," <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+<li>Altienza, Donna Inez de, murdered by Aguirre, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
+<li>Amazon Company, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li>
+<li>Amazon, expedition of Ursua and Aguirre, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
+<li>American Indian, his character, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li>
+<li><i>Amis des Noirs</i>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li>
+<li>"Angel Gabriel," John Sayers Orr, rouses the negroes of Demerara, <a href="#Page_335">335</a></li>
+<li>Antigua, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li>
+<li>Anti-slavery party, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></li>
+<li>Apprenticeship, negro, <a href="#Page_306">306</a></li>
+<li>Araby, a leader of bush negroes, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
+<li>Arawaks,
+   <ul class="IX">
+  <li>their character, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li>
+  <li>Columbus tries to enslave them, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+  <li>the Spanish sovereign's good feeling for them, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+  <li>their treatment by the first colonists, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
+  <li>did not lay up provisions, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+  <li>thinks Spaniards gods, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+  <li>refuse to be slaves, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
+  <li>die off in great numbers, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
+  <li>in Guiana, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Araya, Dutch at, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
+<li>Armada, Spanish, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li>
+<li>Aruba, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li>
+<li>Aspinwall, <a href="#Page_352">352</a></li>
+<li><i>Assiento</i> contract to supply slaves, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>
+<li>Ayscue, Sir George, reduces Barbados for the Parliament, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Bahamas,
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>natives kidnapped, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+  <li>settled by English, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
+  <li>resort of buccaneers, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+  <li>captured by Spaniards, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Ba&iuml;haut, M., bribed by Panama Canal Company, <a href="#Page_361">361</a></li>
+<li>Bannister, Major, English Governor of Surinam, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+<li>Barbados,
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>first colonised, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li>
+  <li>protests against grant to Earl of Carlisle, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
+  <li>result of the English revolution, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
+  <li>Charles II. proclaimed king, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
+  <li>Sir George Ayscue arrives to subdue the island, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
+  <li>attack on Hole Town, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
+  <li>the island surrenders, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
+  <li>sufferings of a bond-servant in, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li>
+  <li>De Ruyter driven off from, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
+  <li>its unique position, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+  <li>negro plots, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+  <li>anti-slavery insurrection, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li>
+  <li>result of emancipation, <a href="#Page_328">328</a></li>
+  <li>confederation disturbances, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+ <li>Barker, Andrew, a rover, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
+<li>Baron, a bush negro chief, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>
+<li>Basco, Michael de, a buccaneer, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
+<li>Baskerville, Sir Thomas, a companion of Drake, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>
+<li>Beaudierre, Mons. de, a sympathiser with the coloured people of Hayti, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+<li>Berbice,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[Pg 366]</a></span>
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>supplies cut off during war, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+  <li>captured by French corsairs, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
+  <li>great slave insurrection, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Belize, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li>
+<li>Berrie, one of Ralegh's captains, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li>
+<li>Berrio, Antonio de, Spanish Governor of Trinidad, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+<li>Bolivar, Simon, Liberator of Venezuela, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></li>
+<li>Bond-servants, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li>
+<li>Boyer, President of Hayti, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></li>
+<li>Brethren of the coast, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
+<li>British Guiana, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a></li>
+<li>British Legion in Venezuela, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li>
+<li>Bull of Partition,
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>its terms, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+  <li>disputed, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+  <li>practically revoked, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+ <li>Bush negroes, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li>
+<li>Buxton, Fowell, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></li>
+<li>Byam, Major, Governor of Surinam, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
+<li>Byron, Admiral, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+ <ul class="IX">
+<li>Caciques of the Indians, their position, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li>
+<li>California rush, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></li>
+<li>Campeachy, Bay of, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li>
+<li>Cannibals, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li>
+<li>Canning's declaration of neutrality, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li>
+<li>Caribana, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
+<li>Caribbee Islands, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li>
+<li>Caribs,
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>their character, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li>
+  <li>cannibalism, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li>
+  <li>hatred of Spaniards, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+  <li>in Guiana, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
+  <li>in St. Kitt's, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+ <li>Carlisle, Earl of, Grantee of Caribbee Islands, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
+<li>Carthagena,
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>taken by French, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li>
+  <li>great fair, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
+  <li>attacked by Admiral Vernon, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+ <li>Cary, Colonel, favours the buccaneers, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li>
+<li>Casas, Las, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
+<li>Cassard, Jacques,
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>the corsair, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
+  <li>captures St. Eustatius, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+  <li>Cura&ccedil;ao, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Cattle, wild, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
+<li>"Cavaliers" and "Roundheads" in Barbados, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li>
+<li>Central American Republics, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+<li>Chagres, <a href="#Page_352">352</a></li>
+<li>Charbon, Jan Abraham, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li>
+<li>Charles I. and the Colonies, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+<li>Charles II.
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>declared king in the Bermudas and Virginia, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
+  <li>Barbados, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
+  <li>his interest in the plantations, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+ <li>Chinese labourers introduced, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li>
+<li>Christianity forced on the natives, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li>
+<li>Christophe, a Haytian leader, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li>
+<li>Clervaux, a Haytian leader, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li>
+<li>Clifford, Jeronomy, case of, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
+<li>Cochrane, Admiral, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li>
+<li>Codrington, Colonel, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li>
+<li>Coffee, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
+<li>Coffee, leader of rebel slaves in Berbice, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+<li>Coke, John, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+<li>Colon, <a href="#Page_352">352</a></li>
+<li>Colonies, Spanish, in Hispaniola, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li>
+<li>Coloured people in Hayti, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li>
+<li>Columbian Republic, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+<li>Columbus' opinion of the natives, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li>
+<li>Confederation in Barbados, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></li>
+<li>Contraband trade with Spanish colonies, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
+<li>Convict labour, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
+<li>Coolies, East Indian, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li>
+<li>Cooper, Anthony Ashley, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
+<li>Corsairs, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
+<li>Corteso, Juan, an "El Dorado" seeker, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
+<li>Costa Rica, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+<li>Cottin, M., <a href="#Page_360">360</a></li>
+<li>Cotton, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li>
+<li>Council for Plantations, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li>
+<li>Cromwell and the West Indies, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
+<li>Cudjo, a maroon chief, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li>
+<li>Cuba, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+<li>Cullen, Dr. E., projector of the Darien Canal, <a href="#Page_353">353</a></li>
+<li>Cura&ccedil;ao, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+ <ul class="IX">
+<li>Darbey, John, an English prisoner in Cuba, <a href="#Page_171">171</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[Pg 367]</a></span></li>
+<li>Darien Canal, <a href="#Page_353">353</a></li>
+<li>Darien scheme, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+<li>Delgado, Augustine, an "El Dorado" seeker, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
+<li>Demerara, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></li>
+<li>Dessalines,
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>a chief in the Haytian insurrection, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li>
+  <li>crowned emperor, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+ <li>Dogs,
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>hunt Indians, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
+  <li>run wild, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li>
+  <li>hunt maroons, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li>
+  <li>hunt rebel negroes, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Dominica, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li>
+<li><i>Dominus Vobiscum</i>, one of the first English vessels in the West Indies, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+<li>D'Oyley, Governor of Jamaica, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+<li>Drake, Sir Francis,
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>voyage with Hawkins, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li>
+  <li>raid on Nombre de Dios, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
+  <li>great expedition to the West Indies, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+  <li>captures St. Domingo, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li>
+  <li>last voyage, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>
+  <li>death, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+ <li>Drax, Colonel, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li>
+<li>Du Casse, a French corsair, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
+<li>Dudley, Sir Robert, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li>
+<li>Dutch, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+ <ul class="IX">
+<li>Edwards, Bryan, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li>
+<li>Eiffel, M., <a href="#Page_360">360</a></li>
+ <li> "El Dorado,"
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>the quest for, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
+  <li>dangers, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
+  <li>germ of the story, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
+  <li>Martinez' report, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+ <li>Elizabeth, Queen, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
+<li>Emancipation,
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>Great Britain, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li>
+  <li>France, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></li>
+  <li>Denmark, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li>
+  <li>Holland, <a href="#Page_313">313</a></li>
+  <li>Spain, <a href="#Page_313">313</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+ <li>Enambuc, M. d', first French settler, <a href="#Page_87">87-8</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
+<li>Enciso, Bachelor, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
+<li>English and Dutch, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+<li>Essequebo, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+<li>Everson, a Dutch pirate, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
+<li>Eyre, Governor of Jamaica, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+ <ul class="IX">
+<li>Fedreman, Nicholas, an "El Dorado" seeker, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li>
+ <li>Ferdinand and Isabella,
+ <ul class="IX">
+  <li>kind feelings towards the Indians, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+  <li>grant from the Pope, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Fontaine, Father, a Catholic missionary, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+<li>Fontaine, M., a Panama defaulter, <a href="#Page_360">360</a></li>
+<li>Fourgeaud, Colonel, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
+<li>Franklin, Washington, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+<li>Free trade, <a href="#Page_324">324</a></li>
+<li>French,
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>in the West Indies, <a href="#Page_49">49-54</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li>
+  <li>company for settling the islands, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
+  <li>character of, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>
+  <li>revolution, its influence on Hayti, effect on the Spanish Main, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+ </ul>
+
+ <ul class="IX">
+<li>George of Spires, an "El Dorado" seeker, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li>
+ <li>German knights in Venezuela, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
+ <li>Gold-hunting, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li>
+<li>Gordon, Mr., a Member of the Jamaica Assembly, executed, <a href="#Page_340">340</a></li>
+<li>Grasse, Count de, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li>
+<li>Grenada, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li>
+<li>Groenwegel, Commander of Essequebo, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
+<li>Guadeloupe, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
+<li><i>Guanin</i>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
+<li>Guatavita, Lake of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
+<li>Guatemala, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+<li>Guiana, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+<li>Guianians, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
+<li>Guichen, Admiral de, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li>
+<li>G&uuml;iria, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li>
+<li>Guzman, Fernando de, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+ <ul class="IX">
+<li>Ha&iuml;ti, Hayti, or Hispaniola,
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>its inhabitants, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
+  <li>colonised, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
+  <li>gold found, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
+  <li>almost ruined by becoming depopulated, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
+  <li>a resort of buccaneers, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
+  <li>under the French, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
+  <li>downfall, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li>
+  <li>British invasion, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li>
+  <li>republics and empires, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+ <li>Hall, Captain, exploit of, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+<li>Harcourt, Robert, in Guiana, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
+<li>Harry, a Guiana Indian, in London, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
+<li>Hartop, Job, a prisoner in Mexico, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
+<li>Havana,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[Pg 368]</a></span>
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>ransomed, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
+  <li>sacked and burnt, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+ <li>Hawkins, Sir John,
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>first voyage, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
+  <li>second, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
+  <li>third, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li>
+  <li>final trip with Drake, and death, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+ <li>Hawkins, William, voyage to Brazil, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
+<li>Hennessy, Governor John Pope, of Barbados, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a></li>
+<li>Henri I. (Christophe), Emperor of Hayti, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li>
+<li>Henry VIII. of England sends an expedition to the West Indies, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+<li>Herera, Alonzo de, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
+<li>Hogs naturalised in Hispaniola, see Ha&iuml;ti</li>
+<li>Hondo river, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li>
+<li>Hood, Sir Samuel, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li>
+<li>Hoogenheim, Wolfert Simon van, Governor of Berbice, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
+<li>Huten, Philip von, an "El Dorado" seeker, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+ <ul class="IX">
+<li>Iala, Father, an "El Dorado" seeker, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
+<li>Indian, character of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+ <ul class="IX">
+<li>Jackson, Colonel, captures Santiago de la Vega, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
+<li>Jacques I. (Dessalines), Emperor of Hayti, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li>
+<li>Jamaica,
+ <ul class="IX">
+  <li>Valdivia wrecked off the coast, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
+  <li>attacked by Colonel Jackson, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
+  <li>captured by English, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
+  <li>Spanish attempt to recapture, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
+  <li>the first real British colony, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
+  <li>progress of, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li>
+  <li>authorities refuse help to the Darien colony, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li>
+  <li>slave revolts, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
+  <li>serious negro insurrection, <a href="#Page_338">338</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>James I.,
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>friendship for Spain, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+  <li>dispute with Spain about the West Indies and Virginia, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Jeffreys, Judge, sends prisoners to Barbados, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li>
+<li>Jenkins, Captain, and his ear, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+<li>Jervis, Admiral Sir John, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
+<li>Jews in the West Indies, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+ <ul class="IX">
+<li>Keymis, Captain, a follower of Ralegh, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77-9</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
+<li>Kyk-over-al, Dutch fort in Essequebo, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
+ </ul>
+
+ <ul class="IX">
+<li>Labour difficulties, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+<li>Lafayette, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
+<li>Lawrence, Captain, an English pirate, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+<li>Legrand, Pierre, a French pirate, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+<li>Leigh, Charles, first English settler in Guiana, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
+<li>Lesseps, Ferdinand de, and his Panama scheme, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></li>
+<li>Lolonois, the great pirate, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+ <ul class="IX">
+<li>Macatoa, reported a very rich city, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
+<li>Madeirans imported into British Guiana, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li>
+<li>Maltese imported into British Guiana, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li>
+<li>Manoa, city of, fabulous residence of "El Dorado," <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
+<li>Margarita, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
+<li>Marino, Dictator of Venezuela, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+<li>Maroons or Simarons, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li>
+<li>Martinez, Juan de, his report of "El Dorado,"<a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
+<li>Martinique, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+<li>Mauduit, Captain, murdered in the Haytian revolt, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li>
+<li>Merrifield, Ralph, one of the first settlers in St. Kitt's, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li>
+<li>Methodists, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+<li>Miranda, Francisco, leader of the revolution in Venezuela, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></li>
+<li>Missionaries, Protestant, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li>
+<li>Montbar, the French pirate, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
+<li>Montserrat, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[Pg 369]</a></span></li>
+<li>Morgan, Captain (afterwards Sir Henry), the English buccaneer, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
+<li>Morgan, Colonel, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+<li>Morillo, Marshal, Spanish leader in Venezuela, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li><i>Navio de permisso</i>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
+<li>Negro slavery, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
+<li>Negroes, free, difficulties with, <a href="#Page_329">329</a></li>
+<li>Nelson, Lord,
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>flying trip to the West Indies, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
+  <li>his expedition to Nicaragua, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Nevis, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li>
+<li>New Edinburgh, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
+<li>New Granada, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+<li>New World, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li>
+<li>Nicaragua and the canal scheme, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a></li>
+<li>North, Roger, a settler in Guiana, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li>
+<li><i>Nueva Dorado</i>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Ojeda, Alonzo de, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li>
+<li>Omaguas, reported a rich nation, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
+<li>Ophir, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
+<li>Ordas, Diego de, explores the Orinoco, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
+<li>Orders in Council, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></li>
+<li>Orr, John Sayers, "the Angel Gabriel," creates a disturbance in Demerara, <a href="#Page_335">335</a></li>
+<li>Ouverture, Toussaint L', leader of the Haytian negroes, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li>
+<li>Oxenham or Oxnam, John, crosses the Isthmus, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>
+<li>Oyapok, English colonies in the, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+ <ul class="IX">
+<li>Panama, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></li>
+<li>Panama Canal, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a></li>
+<li>Panama Railway, <a href="#Page_352">352</a></li>
+<li>Parima Lake, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
+<li>Paterson, William, and the Darien scheme, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+<li>Penn and Venables, Generals, expedition to the West Indies, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
+<li>Perez, Diego, a gallant Spaniard, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
+<li>Petion, President of Hayti, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li>
+<li>Philips, Miles, an English prisoner in Mexico, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
+<li>Pirates in the West Indies, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>
+<li>Pitman, Henry, a bond-servant, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li>
+<li>Pitt, in favour of a Panama Canal, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></li>
+<li>Plantations, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li>
+<li>Pointis, de, a leader of buccaneers, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li>
+<li>Pomeroon, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
+<li>Pope, The,
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>issues Bull of Partition, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+  <li>acknowledges French rights in the West Indies, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+ <li>Popham, Captain, captures Spanish letters, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+<li>Porto Bello,
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>its fair, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li>
+  <li>captured by Vernon, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Porto Rico, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+<li>Prince of Orange in England, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li>
+<li>Privateers, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li>
+<li>Proclamations to the Indians, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
+<li>Providence Island, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
+<li>Puerto Cabello, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+ <ul class="IX">
+<li>Quesada, Herman de, an "El Dorado" seeker, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+ <ul class="IX">
+<li>Ralegh Sir Walter,
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>at Trinidad, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li>
+  <li>his "Letters Patent,"  <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
+  <li>his interest in Guiana, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+  <li>captures Trinidad, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
+  <li>searches for "El Dorado,"  <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
+  <li>sent to the Tower, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
+  <li>liberated, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
+  <li>goes again to Guiana, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
+  <li>capture of St. Thome, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li>
+  <li>his execution, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Reclus, M., a Panama Canal projector, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></li>
+<li>Regapo, Leonard, a Guiana Indian, in London, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
+<li><i>Repartimientos</i>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
+<li>Robespierre, <a href="#Page_260">260</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[Pg 370]</a></span></li>
+<li>Rodney, Admiral, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+<li>Rossy, Sieur du, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
+<li>Route of Spanish trade, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+<li>Rovers to the Main, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li>
+<li>Royal African Company for introducing slaves, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li>
+<li>Rupert, Prince, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
+<li>Ruyter, Admiral de, attacks Barbados, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+ <ul class="IX">
+<li>St. Christopher's, or St. Kitt's,
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>settled by Thomas Warner, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+  <li>granted to the Earl of Carlisle, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li>
+  <li>d'Enambuc arrives, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li>
+  <li>divided between English and French, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li>
+  <li>attacked by Spaniards, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+  <li>granted to a French Company, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
+  <li>bond-servants in, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
+  <li>quarrels between English and French, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+  <li>captured by French, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>St. Croix or Santa Cruz, riots in, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a></li>
+<li>St. Domingo,
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>captured by Drake, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li>
+  <li>attempted by Penn and Venables, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>St. Eustatius, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li>
+<li>St. Lucia, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
+<li>St. Martin's, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
+<li>St. Thomas, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
+<li>St. Vincent, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li>
+<li>Salle, General de la, French Governor of St. Kitt's, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+<li>San Juan river, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></li>
+<li>Santa Martha, captured by French pirates, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+<li>Santiago de Cuba, gallant fight at, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
+<li>Santiago de la Vega captured by English, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
+<li>Savile, Henry, his "Libel of Spanish Lies,"  <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li>
+<li>Sedenno, Antonio, an "El Dorado" seeker, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
+<li>Serfdom, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li>
+<li>Shelley, Colonel, a "Cavalier" in Barbados, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+<li>Simarons, <i>see</i> Maroons</li>
+<li>Slaves,
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>Indian, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+  <li>negro, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li>
+  <li>white (bond-servants), <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li>
+  <li>insurrections, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></li>
+  <li>abolition of the African trade, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li>
+  <li>runaways, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
+  <li>Registrar and Protector of, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li>
+  <li>emancipation of, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></li>
+  <li>reviews of slavery, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+ <li>Smith, Rev. John, a missionary sentenced to death in connection with a slave revolt, <a href="#Page_303">303-6</a></li>
+<li>South Sea Bubble, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>
+<li>Spain,
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>character of her people, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+  <li>introducing Christianity, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+  <li>wanton cruelty to the natives, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
+  <li>hardiness of Spaniards, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
+  <li>their audacity, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
+  <li>Spanish claim to supremacy, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+  <li>interference with their trade, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
+  <li>Spanish cruelty to prisoners of war, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>"Spiriting" or kidnapping white servants, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>made felony 147</li>
+  </ul></li>
+ <li>Sugar cane, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li>
+<li>Suicides, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
+<li>Surinam, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
+<li>Sylva, Gaspar de, an "El Dorado" seeker, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+ <ul class="IX">
+<li>Tison, Thomas, first English trader to West Indies, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+<li>Tobacco, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li>
+<li>Tobago, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
+<li>Toledo, Don Frederic de, captures St. Kitt's, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+<li>Tortuga, the great rendezvous of the buccaneers, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li>
+<li>Trade forced upon the Spanish settlers, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li>
+<li>Transported convicts, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
+<li>Treasure seeking, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
+<li>Trelawny Town, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li>
+<li>Tribute imposed on natives, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
+<li>Trinidad, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+ <ul class="IX">
+<li>Ursua, Pedro de, murdered by the tyrant Aguirre, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
+<li>Utrecht, treaty of, <a href="#Page_196">196</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[Pg 371]</a></span></li>
+ </ul>
+
+ <ul class="IX">
+<li>Valdivia, his shipwreck, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
+<li>Van Horn the pirate, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+<li>Vanderbilt Transit Company, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></li>
+<li>Venables and Penn, Generals, their expedition, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
+<li>Venezuela,
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>the treasure seekers in, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
+  <li>her struggle for independence, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+ <li>Vernon, Admiral, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li>
+<li>Virgin Islands, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+<li>Virginia, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+ <ul class="IX">
+<li>Wafer, Lionel, his journey across the Isthmus, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
+ <li>Walker, William, the modern filibuster, <a href="#Page_352">352</a></li>
+ <li>Walrond, Colonel, a "Cavalier" in Barbados, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+<li>Warner, Thomas, founder of the colony of St. Kitt's, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li>
+<li>Wars,
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>England and Spain, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
+  <li>Holland and Spain, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+  <li>France and Spain, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
+  <li>England and Holland, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
+  <li>England and France against Holland and Spain, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+  <li>France against England and Holland, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
+  <li>Spain, England, and Holland against France, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li>
+  <li>England and Holland against France and Spain, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+  <li>England and Spain, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
+  <li>England and her revolted colonies, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+  <li>France, Spain, and Holland join in the quarrel, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li>
+  <li>commencement of the great French war, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
+  <li>England and the United States, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+ <li>Watts, Governor, of St. Kitt's, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+<li>Welsers of Augsburg, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
+<li>West India Company of Holland, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li>
+<li>William III. and the Darien scheme, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
+<li>Willoughby, Lord, Governor of Barbados, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124-8</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+<li>Wyse, M., a Panama Canal projector, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[Pg 372]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fp001_map.jpg" width="600" height="454" alt="" title="" />
+<br /><span class="link"><a href="images/fp001_mapfull.jpg">View larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center">The Gresham Press,</p>
+
+<p class="center">UNWIN BROTHERS,</p>
+
+<p class="center">WOKING AND LONDON.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The West Indies and the Spanish Main
+[1899], by James Rodway
+
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@@ -0,0 +1,10054 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The West Indies and the Spanish Main [1899], by
+James Rodway
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The West Indies and the Spanish Main [1899]
+
+Author: James Rodway
+
+Release Date: June 14, 2010 [EBook #32809]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WEST INDIES ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Steven Gibbs, Jane Hyland and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+    The Story of the Nations.
+
+    THE WEST INDIES.
+
+[Illustration: RECEPTION OF SPANIARDS BY ARAWAKS.
+
+(_From Gottfried's "Reisen."_)]
+
+    THE WEST INDIES
+
+    AND THE
+
+    SPANISH MAIN
+
+    BY
+
+    JAMES RODWAY
+
+    _SECOND IMPRESSION_
+
+    London
+
+    T. FISHER UNWIN
+
+    PATERNOSTER SQUARE
+
+    MDCCCXCIX
+
+    COPYRIGHT BY T. FISHER UNWIN, 1896
+    (For Great Britain).
+
+    COPYRIGHT BY G.P. PUTNAM'S SONS, 1896
+    (For the United States of America).
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+The story of the West Indies and Spanish Main is one to stir the hearts
+of many nations. The shores of the Caribbean Sea have been the scene of
+marvellous adventures, of intense struggles between races and peoples,
+of pain, trouble, and disaster of almost every description. No wonder
+that the romance writer has laid his scenes upon its beautiful islands
+and deep blue waters, for nowhere in the world, perhaps, could he find
+such a wealth of incident. From "Robinson Crusoe" to Marryat's genial
+stories, and down to "Westward Ho!" and "Treasure Island," old and young
+have been entranced for many generations with its stories of shipwrecks,
+pirates, sea-fights, and treasure-seekers. Yet with all this the field
+has not been exhausted, for hardly a year passes without a new romance
+dealing more or less with the "Indies."
+
+Under this name of the Indies the islands and continent were first known
+to the Spaniards, and it was not until some years had passed that the
+mainland received the name of _Terra Firma_. The string of islands
+facing the Atlantic were the Antilles, so called from a traditional
+island to the west of the Azores, marked on maps and globes of the
+fifteenth century. This "Bow of Ulysses," as Froude called the islands,
+was divided into the Greater and Lesser Antilles, the latter being also
+known as the Caribbees, from their original inhabitants. Other divisions
+were made later into Windward and Leeward Islands, but these differed so
+much in the descriptions of different nations that it would be as well
+to leave them out of the question. Perhaps the best way would be to name
+the whole the Antilles or West Indian Islands and divide them, in going
+from north to south, into the Bahamas, the Greater Antilles, and the
+Caribbees.
+
+When we think of these beautiful islands and shores they recall those of
+that other "Great Sea" which was such a mighty factor in the development
+of Greece and Rome, Phoenicia and Carthage, Venice and Genoa. As Ulysses
+and AEneas wandered about the Mediterranean, so the early voyagers sailed
+along the coasts of the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico in fear of
+anthropophagoi, amazons, giants, and fiery dragons. As the Indies were
+the scene of struggles between great nations and the raids of
+buccaneers, so also was the Mediterranean a battlefield for Christian
+and Turk, and a centre for piracy.
+
+Reports of golden cities, pearls and emeralds in profusion, and wealth
+that passed all description, led the Spaniards to explore every island
+and river, until the cannibals became less alarming. Yet their
+sufferings were terrible. Hurricanes sunk their frail craft on the sea
+and earthquakes wrung their very souls on land. Starvation, with its
+consequent sickness and death, destroyed one party after another, but
+they still went on. The discovery of the riches of Mexico and Peru led
+them to look for other rich nations, and to travel thousands of miles on
+the mainland, guided by the reports of the Indians. Undaunted by
+suffering and failure, they would often try again and again, perhaps
+only to perish in the attempt at last.
+
+The treasures of the Indies made Spain the greatest nation in Europe.
+With her riches she could do almost anything. Other nations bowed down
+before her, and she became sovereign of the seas and mistress of the
+world. No matter how it was obtained, gold and silver flowed into her
+coffers; what did she care that it was obtained by the bloody sweat of
+the poor Indians?
+
+Then came envy and jealousy. Why should Spain claim the whole of the New
+World? England, Holland, and France began to dispute her supremacy and
+determined to get a share of the good things. The "invincible
+domination" of Spain led her to declare war against England, with the
+result that the hardy sea-dogs of that time began to worry the fat
+galleons at sea, and to pillage the treasure depots on the Main.
+
+And here we must mention that there were two important places in the
+Indies where Spain was most vulnerable--the Mona Passage between
+Hispaniola and Porto Rico and the Isthmus of Darien. Through the first
+came the outward fleets with supplies, and on their return with gold and
+silver, while on the Isthmus was the depot for merchandise and the great
+treasure store. At these two points the enemy congregated, either as
+ships of war, buccaneers, corsairs, or pirates, and in their
+neighbourhood some of the most bitter struggles took place. There was no
+peace in the Indies, whatever might nominally be the case in Europe.
+Englishmen's blood boiled at the atrocities of the Spaniards, but we are
+afraid it was not love for the oppressed alone that made them massacre
+the Spaniards whenever they got an opportunity. The poor Indian received
+but a scant measure of justice from these very people, when as a matter
+of convenience they required possession of the Caribbee islands.
+
+Other nations took possession of smaller islands, unoccupied by Spain,
+and from these centres continued their raids, as privateers in war, and
+as pirates at other times. Sometimes they were united among themselves
+against the common enemy, sometimes at war with each other. France and
+Holland against England, England and Holland against France--nothing but
+quarrels and fighting. Now an island changed hands, and again it was
+restored or recaptured. The planters were never sure of being able to
+reap their crops, and often had literally to superintend the estate
+work, armed with sword and arquebuse, while their black and white slaves
+cultivated the soil.
+
+Now the West Indies became the great training ground for three maritime
+nations--England, France, and Holland. Spain lost her prestige, and the
+struggle lay among her enemies for over a century. At first the three
+disputants for her place were equally matched; then Holland dropped
+behind, leaving England and France to fight it out. The struggle was a
+very close one, which only ended with the fall of Napoleon, and it was
+in the Caribbean Sea where the great check to France took place. Here
+Rodney defeated De Grasse, and here Nelson and many another naval
+officer gained that experience which served them so well in other parts
+of the world.
+
+Here also was the scene of that great labour experiment, the African
+slave-trade. The atrocities of the Spaniards caused the depopulation of
+the Greater Antilles, and led to the importation of negroes. Whatever
+may be said against slavery, there can hardly be any question that the
+African has been improved by his removal to another part of the world
+and different surroundings. True, he has not progressed to the extent
+that was expected by his friends when they paid such an enormous sum for
+his enfranchisement; still, there are undoubtedly signs of progress.
+
+The white colonists in the West Indies never settled down to form the
+nucleus of a distinct people. Since the emancipation the islands have
+been more and more abandoned to the negroes and coloured people, with
+the result that although the government is mostly in the hands of the
+whites, they are in such a minority as to be almost lost. In Cuba there
+appears to be such a feeling of patriotism towards their own island that
+probably we shall soon hear of a new republic, but elsewhere in the
+islands our hopes for the future must lie in the negroes and coloured
+people.
+
+On the mainland the original inhabitants were not exterminated as in the
+large islands, and consequently we have there a most interesting
+process in course of accomplishment--the development of one or more
+nations. Here are the true Americans, and as the Gaul was merged in the
+Frank, and the Briton in the Saxon, so the Spaniard has been or will
+ultimately be lost in the American. At present the so-called Spanish
+republics are in their birth-throes--they are feeling their way. Through
+trouble and difficulty--revolution and tyranny--they have to march on,
+until they become stronger and more fitted to take their places among
+other nations. Out of the struggle they must ultimately come, and it
+will be a most interesting study for those who see the result.
+
+In Hispaniola we have also a nation in the course of development--an
+alien race from the old world. More backward than the Americans, the
+Africans of Haiti are struggling to gain a position among other nations,
+apparently without any good result. The nation is yet unborn, and its
+birth-throes are distressing. We look upon that beautiful island and
+feel sad that such a paradise should have fallen so low. As a race the
+negro has little of that internal power that makes for progress--he must
+be compelled to move on. Some are inclined to look upon him as in the
+course of degenerating into the savage, but we, on the contrary, believe
+him to be progressing slowly.
+
+In the islands belonging to European nations the influence of the
+dominant power is visible in the negro even when he has no trace of
+white blood. The French, English, or Dutch negro may be recognised by
+his manners, and even features. In some places East Indians and Chinese
+have been imported, but these stand alone and make little impression.
+They are aliens as yet, and take little part in the development of the
+colonies.
+
+Latterly the West Indies have sunk into neglect by Europe. Except for
+the difficulties of the planters their history is almost a blank sheet.
+Few know anything about the beautiful islands or the grand forests of
+the mainland. Even the discovery of gold in Guiana, which goes to
+confirm the reports of Ralegh, three centuries ago, is only known to a
+few. Ruin and desolation have fallen upon them since the peace of 1815
+and the emancipation. Even the negro--the _protege_ of the
+benevolent--is no longer the object of interest he once was. Cane sugar
+is being gradually ousted by that from the beet, and hardly anything has
+been done to replace its cultivation by other tropical products.
+
+Yet the islands are still as lovely as they were four centuries ago, and
+on the continent is a wealth of interest to the naturalist and lover of
+the beautiful. Now and again a tourist goes the round of the islands and
+publishes the result in a book of travel; but the countries are out of
+the track of civilisation and progress. Possibly if the Panama or
+Nicaragua Canal is ever finished things may be a little better, but at
+present the outlook is very dismal.
+
+In attempting to compress the story of the West Indies and Spanish Main
+within the covers of one volume we have undertaken a task by no means
+easy. Every island and every province has its own tale, and to do them
+all justice would require a hundred books. Every West Indian will find
+something missing--some event unmentioned which is of the greatest
+importance to his particular community. This is only to be expected, yet
+we believe that the reader will get a fairer idea of their importance
+when they are comprehended in one great whole. The photo block
+illustrations are from negatives prepared by Mr. Thomas B. Blow, F.L.S.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+    I.
+                                                                   PAGE
+    THE SPANIARDS AND THEIR VICTIMS                                1-22
+
+    The native Americans--The Arawak and the Carib--Their independent
+    spirit--Their country--The character of the Spaniard--He wants to
+    convert the natives to Christianity--"A ton of gold"--First Spanish
+    settlers in Hispaniola--They ravage the island and are entirely cut
+    off--The second colony oppresses the Indians--Repartimientos--Cruelties
+    to the Indian slaves--Decrease of the population--Slave-hunting in
+    other islands and on the Main--Resistance of the cannibals--Decline of
+    Hispaniola.
+
+    II.
+
+    THE QUEST FOR "EL DORADO"                                     23-47
+
+    Treasure-seeking and its dangers--Alonzo de Ojeda--The proclamation to
+    the Indians--Disastrous voyage of Valdivia--A cannibal story--"El
+    Dorado," the gilded one--The German knights--Ambrosio de
+    Alfinger--George of Spires--Nicholas Fedreman and others--Pedro de
+    Ursua and Lope de Aguirre--Pedro de Acosta--Diego de Ordas and Juan
+    Martinez--The quest and its dangers.
+
+    III.
+
+    "SINGEING THE SPANIARD'S BEARD"                               48-67
+
+    The Papal Bull of partition--English and French seamen in the
+    Indies--Raids on the Spanish possessions--Master William Hawkins goes
+    to Brazil--The Caribs friendly to the enemies of Spain--John Hawkins
+    carries negroes from Africa--Francis Drake's attack on Nombre de
+    Dios--The Simaroons--Drake captures the Panama train--John
+    Oxenham--Andrew Barker--Drake's second voyage--He captures St. Domingo
+    and Carthagena--Last voyage of Drake and Hawkins--Death of
+    Drake--Exploits of other adventurers.
+
+    IV.
+
+    RALEGH AND THE FIRST BRITISH COLONIES                         68-89
+
+    "Letters Patent" to Ralegh--"El Dorado" again--Ralegh's first voyage to
+    Guiana--Keymis and Berrie--The Dutch in Guiana--Charles Leigh founds a
+    settlement--Robert Harcourt's colony--Ralegh's imprisonment--He is
+    released to again visit Guiana--Disastrous results--Roger North's
+    colony--King James's want of policy--Changes after his death--St.
+    Christopher's and Barbados--North's colony again--The Bahamas--The
+    French and Dutch settlements--Rise of the Dutch--The French and English
+    at St. Christopher's.
+
+    V.
+
+    BUCCANEERS, FILIBUSTERS, AND PIRATES                         90-112
+
+    The buccaneers of Hispaniola--Tortuga--Bay of Campeachy--Privateers
+    turning pirates--Pierre Legrand--Captains de Basco and Brouage--Captain
+    Lawrence--Montbar the "Exterminator"--Lolonois--Morgan storms and
+    captures Panama--He settles down in Jamaica--Van Horn--Raid on the
+    South Sea--Lionel Wafer's journey across the Isthmus.
+
+    VI.
+
+    WAR IN THE YOUNG COLONIES                                   113-136
+
+    Spanish raids--Effects of the "Great English Revolution"--The Caribbee
+    Islands in revolt--Cavaliers and Roundheads in Barbados--Charles the
+    Second declared king--Lord Willoughby arrives with a Commission from
+    the fugitive--Persecution of the Roundheads--Sir George Ayscue sent out
+    with a fleet to reduce Barbados--The island blockaded--Its
+    surrender--Surinam held for the king--Cromwell and Spain--The
+    Expedition to St. Domingo--Capture of Jamaica--Colonisation of the
+    island--The Council for foreign plantations.
+
+    VII.
+
+    THE PLANTERS AND THEIR SLAVES                               137-159
+
+    First adventurers not agriculturalists--Slaves wanted--Negroes
+    imported--Sugar--Cotton--Tobacco--First plantations--Kidnapping--
+    Prisoners transported--English slave-trade--Comparative cost of negroes
+    and whites--Rebels--Story of Henry Pitman--Condition of the
+    bond-servants--Life of the planter--Dangers of the
+    voyage--Jamaica--Slavery in Africa--Treatment of the West Indian slave.
+
+    VIII.
+
+    THE STRUGGLE FOR SUPREMACY                                  160-183
+
+    Trade disputes between England and Holland--War--The buccaneers
+    employed--Repulse of De Ruyter at Barbados--Capture of Dutch colonies
+    by English--The French drive the English from St. Kitt's--Abortive
+    attempts for its recapture--Peace of Breda--The value of the buccaneers
+    to Jamaica--Character of the three nations now contending for
+    supremacy--Case of Surinam--English refused permission to leave with
+    their slaves--War again--Peace of Westminster and the exodus from
+    Surinam--Case of Jeronomy Clifford--Sir Henry Morgan represses
+    buccaneering--Another war--Du Casse and the Corsairs--Jacques
+    Cassard--Curious position of Berbice--Cassard takes Curacao--His
+    downfall.
+
+    IX.
+
+    THE STRUGGLE FOR THE DARIEN TRADE                           184-206
+
+    Carthagena and Porto Bello fairs--The trade of the Isthmus--The
+    joint-stock mania--William Paterson and the Darien scheme--Caledonia
+    and New Edinburgh founded--Destruction of the colony--The _Assiento_
+    contract--The Great South Sea Bubble--Vain attempts of the English to
+    obtain free trade with the Spanish provinces--Attacks on the logwood
+    cutters of Campeachy--War with Spain--Contraband traders and their
+    losses--Captain Jenkins' ear--Another war with Spain--Admiral Vernon
+    takes Porto Bello--His failure at Carthagena--English exploits.
+
+    X.
+
+    SLAVE INSURRECTIONS AND BUSH NEGROES                        207-236
+
+    Sufferings of the planters from war--Barbados alone as having never
+    fallen to the enemy--Internal difficulties--Ferocity of slaves and
+    cruelty of their punishments--The Maroons of Jamaica and bush negroes
+    in Guiana--Slave insurrections--Abortive plots in Barbados--Troubles in
+    Jamaica--Revolt in Antigua--The great slave insurrection in
+    Berbice--The whites driven from the colony--Haunts of the Guiana bush
+    negroes--Surinam in continual fear of their raids--Expeditions sent
+    against them--Treaties--Great insurrection in Jamaica and suppression
+    of the Maroons.
+
+    XI.
+
+    THE SOVEREIGNTY OF THE SEAS                                 237-255
+
+    Downfall of Spain--England and France--Contraband traffic of the Dutch
+    and Danes--Advantages of neutrality--The Jews in the islands--They
+    support the buccaneers--The great war--England against the
+    world--Admiral Rodney--His abortive fights with De Guichen--The
+    training of his fleet--He captures St. Eustatius and confiscates
+    private property--Capture of Demerara--Outcry against Rodney--British
+    disasters--Rodney appears again--His decisive victory over De
+    Grasse--Peace and its results--The great struggle with France and her
+    allies--British supremacy--Peace of Amiens--War again--Nelson in the
+    West Indies--The American war--Decline of the plantations from the
+    abolition of the slave-trade.
+
+    XII.
+
+    DOWNFALL OF HISPANIOLA                                      256-275
+
+    Results of the French Revolution--The friends of the blacks--The rights
+    of man--Civil disabilities of free coloured people--Agitation in the
+    French colonies--James Oge--Demand of the coloured people for equal
+    rights--Civil war in Hispaniola--"Perish the colonies"--Great slave
+    insurrection--The whites concede equal rights, but the Convention
+    revokes their original decree--Truce broken--The struggle
+    renewed--Devastation of the colony--The British expedition and its
+    failure--Toussaint L'Ouverture--Slavery abolished--It is re-established
+    by Napoleon--Treachery to L'Ouverture and the negroes--Dessalines and
+    Christophe declare the independence of Hayti--Massacre of the
+    whites--The Empire and Republic.
+
+    XIII.
+
+    EMANCIPATION OF THE SPANISH MAIN                            276-288
+
+    Influence of the French Revolution on Spanish America--Miranda vainly
+    attempts to rouse Venezuela--Revolution at Caracas--Simon
+    Bolivar--Struggle for independence--Atrocities of both parties--Bolivar
+    proclaims extermination to the Royalists--Spanish successes--The
+    British Legion--Devastation of the country--The Columbian
+    Republic--Guatemala.
+
+    XIV.
+
+    ABOLITION OF SLAVERY                                        289-313
+
+    Agitation against slavery by the Quakers--Abolition of the African
+    slave-trade--Effects of this on the plantations--Condition of the
+    slave--Registration--Rising in Barbados--The Protestant missionaries
+    arrive--Opposition of the planters--Ordinance against preaching and
+    teaching slaves passed in Jamaica--The anti-slavery party in
+    England--Amelioration of the condition of the slave--Insurrection in
+    Demerara--Prosecution and conviction of the Rev. John
+    Smith--Emancipation in the British colonies--Its effect on colonies of
+    other nationalities--Insurrection at St. Croix--Total abolition of
+    slavery in the West Indies.
+
+    XV.
+
+    RESULTS OF EMANCIPATION                                     314-345
+
+    Ruin of the planters--Difficulty of procuring labour--Abolition of the
+    differential duties--Immigration--Barbados an exception when ruin fell
+    on the other colonies--Labour laws in French, Danish, and Dutch
+    colonies--Another insurrection in St. Croix--Race prejudice causes
+    riots in Demerara--Insurrection at Jamaica--Confederation riot at
+    Barbados.
+
+    XVI.
+
+    THE ISTHMUS TRANSIT SCHEMES                                 346-364
+
+    Nelson's expedition to the San Juan--Miranda's project--Importance of a
+    canal--Central America--Effects of the discovery of gold in
+    California--The Panama railway--Canal projects--Darien again--The
+    _Times_ and the Nicaragua project--Ship railway--Lesseps and the Panama
+    Canal--Difficulties of the work--Its downfall--Character of
+    Lesseps--The Nicaragua Canal.
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+                                                                   PAGE
+
+    1.--Reception of Spaniards by Arawaks. From Gottfried's
+    "Reisen"                                                 _Frontispiece_
+
+    2.--Reception of Spaniards by Caribs. From Gottfried's
+    "Reisen"                                                         5
+
+    3.--A corner of Paradise. The Victoria Regia                     8
+
+    4.--_En route_ to the goldfields of Guiana. Passing the rapids
+    of the Essequebo                                                10
+
+    5.--Worrying the natives with dogs. From Gottfried's "Reisen"   13
+
+    6.--A modern alluvial gold washing                              16
+
+    7.--Suicides. From Gottfried's "Reisen"                         17
+
+    8.--A Guiana river. The Tumatamari falls                        26
+
+    9.--Inhabitants of the Spanish Main. From Colijn's "Reisen"     28
+
+    10.--"El Dorado." From Gottfried's "Reisen"                     37
+
+    11.--Negro woman returning from market                          53
+
+    12.--Negro barber                                               54
+
+    13.--Negro family on holiday                                    55
+
+    14.--Negresses gossiping                                        56
+
+    15.--Ralegh in Trinidad. From Gottfried's "Reisen"              71
+
+    16.--Gold hunting. From Gottfried's "Reisen"                    80
+
+    17.--Carib attack on a settlement. From Gottfried's "Reisen"    89
+
+    18.--St. Kitt's. From Andrews' "West Indies"                   118
+
+    19.--A Surinam planter. From Stedman's "Surinam"               138
+
+    20.--A negro festival. From Edwards' "West Indies"             140
+
+    21.--Voyage of the sable Venus. From Edwards' "West Indies"    142
+
+    22.--Slaves landing from the ship. From Stedman's "Surinam"    144
+
+    23.--Map of _Terra Firma_. From Gottfried's "Reisen"           197
+
+    24.--A rebel negro. From Stedman's "Surinam"                   209
+
+    25.--The execution of breaking on the rack. From Stedman's
+    "Surinam"                                                      212
+
+    26.--March through a swamp. From Stedman's "Surinam"           224
+
+    27.--Trelawny town. From Edwards' "West Indies"                231
+
+    28.--Pacification of the Maroons. From Edwards' "West Indies"  234
+
+    29.--View of part of Hispaniola. From Andrews' "West Indies"   258
+
+    30.--La Guayra on the Main. From Andrews' "West Indies"        280
+
+    31.--The First of August. From Madden's "West Indies"          308
+
+    32.--A relic of the slavery days--old slave buying fish        310
+
+    33.--Negress, Guiana                                           315
+
+    34.--Negress fish-sellers, Guiana                              316
+
+    35.--Chinese wood-carrier                                      317
+
+    36.--East Indian coolie                                        318
+
+    37.--East Indian coolie family                                 319
+
+    38.--Coolie barber                                             320
+
+    39.--East Indian coolie girl                                   321
+
+    40.--Coolie women, British Guiana                              322
+
+    41.--Coolie vegetable sellers, British Guiana                  323
+
+    42.--East Indian coolies, Trinidad                             324
+
+    43.--East Indian coolie, Trinidad                              325
+
+    44.--Trinidad coolies                                          326
+
+    45.--Barbados. From Andrews' "West Indies"                     330
+
+    46.--St. Lucia. From Andrews' "West Indies"                    331
+
+    47.--Atlantic entrance to Darien Canal. From Cullen's "Darien
+    Canal"                                                         348
+
+    48.--Europe supported by Africa and America. From Stedman's
+    "Surinam"                                                      363
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+THE WEST INDIES.
+
+
+
+
+I.
+
+THE SPANIARDS AND THEIR VICTIMS.
+
+
+When the early writers spoke of America as the new world, _mundus
+novus_, they could hardly have appreciated the full meaning of the name.
+True, it was a new world to them, with new animals, new plants, and a
+new race of mankind; but the absolute distinctness of everything,
+especially in the tropical regions, was not understood. With our fuller
+knowledge the ideas of strangeness and novelty are more and more
+impressed, and we are ready to exclaim, Yes! it is indeed a new world.
+
+Unlike those of the eastern hemisphere, the peoples of the West are of
+one race. Apart from every other, the development of the American Indian
+has gone on different lines, the result being a people self-contained,
+as it were, and unmodified until the arrival of the European. The
+American is perhaps the nearest to the natural man, and his character is
+the result of nature's own moulding. When compared with the European or
+Asiatic he seems to be far behind, yet the civilisation of Peru and
+Mexico was in some respects in advance of that of their conquerors. This
+was brought about by a dense population which forced men into collision
+with each other--in other parts of the continent and on the islands they
+were more isolated and therefore less civilised.
+
+In the forest region of the Spanish Main, and on the West Indian
+islands, the communities were, as a rule, very small and isolated one
+from another. A kind of patriarchal system prevented much communication,
+and inter-tribal disputes were a bar to union. Every community
+distrusted every other, and even when one tribe fought against its
+neighbour there were few attempts to bring the sections together against
+the common enemy.
+
+On the coasts and islands of the Caribbean Sea, at the time of their
+discovery, lived two distinct peoples, the Arawaks and the Caribs. There
+were also a few other tribes of minor importance, such as the Warrows,
+but these made little impression, and may therefore be left out of
+consideration. The remnants of the two great stocks still exist in
+Guiana and at the mouth of the Orinoco, living to-day in much the same
+manner as they did when the country was first discovered by the
+Spaniards.
+
+Four centuries ago the Greater Antilles were exclusively inhabited by
+Arawaks, and the Lesser by Caribs. The Arawak, as his name implies, was
+more or less an agriculturalist--a meal-eater, a cultivator of
+vegetables, mainly cassava. From the poisonous root of this plant
+bread, drink, and a preservative sauce for meat, were prepared, so that,
+with game or fish, it formed the staff of life. The probable course of
+his migration was from Yucatan or Mexico to the south-east, terminating
+in Guiana, and from thence north through the whole of the Antilles. When
+Columbus arrived people of this stock filled the larger islands and the
+Bahamas, but along the coast and in the island of Trinidad they disputed
+the occupation of the territories with the Caribs. In Porto Rico also
+the Caribs had become aggressive, and even in Hispaniola the Arawaks had
+to defend their shores against that warlike people. If we believe the
+accounts of the Spaniards the inhabitants of the Greater Antilles were
+not altogether a savage people. Whether they had destroyed all the
+larger game, or whether they found none on their arrival, the fact
+remains that they were agriculturalists rather than huntsmen. They were,
+however, expert in fishing, and built great canoes with sails, in which
+they carried on their operations even in comparatively rough water.
+Their provision grounds were highly praised by the Spaniards in language
+that could hardly apply to little clearings like those in the Guiana
+forest. In them were grown, besides cassava, yams, sweet potatoes, and
+maize, while other things such as cotton and tobacco were also largely
+cultivated. The natives had also acquired several arts besides that of
+canoe building, which, when we consider their want of proper implements,
+was almost wonderful. Cotton was spun and woven into cloth for their
+scanty garments, gold cast and hammered into figures and ornaments, and
+wood and stone idols and weapons were also carved. All this was done
+with stone implements, even to the work of hollowing great logs for
+their canoes, and shaping planks. We read of axe-heads made of _guanin_,
+an alloy of gold and copper, and also of attempts to make similar tools
+of silver, but these were very rare, and could hardly have been utilised
+to any good purpose. When we appreciate the labour and pains taken in
+excavating a large canoe, with only fire and the stone adze, we can see
+that these people were by no means idle. Nor were they altogether
+wanting in appreciation of art, for the figures on their baskets and
+pottery were beautifully true geometrical patterns, and their so-called
+idols, although grotesque and rude, often striking.
+
+On the mainland the Arawaks lived in small communities, only electing a
+war-chief as occasion required--in Haiti the Cacique seems to have been
+leader and ruler as well. And here we must mention the most striking
+characteristic of the American Indian--his utter abhorrence of anything
+like coercion. Even in childhood his parents let him do as he pleases,
+never attempting to govern him in any way. It followed therefore that
+neither war-captain nor Cacique had any real power to compel them to a
+course they disliked, and that discipline was entirely wanting. The
+traveller in Guiana at the present day can thoroughly understand this
+trait of character, for he has to take it into account if he wishes to
+get their assistance. They must be treated as friends, not as servants,
+and the greatest care taken not to offend their dignity, unless he
+wishes to be left alone in the forest.
+
+[Illustration: RECEPTION OF SPANIARDS BY CARIBS.
+
+(_From Gottfried's "Reisen."_)]
+
+They quarrelled little among themselves, and only fought against the
+Caribs; they were peaceable, kind, and gentle, so hospitable to
+strangers that Columbus could hardly say enough in their favour. "A
+better race there cannot be," he declared to his sovereigns, and this
+opinion was confirmed by all who came into contact with them. In fact if
+you do nothing to offend him, the Arawak of to-day is the same quiet and
+gentle fellow who met the voyagers on their arrival at Guanahani.
+
+The Caribs were a stronger race, and had probably followed the same
+track as the Arawaks in a later migration. At the time of the discovery
+they appear to have driven the more gentle race from the smaller islands
+south of Porto Rico, and had taken their women as wives. All along the
+coast the two tribes fought with each other, but on account of the
+greater stretch of country there was nothing like the extermination
+which took place in the Lesser Antilles. The Arawaks retired up the
+rivers and creeks, leaving their enemies to take possession of the
+coast, which they did to such good purpose that the Spaniards were
+unable to get a footing in Guiana. All the early writers agree that the
+Caribs were man-eaters--in fact the word cannibal seems to have been
+derived from their name. In the smaller islands they had eaten all the
+men of the gentler tribe, and now made periodical raids on the larger,
+from whence they carried off prisoners to be cooked and devoured at
+leisure. These raids led to combinations on the part of the inhabitants
+of Haiti and Porto Rico, and hitherto they had been successful in
+preventing anything like an occupation of these islands by their
+enemies. Whether these successes would have continued is doubtful; the
+arrival of the Spaniards upset everything.
+
+The Carib was not so entirely dependent on the produce of the soil as
+the meal-eater. He was a hunter and fisherman, but above everything else
+a warrior. His women had provision grounds like those of the Arawak,
+possibly because they came from that stock. The Carib's hunting grounds
+were circumscribed and poor, and his craving for meat could only be
+appeased in one way--by eating his enemies. Probably this made him all
+the more fierce and bloodthirsty, as a flesh diet is certainly more
+stimulating than one of fish and starchy tubers.
+
+If the Arawak was impatient of control, the Carib was even more
+independent. The former would pine away and die under coercion, the
+latter refused absolutely to be a slave. He would die fighting for his
+liberty, but never admit that he was conquered. It was not he who
+welcomed the Spaniards to the West Indies--on the contrary, he did
+everything possible to prevent their landing on his shores. His
+so-called treachery caused many difficulties to the new-comers, but
+taken altogether he was much respected by them as a foe worthy of their
+steel.
+
+These two peoples lived in a country which Columbus described as a
+veritable paradise--in fact he thought he had discovered the site of the
+Garden of Eden. Into this beautiful world he let loose a band of
+robbers and murderers, to depopulate and make it a wilderness. They were
+the product of an entirely different environment--a continent in which
+every man's hand was against that of his neighbour. For a long time
+Spain had been a battlefield, on which the most warlike instincts of
+mankind came to the front. Her soldiers understood the advantages of
+discipline, and would follow their leaders wherever anything was to be
+gained, yet at the same time they were individuals, and as such fought
+for their own hands as well.
+
+[Illustration: A CORNER OF PARADISE. THE VICTORIA REGIA.]
+
+Like the rest of Christendom Spain was very religious, and after
+treasure-seeking, the adventurers of that nation meant to convert the
+heathen. The cross was erected everywhere on landing, and religious
+services held to pray for help in their undertakings. If the cruelties
+that followed were not quite in accordance with Christ's teachings we
+must put it down to the manners and customs of the age. Ignorance was
+really the great characteristic of that period, and the brilliancy of
+the few only shone out the brighter because of the dark background. The
+majority were steeped in superstition, and almost entirely dominated by
+their passions.
+
+Columbus was continually harping upon the desirability of making the
+natives of the new world Christians. "Your Highness," he said, in one of
+his letters, "ought to rejoice that they will soon become Christians,
+and that they will be taught the good customs of your kingdom." He took
+nine of them to Spain, on his return from the first voyage, who were
+baptized and taught the Spanish language. The king and queen told him to
+deal lovingly with those in the Indies, and to severely punish any who
+ill-treated them. More were sent to Spain and allowed to go back for the
+purpose of "gaining souls." Columbus, however, did not altogether agree
+with his sovereigns--his project was to send enough as slaves to pay the
+expenses of his expeditions, and he actually shipped four lots for that
+purpose. But Ferdinand and Isabella would not have this, and even went
+so far as to prohibit the deportation of the Caribs notwithstanding the
+admiral's argument that they were unworthy of the royal clemency,
+because they ate men and were enemies of the friendly Arawaks.
+
+[Illustration: EN ROUTE TO THE GOLDFIELDS OF GUIANA. PASSING THE RAPIDS
+OF THE ESSEQUEBO.]
+
+How the new world was discovered in 1492 has been told so often that it
+is hardly necessary to repeat the story. Haiti, named Hispaniola or
+Little Spain, was chosen from the first as the island on which a
+settlement should be planted. Here Columbus left thirty-nine colonists
+under the command of Diego de Arana, and under the protection of the
+great Cacique Guacanagari. He "trusted to God" that on his return he
+would find a ton of gold and a large quantity of spices, with the
+proceeds of which his sovereigns might undertake the conquest of
+Jerusalem from the infidels.
+
+A ton of gold! This was the whole end and aim of his expedition.
+Everything else was subordinate to this. He had seen the natives wearing
+gold ornaments, and found that the precious metal could be gathered from
+certain streams on the island. But, could he estimate the amount of
+labour required to procure such an enormous quantity, by people who had
+no other appliances than baskets? This alone was enough to bring trouble
+upon the peaceful island.
+
+But this was not all. The colonists quarrelled among themselves,
+interfered with the Indian women, went hunting for gold all over the
+country, took it wherever it could be found, and stole provisions when
+their friends did not bring them enough. Not satisfied with the district
+of the friendly Cacique, they ravaged that of Caonabo, the Carib
+chieftain of another clan, a man of a different stamp. He resented the
+insults at once by attacking the Spaniards, who, notwithstanding the
+assistance of their allies, were utterly exterminated. When Columbus
+arrived, instead of a ton of gold, he found nothing but the blackened
+ruins of the fort and houses.
+
+This should have been a lesson to the Spaniards, but unfortunately it
+only led to further quarrels. The new-comers did not intend to cultivate
+the soil; their main object was treasure, and they expected the natives
+to provide them with food. And here we must mention the fact that the
+people of tropical climes _never_ have any store of provisions laid
+up--this is only necessary where winter prevails for half the year. It
+follows therefore that however liberal they may feel towards strangers,
+their supplies being restricted to their own wants leave little to give
+away. Up to a certain point the Indian gives freely, but when this means
+privation to himself he withholds his hand. The want of a full
+appreciation of this fact caused great trouble in many of the early
+settlements, and in some cases led to their destruction. The natives
+promised food supplies; but when they found themselves starving,
+naturally withheld further assistance. The settlers considered this a
+breach of faith, and made incursions on the provision grounds, taking
+what they wanted, and seriously injuring the crops. This the Indians
+resented, and deadly quarrels ensued, which ended in their driving out
+the colonists or deserting the place altogether. In the latter case the
+food supply was necessarily cut off, and often led ultimately to the
+abandonment of the colony.
+
+To the kindly people of Hispaniola the new-comers were gods, and their
+horses and cattle preternatural creatures. While wondering and admiring,
+they were at the same time frightened at these out-of-the-way men and
+animals, especially when the soldiers exhibited themselves on horseback.
+At first they thought them immortal, and were disagreeably surprised
+when they fell before the army of Caonabo. But even the proverbial worm
+will turn, and soon the oppressions of the second colonists drove the
+poor Haitians to resist. To labour in the field was beneath the dignity
+of the adventurous treasure-seekers--the natives must supply them with
+provisions. What they had brought from Spain was soon spoilt in such a
+hot climate--no one had yet learned how to pack for long voyages. They
+must get food, and what was the good of having thousands of people, and
+acres of cultivated land in their neighbourhood, if the natives did not
+bring in as much as was required? At first they were supplied willingly,
+but when the results of this profuse hospitality began to tell upon
+themselves, the poor Haitians withheld their hands. Then the Spaniards
+began complaining to the Cacique, who, however, had no real authority
+over his people in a matter of this kind, and therefore could do
+nothing. Driven by want the Spaniards made incursions on the provision
+grounds, where they spoilt as much as they took away, and left a waste
+behind. Sometimes they met with resistance, and the defenders were cut
+down without mercy. The spoilers only wanted an excuse for fleshing
+their swords; they were even anxious to show their powers, and make the
+natives feel that at last they had masters.
+
+[Illustration: WORRYING THE NATIVES WITH DOGS.
+
+(_From Gottfried's "Reisen."_)]
+
+Before two years had passed the Spaniards were beset with difficulties.
+The Indian looked despairingly at his wasted fields, and refused to
+cultivate them any longer. Why should he plant for others when he
+himself was starving? Some fled into the mountains and forests of the
+interior, others died of want. This naturally told upon the white men,
+who had not yet learnt that they must cultivate the soil if they wanted
+its produce. They could not demean themselves to this, but must have the
+power to compel the inhabitants and owners of this beautiful island to
+work for them.
+
+The home authorities knew what was going on, and did their best
+according to their lights to provide a remedy. At first they gave large
+tracts of land to the settlers, _repartimientos_ as they were called,
+but what was the use of these if their owners could get no labourers?
+Then to every grant was allotted a certain number of Indians as slaves,
+and thus the cruel system that ultimately depopulated the Greater
+Antilles and the Bahamas was introduced.
+
+Those who were not allotted as slaves were compelled to pay tribute. In
+the neighbourhood of the gold-washings this was to consist of a little
+bellful of gold; in other places of an arroba (28 lbs.) of cotton, once
+a quarter for every person above the age of fourteen. Metal tokens to
+hang upon the neck were given as receipts, and when these were absent
+the people were severely punished. Thus this gentle and independent race
+was enslaved.
+
+[Illustration: A MODERN ALLUVIAL GOLD WASHING.]
+
+Even with modern appliances and the use of quicksilver, gold-washing is
+a most precarious business; what then could it have been here with
+nothing but a basket and gourd? Columbus had such exaggerated ideas
+that, when he saw the gold-washings of Cibao, he came to the conclusion
+they were the Ophir of the Bible; from his reports the king and queen
+thought nothing of demanding this small tribute. To the Indian, however,
+the gleaning of the tribute meant the labour of days and weeks, and when
+there were so many seekers it was found utterly impossible for each to
+gather his amount. Then they ran away, and were hunted with dogs,
+brought back, and compelled to wash the gravel under surveillance,
+subject to the pricks of a sword if they were not active enough. But,
+even with all this, the returns were not equal to what was expected, and
+the tribute had ultimately to be abandoned. However, it was stated
+that as much as the value of a million crowns per annum was extracted
+during the best years, at a cost of pain and suffering awful to
+contemplate.
+
+[Illustration: SUICIDES.
+
+(_From Gottfried's "Reisen."_)]
+
+The cotton tribute had also to be abandoned, and even the
+_repartimientos_ were not a success. If they had been willing, the
+natives could hardly have performed steady work, and as slaves they were
+almost valueless. In their natural condition they laboured when they
+chose, wasting time as we should say with little good result. Now their
+masters demanded heavy tasks which prevented their working on their own
+provision grounds, and yet provided little or nothing in the way of
+rations. Hundreds died of starvation; thousands committed suicide. Some
+jumped from high precipices; they hanged, stabbed, drowned, and poisoned
+themselves; mothers destroyed their babes to save them from the misery
+of living. If caught in such attempts they were flogged, had boiling
+water or melted lead poured over them, and were otherwise tortured until
+death came to their relief. Their cruel masters, however, rarely wished
+to kill them outright--they were too valuable. No, they must break down
+this dogged, stubborn spirit--treat them as horses and mules, until they
+bent themselves to the yoke.
+
+It was left for bands of soldiers on foraging expeditions to kill in
+mere wantonness. A company would be travelling through the island and
+come upon a village, where perhaps they stopped for a short rest. The
+people looked on, admiring their shining armour and weapons, wondering
+what sort of creatures these were that so quietly cropped the grass and
+shrubs. One of the soldiers would take out his sword, feel its keen
+edge, and think what a pity it was that the weapon should be used so
+little. Behind him comes a little boy. The temptation is great; in a
+moment the sharp weapon flashes and the child lies dead. The Indians
+fly, and the whole party follows, chasing and slaughtering to their
+heart's content, not knowing nor caring why. In a few minutes fifty are
+killed, the soldiers return to their bivouac, and if they inquire into
+the matter at all pass it off as a good jest.
+
+Is it any wonder that the population decreased to a wonderful degree in
+a few years? The sugar-cane had been introduced by Columbus on his
+second voyage, and labour was soon required for cultivating this and
+other crops. As long as slaves were procurable the planters throve, and
+as by that time Hispaniola had become the great centre of the Indies,
+the settlers were in a fair way to make fortunes. But the decrease in
+the population became alarming, and something had to be done; then, new
+settlers were continually arriving who also wanted slaves. It followed,
+therefore, that some of the more audacious of the adventurers took up
+the trade of kidnapping the Indians from other islands and the mainland.
+A host of disappointed treasure-seekers had ransacked every shore, and
+were now well prepared for the business of man-hunting.
+
+The first people to suffer were those who so kindly welcomed Columbus on
+his arrival--the gentle inhabitants of the Bahamas. They were even more
+peaceful than the Haitians, because they had not suffered from Carib
+invasions. When the slave hunters told them to come to the south and
+live with their ancestors, they willingly allowed themselves to be
+carried off to suffer like their neighbours. Some ran away and got to
+the northern shores of Hispaniola, where they stretched out their hands
+to their beautiful homes and then died of grief.
+
+Having entirely depopulated the smaller islands, and being prevented
+from kidnapping the people of Cuba, Porto Rico, and Jamaica, by the
+settlers on those islands, they tried the Caribbees. Here they met their
+match. No longer was it the gentle Arawak whom they encountered, but the
+ferocious cannibal. Like his foes he had been trained in war for many
+generations. Not only did he refuse to work for the stranger, but even
+went so far as to oppose his landing. On his islands was little to
+attract the treasure-seeker, and if he would not submit to be a slave,
+nothing was to be gained by interfering with him. This the Spaniard
+found out by bitter experience. A few vessels were wrecked on these
+inhospitable shores, the crews of which escaped to land only to be
+killed and eaten, after being tortured with all the ingenuity of the
+savage. Even a landing for fresh water had to be made in the most
+cautious manner, and the carriers protected by a strong guard. No doubt
+the Caribs had heard of the white man's cruelties from their Arawak
+prisoners, and were therefore all the more ready to repel their
+invasions. This was particularly noticeable later when the English and
+French arrived and found them by no means so ferocious as the Spaniards
+had reported. Possibly they knew these people to be enemies to their
+foes, and were therefore all the more ready to be friendly as long as no
+attempts were made to oppress them.
+
+Hispaniola rose to some importance very quickly, and almost as quickly
+declined. The settlers depopulated the island, and then complained of
+the want of labourers. The gold-seekers went elsewhere, and Mexico and
+the isthmus of Darien became of more importance. Some writers have
+attempted to give the number of Indians exterminated in the early years
+of the sixteenth century, but little reliance can be placed on their
+statistics. Generally, they range from one to three millions, but it is
+doubtful whether even the lowest figure is not too high. Yet, when we
+read the statement of Columbus that crowds of people (in one place two
+thousand) came forth to meet him, and his description of the large area
+of cultivated land, as well as the broad and good roads, it is not
+difficult to conceive that a million people lived in these great
+islands.
+
+With the destruction of the labourers down fell the plantations. Cattle
+had been introduced and throve wonderfully; now they ran wild over the
+islands, especially Hispaniola, until they became innumerable. On the
+abandoned provision grounds of the Indians they found a virgin
+pasturage. Hogs also took to the woods, and increased even faster than
+the cattle. At first there were neither huntsmen nor carnivorous animals
+to check this wonderful development. The once domesticated animals
+recovered some of the powers and capacities of their wild ancestors,
+and only required enemies to assist in bringing out other latent
+characters. And these were not long wanting. Large and powerful hounds
+had been imported from Spain to hunt the runaway Indians, and now that
+their occupation was gone, they also took to the woods and savannahs.
+Like their ancestors and cousins, the wolves, they combined into packs
+and fought the cattle and hogs. Both hunters and hunted became stronger
+and fiercer--the dogs learnt how best to attack, and their prey to
+defend themselves. It was a struggle like that between the cannibals and
+meal-eaters--nature's method of preserving the balance of life. This
+equalisation no doubt would have been the result had not man interfered;
+how this happened we must leave to another chapter.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+II.
+
+THE QUEST FOR "EL DORADO".
+
+
+Ophir was not found in the islands, and the bands of adventurers went
+over to _terra firma_ or the mainland to continue the search. Along the
+coast of Guiana and Venezuela they again came across the gentle Arawak
+and ferocious Carib, the latter making himself respected everywhere,
+while his poor-spirited fellow-countryman was alternately caressed and
+plundered. In every place the Spaniards found gold ornaments, and every
+tribe told them that the precious metal was only obtainable in some far
+distant country. The Haitians sent Columbus to the south in search of
+the _guanin_ country, and it was there he discovered the coast of Paria
+and the delta of the mighty Orinoco. But he was not fated to come across
+the treasure cities of the Indies.
+
+Others followed to at last conquer Mexico and Peru, but even then it was
+generally believed that nations existed who had more riches to be
+plundered than those of the Inca and Montezuma. To find these golden
+regions the voyagers wandered in every direction, contributing much to
+the knowledge of the coasts and rivers, but always coming back
+disappointed.
+
+The horrors of this search can hardly be appreciated nowadays. The ships
+were so small and ill-found that we should hardly care to use them for
+coasters, yet in them these pioneers crossed the Atlantic and
+encountered the hurricanes of the West Indies. Decked only at bow and
+stern, the waves dashed into the hold and wetted the provisions, while
+the sun poured down upon the water casks and burst their wooden hoops.
+The butter and cheese stank, the flour in sacks became mouldy, and the
+bacon and salt fish putrid. Then the hull of the vessel was unprotected,
+and the teredo, or ship worm, bored it through and through, until
+nothing but careening and caulking could save the poor craft from
+sinking. When we understand the privations and dangers of this
+navigation we are not surprised that the adventurers often came to
+grief, but rather wonder that any of them survived.
+
+Living in the West Indies, we have often thought of the pain and
+suffering it would produce if we were compelled to walk or sit in the
+burning sun armed as were the soldiers at that period. We can hardly
+believe that they wore steel body armour, yet the evidence is too strong
+to be refuted. True, they gave it up afterwards in favour of quilted
+cotton, but before they did so how hot they must have felt! We can fancy
+the sentry standing exposed to the full blaze of the sun, his helmet and
+breastplate burning hot and his woollen underclothing saturated with
+perspiration. Then there would be the open boat ascending a river. The
+occupants dared not row in the shade for fear of cannibals shooting at
+them with poisoned arrows from the thicket, and out in the river they
+must have felt as if in a furnace. Even with our white clothing and
+light hats a long journey in an open boat when the sun is high often
+ends in fever, and almost invariably in a headache. The neck and backs
+of the hands get blistered, and become sore, the glare on the water
+dazzles the eye, and we feel faint.
+
+In one of the accounts of such a boating expedition on a river in Guiana
+we read of the men finding some yellow plums floating on the water, and
+of their being much refreshed by them. We also have come across these
+hog-plums when almost exhausted by a long exposure on the open river,
+and when even our negro steersman was nodding as he held the paddle.
+Suddenly we came to our destination, the mouth of a creek, and were
+under an arcade of vegetation, beneath which the plums floated on the
+cool dark water.
+
+The men of the sixteenth century must have been stronger than ourselves,
+or they could hardly have endured such pain and privation. They lay down
+on the bare earth night after night, and on board ship went to sleep on
+naked planks. As they could endure pain and discomfort, so also could
+they inflict it on others. The rough seamen learnt to bear hardships
+which blunted their feelings of humanity and made them inclined to
+torture others. When in the hands of the cannibals they were almost as
+stoical as the savage himself, their ruling passion being a desire for
+revenge. If cruelly treated by one tribe they retaliated on others; in
+the same way the Indians killed one party of Spaniards to avenge the
+insults of their countrymen. This led to a great deal of trouble and
+made the voyages of the treasure-seekers dangerous to all. However free
+from blame one party might be, they were liable to suffer for previous
+wrong-doings and they in turn left behind them injuries to be avenged
+on the next comers.
+
+[Illustration: A GUIANA RIVER. THE TUMATAMARI FALLS.]
+
+And then, how very audacious these adventurers were! Alonzo de Ojeda was
+perhaps the most striking example of utter recklessness in face of
+danger. In 1509 he entered the harbour of Carthagena in spite of a
+warning that its shores were inhabited by a ferocious tribe who fought
+with palm-wood swords and poisoned arrows. It was even stated that the
+women mingled in the battle, and could use the bow and a kind of lance.
+
+These people had been irritated by another party of Spaniards, and on
+sight of the vessels were up in arms at once. However, Ojeda was
+undaunted, and landed at once with his men and some friars, who had been
+sent to convert the Indians. In front stood the enemy brandishing their
+weapons, and prepared for the first hostile movement. Yet, even under
+these critical circumstances, he ordered the usual proclamation to be
+read to the Indians in a language of which they knew nothing. He, Alonzo
+de Ojeda, servant of the most high and mighty sovereigns of Castile and
+Leon, conquerors of barbarous nations, notified them that God had given
+St. Peter the supreme power over the world, which power was exercised by
+the Pope, who had given all that part of the world to these sovereigns.
+They were called upon to acknowledge this sovereignty at once, which, if
+they refused to do, he would bring upon them the horrors of war,
+desolation to their houses, confiscation of their property, and slavery
+to their wives and children.
+
+[Illustration: INHABITANTS OF THE SPANISH MAIN.
+
+(_From Colijn's "Reisen."_)]
+
+While one of the friars read this address the savages stood on the
+defensive, no doubt wondering what the delay meant. Ojeda knew not their
+language, and they took little notice of his signs of amity. As they
+still brandished their weapons, the intrepid adventurer led on an
+attack, calling the Virgin to his aid, and in a few minutes put them to
+flight, killing a few and taking others prisoners. Not content with
+this, he followed them through the forest to their village, and after a
+deadly fight, drove them out and burnt their dwellings. Still undaunted,
+he went on to another village, which he found deserted, but while his
+men were searching for plunder he was attacked by the enemy in
+overwhelming numbers. All his followers were killed, and he himself
+wounded with a poisoned arrow, yet he managed to escape into the forest
+to suffer hunger and thirst in addition to the pain of his wound.
+
+Meanwhile his men on board the ships were wondering what had become of
+their leader and his party. They were afraid to venture far into the
+woods on account of the yells and shouts of the Indians, who were
+celebrating their triumph. At last, however, they commenced a search,
+and found their captain in a mangrove swamp, lying on a tangle of roots,
+speechless and dying of hunger, yet still clutching his naked sword and
+bearing his buckler. Notwithstanding all this, he ultimately recovered,
+to go on as eagerly as ever in making fresh conquests.
+
+Later, the proclamation to the Indians was interpreted to them,
+sometimes eliciting replies very much to the point. When the Bachelor
+Enciso went in search of the country of Zenu, where gold was so
+plentiful that it could be collected in the rainy season in nets
+stretched across the river, he was opposed by two Caciques, to whom the
+paper was read. They listened courteously, and, when it had been
+expounded, said they were quite willing to admit that there was one God,
+the ruler of heaven and earth, whose creatures they were. But as to the
+Pope's regency and his donation of _their_ country to the king of Spain,
+that was another thing altogether. The Pope must have been drunk when he
+gave away what was not his, and the king could only have been mad to ask
+him for the territory of others. They, the Caciques, were the rulers of
+these territories, and needed no other sovereign: if their king came to
+take possession they would cut off his head and stick it on a pole, as
+they did the heads of their other enemies, at the same time pointing to
+a row of grisly skulls impaled close by. Their arguments, however, were
+useless, for Enciso attacked, routed them, and took one of the Caciques
+prisoner.
+
+The accounts of the early voyagers are full of such examples of audacity
+as well as of endurance of suffering. The perils of the sea were as
+great as those of the land, but few voyages were as disastrous as that
+of Valdivia, who in 1512 sailed from Darien for Hispaniola. When in
+sight of Jamaica, his vessel was caught in a hurricane and driven upon
+some shoals called the Vipers, where it was dashed to pieces. He and his
+twenty men barely escaped with their lives in a boat without sails,
+oars, water, or provisions. For thirteen days they drifted about, until
+seven were dead and the remainder helpless. Then the boat stranded on
+the coast of Yucatan, and the poor wretches were captured by Indians, to
+be taken before their Cacique. They were now put into a kind of pen to
+fatten for the cannibal festival. Valdivia and four others were taken
+first, and the horror produced on their comrades led them to risk
+everything and break out of their prison in the night. Having succeeded
+in reaching the forest, they were almost as badly off, for no food could
+be had, and they dared not run the risk of going near the villages.
+Almost perishing with hunger, they at last reached another part of the
+country, to be again captured, and kept as slaves. Finally they all died
+except two, one of whom at last escaped to tell the tale almost by a
+miracle.
+
+One of the stories is suggestive of "Robinson Crusoe." In 1499 Nino and
+Guerra sailed from Spain in a bark of fifty tons, and, while exploring
+the Gulf of Paria, came across eighteen Carib canoes filled with armed
+men. The savages assailed them with flights of arrows, but the sudden
+boom of the cannon frightened them away at once. One canoe, however, was
+captured, in which they took a Carib prisoner, and found an Arawak
+captive lying bound at the bottom. On being liberated, the Arawak
+informed the Spaniards, through their interpreter, that he was the last
+of seven who had been taken by the cannibals. The other six had been
+killed and eaten one after another, and he had been reserved for the
+next evening meal. The Spaniards, incensed against the man-eater, gave
+him into the hands of the Arawak, at the same time handing him a
+cudgel, leaving his enemy unarmed. Immediately the Arawak sprang upon
+him, knocked him sprawling, trod his breath out of his body, and at the
+same time beat him with his fist until nothing but a shapeless corpse
+remained. But, not yet satisfied, he tore the head off and stuck it on a
+pole as a trophy.
+
+After the conquest of Mexico and Peru had rewarded Cortez and Pizarro,
+others wished to be equally fortunate. From the Indians came reports of
+golden countries in the interior, and land expeditions were projected.
+These reports grew into shape, and at last a quest as romantic as that
+for the Holy Grail, led one adventurer after another on and on, to
+starvation, sickness, and death.
+
+The germ of the story of "El Dorado," the lake of golden sands, and the
+glittering city of Manoa, appears to have first arisen in New Granada.
+Here was the Lake of Guatavita, and before the arrival of the Spaniards
+this was the scene of an annual religious festival. To the genius of the
+lake the Cacique of the neighbouring district offered a holy sacrifice
+on a certain day. In the morning he anointed his body with balsam, and
+then rolled himself in gold dust until he became a "gilded king." Then,
+embarking in a canoe with his nobles, he was paddled to the centre of
+the lake, crowds of people thronging its shores and honouring him with
+songs and the din of rude instrumental music. Offerings to the god of
+the lake were made from the canoe, gold, emeralds, pearls, and
+everything precious being scattered upon the water. Finally, the Cacique
+jumped in himself and washed the gold from his body, while the people
+shouted for joy. To wind up the festival a great drinking bout was held,
+when canoesful of piwarree, the Indian's beer, were drunk, and every one
+made merry.
+
+Such was the tradition--for the ceremony had been discontinued half a
+century before--which had so impressed itself over the northern shores
+of South America, as to be told from the Amazon to the isthmus of
+Darien. "El Dorado" was gilded every morning, and his city was full of
+beautiful golden palaces. It stood on the edge of the great salt lake
+Parima, the sands of which were composed of the precious metal. Some
+went so far as to say that they had seen the glittering city from a
+distance, and were only prevented from reaching it by the peculiar
+difficulties of the way. Not to mention tigers and alligators,
+starvation and sickness, there were "anthropophagoi and men whose heads
+do grow beneath their shoulders," besides amazons and fiery dragons.
+Wherever the story was told the golden city was located at a far
+distance, and it seemed ever to recede before the eager seekers. They
+sought it in the forest and on the savannah, over the lofty peaks of the
+Andes, and along the banks of the mighty rivers. The whole of the
+Spanish Main was explored, and places then visited which have hardly
+been seen again by the white man down to the present date.
+
+The quest began in New Granada, and from thence it shifted to Venezuela.
+The most daring seekers were German knights, the Welsers of Augsburg.
+They had received charters from Charles the Fifth, under which they
+were empowered to found cities, erect forts, work mines, and make slaves
+of the Indians. One of their representatives, Ambrosio de Alfinger, set
+out in 1530, accompanied by two hundred Spaniards, and a larger number
+of Indians, laden with provisions and other necessaries. On the journey
+the party committed such brutalities upon the poor natives that the
+reports afterwards helped to fire the blood of Englishmen, and make them
+bitterly cruel. To prevent the bearers from running away they were
+strung together on chains, running through rings round their necks. If
+one of them dropped from sickness or exhaustion, his head was cut off,
+the ring loosened, and thus the trouble of interfering with the chain
+saved. If he were to be left behind, it did not matter whether he was
+alive or dead. At one place on the river Magdalena the frightened
+natives took refuge on some islands, but the Spaniards swam their horses
+across and killed or took prisoners the whole of them. From their
+Cacique Alfinger got booty to the value of sixty thousand dollars, with
+which he sent back for further supplies. But, although he waited for a
+year his messengers did not return, and the company were reduced to such
+straits that many died for want of bare food. But the Indians fared much
+worse, for their provision grounds were utterly destroyed, and what with
+murders and starvation the surrounding country was quite depopulated and
+desolate.
+
+Even Alfinger had to give up waiting for his supplies and move on at
+last, for these had been utilised by his lieutenant on an expedition of
+his own. The party eked out a bare subsistence with wild fruits and
+game. If they found a village they plundered it of everything it
+contained, dug up the provisions from the fields, and left the survivors
+of the massacre to starve. Not that they themselves were in a much
+better plight; fever, the result of want and exposure, carried them off
+in continually increasing numbers. At last they got into a mountain
+region, and the poor naked bearers were frozen to death. Descending
+again they encountered stronger and fiercer tribes, by whom they were
+defeated, the cruel Alfinger himself dying two days afterwards from his
+wounds. A small remnant only returned after two years' absence, leaving
+a track of pain and suffering to make their memory accursed for many
+generations.
+
+George of Spires now fitted out a great expedition of three hundred
+infantry and two hundred cavalry, which started in 1536. They also went
+a long distance into the interior, braving hardships and dangers almost
+incredible. Jaguars carried off their horses, and even went so far as to
+attack and kill several of the Indian bearers and one Spaniard. Like
+their predecessors, they also encountered savage Indians, and died of
+starvation and sickness. After journeying fifteen hundred miles from the
+coast they had to return unsuccessful; but as their leader was less
+cruel than Alfinger, the losses of the party were not so great. Instead
+of dying on the journey he lived to become Governor of Venezuela.
+
+Nicholas Fedreman followed the last party with supplies, but took them
+to go treasure-seeking on his own account. He wandered about for three
+years, and at last returned with some wonderful stories which induced
+others to continue the search. Herman de Quesada also travelled about
+for a year, and returned like his predecessors. Then Philip von Huten,
+who had gone already with George of Spires, fitted out a great
+expedition. His party was at one time so utterly famished that they had
+to eat ants, which they captured by placing corn cobs near the nests of
+these little creatures. They travelled in a great circle without knowing
+where they went, and at the end of a year came back to the place from
+whence they had started. Hearing, however, of a rich city called
+Macatoa, Von Huten started again, and found streets of houses with about
+eight hundred inhabitants, but no treasure. The people here sent him on
+farther, with their tales of the Omaguas, a warlike people living away
+in the south. On he went for five days, and at last came upon what he
+thought must be the golden city. It stretched away as far as the eye
+could reach, and in the centre was a great temple. But, although the
+little party charged gallantly down a hill and into the town, the
+Omaguas came out in such force that they had to retreat, bearing their
+wounded leader in a hammock. Continually harassed by Indians, they at
+last got back, to tell such stories of the dangers of the quest that the
+Omaguas seem to have been afterwards left alone.
+
+Our account of the search for "El Dorado" is necessarily short and
+imperfect, as it would be impossible even to enumerate all the
+expeditions. There is one, however, that was so tragic and awful, that,
+although it was fitted out in Peru, it must yet be mentioned in the
+story of the Spanish Main.
+
+[Illustration: "EL DORADO."
+
+(_From Gottfried's "Reisen."_)]
+
+Notwithstanding the enormous quantities of gold and silver found in
+Peru, the crowds of needy treasure-seekers who went to that country gave
+some trouble to the Viceroy, who appears to have been willing to get rid
+of them at any cost. Whether he purposely sent them on a "wild goose
+chase," or whether he really believed the "El Dorado" story, is
+doubtful, but it is certain that he thought it prudent to give them
+employment in some way, to prevent mischief in his province.
+
+The expedition was put in command of Pedro de Ursua, and was intended to
+go down the Amazon in search of treasure cities. Embarking on the river
+Huallaga, in the year 1560, they had hardly passed the mouth of Ucayali
+before Ursua found he had a most unprincipled gang of scoundrels under
+his command. A little farther down the river they mutinied, under the
+leadership of Lope de Aguirre, and murdered Ursua and his lieutenant,
+appointing Guzman as captain. Being dissatisfied, however, with their
+new commander, they also killed him a little later, together with most
+of his adherents.
+
+Now Aguirre became leader--a ruffian whose character was of the
+blackest. Father Pedro Simon delineates his features and character,
+making him out to be a very devil. He was about fifty years of age,
+short of stature and sparsely built, ill-featured, his face small and
+lean, his beard black, and his eyes as piercing as those of a hawk. When
+he looked at any one he fixed his gaze sternly, particularly when
+annoyed; he was a noisy talker and boaster, and when well supported very
+bold and determined, but otherwise a coward. Of a very hardy
+constitution, he could bear much fatigue, either on foot or horseback.
+He was never without one or two coats of mail or a steel breastplate,
+and always carried a sword, dagger, arquebuse, or lance. His sleep was
+mostly taken in the day, as he was afraid to rest at night, although he
+never took off his armour altogether nor put away his weapons. Simon
+said he had always been of a turbulent disposition; a lover of revolts
+and mutinies; an enemy to all good men and good actions.
+
+Such was the Tyrant or Traitor Aguirre--virtually a madman--who now
+became the leader of a band of wretches like-minded to himself. They
+journeyed down the mighty river, now and again murdering one or another
+of the party, on the least suspicion of their dislike to their
+proceedings, and ill-treating the natives everywhere.
+
+Aguirre was not ashamed to boast that he had murdered a woman--not an
+Indian, but a beautiful Spanish lady, who had accompanied her lover on
+this arduous journey. Donna Inez de Altienza, a young widow, fell
+passionately in love with Ursua, who was brave, generous, and handsome;
+and loath to part with him, she undertook the hitherto unheard-of
+journey of thousands of miles in a strange and savage country. No fears
+or terrors daunted this devoted woman until after the death of her
+lover. Aguirre then picked a quarrel on the ground that her mattress was
+too large for the boat, and she also was murdered. The Spanish poet,
+Castellanos, thus laments the cruel deed:--
+
+    "The birds mourned on the trees;
+    The wild beasts of the forest lamented;
+    The waters ceased to murmur;
+    The fishes beneath the waters groaned;
+    The winds execrated the deed
+    When Llamoso cut the veins of her white neck.
+    Wretch! wert thou born of woman?
+    No! what beast could have such a wicked son?
+    How was it that thou didst not die
+    In imagining a treason so enormous?
+    Her two women, 'midst lamentation and grief,
+    Gathered flowers to cover her grave,
+    And cut her epitaph in the bark of a tree--
+    'These flowers cover one whose faithfulness
+    And beauty were unequalled,
+    Whom cruel men slew without a cause.'"
+
+Whether Aguirre reached the mouth of the Amazon is doubtful--the
+evidence is in favour of his getting out of that river into the Rio
+Negro, and from thence into the Orinoco. However this may have been, he
+arrived at last in the Gulf of Paria and proceeded to the island of
+Margarita. Here, true to his character, he and his men commenced to
+plunder and kill the inhabitants, going so far as to defy the local
+authorities and even the king of Spain himself. To even enumerate the
+deeds of this band of outlaws would fill a chapter, but we cannot omit
+giving an extract from Aguirre's letter to his king, one of the most
+curious productions ever written:--
+
+"I firmly believe that thou, O Christian king and lord, hast been very
+cruel and ungrateful to me and my companions for such good service, and
+that all those who write to thee from this land deceive thee much,
+because thou seest things from too far off. I and my companions, no
+longer able to suffer the cruelties which thy judges and governors
+exercise in thy name, are resolved to obey thee no longer.... Hear me! O
+hear me! thou king of Spain. Be not cruel to thy vassals.... Remember,
+King Philip, that thou hast no right to draw revenues from these
+provinces, since their conquest has been without danger to thee. I take
+it for certain that few kings go to hell, only because they are few in
+number; if they were many, none of them would go to heaven. For I
+believe that you are all worse than Lucifer, and that you hunger and
+thirst after human blood; and further, I think little of you and despise
+you all; nor do I look upon your government as more than an air
+bubble....
+
+"In the year 1559 the Marquis of Canete entrusted the expedition of the
+river of Amazons to Pedro de Ursua, a Navarrese, or, rather, a
+Frenchman, who delayed the building of his vessels till 1560. These
+vessels were built in the province of the Motilones, which is a wet
+country, and, as they were built in the rainy season, they came to
+pieces, and we therefore made canoes and descended the river. We
+navigated the most powerful river in Peru, and it seemed to us that we
+were in a sea of fresh water. We descended the river for three hundred
+leagues. This bad governor was capricious, vain, and inefficient, so
+that we could not suffer it, and we gave him a quick and certain death.
+We then raised Don Fernando de Guzman to be our king.... Because I did
+not consent to their evil deeds they desired to murder me. I therefore
+killed the new king, the captain of his guard, his lieutenant-general,
+four captains, his major-domo, his chaplain who said mass, a woman, a
+knight of the Order of Rhodes, an admiral, two ensigns, and five or six
+of his servants. I named captains and sergeants, but these men also
+wanted to kill me, and I hanged them. We continued our course while this
+evil fortune was befalling us, and it was eleven months and a half
+before we reached the mouths of the river, having travelled for more
+than a hundred days over more than fifteen hundred leagues. This river
+has a course of two thousand leagues of fresh water, the greater part of
+the shores being uninhabited, and God only knows how we ever escaped out
+of that fearful lake. I advise thee not to send any Spanish fleet up
+this ill-omened river, for, on the faith of a Christian, I swear to
+thee, O king and lord, that if a hundred thousand men should go up, not
+one would escape....
+
+"We shall give God thanks if, by our arms, we attain the rewards which
+are due to us, but which thou hast denied us; and because of thine
+ingratitude I am a rebel against thee until death."
+
+He and his band of outlaws ravaged the settlements of Venezuela for some
+time, until at last, on a promise of pardon, all left him save Llamoso,
+the murderer of Lady Inez. Aguirre had a daughter, a girl of twelve to
+fourteen, and when he found that all was lost he resolved to kill her.
+They were living at a country house, and when Llamoso brought the news
+of the desertion of his men, he snatched up a loaded arquebuse and
+rushed into his child's room, saying, "Commend thyself to God, my
+daughter, for I am about to kill thee, that thou mayest not be pointed
+at with scorn, nor that it be in the power of any one to call thee the
+daughter of a traitor." A woman snatched the weapon from his hand, but,
+drawing his poniard, he stabbed the girl in the breast, saying, "Die!
+because I must die!" Rushing then to the door, he found the house
+surrounded by Spanish soldiers, who compelled him to surrender, and
+almost immediately took him out to be shot.
+
+This put an end to treasure-seeking on the Amazon, but the search for
+"El Dorado" had been going on and was still continued along the banks of
+the Orinoco. The first attempt to reach the golden city by this river
+appears to have been made by Pedro de Acosta about the year 1530, but
+after most of his men had been killed and eaten by the cannibals, he was
+compelled to abandon his project. After him came Diego de Ordas, the
+following year, whose expedition became afterwards famous. He, however,
+found nothing himself, although he went as far as the mouth of the
+Caroni--it was from one of his men that the "El Dorado" story was
+gleaned. By some accident the whole of the gunpowder was exploded, and
+this being attributed to the negligence of the munitioner, Juan
+Martinez, he was sentenced to be put in a canoe, without paddles or
+food, and allowed to drift at the mercy of the current.
+
+What became of the culprit was not known, but some months afterwards a
+strange white man was brought by some Indians to Margarita. He was
+wasted by sickness, naked, and apparently destitute, but, through the
+kindness of a ship-captain, he got a passage to Porto Rico, and was
+there placed in a religious house, under the care of some Dominican
+friars. Here he became worse, but when on the point of death he
+presented his friends with two gourdsful of gold beads to pay for the
+repose of his soul; he also declared himself to be Juan Martinez, and
+told the wonderful story of his adventures.
+
+After being cast adrift, the canoe floated down the stream until
+evening, when it attracted the attention of some Indians, who paddled
+out from the shore and rescued Martinez from his perilous situation.
+These were Guianians, who had never before seen a white man, and
+therefore resolved to take him to their king as a curiosity. He was,
+however, blind-folded to prevent his seeing the direction they were
+taking, and led on and on, through forest and over mountain, for fifteen
+days, until a great city was reached. Arriving here at noon, his bandage
+was taken off, and Martinez feasted his eyes upon a great plain covered
+with houses, the roofs of which glittered in the sun as if made of gold.
+As far as his eye could reach stretched this marvellous assemblage of
+palaces. In the centre dwelt the great king, but, although the party
+travelled the whole of that and the next day, they did not reach the
+palace until evening.
+
+Here Martinez was well treated, and allowed to walk about the city, but
+not beyond it. He remained for seven months, saw the great lake on the
+shore of which the city of Manoa stood, and handled its golden sands.
+However, he was not content to remain, and after repeated petitions to
+be allowed to depart, was at last furnished with guides and as much
+gold as they could carry. Arrived at the Orinoco, the cannibals fell
+upon the party, stole all the treasure save that hidden under some
+provisions in the two gourds, and left them destitute. After enduring
+many privations Martinez, however, got a passage in an Indian canoe to
+Margarita, from whence he expected to go to Spain and report his
+discovery to the king.
+
+What amount of truth, if any at all, was contained in the story is
+doubtful. It does not appear to have been told at once, but gradually
+leaked out, becoming more marvellous as it spread over the West Indies.
+Adventurers flocked to the Orinoco, and at least a score of expeditions
+went in search of "El Dorado." Under the command of bold adventurers one
+party after another entered into the forest, some never to return or to
+be heard of again. The remnant sometimes came back starving, and broken
+down with sickness. We read of one Juan Corteso that he marched into the
+country, but neither he nor any of his company did return again. Gaspar
+de Sylva and his two brothers sought El Dorado, but fell down to
+Trinidad, where all three were buried. Jeronimo Ortal, after great
+travail and spending all his substance, died on a sudden at St. Domingo.
+Father Iala, a friar, with only one companion and some Indian guides,
+returned with gold eagles, idols, and other jewels, but when he essayed
+to pass a second time was slain by Indians. Alonzo de Herera endured
+great misery, but never entered one league into the country; he also was
+at last slain by Indians. Antonio Sedenno got much gold and many Indian
+prisoners, whom he manacled in irons, and of whom many died on the way.
+The tigers being fleshed with the dead carcases assaulted the Spaniards,
+who with much trouble hardly defended themselves from them. Sedenno was
+buried within the precincts of the empire of the gilded king, and most
+of his people perished likewise. Augustine Delgado came to an Indian
+Cacique, who entertained him with kindness and gave him rich jewels, six
+seemly pages, ten young slaves, and three nymphs very beautiful. To
+requite these manifold courtesies he took all the gold he could get and
+all the Indians he could lay hold on, to sell for slaves. He was
+afterwards shot in the eye by an Indian, of which hurt he died.
+
+And so we might go on to tell of the thousands of people murdered and
+tens of thousands carried off as slaves; Every gold ornament was stolen,
+provision grounds destroyed, and the forest tracks strewn with the
+corpses of those who had been massacred, and marked out by the graves of
+their murderers. Sometimes treasure and slaves were recaptured and no
+one left to tell the tale, but more often a few escaped to fight over
+the booty and perhaps be hanged as mutineers on their return.
+
+The men of that age were undoubtedly great--great warriors, great
+ruffians, great villains. Only here and there can we distinguish a good
+man like Las Casas, who did his very best for the Indians against the
+opposition of the settlers and the lukewarmness of the Spanish Court. He
+was horrified at the atrocities in the Indies, but the kings wanted
+their tithes and cared little how they were obtained. "Get it honestly
+if you can, but get it," seems to have been their motto, and it was not
+for many years that anything like humanity was shown, and then only by a
+few priests.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+III.
+
+"SINGEING THE SPANIARD'S BEARD."
+
+
+On the discovery of the Indies, Ferdinand and Isabella at once applied
+to Pope Alexander the Sixth to secure the rights of Spain in the new
+countries against every other nation, but more especially against
+Portugal. Accordingly, the celebrated "Bull of partition" was issued on
+the 4th of May, 1493, giving, conceding, and assigning for ever, to them
+and their successors, all the islands and mainlands already found or
+that might be discovered in future, to the west of a line, stretching
+from the north to the south poles, a hundred leagues from the Azores or
+Cape de Verde Islands, provided they were not in the possession of any
+other Christian prince. The sovereigns were commanded to appoint
+upright, God-fearing, skilful, and learned men to instruct the
+inhabitants in the Catholic faith, and all unauthorised persons were
+forbidden to traffic on or even approach the territories. If they did so
+they would incur the indignation of Almighty God and of the blessed
+Apostles Peter and Paul.
+
+Such was the gist of the document under which the enormities mentioned
+in the preceding chapters were committed. Portugal, except for some
+disputes about Brazil, accepted this arrangement, but the other great
+nations of Europe, especially England, disputed it from the very
+beginning. Nevertheless, the governments, as long as they were at peace
+with Spain, took no active part in the matter, but left the work to
+individuals, even going so far in some instances as to disclaim their
+responsibility for piracies committed beyond the seas.
+
+English and French seamen, hearing of the treasure continually imported
+into Spain, soon found their way to the new world, and as early as the
+year 1526 precautions had to be taken against them. Orders were sent to
+build castles on the coasts and strong houses, not only for defence
+against the cannibals, who continued to ravage the larger islands, but
+to protect the settlements from French corsairs who had already
+commenced their depredations. The tract of the Spanish fleets led them
+first to St. Domingo, and thence on to the isthmus of Darien or Panama,
+where at first the chief port was Nombre de Dios. At these two points it
+was of great importance that fortifications should be erected, and this
+was done in the first half of the sixteenth century.
+
+An English merchant named Thomas Tison seems to have been the first of
+our nation who went to the West Indies, but he got his goods sent from
+Bristol to Spain. In 1527 King Henry VIII. fitted out the _Dominus
+Vobiscum_ and another vessel for those parts, but little is known of
+their course. It was, however, reported that they went to Porto Rico,
+and got there a cargo of brazil wood, and then proceeded to St. Domingo,
+where permission was asked to trade. After waiting for the license two
+days the Spanish batteries fired upon them, driving them off to go back
+to Porto Rico, where the inhabitants were more friendly.
+
+From this time the corsairs and rovers became more numerous and
+audacious every year. Some went trading among the Indians of the
+mainland, others, more bold, forced their goods upon the Spanish
+settlements under threats of pillage. In 1536 the inhabitants of Havana
+paid seven hundred ducats to a French corsair to save the city, and
+because later the pirate was chased by three Spanish vessels, which he
+captured, he returned and exacted a second ransom.
+
+In 1538 there was a gallant fight in the harbour of Santiago de Cuba,
+between a Spaniard and a French corsair. The two vessels fought with
+each other the first day until sunset, when a truce was agreed to, and
+civilities exchanged between the captains. They sent each other presents
+of wine and fruit, were very friendly, and mutually agreed to fight only
+by day with swords and lances. Artillery, they agreed, was an invention
+of cowards--they would show their valour, and the one who conquered
+should have the other's vessel. The second day they fought again until
+evening without either being conquered, and again they exchanged
+courtesies. That night, however, the Spanish captain, Diego Perez, sent
+to the people of the city asking if they would compensate him for the
+loss of his ship if the corsair got the better of him; if they agreed
+to do this he would risk his life in their service. Were he not poor and
+without any other property, he would not have asked them, and as they
+would be gainers by his victory, he did not think his request at all
+extravagant. But the authorities refused to pledge themselves to
+anything, leaving Perez to fight for his own honour, life, and property.
+The battle continued the whole of the third day, each giving the other
+time for rest and refreshment, yet neither was conquered, although many
+had fallen on both sides. After similar courtesies the fight went on
+next morning, and when evening came the Frenchman promised to continue
+it next morning. Feeling, however, that the Spaniard was likely to get
+the better of him, he slipped his cable in the night and made off,
+leaving Perez to grieve at the drawn battle.
+
+The same year Havana was sacked and burnt, and three years later both
+English and French did great injury to the Spanish trade. Even Portugal
+did not escape, but when complaints were sent to the king of France, he
+said he intended to follow those conquests and navigations which by
+right belonged to him. In 1545 five French vessels captured the
+pearl-fishing fleet near the Main, which the owners were compelled to
+ransom; at the same time they were forced to buy seventy negroes from
+the captors. The Frenchmen then took Santa Martha and got a thousand
+ducats as ransom.
+
+One raid after another took place until the Spaniards were at their
+wits' ends. Forts were built, _guarda-costas_ stationed, and other
+precautions taken, but the depredations and forced traffic still
+continued. They cruelly punished all who fell into their hands, and this
+led to retaliation, not only for their own injuries, but to avenge the
+slaughter of the innocent natives.
+
+About the year 1530 Master William Hawkins made three long and famous
+voyages in the ship _Paul_. Hakluyt said he went to Brazil--a thing very
+rare in those days to our English nation. He became so friendly with the
+Indians that one of their kings came to England in his vessel, and was
+exhibited to King Henry, who marvelled to see this savage representative
+of royalty. Unfortunately the poor fellow died on the return voyage,
+which made Hawkins fear for the white hostage he had left behind.
+However, his explanation was accepted, and his man given back
+unharmed--a result all the more pleasing, as he knew so little of the
+language, and might easily have been misunderstood.
+
+This is an example of the good feeling of these people towards
+Englishmen and all who treated them fairly. Even the cannibals became
+more gentle under good treatment, and would allow the enemies of Spain
+to land on their shores without opposition. By this time the natives of
+the Greater Antilles were gone, and with them the thousands of captives
+from the mainland. Then began the importation of negroes, first from
+Spain, where the Portuguese had sold a fair number during the previous
+century, and then from Africa. Spain could not send and fetch the
+negroes on account of the Papal Bull, which reserved the savage
+countries east of the line to Portugal. It followed, therefore, that, as
+Spain claimed the Indies, so her sister country claimed the whole of
+Africa--a claim as little respected by other nations as that of her
+neighbour.
+
+[Illustration: NEGRO WOMAN RETURNING FROM MARKET.]
+
+Hearing that there was a good market for negroes in the West, Captain
+(afterwards Sir) John Hawkins, in 1563, got up an expedition to supply
+this demand. With three vessels of 120, 100, and 40 tons respectively,
+he sailed to Sierra Leone, and partly by the sword and partly by other
+means, got three hundred slaves, whom he carried to Hispaniola. Here he
+had a reasonable sale, probably forced, for he trusted the Spaniards no
+farther than he thought prudent, considering his strength. His returns
+were so good, however, that he not only loaded his own vessels with
+hides, ginger, sugar, and some pearls, but also freighted two hulks to
+send to Spain.
+
+[Illustration: NEGRO BARBER]
+
+[Illustration: NEGRO FAMILY ON HOLIDAY.]
+
+This success induced him to make another venture on a larger scale with
+the _Jesus_ of Lubeck, of 700, and three other vessels of 140, 50, and
+30 tons. He sailed for Africa in October, 1564, to kidnap slaves, yet
+all the time he was very religious in a way. His orders concluded with
+the commands to "serve God daily; love one another; preserve your
+victuals; beware of fire; and keep good company"--_i.e._, do not stray
+from others of the fleet. At several places he took negroes by force,
+losing a few of his men in the fights, and with a good number set off
+for the West Indies. Fortunately, he said, although they were in great
+danger from a gale on this voyage, they arrived without many deaths of
+either the negroes or themselves. For "the Almighty God, who never
+suffereth His elect to perish, sent us, on the 16th of February (1565),
+the ordinary breeze."
+
+[Illustration: NEGRESSES GOSSIPING.]
+
+The first land they sighted was Dominica, where they watered, and then
+went on to Margarita, the Governor of which island refused them
+permission to trade. They then tried several other places, including
+Hispaniola and Cumana, but also without success. At Barbarota they
+forced the people to traffic, and here they were joined by Captain
+Bontemps, a French corsair, with whom they went to Curacao, and forced a
+hundred slaves upon the inhabitants. Finally they went to Rio de la
+Hacha and defeated a body of Spanish troops, after which the remainder
+of Hawkins' cargo was freely sold.
+
+In his third voyage, on which he started in October, 1567, Hawkins was
+accompanied by Francis Drake and several other gentlemen adventurers. He
+took a similar course to that of his former voyages, joined some African
+chiefs in storming a town, and received, as his share of the booty, five
+hundred prisoners, with whom he again sailed for the Indies. The alarmed
+Spaniards dared not refuse to trade, and consequently he soon sold his
+negroes at a good profit. On his return, however, he was caught in a
+storm near the coast of Florida and had to take shelter in the harbour
+of Vera Cruz, where at first his vessels were taken for a Spanish fleet
+then daily expected. Under this mistake several influential persons came
+on board, two of whom were retained as hostages.
+
+Next day the Spanish fleet, consisting of thirteen sail, arrived, and on
+board one of them was the new Viceroy of Mexico. From this high
+authority Hawkins got permission to repair his ships, victual, and
+refit, provided the English kept themselves to a small island in the
+harbour, for the due performance of which they gave twelve hostages.
+
+But the Spaniards were not prepared to let their enemies off so easily,
+and made preparations for a surprise. Hawkins, becoming suspicious, sent
+to inquire about certain shady transactions, and was at once attacked by
+something like a thousand men. The Spaniards sunk three of his vessels,
+seriously damaged the fourth, and left him with only one leaky ship in
+which to find his way home. A great number of his men were killed and
+others captured, the prisoners to be taken to Mexico and there cruelly
+used. Two of them--Miles Philips and Job Hortop--managed to escape and
+return to England, where they gave long accounts of their sufferings,
+the latter comparing himself to his namesake the patriarch. As for
+Hawkins, in speaking of his return voyage, he said, that "if all the
+miserable and troublesome affairs of this sorrowful voyage should be
+perfectly and thoroughly written, there should need a painful man with
+his pen, and as great a time as he had that wrote the lives and deaths
+of the martyrs."
+
+This disaster put an end to Hawkins' slave-trading, but made no
+impression on the other adventurers to the Indies. Francis Drake now
+took up the quarrel, and in the year 1572 "singed the Spaniard's beard"
+to some purpose. Knowing already something of the state of affairs near
+the isthmus, he resolved to gain his spurs in that direction. He cared
+not for a forced trade in negroes, but virtually went in for piracy, for
+although the relations of the mother countries were at that time
+somewhat strained, war had not yet been declared.
+
+Drake sailed straight for Nombre de Dios, the treasure port, arrived
+suddenly before the inhabitants had any warning, and landed a hundred
+and fifty men in the night. Suddenly the town was roused to the fact
+that the enemy were in possession, and as the people ran off to the
+forest, they asked each other what was the matter. Unfortunately for
+Drake, however, through a misunderstanding, the English were alarmed and
+took to their vessels, so that all the advantage of the surprise was
+lost. Undaunted by this failure, he determined to attempt something even
+more audacious--the capture of the Panama train.
+
+We have already seen that African slaves had been imported in
+considerable numbers; we have now to mention that on the continent they
+often escaped into the forest. Here they lived like the Indians, and
+were often in friendship with them, going under the name of Simerons, or
+afterwards Maroons. Always at enmity with the masters whom they had
+deserted, they were a terror to the settlers on account of their
+continual raids on the plantations.
+
+Drake determined to get the assistance of these people, which was freely
+given, and he was enabled to traverse the pathless forest and to lie in
+wait for the train of mules carrying gold and silver from Panama to
+Nombre de Dios. This he captured, but, on account of the difficulties
+of the way, was obliged to leave the silver behind, and content himself
+with the gold. Then he attacked some merchants, burnt their goods to the
+value of two hundred thousand ducats, and got safely back to his ships
+just as the dilatory Spaniards sent out three hundred men for his
+capture. It was on this excursion that he saw the Great South Sea, and
+determined to carry English ships into that immense Spanish preserve.
+How he carried out his resolve, and appeared suddenly off the Peruvian
+coast five years later, is a story we must leave, as it belongs to
+another part of the new world.
+
+When Drake returned to Plymouth the news of his adventures, and the more
+substantial evidence of the gold he had brought, roused others to follow
+his example. Among them was one John Oxnam, or Oxenham, who has been
+immortalised by Kingsley in "Westward Ho!" Arriving at the isthmus in
+1575, in a vessel of 140 tons, he went to an out-of-the-way river, and
+hid his bark among the great trees. Landing with his seventy men, he
+went in search of the Simerons, who took him to a river which flowed
+into the South Sea, where a pinnace was built. In this the English
+pulled down to the Pacific, with the intention of capturing one of the
+treasure ships coming to Panama. They succeeded so far as to get sixty
+thousand dollars in gold from one bark, and a hundred thousand from
+another. Not yet satisfied, they went to the Pearl Islands, attacked the
+negro divers, and took a few pearls, with which they at last returned up
+the river.
+
+Unfortunately for Oxenham the negroes of the Pearl Islands carried the
+news of his presence to Panama, and in two days four boats with a
+hundred men were sent in pursuit. They found the two barks, which had
+been released, and from their captains learnt where the Englishmen had
+gone. Following up the river they were at a loss when they came to three
+branches, but spying some freshly plucked feathers floating down one of
+the streams, they followed that until they came upon the pinnace. Six
+men were on guard, one of whom was killed, but the other five escaped
+and gave the alarm to their comrades. Pursuing their track through the
+forest the Spaniards found the store of treasure hidden away under
+boughs of trees. With this they would have gone back had not Oxenham
+attacked them with two hundred Simerons before they reached their boats.
+Being more skilful in bush fighting than the English, the Spaniards
+repulsed the party, killing eleven and taking seven prisoners, from whom
+they learnt that the delay was caused by the difficulty of transporting
+the treasure.
+
+Now the news was sent to Nombre de Dios, and the authorities there found
+the English vessel and brought her away, thus cutting off the means of
+escape for those still lurking in the forest. Then an expedition was
+sent in search of them, and they were found building canoes. Some were
+sick and could make no resistance, the others fled and took refuge with
+the negroes, by whom they were ultimately betrayed and taken to Panama.
+Here Oxenham was interrogated as to his authority for the raid, and was
+obliged to admit that he had not his Queen's license. All except five
+boys were executed, the men at once, and the officers a little while
+afterwards at Lima.
+
+Thus ended one of the most audacious attacks on the Spaniards which only
+failed through a little want of calculation. Hakluyt, who wrote the
+account, said the enemy marvelled much to see that although many
+Frenchmen had come to these countries, yet never one durst put foot upon
+land; only Drake and Oxenham performed such exploits. When the news
+reached Spain the king was so alarmed that he sent out two galleys to
+guard the coast, which in the first year after their arrival took six or
+seven French vessels, and put a stop to their piracies for a time.
+
+There was another class of raids in the Indies, of which that of Andrew
+Barker, of Bristol, was an example. He, and one Captain Roberts, going
+to trade in the Canary Islands, had their goods confiscated, and were
+put in prison, from which Roberts escaped and Barker was ultimately
+discharged. To recoup his losses and revenge himself, Barker fitted out
+several vessels in 1576, in which he went trading to the Main, and
+afterwards committed acts of piracy. He took a small vessel off
+Margarita and a frigate near Carthagena, from which he got five hundred
+pounds' weight of gold and some emeralds. Now, following the example of
+Drake, he landed on the isthmus to get help from the Simerons, but could
+find none. Then, from the unhealthiness of the climate, most of his men
+fell sick, and eight or nine died, which made him give up this part of
+his project. Embarking again he took another Spanish vessel with some
+gold, but after that the party got into difficulties. Barker quarrelled
+with his ship-master, and one of the vessels became so leaky that they
+had to let her sink, first removing the cargo into the last Spanish
+prize. They, however, captured another vessel with a hundred pounds of
+silver and some provisions, but after that the crews mutinied and put
+Barker ashore with some others, where they were attacked by Spaniards,
+and nine, including the captain, killed. The mutineers then went on to
+Truxillo, which they surprised, but could find no treasure, and were
+soon driven to flight by a Spanish vessel. On their way home the Spanish
+vessel sunk, carrying down two thousand pounds' worth of their booty,
+and on their arrival at Plymouth they were imprisoned as accessories to
+their captain's death. Although none were executed, yet, says the worthy
+Hakluyt, "they could not avoid the heavy judgment of God, but shortly
+after came to miserable ends."
+
+Open war soon came, and culminated in the invasion of England by the
+"Invincible Armada" of 1588. No longer could there be any question of
+the Queen's license, and in 1585 Drake, now Sir Francis, fitted out a
+great fleet to cripple the power of Spain in the Indies. The Spanish
+authorities were no longer unprepared, but ready to give him a warm
+reception all along his expected course. The fleet consisted of
+twenty-five vessels, with two thousand three hundred men, among whom
+could be found many whose names are famous in the annals of Queen
+Elizabeth. At the Cape de Verde Islands they burnt the town of Santiago
+in revenge for the murder of a boy, and after this baptism of fire,
+proceeded to the island of St. Christopher's, where they landed the
+sick, cleaned their vessels, and spent Christmas. Leaving at the end of
+December, on the 1st of January, 1586, they arrived off Hispaniola with
+the intention of attacking St. Domingo. The English landed about ten
+miles distant from that city, marched upon the Spaniards unawares, and
+took it by surprise, notwithstanding every preparation that had been
+made, and the careful watch for enemies from the sea.
+
+Drake demanded a large ransom, and because it was not paid at once,
+commenced to demolish the buildings, which brought the inhabitants to
+their senses and made them offer the sum of 25,000 ducats (about
+L7,000), which he accepted. From thence the fleet sailed to Carthagena,
+where no opposition was made until the troops landed, when a great
+struggle took place in the streets. The Spaniards had erected
+barricades, behind which they succeeded in doing some execution, but
+only delayed the surrender for a short time. After a portion of the town
+had been burnt, 110,000 ducats were paid as ransom for the remainder,
+and after a few less brilliant exploits, the fleet went back to England,
+being thus hurried on account of sickness among the men. Otherwise,
+Drake had intended to capture Nombre de Dios and Panama, but from this
+disability had to be content with booty to the amount of L60,000, which
+would mean something like a quarter of a million at the present value of
+money. He arrived in time to help in repelling the Armada, and this
+invasion kept most of the English about their own shores for a year or
+two.
+
+In 1595, when there were no longer any fears of a Spanish landing, Drake
+determined on another voyage, and this time with Sir John Hawkins.
+Getting together six of the Queen's ships and twenty-one other vessels,
+they arrived safely at the Caribbee Islands, where Hawkins became sick
+and died. Drake then went on to Porto Rico and attacked the capital, but
+could do nothing more than capture a few vessels from under the guns of
+the forts. Going to the Main he captured Rio de la Hacha and a fishing
+village named Rancheria. These he held for ransom, but was dissatisfied
+with the number of pearls offered by private persons, the Governor
+refusing to give anything, and burnt both town and village. Santa Martha
+was also taken, and then Nombre de Dios, but he found that the treasure
+had been removed, the inhabitants taking to the forest when they heard
+his fearful name. Sir Thomas Baskerville took seven hundred and fifty
+men to go over to Panama, but returned much discouraged by the
+difficulties of the road. Drake finally burnt Nombre de Dios and every
+vessel in the harbour down to the smallest boats.
+
+After that, sickness began to tell upon the expedition, and Drake
+himself was stricken with dysentery. When on the point of death he rose
+from his bed, put on his full dress of admiral, called his men and gave
+them a farewell address, then, sinking down exhausted he died
+immediately afterwards. Several captains and other important officers
+also died, and they even lost the chief surgeon; after that, nothing was
+left but to return home. Off Cuba they were attacked by a Spanish fleet
+of twenty vessels, sent out to intercept them, with which they kept up
+a running fight until the enemy were left behind.
+
+On their arrival in England in May, 1596, the sad news of the death of
+Drake overshadowed all the glory of the expedition. In Spain, however,
+it was published for general information, and the people congratulated
+each other that at last their enemy was gone. Henry Savile, in his
+"Libel of Spanish Lies," said "it did ease the stomachs of the timorous
+Spaniards greatly to hear of the death of him whose life was a scourge
+and a continual plague to them." No wonder that the news was so
+grateful, for none was so daring, and no name like that of Drake ever
+came to be used as a bogey with which to frighten their children.
+
+Yet there were many gallant adventurers in the Indies at that very time.
+Sir Robert Dudley and Sir Walter Ralegh were both at Trinidad in 1595,
+and for several years before and after the English rovers were plentiful
+in the Gulf of Mexico. In 1591 the _Content_ was successfully defended
+against six Spanish men-of-war, and the galleons were obliged to sail in
+large squadrons. What with the dangers of storms and the enemy, it was
+stated that of a hundred and twenty-three vessels expected in Spain
+during that year, only twenty-five arrived safe.
+
+The number of rovers became at last so great that plunder was difficult
+to obtain. The Spanish settlers were in continual fear, and naturally
+took every precaution against their enemies, hiding the treasure on the
+least alarm, and taking to the forest. The French corsairs were not far
+behind the English, although as yet they had no proper licenses, and
+only fought for their own hands. Latterly, also, the Dutch and Flemings
+had arrived, and although mainly occupied in trading, they did not
+hesitate to fight on occasion, especially when attempts were made to
+prevent their traffic. While under the rule of Charles the Fifth they
+had been free to go to and from the Indies, and no doubt use the
+knowledge thus gained to further their own interests since their revolt.
+Like the English, they were at enmity with Spain, but there was also
+another bond of union--both were Protestant. Queen Elizabeth assisted
+Holland in gaining her independence, and therefore at this period the
+relations between English and Dutch were very cordial. But the
+fellow-feeling of enmity to Spain made even the French corsair unite
+with the two others, so that pirates, privateers, and traders all
+combined against the common foe.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+IV.
+
+RALEGH AND THE FIRST BRITISH COLONIES.
+
+
+The first grant made by Queen Elizabeth for a settlement in America was
+given to Sir Humphrey Gilbert in 1578, but the father of English
+colonisation was Sir Walter Ralegh. Although considered a rover, or
+pirate, by the Spaniards, he was of a different type to Drake, Hawkins,
+and the other adventurers of the sixteenth century. Not only was he
+famous as a brave warrior, but at the same time as one of the most
+learned men of his time; as enterprising in the arts of peace as on the
+battlefield.
+
+The "Letters Patent" to Walter Ralegh, Esquire, dated the 25th of March,
+1584, may be considered as the first charter of the English colonies.
+Under them he was empowered to discover, occupy, and possess barbarous
+countries not actually in the possession of any Christian prince, or
+inhabited by Christian people, on condition that he reserved to Her
+Majesty a fifth of all the gold and silver found therein. He was also
+given all the rights of civil and criminal jurisdiction, and empowered
+to govern and make laws as long as these laws did not conflict with
+those of the mother country, or with the true Christian faith of the
+Church of England. Under this charter the first settlement in Virginia
+was undertaken, and thus England threw down the gauntlet in the face of
+Spain.
+
+However, Ralegh did not confine himself to North America--there were
+other countries not in the actual possession of any Christian prince,
+the most notable being Guiana. Ralegh had heard the story of "El Dorado"
+and of the failures of the many German and Spanish knights. He would
+succeed where they had failed. Englishmen had displayed their mettle in
+the Indies--if the treasures of Peru and Mexico had raised their enemy
+to be "mistress of the world" and "sovereign of the seas," why should
+not he also find other golden countries for the benefit of his virgin
+queen and country? Because two rich provinces had been discovered, it
+did not follow that there were no others; on the contrary, the rumours
+of "El Dorado" were so many that they could not be treated with
+contempt. And then the natives of the "Great Wild Coast," although
+cannibals, were friendly to the English, who had always treated them
+fairly, and there they had the advantage over Spain. The country was
+open to them, although strictly guarded against their rivals.
+
+The stories had been lately revived by the expeditions of Antonio de
+Berrio, Governor of Trinidad and Guiana, who had made explorations of
+the river Orinoco, and possibly exaggerated his reports for the purpose
+of getting settlers. Captain Popham took some letters from a Spanish
+vessel in 1594, wherein were found accounts of the "Nueva Dorado,"
+which were spoken of as incredibly rich. Ralegh saw these, and was
+induced by their reports and his own knowledge of the Indies, which he
+had gained in working at his colonisation schemes, to go out and look up
+the matter.
+
+The occupation of Guiana, he said, had other ground and assurance of
+riches than the voyages to the West Indies. The king of Spain was not so
+impoverished as the English supposed by their taking two or three ports,
+neither were the riches of Peru or New Spain to be picked up on the
+sea-shore. The burning of towns on the coast did not impoverish Spain
+one ducat, for it was within the country that the land was rich and
+populous. Therefore England should endeavour to get possession of this
+yet unspoiled country, instead of wasting her energies on adventures
+that were of no real benefit, and that hardly touched the real source of
+her enemy's greatness.
+
+Ralegh arrived at Trinidad in March, 1595, and as a matter of precaution
+captured the Spanish town of St. Joseph, and the Governor, De Berrio,
+from whom he heard more stories of El Dorado. Here also he began those
+conciliatory measures with the natives which characterised all his
+dealings. He released five chiefs, who had been imprisoned in chains and
+tortured by dropping melted fat on their bodies, and thus gained their
+friendship. Unlike other adventurers he thought it necessary to excuse
+himself for burning St. Joseph, which he did in rather quaint language.
+Considering that if he entered Guiana by small boats and left a
+garrison of the enemy at his back, he "should have savoured very much of
+the ass," he took the place, and at the instance of the natives set it
+on fire.
+
+[Illustration: RALEGH IN TRINIDAD.
+
+(_From Gottfried's "Reisen."_)]
+
+Now began a weary voyage up the Orinoco, first through the delta, which
+is such a maze that they might have wandered for months without getting
+into the main river had they not secured an Indian pilot. Exposed
+alternately to burning sun and drenching showers in open boats, they
+toiled against the powerful stream. Ralegh everywhere tried his best to
+ingratiate himself with the Indians, succeeding so well that his name
+became known over the whole of Guiana. He told them that he had been
+sent by a great queen, the powerful Cacique of the north, and a virgin,
+whose chieftains were more numerous than the trees of the forest. She
+was an enemy to the Spaniards, had freed other nations from their
+oppression, and had now sent to rescue them. To confirm his statement he
+gave each Cacique a coin so that they could possess the queen's
+likeness, and these were treasured and even worshipped for a century
+afterwards.
+
+Everywhere he heard of El Dorado, but it was always receding farther and
+farther, until his men became so disheartened that he had to rouse them
+by saying that they would be shamed before their comrades if they gave
+up so easily. However, after reaching the mouth of the Caroni and
+getting specimens of gold ore, he had to return without doing more than
+locating the city of Manoa several hundred miles to the east of his
+farthest point. This was done in so exact a manner that the great lake
+of Parima, as large as the Caspian Sea, was retained upon the maps of
+South America down to the beginning of the present century. His ore was
+probably stream quartz, and in representing it as taken from the rock he
+probably reported what the Indians had told him. When, therefore, he
+said that the assay gave its value as L13,000 a ton, there is no reason
+to suppose a mistake or untruth, for pieces quite as valuable may still
+be picked up. His "Discoverie of Guiana" is such a mixture of close and
+accurate observation with the hearsay of the Indians, that it is
+difficult in some cases to separate truth from fiction. Yet, although
+historians have charged him with wilful lying, there can be no doubt of
+his good faith. It has been left to the present century to prove that
+gold-mines exist on the site of the fabled El Dorado, for it is there
+that the well-known Caratal diggings are situated.
+
+Ralegh asked the people of England to judge for themselves. He had spent
+much time and money, with no other object than to serve his queen and
+country. When they considered that it was the Spaniard's gold which
+endangered and disturbed all the nations of Europe, that "purchaseth
+intelligence, creepeth into councils and setteth bound loyalty at
+liberty," they would see the advantage of these provinces he had
+discovered. Guiana was a country that had never yet been sacked, turned,
+or wrought. The face of the earth had not been torn, nor the virtue and
+salt of the soil spent by manurance; the graves had not been opened for
+gold, the mines not touched with sledges, or the images pulled down
+from the temples. It was so easily defensible that it could be protected
+by two forts at the mouth of a river, and thus the whole empire be
+guarded. The country was already discovered, many nations won to Her
+Majesty's love and obedience, and those Spaniards who had laboured on
+the conquest were beaten, discouraged, and disgraced. If Her Majesty
+took up the enterprise, he doubted not that after the first or second
+year there would be a Contractation House for Guiana in London, with
+larger receipts than that for the Indies at Seville.
+
+Such was Ralegh's dream. Another Peru to be conquered, and England to be
+raised to the highest point of wealth and importance. But unfortunately
+he could get no assistance to carry out the grand project. Yet he was
+undoubtedly sincere, for did he not send out two expeditions under
+Captains Keymis and Berrie the following year, to assure the Indians
+that he had not forgotten them? Keymis found one tribe keeping a
+festival in honour of the great princess of the north, and anxiously
+waiting for the return of Gualtero, which name, by the by, was similar
+to their word for friend. They made fires, and, sitting in their
+hammocks, each man with his companion, they recounted the worthy deeds
+and deaths of their ancestors, execrating their enemies most spitefully,
+and magnifying their friends with all the titles of honour they could
+devise. Thus they sat talking and smoking tobacco until their cigars
+(their measure of time) went out, during which they were not to be
+disturbed, "for this is their religion and prayers which they now
+celebrated, keeping a precise fast one whole day in honour of the great
+princess of the north, their patron and defender."
+
+The explorations of Ralegh and his captains were published all over
+Europe, with the result that attention was generally drawn to Guiana.
+Already some Dutchmen had been trading on the coast for many years, and
+it was even reported that they had established a post in the river
+Pomeroon, the centre of the province of Caribana. As early as 1542
+Flemings had settled at Araya on the coast of Venezuela, where they
+collected salt and were left undisturbed as long as the Netherlands
+belonged to Spain. Ralegh seems to have purposely ignored the presence
+of these people in Guiana, probably to prevent any question of prior
+rights on the part of a friendly nation. But, after all, the Dutchmen
+could only have been there on their own responsibility, and their
+temporary occupation had no meaning from a national point of view.
+
+Now that Guiana was made known, vessels of other nationalities went
+trading along the coast, everywhere meeting with a hearty welcome from
+the Indians as long as the visitors were not Spanish. They were only so
+many additions to their friends--their enemies were confined to Trinidad
+and the Orinoco, leaving the whole coast of Guiana to its rightful
+owners. In fact, the Spaniards could no more subdue the Caribs of the
+Main than they could those of the islands. Only in Trinidad, where the
+Arawak was employed against the cannibal, was a settlement made
+possible.
+
+Ralegh was unable to carry out his great project, but others were not
+backward in attempting to settle in the country. First came Charles
+Leigh, who in 1604 founded a colony in the river Oyapok, which failed
+partly from the lack of assistance from England and partly from too
+great a dependence on the promises of the Indians to supply food.
+Sickness followed on starvation, Leigh died, and a mutiny took place,
+after which the survivors got back to Europe in a Dutch trader, which
+fortunately arrived when all hope of succour had been abandoned. Robert
+Harcourt followed to the same river in 1609, like Leigh, getting
+promises of assistance from the Indians by using the name of Ralegh.
+With their consent he took possession of the country, "by twig and
+turf," in the name of King James. This ceremony was performed by first
+cutting a branch from a tree, and then turning up a sod with the sword,
+thus claiming everything in and on the earth.
+
+Harcourt's colony lasted several years, and in 1613 he received from
+James the First a grant of all that part of Guiana lying between the
+rivers Amazons and Essequebo, on the usual condition of the fifth of all
+gold and silver being handed over to the king. In the same year the
+Dutch trading factory at Kyk-over-al on the river Essequebo was
+established, and this was probably the reason why the English grant made
+that river the boundary of their possessions, leaving the Hollander to
+establish himself between the Essequebo and the Orinoco.
+
+Meanwhile, in 1603, poor Ralegh had been tried on a charge of aiding and
+abetting the plot to raise Arabella Stuart to the throne of England, on
+the death of Queen Elizabeth. Any one who reads the account of his
+trial will perceive at once the absurdity of the charge, yet Ralegh was
+convicted and sentenced to be hanged, drawn, and quartered. However,
+even with all his hatred for the knight, King James dared not carry out
+the sentence, but instead, kept him imprisoned in the Tower.
+
+Here Ralegh still hankered after the treasures of Guiana, and in 1611 he
+made a proposition to the Government to send Captain Keymis to find the
+rich gold mine which had been pointed out to him by an Indian. If Keymis
+should live to arrive at the place and fail to bring half a ton or more
+of that rich ore of which he had shown a sample, Ralegh himself would
+bear all the expense of the journey. "Though," said he, "it be a
+difficult matter of exceeding difficulty for any man to find the same
+acre of ground again, in a country desolate and overgrown, which he hath
+seen but once, and that sixteen years since--which were hard enough to
+do upon Salisbury Plain--yet that your lordships may be satisfied of the
+truth, I am contented to adventure all I have (but my reputation) upon
+Keymis's memory."
+
+This proposition was rejected, and the poor knight lingered on in the
+Tower, attended during part of the time by two Guiana Indians, Harry and
+Leonard Regapo. In 1616, however, he at last recovered his liberty on
+condition that he went to Guiana and brought back gold, but at the same
+time the king refused to pardon him. Nevertheless he took up the matter
+with an amount of enthusiasm which showed his entire confidence in its
+ultimate success. All his own money and as much of his wife's as could
+be spared was spent in fitting out the expedition, and he also got
+contributions from many of his friends. The king even went so far as to
+give him a commission to undertake a voyage to the south parts of
+America, or elsewhere in America, inhabited by heathen and savage
+people, with all the necessary rights of government and jurisdiction;
+yet with all this the old sentence hung over his head.
+
+The expedition of fourteen vessels started in March, 1617, but even from
+the commencement the voyage was disastrous. First a gale was
+encountered, which drove the fleet to take refuge in Cork Harbour, where
+it lay until August. This seems to have put a damper on the commander,
+who now began to realise how much depended on his success. He was
+twenty-two years older than when he went on his first voyage to Guiana,
+and most of those years he had spent in captivity. Is it any wonder that
+when the excitement attendant on his release had gone off he became sick
+and utterly prostrated? Such was his condition when the fleet arrived at
+Cayenne, where he went to look for his Indian boy Harry, who had gone
+back to his people and was now wanted as interpreter.
+
+So low was Ralegh's condition that he had to be carried ashore, and
+although he soon became a little better under a course of fresh meat and
+fruits, he never wholly recovered. So great was his weakness, both of
+mind and body, that he deputed Keymis to lead the party up the Orinoco,
+while he rested at Cayenne; in a few days he would go on to Trinidad and
+wait there until they returned. Keymis accordingly went on, accompanied
+by young Walter Ralegh, a number of other gentlemen, and four hundred
+soldiers. They arrived at the site of the supposed gold mine without
+accident, but found that since the first expedition some Spaniards had
+built "a town of sticks, covered with leaves," and this stood in the way
+of their approach to the mine. Possibly Keymis now thought of his
+master's expression in regard to St. Joseph, and did not care to "savour
+of an ass" by leaving the enemy to interfere with his work. He therefore
+attacked this town of St. Thome, and set it on fire. Unfortunately young
+Ralegh was killed in the fight, and the thought of how he could tell
+this bad news preyed upon the mind of Keymis until all relish for
+gold-seeking was lost. The Spaniards took to the bush, from whence they
+sallied forth on any small party of the English, and ultimately put them
+into a state of confusion. The mine could not be found, the adventurers
+began to complain that they had been fooled, and Keymis was so troubled
+that he seemed neither to know nor care anything about treasure-seeking.
+
+Ralegh had meanwhile arrived in the Gulf of Paria, where he received the
+news of the burning of St. Thome and the death of his son from some
+Indians. Presently Keymis arrived, utterly dejected, to find his master
+broken down and more woe-begone than himself. Ralegh said he was undone,
+and that Keymis was entirely to blame. Not even a sample of ore--the
+king would believe him a liar and a cheat. Then, this attack on a
+Spanish town! Did not Keymis remember that these were not the days of
+the virgin queen, when to "singe the Spaniard's beard" was worthy of
+praise? Did he not know that James was friendly with the king of Spain
+and wanted to get from him a princess for his son Henry?
+
+[Illustration: GOLD HUNTING.
+
+(_From Gottfried's "Reisen."_)]
+
+Keymis had been the intimate friend of Ralegh through all his troubles.
+He had remained faithful even when threatened with the rack at the time
+of the trial. As a kind of steward he had administered the prisoner's
+estate, and was a trusted friend and confidant of the family. He had
+seen young Walter grow up to manhood, and now through his fault the
+youth had been killed. For the first time the bereaved father was angry
+with his captain; perhaps if Keymis died the whole blame would be laid
+upon his shoulders, and Ralegh be exonerated. He went to the cabin
+allotted to him, loaded a pistol, shot himself, and then, as he feared
+the wound was not mortal, finished the suicide by driving a long knife
+into his heart.
+
+Thus died poor Keymis, but unfortunately this did not make any
+difference to his master. If Ralegh had been prepared to throw all the
+responsibility on his lieutenant, the king could only be satisfied with
+treasure. Even if James had been inclined to over-look the affair, the
+Spanish ambassador would not condone such an offence. He is said to have
+rushed into the royal presence with the cry of "Piracy! piracy! piracy!"
+at the same time demanding the immediate capture and punishment of the
+raiders. It followed, therefore, that Ralegh was arrested immediately on
+his return, and finally executed under the old sentence, but by
+decapitation instead of hanging.
+
+His last days were passed with resignation and fortitude. His old spirit
+was entirely broken, and although he petitioned the king for grace and
+pardon, he did so in a hopeless way. He had many sympathisers, and to
+satisfy them the king's printers issued a little book entitled "A
+Declaration of the Demeanour and Carriage of Sir Walter Raleigh,"
+obviously inspired by the king himself. Here was a thing unheard of
+before or since; a sovereign excusing himself for his actions! If
+anything were required to prove the prisoner's innocence, this was
+sufficient. Did James want to salve his own conscience, or was it
+intended to satisfy those who clamoured on account of the injustice of
+the execution? No doubt many of the old sea dogs who had served under
+Drake and Hawkins were still living, and remembered when Plymouth bells
+rang at the news of fresh arrivals from the Indies. "But now, forsooth,
+you must not burn down a thatched hovel without a great to-do being
+made." If Spain wanted peace, why did her people murder a ship's company
+in cold blood a little while before? Out upon it! The good old days had
+passed and England was going to ruin.
+
+However, even King James's sneaking friendship for Spain could not keep
+back colonisation altogether. Something like moderation was introduced,
+and only pirates pure and simple kept up the old traditions. As for the
+king he hardly knew how to steer, what with the petitions for reprisals
+from English seamen on the one hand, and complaints of the Spanish
+ambassadors on the other. The result of this want of policy is well
+shown in the case of Roger North one of the adventurers in the last
+expedition of Ralegh, who, in 1619, wished to re-establish the colony in
+the Oyapok, which had virtually sunk to nothing. An association called
+the Amazon Company was formed, and, notwithstanding Spanish protests,
+the king granted "Letters Patent," under which North got up an
+expedition in four vessels. Then the Spanish ambassador began to storm,
+and the weak king revoked the patent, calling upon the members of the
+Company to renounce their rights. North, who had been warned that
+something was going on, hurried up his preparations, and was off so
+quickly that he sailed on the 30th of April, 1620, fifteen days before
+the proclamation revoking his license was published.
+
+On his return in January following he was arrested and sent to the
+Tower, where he remained until July. Meanwhile his cargo from Guiana was
+seized on the ground that it had been obtained from Spanish possessions,
+but with all his willingness to oblige Spain the king could not get the
+case proven. It followed, therefore, that North was released, and his
+goods restored, but as the cargo was mainly tobacco it had become much
+damaged by neglect.
+
+This detention of North, and the consequent delay in sending out
+supplies to the Oyapok, led to the downfall of the infant colony.
+Hearing nothing from England the settlers became disheartened, and if it
+had not happened that Dutch traders arrived there occasionally they
+would have been starved. Even as it was one left after another until few
+remained, and when, six years later, "the Company of Noblemen and
+Gentlemen of England for the Plantation of Guiana" was formed, the
+settlement had to be commenced anew. However, some of those who left
+carried the English flag to the island of St. Christopher's, where a
+settlement was commenced in 1624 by Thomas Warner. Thus, as Ralegh was
+the father of English colonisation, so his beloved Guiana became the
+parent of the British West Indies.
+
+James the First died in March, 1625, and with him went the English
+subservience to Spain, never to be restored. During his reign British
+enterprise had been kept back; now it broke down all obstructions. True,
+New England and Bermuda were settled during his reign, but they owed
+little to him or his government. As soon as the Royal obstructionist was
+dead, colonisation schemes came to the front. Before even a month had
+passed, on the 14th of April, John Coke came forward with a proposition
+to incorporate a company for the defence and protection of the West
+Indies, for establishing a trade there, and for fitting out a fleet to
+attack the Spanish settlements. About the same time, also, the
+Attorney-General made some "notes" on the advantages derived by the
+Spaniards and Dutch from their West Indian trade, showing that it was
+neither safe nor profitable to England for them to remain absolute lords
+of those parts, and suggesting that the new king should entertain the
+matter and openly interpose, or else permit it to be done underhand;
+then if it prospered he could make it his own at pleasure.
+
+What was done in these particular cases does not appear, but that a new
+policy was introduced is certain. In September following the case of
+St. Christopher's was brought before the Privy Council, which apparently
+confirmed what had been done, in taking possession of the island. In the
+"information" laid over it was stated that Thomas Warner had discovered
+that island, as well as Nevis, Barbados, and Montserrat, and had begun
+the planting and colonising of these islands, until then only inhabited
+by savages. King Charles was asked to take them under his royal
+protection and grant Thomas Warner their custody as his lieutenant, with
+the usual powers of jurisdiction.
+
+The result was not altogether to the liking of the petitioners, Ralph
+Merrifield and Thomas Warner, for in July, 1627, a grant of all the
+Caribbees was made to the Earl of Carlisle. This was sweeping enough,
+however, to suit those who wanted English colonies, however it ignored
+the rights of the first settlers in St. Kitt's and Barbados, which
+latter island had been settled a few months after the first.
+
+Now, also, Roger North came forward with his story and got the revoked
+patent renewed, so that he could go on with the settlement in the
+Oyapok. For a time it did very well, but the tide had turned in favour
+of the islands, and Guiana was soon abandoned to the Dutch and French.
+
+The most important of the two islands first colonised was Barbados,
+which, fortunately for her comfort, never suffered from such calamities
+as befel the sister island of St. Christopher's. As far as the English
+were concerned Barbados was discovered by a vessel going out to Leigh's
+settlement, in Guiana, in 1605. A pillar was erected with the
+inscription, "James, King of England and this island," but nothing was
+done in the way of a settlement until immediately after Warner commenced
+planting in St. Kitt's. The most intimate connection existed between
+Barbados and Guiana from the earliest times, as in fact it does to the
+present day, for Captain Powell, the commander of the little company of
+pioneers, sent to his Dutch friend, Groenwegel, in Essequebo, for a
+party of Arawak Indians to teach the new-comers how to plant provisions,
+cotton, and tobacco.
+
+In 1630 another group of islands was added by the granting of a patent
+to the "Governor and Company of Adventurers for the Plantation of the
+Islands of Providence, Henrietta, and the adjacent islands." Under this
+charter possession was taken of the Bahamas, but little was done in the
+way of settling them for about a century. Thus West Indian colonisation
+was commenced, and claims made to all the smaller islands on behalf of
+England.
+
+But it is not to be supposed that France and Holland were going to let
+everything go by default--on the contrary, they soon began to settle in
+some of the very islands which had been granted to the Earl of Carlisle.
+The Dutch, as we have seen, were traders from the beginning, preferring
+the so-called contraband traffic with the natives and Spanish colonists
+to anything like the raids of English or French. Yet, in their plodding
+way they went on steadily, and as early as the year 1600 took possession
+of the island of St. Eustatius. When the Spaniards awoke to the fact
+that the Dutch were injuring their trade, they began to enforce all the
+old prohibitions and seized the smugglers. But the Hollander commenced
+to feel his power, and gave his enemy several lessons, which made him
+feel that the United Provinces with their symbol of a bundle of darts
+were not to be despised.
+
+In 1615 the Dutch took the capital of Porto Rico, and in 1621 their West
+India Company was formed with territorial and trading rights over all
+the unoccupied countries of Africa and America. Suddenly as it were the
+despised Hollander became a power in the West Indies, and the Company
+was soon strong enough to conquer Brazil, which it must be remembered
+was, with Portugal and all her colonies, then in the hands of Spain.
+About the year 1627 Piet Heyn destroyed a Spanish fleet in Mataca Bay,
+Cuba, the booty from which was something enormous. Altogether, the West
+India Company was said to have captured 547 vessels, mainly off the
+coast of America, the prize money from which amounted to thirty million
+guilders (L2,500,000), while the damage to Spain was at least six times
+as much.
+
+Now also the French began to claim their share. In 1625 Mons. d'Enambuc
+went on a piratical expedition to the Caribbean Sea, but without any
+intention of founding a colony. However, off the Cayman's islands he was
+attacked by a Spanish galleon of much superior force, and although he
+succeeded at last in driving her off, his vessel was so crippled that he
+had to put into St. Christopher's for repairs. Here he found Warner
+already established, and with him a few Frenchmen. On account of his
+condition and the beauty of the island, he became inclined to settle,
+and as the English and French were then on good terms, Warner saw no
+objection. The consequence was that St. Kitt's became divided between
+the two nationalities, with results in the future most disastrous to
+both.
+
+At first, however, the assistance of the French was very welcome. The
+Caribs were still a power in the smaller islands and gave a great deal
+of trouble to the young colony. At first they were friendly, but when
+the settlers wished to oppress them by taking away their lands and
+compelling them to supply provisions, open war began. Hearing from an
+Indian woman that a conspiracy was forming to destroy all the white men,
+Warner determined to be beforehand with them. He massacred a hundred and
+twenty of the men, took the women as slaves, and drove the remainder off
+the island. But these powerful savages were by no mean conquered, for
+those who escaped soon came back with three or four thousand of their
+friends from neighbouring islands, and at first it appeared as if the
+whites would have been utterly exterminated. By a supreme effort of both
+French and English, however, this great invasion was repelled, the
+defenders killing about two thousand, and capturing fifteen large
+periaguas, with a loss to themselves of about a hundred, most of whom
+died from poisoned arrows. This was a bond of union between French and
+English, and Warner and d'Enambuc amicably divided the island between
+them.
+
+[Illustration: CARIB ATTACK ON A SETTLEMENT
+
+(_From Gottfried's "Reisen."_)]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+V.
+
+BUCCANEERS, FILIBUSTERS, AND PIRATES.
+
+
+Now that settlements were commenced the old system of piracy was
+somewhat discountenanced by the home governments, and many of the
+adventurers began to become a little more civilised. But there was still
+a large number of them who became known as buccaneers, filibusters,
+freebooters, marooners, and brethren of the coast, who continued to
+worry the Spaniards, and even to attack other nationalities on occasion.
+They had taken to the trade, and, when no longer able to carry it on in
+a quasi-legitimate manner, did so on their own lines.
+
+The claim of Spain to the whole of America was the great cause of
+offence. Had she been content with what her people could occupy, there
+would have been little trouble, but the "dog in the manger" policy could
+hardly be recognised by other nations. It followed, therefore, that when
+complaints were made to France and England of the ravages on the Spanish
+coasts, the sovereigns told the king of Spain to protect his own shores,
+disclaiming on their own parts any responsibility whatever.
+
+The earliest accounts of the buccaneers are confused with those of the
+French corsairs, of which mention has been already made. They sailed
+along the coast from one island to another, trading a little, capturing
+Spanish vessels, fighting the guarda-costas, and now and again repairing
+to some out-of-the-way place to put their ships in order or even to
+assist the Caribs in their raids. The advantages of combination were
+soon felt, and with these also the necessity for places of rendezvous.
+Even the English adventurers became accustomed to obtain wood and water
+from Dominica, but this island was not conveniently situated for the
+French corsairs. They wanted an uninhabited place near enough to
+Hispaniola and the track of the Spanish vessels for them to be quickly
+pounced upon and for the corsairs to as quickly escape. Then there must
+be a food supply, and on the great island of Hispaniola were countless
+herds of wild cattle which ranged over a wilderness utterly depopulated.
+
+The palmy days of the Hispaniola planter were over, and although he
+imported negro slaves to some extent, he was virtually ruined. One after
+another left for the newly discovered countries on the Main, and for
+Peru and Mexico, leaving the island to a few merchants and wealthy
+planters, who found it to their interest to remain. Hispaniola was
+little more than a house of call on the road to the treasure countries,
+which meant that although the port of St. Domingo was fortified, the
+greater portion of the island was open to any one who chose to occupy
+it.
+
+Salt was a scarce commodity in those times, but it could be obtained in
+some of the smaller islands, notably Tortuga, which for that reason
+became the resort of the buccaneers. But the Indians had learnt how to
+preserve meat without this useful substance, by smoking it over a fire
+of green branches and leaves. Even Europeans knew something of this
+process, although we believe they never preserved their beef and bacon
+entirely without salt as did the Indians their game. The process was
+very simple. Four sticks with forked ends were pushed into the ground,
+and on these uprights a sort of rack of other sticks was laid to make an
+open platform, where the pieces of meat were laid above a fire until
+well dried and impregnated with smoke. This stage was called a boucan,
+or barbecue, and from their using it to prepare supplies for their
+voyages the corsairs became known as buccaneers.
+
+There were no tinned provisions in those days, nor had the proper means
+of keeping food on long voyages been yet perfected. It followed,
+therefore, that a food supply in the Indies had to be provided, and the
+Spaniards unintentionally did good service to their enemies by placing
+hogs on most of the islands to breed and be available in emergencies.
+
+It is obvious that the hunting of semi-wild animals and curing their
+meat required time, and for that reason a division of labour was
+initiated. While one party went cruising in search of Spanish vessels,
+another ranged the country to capture and prepare the supplies against
+their return. Thus a rendezvous became necessary, and in time
+plantations were established in this neighbourhood to gradually develop
+into a settlement. Now and again the Spaniards discovered these places,
+but as they were generally of little value, their loss was of no
+importance; if destroyed the buccaneers could easily escape to another
+locality. When the enemy burnt their vessels, they easily built canoes
+with which they soon captured others and became as strong as before. The
+hunters grew to like their hardy life with its perfect liberty, and
+became so inured to the climate and open air as to be utterly unlike the
+effeminate planters. They were even little subject to the diseases of
+the country, and could live for months at a time on nothing but meat. As
+for clothes, they made these from the skins of animals, and all they
+really required from outside was powder and lead for their firearms.
+
+They became known as the brethren of the coast from their custom of each
+choosing one comrade as a bosom friend and brother. Everything gained by
+either was common to both, and the company were very strict in enforcing
+their law against unfaithfulness in a companion, or unfair dealing in
+any way among themselves. Sometimes they marooned a culprit by leaving
+him alone on some small island to die of hunger, or perhaps to become a
+"Crusoe" for many years. The wounded received compensation according to
+a fixed tariff, from the common stock or from contributions; thus the
+loss of an arm was valued at five hundred crowns, and other mutilations
+at corresponding rates.
+
+As the attacks of the Spaniards became more common, the small bands
+united, and division of labour became more exact. Some were hunters of
+wild boars, others of cattle, a few became planters, but the main body
+were always sea rovers. At first the hunters were on good terms with the
+Spanish planters and entered into engagements to supply them with meat.
+A party would go off into the interior and stay away for months at a
+time, eventually returning with large supplies borne on the backs of
+their horses. During all this time they lived in rough shelters which
+could be erected in an afternoon, and were much exposed to the
+vicissitudes of the weather. Now they made up for their long term of
+privation by carousing to their hearts' content, and when drunk, often
+fought and killed each other. In the settlements there were generally a
+few women, and these often became the cause of contentions; there were
+also bond-servants who were treated most cruelly.
+
+Sometimes they made incursions on the Spanish settlements, which led to
+stronger efforts for their extermination that at last considerably
+reduced their numbers. In fact, had it not been for the continual
+accessions they would soon have died out, or have given up their trade
+and settled down as planters. Hispaniola became at last almost
+untenable, for the Spaniards, unable to find any other way of putting
+them down, organised several hunting parties with the view to utterly
+destroy the wild cattle and thus deprive them of their means of living.
+Not that this was easily done, for it took many years, during which the
+hunting parties from both sides fought and killed each other, committing
+enormities which made the quarrel all the more bitter.
+
+About the year 1632 a party of buccaneers captured the island of Tortuga
+from the Spaniards, the garrison of twenty-five men surrendering without
+a blow. Here was now the grand rendezvous of the French, for which it
+was perfectly suitable from its proximity to the food supply and the
+track of the Spanish vessels. It was situated on the north of the
+western portion of Hispaniola, and not very well suited for plantations,
+although good tobacco was grown there. There were, however, plenty of
+sea fowl and turtle to be had, as well as their eggs, which formed a
+large portion of the diet of the inhabitants.
+
+This island became a veritable pandemonium--the sink of the West Indies.
+It was the place of call for rovers of all nations, the market for their
+booty, and the storehouse for everything in the way of supplies. The
+merchants pandered to the tastes of their customers, and drinking and
+gambling went on continually. But in 1638 it was surprised by the
+Spaniards, who began to be alarmed at this nest of pirates at their very
+doors. They chose a time when most of the rovers were away on a cruise,
+and the buccaneers gone hunting in Hispaniola. All they captured were
+killed--even those who surrendered being hanged as pirates. Only a few
+escaped by hiding among the rocks and bushes to come forth after the
+enemy had left, which they did without leaving a garrison.
+
+A grand attempt to expel the hunters from the main island was now
+organised, in which a corps of five hundred lancers ranged the island in
+bands of fifties. Many of the buccaneers were killed, but the remainder
+combined together under an Englishman named Willis and again took
+possession of Tortuga.
+
+From this rendezvous near Hispaniola the main passages between the
+islands were under observation, but a similar station was required near
+the Isthmus, and this was established about 1630 in the Bay of
+Campeachy. Like that at Tortuga its beginnings are lost in obscurity. At
+first one or more of the small islands or keys was used on
+occasion--later fortifications were erected, and a watch always kept for
+the enemy. The excuse for the settlement was the logwood trade, but this
+did not become of much importance until after the English conquest of
+Jamaica.
+
+Like the true buccaneers these pirates were fond of hunting, but their
+game was principally Indians, whom they attacked and carried off from
+the Main, the men to sell to the plantations and the women to keep for
+themselves. When they arrived after a cruise and sold their booty, they
+would have a jolly time with drinking, gambling, and firing of guns,
+until the island would seem to be the habitation of devils rather than
+human beings.
+
+There were also other pirate resorts, notably the Virgin Islands and the
+Bahamas, but these were generally used only by one company, and never
+rose to the position of general resorts. It is to these that most of the
+romances refer, but the stories of Pirate and Treasure islands rarely
+have much foundation in fact.
+
+How privateers became pirates is well shown by a case that occurred in
+the latter half of the seventeenth century. A vessel went cruising from
+the Carolinas, and after being out for eighteen months had gained so
+few prizes that the crew began to complain. After discussing the
+situation, they resolved to try the South Sea, where they hoped to find
+the Spaniards less prepared. Meeting with very bad weather at the
+entrance of the Strait of Magellan, they were, however, obliged to turn
+back, and then the majority decided to become pirates. Eight men who
+refused to agree were marooned on the island of Fernando Po, their late
+comrades leaving them a small boat in which they expected to be able to
+get to some English colony.
+
+The vessel left, and commenced her piratical work at once by capturing a
+Portuguese ship larger than herself, the crew being brought and landed
+on the same island. In the night the Portuguese made off, taking with
+them the Englishmen's boat as well as their own, leaving the eight
+privateers to do the best they could. However, they were not easily
+daunted, and at once began to cut down trees and build a sloop of four
+tons, which they finished in six weeks, meanwhile living on sea fowl and
+their eggs, which were plentiful. Finally they sailed for Tobago, but
+missing that island got to Tortuga, where they arrived almost perishing
+with hunger and thirst, having had nothing to eat or drink for six days.
+Even then they were not discouraged, but after resting awhile, set sail
+in the same boat for New England, passing along the Spanish islands,
+often unable to land for water on account of the enemy, and lying under
+cover of the mangroves, to be almost devoured by mosquitoes. Even with
+all this care they were taken at last, stripped, thrust down in the
+hold of a Spanish _guarda-costa_, and finally kept as slaves in the
+island of Cuba.
+
+In the early years of the seventeenth century few of the adventurers had
+any commissions, but as the mother countries began to establish
+settlements, letters of marque were granted when there was a war. The
+corsairs and pirates then became privateers, only to go back to their
+old trade when peace was nominally restored. Some played fast and loose
+with these commissions, sometimes having both French and English at the
+same time, either to be used according to circumstances. The French
+Governors went so far as to sell these documents signed and sealed, but
+without names, so that they passed from hand to hand ready to be filled
+up when the pirate wished to escape the yard-arm. The young colonies
+were too weak to incur their displeasure--in fact they were glad to
+encourage their visits, as the settlers could always pick up good
+bargains when they sold their booty. Yet, with all that, there was a
+dread of them, even among their own countrymen, which prevented that
+feeling of safety which best consists with the progress of a colony.
+
+We can say little of individuals, as there were so many, but we may
+mention a few of the most striking characters and their daring exploits.
+They inspired such dread among the Spaniards that at last the latter
+hardly dared to defend themselves against them, but on their approach
+immediately surrendered. If the cargo was rich, quarter was granted, but
+if otherwise, or anything was found secreted, the whole company,
+officers, crew, and passengers, were forced to leap overboard. Pierre
+Legrand with his twenty-eight men once attacked a great Spanish galleon,
+and before going alongside scuttled his own vessel so that it sunk as
+the pirates leapt on to the enemy's deck. With no possibility of retreat
+the men fought like devils and quickly got possession of the galleon,
+with the usual result.
+
+When other nations had compelled respect from Spain their vessels were
+sometimes chartered to carry rich cargoes, which thus sailed under the
+protection of another flag. But the pirates were not to be cheated so
+easily, for they had their spies on the look-out, and often managed to
+glean information. On one occasion Captains Michael de Basco and Brouage
+heard of two Dutch vessels leaving Carthagena with treasure and at once
+followed, attacked and captured them. Exasperated at being beaten by a
+force much smaller than their own, the Dutch captains told Michael that
+he could not have overcome them if he had been alone. "Very well," said
+the audacious Frenchman, "let us begin the fight again, and Captain
+Brouage shall look on. But if I conquer I will not only have the Spanish
+silver you carry, but your own ships as well." The Dutch were not
+inclined to accept this challenge, but made off as soon as they could
+after the treasure had been taken into the pirate vessels, fearing they
+might otherwise lose their opportunity.
+
+Captain Lawrence was once unexpectedly overtaken by two Spanish
+sixty-gun ships, the crews of which numbered fifteen hundred. Addressing
+his men, he said--"You have experience enough to be aware of your
+danger, and too much courage to fear. On this occasion we must avail
+ourselves of every circumstance, hazard everything, and attack and
+defend at the same time. Valour, artifice, rashness, and even despair
+itself must now be employed. Let us fear the disgrace of a defeat; let
+us dread the cruelty of our enemy; and let us fight that we may escape
+him." After he was applauded with loud cheers, Lawrence took aside one
+of the bravest of his men, and in the presence of all, gave him strict
+orders to fire the gunpowder at a given signal, thus telling them
+plainly they must fight or be blown up. Meanwhile the enemy had
+approached very close, and Lawrence, ranging his men on both sides of
+the vessel, steered between the two great monsters, firing a broadside
+on either hand as he passed, which they could not return for fear of
+damaging each other. He did not succeed in capturing them, but they were
+so demoralised by his determined attitude, and the number of killed and
+wounded, that they were glad to make off.
+
+Montbar was a Frenchman who had heard of the atrocities of the Spaniards
+and the exploits of the buccaneers, and determined to go out to the West
+Indies to join in the fray. On his voyage from France he met a Spanish
+vessel which he attacked and boarded with a sabre in his hand. Passing
+twice from bow to stern, he carved his way through the enemy, entirely
+reckless of danger, and by his example animated his comrades until the
+vessel was taken. Then standing apart while the spoil was being
+divided, he gloated with savage pleasure over the corpses that lay on
+the deck.
+
+Arrived at Hispaniola he heard from the buccaneers that they could do
+little in the way of planting because of the continual attacks on their
+settlements. "Why then," said Montbar, roughly, "do you tamely submit to
+such insults?" "We do not!" they answered; "the Spaniards have
+experienced what kind of men we are, and therefore take advantage of the
+time when we go hunting. But we are going to join with some of our
+companions, who have been even worse treated than ourselves, and then we
+shall have hot work." "If such be the case let me lead you," said
+Montbar, "not as a commander, but first in the post of danger."
+
+They were quite willing to have him as leader, and the very same day he
+went at the head of a party to find the enemy. Meeting a small body of
+Spaniards he rushed upon them with such fury that hardly one escaped,
+and this at once justified them in their choice. He afterwards became
+such a terror all over the West Indies as to be known as "the
+Exterminator."
+
+Lolonois was another ruffian, who commenced his career by taking a
+Spanish frigate with only two canoes and twenty-two men. This vessel had
+sailed from Havana especially to put down the buccaneers, and had on
+board a negro executioner who was engaged to hang the prisoners. Hearing
+this from the negro, Lolonois ordered all the Spaniards to be brought
+before him, and going down the line, he struck off one head after
+another, licking his sword after each blow. He afterwards went to Port
+au Prince, where four vessels were fitting out for his capture. These
+he took and threw all their crews into the sea, except one man, whom he
+sent to the Governor of Havana with the news, and a warning that he
+would treat the Governor himself in the same way if he had the
+opportunity.
+
+After this he ran the best prizes aground and sailed for Tortuga in the
+frigate, where he joined Michael de Basco. With four hundred and forty
+men this worthy pair sailed for the Main, where they plundered the coast
+of Venezuela, set fire to Gibraltar, and held Maracaybo for ransom. They
+carried off all the crosses, pictures, plate, ornaments, and even bells
+from the churches, with the intention of using them in a great cathedral
+to be erected on Tortuga.
+
+Although the buccaneers were mostly French they were not confined to
+that nationality. The famous or notorious Captain Morgan was a Welshman,
+who began his career in the West Indies as a bond-servant. One of his
+greatest exploits was the capture of Porto Bello, which had taken the
+place of Nombre de Dios after that town had been burnt by Drake. He even
+out-did Drake and every other adventurer before him by storming Panama,
+from whence he obtained a very rich booty. Here he fell in love with a
+Spanish lady, who, however, threatened to stab herself rather than yield
+to his embraces. Even when he tried the gentlest measures which such a
+ruffian could think of, she still refused to yield, so that he had
+ultimately to comply with the wishes of his companions and leave her.
+Panama was burnt, the retreat across the isthmus safely performed
+without any serious misadventure, and Morgan sailed away to Jamaica
+with the lion's share of the plunder.
+
+In this great expedition the buccaneers of all nations united to form a
+combination hitherto unknown. But, as this was the first time that such
+a thing had occurred, so also was it the last. As for Morgan his career
+was ended; his comrades charged him with treachery and made it unsafe
+for him to come within their reach. He therefore settled down in
+Jamaica, made himself right with the authorities there and in England,
+was knighted by King Charles the Second, and professed now to have a
+great dislike to piracy. On two occasions Sir Henry Morgan became acting
+Governor of Jamaica, and in that capacity did his best to discountenance
+buccaneering.
+
+In 1683 a great expedition was organised at Tortuga by Van Horn, a
+Fleming, noted for his courage and ferocity. In the heat of an
+engagement he would pace the deck, and urge his men to fight by shooting
+any one who even flinched from a ball. He thus made himself a terror to
+cowards and the admiration of the brave; like Montbar, gaining the
+respect and confidence of his followers. Like the French leader also, he
+was careless about his own share of the booty, leaving everything to his
+men, which naturally increased his popularity. With twelve hundred men
+in six vessels he sailed for Vera Cruz, and surprised the town at night.
+Most of the inhabitants took refuge in the churches, and the buccaneers
+posted sentries with barrels of gunpowder in front of each, giving
+orders to blow up the buildings on the least sign of an attempt to
+escape. After plundering the houses they demanded about half a million
+pounds from the prisoners as ransom for their lives and liberties. This
+was not obtained, however, for while waiting the collection a large body
+of troops was seen approaching from the interior, and a fleet of
+seventeen vessels came into the harbour from Spain. Yet the buccaneers
+were determined to get something towards the ransom, and to this end
+seized fifteen hundred slaves, with which they quietly sailed away in
+defiance of the enemy, promising to call again for the balance of the
+ransom. The Spanish fleet let them pass without firing a single gun, and
+they went back to Tortuga, there to spend a year in rioting and
+carousing.
+
+When their money was all spent they resolved to try the most arduous of
+adventures, a raid on the ports of the Great South Sea. And it happened
+curiously that at that very time the English pirates were getting ready
+for a similar venture, without either having knowledge of that of the
+other party. About four thousand men were engaged, some going by way of
+the Straits of Magellan and others across the isthmus. The English and
+French met, and at first agreed to work together, but for want of one
+leader who could command and be respected by both parties, the
+expedition proved almost a failure. Possibly also the French had not
+forgotten Morgan's treachery, and this caused distrust and prevented any
+cordial feeling.
+
+Those who travelled across the isthmus stole boats on the other side,
+and with them captured larger vessels, until this little frequented sea
+became almost as dangerous to Spanish ships as the Caribbean. Most of
+the smaller ports were surprised, and even Guayaquil was captured,
+mainly because they were not provided with forts and other defences. In
+fact, the people were so unacquainted with war and so wrapped up by the
+supposed security of their position, that even when the alarm was given
+little could be done. Silver became so common that nothing but gold,
+pearls, and precious stones would satisfy the spoilers, yet with all
+their easy conquests they got little real benefit. Some died of
+sickness, and many from the results of drunkenness and debauchery. The
+storms of Cape Horn and the Straits wrecked several vessels, and drowned
+both spoil and spoilers, while those who attempted to return by land
+were equally unfortunate. They died in the bush of fever and dysentery,
+or were cut off by ambuscades of the enemy, often losing their booty if
+they escaped with their lives.
+
+What a journey across the isthmus really meant at that time is well
+exemplified in the case of Lionel Wafer. In 1681 he was a surgeon on
+board an English vessel under Captain Sharp, one of those privateers who
+went cruising in the South Sea. After spending some time there the party
+divided, one portion deciding to cross overland, and the other to
+continue the cruise.
+
+Wafer went with those who intended crossing the isthmus, the whole
+numbering forty-four white men and three Indians. They marched from the
+Pacific shore one afternoon, and towards night arrived at the foot of a
+hill, where they put up several rough sheds. Rain had already begun to
+fall--such rain as is only known in the tropics--and they had to crouch
+under these imperfect shelters until midnight, with streams of water
+running down their backs and rivulets flowing about their feet. By
+morning they felt less discomfort and were glad to warm their chilled
+limbs by walking up the hill. Here they came upon an Indian path which
+led to a village, where they were gratified with food and a drink made
+of Indian corn. After resting awhile they agreed with one of the Indians
+to guide them on the next day's journey, and that night rested in the
+village.
+
+Next morning they went on again, and at mid-day arrived at an Indian
+hut, the owner of which was so morose and surly that at first he refused
+to have anything to do with them. After they had spoken kindly and asked
+him to guide them on their journey, he roughly answered that he was
+prepared to lead them to the Spanish settlements. This of course would
+never do, and they offered him beads, money, axes, and knives to gain
+his good-will, but all without effect, until a sky-blue petticoat was
+dangled before the eyes of his wife. This turned the scale, for her
+persuasions being added to theirs, he at last consented to procure a
+guide, excusing himself from the task on the plea that he was lame from
+a cut. He wished to detain them with him for the day, as it still
+rained, but they were in so great a dread of being discovered by the
+enemy that, having obtained the guide, they marched three miles farther
+before stopping for the night.
+
+On the fourth morning the weather was fairer, and they travelled for
+twelve miles over hills and through slushy morasses, crossing one river
+after another to the number of about thirty. Rain poured down again in
+the afternoon and during the greater part of the night, so that they had
+much ado to keep their fires from going out. What with the discomforts
+of their situation, the want of proper food, and the chilliness
+preceding intermittent fever, they even forgot for the time their fears
+of the Spaniards. However, as the sun rose they went on again until,
+after travelling seven miles through the forest, they reached the hut of
+a Spanish Indian, who supplied them with yams, sweet potatoes, and
+plantains, but no meat except the flesh of two monkeys, which they gave
+to the weak and sickly.
+
+While resting here Wafer met with an accident. One of the company, in
+drying some gunpowder on a silver plate, carelessly placed it near the
+fire where he was sitting, with the result that it exploded and tore the
+skin and flesh from one of his thighs, rendering him almost helpless. He
+had a few medicines in his knapsack and dressed the wound as well as he
+could under the circumstances, but rest and proper food were needed, and
+these he could not have. The consequence was that, after struggling
+along with the others until he sank down exhausted and suffering from
+excruciating torture, he was left behind with two sick men at an Indian
+village, where they were presently joined by two others who had broken
+down.
+
+Observing the condition of Wafer's wound, the Indians treated it with a
+poultice of chewed herbs on a plantain leaf, and in twenty days it was
+healed. Nevertheless, although they did him this kindness, they were
+not over civil, but on the contrary treated the five white men with
+contempt, throwing them their refuse provisions as if they were dogs.
+One young Indian proved kinder, and got them some ripe bananas now and
+then, but the others were annoyed because the main body had compelled
+some inhabitants of the village to go with them as guides against their
+will. The weather was then so bad that even the Indians considered
+travelling almost impossible, and this annoyed them all the more,
+especially when the guides did not return.
+
+Day after day passed, and the Indians becoming more incensed at the
+non-arrival of their people, began to think of avenging themselves on
+Wafer and his comrades. Thinking that the guides had been murdered, they
+determined to burn them to death, and even went so far as to erect a
+great pile of wood for the purpose. But almost at the last moment their
+chief interposed, and offered to send away the Englishmen in charge of
+two guides.
+
+Accordingly they set out, their only food supply a little dry Indian
+corn, and their only resting-place at night the wet ground, still
+exposed to drenching rains which fell every day. The third night they
+went to sleep on a low mound, and in the morning woke to find it a
+little island with water extending as far as their eyes could reach. To
+add to their trouble, the Indian guides had disappeared, leaving them to
+remain here without shelter and almost starved for three days. Then the
+waters fell and they commenced the weary work of steering to the north
+by means of a pocket compass--a task the difficulty of which can only
+be appreciated by one who has attempted it.
+
+However, they soon reached the bank of a deep river, the stream of which
+was rushing along like a mill race. Here a lately-felled tree lying
+across showed them where their comrades had passed, and they commenced
+to climb over astride as the trunk was so slippery. One of the party was
+so weak and so overburdened by four hundred pieces of eight (silver
+dollars) that he fell, and was immediately carried down the stream out
+of sight.
+
+Giving him up as lost, the four survivors went wandering about, looking
+for the footprints of their comrades, but could find no trace of them,
+probably on account of the floods. Fearing a mistake, they again crossed
+the river and recommenced the search on the other side, where they were
+surprised to come upon their lost companion sitting on the bank, which
+he had managed to gain by grasping the bough of a tree as he was borne
+swiftly past. Finding no signs of a trail, they again went on working
+with the compass as before. On the fifth day they had nothing to eat but
+a few wild berries, and the day following arrived at another great river
+where not even a tree lay across to give them a passage. They had only
+their long knives, but with them they set to work and cut down bamboos,
+with which rafts were made by binding the sticks with bush-ropes. They
+had just finished and were resting awhile, when a terrible storm came
+on. The rain fell as if from a cascade, thunder rolled and lightning
+flashed, accompanied by a sulphurous odour which almost choked them.
+There was no shelter but the trees of the forest, and the fire was put
+out at once, leaving these half-starved wretches to shiver and shake
+with ague all through the afternoon and up to midnight.
+
+Then the waters began to rise, and in the darkness--that total absence
+of light under the canopy of foliage, where two men sitting together
+only know of each other's presence by feeling, for the din of the
+elements is absolutely deafening--Wafer began to appreciate the fact
+that the swirl of the flood had reached his feet. With no possibility of
+communicating with the others, he felt his way to a hollow silk-cotton
+tree, into which he crawled, and climbed upon a heap of debris that
+stood in the centre. Here he fell asleep from sheer exhaustion, or more
+probably, perhaps, fainted. When he awoke he said it was impossible for
+words to paint the terrors that overwhelmed his mind. The water reached
+to his knees, notwithstanding that the mound was five feet above the
+ground level, and he was afraid it would reach still higher. However, as
+the sun rose the flood went down, and presently he was glad to crawl out
+and stretch his chilled limbs. But he was all alone, and at first
+thought his comrades had been drowned. He shouted, but no answer came
+back, except the echo of his own voice. Giving way to despair, he threw
+himself on the buttress of a tree, from which condition he was roused by
+the appearance of first one and then another, until the little company
+was again complete. They also had found similar refuges and now came to
+look after their rafts.
+
+But the bundles of canes had become water-logged and useless, so they
+resolved to retrace their steps if possible to the Indian village. On
+their way they unfortunately missed shooting a deer which lay beside the
+path, and had nothing to eat but macaw berries and the pith of a tree.
+Seeing the track of a wild hog they followed that, and ultimately came
+upon two provision fields. But even with this prospect of food they were
+so much depressed that, although perishing with hunger, they were afraid
+to venture near the Indian huts, and lingered about for some time.
+However, at last Wafer summoned enough courage to go into one of them,
+when almost immediately he was so affected by the close atmosphere and
+the odour of some meat cooking over the fire, that he fainted.
+
+The kindly Indians assisted in his recovery, and gave him something to
+eat, when he was pleasantly surprised to find there the very same guides
+on whose account he and his comrades had been nearly roasted to death.
+On telling them where the others were, the Indians went out and brought
+back three, but had to carry food to the fourth before he could gain
+enough strength to walk the short distance. Here they were treated with
+the greatest humanity and tenderness, and after resting a week they
+again started with four guides, to reach the same river that had before
+checked their progress, in one day. Here, finding a canoe, they
+proceeded up stream until, arriving at the dwelling of the chief who had
+saved them from torture, they were told it was impossible to go on in
+such weather.
+
+Wafer and his companions stopped here for several months--in fact the
+chief wished to retain them altogether. As a physician, Wafer was
+respected and loved; but at last, wishing to depart, by repeated
+importunities and the promise to come back with some good hunting-dogs,
+and then to marry the chief's daughter, he was at last furnished with
+guides. Over high mountains, along the edges of precipices, and through
+dense forests they toiled until they came to a river flowing north, on
+which they embarked, and reached the shores of the Gulf of Darien two
+days later. Here they were overjoyed to find an English vessel, the crew
+of which gave them a hearty welcome, making up to some extent for their
+long and perilous journey.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+VI.
+
+WAR IN THE YOUNG COLONIES.
+
+
+At the beginning of the seventeenth century Spain was nominally at peace
+with the other great powers, except the Netherlands, which had not yet
+come to the front. By the treaty of 1604 Queen Elizabeth made up the
+English quarrel, and in 1609 even Holland was conceded a truce for nine
+years.
+
+Thus amity was supposed to exist, and the raids of licensed privateers
+came to an end. Yet there was "no peace beyond the line." Not to mention
+corsairs and pirates, the English were as determined on their part to
+get a share of America as were the Spaniards to keep them out if
+possible. The founders of Virginia were resolute to lose their lives
+rather than abandon so noble a colony. Even King James dared not give it
+up, although in 1612 and the following year there was a hot contention
+with the Spanish Secretary of State on the matter. Spain was
+discontented that the colony should have the royal sanction, and at the
+same time demanded its removal, accompanying this with a threat to drive
+out the settlers, as well as those in the Bermudas. But James could not
+admit the Papal Bull, and as the English were firm, the claimants of
+the whole of America contented themselves with protests.
+
+In the West Indies, however, Spain went farther. Here she had
+undoubtedly the right by discovery, although not by actual possession,
+save in the Greater Antilles. The weak English king who succeeded the
+strong-minded Tudor princess was not prepared to contest the Spanish
+supremacy here, but simply answered the complaints against English
+adventurers by disclaiming all responsibility. Neither England nor
+France had officially taken the ground that only actual possession
+created territorial rights, but many Englishmen were clamouring loudly
+to that effect. We have already noticed in another chapter James's
+policy, or want of policy, and the change which took place a few weeks
+after his death--we have now to deal with the results of that
+alteration.
+
+In 1621 hostilities were renewed between Spain and the Netherlands, but
+even during the nominal truce the Dutch invaded Margarita, and
+demolished the fort, but without, however, taking actual possession.
+When the truce was over hostilities were recommenced with a vigour that
+rather astonished Spain, for in the interval the Netherlands had
+progressed wonderfully. In 1625, the year of his accession, Charles the
+First entered into a treaty, offensive and defensive, with the United
+Provinces, which of course brought England into collision with Spain,
+and open war began again in the West Indies. In 1629 a fleet of
+thirty-five vessels under Don Frederic de Toledo conquered the island of
+St. Christopher's and removed most of the English settlers, only a few
+of whom managed to escape to the mountains, while the French got off in
+two of their vessels. The French refugees suffered a great deal from the
+want of preparation for their hurried flight, and arrived at the island
+of St. Martin's perishing with hunger and thirst. Here they dug holes in
+the sand and obtained a supply of brackish water, which was so
+unwholesome that some died from drinking it in excessive quantities.
+After the Spaniards left they returned to St. Christopher's to find a
+few English, who, annoyed at their desertion, wanted to keep the island
+to themselves, but the French were too numerous and soon took possession
+of their old quarters.
+
+In 1632 the Dutch took possession of Tobago, and two years later of
+Curacao, which latter island soon became their great stronghold in the
+West Indies, and the principal depot for the contraband traffic with
+Venezuela. At that time no Spanish vessels went to this part of the
+Main, but finding that the trade was of some importance to the Dutch,
+the authorities now granted licenses to drive their rivals out of the
+market. But the Spanish traders could not compete with the Hollanders,
+and this so annoyed the authorities that they determined to extinguish
+smuggling at any cost. This they were unable to do by catching the
+delinquents, but they could punish those who dealt with them. The result
+was the infliction of heavy fines and confiscation, with disgraceful
+punishments, from which many were ruined. Yet with all that the trade
+was so lucrative to both parties that neither was inclined to give it
+up--the Dutch took care of themselves, while cheap commodities could
+generally command a market, whatever the risk. The fact was the mother
+country imposed so many restrictions, and exacted such heavy fees for
+licenses, that the cost of an article was doubled or trebled as compared
+with that of the Hollander.
+
+In 1627 a French Association was incorporated under the title of "The
+Company of the Islands of America." They appointed the Sieurs d'Enambuc
+and du Rossy to settle the islands of St. Christopher's and Barbados as
+well as others situated at the "entrance of Peru." Nothing was done at
+Barbados, as the English were already in possession, but in 1634
+examinations of Dominica, Martinique, and Guadeloupe were made, which
+ended in the two latter islands becoming French colonies in 1635.
+
+Meanwhile, in November, 1630, a treaty was signed at Madrid between
+England and Spain, after which peace was supposed to again prevail.
+Nothing was said about the West Indies, probably because Spain knew that
+further protests were useless. Hardly had this been settled before, in
+1635, France declared war against the common foe, and her corsairs could
+now legally carry on their work of pillage and destruction. In 1638 the
+island of St. Martin's, which had been partly occupied by French and
+Dutch, was captured by Spaniards, who expelled the inhabitants and
+replaced them by a strong garrison. In the same year Colonel Jackson,
+with a force from the English islands, captured Santiago de la Vega in
+Jamaica, and plundered it of everything valuable, after which, in
+retaliation, the island of New Providence, one of the Bahamas, was
+captured by Spain. Neither place was, however, occupied by the captors,
+who only did as much damage as they could and then left.
+
+Almost from the commencement of their settlements the French had
+quarrelled among themselves, but until the struggle which ended in the
+execution of Charles the First, there had been few difficulties in the
+English islands. The Barbadians, it is true, protested against the claim
+of the Earl of Carlisle, in which they were joined by the people of St.
+Kitt's, but this was settled without disturbance. Now, however, the
+effects of "the great rebellion" began to be felt across the seas, and
+disaffection towards the Parliament, and loyalty to the king, were
+promoted by a number of Royalists who had fled from the disturbance in
+the mother country.
+
+In 1650 the West Indies were virtually in revolt against the Parliament,
+and on the 10th of September an embargo was declared in England against
+vessels bound for the Caribbee Islands, Bermuda, and Virginia. This was
+followed on the 27th by an Act prohibiting all commerce with these
+colonies because of their rebellion against the Commonwealth. Virginia
+and the Bermudas had declared for King Charles the Second after the
+execution of his father, and sent emissaries to Barbados for the purpose
+of inciting them to join in the revolt.
+
+[Illustration: ST. KITT'S.
+
+(_From Andrews' "West Indies."_)]
+
+At the commencement of that year Barbados was in a state of ferment,
+waiting only for the spark which would plunge the island into civil war.
+Even at this early period the inhabitants of Little England, as it is
+called, were very loyal, and had something of the conceit which has
+characterised them ever since. True, there were "Roundheads" on the
+island, but hitherto party differences had been put in the
+background--now they were brought into prominence. When the agent of the
+Bermudians asked that Barbados should declare for the king, the majority
+were in favour of the project, but, as a matter of course, the others,
+who were of considerable importance, refused. At first the Royalists
+went so far as to advocate the banishment of their opponents, but were
+unable to find any reasonable excuse for such a high-handed proceeding.
+However they brought in an Act to imprison all who went to a
+conventicle, or who seduced others from repairing to the Public
+Congregation or from receiving the Holy Sacrament. For a second offence
+the penalty was forfeiture of all lands, goods, chattels, and debts by
+those whom they called "the enemy to the peace of the island."
+
+This was to have been published on April 15, 1650, and kept secret until
+proclaimed, to prevent trouble. But it appears that Colonel Codrington,
+a member of the Assembly, divulged it in his cups, for which he was
+fined twenty thousand pounds of sugar, and banished from the island. A
+deputation of Parliamentarians then waited upon the Governor, to enter
+their protest against the new law, and were asked to leave the matter in
+his hands, as he had to deal with "violent spirits." Finally, the
+proclamation was delayed, on the ground that there were many errors in
+the copy, and the two parties stood at bay.
+
+On the 23rd of April the Roundheads petitioned the Governor to issue
+his writ for a new Assembly, on the ground that the present body had sat
+for its full term. This he agreed to do, and thus alienated the
+Cavaliers, who said he was a most emphatic Roundhead and enemy to the
+king. Handbills and posters now began to be circulated calling attention
+to the "damnable designe" of the Independents, of which, they said,
+Colonel Drax, "that devout zealot (of the deeds of the Devil, and the
+cause of that seven-headed Dragon at Westminster), is the Agent." One of
+the writers declared that he should think his best rest but disquiet
+until he had sheathed his sword in the bowels of the same obnoxious
+personage.
+
+The Cavaliers were still adding to their numbers by the arrival of more
+refugees, while Colonel Drax and his friends fell into the background.
+The new-comers had mostly been ruined by the civil war, and were
+naturally desirous of doing something to retrieve their fortunes; it
+followed, therefore, that anything that led to the confiscation of the
+estates of the obnoxious party would be to their advantage. The
+Cavaliers set to work to rouse the island by going about on horseback,
+fully armed, everywhere challenging those they met to drink the health
+of Charles the Second and confusion to the Independent dogs. This, with
+the rumours of a Roundhead plot and the various manifestoes, induced the
+Governor to issue a proclamation declaring that in future if any persons
+spread such scandalous papers they would be proceeded against as enemies
+of the public peace, at the same time forbidding any one to take up arms
+in a hostile manner.
+
+This produced little effect, for the leader of one of the roving bands,
+Colonel Shelley, refused to disband. On this the Governor issued
+commissions to raise a militia for the preservation of order, but by the
+time that a hundred men had been collected an alarm went forth that the
+Cavaliers were advancing on Bridgetown. This was the 1st of May, and by
+that time the Cavaliers were prepared to act. Their leader was Colonel
+Walrond, who, on being sent for by the Governor, and saying they had no
+evil intention, was allowed to depart. However, they took possession of
+the town, and then came forward with the demand that all Independents
+and other disturbers of the peace should be at once disarmed. To this
+the Governor agreed, provided the well-affected should vouch for their
+safety. They also stipulated that the magazine on the bridge should be
+put under their protection, that those who obstructed the peace and
+laboured to ruin the loyal colonists should be punished, that twenty
+persons whose names they gave should be forthwith arrested, and that the
+Governor should speedily call together the Assembly to try them;
+meanwhile they refused to disperse until these things were done. The
+Governor could do nothing but accede to these demands, but even then
+there was something more which they considered the climax--"that our
+lawful soveraigne Charles the Second be instantly in a solemn manner
+proclaimed king."
+
+This staggered the Governor, who said it was a matter for the General
+Assembly, in which opinion he got them at last to agree. However, they
+were not yet content, but insisted that at the dissolution of the
+present Assembly only such men as were known to be well-affected to His
+Majesty and conformers to the Church of England should be chosen and
+admitted. After that they must be promised an "Act of oblivion" for the
+lawful taking up of arms, safe-conduct for all officers on legislative
+business, and, finally, that the Governor must come to them without the
+companionship of any disaffected person and put himself under their
+care.
+
+All this was perforce agreed to, and on the 3rd of May Charles the
+Second was declared king of England, &c., as well as of Barbados, and at
+the same time the Book of Common Prayer was proclaimed to be the only
+pattern of true worship.
+
+Behind all this was a fact which no one mentioned, but which probably
+everybody knew--on the 29th of April Lord Willoughby had arrived in the
+harbour, bearing a commission as Governor of the Caribbee Islands, from
+the fugitive King Charles and the Earl of Carlisle. No doubt the whole
+demonstration was got up on his account, the Cavaliers wanting to have
+the king proclaimed first, so that there should be no difficulty about
+the commission. Everything was ready now, and nothing was heard but
+uproarious drinking of His Majesty's health, the Cavaliers going from
+house to house and compelling others to follow their example. As for
+Lord Willoughby, he left the Governor to carry out the stipulated
+measures, while he went to look after the other islands under his
+jurisdiction.
+
+Now the Royalists of Barbados began to persecute the leaders of the
+obnoxious party, beginning with the twenty they had named to the
+Governor. Some, seeing their danger, had got off to England, but those
+who remained were sentenced to pay a million pounds of sugar and to be
+banished. Then nearly a hundred others were indicted and ordered to
+leave before the 2nd of July, while all their commissions of the peace
+or in the militia were cancelled. Wives were banished with their
+husbands, and unless the estate-owners humbly submitted, paid their
+fines, and appointed well-affected persons as attorneys, their
+properties were confiscated. Yet with all that, when an attempt was made
+to get to the bottom of the rumoured plot, no trace of it could be
+found. Some of the more moderate of the Royalists even began to doubt
+whether they were not going too far, but they salved their consciences
+by saying that everything was done in the interest of the king.
+
+When the news arrived in England it created a great stir. In November
+some merchants and planters interested in the island asked for
+permission to make reprisals on their own account. They wanted licenses
+to trade there with five or six able ships, and letters of marque to use
+in case of obstruction, or a refusal to comply with certain demands.
+These demands were to repeal all Acts dishonourable to the Commonwealth,
+to renounce obedience to Charles Stuart, to acknowledge the supreme
+authority of the Parliament, to banish certain "active incendiaries in
+the late troubles," and, finally, to recall those who had suffered, so
+that they might enjoy the same rights as the other inhabitants. A
+further petition asked for the removal of Lord Willoughby in favour of
+Edward Winslow, a man of approved fidelity to the Commonwealth.
+
+The Parliamentary Government did not adopt these proposals, as they
+intended to reduce the island in a regular manner. In January, 1651, a
+fleet was made ready for this purpose, but being employed in the
+reduction of the Scilly Islands, it could not be got ready for the West
+Indies until June following.
+
+Meanwhile Lord Willoughby had returned, and was doing his best to
+conciliate the Barbadians of both parties. He did not altogether approve
+of what had been done, but repealed the Acts of sequestration, thus
+putting the inhabitants in good spirits for the expected invasion. It
+was rumoured that Prince Rupert was coming out from Marseilles, and this
+made things appear brighter, encouraging them to put their forts in
+order.
+
+The English fleet did not actually leave Plymouth until the 5th of
+August. It was under the command of Sir George Ayscue, who took six or
+seven merchant vessels under convoy, probably those referred to in the
+petition. He reached Barbados on the 15th of October, when as yet no
+news had been heard of Prince Rupert; in fact, that great seaman had
+been dissuaded from crossing the Atlantic. Fourteen Dutch vessels were
+captured in Carlisle Bay, the sudden arrival of the fleet preventing
+their escape.
+
+Willoughby had some six thousand foot and four hundred horse stationed
+at different parts of the island, and was determined to hold it for the
+king, looking forward daily to see Prince Rupert arrive. He had heard
+from a Dutch vessel that the king was marching on London with an army of
+Scots: this also tended to make his resistance all the more stubborn.
+From a few Roundheads, who managed to come off in the night, Ayscue
+learnt this, but he was as equally determined to subdue the island as
+Willoughby was to defend it.
+
+On being called upon to surrender the island for the use of the
+Parliament of England, the Governor replied that he acknowledged no
+supremacy over Englishmen save the king and those having commissions
+from him, directing the letter to the admiral on board His Majesty's
+ship the _Rainbow_. He also said that he had expected some overtures of
+reparation for the hostile acts upon the ships in the bay. After this
+defiance nothing was left but to prepare first for a strict blockade,
+and then to effect a landing. The strength on shore was too great for
+any open attack, and Ayscue managed to send a proclamation addressed to
+the freeholders and inhabitants, urging them to accept in time his
+offers of peace and mercy. In answer to this the Assembly met and passed
+a declaration to "sticke to" Lord Willoughby and defend the island to
+the utmost.
+
+In England a great deal of interest was felt in the struggle, and the
+demand for news of the expedition created a supply giving circumstantial
+accounts of what had _not_ taken place. One of them was headed, "Bloody
+news from the Barbados, being a true relation of a great and terrible
+fight between the Parliament's Navie, commanded by Sir George Ayscue,
+and the King of Scots' Forces under the command of the Lord Willoughby;
+with the particulars of the fight, the storming of the Island, the
+manner how the Parliament's Forces were repulsed and beaten off from
+Carlisle Bay and the Block House, and the number killed and wounded."
+And all this before any attempt had been made beyond the blockade!
+
+On the receipt of the news of the battle of Worcester, Ayscue sent
+another flag of truce to give Willoughby the information, saying that he
+did so as a friend rather than as an enemy. He was acting in that
+quality, by stating the true condition of England, and leaving him and
+his friends to judge of the necessity for due obedience to the State of
+England; otherwise they would be swallowed up in the destruction so
+shortly and inevitably coming upon them.
+
+In reply, Willoughby said he had never served his king so much in
+expectation of prosperity as in consideration of duty, and that he would
+not be the means of increasing the sad affliction of His Majesty by
+giving up that island. To this Ayscue rejoined, that if there were such
+a person as the king, Willoughby's retention of that place signified
+nothing to his advantage, and therefore the surrender could be small
+grief to him. He well knew the impossibility of the island subsisting
+without the patronage of England, and the admiral's great desire was to
+save it from ruin and destruction.
+
+As Willoughby refused to surrender, Ayscue determined to attack the Hole
+or James's Town, which he did on the 2nd of November, beating off its
+defenders, taking thirty prisoners, and spiking the four guns of the
+fort. On the 1st of December the fleet which had been sent to reduce
+Virginia arrived, and on the temporary addition of this force, Ayscue
+again sent to Willoughby, as he stated, for the last time. In reply he
+was told that the Assembly would consider the matter in two or three
+days, but this reply did not please the admiral, so he tried to hurry up
+the decision by landing at Speight's Town. Against the stubborn
+opposition of twelve hundred men he stormed and took the fort, which he
+held for two days, ultimately retiring, however, after burning the
+houses, demolishing the fortifications, and throwing the guns into the
+sea.
+
+After that the correspondence was continued, Ayscue entreating
+Willoughby to spare the good people of the island the horrors of war. To
+this the Governor replied, that they only took up arms in their own
+defence; the guilt of the blood and ruin would be at the doors of those
+who brought force to bear. Then the Virginia fleet sailed for its
+destination, and Ayscue recommenced hostilities by again occupying
+Speight's Town.
+
+By this time, however, there was a party on the island in favour of
+peace, and they began to bestir themselves, thus making the Royalists
+more determined. They put forth a proclamation inviting the inhabitants
+to endure the troubles of war for a season, rather than by base
+submission to let the deceitful enemy make them slaves for ever. But the
+Roundheads now began to assemble under Colonel Modiford at his house, to
+the number of six hundred men, who declared for the Parliament, and
+threatened to bring Willoughby to reason, the admiral going so far as
+to visit them surreptitiously to read his commission. Hearing of this,
+Willoughby got two thousand four hundred men together and appeared near
+the house, but did not venture to attack it, as by this time he had
+become somewhat disheartened.
+
+This brought things to a crisis, and on the 10th of January arrangements
+were made for a commission from both sides to make arrangements for
+terms. After a great deal of hesitation on the part of the admiral, the
+capitulation was at last signed, the articles being exceedingly
+favourable both to the inhabitants and Lord Willoughby. So lenient were
+they that Ayscue had to excuse himself to the home authorities for fear
+that he might have been misunderstood. They were, in short, liberty of
+conscience, continuation of the old government, and of the old Courts of
+Justice, no taxation without consent of the Assembly, no confiscations,
+all suits to be decided on the island, no acts of indemnity, no oaths
+against their consciences, a temporary cessation of all civil suits, and
+finally that Lord Willoughby should retain all his private property in
+the islands as well as in Surinam, with full liberty to go to England.
+These articles were signed on the 11th of January, 1652, and the "storm
+in a teapot" came to an end, the Barbadians proudly boasting that they
+had been able to defy the mighty power of the Commonwealth. Most of the
+leaders were banished from the island, some going to Surinam, where a
+colony had been established by Lord Willoughby soon after his arrival in
+Barbados. Among them was Major Byam, who became Governor, and virtually
+held the settlement for the king until he came to his own again. This
+is all the more curious because Cromwell knew the circumstances, yet
+made no effort to bring the people under submission. At first the
+settlers established a little Commonwealth of their own, with Major Byam
+as president, but when his term had expired, instead of giving place to
+another he declared he had a commission as Governor from the king,
+although he refused to show the document to any one. With enough
+Royalists to back him, he thus held office until the Restoration,
+notwithstanding the complaints of the Parliamentary faction and their
+requests to the home authorities for redress.
+
+Meanwhile, early in 1652 England went to war with the Dutch, and this
+seriously interfered with the trade of that nationality in the West
+Indies. The Navigation Act was another blow to them, although it could
+not yet be enforced altogether. Cromwell made himself respected in such
+a manner that peace with Holland was restored in April, 1654, thus
+leaving him free to carry out his designs against the old enemy--Spain.
+
+Since Queen Elizabeth's time the English Governments had done little in
+the way of worrying the Spaniards, although pirates had been busy almost
+without intermission. Now, however, Cromwell was at liberty, and he
+began to see that they wanted a little correction to prevent their
+having too much of their own way in America. The Spanish ambassador was
+cringing enough when he saw what a powerful leader had arisen, and did
+his best to avert the impending storm. It is even stated that he assured
+the Protector of his master's friendship, and declared that if he took
+the Crown of England Spain would be first in her approval. Cromwell was
+not to be mollified by soft speeches; he had got peace at home, and was
+determined to have it across the seas as well. He was quite willing to
+arrange for a treaty, but it must be on his own terms, not at the
+dictation of Spain. A commission was appointed to meet the ambassador
+and discuss the grounds of the agreement, and they began at once with
+the West Indies. A long list of depredations was produced for which the
+English demanded satisfaction before going farther. The English had been
+treated as enemies wherever the Spaniards met them in the West Indies,
+even when going to and from their own plantations, notwithstanding the
+former treaty, and the Commission insisted on a proper indemnity. The
+English must be free to trade everywhere--in fact the old claim of Spain
+to the whole of America must be finally abandoned.
+
+The Spanish ambassador replied that the inquisition and trade to the
+West Indies were his master's two eyes, and that nothing different from
+the practice of former times could be permitted. On hearing this
+Cromwell, seeing that neither indemnity for the past nor promises of
+amendment in the future could be obtained, prepared for war, and
+commenced by fitting out an expedition to conquer Hispaniola.
+
+In December, 1654, we find the first mention of a special service under
+the command of Generals Penn and Venables, and early in the following
+year the fleet sailed for Barbados. With five thousand men from England,
+and as many from the West Indies, the expedition arrived near St.
+Domingo on the 13th of April, 1655, frightening the inhabitants so much
+that they fled to the woods on its approach. However, the affair was so
+badly managed that no benefit accrued from following the example of
+Drake, which appears to have been the object of the leaders. Like the
+great Elizabethan hero, they landed at a distance from the town with the
+intention of marching along the shore, but instead of landing ten miles
+off they went as far as thirty. For four days the troops wandered
+through the mangrove bushes, without guides, and even without
+provisions, thus giving the runaway Spaniards time to rally from their
+fright and come out after them. Weary, entangled in the swamps, and
+utterly unfit to cope with an enemy, the English became an easy prey;
+the slaughter was considerable, and it was even stated that those killed
+were mostly shot in the back while trying to escape.
+
+Unwilling to attempt anything further in Hispaniola, Penn and Venables
+took off the dispirited remnant and sailed for Jamaica, hoping to do
+something there to prevent failure altogether. Not that there were any
+laurels to be gained in that direction, for the inhabitants only
+numbered three thousand, and half of these were negro slaves. A few
+shots were fired, and then the inhabitants took to flight, leaving the
+English in possession of the island. A capitulation was agreed upon with
+the old Spanish Governor, who was brought in a hammock to sign it, but
+many of the people took to the woods with their slaves, and refused to
+be bound by the articles. A body of two thousand men was then sent to
+scour the interior and bring them back, but they could find nothing
+save great herds of wild cattle. Afterwards, in pure wantonness, the
+churches and religious buildings were demolished, the cattle killed or
+driven far away, and the provision grounds devastated, with the result
+that the invaders were soon starving. In less than a month two thousand
+were sick, many had died, and the remainder had become mutinous.
+Altogether the whole affair was so badly managed that Cromwell became
+almost mad at the news, and sent both commanders to the Tower on their
+return.
+
+However, Jamaica was captured, and for the first time in the history of
+the West Indies a Spanish possession went into the hands of another
+nation. Some thought the island of no importance as compared with
+Hispaniola--it was certainly of little value to the Spaniards. However,
+a few English people foresaw something of its future importance, and did
+their best to develop the island. In October Cromwell issued a
+proclamation offering certain advantages to settlers from the other
+islands, or from England, so that it might be occupied as soon as
+possible. It stated that by the providence of God Jamaica had come into
+the possession of the State, and that they were satisfied of its
+fertility and commodiousness for trade; it had therefore been resolved
+to plant it. To this end it was made known to the people of the English
+islands and colonies the encouragements offered to those who removed
+their habitations there within two years from the 29th of September,
+1656. Twenty acres of land would be granted to every adult, and ten for
+each child, they would have freedom to hunt wild cattle and horses, be
+given the privilege of mining except for gold and silver, and freedom
+from taxes for three years.
+
+It resulted from this that many planters from Barbados and St. Kitt's
+went over, and in a very few years Jamaica was more prosperous than it
+had ever been while in the possession of Spain. In November, 1656,
+Cromwell ordered the Scotch Government to apprehend all known idle
+masterless robbers and vagabonds, male or female, and to transport them
+there, and at the same time the Council of State ordered that a thousand
+girls and as many young men should be enlisted in Ireland for the same
+purpose. As for the adventurers who went with the expedition, they were
+reported as being so lazy "that it could not enter into the heart of any
+Englishman that such blood should run in the veins of his
+countrymen"--they were so unworthy, slothful, and basely secure, out of
+a strange kind of spirit desiring rather to die than live. As for
+planting, little was done by them, although every possible inducement
+and encouragement was given.
+
+Meanwhile letters of marque were issued to privateers for the West
+Indies, which drove the Spaniards to send their treasure from Peru to
+Buenos Ayres, a route that had been abandoned since the time of Queen
+Elizabeth. Now also they began to make efforts for the recovery of
+Jamaica, and in May, 1658, thirty companies of infantry, under the
+command of the late Governor, landed on the north side of the island.
+Here in a small harbour they entrenched themselves, and built a little
+fort before their presence became known to the English. However,
+Governor D'Oyley at last heard of the invasion, but it was nearly two
+months after their arrival before he could proceed to approach them by
+sea. When he arrived, however, with seven hundred and fifty men, he at
+once stormed their fortress and drove them to their vessels, in which
+they fled to Cuba. This put an end to the matter; but the old Governor
+returned, and lived with the remnant of the Spaniards and their slaves
+in the mountains.
+
+Now at last even the Pope had to acknowledge other sovereignty than that
+of Spain, and this he did in a letter to Father Fontaine, of the
+Dominican Mission, on the 25th of July, 1658. Therein he acknowledged
+the king of France as ruler of the conquests and colonies his subjects
+had made in the American islands. Thus was the Bull of partition at last
+cancelled by the successor of its original promulgator, and the ground
+for the exclusive claim to America cut away. At this time France was
+also at war with Spain, but the following year a treaty was signed, and
+in 1660, on the restoration of Charles the Second, peace was restored
+with England.
+
+At the first private audience of the Spanish ambassador with the king,
+he delivered a memorial demanding the restoration of Jamaica to his
+master, on the ground that it had been taken by his rebel subjects,
+contrary to the treaty between the two Crowns. Instead of doing this,
+however, Charles despatched a vessel with letters to the Governors of
+the Caribbee islands, asking them to encourage all persons willing to
+transplant themselves to the larger islands. At the same time the Royal
+African Company, the great slave-trading corporation of that time, was
+asked to make Jamaica its headquarters for the sale of negroes. Then it
+was arranged to send women from England to be wives for the planters,
+Newgate and Bridewell to be spared as much as possible, so that poor
+maids might have a chance, with whom it was stated that few English
+parishes were unburdened.
+
+On the 1st of December, 1660, King Charles the Second made a move which
+must be considered as of the greatest importance to the development of
+the British Colonial Empire--he founded the "Council for foreign
+plantations," which later developed into the Colonial Office. This
+Council were to inform themselves of the state of the plantations and of
+how they were governed, keeping copies of all grants in a book. They
+were to write to every Governor asking for exact accounts of their
+proceedings, the nature of their laws and government, as well as
+statistics. They must establish a correspondence with the colonies, so
+that the king might be informed of all complaints, their wants, what
+they cultivated, their commodities, and their trade, so that all might
+be regulated upon common grounds and principles. They must adopt means
+for rendering them and England mutually helpful, and bring them into a
+more uniform government, with a better distribution of justice. Especial
+care was to be taken for the execution of the Navigation Act, and
+consideration given to the best means of providing servants, to which
+end care was to be taken that no persons were forced or enticed away by
+unlawful means. Those willing to be transported were, however, to be
+encouraged, and a legal course was to be settled for sending over
+vagrants and others who were noxious and unprofitable in England.
+Learned and orthodox ministers were also to be sent, and instructions
+given for regulating and repressing the debaucheries of planters and
+servants. The Council were also to consider how the natives and slaves
+might be invited to, and made capable of, baptism in the Christian
+faith, and finally to dispose of all matters relating to the good
+government, improvement, and management of the plantations.
+
+Thus England commenced her great career of colonisation, the results of
+which we see to-day. While taking all due account of Virginia and New
+England, we cannot but note that it was in the West Indies where the
+"prentice hand" was first tried. Jamaica was the main object of these
+provisions--to that island the king's attention had been specially
+directed, and it was here that many difficulties had to be encountered
+before it could be made a worthy appendage of the Crown. Most of the
+other islands were in the hands of private persons or companies, while
+this was under the control of the State. No matter that the island had
+been annexed by rebels, Charles the Second was determined to hold it
+fast for England, in spite of all the protests of Spain.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+VII.
+
+THE PLANTERS AND THEIR SLAVES.
+
+
+When the first European adventurers went to the West Indies, serfdom was
+still common in Spain. The peasantry were, as a rule, bound to the soil,
+and could neither be taken away by their lords nor remove at their own
+will. The consequence was that only soldiers, mariners, and free men
+from the towns took part in the first expeditions. The townsmen had
+mostly been brought up to the trades of their fathers, and were hardly
+fit to cultivate the land even in Spain, much less, therefore, were they
+suited to the tropics. They could not demean themselves by performing
+anything so servile, but must get their land cultivated by others. As
+the serfs were not available, first Indians and then negro slaves and
+white bond-servants were employed.
+
+We have seen how the Indians were exterminated, and how the first
+planters in Hispaniola were ruined by the want of labour. Even the
+Spanish priests could see that the poor Arawak's nature was quite
+distinct from that of the European peasant. The serf had been kept under
+subjection for centuries; his father and grandfather had worked in the
+fields, and he must do the same. The armourer, the mason, and the
+weaver carried on their trades, because they had been born into the
+respective guilds as it were. The Indians, on the contrary, were free,
+and had always been so; yes, more free than any people in the old world.
+They died, and the planter had to look elsewhere for his labour supply.
+Then commenced the cry which has been continually rising from the
+plantations ever since--More servants! More slaves! More coolies!
+
+[Illustration: A SURINAM PLANTER.
+
+(_From Stedman's "Surinam."_)]
+
+For many years the Portuguese had been kidnapping negroes on the west
+coast of Africa. By their connection with Morocco they had learnt that
+the natives of the interior were brought to and openly sold in the
+Moorish towns--possibly they themselves had purchased some of them. To
+bring home a number after every voyage to the coast was therefore
+nothing strange, nor was it anything novel to sell them in Portugal to
+help pay the expense of the voyage. From Portugal to Spain this negro
+slavery spread, until it became fairly common in both countries.
+
+When the cry for labourers came over the Atlantic--even before the
+extermination of the natives--a few negroes were sent out. Finding them
+more docile and better able to endure hard labour than the Indians, more
+were called for, the benevolent priests also urging the matter to save
+the remnant of the Arawaks. The demand created a supply, and soon the
+Portuguese found themselves embarked in a lucrative trade, of which they
+commanded the monopoly. Thus began a traffic which has been unreservedly
+condemned by the most enlightened of humanity, and praised alone by
+those whose very livelihood depended upon it.
+
+[Illustration: A NEGRO FESTIVAL.
+
+(_From Edwards' "West Indies."_)]
+
+On his second voyage Columbus carried the sugar cane, which was destined
+to have such an influence for good and evil on the West Indies. Its
+produce was at first known as a kind of honey, and recognised as an
+expectorant and comforting medicine. Now it had made its way into the
+kitchens of the great, where it was considered as one of the spices, and
+with them became more and more used every year. In early times the cane
+was cultivated on the warmer shores of the Mediterranean, and, after
+their discovery, in the Canary and Cape de Verde islands. At the period
+of the discovery of America sugar was sold at about eightpence a pound,
+equivalent to something like three shillings nowadays. As the demand
+continued to increase large plantations were laid out in Hispaniola,
+until it became the staple product of the colony.
+
+Cotton was known in the old world, but as yet had hardly come into use
+in Europe. In the West Indies it was generally cultivated in a small way
+by every native, and on being forwarded to Spain, the "tree wool," as it
+was called, soon came into use. Then came another product, tobacco,
+which was quite new at that time, although probably known in the far
+East. It seemed strange to the new-comers that people should carry
+firebrands in their mouths, and at first they took tobacco-smokers for
+juggling fire-eaters, until they also learnt the sustaining power of the
+"weed." This soon took place, and by the year 1550 tobacco was well
+known in Spain and Italy. Probably also the Dutch knew it quite as
+early, for it was in the Netherlands that it became more quickly
+appreciated than in any other country, probably on account of its
+particularly comforting properties in marshy districts. Soon afterwards
+Jean Nicot introduced it into France, and probably Master Hawkins
+brought samples into England from Brazil, although Ralegh is stated to
+have been the first English smoker. Towards the end of the sixteenth
+century its use became so common all over Europe that Popes and
+Churchmen thundered their curses against the "filthy habit," and later
+poor King James wrote his "Counterblast to Tobacco," which only had the
+effect of making it better known.
+
+[Illustration: VOYAGE OF THE SABLE VENUS.
+
+(_From Edwards' "West Indies."_)]
+
+Here at the beginning were two commercial products which grew well in
+the West Indies, with a doubtful third to come to the front as soon as
+it became known. As yet coffee had not been introduced--this followed in
+the next century. Notwithstanding the large profit on sugar the Spaniard
+would not labour in the field, and in the end the plantations became
+fewer and fewer until only one or two were left. This falling off tended
+to keep up the price, and although the Dutch bought much cotton and
+tobacco from the Indians of the Main, and the Portuguese began to grow
+sugar in Brazil, the supply was always limited.
+
+There was room for more plantations, and the first people to take
+advantage of this opening were the English. Their many different
+colonies in Guiana all commenced planting with tobacco: Virginia and the
+Bermudas did the same. All through the reign of James the First,
+however, the trade was obstructed in so many ways that a great deal of
+their produce was sent to the Netherlands and thus escaped the English
+duties. Probably also the smuggling of tobacco, so notorious at a later
+period, began at this time, as the Dutch were always noted free-traders,
+not only on the Spanish Main, but in Europe as well.
+
+[Illustration: SLAVES LANDING FROM THE SHIP.
+
+(_From Stedman's "Surinam."_)]
+
+Like the Spaniards, the English adventurers were soldiers and sailors,
+and therefore did not work in the field. Subject to the raids of the
+European claimants of the territory as well as the incursions of
+ferocious cannibals, they went about literally with pistols in their
+belts and swords at their thighs. Now they had to show a good face to
+some buccaneer company, and anon to fight the French or Dutch when war
+broke out. Later, when there was no fear of enemies from without, they
+had a continual dread of slave insurrections. It followed, therefore,
+that the planter was always on the alert, and, even if he felt inclined,
+could do little in the way of cultivation.
+
+In England serfdom had virtually come to an end, and the agricultural
+labourer might go where he pleased. But the love of country, the unknown
+but magnified perils of a sea voyage, and stories of cruel Spaniards and
+man-eating Caribs, prevented many from going to the Indies,
+notwithstanding the great inducements offered. The English planters
+found it difficult to get negroes, as their enemy controlled the trade.
+As for the Indians, they had to deal with cannibals whose women
+cultivated small clearings, but resented anything like coercion, while
+no labour whatever could be got from the men. Something had to be done.
+If the English labourer would not come willingly, he might be kidnapped,
+and the carrying out of this work led to the organisation of bands of
+ruffians, who went sailing along the coasts, especially of Scotland and
+Ireland, to pick up likely fellows wherever they found opportunity.
+However, this caused such an outcry that extraordinary efforts were made
+on the part of the Government to put down "spiriting," as it was called.
+
+In June, 1661, the Council for foreign plantations considered the best
+means of encouraging and furnishing people for the colonies, and they
+thought that felons condemned for small offences, and sturdy beggars,
+might be sent. They had several complaints of men, women, and children
+being spirited away from their masters and parents, and later the Mayor
+of Bristol and the Lord Mayor of London petitioned the king for
+authority to examine ships, with the view of finding out whether the
+passengers went of their own free will. It was stated that husbands
+forsook their wives, wives fled from their husbands, children and
+apprentices ran away, while unwary and credulous persons were often
+tempted on board by men-stealers. Many who had been pursued by hue and
+cry for robberies, burglaries, and breaking prison, also escaped to the
+plantations. Certain persons, called spirits, inveigled, and by lewd
+subtleties enticed, away young persons, whereby great tumults and
+uproars were raised in London, to the breach of the peace and the hazard
+of men's lives.
+
+These abuses led to an Order in Council, published in September, 1664,
+for registering persons going voluntarily, and commissions were given to
+the Lord High Admiral and the officers of the ports to establish
+registration offices and give certificates. Yet the spiriting still went
+on, for in April, 1668, Sir Anthony Ashley Cooper was asked to move the
+House of Commons to make the offence capital. His petitioner, said he,
+had found one lost child, and after much expense and trouble, freed him,
+but there were several others in the same ship, and other ships in the
+river at the same work. Even if the parents found their children, they
+could not recover them without money, and he was sure that if such a law
+were passed the mercy to these innocents would ground a blessing on
+those concerned in introducing it. This Act was finally passed on the
+1st of March, 1670, punishing the spirits with death without benefit of
+clergy.
+
+There were, however, other means of procuring servants. In 1649, when
+Cromwell took Drogheda by storm, about thirty prisoners were saved from
+the massacre to be shipped to Barbados, and in 1651 seven or eight
+thousand Scots, taken at the battle of Worcester, were reserved for a
+similar fate. After the Restoration, however, there was an intermission
+in such supplies, and the planters began to look to Newgate and
+Bridewell for their labour supply.
+
+The supply was by no means equal to the demand, for the agents in London
+of the planters of Virginia, Barbados, St. Christopher's, and other
+islands were equally clamorous for their share. As for King Charles the
+Second, he granted the prisoners as a privilege to his favourites, and
+even mistresses, who generally sold it to the highest bidder. The agent
+must have had influence to get into the presence of the holder, say of a
+hundred prisoners sentenced to transportation, and this was only
+obtainable by largess to door-keepers and servants. Then came the
+trouble of obtaining delivery from the prison authorities, and here
+again fees were demanded. In one case that is recorded the amount paid
+to the gaoler of Newgate was fifty-five shillings a head. But even now
+the trouble was only beginning. The prisoners were supposed to be
+delivered at the door of the gaol, and the planter was under a heavy
+bond not to allow one to escape. He must account for each by a
+certificate of death on the voyage or of landing in Barbados, on penalty
+of five hundred pounds for every one missing. It followed, therefore,
+that a sufficiently strong guard had to be provided, and provision made
+for attempts at rescue by the prisoners' friends. Even this was not all,
+for the concession simply granted a certain number, and it rested with
+the gaoler to palm off the old, weak, and infirm on those who were at
+all wanting in liberality. Then, at the best the prisoners were hatters,
+tailors, and haberdashers, rather than agricultural labourers, many of
+whom ultimately proved valueless. If a large number was available, and
+there were several applicants, the competition became quite
+spirited--every one wanted his pick before the others, and the gaoler
+made the best of the occasion, leaving those to whom he allotted the
+refuse to curse their evil fortune.
+
+Up to the passing of the Navigation Act the Dutch had been free to trade
+with English colonies, and had brought a fair number of negroes; and
+afterwards the king established the Royal African Company to prevent the
+supply being cut off. The average price of the African was then about
+L16 or 2,400 pounds of sugar, but the Dutch sold their slaves for a
+little less, which led the planters to evade the Navigation Act when
+they had opportunities.
+
+The white bond-servant was valued at about 2,200 pounds of sugar, very
+little less than the slave for life, although he had generally but five
+years to serve. The cost of transport was about L5 per head; it
+followed, therefore, that if the London agent got his prisoners cheap he
+made a good profit. There was also another way of making money in this
+business. Some of the gaol-birds had friends who were willing to pay
+good sums on consideration that the convict should be virtually freed on
+his arrival. Many a sum of fifty pounds was obtained in this way,
+sometimes without helping the bond-servant in the least. How were the
+relations to prove that the promise had not been fulfilled, and if they
+did so what redress could be obtained? They certainly could not go to
+law, as the whole transaction was illegal.
+
+We have seen how Charles the Second tried to people Jamaica with free
+settlers, but this did not prevent the transportation of criminals. In
+1665 four young men, who had been convicted of interrupting and abusing
+a preacher, were whipped through the streets of Edinburgh and afterwards
+sent to Barbados, and in 1684 some of the Rye House plotters were
+reprieved on condition that they served ten years in the West Indies.
+When these plotters arrived in Jamaica, the Governor, "by His Majesty's
+command," directed the Assembly to pass an Act "to prevent all
+clandestine releasements or buying out of their time," so that their
+punishment should not be evaded. But it was after the Monmouth
+rebellion, in 1685, that the greatest deportation took place. The
+miserable followers of the duke were executed by Judge Jeffreys until
+even his thirst for blood was somewhat slackened, when the remainder
+were sent to the plantations. The story of one of these unfortunates
+gives such a graphic picture of the life of a bond-servant that we
+cannot do better than give an outline of the "Relation of the great
+sufferings and strange adventures of Henry Pitman, surgeon to the late
+Duke of Monmouth."
+
+Having been taken prisoner after the battle of Sedgemoor, he was
+committed to Ilchester Gaol, had his pockets rifled, his clothes torn
+off his back, and was remanded until the Wells assizes. While in gaol he
+was inveigled into telling all he knew, by promises of pardon, and then
+his acknowledgments were treated as a confession. Those who pleaded not
+guilty on the first day of the trial were convicted and executed the
+same afternoon; others who confessed were equally condemned. After two
+hundred and thirty had been hanged the remainder were ordered to be
+transported to the Caribbee islands, of whom Pitman was one. With some
+others, including his brother, he was disposed of to an agent who took
+L60 from his friends to set him free on his arrival at Barbados.
+
+The Legislative Assembly of that island, however, in consequence of the
+"most horrid, wicked, and execrable rebellion," lately raised, and
+because many of the rebels had been transported for ten years, passed a
+special Act, under which they were bound to serve, notwithstanding any
+bargain to the contrary. If they attempted to escape they were to be
+flogged, and burnt in the forehead with the letters "F.T.," meaning
+"Fugitive Traitor."
+
+By this law Pitman's hopes were frustrated, and, utterly disheartened,
+he was not inclined to work at his profession for the master to whom he
+had been sold. Although the status of a surgeon was not then as high as
+it is now, it was yet a great downfall to practise the profession on
+rations of five pounds of salt beef or fish per week, with nothing else
+but corn meal. As for the fees, which were large, the master pocketed
+them, leaving Pitman to endure the discomforts of a tropical residence
+and semi-starvation as best he could. On one occasion he refused to go
+on with his work, and for this he was beaten by his master until the
+cane used was broken in pieces. Then the master became bankrupt, and,
+with his brother, Pitman was sent back to the merchant to whom they had
+been first consigned.
+
+Here his brother died of the hardships he had experienced, and Pitman
+resolved to escape, notwithstanding the risk of attempting such a thing.
+Having made the acquaintance of a poor man who was willing to help, he
+got a consignment of goods from his friends in England, with which to
+raise the means. A boat was purchased for twelve pounds; but this led
+to inquiries, as the buyer was known to be poor, and his creditors began
+to come down upon him. However, Pitman contributed enough to satisfy
+them, meanwhile postponing his departure until suspicion had been
+lulled.
+
+On the evening of the 9th of May, 1687--this being a holiday, when most
+of the people were revelling--he and seven other bond-servants got
+safely off in their open boat, with a small supply of provisions and
+water, a few tools, a compass, and a chart. They intended to make for
+the Dutch island of Curacao, six hundred miles distant; but even before
+they were out of Carlisle Bay their frail craft began to leak, and they
+had to tear up their clothes to stop the gaping seams. At sunrise they
+were out of sight from the land, but so enervated by sea-sickness that
+some would willingly have gone back. However, they went on as best they
+could, with nothing but their hats to bale out the water, which still
+continued to trickle into the boat. They were a little more comfortable
+as the sun rose, but when night came a gale arose which kept them
+employed baling for their lives. To add to their difficulties the rudder
+broke, and they had to steer with an oar.
+
+Five days passed in this manner, the refugees hardly able to get an
+hour's rest for the baling and continual fear that the boat would sink
+if left alone. On the sixth morning they saw Margarita, but could not
+land on account of the rocky shore, which nearly wrecked them on their
+making the attempt. Sheering off, they next day sighted Saltatudos
+island, one of the Dry Tortugas, where they met a boat manned with
+privateers, who treated them very kindly, and wanted them to join their
+company. To this, however, Pitman and his companions would not agree,
+and this annoyed the privateers, who burnt their boat and virtually kept
+them as prisoners. When they went on a cruise the refugees were left in
+charge of four men, and had much ado to find enough turtle to keep them
+from starving. After remaining here for three months an English
+privateer arrived, and, at their request, took them on to New
+Providence, to which the inhabitants had just returned after being
+driven off by Spaniards. Pitman at last got to Amsterdam, and from
+thence to England, where the revolution had just taken place, and his
+friends had succeeded in obtaining a free pardon.
+
+The white bond-servant, being under a short engagement, was generally
+worked to his utmost capacity. No matter if he died before the end of
+his term as long as he paid for the expense incurred. But Englishmen
+were no more inclined to be slaves then than they are now, and the
+planters of St. Kitt's found them so troublesome to manage that they
+soon became afraid of buying, and showed a preference for negroes. Some
+of the English servants committed suicide, and it is recorded that a
+pious master told one of them, who had expressed his intention of
+destroying himself, that he trusted that God would give him more grace,
+than, for a short term of trouble in this life, to precipitate himself
+into hell.
+
+Even in the earliest times some of the planters were absentees, living
+in England. The system was always more or less fortune-hunting, the
+whole end and aim being to get rich and return to the old country. There
+were, as we have seen, many difficulties and dangers to encounter, and
+not the least of the drawbacks was the want of good society. We who live
+in an age when there is daily communication with the whole world, can
+hardly conceive how entirely these pioneers were cut off from their
+friends. The long voyage was full of discomfort, and at the best
+uncertain as to its termination. The words still found on bills of
+lading, "the act of God or the queen's enemies," had a meaning then
+hardly appreciable by the present generation. Barbary pirates and French
+corsairs ranged the Channel; in the broad Atlantic storms shook the
+crazy vessels to pieces; and when they escaped these dangers, it was
+often to fall into the hands of the buccaneers when in sight of their
+destination. Then there were hurricanes on both sea and land, and
+earthquakes on some of the islands. Vessels were sunk in harbour, houses
+blown away, and sugar buildings torn down. As for the negro huts, they
+were carried off altogether, and the crops injured so as to become
+useless. Then, perhaps, when the planter had strained himself to the
+utmost to put things straight, another tornado would put him in a worse
+plight than before.
+
+Yet with all this the planter struggled on, generally doing his best to
+carry the traditions and fashions of the mother country into his new
+home. We have already noticed Barbados, and how it was affected by the
+"great rebellion." Many other examples might be noted had we sufficient
+space. The planter was nearly always a gentleman, even if he had begun
+his career as a transported rebel. Some were gallants, and dressed in
+the extreme of London fashion, often living beyond their means. Others
+were merchants, trading with their own vessels, and selling their
+surplus goods for produce to make up cargoes. With their own sugar, and
+as much as they could procure from others, they filled their ships for
+the homeward voyage, and in return got enough merchandise for trading.
+These were the fortune-hunters, who were always looking forward to that
+happy time when, with money in their pouches, they could once more
+settle down in Merry England. The old country was always "home," as it
+is still for the West Indian, although perhaps neither himself nor his
+parents ever saw it--then it was the will-o'-the-wisp that drove him to
+endure all the discomforts of a life in the tropics, often to die of
+fever before his work was hardly begun.
+
+While Jamaica was under the dominion of Spain little was done to develop
+the island. The Indians were exterminated, as in Hispaniola, to be
+replaced by wild cattle and horses, and fifteen hundred negroes were
+introduced to cultivate provision grounds. From these, passing vessels,
+which called in on their way to Mexico, got their supplies. As yet it
+was not a rendezvous for buccaneers, and taken altogether it was quite
+insignificant. Thousands of white men and tens of thousands of negroes
+were required before it became the important island which ultimately
+rivalled Hispaniola. However, although the Spaniard was driven out he
+left his sting behind in the shape of his slaves, who took to the
+mountains, to be afterwards known as Maroons, and to worry the English
+colonists for over a century.
+
+And here, as we are dealing with the planter and his labour supply, we
+must say something of the negro slaves, to whom the West Indies were
+indebted for their very existence as European colonies. Unlike the
+American, the African had known slavery for ages. Prisoners taken in war
+were kept in servitude as a matter of course; debtors were slaves to
+their creditors, and even children were sold by their parents. Yet there
+were great differences between the tribes--the Coromantees, for example,
+were particularly troublesome, and the Foulahs often dangerous. The
+first slave-traders took their cargoes from the more northern coasts,
+and from this cause, perhaps, as well as the want of proper supervision
+in the Indies, runaways, or Simerons, were mentioned at very early
+periods. Later, the trade was carried on in a particularly judicious
+manner, and the more docile tribes selected, to be sold in the colonies
+as "Prime Gold Coast Negroes."
+
+In their native countries these people were all virtually slaves to
+their chiefs, and as such were liable to be sold at any time. The
+authority was unlimited; the slightest offence meant slavery; death was
+the only alternative. Often when, for some reason or other, the negro
+was rejected by the trader, he was executed at once. Adultery was
+punished by the sale of both offenders, and debtors could be sold by
+their creditors. Bryan Edwards, author of a history of the West Indies,
+took much pains to procure information from the slaves themselves,
+through an interpreter; and as they had no reason to misrepresent their
+cases, we can safely give the outlines of one.
+
+The most interesting story is, perhaps, that of the boy Adam, a Congo,
+about fourteen years of age when he was brought to Jamaica. His country
+was named Sarri, and was situated a long distance from the coast. While
+walking one morning through a path, about three miles from his native
+village, the boy was captured by one of his countrymen. With his
+prisoner the man hid himself in the woods during the whole of the day,
+and at night stole away from the neighbourhood, going on like this for a
+whole month. Then he came to the country of another tribe, where he sold
+the boy for a gun, some powder and shot, and a little salt. His new
+owner afterwards sold Adam for a keg of brandy to another black man who
+was going about collecting slaves, and when twenty had been collected
+they were taken to the coast and sold to a Jamaica captain.
+
+Of the five-and-twenty interrogated by Bryan Edwards, fifteen frankly
+declared that they had been born in slavery, and were sold to pay the
+debts, or bartered to supply the wants, of their owners. Five were
+secretly kidnapped in the interior, and sold to black merchants; the
+other five fell into the hands of the enemy in some of those petty wars
+which were continually going on, when, if there had been no market for
+their sale, they would almost certainly have been killed.
+
+It is hardly necessary to state that in giving these statements we are
+not attempting the impossible task of vindicating slavery either of the
+black or white man. It would be well, however, if, in mitigation of the
+offence against the negro, his former condition were taken into
+consideration, and the undoubted fact that he was better treated by the
+West India planter than by his own countrymen. His lot was by no means
+so hard as slavery had been to the Indian and white bond-servant. He did
+not sink under the hardships of a life of toil in the burning sun, but
+was happy in his way, and in most cases better off than his descendant,
+the West Indian peasant of to-day. He was certainly treated as a
+domestic animal, but his value was always high enough to prevent
+anything like ill-usage. There were certainly people who could be cruel
+to their negroes, as there are yet men so low as to brutally flog
+valuable horses, but that such were common is a statement utterly
+without foundation. As a well-kept animal, the planter took a pride in
+him, fed and doctored him, patted him on the back, and proudly showed
+him to his friends. All this appears very degrading to humanity, but
+after all the negro did not see it in that light. On the contrary, he
+took a pride in exhibiting his strong muscles and in showing the
+"buccras" what a fine nigger massa had got.
+
+The slave of the rich planter, like the horse of the English gentleman,
+was undoubtedly very comfortable. First, he was a picked lot--the
+healthiest, strongest, and most suitable for his work--one of those
+"pieces d'India," as the best negroes were called by the traders. Then,
+as an expensive chattel, everything was done to make him still more
+valuable, and to prevent his deteriorating. But unfortunately there was
+another class--the miserable, broken-down creatures sold cheap as refuse
+lots to poor white men or even to slaves. Yes, the slaves bought their
+diseased fellow-countrymen, to work on their own allotments, treating
+them as the costermonger sometimes does his donkey. Half-starved,
+hard-worked, and covered with sores, they lingered in misery until death
+came to make them free. Some were so disfigured with yaws, or leprosy,
+that none but a negro could bear the sight of them; these were kept out
+of the way and treated worse than mangy dogs.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+VIII.
+
+THE STRUGGLE FOR SUPREMACY.
+
+
+By the time of the Dutch war of 1665 the pretensions of Spain to the
+exclusive possession of the Indies had been entirely ignored. Now began
+the great struggle of other nations for supremacy, and the position of
+"sovereign of the seas," the islands and Guiana becoming scenes of
+contention between English, French, and Dutch. To these struggles is
+greatly due the positions the naval powers of the world hold to-day, and
+especially that of Britain.
+
+As it was mainly a demand for free trade which led to so many attacks on
+the Spanish possessions, so it was now the same question which led to
+the struggle between the two great mercantile nations which succeeded
+Spain and Portugal, as these had followed Venice and Genoa. In the West
+Indies there was no line of demarcation between these new powers, and
+consequently their interests often clashed, but on the whole the
+colonists were favourable to the Dutch, and did all they could to evade
+the Navigation Act.
+
+Early in 1665 preparations were made in Barbados to repel an expected
+invasion by the Dutch. Vessels were ordered to keep together and
+protect each other, and men-of-war were sent out to afford convoy.
+Already the English buccaneers had been somewhat discountenanced by the
+home government, although they were generally encouraged by the
+colonies, especially Jamaica, which derived considerable advantage from
+their sales of booty. Now that there was a demand for all the forces
+that could be gathered together, the Governor of that island gave the
+rovers letters of marque, under which they were empowered to ravage the
+Dutch colonies. At St. Eustatius they succeeded in carrying off
+everything portable, including nine hundred slaves, and even such heavy
+articles as sugar coppers and stills. De Ruyter made an attempt on
+Barbados on the 20th of April, but the people there made such a stand
+that he had to retire. He commenced the attack at ten o'clock in the
+morning with his fourteen vessels, but by three in the afternoon the
+fleet was so much damaged that he was forced to move away his own ship,
+with a hole in her side "as big as a barn-door." He then went on to
+Montserrat and Nevis, where he captured sixteen ships, but did not take
+either of the islands.
+
+In Guiana, the English from Barbados captured the Dutch trading factory
+in the river Essequebo, as well as the young sugar colony in the
+Pomeroon, and in retaliation the Dutch took Surinam. In January, 1666,
+France joined the Netherlands, and an English fleet was sent out to
+protect Barbados, which now began to feel alarmed at the possible result
+of such a powerful combination.
+
+Then came the critical period for the island of St. Kitt's, which, as we
+have before stated, had been divided between English and French, the
+former holding the middle portion with the enemy on either side. As soon
+as the news of the declaration of war arrived, the relations between the
+two nationalities, which had often before been much strained, became
+ruptured. The English Governor, Watts, gave his rival three days'
+notice, and prepared to attack him, with the assistance of five hundred
+men from Nevis, and two hundred buccaneers. General de la Salle, on the
+French side, asked and obtained forty-eight hours' longer grace, and
+took advantage of this to steal into the English territory with a large
+body of horse and foot, as well as a mob of negroes armed with bills and
+hoes. The slaves also carried firebrands, and were said to have been
+promised, in return for their assistance, freedom, English women as
+wives, and the liberty to plunder and burn. At the town of St. Nicholas
+a gentlewoman with three or four children, on trying to escape, was
+forced back into her blazing house and kept there until the whole family
+were burnt to death. A party of English, who advanced to check their
+progress, was overwhelmed by the number of the enemy and driven back,
+thus leaving them to advance over the island with fire and sword.
+
+Governor Watts took things so coolly, that Colonel Morgan (not the
+famous Sir Henry), who led the buccaneers, went to rouse him, and found
+he was lounging about in dressing-gown and slippers. Presenting a pistol
+to his breast, Morgan called the Governor a coward and a traitor, at
+the same time swearing he would shoot him dead if he did not at once
+take his place at the head of the forces. The contingent from Nevis had
+already gone over to the French quarter near Sandy Point, and, after a
+hard struggle, had taken the post, when the Governor at last followed
+behind. Coming up late his men fired on the mingled French and English,
+indiscriminately slaughtering both. After that everything was confused,
+neither party distinguishing friend from foe, with the result that the
+Governor, Colonel Morgan, several other officers, and most of the
+English, were killed. After that the main body of the French arrived,
+driving before them a confused mob of women and children, who ran
+shrieking to their friends for help. Nothing remained for the English
+now but to fly or sue for quarter, and the French became masters of the
+whole island, with a body of prisoners twice as numerous as themselves.
+
+In 1667 a petition was forwarded to Charles the Second on behalf of
+several thousand distressed people, lately inhabitants of St.
+Christopher's. In this it was stated that the island had been one of the
+most flourishing colonies--the first and best earth that ever was
+inhabited by Englishmen among the heathen cannibals of America. They
+prayed that a colony so ancient and loyal, the mother island of all
+those parts, the fountain from whence all the other islands had been
+watered with planters, might not remain in the hands of another nation.
+Since the surrender they had been continually oppressed, until thousands
+had left for other parts. Many had sold their estates for almost
+nothing, and had been stripped and plundered at sea of the little they
+had saved. If the inhumanities of the French nation were examined, their
+bloody and barbarous usage of the Indians, their miserable cruelties to
+prisoners of war, all nations would abhor their name. They would make
+Christians grind their mills instead of cattle, leave thousands to
+starve for want, and send other thousands to uninhabited lands.
+
+In 1666 Lord Willoughby, who had gone back to Barbados on the
+restoration of Charles the Second, fitted out an expedition to recapture
+St. Kitt's, but his fleet encountered a hurricane, and neither his
+vessel nor one of his company was ever heard of again. The following
+year his nephew, Henry Willoughby, made an unsuccessful attempt for the
+same object. On the 10th of May of the same year a fight took place
+between the English and French fleets off Nevis. On the English side
+were ten men-of-war and one fire-ship, while the enemy had more than
+double that number. One of the English vessels was blown up, but,
+undaunted by this disaster, they drove the enemy before them to the very
+shores of St. Kitt's, where they took shelter under the guns of
+Basse-terre.
+
+Peace was signed at Breda in July, 1667. The gains of territory by any
+one of the three nations were not considerable, and the result went to
+prove that England could hold her own against the only two powers who
+were able to dispute her supremacy. During the war she had captured New
+Amsterdam (now New York) from the Dutch, and they in turn had taken
+Surinam. As it was agreed with Holland that both parties should retain
+what was then in their possession, Surinam was virtually exchanged for
+what is now the capital of the United States. Antigua and Montserrat,
+which had been taken by the French, were now restored to England, and
+St. Christopher's returned to its former condition, but without the
+least prospect of the two nationalities ever being again on friendly
+terms.
+
+Now that the war was over the trade of the privateers came to an end,
+and further efforts were made to make them settle down. Having received
+orders to discountenance them, the Governor of Jamaica deputed Colonel
+Cary to report on the matter. Cary thought they should not be
+discouraged, as already harm had been done to Jamaica by such attempts,
+and in the future the want of their help might be prejudicial. On the
+news that the commissions against the Spaniards were called in, several
+English privateers resolved never to return to Jamaica, unless there was
+a war, but in future to carry on their operations from Tortuga. To
+divert them from injuring the Spaniards, the Governor had, during the
+late war, appointed Cary to treat with them for the reduction of
+Curacao, to which they at first consented, but afterwards disagreed. If,
+said Cary, they had two of His Majesty's nimble fifth-rate frigates,
+they would be able to keep the privateers to their obedience, observe
+the enemy's movements, and guard their own coasts from rovers. There was
+no profitable employment for the privateers against the French and
+Dutch; these fellows, being people that would not be brought to plant,
+must prey upon the Spaniard, whether they were countenanced at Jamaica
+or not. There was such an inveterate hatred of the English in those
+parts by the Spaniard, that he would not hear of trade or
+reconciliation, but, on the contrary, inhumanly butchered any of the
+islanders he could cowardly surprise. The French interest daily
+increased in the Caribbees, Hispaniola, and Tortuga, and if this was
+suffered to grow it would in a short time prove of dangerous
+consequence.
+
+Here we have plain speaking. It was not to the interest of England for
+the pirates to become too closely connected with the French, as they
+would then be helping to build up the prosperity of a nation that might
+any day become our enemy. As for the rovers themselves, they cared
+little or nothing for the interests of their country; they were willing
+to plunder the Spanish possessions because they got something worth
+having; with those of the French and Dutch it was another thing. It is
+evident that Cary troubled himself but little as to how a cargo was
+obtained as long as Jamaica profited by the transaction.
+
+We may here also call attention to the differences between the
+characters of the nations which now commenced a great struggle for
+mastery in these parts. The Dutch were, above everything else, an
+association of traders, and although they could fight on occasion, they
+hardly ever went out of their way to pick a quarrel. Their wars with
+England were brought about by mercantile disputes, the first two, as we
+have already seen, mainly on account of the Navigation Acts. The
+English, "the nation of shopkeepers," were naturally rival traders, but
+they did not altogether confine themselves to traffic, being rather
+inclined to alternate or mix it up with something like piracy. Such
+transactions as those of Hawkins were not carried on by any other
+nation, the Hollander being more inclined to take advantage of the
+swiftness of his fly boat than the metal of his guns. The French were
+rarely traders, for even their plantations were largely supported by
+buccaneering. When, after a peace, some of the rovers settled down for a
+time, they were always ready to abandon their fields at the first rumour
+of a war. England thus stood between the two others as a
+stumbling-block; she interfered with the trade of the one and offended
+the dignity of the other; thus coming in for many blows, which only made
+her all the more able to resist and conquer.
+
+The character of the Dutchman is well shown in the curious difficulty
+which hastened a third breach of the peace with England in 1672. In 1667
+a fleet from the Netherlands captured Surinam, and forced the
+authorities of the colony to capitulate on favourable terms. By these
+articles the inhabitants were at liberty to sell or transport, when or
+where they pleased, all or any part of their possessions. After the
+peace, a few went to Barbados, but the majority found it difficult to
+dispose of their plantations, and therefore remained in hopes of a
+better market on the arrival of new Dutch settlers. At that time the
+Dutchmen were few and mostly poor; they had been ruined by the war, and
+in many cases driven from their settlements by the English. It followed,
+therefore, that there were no buyers, and the plantation owners,
+trusting to the capitulation, decided to wait rather than abandon their
+flourishing properties.
+
+In June, 1669, the Dutch Governor issued a proclamation calling upon all
+the English who intended to leave to give notice within six months,
+after which a like term was given them to dispose of their goods, when
+they might leave for English colonies under free passes from the
+authorities of both nations. In case they were unable to sell their
+slaves, the Governor would take them over at the market price, but only
+those negroes who had been in their possession at the rendition of the
+colony could come under this arrangement.
+
+At first sight this looked very fair, but the English saw at once that
+something was wrong. In the first place they understood that under the
+capitulation they were free to take away all their property, including
+slaves, and at the then market prices they saw that a forced sale would
+be a serious loss. Although not expressly intimated, they also
+understood that the Governor meant they were not to carry them away, and
+this at once caused much dissatisfaction. Things were, however, in such
+a critical state that little notice was taken of the proclamation; in
+fact, the people had not as yet made up their minds what to do. Such a
+sacrifice as was required from those who had flourishing properties,
+naturally made them hesitate; and when the English Government inquired
+about the matter, they were told by the Dutch authorities that the
+people were so well satisfied that they intended to remain.
+
+Such was, however, not the case, and when the year of grace had expired,
+and they were virtually prevented from leaving with or without their
+negroes, they sent memorials to King Charles the Second asking for his
+interference. It was another case of Egyptian bondage; the Dutch would
+not let the people go--except a few of the poorest. It can easily be
+understood that it was not very pleasant to lose the best colonists and
+have nothing left but a lot of abandoned plantations. This would have
+been a poor exchange for New York, and it is evident that the Dutch knew
+very well what they were doing, and had the welfare of Surinam at heart.
+But, in face of the capitulation, they were undoubtedly wrong, and when
+they began to oppress the English for claiming their rights, they went a
+great deal too far.
+
+When Major Bannister, who had been acting Governor under the English,
+protested against this, he was arrested and transported to Holland,
+where he obtained his release only by the intervention of the English
+ambassador. Then complaints were made to the Dutch Government, but it
+was two years before permission was granted for commissioners from
+England to go out and transport those who wanted to leave. Even then
+secret orders were sent to put every possible obstruction in their way,
+which was done by bringing suits for debt, and otherwise putting the
+English in positions which made it impossible for them to wind up their
+affairs. It followed, therefore, that only a few more went away,
+carrying with them the prayers of the more important to be delivered
+from such bondage.
+
+Matters now came to a crisis. Other questions had arisen between the two
+powers, notably some in connection with the Eastern trade, and the
+refusal of Holland to honour the English flag. War broke out in 1672,
+and this time the French joined England against the Dutch, who had to
+stand alone. French and English buccaneers were let loose to plunder the
+colonies, and they made the seas so dangerous that hardly one of the
+enemy's vessels could show herself in the West Indies. The Dutch
+colonies were thus cut off, and even the settlements of Essequebo and
+Berbice had to go without their usual supplies. This deprivation caused
+much dissatisfaction among the garrison of the latter colony, and led to
+a mutiny, which resulted in the incarceration of the Governor, who was
+not released until next year, when the belated supplies arrived.
+
+Spain was also involved in the war the following year, and thus all the
+nations interested in the West Indies were fighting at once--Holland and
+Spain against France and England. The French buccaneers had already
+gained a footing on Hispaniola; now they attempted to get possession of
+the whole island, but could not succeed. However, they went on to
+Trinidad, which had always been a Spanish island, and plundered it of a
+hundred thousand dollars.
+
+The Spanish and Dutch colonies suffered greatly, but Englishmen by no
+means escaped altogether. As an example of their treatment by the
+enemy, the case of John Darbey is interesting. In April, 1674, he and
+six others were taken by a Dutchman from a small English vessel, while
+sailing from St. Thomas to Antigua, and carried to Havana. There they
+were kept in irons for five weeks, and then set to work as slaves on the
+fortifications. After enduring great misery for three months, they were
+removed to work on board a ship, which was captured by the French off
+St. Domingo, when they were of course released, and finally carried to
+Jamaica. Here they told of the sufferings they had endured and
+witnessed--the story of which more and more embittered the English
+feeling against Spain. On one occasion Darbey had seen eight men brought
+in from a New England bark, who afterwards attempted to escape. They
+marched along the shore hoping to attract the notice of some friendly
+vessel, but the Governor sent a party of soldiers in pursuit, and they
+were all murdered at once save the master, who was brought back,
+executed, and his head stuck on a pole. He also saw the commander of a
+man-of-war bring in a New England vessel and hang five men at the
+yard-arm, where the corpses were used as targets by him and his
+officers. The same captain wanted himself and several other Englishmen
+to sail with them, but because they indignantly refused, he deliberately
+stabbed one of them with his sword, killing him at once.
+
+In February, 1674, a treaty was signed at Westminster in which there was
+a special clause bearing on the English in Surinam. To the intent that
+there might be no more mistakes, the States General agreed that the
+articles of capitulation should not only be executed without any more
+prevarication, but also that His Majesty of Great Britain should be free
+to depute commissioners to examine into the condition of his subjects
+and agree with them as to the time of their departure. Also that no
+special laws should be made to hamper them in any way in the sale of
+their lands, payments of their debts, or barter of their goods, and that
+vessels should be as free to go to Surinam, as they and their servants
+should also be free to depart.
+
+Accordingly, in March, 1675, three commissioners were instructed to
+proceed there, and were enjoined to see that the provisions of the
+treaty were properly carried out, to press for debts owing to the
+English, and to endeavour to get over the difficulty of their
+obligations to the Dutch. Vessels were provided to carry the settlers
+wherever they wished, and provision made for victualling them on the
+voyage, as well as for a short time after their landing in their new
+homes.
+
+Now at last it might be presumed that the exodus could be freely
+managed; yet even then the Dutch authorities tried to put obstructions
+in the way. Among the servants of the English were many Indians, some of
+whom were nominally free, and these the Dutch Governor demanded should
+be put ashore, to prevent the mischiefs and cruelties of the heathen,
+their friends, who might avenge themselves for the deportation on those
+who remained in the colony. The English claimed that these people went
+of their own free will, and that some of them were much attached to
+their white masters, which was probably true. Besides these, most of
+whom were got off against the Governor's protests, there were ten Jews
+with 322 slaves, in preventing the departure of whom he was more
+successful. They were not, strictly speaking, British subjects, although
+they had lived under the flag for many years, and the commissioners did
+not insist on their admission.
+
+Finally, three vessels sailed away for Jamaica in September, 1675,
+carrying 1,231 people, including thirty-one Indians, and more negroes
+than whites. On arriving at that island they were granted lands in St.
+Elizabeth, afterwards known as Surinam quarters, and thus Guiana again
+became a factor in the development of the English islands. As for the
+Jews, even they were afterwards allowed to depart when they memorialised
+the king and got him to press the matter.
+
+Even yet, however, the last had not been heard of this detention, for it
+cropped up again in the case of Jeronomy Clifford, one of those who
+actually left with the others for Jamaica. He was then a lad, and went
+off with his father, returning again to the colony as the second husband
+of an Englishwoman who had property there. It appears that, as surgeon
+of a Dutch vessel, he was so kind to a dying planter named Charles
+Maasman, that his widow went to London and married him in August, 1683.
+
+Not getting on very well in Surinam, Clifford and his wife resolved to
+sell out and take their slaves with them to Jamaica, but in this they
+were frustrated. The Dutch felt very sore about the former migration,
+especially when Jamaica plumed herself on her great acquisition, and
+taunted them with the fact that they got little by the transfer of the
+colony. When, therefore, Clifford made known his intention, the Governor
+told him he could not remove his wife's property because she had
+inherited it from a Dutch subject. Clifford had some of that doggedness
+which has been observed so often in Englishmen, and was determined to
+obtain what he considered his rights. Under the capitulation he might
+leave at any time, and he did not consider that this right had been in
+any way forfeited.
+
+However, the Dutch Governor said otherwise, and, to prevent the
+alienation or removal of his property, put it in trust, and then
+endeavoured to set his wife against him so that she might refuse to
+leave. By some tittle-tattle about a female cousin of Clifford, her
+jealousy was aroused, and she petitioned for a divorce on the grounds of
+cruelty and adultery. However, when she found out the object of the
+traducers of her husband, she asked that her petition be annulled and
+made void, because she had been misled and drawn away by the ill advices
+of others--now she was sorry, and well satisfied and content with him.
+This having been read before the Court of Justice, a council of Dutch
+planters, they showed their animus by deciding that Mrs. Clifford was a
+weak and silly woman, and that it appeared to them that her husband, to
+the prejudice of his wife and that land, had endeavoured to remove his
+goods, which they would willingly prevent. They therefore ordered the
+plantation to be appraised and put in commission, forbidding either
+Clifford or his wife from diminishing, removing, or making away with the
+estate, but only to enjoy the interest and produce as long as they lived
+and corresponded well with each other. They also wished the wife much
+joy of her reconciliation, and condemned her to pay the costs both
+present and future. Finally, considering her frowardness and ill-nature,
+and for an example to all other like-natured women, they condemned her
+to pay a fine of five thousand pounds of sugar.
+
+Clifford, who yet stood by what he considered his right, was now
+subjected to a number of petty persecutions. His wife went to England,
+leaving him her attorney, and he began to pester the Governor to remove
+the illegal arrest on his estate. At last this importunity led to his
+arrest, and he was sentenced by this same Court of Justice to be hanged,
+as a mutineer and disturber of the public peace. But, being "more
+inclined to clemency than to carry things to the utmost rigour of
+justice," they commuted this sentence to imprisonment for seven years,
+with a fine of a hundred and fifty thousand pounds of sugar.
+
+As may be supposed, this arbitrary judgment only made Clifford more
+exasperated. He still went on petitioning and protesting that he was not
+a Dutch subject, as he had refused to take the oath of allegiance, and
+that therefore he was only standing up for his rights. However, he was
+imprisoned in the fort, where every effort was made to prevent his
+communicating with England or the English colonies. Notwithstanding
+these precautions he managed to send several letters, meanwhile
+threatening the Court that if they kept him any longer he would be
+forced to use such means of relief as he should be advised. After some
+delay his communications reached Barbados, Jamaica, and New York, from
+whence they at last reached King William, who soon got him released. But
+even then Clifford could not get back his estate, and although he went
+to London and petitioned the king, who directed inquiry of the
+ambassador at the Hague, he could never get any redress. For seventy
+years he, and his heirs after his death, kept up a stream of petitions
+and memorials, without result, in the end claiming for illegal
+detention, damages, and interest, over half a million pounds.
+
+During the short peace which followed the treaty of Westminster
+attention was again directed to the buccaneers, who were now called
+pirates, and treated as such even in Jamaica, with the result that many
+of them settled down. It has been stated that Charles the Second shared
+in their gains even after he had issued proclamations against them, but
+this sort of thing now came to an end. The French continued their
+depredations up to the year 1680, when the king issued a proclamation,
+forbidding the further granting of commissions, and recalling those
+which had been issued, at the same time ordering that those who
+persisted in the trade should be hanged as pirates. This tended to bring
+the less audacious to settle down, but even to the beginning of the
+present century piracy was still known in the West Indies.
+
+While Sir Henry Morgan was Acting Governor of Jamaica, in 1681, Everson,
+the Dutch pirate, came to Cow Bay on that island, but Morgan captured
+him and his crew and sent them off to Carthagena, to be punished by the
+authorities there for the ravages they had committed on the Spanish
+coasts and shipping. During the ex-buccaneer's administration he also
+got an Act passed to restrain privateers, and keep inviolable all
+treaties with foreign states. Any British subject who treated a foreign
+prince or State in a hostile manner should be punished with death as a
+felon.
+
+Peace did not last long, however, for in 1688 the French began to move
+against Holland, and the year following King William was also bound to
+declare war. Almost immediately the English were again driven out of St.
+Kitt's, the French, as on the former occasion, committing outrages quite
+unjustifiable among civilised nations even in war. They also took St.
+Eustatius from the Dutch.
+
+As if there were not enough pirates in the West Indies, the French
+brought some more from their own coast--the celebrated corsairs, who had
+held a position in Europe during the wars similar to that of the
+buccaneers in America. Some rovers, who had lately settled in Cayenne,
+were agreeably surprised at the beginning of the year 1689 by the
+arrival of Du Casse, who soon enrolled them under his banner and started
+to pillage the Dutch and English colonies.
+
+The first attack was made upon Surinam with nine vessels, but after
+three days' fighting the Dutch obliged the corsairs to retire, leaving
+one ship aground to be captured. Two of the squadron were, however,
+more successful in Berbice, which, after the enemy had destroyed one or
+two plantations, was obliged to pay a ransom of twenty thousand guilders
+(L1,666), which was settled by a draft on the proprietors in Amsterdam,
+and which curiously enough appears to have been afterwards paid. Another
+privateer destroyed the small settlement in the Pomeroon river, and
+obliged the few inhabitants to fly to Essequebo, and to afterwards
+abandon the place altogether. Du Casse then went on to the islands,
+where he did much damage to both Dutch and English, finally, in 1697,
+Spain being also on the other side, joining De Pointis to attack and
+capture Carthagena.
+
+The corsairs were privateers with proper commissions, authorised by the
+French Government to pillage and destroy and divide the plunder among
+themselves after setting aside the king's share. Up to the present
+France could hardly be said to have a navy, and these private
+adventurers to some extent filled its place. True, there were a few
+king's ships, but the treasury was often so bare that they could not be
+properly armed or manned without assistance from outside. Then, perhaps,
+one or more would be put at the disposal of a renowned corsair, on
+condition that the State should be put to no expense. Courtiers,
+ministers, and merchants would come forward and form a joint stock
+company, equip the ship or fleet as the case might be, and share the
+plunder.
+
+Du Casse settled down as Governor of the French part of Hispaniola,
+which by this time had been taken over, and he appears to have
+encouraged the buccaneers on account of their assistance to the colony.
+When that great corsair, Jacques Cassard came out, he was therefore
+enabled to supply him with as much help as he required.
+
+Cassard, in 1712, was supplied by the merchants of Marseilles with a
+large fleet, with which he sailed to the West Indies, beginning, as Du
+Casse had done, with Surinam, where he arrived on the 8th of October,
+with eight large and thirty small vessels. The Dutch were not so
+fortunate this time, for he sailed up and down the river for three
+weeks, burning, pillaging, and carrying off slaves, until most of the
+inhabitants took to the bush. Among other exploits he is said to have
+broken open the Jewish synagogue, killed a pig within the sacred
+precincts, and sprinkled its blood over the walls and ornaments. He was
+ultimately bought off for over L50,000, which, in the absence of enough
+coin, was paid in sugar, negro and Indian slaves, cattle, merchandise,
+provisions, stores, jewellery, and a very little cash.
+
+While remaining in Surinam Cassard sent three vessels to Berbice, which
+was easily captured, and for which a ransom of three hundred thousand
+guilders (L25,000) was demanded. But this settlement was far worse off
+than Surinam, and had neither goods nor money to pay such a large
+amount, which was out of all proportion to that of her neighbour. After
+raising 118,000 guilders in various ways, the balance was accepted in a
+bill of exchange on the proprietors, two of the leading planters of the
+colony being taken as hostages and security. Not satisfied with this,
+the corsairs insisted on a further sum of ten thousand guilders in
+cash, as ransom for the private estates, on the ground that they had
+been paid only for the fort and properties of the Government. There was
+not so much money in the whole river, and after collecting every bit of
+plate and jewellery they possessed, to the value of six thousand
+guilders, the enemy had to take the balance in sugar and stores.
+
+Now came the most curious part of this transaction. The two hostages
+died, and the proprietors refused to pay the draft--in fact, they said
+Berbice was not worth so much. Nevertheless the colony could not be
+taken over as a French possession, and even when the peace of Utrecht
+was signed in 1713, nothing could be done. Here was an anomaly--a Dutch
+settlement in the hands of French merchants as security for a debt. On
+account of trade restrictions its produce might not be brought to
+France, and the owners of the draft neither knew what to do with the
+document nor its security. The Dutch proprietors were equally at a loss,
+for they knew very well that, if they ignored the claim of the corsairs,
+revenge would be taken on the first opportunity--during the next war, if
+not before. At last one of the Marseilles merchants was deputed to go to
+Amsterdam, and after a great deal of haggling he sold the draft to a
+third party at a reduction of about forty per cent.
+
+Meanwhile Cassard had captured St. Eustatius, and exacted a large
+ransom. From thence he resolved to proceed to Curacao, the great
+stronghold of the Dutch, and the depot for goods used in the contraband
+traffic with the Spanish colonies. Here there were many Jews, who had
+large stocks of merchandise, and as the booty would be certainly great,
+Cassard resolved to risk everything on such an exploit. On his arrival
+he sent a boat ashore with a demand for the surrender of the island, to
+which the Governor sent a jeering reply, as he considered the place
+impregnable. However, the corsair fleet stood in for the harbour, but
+were greeted with such a heavy fire that Cassard was forced to retire
+and call a council. The balance of opinion was against going any
+farther. The officers said the Dutch guns were of heavier metal than
+theirs, the currents round the island rendered a landing almost
+impossible, and the entrance to the harbour was so narrow that it could
+easily be commanded by the two forts. However, Cassard himself and a few
+others were in favour of the attempt, and it was ultimately resolved to
+carry it out on the morrow.
+
+To deceive the Dutch, Cassard sent part of his fleet on a cruise round
+the island, while he with the remainder commenced to bombard the forts,
+keeping this up during the day as if that were his line of attack. The
+following night, however, he embarked most of his men in small craft,
+and keeping the lights on his ships burning, managed to land under cover
+of the darkness. Fortunately for him, this manoeuvre was not perceived
+by the Dutch, for he had quite enough to do in contending with a strong
+current and in avoiding sunken rocks, which made the landing so perilous
+that it is doubtful if even these hardy fellows would have attempted it
+during the day, when the dangers would be conspicuous. However, they
+got ashore without serious accident, and at once erected a breastwork
+for the light guns they had brought.
+
+Morning broke, and Cassard expected to see the second half of the
+squadron returned from its cruise, and ready to support him, instead of
+which it was visible several miles to leeward. To add to his
+difficulties, the Dutch had discovered the landing, had erected a
+powerful battery a mile away, and were preparing to attack him before
+his reinforcements could come up. Yet in face of all this he was
+undaunted. He must, however, attack at once, and this was done, with the
+result that the forts were taken. Cassard was wounded by a musket ball
+in the foot, yet he did not relinquish the command, but followed this
+first success by turning the guns of the forts on the town. At the same
+time he sent a flag of truce to the Governor, declaring, that if the
+place were not at once surrendered at discretion he would bombard it. In
+reply, the Dutch attacked the forts, but were repulsed with great loss,
+and at last terms were discussed, with the result that the ransom was
+fixed at 600,000 louis d'ors. This amount was considered so reasonable
+that the merchants hastened to pay it over and get rid of him, which
+they did in three days.
+
+On his arrival in Martinique, Cassard found he had been superseded in
+the command, and that the fleet was ordered home. Giving the buccaneers
+their share of the booty, he sailed for Brest, and on the way met an
+English squadron. The French admiral signalled his vessels not to
+fight, but Cassard, turning to his second in command of the vessel, said
+his duty to his king was above that to his admiral--he would fight His
+Majesty's foes wherever he met them. On that he bore down upon the
+English and captured two small craft before nightfall, afterwards making
+his voyage to Brest alone.
+
+This want of subordination so incensed the admiral that he preferred
+several charges against him, one being that he had retained more than
+his share of the booty. Whether this charge was true or not, the "Hero
+of Nantes," as he was called, fell into disgrace, followed by great
+poverty. Almost a beggar, he was at last sent to prison for importuning
+a cardinal and king's minister too much, by claiming what he considered
+his rights. There he ultimately died, and, like some others who have
+been as badly treated in life, has now a statue erected to his memory in
+his native town.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+IX.
+
+THE STRUGGLE FOR THE DARIEN TRADE.
+
+
+Carthagena and Porto Bello were the great trading stations for the
+Spaniards in the Indies. The latter had taken the place of Nombre de
+Dios, since that town had been destroyed by Drake, and was now the port
+to which the treasures of Peru were brought overland from Panama. The
+galleons from Spain, after calling at St. Domingo, went on to
+Carthagena, where the first great fair of the year was held. Here the
+traders from the inland provinces of New Granada came to get their
+supplies from Europe, which they paid for in gold, silver, emeralds, and
+produce. For the short time the vessels remained, the people of the town
+woke up from their year's inactivity, and made the most of the occasion.
+Stores were in demand, and lodging-houses required for the visitors, so
+that the cost of living went up by leaps and bounds. Those who had
+slaves got enormous profits by their hire, and even the negroes
+themselves made large sums beyond the amounts they had to pay their
+masters. The whole place lost its air of desertion and became the scene
+of such bustle and confusion as would hardly be conceivable to those
+who saw it as a "sleepy hollow" during the _tiempo muerto_, the dead
+time, as it was called.
+
+Having done with Carthagena, the galleons went on to Porto Bello, the
+beautiful haven, said to have been the most unhealthy place on the Main.
+By reason of its noxious air and barren soil there was a scarcity of
+provisions, which led to its desertion at ordinary times. In
+anticipation of the fleet, however, it woke up and became even more
+lively than Carthagena. The only reason for its existence was the trade
+across the isthmus, otherwise it would have been deservedly abandoned.
+Here was held the great fair, that at the other port being petty in
+comparison. The concourse of people was so great that a single chamber
+for a lodging during the busy time sometimes cost a thousand crowns,
+while a house would be worth five or six times as much. As the galleons
+came in sight, the people began to erect a great tent in the _Plaza_ to
+receive their cargoes, where they were assorted and delivered to the
+various consignees or their representatives. The crowd of men and
+animals soon became so great that movement was difficult. Droves of
+mules came over the isthmus loaded with cases of gold and silver, which
+were dumped down in the open streets or in the square, for want of
+storehouses. Yet, with all the confusion, it is said that theft was
+unknown, and losses through mistakes very rare. But not only were there
+thousands of mules and their drivers, but small vessels continually
+arrived from different parts of the coast, bringing goods and people,
+to increase the hubbub. Here was a cargo of cinchona bark, there
+another of cacao, and further on, by no means the least important, were
+boat-loads of fresh vegetables and fruits to supply the great assembly.
+This went on for forty days, after which the port was deserted and the
+town resumed its poverty-stricken air. Then two persons in the streets
+formed a crowd and half a dozen a mob. Solitude and silence reigned,
+where so lately the bustle and noise had been rampant, and the _tiempo
+muerto_ ruled until the following year.
+
+It can be easily understood that the influence of the Porto Bello fair
+was not only felt on the Gulf side, but on the shores of the Pacific as
+well. Panama was largely dependent on the transport business, which
+employed a great number of mules and slaves. Even in the absence of
+buccaneers and pirates the road was always difficult, and sometimes even
+dangerous. Heavy rains caused great floods, which delayed the traffic
+for days, and left the tracks on the hills so slippery that even that
+sure-footed animal the mule was often carried over a precipice. Then
+there were cannibal Indians and Simarons always lurking in the forest,
+ready to cut off stragglers. On the rumour of a buccaneer landing on the
+coast--it might be a hundred miles away--the traffic was at once stopped
+and the merchants began to "fear and sweat with a cold sweat," as Thomas
+Gage very quaintly puts it.
+
+The Spanish merchants no doubt deplored this state of things, and would
+have been thankful for a good road instead of such an unutterably
+worthless bridle track. There was, however, a side to the question
+which probably influenced them--a way that would be easy for them would
+also be more accessible to their enemies. Then, again, a good road
+should have been the work of the Spanish Government rather than of the
+settlers, but it was useless to expect anything from that direction.
+Nevertheless, a good road and even a canal were mooted before the end of
+the sixteenth century, thus anticipating the Panama railroad and canal
+of our own time. But, although the advantages were patent, the
+difficulties were so many as to be practically insurmountable, and
+nothing whatever was done.
+
+Towards the end of the seventeenth century came a sudden craze for
+carrying out gigantic schemes of various kinds, practicable or
+impracticable, useful or worthless, Utopian or utterly absurd. Among
+them was the Mississippi scheme in France and the South Sea Bubble in
+England, of which the latter was intimately connected with the Indies.
+The time had arrived when people began to think of trading on credit or
+pledges, and of combining together for carrying on banks and other
+commercial operations. Private banks had existed for several centuries,
+and more or less public establishments in the great commercial centres,
+such as Venice, Amsterdam, and Hamburg, but up to the present there was
+no Bank of England. In fact the great principle that allows an enormous
+trade to be carried on without the actual interchange of specie or
+commodities had just been discovered, and the people of France and
+England went mad over it.
+
+The pioneer of the system in England was William Paterson, who seems to
+have been acquainted with Dampier and Wafer, both of whom knew the
+isthmus of Darien very well. He is also said to have travelled in the
+West Indies himself, and even to have visited the Porto Bello fair, but
+this is not quite certain.
+
+Paterson first came into prominence by bringing forward a scheme which
+ultimately led to the establishment of the Bank of England on the 27th
+of July, 1694. From this he appears to have derived no actual benefit,
+however, although he was one of the first directors, upon a
+qualification of L2,000 stock, which he sold out after the first year,
+and thus withdrew. Probably he wanted his money to carry out the new
+project for a settlement on the isthmus of Darien.
+
+In the course of this history we have advisedly used the word "English"
+instead of "British," in speaking of our nation, because as yet
+Scotchmen were little concerned in colonisation schemes. In fact, except
+as transported rebels or convicts, they had hardly any interest in the
+plantations. This was the result of Navigation Acts, which debarred
+Scotch merchants and vessels from trading, by ordering that all traffic
+with the colonies should be carried on in English vessels and from
+English ports.
+
+Paterson's idea was to take possession of the isthmus of Darien,
+establish a Scotch colony at a convenient harbour on the Gulf side, and
+then open up a proper road by which the trade would be so much
+facilitated that it would become the great highway. Seated between the
+two vast oceans of the universe, he said, the isthmus is provided with
+excellent harbours on both sides, between the principal of which lie the
+more easy and convenient passes. If these ports and passes were
+fortified, the road could easily be secured and defended, thus affording
+the readiest and nearest means of gaining and keeping the command of the
+South Sea--the greatest and by far the richest side of the world. With
+the passes open, through them would flow at least two-thirds of the
+produce of both Indies. The time and expense of the voyage to China and
+Japan would be lessened more than half, and the consumption of European
+commodities soon doubled, and annually increased.
+
+He contended that Darien possessed great tracts of country up to that
+time unclaimed by any European, and that the Indians, the original
+proprietors, would welcome the honest and honourable settler to their
+fertile shore. The soil was rich to a fault, producing spontaneously the
+most delicious fruits, and required the hand of labour to chasten rather
+than stimulate its capabilities. There crystal rivers sparkled over
+sands of gold--there the traveller might wander for days under a canopy
+of fruit-laden branches, the trees bearing them being of inestimable
+value as timber. The waters also abounded in wealth. Innumerable shoals
+of fish disported themselves among the rocks, and the bottom was strewn
+with pearls. From the dawn of creation this enchanted country had lain
+secluded from mortals--now it was revealed and opened to Scottish
+enterprise. Let them enter and take possession of this promised land,
+and build a new city--a new Edinburgh, like Alexandria of old, which
+grew to prodigious wealth and power from its position on another
+isthmus--to soon become famous as the new emporium of a new world.
+
+The reader who has seen our account of Lionel Wafer's miserable journey
+will be able to discount these florid statements, but the Scotch people
+seem to have taken everything for gospel. Now, at last, they would have
+a colony--a plantation of more value than any of those that the English
+had begun to boast of. They were enthusiastic, and although poor, did
+their very best to contribute, actually promising the large sum of
+L400,000. England also subscribed to the extent of L300,000, and Holland
+and Hamburg L200,000. Everything looked bright, and at last a concession
+was obtained for the "Company of Scotland, trading to Africa and the
+Indies."
+
+Strange to say, Paterson entirely ignored the claims of Spain, although
+he must have known that she would strenuously object to such a
+settlement. It was all very well to say the place belonged to the
+Indians, but the very fact of its vicinity to the great trading centre
+and channel of communication with the Pacific coast should have made him
+anticipate trouble. Even if he argued that the buccaneers were
+practically unmolested along the Mosquito shore, he must also have known
+that their position was by no means secure, and even had this been the
+case, that it would have afforded to argument in favour of his project.
+
+To be successful he must also have had the support of the English
+Government, but unfortunately this was denied. Jealousy and envy between
+the two countries led to representations adverse to the scheme being
+made to King William, with the result that the Company was
+discountenanced, and that most of the promised subscriptions outside of
+Scotland were withdrawn. Then came dissensions among the leaders
+themselves, and this lost them half the amount from their own county.
+Yet with all that Paterson was undaunted, and, notwithstanding the
+diminished funds at command, he still resolved to go on.
+
+On the 26th of July, 1698, twelve hundred men in five ships sailed for a
+place near the entrance of the Gulf of Darien, a hundred miles to the
+east of Porto Bello. It was afterwards stated that the vessels were
+rotten and ill-found, although gaily decked with flags on the day of
+departure, which hid some of their deficiencies. The provision supply
+was bad, and, to crown all, the captains were coarse, brutal, and
+ignorant, continually quarrelling with each other. Through envy,
+Paterson had been prevented from having any voice in the arrangements,
+and although he went with the expedition, he entered the ship as
+ignorant of her equipment as any other passenger. But he evidently had
+his doubts, for he asked for an inspection of the stores, only to have
+his request treated with contempt.
+
+On the 27th of October the fleet came to anchor in a fair sandy bay
+three leagues west of the Gulf of Darien, now known as the Port
+D'Escoces. It was an excellent harbour surrounded by high mountains,
+and capable of holding a thousand sail in security from wind and
+tempest. The settlers named the district Caledonia, and considered it to
+be fertile and even healthy. They commenced at once to erect a fort, to
+which they gave the name of St. Andrews, and a cluster of houses for the
+town of New Edinburgh. These labours gave them little time for planting,
+and it naturally followed that they had to live on the provisions
+brought from Scotland, which, bad at the beginning, were now almost
+worthless. Paterson sent emissaries to the neighbouring Spanish
+settlements to ask for their friendship, and went himself into the
+interior to arrange treaties with the Indians, so that the Scotch might
+have a good title to the land. In this latter object he was successful,
+and it was agreed that peace should be kept between the natives and the
+colonists, "as long as rivers ran and gold was found in Darien."
+
+After six days' absence he returned to find a great change in the
+settlement. A spirit of mutiny and discontent had broken out, those who
+worked hard being naturally dissatisfied with others who did nothing.
+Then the provisions became rotten, and even then were so reduced in
+quantity that the people suffered from want and its consequent sickness.
+Four months passed, and nothing but daily discouragements were
+encountered; not even a little gold to enliven their spirits. Hard work
+under a tropical sun began to tell upon them, and although the friendly
+natives brought a little game, it was almost useless among so many.
+Every day, however, the number was reduced by death, fevers, and
+dysentery playing sad havoc, until those who remained were utterly
+dispirited.
+
+To add to their troubles they were refused supplies from Jamaica, King
+William having sent instructions to the Colonial Governors to
+discountenance the colony in every way. Paterson sent to Jamaica to get
+food for the starving people, and instead, his empty vessel brought
+copies of the Proclamation that had been issued in that island. This
+stated that as His Majesty knew nothing of the intentions and designs of
+the Scots at Darien, and as their settling on the isthmus was contrary
+to the peace of Spain, every one was commanded not to hold any
+communication with them, and not to supply arms, ammunition, provisions,
+or anything whatsoever, on their peril.
+
+In this desperate condition they awaited supplies from Scotland, but
+these did not arrive, for the ship had foundered on her way, and even
+Paterson began to be discouraged when day after day passed without
+relief. Even the reduced number could no longer exist, and with heavy
+hearts they prepared to leave. They had a ship, but no provisions for
+the voyage, and on account of the prohibition were prevented from
+victualling at one of the islands. At last, however, they got together
+as much barbecued fish and game as the Indians could procure, with a few
+fruits, and sailed away. But even now fate was against them. Hardly had
+they got out of the harbour before they were becalmed off this deadly
+shore for many days, their scanty supply of food diminishing when it was
+so much wanted for the long voyage. However, the remnant of about
+thirty, survivors of the twelve hundred, at last arrived at
+Charlestown, Carolina, in a most miserable condition. Paterson was
+himself so worn out that he lost his senses for a time, becoming quite
+childish, yet he recovered, to go back to Scotland and ask the Company
+for another expedition.
+
+This he urged on the ground that the first had failed simply through the
+want of supplies and the action of the English Government. Some were in
+favour of still carrying out the project, and these drew up a petition
+to the king, giving it for presentation to Lord Hamilton. William the
+Third, however, refused not only to receive the petition, but even to
+grant an audience to its bearer. Lord Hamilton would not be put off,
+however, but watched for his opportunity, and found it one day as the
+king was mounting his horse. He laid the petition on the saddle, which
+made His Majesty cry out, "Now, by heaven, this young man is too bold,"
+adding in a softer tone, "if a man can be too bold in the service of his
+country." With that he threw the document from him and rode off,
+afterwards, when memorial after memorial came from Scotland, issuing a
+Proclamation against the worry of such petitions.
+
+Notwithstanding this refusal, another expedition was sent out, the
+management of which was as bad as that of the first. But this time the
+Spaniards were on the alert, and hardly had the settlers begun to put
+things in order before the enemy was upon them in force. Famine and
+sickness again fell upon New Edinburgh, added to the horrors of a siege,
+which ultimately led to a capitulation on fair terms. But so weak were
+they as the Spaniards allowed them to embark, that their late enemies
+out of pity helped to heave their anchors and set their sails.
+
+It was long before the Scotch people forgot or forgave their sister
+kingdom for her action in thus frustrating their darling project.
+Besides impeding the Union, it is said to have strengthened the Jacobite
+feelings in the rebellions of 1715 and 1745. Even as late as the year
+1788, when it was proposed to erect a monument in Edinburgh to King
+William the Third and the "glorious revolution," the affair was
+remembered, and some one suggested that the pedestal should have on the
+one side a view of Glencoe, and on the other the Darien colony. Queen
+Anne, in 1702, tried to pacify her Scotch subjects by an autograph
+letter, stating that she regretted the Company's losses and
+disappointments, but this did not kill the ill-feeling. As for Paterson,
+in 1715 the English House of Commons voted him the sum of L18,241 as
+some indemnity for his losses, but as the bill was thrown out by the
+House of Lords, he got nothing.
+
+Thus ended one of the most disastrous of British attempts to colonise
+the Indies. From beginning to end it was an example of the Dutch caution
+of William of Orange, as contrasted with the recklessness of Queen
+Elizabeth's time or the sturdy defiance of Cromwell. The king was not
+prepared to risk war for an idea, yet at the same time he would not
+prohibit the expeditions.
+
+From 1702 to 1713 there was war between England and Holland on the one
+side, and France and Spain on the other. By the treaty of Utrecht,
+which again brought peace, the English received the concession for the
+exclusive supply of negro slaves to the Spanish colonies for thirty
+years. This _Assiento_ contract was given to the Great South Sea
+Company, which resulted from one of those joint-stock manias, now
+epidemic in France, England, and even Holland.
+
+The Company was projected by the Earl of Oxford in 1711, and, like the
+Mississippi scheme in France, was intended to assist the Government,
+which was virtually bankrupt. As yet there was no funded national debt,
+but large sums were owing to the army and navy, which had been
+provisionally settled by debentures, that could be discounted only at a
+serious loss to the owners. Down to the establishment of the Bank of
+England in 1693 no public loan existed, but this was commenced by
+borrowing the capital of that institution. At the peace of Ryswick, in
+1697, the public debt amounted to twenty millions, but by the time the
+South Sea Company was started the arrears of pay made it half as much
+again. Part of the great scheme was to advance this amount on security
+of English customs duties amounting to L600,000 per annum, and a
+monopoly of the Spanish trade in the Indies as far as the _Assiento_
+contract would permit.
+
+Whether the whole affair was a fraud from the commencement is doubtful;
+there were certainly misrepresentations in the prospectus, either wilful
+or possibly in good faith. Spain was to allow free trade to England in
+four ports on the Pacific, and three vessels besides slavers were to go
+to the isthmus every year--concessions never promised nor intended by
+Philip the Fifth. The slave trade was a fact, and according to the
+statements it would give fabulous profits.
+
+[Illustration: MAP OF TERRA FIRMA.
+
+(_From Gottfried's "Reisen."_)]
+
+Visions of boundless wealth now floated before the eyes of the English
+people, and they at once began to rival the French in their madness, as
+they had in their colonisation. The English Government was ready to make
+every possible concession because it wanted to be rid of the incubus of
+thirty millions, and therefore did nothing to check the Company. As the
+stock was issued it was at once bought up, and then sold again at a
+considerable advance. Everybody expected to make fortunes, therefore
+they must get shares at any price. Rumours of peace with Spain, and
+great concessions that would bring all the riches of Peru and Mexico
+into their coffers, roused them still more. Gold would soon be as
+plentiful as copper, and silver as iron. The shareholders would be the
+richest people the world ever saw, and every share would give dividends
+of hundreds per cent. per annum. The bill making the Government
+concessions was passed in April, 1720, when the stock was quoted at L310
+for a hundred pound share. Strange to say, it then began to fall, but
+the projectors put forth a rumour that England was about to exchange
+Gibraltar for a port in Peru, and confidence was restored at once. So
+great was the increased demand that another million was issued at L300
+per L100 share, and these were so much run after that the fortunate
+owners were at once offered double what they had paid. Then another
+million was offered at L400, and in a few hours applications were
+received for a million and a half.
+
+People were so eager to invest their money that they swallowed almost
+any bait thrown to them. Hundreds of bubble companies hovered on the
+outskirts of the parent, among them one for settling the barren islands
+of Blanco and Sal Tortugas, another to colonise Santa Cruz, and a third
+to fit out vessels for the suppression of piracy. But perhaps the most
+absurd was "a company for carrying on an undertaking of great advantage,
+but nobody to know what it is."
+
+Near their highest point the South Sea Shares were sold at L890, but so
+many wanted to sell at that price that they soon fell to L640. This put
+the directors again upon their mettle, and they set to work with fresh
+rumours and pushed them up to L1,000, from which they suddenly went
+down, with a few fluctuations, until utterly worthless. The treasurer of
+the Company ran away to France when the blow fell, but the directors
+were arrested and their estates ultimately confiscated. Thousands of
+people were ruined, and the public credit received a blow from which it
+took many years to recover.
+
+Meanwhile the South Sea Company had not been altogether idle. Besides
+the slave vessels they were entitled to send _one_ ship annually to the
+Carthagena and Porto Bello fairs, this being called the _Navio de
+permisso_. It was not to be larger than five hundred tons, yet the
+Company picked out the biggest they could find and filled it with goods,
+to the exclusion of food and water, which were carried in small store
+vessels that waited outside the harbour. This caused a great deal of
+dissatisfaction, as the English brought so much that they could
+under-sell the Spanish merchants in their own market. In 1715 the
+_Bedford_, nominally of six hundred tons, was seized at Carthagena on
+the ground that her burden was excessive. By the Spanish measurements
+the cargo was said to have amounted to 2,117-1/2 tons, and the excess
+was confiscated and ordered to be sold. However, the English protested,
+at the same time passing over some valuable presents to the authorities,
+with the result that a remeasurement was ordered, which made the amount
+only 460 tons.
+
+In 1716 the Spaniards took Campeachy and sixty English logwood vessels,
+which occasioned another war. The English claimed that they had an
+undoubted right to cut logwood at that place, and that former kings had
+always maintained them in this. For a long time they had quietly
+possessed a part of Yucatan, uninhabited by Spaniards, and they claimed
+not only the privilege of wood-cutting, but of settlement as well.
+Probably the little notice taken of their attack on the Darien colony
+made the Spanish authorities think England ready to bear any insult, but
+they soon found out their mistake. War was declared in 1718, and all the
+property of the South Sea Company, including debts, was confiscated, the
+whole amounting to L850,000. This would have been a great blow to the
+Company had it been genuine, but as we have seen, its mercantile
+transactions were secondary considerations.
+
+Peace was restored by the Treaty of Madrid in June 1721, when the
+_Assiento_ contract was renewed in favour of the Royal Company instead
+of that of the South Sea. So much dissatisfaction had been created by
+the concession for a trading ship, however, that the English did not
+insist upon its continuance, and therefore only slave vessels were to be
+permitted to visit the Indies in future. Everything that had been seized
+from the South Sea Company was to be restored, or its equivalent value
+paid, but the amount actually received only came to L200,000, which did
+not go far to help the unfortunate shareholders.
+
+Thus, this small measure of free trade with the Spanish Indies came to
+an end, and things went on much the same as before. English, Dutch, and
+French vessels still carried on the contraband traffic, doing all they
+could to evade the law, often with the assistance of the local
+authorities. The Spanish settlers got their supplies so much cheaper in
+this way than through the usual channels, that they were not likely to
+give up buying as long as the smugglers ran the risk. At last, however,
+the authorities received very strict orders to enforce the law, with the
+result that vessels were often captured, their cargoes confiscated, and
+crews imprisoned. Then the Spanish _guarda-costas_ claimed the right to
+search vessels of other nationalities, and to confiscate them if they
+found produce from their colonies on board, or other evidence that they
+were carrying on illicit trade.
+
+This led to another dispute with England, which claimed compensation for
+such seizures and the abolition of the right of search. English vessels
+had always resented this overhauling, and latterly several had fought
+the _guarda-costas_ rather than submit, with the result that, when
+captured, their crews were treated with a severity often amounting to
+cruelty. In 1739 several petitions were presented to the British
+Parliament, complaining of such outrages, and asking the Government to
+obtain redress. Among them was one from Captain Jenkins, the master of a
+Scottish vessel, who was examined by the House. His story was that he
+had been boarded by a _guarda-costa_, the Spaniards from which searched
+his vessel without finding anything contraband. Apparently enraged at
+their discomfiture, and possibly annoyed by the jeers of the English,
+they cut off one of Jenkins' ears and told him to carry it to his king
+with the message that they would do the same to him if he came near the
+Main. Finally, according to Jenkins' statement, he was further tortured
+and threatened with death. "What did you think when you found yourself
+in the hands of those barbarians?" asked a Member of the House; to which
+the captain replied, "I recommended my soul to God and my cause to my
+country." The severed ear he exhibited in Parliament as he had done
+elsewhere whenever he told the story.
+
+It was then stated that the losses from Spanish depredations by
+plundering and the taking of fifty-two vessels, since 1728, amounted to
+L340,000. In every case the masters and crews were brutally treated, and
+in some cases murdered. The English demand for compensation was met by
+the reply that the king had ordered inquiries to be made, and that if
+any of his subjects were found guilty they would be punished according
+to their deserts; also that orders would be given to conform exactly to
+the treaties. It was, however, claimed that the treaty of 1667 did not
+contain any clause bearing on the navigation and commerce of the Indies,
+and that the English had been wrong in supposing they had a right to
+sail and trade there; they were only permitted to sail to their own
+islands and plantations, and were therefore subject to confiscation if
+they changed their course to make for the Spanish possessions without
+necessity. There were then in Havana fifteen British vessels which had
+been detained on one pretext or another, and about the same time the
+_Success_ from London to Virginia was captured off Montserrat, and her
+captain and crew set adrift in an open boat to find their way ashore as
+best they could.
+
+In January, 1739, a convention between Great Britain and Spain was
+arranged, under which the latter agreed to pay L95,000 on account of
+these demands, less the value of certain vessels which they agreed to
+restore. This did not satisfy the West India merchants, and they
+petitioned against it. The indemnity was to be paid on the 10th of July,
+but that date having passed without a settlement, Great Britain issued
+letters of marque and ordered all Spanish vessels in her waters to be
+seized. Spain commenced reprisals the following month, and war was
+actually declared by Great Britain on the 19th of October. The
+declaration stated that for several years past unjust seizures and
+depredations had been carried on, and great cruelties exercised. The
+British colours had been ignominiously insulted, against the laws of
+nations and solemn treaties, and Spain had lately ordered British
+subjects from her dominions within a shorter period than had been
+covenanted by express stipulation in those treaties.
+
+In July previous a fleet under Admiral Vernon had sailed from Spithead,
+and after a short cruise off the Spanish coast, went over to the West
+Indies, arriving at Antigua the 27th of September. Going on to Jamaica,
+Vernon prepared for a grand raid on the Spanish settlements, leaving for
+Porto Bello on the 5th of November with six vessels and 2,500 men. They
+arrived on the 21st, and bombarded the forts, which made a stout
+resistance; but while this was going on, the British landed and took the
+town, thus compelling the forts to capitulate. Two warships and several
+other vessels were captured, as well as specie to the amount of ten
+thousand dollars, but the town was not pillaged, although the guns were
+either taken away or rendered useless, and the forts as far as possible
+demolished. This was virtually the end of that stronghold, as it was
+afterwards allowed to fall into decay, to be ultimately replaced by
+Chagres, Grey Town, and Colon. Later, also, the treasure from Peru had
+much diminished, and the isthmus sunk in importance, especially after
+the way round Cape Horn and through the Straits of Magellan was adopted
+more and more.
+
+As the dispute with Spain had arisen from her action in the Indies, so
+retaliation on the part of Great Britain was greatest on the Main. In
+February, 1740, Vernon again sailed from Jamaica, and on the 6th of
+March bombarded Santa Martha, but did not capture it. After repairing
+damages at Porto Bello he went on to Chagres, took a Spanish man-of-war
+from under the guns of the fort, captured the place, and demolished it.
+In January, 1741, Sir Chaloner Ogle came out from England with a fleet,
+and joined him, making a force of 12,000 men in twenty-nine
+sail-of-the-line besides smaller vessels.
+
+This great fleet sailed for Hispaniola in hopes of encountering that of
+Spain and France, but not finding it went on to Carthagena. This, the
+other great stronghold on the Main, was guarded by two powerful
+batteries, a boom across the entrance to the port, and four Spanish
+men-of-war just inside. After a long cannonading the batteries were
+silenced, a landing accomplished at night, and a passage made by which
+the fleet entered the harbour. Here, however, further progress was
+checked by sickness and disagreements among the commanders, with the
+result that the siege was raised and partial success ended in miserable
+failure. This was followed by another check at Santiago de Cuba, which
+virtually terminated all hopes of further great exploits, although
+attempts were made on La Guayra and Puerto Cabello.
+
+Yet with all this the Spaniards undoubtedly received a great lesson.
+Their men-of-war were captured from under their fortresses, and small
+English or colonial vessels performed such deeds of daring as had hardly
+been equalled since the Elizabethan age. The old spirit still existed
+although it might lie dormant for a time--the men were there when the
+hour came. In 1740 Captain Hall in a New England privateer came to an
+anchor under the fort of Puerto de la Plata, pretending to be a Caracas
+trader. He wanted to land in the night and surprise the town, but found
+that the inhabitants kept such a good watch that he had to give up that
+idea. However, the Governor was sick and sent to ask the loan of Hall's
+surgeon, and here was the opportunity he wanted. The surgeon,
+quartermaster, and an interpreter visited the Governor, and at the same
+time seven of Hall's crew landed and surprised the fort, dismounted the
+guns, marched into the town and plundered it, finally escaping with the
+loss of only one man.
+
+Peace was at last concluded on the 7th of October, 1748, but nothing was
+said in the treaty of the right of search. The _Assiento_ contract was
+confirmed, and one English trading ship allowed as formerly; free trade
+with the Indies, however, was still one of those things which could
+never be conceded.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+X.
+
+SLAVE INSURRECTIONS AND BUSH NEGROES.
+
+
+With war almost continuously raging at their very doors the West Indian
+planters not only risked their fortunes but their lives. During the
+seventeenth century England spent something like thirty-five years in
+fighting her enemies, and in the eighteenth, forty-six. As long as the
+quarrel was with Spain alone the colonists cared but little, but when
+France turned against them the struggle was much fiercer. The French
+were always most audacious in their assaults, and the consequences were
+all the more disastrous because they were such near neighbours. We have
+already spoken of St. Kitt's and the difficulties produced on that
+island by its division between the two nationalities. These were only
+terminated by its entire cession to England, which did not take place
+until the peace of Utrecht in 1713. Meanwhile, besides the two defeats
+of the English already mentioned, they were driven out in 1689, to
+return the following year and expel the enemy, retaining entire control
+until the peace of Ryswick gave France again her share. Then in 1702
+England once more held full possession until the island was assured to
+her entirely.
+
+Barbados, alone among the British West Indian islands, stands in the
+proud position of a colony that has never fallen into the hands of
+another nation. It has never even been seriously attacked beyond the
+attempt of De Ruyter. And yet the island was poorly fortified, as
+compared with the great strongholds of the West Indies such as
+Carthagena and Curacao. Possibly "the game was not worth the candle,"
+for on the one hand there was little plunder to be had, and on the other
+a strong force of hardy Englishmen to be encountered. We have seen
+already how the Parliamentary fleet was kept at bay, and what an amount
+of trouble the islanders gave before they capitulated. Even then they
+were not actually conquered, although there could be no question as to
+the ultimate result.
+
+But not only had the colonists to stand up against the enemy from
+outside, but there was another danger which lay within their plantations
+and dwellings from which even Barbados was not free. The slaves had to
+be kept under subjection, and the planters must always be on the alert
+to anticipate riots and insurrections. For although the negro in most
+cases was submissive, at times he recovered that savage nature which had
+only been suppressed by force and discipline.
+
+When we read of flogging to death and other horrible cruelties of the
+planters and authorities, we are inclined to sympathise with the African
+and look upon his masters as worse than brutes. But to appreciate the
+full significance of these punishments we must judge them by the codes
+in existence at the time, remembering that nothing was ever done to the
+blacks that had not also been endured by whites for similar crimes.
+True, these punishments were retained for slaves after they had become
+obsolete for Europeans, but then the negro was undoubtedly stubborn and
+less amenable to persuasion than any other race. Like a mule he had to
+be broken in and trained, and like that stubborn animal he often gave
+great trouble in the process. There were differences of opinion as to
+various ways of teaching the negro, and it was only a long experience
+that ultimately led to gentle conciliation instead of flogging.
+
+[Illustration: A REBEL NEGRO
+
+(_From Stedman's "Surinam."_)]
+
+The slaves often ran away, and had to be hunted for and brought back. In
+the larger islands and on the Main they hid in the forest and swamp,
+where they formed communities, to which other runaways flocked until
+they became strong enough to hold their own. From these recesses they
+often came forth to pillage the plantations, murder the whites, and get
+the slaves to go off with them in a body. If the buccaneer was ferocious
+he had at least some method in his madness; the poor ignorant African,
+on the contrary, let his passions dominate him entirely. In revenge for
+fancied tyrannies he would commit the most atrocious crimes, torturing
+his prisoners by cutting them to pieces or even flaying while they still
+lived.
+
+Is it any wonder that when caught the bush negro or maroon was severely
+punished, and that the utmost rigour of the law was exercised? As for
+flogging, every one knows how common that was at the beginning of the
+present century. Some of us can even look back to a time when the use of
+the rod and whip on delicate children was a matter of course. Even fine
+ladies took their little ones to see executions that now horrify us to
+think of; in a similar way the planter's wife stood at her window to see
+the punishment of her house-servant.
+
+We could tell of negroes burnt to death, where a downpour of rain put
+out the fires and left them to linger in torment for hours, of taking
+pieces of flesh from the unhappy criminals with red-hot pincers, and,
+most horrible of all, breaking on the wheel. These punishments often
+took place in the middle of a town, but only on one occasion have we
+seen any mention of the horror of the scene, and this referred to the
+smell of burning flesh. Yet the criminals--for it must be remembered
+that they had been legally convicted and sentenced--showed a stoical
+indifference to pain almost incredible. As savages they gloried in
+showing their ability to endure torture, only craving sometimes for a
+pipe of tobacco to hold between their teeth until it fell.
+
+[Illustration: THE EXECUTION OF BREAKING ON THE RACK.
+
+(_From Stedman's "Surinam."_)]
+
+The maroons or bush negroes began to form communities on the Main and in
+the larger islands from very early times. In Jamaica they were the
+remnant of the Spanish slaves who ran away on the arrival of the
+English, with accessions from deserters at later periods; in Surinam
+some of those who had been sent into the forest to prevent their capture
+by French corsairs. In both places they maintained their independence,
+and ultimately made treaties with the colonial authorities, greatly to
+their own advantage. In Essequebo and Demerara they were kept down by
+subsidising Arawak Indian trackers, who hunted them from savannah to
+forest, and from forest to swamp, killing and capturing them almost as
+fast as they ran away. In the smaller and more settled islands the
+runaways were generally recaptured at once and severely punished as a
+warning to others. There the more daring plotted insurrections which
+often caused much trouble for a few days until suppressed. They did not
+last long, for the negroes were wanting in the power of combination,
+because they all wanted to be leaders. Then there was generally some
+faithful slave or white man's mistress to give the warning, which
+sometimes caused such prompt action that the outbreak did not occur at
+all. Yet with all that the danger was serious, and one that could hardly
+be coped with by forts and batteries.
+
+As early as the year 1649 a plot for a general rising in Barbados was
+discovered through the information of a bond-servant. All the whites
+were to have been murdered, but fortunately the ringleaders were
+arrested before the time fixed and eight of them condemned to death.
+Then in 1676, under the leadership of a Coromantee, it was arranged that
+on a certain fixed day, at a signal to be given by blowing shells, all
+the cane-fields should be set on fire, the white men killed, and their
+women retained by the negroes as their wives. This also was frustrated
+by information received from a house negress. Hearing two men talking
+of the matter, she made inquiries, and learnt of the plot in time to
+inform her master. Six of the prisoners were burnt alive and eleven
+beheaded, while five committed suicide by hanging themselves before the
+trial. The story was told in a pamphlet entitled, "Great Newes from the
+Barbados, or a true and faithful account of the great conspiracy." Yet
+again in 1693, after a fearful epidemic had much reduced the number of
+the whites, a third conspiracy was set on foot. The Governor was to have
+been killed, the magazine seized, and the forts surprised and taken.
+When the plot was nearly ripe two of the leaders were overheard
+conversing about it and instantly arrested. They were hung in chains for
+four days without food or drink, promises of pardon being made if they
+revealed their accomplices, which they did at the end of that time, with
+the result that some were executed and others cruelly tortured. We might
+go on to tell also of the abortive insurrection of 1702 and several
+others, but as there were never any very serious risings in Barbados, we
+must proceed to other colonies.
+
+In Jamaica several abortive attempts at general insurrections were made,
+some of them assisted by the maroons, who continually received
+accessions to their numbers from desertion. These people also made
+incursions on their own account, which led the Government to offer L5 a
+head for every one killed, the reward being payable on the production of
+his ears. In 1734 they destroyed several plantations and killed a
+hundred and fifty white men, which led to an attempt at suppressing
+them altogether. Captain Stoddart therefore took a detachment of
+soldiers into the mountains to the maroon town of Nanny. Arriving at
+night he planted a battery of swivel guns on a height that commanded the
+collection of huts, before the negroes were aware of his coming. They
+were rudely awakened from their sleep to find the place surrounded, and
+in alarm many flung themselves over precipices in their hurry to escape.
+Some were killed, a few captured, and the town utterly destroyed. About
+the same time a party of maroons from another place were so bold as to
+attack the barracks at Spanish Town.
+
+Two years later, under Captain Cudjo, the maroons became so formidable
+that two regiments of regular troops besides the island militia were
+employed to reduce them. The Assembly also ordered a line of
+block-houses or posts to be erected as near as possible to their haunts,
+at which packs of dogs were to be kept as part of the garrison. Then
+they sent to the Main for two hundred Mosquito Indians whom they engaged
+as trackers. This brought matters to a crisis, and Captain Cudjo was
+compelled to sue for peace, which was granted. A treaty was therefore
+made with them in 1738 at Trelawny town, by which they were to be
+considered as free on condition that they captured runaway slaves,
+assisted in repelling invasions, and allowed two white residents to
+remain in their towns. Thus peace was restored for a time, and the
+Mosquito Indians were allowed to go back to their country.
+
+However, Jamaica was not to be free from slave insurrections apart from
+the maroons, for in May, 1760, at St. Mary's, the slaves of General
+Forrest's plantation fell suddenly upon the overseer while he was at
+supper with some friends, and massacred the whole company. They were
+immediately joined by others, and commenced a career of plundering and
+burning all the plantations in the neighbourhood. Business in the island
+was at once suspended, martial law proclaimed, and every white man
+called out to assist in putting down the revolt. The negroes, however,
+tried to avoid an open conflict, trusting to hide in the forest, where,
+however, a large body was discovered and defeated. The maroons had been
+sent for, but did not arrive until this action had taken place, when
+they were sent in pursuit of the flying rebels. This they pretended to
+do, and in a few days returned with a collection of ears which they said
+had been taken from those whom they had slain, and for which they were
+paid. The story was found out afterwards to have been a falsehood, as
+instead of pursuing the fugitives they had simply cut off the ears of
+those who had been slain before they arrived. This led the authorities
+to think the maroons in league with the revolted slaves and afterwards
+to look upon them with distrust. However, by the aid of a body of free
+negroes, the rebels were at last captured, to be punished in the cruel
+manner so characteristic of the time. Some were burnt, some hung alive
+on gibbets, and about six hundred transported to the Bay of Honduras.
+Two were hung alive on the parade at Kingston, one to linger for seven
+days and the other for nine, during which time it was said "they behaved
+with a degree of hardened insolence and brutal insensibility." In the
+course of the whole insurrection about sixty whites and four hundred
+negroes were killed, and damage done to the amount of one hundred
+thousand pounds.
+
+In 1736 a slave revolt took place at Antigua, or rather it was
+discovered and anticipated. Five negroes were broken on the wheel, six
+hung in chains and starved to death, one of whom lived for nine days and
+eight nights, fifty-eight were burnt at the stake, and about a hundred
+and thirty imprisoned. These horrible punishments were intended as a
+warning to the others, and no doubt they had such an effect on that
+generation.
+
+Few of the early insurrections met with any success, notwithstanding
+that the negroes largely outnumbered the whites in every colony. At the
+most the blacks had a few days' liberty to murder, burn, and pillage,
+after which came the terrible retribution. There was, however, one
+conspicuous exception: poor Berbice was actually taken over, and every
+white man driven from the plantations.
+
+The Dutch were noted nigger drivers, and although the English were
+unable to boast much of their humanity, they stigmatised the Hollander
+as a cruel master. If a negro was obstinate, the Englishman threatened
+to sell him to a Dutchman or Jew, but the worst threat of all was to
+give him to a free negro. Whether this bad character was deserved or not
+is doubtful, but it is quite certain that the criminal law of the
+Netherlands permitted "the question" when a prisoner would not admit his
+guilt. This, however, was applicable to white as well as black, there
+being no particular slave code in the Dutch colonies.
+
+What was the immediate cause of the great rising of 1763, in Berbice,
+was never exactly ascertained, but vague complaints were made of
+ill-treatment by certain planters. It commenced on the 27th of February,
+on an estate in the river Canje, and from thence spread like wildfire
+over the whole colony. The population consisted of, besides the free
+Indians, 346 whites, 244 Indian slaves, and about 4,000 negro slaves.
+The garrison was supposed to consist of sixty soldiers besides officers,
+distributed at several forts and posts, but owing to sickness only about
+twenty were fit for duty when the rising took place.
+
+An epidemic of fever and dysentery had prevailed for two years among
+both whites and slaves, weakening the former in such a manner that they
+had no courage to contend with the revolted negroes, but mostly ran away
+to Fort Nassau when they heard of the rising. Almost out of their senses
+from fright, they urged Governor Hoogenheim to abandon the fort and
+colony at once. Only one of the councillors stood by the Governor, and
+it was as much as these two could accomplish to prevent even the
+soldiers from running away. As for moving against the rebels, this was
+impossible, for not one of the colonists would follow Councillor
+Abbinsetts in his attempt to do something. Their fright even affected
+the officials and soldiers in such a manner that the Governor could
+hardly escape their importunities to be allowed to leave.
+
+Four vessels lay in the river, two merchant ships and two slavers, but
+even their crews were sick, and the captain of one so utterly broken
+down that he could not attend to his duties. The Governor tried to get
+them to go up the river and do something, but they were almost as
+frightened as the colonists. Only in one place were the negroes opposed;
+a few whites taking refuge in the block-house at Peereboom, some
+distance above the fort, where their way of escape was cut off. But for
+want of a little assistance they were compelled to make terms with the
+negroes. Under the agreement the whites were to be allowed to go down to
+the fort in their own boats, but as soon as they began to embark the
+negroes fell upon them, men, women, and children, massacred some and
+took others prisoners, a few only managing to get across the river.
+
+Among the fugitives was a lad named Jan Abraham Charbon, whose story
+gives a graphic picture of the alarm and consternation produced by the
+insurrection, and of its results on himself.
+
+He was the son of a planter, and the alarm was brought to the estate at
+night by a faithful slave. The plantations below were all in the hands
+of the rebels, who were burning and murdering on both sides of the
+river. The whites from several neighbouring estates gathered together
+and decided to make a stand at Peereboom, hoping for assistance from
+Fort Nassau. They got to the block-house early in the morning, to the
+number of thirty whites, with a body of faithful slaves, who had not
+yet deserted them, although they did so later.
+
+Soon after their arrival the insurgents surrounded the house and
+attacked it, the whites making a successful defence until seven o'clock
+in the evening. Then one of Charbon's slaves came forward and asked if
+they wanted peace. On receiving a favourable reply the leaders on both
+sides came to the agreement above-mentioned. Next morning the whites
+were fired upon as they went to embark, and Charbon was wounded.
+However, he jumped into the river and swam across, hiding himself in the
+jungle, where he came upon another fugitive named Mittelholzer.
+
+For eight days the two wandered about the forest, losing their way and
+almost dying from hunger and thirst. They dared not approach the river
+for fear of the negroes. Once they came upon the back of a plantation
+and hurriedly gathered a few cobs of Indian corn, immediately afterwards
+running back into the bush to eat them. While lying down a negro with a
+sabre passed quite close without seeing them, but presently another with
+a gun peeped into the bushes and caught sight of them. On this
+Mittelholzer ran out with his drawn sabre and so furiously attacked the
+rebel that he cut off one of his hands, captured his gun, and put him to
+flight. However, this audacity did not save him, for he was captured
+soon afterwards, Charbon managing to escape into the forest. Alone the
+boy wandered about for six or seven days, until, again becoming
+desperate from hunger, he returned to the same plantation, to fall into
+the hands of the negroes. He was stripped of his clothes, put in the
+stocks, flogged, and threatened with death, but was finally spared on
+account of his youth, and because the rebel chief, "King" Coffee, wanted
+a secretary to write letters to Governor Hoogenheim, proposing terms.
+
+Meanwhile the poor Governor hardly knew what to do. He sent to Surinam
+and Demerara for assistance, but while awaiting this the military
+officers informed him that the fort was untenable against even a single
+assault. The wooden palisades were so rotten that a strong man could
+pull them down easily, and then the building was of wood and could
+easily be fired. He was ultimately obliged to destroy it and retire down
+the river, where he at first took possession of the lowest plantation,
+Dageraad, hoping to remain there until assistance arrived. But even here
+the rumours of an attack by the rebels made the people clamorous to be
+allowed to leave, and Hoogenheim had to retire to the mouth of the
+river, where there was a small guard-house, or signal station, near the
+site of what is now New Amsterdam. Thus the last hold on the plantations
+was given up, and the whole colony abandoned to the negroes.
+
+A month passed before the first arrival from Surinam. All that time the
+Governor and a few whites waited day after day, sometimes almost in
+despair. The vessels had, at the request of their captains, been allowed
+to leave, carrying with them some of the people, while others had gone
+off to Demerara. This desertion was almost necessary, as the food supply
+was very limited and of a poor quality--cowards were useless, and
+therefore no objection was made to their departure. Hoogenheim was at
+last somewhat relieved by the arrival of the English brigantine _Betsy_
+with a hundred soldiers from Surinam, and with this small contingent he
+at once began to retrace his steps with a view to recover the colony. He
+went back to Dageraad, and in a day or two after was attacked by seven
+hundred negroes, who fought from early morning to noon, when they
+retired after suffering a great loss in killed and wounded. It was after
+this battle that young Charbon arrived with a letter bringing "greetings
+from Coffee, Governor of the negroes of Berbice." The rebel chief said
+that as the negroes did not want war, he would give His Honour half the
+colony, while he himself would govern the other half and go up the river
+with his people, who were determined never again to be slaves. No notice
+was taken of this, and Charbon, who had been warned to bring back an
+answer at his peril, was too pleased to get back to his white friends to
+again wish for his post of secretary.
+
+Even now the Governor's situation was not only perilous, but most
+pitiful. St. Eustatius sent two vessels, but almost as soon as they
+arrived the men were attacked by sickness, and instead of being a help
+they had to be nursed, even the Governor himself taking his part in the
+necessary attendance. At one time there were not enough healthy soldiers
+to relieve guard, but fortunately Coffee had no means of knowing this,
+or all would certainly have been over with them.
+
+It was not until December that a fleet arrived from the Netherlands, and
+then a horrible vengeance overtook the rebels. There was not much
+difficulty in subduing them, especially when a large contingent of
+Indians was sent overland from Demerara to drive them from the forest.
+In March, 1764, the trials began with a hundred ringleaders, fifty of
+whom were sentenced to death. Fifteen of these were burnt, sixteen
+broken on the wheel, and twenty-two hanged. The following month they
+executed in similar ways thirty-four, and later again thirty-two. The
+chiefs were burnt at slow fires, punishment which they bore with the
+utmost stoicism. One named Atta, however, told the bystanders that he
+only suffered what he deserved. Finally, in December a general amnesty
+was proclaimed, which made the negroes cry out with joy, _Dankje!
+Dankje!_
+
+Berbice was of course utterly ruined for a time. The plantations were
+overrun with weeds, the buildings in ruins, and many of the slaves
+missing. Of the whites only 116 remained; the rest were dead from
+sickness, had been killed by the negroes, or had fled from the colony.
+The loss in killed was small, as the general fright prevented any show
+of resistance. What would have happened if the whites had fallen into
+the hands of the rebels was shown in one or two flagrant cases. One of
+the colony surgeons was said to have been flayed alive on the ground
+that he had poisoned the slaves by forcing them to take medicine. One
+poor girl who had been captured at Peereboom was compelled to submit to
+the embraces of King Coffee and driven mad, while another committed
+suicide to prevent a similar degradation. About eight hundred slaves
+were missing, most of whom had been killed, as very few managed to
+escape to the bush.
+
+[Illustration: MARCH THROUGH A SWAMP.
+
+(_From Stedman's "Surinam."_)]
+
+Behind the coast of Guiana is a long stretch of swamp, which in slavery
+times was the general resort of runaways. For miles extends a grassy
+plain like a meadow, the sedges entirely covering the two to four feet
+of water which would otherwise give it the appearance of a great lake.
+Except through the various streams that drain it, access is almost
+impossible during the rainy season, and even the Indians care little to
+explore its recesses beyond fishing in the canal-like creeks. However,
+here and there are little islands or sand reefs, and on these the
+runaway slaves took refuge. First, perhaps, a murderer would escape and
+hide himself for a time until the hue and cry had abated, returning now
+and again to the plantation at night for the purpose of getting
+provisions from his friends. Then others would follow, until a party of
+twenty to a hundred, with their wives, had established a little village.
+Towards the end of the last century a number of these communities of
+bush negroes had been formed in Demerara, and their depredations became
+so common that regular expeditions were sent against them, guided by
+Indian trackers. In 1795 they joined with the slaves to raise a general
+insurrection, but special measures were taken so that they were almost
+suppressed for a time.
+
+Before this they had formed a line of stations for seventy miles from
+the river Demerara to the Berbice. Every camp was naturally surrounded
+by water, and by driving pointed stakes in a circle, and leaving the
+entrance to wind through a double line under water, they were made
+almost impregnable. To reach them the attacking party had to wade up to
+their middles through perhaps a mile of ooze and water, to be cut with
+razor grass, and all the time at the mercy of the negroes. Only during
+the dry season was anything like success possible, and even then the
+negroes generally saved themselves by flight.
+
+Many of the slaves were friendly with the runaways, but they were much
+feared by the more timid. On one occasion a negro went to cut wood at
+the back of a plantation in Demerara and came suddenly upon the outpost
+of a camp, probably the entrance to the concealed path which led to the
+little sand reef. In walking along he stepped upon a bush-rope, and
+immediately after heard a bell ring above his head. Before he could get
+away a ferocious bush negro stood before him and demanded his business,
+but the poor slave was so frightened that he ran home and reported the
+occurrence to his master. Some of the slaves went so far as to enjoy
+hunting runaways--in fact, there was little love lost between the two
+parties. One of these was offered his freedom as a reward for the
+assistance he had given in an expedition, the Government engaging to
+purchase him of his owner provided they both consented. Tony, however,
+did not wish to leave a good master, and refused, stipulating, however,
+that he should retain the right to accept the kind offer at some future
+period. When his master ultimately left Demerara, some years afterwards,
+Tony claimed his promised freedom and got it.
+
+While the bush negroes in other parts of Guiana were kept within
+reasonable bounds, those of Surinam, like the maroons of Jamaica, had
+never been conquered. Treaties were agreed to by them in 1749 and 1761,
+but disputes continually occurred, with the result that the colonists
+were always more or less in fear of their raids. Then they carried off
+most of the slaves whenever they attacked a plantation, until their
+number became so great as to be a real danger. In 1773 the authorities
+in the Netherlands resolved to make a special effort to conquer them,
+and for this purpose raised a corps of all nationalities which was put
+under the command of Colonel Fourgeaud.
+
+That soldiers should be brought from Europe for such a service shows the
+utter ignorance of the Dutch authorities. If the colonists themselves
+could not put down the bush negroes, how could it be expected that this
+would be effected by fresh troops from a cold climate, who had no
+knowledge of the country, the mode of fighting, or the difficulties of
+travelling through the bush and swamp?
+
+Commissioners had visited them at different times to arrange the
+treaties, but there was generally something wrong with the presents
+(virtually blackmail), or else they were given to the wrong parties. In
+1761 the chief Araby had insisted on the commissioners binding
+themselves by his form of oath. This was done by each party tasting the
+blood of the other. With a sharp knife a few drops were drawn from the
+arm of each person into a calabash of water with a few particles of dry
+earth. After pouring a small quantity of this mixture on the ground as a
+libation, the calabash was handed round from one to another until all
+the company had taken a sip. Then the gadoman (priest) took heaven and
+earth--exemplified by the water and clay--to witness the agreement, and
+invoked the curse of God upon the first who broke it, the company and
+crowd of negroes around calling out _Da so!_ (that is so, or amen).
+
+Yet, after all this solemnity, quarrels soon arose again. One chief with
+his sixteen hundred people had come to terms, but these did not bind his
+neighbour, who perhaps had half as many. The different chiefs were not
+united in any way, and it followed, therefore, that, after thousands of
+guilders had been spent on one, the others made incursions to get a
+share of the good things for themselves. To the colonists they were all
+bush negroes, but among themselves they were as distinct as if they had
+been different nations. Even when at peace, and when the chiefs had
+received gold-headed canes as symbols of authority, they would often
+call at the outlying plantations and demand rum or anything else they
+fancied, which the whites dared not refuse.
+
+The immediate occasion for the special corps from the mother country was
+an insurrection of the slaves in 1772, who, after plundering and burning
+some of the plantations, and murdering their owners, fled in great
+numbers to join the bush negroes. The whole colony was a scene of horror
+and consternation--the colonists expected the rising to become general,
+and took refuge in Paramaribo, thus leaving their plantations
+unprotected. However, it was soon checked, mainly by raising a body of
+three hundred free negroes, called rangers, who were expert
+bushfighters, and therefore thoroughly well fitted to cope with the
+rebels.
+
+One of the chiefs named Baron had settled on an island in the swamp,
+such as we have described, where he defied the whole colony. There were
+no means of communication except hidden tracks under water, and in
+addition to the palisades the chief had erected a battery of swivel guns
+which he had stolen from the plantations. Thus triply defended by water,
+stakes, and guns, it is no wonder if he thought his position
+impregnable. However, he was discovered by a party of rangers, and
+assaulted by them and a large body of white soldiers. Camping first on
+the edge of the swamp about a mile away, they could see Baron's flag
+waving in defiance on the little island, while they were at their wits'
+ends to find a means of getting at him. A great many shots were wasted
+by both sides before they found the distance was too great, even for the
+swivel guns, and then the rangers began to act. Several weeks were
+passed in attempting to make a causeway by sinking fascines, but when
+the workers had come within range, so many were killed that it had to be
+abandoned. In despair of ever effecting anything, they were about to
+retire, when some of the rangers discovered the hidden pathway under
+water. A feint was now made of attacking one side by one party, while
+another crept along the track, and thus at last the fortress was
+stormed. A terrible hand-to-hand fight took place, in which many were
+killed on both sides, but even then Baron managed to escape with a good
+number of his followers.
+
+This defeat made little impression, for soon afterwards the slaves on
+three plantations killed their white masters, and, like the others, went
+off to join the bush negroes. It was now felt that something must be
+done or the colony would have to be abandoned. The bush negroes had to
+be hunted from their recesses, however difficult the task might be,
+otherwise there would be no safety even in the town itself. The
+expeditions could only move in Indian file, exposed to ambushes in the
+most difficult parts of the track, and firing from behind trees
+everywhere. There was no possibility of bringing the party together if
+attacked; it followed, therefore, that the long string of men went
+forward with the utmost caution. In front came two powerful blacks with
+machetes or cutlasses to clear the way, and immediately behind them the
+vanguard. These were followed by the main body alternating with
+ammunition bearers, and, finally, a long line of carriers with food,
+medicines, utensils, and kill-devil (rum) with the rearguard. Sometimes
+the party would flounder through a swamp for hours, holding their
+firearms above their heads to keep them dry. Then drenching showers
+would fall, and give the greatest trouble to prevent the powder from
+becoming useless. Creeks had to be passed on fallen trees, or the party
+would be detained until a trunk was felled and trimmed to afford a
+passage. Exposed to malaria, mosquitoes, bush ticks, and maribuntas,
+they went on day after day, only to find, on reaching the village of the
+bush negroes, that they had gone elsewhere, to perhaps turn up at some
+unprotected plantation. The European troops died off in great numbers,
+while the enemy were in their element. It followed, therefore, that
+little was done, and that the old system of conciliation had to be
+adopted, with the same unsatisfactory results. Finally, by utilising
+their mutual jealousies, about 1793 they were driven so far away from
+the settlements as to become almost harmless. Their descendants still
+exist almost as savages, with curious manners and customs, partly
+inherited from their African forefathers, and partly adopted from their
+neighbours the Indians.
+
+[Illustration: TRELAWNY TOWN.
+
+(_From Edwards' "West Indies."_)]
+
+We must now return to the maroons of Jamaica, who had not been
+conquered, although a nominal treaty existed, and the white residents
+remained at their posts. In July, 1795, two of them were flogged for
+pig-stealing, and this was considered a disgrace on the whole community.
+On the return of the pig-stealers to Trelawny they raised a great
+outcry, and the resident was at once ordered to leave on pain of death.
+Efforts were made to pacify them, but they sent a written defiance to
+the magistrates who had ordered the flogging and declared their
+intention to attack Montego Bay. The militia were called out and
+soldiers applied for, but before the preparations were completed, a body
+of maroons appeared and asked for an interview with four gentlemen whom
+they named.
+
+Hoping the matter might be prevented from going farther, these and
+several other whites went to the rendezvous, where they were received by
+three hundred armed men. The maroons complained of the disgrace on the
+whole body, through the flogging having been performed by a negro
+overseer in the presence of felons, and demanded reparation. They
+wanted, first, an addition to their lands, and, second, a dismissal of
+the then resident in favour of one they had formerly. Promising to
+forward their requests to the Governor, the gentlemen left, the maroons
+appearing as if pacified.
+
+However, this interview was only applied for to gain time, and
+especially to allow the departure of the British fleet which was then on
+the point of leaving, and might be detained if they moved too quickly.
+On the report that there was a probability of a settlement of the matter
+the fleet left, when the maroons immediately began to plot with the
+slaves for a general rising. Reports of this had been received by the
+Governor before, but just after the men-of-war had departed more
+definite news arrived, which induced him to send a fast-sailing boat to
+bring them back. Fortunately this was successfully accomplished, and at
+once confidence drove out the fear of murders, fires, and plundering
+which had alarmed the inhabitants. The slaves were correspondingly
+disheartened and left the maroons to fight alone.
+
+But even the maroons themselves became divided in opinion on the return
+of the military and naval force. The Governor taking advantage of this,
+issued a proclamation calling upon them to submit, but only thirty-eight
+old men came forward, the others being determined to fight. They set
+fire to their own town and commenced hostilities by attacking the
+outposts. This led to a pursuit in which the whites fell into an
+ambuscade, many being killed, without as far as was known doing any harm
+whatever to the enemy. Now commenced a series of raids on the
+plantations, in which even infants at the breast were massacred.
+
+[Illustration: PACIFICATION OF THE MAROONS.
+
+(_From Edwards' "West Indies."_)]
+
+The matter becoming serious, the General Assembly resolved to hunt the
+rebels with dogs, as had been intended before the treaty. They
+accordingly sent over to Cuba for huntsmen with their powerful
+blood-hounds, the descendants of those which had once worried the poor
+Indians, and afterwards assisted the buccaneers. Times had changed
+however, and a feeling grew up that hunting men with savage beasts was
+not quite the thing. This led to some expressions of opinion adverse to
+the action of the executive, but they excused themselves on the ground
+that the safety of the island demanded extreme measures. If war was
+justifiable at all, any and every means, they said, was allowable; in
+fact, "all was fair in war."
+
+Meanwhile the maroons had been driven to their strongholds in the
+mountains, where they had little to eat, and were virtually compelled to
+ravage the plantations for food. On the arrival of forty _chasseurs_
+with their hundred dogs, however, they became alarmed, and began to sue
+for mercy. It does not appear that there was any real necessity for
+using the animals, their presence being enough for the purpose. They
+were led _behind_ the troops, and on their appearance the maroons
+surrendered in great numbers, this putting an end to the insurrection.
+
+Now came the question of what was to be done with them. It was argued
+that no country could suffer people to live in it unless they could be
+controlled by law, and that obedience could not be expected from these
+people. To expect it was entirely out of the question; it was therefore
+resolved to transport them from the island. Accordingly, in June, 1796,
+six hundred were sent to Halifax, Nova Scotia, where lands were granted
+them and a subsistence allowed until crops could be raised. Not liking
+the climate, they were ultimately established in Sierra Leone, where
+they became the nucleus of the present colony. Those who had submitted
+remained in Jamaica, where their descendants are still well known.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+XI.
+
+THE SOVEREIGNTY OF THE SEAS.
+
+
+By the middle of the eighteenth century Spain had fallen behind, and
+even Holland had lost her prestige. It followed, therefore, that the
+only Power that could rival Great Britain was France, and she was an
+enemy that could never be despised. The struggle in the West Indies
+between these two Powers now became, if possible, more intense; and if
+the result gave the sovereignty of the seas to Britons, they have mainly
+to ascribe it to their naval training in this part of the world. The
+mistakes of Admiral Vernon were lessons which, being borne in mind by
+later admirals, tended to prevent similar disasters in the future.
+
+There was a short intermission in the struggle between 1748 and 1756,
+when the "Seven Years' War" commenced; but before the actual declaration
+hostilities had commenced between the two rivals in India and North
+America. Now arose one of England's great admirals, Rodney, who gained
+his laurels in the Caribbean Sea, and was mainly instrumental in putting
+France in the background as a naval power. He first came to the front in
+1759, when he bombarded Havre, and later, with that other great seaman,
+Sir Samuel Hood, he became a "household word" in the West Indies.
+
+Before they appeared, however, the British captured Guadeloupe, and
+commenced a general raid upon the French shipping. But, as usual, our
+gallant foes were by no means despicable, for in 1760 they claimed to
+have taken 2,539 English vessels, against a loss of only 944. On the 5th
+of January, 1762, Rodney sailed from Barbados for Martinique, in command
+of eighteen ships of the line, and on the 4th of the following month the
+island capitulated. Then Grenada was taken, to be followed by Dominica,
+Tobago, St. Vincent, and St. Lucia, thus giving the whole of the French
+Caribbees into the possession of Great Britain. Spain being also
+involved, Admiral Pococke attacked Havana in May, and, after a siege of
+twenty-nine days, took the Morro Castle, a fort hitherto considered
+impregnable. A fortnight later the Governor of Cuba was compelled to
+capitulate, thus giving the town also into the hands of the British.
+These exploits made France and Spain sue for peace, which was signed at
+Paris in February, 1763, when Grenada, St. Vincent, Dominica, and Tobago
+were ceded to Great Britain, the other captures being restored.
+
+After this war positive orders were sent to the British West Indies to
+break off all trade and intercourse with the French and Spanish
+settlements, with the result that contraband and other traffic was
+thrown into the hands of the Dutch and Danes. Then the Dutch islands of
+Curacao and St. Eustatius began to flourish more and more, and those of
+the Danes, St. Thomas and St. John, became free ports. During the wars
+these islands rose to a pitch of prosperity hardly possible to any of
+those belonging to the combatants, on account of their neutrality.
+Naturally they were almost barren and of little account as plantations;
+but as _entrepots_ they were exceedingly useful, not only to their
+owners, but to the belligerents as well. Here alone could French,
+Spanish, and British ships meet without fighting, and for them they
+could run when pursued by the enemy.
+
+The island of St. Thomas was first colonised in 1666, but for a long
+time it made little progress. It became useful to the pirates, however,
+mainly from its being a safe place at which to dispose of their
+captures. Then merchant vessels found it sometimes convenient to go in
+to escape these rovers, perhaps to be followed by them, and yet remain
+safe until an opportunity occurred for escaping their vigilance. Prizes
+were brought here and sold, the prospect of good bargains leading to the
+settlement of a number of rich merchants, and especially Jews. What with
+all this, and a little contraband traffic, the people of St. Thomas did
+very well, and soon the harbour became one of the busiest in the West
+Indies.
+
+And here we must mention that the Jews were a very important factor in
+the development of the early settlements. It will be remembered that
+large numbers of these people were driven from Spain after the conquest
+of Granada, and how they went to Portugal and the Netherlands. A large
+number also went to Brazil, where at first they had a measure of
+freedom in the exercise of their religion not granted in the mother
+country. When the Dutch captured Brazil, perfect freedom followed; but
+after Portugal took her own again, this was withdrawn, and in
+consequence many left for Surinam and the West Indian islands. Here they
+were joined by some of their co-religionists from Holland, and in time
+became a powerful body of planters, but more especially traders. To them
+were due many improvements in the manufacture of sugar, and even the
+introduction of the cane into some places. In every colony there was a
+small community, often with a synagogue, and their connection one with
+another, as well as their virtual neutrality, made their transactions
+more safe than those of other traders. As may be supposed, they had no
+love for the Spaniard, and consequently were the main financiers, not
+only of privateers, but even pirates.
+
+St. Thomas, Curacao, and St. Eustatius lived by the misfortunes of
+others. No longer could the jolly buccaneer sell his prizes and booty at
+Jamaica; he must go elsewhere, and let other places reap the advantage
+of his free and easy bargains. For it was "easy come, easy go" with him,
+and the fortune he made was soon wasted in riotous living. This was all
+to the advantage of the wily Jew, who first haggled about the price of a
+cargo, and then got his money back by charging enormous profits on the
+supplies. The rover was as careless as the proverbial "Jack ashore," and
+could easily be induced to spend his last piece of eight on the luxuries
+so temptingly laid before him, utterly regardless of the consequences.
+He had only to go out and capture another vessel to be able to return
+and renew his jollification.
+
+In war time these harbours were crowded with the shipping of all
+nations, and many a fortune was made that enabled the merchant to go to
+Europe as a West Indian nabob. Then there was a great demand for neutral
+vessels, in which goods could be transhipped for conveyance to colonies
+where the belligerent flag might bring a crowd of privateers before the
+vessel got safely into harbour. Even physicians and surgeons made their
+piles, for there was always more or less sickness on board the vessels,
+and a hundred dollars a visit was a common fee.
+
+In 1774 began the dispute with the American colonies of Great Britain,
+and four years later France joined them, thus bringing trouble again
+upon the West Indies. The first important move was made by the French,
+who, in September, 1778, took Dominica, on which the English retaliated
+by capturing St. Lucia. Then a fleet was sent out from England under
+Admiral Byron, and another from France under Count de Grasse. The French
+took St. Vincent and Grenada, and every island of either nation was in a
+state of alarm and consternation. In July, 1779, Spain joined the others
+against England, on the ground that her flag had been insulted. To this
+it was replied that she harboured American privateers, and furnished
+them with false documents, under which they carried Spanish colours.
+Thus England had her hands full, for the Yankees alone gave her quite
+enough work, without the addition of these old rivals.
+
+As yet Rodney had not come out, but in the years 1778 and 1779 he
+pressed his claim on the Government to have a command in the West
+Indies. The seas were well known to him, and he had his views as to the
+proper mode of carrying out operations; but for some time his
+application was refused. Finally, however, in October, 1779, he was
+appointed to replace Admiral Byron, with supreme control over the
+operations in the Caribbean Sea, as well as freedom to intervene if
+necessary on the American coast.
+
+Rodney was at last satisfied, and he left in December with a convoy, the
+whole fleet numbering three hundred. In the centre were transports and
+merchant vessels, and on either side men-of-war. Off Cape Finisterre he
+captured a convoy of sixteen Spanish vessels, and beyond Cape St.
+Vincent fought with another squadron, and captured four men-of-war,
+including the admiral. On then to the relief of Gibraltar, from whence
+he sent part of the fleet into the Mediterranean, and where he remained
+until February 13, 1780, when he sailed for the West Indies.
+
+Arriving off St. Lucia on the 28th of March, he came upon the French
+fleet under De Guichen, which he attempted to engage, but was prevented
+from the want of skill in his captains. The result was that both fleets
+sailed away from each other without much damage to either, both stating
+that the other refused to fight. As, however, the French had thirty
+vessels to the English seventeen, they could have compelled an action;
+so that, although the affair was not creditable to either, it was
+perhaps a little more disgraceful to the larger fleet. Rodney was in a
+great rage. He attributed his failure to the incompetency of his
+subordinates, who had not been properly trained to make combined naval
+evolutions. Every captain, he said, thought himself fit to be Prime
+Minister of Britain.
+
+However, he continued his cruise, barring the way of the French, and
+driving De Guichen to St. Eustatius to refit. Now he began to teach his
+captains those naval manoeuvres in which he considered them so much
+wanting, which his assistant admiral, Sir Hyde Parker, did not
+altogether like. Rodney, it appears, treated all his subordinates as if
+they were raw recruits, and, while he gained obedience, created a great
+deal of ill-feeling. But, with all their training, they could not bring
+De Guichen to fight, even when they encountered him a second time; yet
+we may presume that the training was by no means wasted.
+
+As if Great Britain had not enough enemies, in December, 1780, she
+declared war with the Dutch, on the ground that they assisted the
+American colonies. What a formidable array--the Colonies, France, Spain,
+and Holland! Yet, somehow or other, she managed to cope with the whole.
+
+St. Eustatius was the great offender among the Dutch colonies.
+Notwithstanding that the home Government had sent out strict orders to
+all her settlements not to honour the flag of the revolted British
+colonies, or to supply them with contraband of war, there is no doubt
+that they were very loose in inquiring into such transactions. As we
+have said already, this and other islands were very useful to the
+belligerents; and, as we have just stated, De Guichen went to St.
+Eustatius to escape Rodney and refit. This was no doubt a sore point
+with the British admiral, who barred the enemy's passage to his own
+islands only to see him get what he needed from the Dutch.
+
+When the news of the declaration of war came out, Rodney was ready at
+once to pounce upon the offender; and on the 3rd of February, 1781,
+before the authorities of St. Eustatius had heard the news, he appeared
+in the harbour. The Governor could hardly believe his ears when an
+officer appeared to demand the surrender of the island to His Majesty of
+Great Britain, but being entirely unprepared, and quite unfitted to cope
+with such a force, he was obliged to surrender at discretion.
+
+Here was the opportunity for revenge, and Rodney embraced it. Even his
+best friends could hardly excuse the arbitrary doings which followed,
+and which were stigmatised as unworthy and almost dishonourable to a
+British admiral. Being determined to root out this nest of
+contrabandists, he confiscated all the property of the inhabitants, and
+ordered them to quit the island. The harbour was filled with shipping,
+and the stores with goods, the vessels numbering two hundred and fifty,
+and the contents of the stores worth about three million pounds. Here
+was indeed a disaster to the Jews, not only of St. Eustatius, but even
+of British islands, for they were all in correspondence. Rodney went so
+far as to say that many of the English merchants ought to have been
+hanged, for it was through their means, and the help of this neutral
+port, that the enemy were able to carry on the war.
+
+The people were astonished at such unheard-of treatment. Never before
+had such a thing happened, except in the raids of buccaneers and
+pirates. The Jews petitioned Rodney and General Vaughan to rescind their
+decision. They had received orders to give up the keys of their stores
+and inventories of the goods in them, as well as household furniture and
+plate; then they were to prepare themselves to quit the island. Such
+orders from British commanders, whose principal characteristics were
+mercy and humanity, had distressed them in the extreme, so that their
+families were absolutely in despair.
+
+This appeal had no effect, even when it was supported by some of the
+British officers, and such an auction now began as was never known
+before. The news reached Barbados and the other islands, and down came a
+horde of speculators, prepared to make their fortunes at once if
+possible. Such a haul did not occur every day, and they intended to take
+advantage of it. Thousands of bales of goods were brought out and sold,
+without either seller or buyer knowing anything of their contents. They
+might contain rich silks and velvets or the cheapest slave clothing. It
+was a grand lottery in which every bidder got a prize, although they
+were in some cases of little value. No one needed to despair of a
+bargain, however, for there was so much to sell as compared with the
+number of purchasers, that everything went cheap. Some few got bitten,
+but in the end hardly a tithe of the value of the goods was obtained.
+
+While this was going on at St. Eustatius, some Bristol privateers got
+information of the outbreak of hostilities, and pounced upon Demerara
+and Berbice, where they levied blackmail and captured most of the
+shipping. As usual with these plunderers, they had no authority to
+capture the colony, nor had they in this case even commissions against
+the Dutch. However, they put the inhabitants in a state of
+consternation, until, a few days later, two men-of-war arrived from
+Barbados to receive the capitulation, which was demanded on the same
+terms as that of St Eustatius, although neither party knew what these
+terms were. Nothing was left but submission, although the authorities
+protested against such an unheard-of manner of dictating unknown terms.
+The Governor of Barbados had heard from one of the inhabitants of that
+island that the Directeur-General of Demerara had expressed, at his
+dinner-table, his fears that in case of a war the river would be
+plundered by privateers, and of his preferring to surrender to one of
+the king's ships: for this reason he had sent the men-of-war. This was
+considered a bit of "sharp practice" by the Demerarians, but perhaps
+turned out for the best.
+
+Two commissioners were appointed by the colony to go in one of the
+English vessels to St. Eustatius and arrange the articles of
+capitulation, which were fortunately on altogether different lines from
+those of that island. Surinam, St. Martin's, Saba, and St.
+Bartholomew's also surrendered on the same unknown terms, but the
+admiral said that he and General Vaughan thought they ought to be put on
+a different footing. They would not treat them like the other, whose
+inhabitants, belonging to a State bound by treaty to assist Great
+Britain, had yet nevertheless assisted her public enemies and the rebels
+to her State, with every necessary and implement of war as well as
+provisions, thus perfidiously breaking the very treaties they had sworn
+to maintain.
+
+The treatment of St. Eustatius caused a great stir, not only in the West
+Indies, but in England as well. A remonstrance was sent to Rodney by the
+merchants of St. Kitt's, who claimed that a large quantity of their
+goods had been seized. Some of these were insured in England, and they
+considered their Excellencies responsible for their losses, for which
+they would seek redress by all the means in their power. It was
+impossible, they said, for many of them to be more utterly ruined than
+they then were, and they asked that certificates in reference to their
+property should be sent to England, in demanding which they were
+claiming a right rather than a favour. In reply, Rodney said he was
+surprised that gentlemen who called themselves subjects and merchants of
+Great Britain, should, when it was in their power to lodge their effects
+in the British islands to windward, under the protection of British
+laws, send them to leeward to St. Eustatius, where, in the eyes of
+reason and common sense, they could only be lodged to supply their
+king's and country's enemies. The island, he continued, was
+Dutch--everything in it was Dutch--all was under the Dutch flag. As
+Dutch it should be treated, and this was his firm resolution as a
+British admiral, who had no view whatever but to do his duty to his king
+and country.
+
+Two merchants from St. Eustatius went to London, where they were
+examined by the Attorney and Solicitor-Generals. They clamoured for
+justice, and got it, for one of them was committed on a charge of high
+treason for corresponding with the American agent at Amsterdam, and for
+furnishing the Americans with military stores and ammunition. Several
+attempts were made to injure Rodney with the king, but the blow on the
+enemy was so severe that His Majesty would not listen to the detractors.
+It is said that a cry of rage went up from the French and American
+colonies, and that Rodney gloried in his triumph. He was undoubtedly
+inclined to ride rough-shod over everybody and everything, but as long
+as he was successful, only the enemy complained.
+
+But the trouble was not yet over, for the merchants of St. Kitt's sent
+lawyers to file their claims in the Admiralty Courts. Then St. Eustatius
+was recaptured for Holland by the French, and the tide turned against
+the admiral. Now was the time to attack him, and his enemies took
+advantage of it. The mob that threw up their caps and shouted for joy at
+the glorious news of the capture, now lifted their hands in horror at
+Rodney's misdeeds. Even his friend Hood was guilty of the meanness of
+charging his comrade with carrying off vast sums of money, and never
+accounting for them. Rodney was recalled to England, where he arrived
+on the 19th of September, 1781, in ill-health, and rather downspirited.
+In December Burke moved the House of Commons for a committee to inquire
+into the affair, but although he pressed the motion with all his powers
+of oratory it was rejected.
+
+Meanwhile the French were turning the tables upon the late victors and
+having their revenge for the disasters which had fallen upon them. This
+led to Rodney being again consulted, with the result that on the 19th of
+February, 1782, he arrived in Barbados with twelve ships of the line.
+This was the most critical period during the whole war. On the 19th of
+October previous, Lord Cornwallis had surrendered to the Americans at
+Yorktown, and this disaster was followed not only by the loss of the
+West Indian captures, but of the British colonies of St. Kitt's, Nevis,
+Montserrat, Dominica, and St. Vincent. It was by the special request of
+the king that Rodney had been again sent out, and before his departure
+he declared that either the French admiral or himself should be
+captured. Lord Sandwich, to impress him the more, on the eve of his
+departure said: "The fate of this Empire is in your hands, and I have no
+wish that it should be in those of any other."
+
+Meanwhile the Count de Grasse was at Martinique, preparing a large fleet
+for the final reduction of the British by conquering Jamaica. He was
+expecting large reinforcements of French vessels and troops, which
+Rodney tried unsuccessfully to cut off. On the 8th of April the French
+were reported as having sailed for Hispaniola, where they were to be
+joined by a Spanish contingent, and Rodney at once sailed in pursuit.
+The result was that, at last, on the 12th, a decisive victory was gained
+off Dominica. Admiral de Grasse was captured, many of his fleet
+destroyed, and the whole expedition broken up. The British West Indies
+were thus saved, and the people of Jamaica erected a statue to the
+gallant admiral. Rodney, in concluding his despatch giving the account,
+said it was his most ardent wish that the British flag should for ever
+float in every part of the globe, and there is no doubt that this
+triumph conduced to such an end. It stands prominently forth as the
+greatest sea fight of the age, and was only eclipsed by those of Nelson,
+who we may state received much of his naval training in the West Indies.
+
+In January, 1783, peace was again restored. Great Britain lost her
+American colonies, restored those she had taken from France and Holland,
+and got back her own, except the island of Tobago, which was ceded to
+France. From Spain she got the right to cut logwood between the rivers
+Hondo and Belize, on the understanding that all other places on the
+coasts of Central America should be abandoned, and that no forts be
+erected on the concession.
+
+For ten years there was peace, and during that time the planting
+colonies were developed to a wonderful extent, while those dependent on
+the contraband traffic became much depressed. The English settlements
+increased in value so much, that in 1788 they were calculated to have
+under cultivation two million and a half acres, with five hundred and
+sixty thousand slaves. These were the palmy days of the slave-trade,
+when the importations leapt up year after year, with a corresponding
+increase in the export of produce. The property was valued at over
+eighty-six millions sterling, Jamaica coming first, but nearly every
+other island flourishing to an extent hardly credible to those who have
+only seen them after their downfall.
+
+What Jamaica was to the English, the western portion of Hispaniola
+became to the French, and even Spain increased her productions, now that
+things had become settled, and treasure seeking less remunerative.
+Altogether, the period from this time, to the end of the century, may be
+considered as the planter's best days, and the "good old times" of which
+we hear so much but find it so difficult to precisely indicate.
+
+On the 1st of February, 1793, peace was again broken by the French
+Convention, the declaration of war being made against England and
+Holland. Thus began that struggle which seemed interminable at the time,
+and which actually lasted twenty-two years. As usual the West Indies
+suffered, but this time they were not quite so much the scene of
+contention as they had been formerly. Tobago was captured from the
+French on the 15th of April, but during the remainder of the year little
+was done. In January, 1794, however, Admiral Sir John Jervis arrived at
+Barbados, and in the following month took Martinique after a severe
+struggle. Then he went on to St. Lucia, which also surrendered, and
+before the end of April Guadeloupe fell. Then came reverses; a French
+fleet arrived, and all were recaptured.
+
+Meanwhile France had invaded Holland, and established a sister republic
+on her own lines, rendering it necessary for the Stadtholder, the Prince
+of Orange, to fly off to England. From Kew, where the king had given him
+a residence, he wrote letters to all the Dutch colonies, asking the
+authorities to place them in the hands of the British, and treat people
+of that nationality as friends and allies. With these despatches British
+fleets were sent to all the possessions of Holland, but only one or two
+obeyed the command, the result being that the others had to be taken by
+force, until hardly a Dutch colony existed in any part of the world.
+
+In October, 1796, Spain joined France on the ground that the British, in
+their operations against the enemy, had injured her in several ways. One
+of the reasons given was so absurd that we can hardly conceive it to
+have been put forth seriously. Great Britain had captured Demerara, and
+this put her in a situation to possess positions of greater importance.
+Spain, however, got nothing by her taking up the quarrel, for her trade
+was absolutely swept from the seas, and communication with America
+almost cut off. This state of things became so troublesome that for the
+first time in her history neutral vessels were permitted to trade in her
+American colonies. She also lost the island of Trinidad, which had
+remained in her possession since the days of Ralegh.
+
+Soon the whole of the West Indies and Spanish Main were virtually under
+the control of Great Britain, little opportunity being given to her
+enemies of crossing the Atlantic. No longer could the Caribbean Sea be
+the scene of the great struggle--the forces of the combatants were
+wanted nearer home. Now again came the harvest of the little island of
+St. Thomas, until Denmark was also numbered among the enemies of the
+"Queen of the Seas." Then the United States came to get her pickings as
+a neutral, which gave such an impetus to her ship-building and commerce,
+that later the seamen trained under such auspices became formidable
+rivals to the British.
+
+The colonists did not altogether dislike this great war. True, freights
+and insurances were very high, but then the prices of produce were high
+also. There was a spice of danger in every voyage, but after all the
+risk was not so very great until the vessels came into the Channel. Then
+there was a convoy to protect them, and they might even get prize money
+by capturing traders of the enemy. Every vessel went armed, and many a
+privateer of the enemy got severely beaten by a gallant body of merchant
+seamen and passengers. This was a glorious time for the British navy,
+but the fleets in the West Indies had little to do after the beginning
+of the war. There was a great disturbance on the island of Hispaniola, a
+riot in Grenada, troubles in the French islands, and a few skirmishes
+here and there, but nothing of much consequence to the British.
+
+There were many small difficulties of course, and the navigation laws
+had to be relaxed generally in favour of neutrals, as otherwise
+provisions would have been scarce. The Dutch were not altogether
+displeased with British rule, for Curacao, which had not been conquered,
+was captured from its French garrison in 1800, at the request of the
+inhabitants, whose trade had been entirely stopped. Then the Spanish
+colonies came to an arrangement by which much of their produce went
+through British hands, and this prevented the neutrals from getting
+everything.
+
+In 1802 the peace of Amiens gave France a rest for about ten months,
+when she got back her own and the Dutch colonies, leaving Trinidad as an
+addition to those of Great Britain. Hardly, however, had they taken
+possession, when the treaty was broken, and the British were again in
+their midst. A great deal of the work which had been undone by the peace
+had now to be undertaken afresh, but it was ultimately accomplished, so
+that things went on much the same as before.
+
+The year 1805 was notable for Nelson's trip across the Atlantic in
+search of the French fleet, which however fled before him and got back
+to Europe. The same year also saw the heroic defence of "H.M.S." Diamond
+Rock, which however was not a ship, but an improvised fortress, which
+after a long struggle was obliged to capitulate. Hundreds of gallant
+exploits were performed in the West Indies by both English and French,
+and thus the war went on year after year, until it became something to
+be calculated for in commercial transactions. People began to look upon
+it almost as a natural state of things, and fathers told their children
+that they had peace on one occasion long ago for as many as ten years.
+
+The British had undoubtedly become very arrogant. Their position on the
+sea was so supreme that they did much as they pleased with the few
+neutrals. This sort of thing did not suit the North American traders,
+who were Englishmen also, and like their forefathers resented any
+interference whatever. It resulted, therefore, that the United States
+declared war in January, 1813, and made the planters understand what
+took place "when Greek met Greek." Almost immediately every colony was
+pestered and worried by a number of fast-sailing schooners, as dangerous
+in a sense as had once been the fly-boats of the buccaneers. The heavy
+sugar boats going from plantation to port were captured in great
+numbers, and some of the harbours actually blockaded by the "Saucy
+Jack," the "Hornet," and other audacious Yankee craft with names as
+suggestive of their characters. Then, indeed, the West Indies were
+roused from their apathy--war was actually at their doors. However,
+peace came at last, and after 1815 it might be expected that the islands
+would go on prospering and to prosper.
+
+Such, however, was not the case. In 1807 a great difficulty had come
+upon them by the abolition of the slave-trade, which at once put a stop
+to all extensions, either in the way of new plantations or of the
+acreage under cultivation. This was the first great check, and with the
+fall in prices, which ensued when Britain became the consignee of almost
+every settlement, caused a cry of "Ruin!" to arise, which has continued
+with short intermissions down to the present day.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+XII.
+
+DOWNFALL OF HISPANIOLA.
+
+
+Before the abolition of the slave-trade had affected the British islands
+the French colonies were distracted by the results of their great
+revolution. Hispaniola, or rather that portion now known as Hayti, had
+become, as we before said, the most important colony; we must now give
+the story of its downfall. If this had happened by the fortune of war it
+would perhaps not have been so deplorable, but to be utterly ruined as
+it was, until even now, after the lapse of a century, it is behind its
+neighbours, is very sad.
+
+But, in the struggle for existence the straining after liberty has to be
+reckoned with, and although the process causes intense suffering to both
+lord and serf--master and slave--the fight is sure to come at some time
+or other. Miss Martineau uses the title, "The hour and the man," for her
+romance of the liberation of this once flourishing island. The hour had
+come, but we are afraid _the man_ has not yet appeared on Hispaniola.
+
+When the French people took the government from the hands of their king
+and summoned the States General, revolutionary ideas had already come
+to a head, and the matter of slavery received much consideration. In all
+the colonies were numbers of free coloured persons, who had been
+manumitted by their fathers, and in many cases sent to Europe for their
+education. In Paris they were brought into communication with a kind of
+anti-slavery society, called _L'Amis des noirs_, before which they had
+opportunities of ventilating their grievances. These consisted of civil
+disabilities which kept mulattoes in the background, and prevented their
+taking what they believed to be their proper positions in society. The
+time was fitted for such an agitation, the people were there, and it was
+only to be expected that their complaints would come in the long
+catalogue of charges against the aristocrats, among whom were included
+the West Indian planters. However, although there was little sympathy
+with the colonists, nothing particular was done as yet, except the issue
+of the celebrated declaration that all men were born, and continued to
+be, free and equal as to their political rights. It might be said,
+perhaps, that this alone gave freedom to the slave and civil equality to
+the mulatto, but as it did not specially apply to them, little trouble
+ensued. The planters, however, were sufficiently acute to see the
+logical outcome of the declaration, and were correspondingly troubled,
+as they felt that if published among the negroes it might convert them
+into implacable enemies, and bring on dangerous insurrections. They were
+soon pacified, however, by orders to convene provincial assemblies, and
+send representatives to Paris: this they thought would prevent
+mischief, as their interests could be made known and promoted in
+France.
+
+[Illustration: VIEW OF PART OF HISPANIOLA.
+
+(_From Andrews' "West Indies."_)]
+
+The free coloured people soon heard the news, and at once began to claim
+their rights as citizens, which the planters were by no means prepared
+to grant. On this refusal they began to arm themselves, and make
+demonstrations in various parts of Hayti, but at first were easily put
+down by the authorities. As yet there was little ill-feeling; the
+demonstrations were only alarming from their significance and their
+possible consequences. It followed, therefore, that little was done
+beyond a demand for submission, the mulattoes being allowed to disperse
+on promising to keep the peace. A few whites, however, who had been
+leaders in the agitation, were severely punished, and when a certain
+Mons. Dubois not only advocated the claims of the coloured people, but
+the slaves as well, he was banished from the colony.
+
+Mons. de Beaudierre, a _ci-devant_ magistrate, also helped to add to the
+trouble. He was enamoured of a coloured woman, who owned a valuable
+plantation, and wanted to marry her, but at the same time wished to see
+her free from all civil disabilities. Accordingly he drew up a memorial
+to the committee of his section, claiming for the mulattoes the full
+benefit of the national declaration of rights. This roused the
+authorities, who at once arrested him, but so strong was the feeling of
+the whites that they took the prisoner from gaol and put him to death.
+
+The agitation in Hayti as well as in Martinique led to petitions and
+remonstrances to the National Assembly, and on the 8th of March, 1790,
+the majority voted that it was never intended to comprehend the internal
+government of the colonies in the constitution of the mother country, or
+to subject them to laws incompatible with their local conditions. They
+therefore authorised the inhabitants of each colony to signify their
+wishes, and promised that, as long as the plans suggested were
+conformable to the mutual interests of the colonies and the metropolis,
+they would not cause any innovations.
+
+This of course raised a clamour among the friends of the blacks and
+mulattoes, who considered it as sanctioning the slave-trade, which they
+wanted to put down. In Hayti the General Assembly met and made some
+radical changes, which were opposed by many of the old colonists, and
+this brought discord among the whites. The Governor dissolved the
+Assembly, but this only brought more trouble, for the subordinate
+Western body took the part of the General Assembly, and went so far that
+the Governor tried to suppress it by force. But the members put
+themselves under the protection of the national guard who resisted the
+troops sent against them, and after a short skirmish drove them off.
+Thus all authority was put at defiance by the whites, when if they
+wanted to keep down the coloured and black people, it was of the
+greatest consequence that union should exist. The General Convention
+called the colony to arms, but, before actually commencing hostilities,
+they resolved to proceed to France, and lay the whole matter before the
+Convention. Accordingly to the number of eighty-five they sailed on the
+8th of August, 1790, the authorities also agreeing to await the result.
+
+Among the coloured residents in France was a young man named James Oge,
+the son of a mulatto woman by a white man, whose mother owned a coffee
+plantation. He was a regular attendant at the meetings of the friends of
+the blacks, where, under such men as Lafayette and Robespierre, he had
+been initiated into the doctrine of the equal rights of men. On hearing
+of the vote of non-interference with the colonies, Oge, maddened by the
+thought that the civil disabilities of people of his colour would be
+continued, resolved to go himself to Hayti. He was confident that the
+people there would join him, and going out by way of the United States
+he obtained there a good supply of arms, with which he arrived in
+October of the same year.
+
+Six weeks after his arrival he wrote to the Governor, demanding that all
+the privileges of the whites should be extended to every other person,
+without distinction. As representing the coloured people he made this
+request, and if their wrongs were not at once redressed, he said, they
+were prepared to take up arms. He had already been joined by his two
+brothers, and they were busy calling upon their friends to insist,
+assuring them that France approved of their claim. But with all his
+efforts he could get but few followers, the same difficulty cropping up
+here as in most of the slave insurrections--a want of the power of
+combination under one of their own race. However, he at last got
+together two hundred, and, receiving no answer from the Governor, they
+commenced a series of raids on the plantations. Oge cautioned them
+against bloodshed, but the first white man that fell into their hands
+was murdered, and others soon met with the same fate. Even mulattoes,
+who refused to join the insurgents, were treated the same way; one man
+who pointed to his wife and six children, as a reason for his refusal,
+being murdered with them.
+
+The Governor now sent out a body of troops and militia to suppress the
+revolt, with the result that Oge was defeated, and obliged to take
+refuge with the remnant of his followers in the Spanish colony of St.
+Domingo. The whites were now roused, and began to cry out for vengeance
+upon the coloured people in general, whether they had sympathised with
+Oge or not. In self-defence they had to take up arms in several places,
+but by conciliation on the part of the authorities a general
+insurrection was averted for the time. A new Governor now arrived, and
+one of his first acts was to demand the extradition of Oge by the
+Spaniards, which, being done, he was executed by breaking alive upon the
+wheel. In his last confession he is said to have stated that a plot was
+then hatching for the destruction of all the whites, but little notice
+was taken of this information. The whites believed that now the leader
+was dead things would go on in the old way, but, unfortunately for them,
+they were mistaken.
+
+Meanwhile the delegates had arrived in France, where they were
+honourably received. After an interview with a Committee of the
+Convention, however, they were informed that their decrees were
+reversed, the Haytian Assembly dissolved, and they themselves under
+arrest. This, when the news reached the colony, put the whites into a
+state of consternation, and for awhile it appeared as if Hayti would be
+the scene of a civil war. Captain Mauduit, who had led the force against
+the assembly, was murdered by his own troops, and preparations were made
+to resist the authorities.
+
+The planters thought these arbitrary measures of France very oppressive,
+but they had yet to learn how far the revolutionists might go. In May,
+1791, the matter of equal rights for the coloured people came up before
+the National Convention, and their claim was strongly advocated by
+Robespierre and others. It was now that the words, "Perish the colonies
+rather than sacrifice one of our principles," were uttered by that
+bloodthirsty revolutionist, to afterwards become a stock quotation of
+the extremist in every country. The result of the discussion was the
+decree of May the 15th, that the people of colour resident in the French
+colonies, and born of free parents, should be allowed all the privileges
+of French citizens; to have votes, and be eligible for election to the
+parochial and colonial assemblies.
+
+This brought on a crisis in Hayti. The coloured people were determined
+to obtain their rights, and the planters equally resolved that they
+should remain as before. The Governor was so much alarmed that he at
+once sent to France for further assistance, at the same time asking for
+the suspension of the obnoxious decree. Hearing of this, the mulattoes
+began to assemble and take up arms, and the Governor hardly dared to
+take action pending the result of his application.
+
+On the morning of the 23rd of August, 1791, the people of Cape Francois
+were alarmed by reports that the slaves in the neighbourhood were in
+open revolt, plundering the plantations and murdering the whites. The
+disturbance had commenced with the hewing in pieces of a young white
+apprentice on Pin. Noe, which murder was followed by a general massacre
+of every white man, except the surgeon, who was spared that he might
+become useful. From one estate to another the revolt spread, until the
+whole neighbourhood was a scene of murder, fire, and rapine. The white
+townspeople put their women and children on board the ships, and then
+united for a stubborn defence, but the coloured men wanted to remain
+neutral. This roused such a strong feeling that even at that critical
+time the whites had to be prevented by the authorities from murdering
+the mulattoes. By thus protecting the mulattoes their good-will was
+gained, and they volunteered to go out against the rebels.
+
+Amidst the glare of a hundred conflagrations a strong body of men was
+collected and sent against the negroes. They defeated one body of four
+hundred, but accessions were continually made to the side of the rebels,
+until their overpowering numbers compelled the whites to retreat, and do
+their best to save the town. The revolt had been continually spreading,
+and now extended over the whole country, coloured people joining the
+negroes in their work of destruction. One planter was nailed to a gate,
+and then had his limbs cut off, one after another; a carpenter was sawn
+asunder, on the ground that this mode of execution suited his trade; and
+two mulatto sons killed their white father, notwithstanding his prayers
+and promises. White, and even coloured children, were killed without
+mercy at the breasts of their mothers, and young women were violated
+before the eyes of their parents. Here and there the horror was relieved
+by kind actions on the part of faithful slaves, who, while joining in
+the revolt for their own safety, saved their masters and mistresses.
+
+The inhabitants of the town did all they could by sorties, but this was
+very little. The rebels would run away at the first onset, but only to
+return in overpowering numbers. A few were taken and broken on the
+wheel, others fell in the skirmishes, but the insurrection still went
+on. It spread to the neighbourhood of Port au Prince, but, on the
+inhabitants of that town agreeing to enforce the obnoxious decree, the
+rebels retired. This action was at last followed by those of Cape
+Francois, and a partial truce ensued. In two months, it was said, a
+thousand plantations were destroyed, and ten thousand blacks and two
+thousand whites killed.
+
+The news of this great disaster caused a revulsion of feeling in Paris,
+and the decree which had caused so much trouble was annulled on the 24th
+of September, before the results of the insurrection and the truces were
+known. The arrangement had been come to at Port au Prince on the 11th of
+the same month, and on the 20th at Cape Francois. Thus almost at the
+time when it was being repealed the colonists were promising to see it
+enforced.
+
+It is hardly necessary to say what could be the only result of the
+arrival of this revocation. The struggle was renewed, and all hopes of
+reconciliation were at an end. The coloured party charged the whites
+with treachery and duplicity; now they would fight until one or the
+other was exterminated. They captured Port St. Louis, but got a severe
+repulse from Port au Prince. Both sides were desperate, and although
+there were fewer massacres in cold blood the rebels fell in thousands.
+But as they were so numerous this slaughter made little impression.
+Even when the prisoners were tortured with a refinement of cruelty
+hardly credible, no good resulted from such examples. The time for all
+that had passed, yet the whites nailed one poor mulatto by the feet in a
+cart, and had him driven round the neighbourhood as a spectacle, before
+breaking him on the wheel.
+
+In January, 1792, three commissioners arrived from France to attempt a
+reconciliation, which they commenced by publishing the decree revoking
+the rights of the coloured people. Then they proclaimed a general
+amnesty for all who should surrender within a given time. Such utter
+ignorance as was thus shown has hardly been equalled in any age; we can
+only ascribe it to the fact that the scum had risen to the top. The
+mulattoes were roused to fury, and the whites equally exasperated. At
+Petit Goave the rebels held thirty-four white prisoners, and at once
+they were brought forth to be broken on the wheel, previous to which the
+proclamation of amnesty was read to them, their executioners mockingly
+claiming it as a pardon for the cruelties they were exercising.
+
+This sort of thing, however, could not go on very long. Most of the
+plantations and provision grounds had been destroyed, and both parties
+felt the want of food. Unless something were done they would all be
+starved; for without means of buying supplies even the whites could
+hardly exist, while the blacks did nothing to raise further crops in
+place of those they had eaten or destroyed. France again made an attempt
+to put matters straight by declaring, on the 4th of April, 1792, that
+the people of colour and free negroes ought to enjoy equal political
+rights with other citizens. New assemblies were to be called, in the
+election of which they should be allowed to vote; a new Governor of
+Hayti was appointed, and new commissioners sent out to inquire into the
+whole matter.
+
+The Governor and the commission arrived at Cape Francois on the 13th of
+September, and finding everything in confusion, they sent the late
+administrator to France as a prisoner, and called a new assembly. Then
+the commissioners put themselves in communication with the rebels, which
+made the whites think them about to emancipate the slaves. This was
+followed by a dispute between them and the Governor, and the appointment
+of yet another head, who arrived in May, 1793. He refused to recognise
+the commissioners, but they were not so easily set aside, for having the
+whole power of the colony under control, they took possession of Port au
+Prince, Jacmel, and Cape Francois, afterwards ordering the Governor to
+leave. This led to another war, in which the coloured rebels and even
+negroes were utilised by the commissioners, who thus, in a way,
+sanctioned the revolt. Similar atrocities to those formerly enacted were
+renewed, and again the colony was distracted in every part.
+
+The ruined planters now lost all hope, and began to leave for the United
+States, Jamaica, and other colonies. Some went to England, especially
+those Royalists who attributed all their disasters to the revolution.
+Here they began to urge the British to conquer Hayti, although as yet
+war had not been declared with France. In September, 1793, an
+expedition was sent from Jamaica, and on its arrival at Jeremie the
+British were apparently welcomed by the whites. But the colony was so
+utterly distracted that little could be done, and although they took
+Port au Prince they were repulsed at Cape Tiberon. Then sickness fell
+upon them--"Yellow Jack"--and this, with the delay of reinforcements,
+made all prospects of success quite hopeless. With a foreign enemy at
+hand the commissioners did all they could to reconcile the parties, and
+to this end, just before the landing of the British, proclaimed complete
+emancipation of all the slaves, which was ratified in Paris on the 4th
+of February, 1794. This brought the whole body of rebels together, and
+the position of the enemy became untenable. Finally came the cession of
+the Spanish part of the island to France, and now it might be supposed
+that something could be done to restore peace.
+
+This repulse of the British was greatly due to the influence of a very
+remarkable personage, Toussaint L'Ouverture, a pure negro, and lately a
+slave. He had joined the revolt from its commencement, and had succeeded
+in gaining such an influence over his race as had hitherto been unknown
+in any slave insurrection. As soon as the general emancipation had been
+declared, he was so grateful that he joined the French, heart and soul,
+drove out the British, put down the mulattoes, and was appointed
+Commander-in-chief of the united forces. In 1801 he became virtually
+Dictator of the whole island, and was made President for life, with the
+result that many plantations were re-established, and the colony was
+making slow progress towards recovery.
+
+Napoleon Buonaparte has been much lauded for his diplomacy, but he
+certainly knew nothing of the West Indies. After the peace of Amiens he
+had a little time to look after the colonies, and Hayti was among the
+first to receive attention. Toussaint was then almost at the height of
+his power, and had prepared a Constitution which was laid before
+Napoleon, on reading which the First Consul said it was an outrage on
+the honour of France, and the work of a revolted slave, whom they must
+punish. It was true that the black President was virtually independent.
+He lived in the palace at St. Domingo, and, with his councillors of all
+colours, enacted the part of a little sovereign. To crown his audacity,
+he, in July, 1801, proclaimed the independence of the island, and
+himself as supreme chief.
+
+This roused the anger of Napoleon, who retaliated by a proclamation
+re-establishing slavery in the island--a measure so foolish that even
+the planters themselves saw the impossibility of carrying it out. To
+reduce the negroes again to servitude was utterly impossible, even with
+all the power France could then bring into the island. However, it was
+attempted with a force of thirty thousand men and sixty-six ships of
+war. When this immense fleet arrived at Cape Francois the town was
+commanded by the negro Christophe, who, finding himself unable to cope
+with such a force, burnt the palace and withdrew. The French landed and
+sent two sons of Toussaint, who had been sent to France for their
+education, and to whom they had given a passage to their father,
+bearing a letter from Napoleon, offering him great honours if he would
+declare his allegiance. All that Toussaint said in reply was that he
+would be faithful to his brethren and his God, and with that he allowed
+his sons to return.
+
+As yet the declaration that slavery was to be re-established had not
+been published, and the negroes were working the plantations on a share
+of the crop, with penalties for idleness. The French tried to put the
+negroes against Toussaint, in which they succeeded to some extent, the
+result being that civil war was renewed, and that the power of the black
+chieftain was broken. Then the general thought it time to issue the
+proclamation, which fell upon his negro allies like a thunder-clap, and
+made them again rally round Toussaint. Thus almost everything which had
+been gained was utterly and for ever lost.
+
+Now the French tried a little double-dealing. The general stated in a
+new proclamation that ignorance had led him hastily to fall into error,
+and that to prevent anything of the same kind, and to provide for the
+future welfare and liberty of all, he convened an assembly of
+representatives of all the inhabitants, regardless of colour. This won
+over the leaders, and finally peace was concluded with Toussaint. The
+fallen president wished to retire to his estate and into private life,
+but having been cordially invited to meet the general to discuss with
+him the welfare of the colony, he was seized at the interview and put on
+board a French frigate, which immediately sailed for France. Here he
+was imprisoned for life without trial, and finally allowed to starve by
+withholding food and water for four days.
+
+The negroes again rose, and the soldiers were by this time so weakened
+by yellow fever, which even carried off the Governor, that little could
+be done against the rebels. Yet everything possible was attempted.
+Bloodhounds were brought from Cuba to worry the rebels to death; they
+were shot and taken into the sea to be drowned in strings. Dessalines
+had now become their leader, and on the 29th of November, 1803, he with
+Christophe and Clervaux, the other rebel chiefs, issued the St. Domingo
+declaration of independence. Restored to their primitive dignity the
+black and coloured people proclaimed their rights, and swore never to
+yield them to any power on earth. "The frightful veil of prejudice is
+torn to pieces, and is so for ever; woe be to whomsoever would dare
+again to put together its bloody tatters." The landholders were not
+forbidden to return if they renounced their old errors and acknowledged
+the justice of the cause for which the blacks had been spilling their
+blood for twelve years. As for those who affected to believe themselves
+destined by Heaven to be masters and tyrants, if they came it would be
+to meet chains or to be quickly expelled. They had sworn not to listen
+to clemency for those who dared to speak of the restoration of slavery.
+Nothing was too costly a sacrifice for liberty, and every means was
+lawful to employ against those who wished to suppress it. Were they to
+cause rivers and torrents of blood to flow--were they to fire half the
+globe to maintain it--they would be innocent before the tribunal of
+Providence.
+
+This declaration was followed on the 30th of March, 1804, by an address
+of Dessalines, in which he said that everything that reminded them of
+France also reminded them of the cruelties of Frenchmen. There still
+remained, he said, Frenchmen on their island--creatures, alas! of their
+indulgence; when would they be tired of breathing the same air? Their
+cruelty, when compared with the patient moderation of the blacks--their
+difference in colour--everything said that they were not brothers, and
+would never become so. If they continued to find an asylum, troubles and
+dissensions would be sure to continue. "Citizens, inhabitants of Hayti,
+men, women, girls, children, cast your eyes upon each point of the
+island! Seek in it, you, your wives; you, your husbands; you, your
+sisters!" Their ashes were in the grave, and they had not avenged their
+deaths. Let the blacks learn that they had done nothing if they did not
+give the nations a terrible but just example of the vengeance of a brave
+people, who had recovered liberty, and were jealous to maintain it.
+
+They were again roused, and from the 29th of April to the 14th of May an
+indiscriminate massacre of the whites took place, as many as 2,500 being
+killed during the fifteen days. On the 28th of April Dessalines issued a
+manifesto congratulating them on their success. At length, he said, the
+hour of vengeance had arrived, and the implacable enemies of the rights
+of man had suffered the punishment due to their crimes. His arm had too
+long delayed to strike, but at the signal, which the justice of God had
+urged, they had brought the axe to bear upon the ancient tree of slavery
+and prejudice. In vain had time and the infernal politics of Europe
+surrounded it with triple brass. They had become, like their natural
+enemies, cruel and merciless. Like a mighty torrent their vengeful fury
+had carried away everything in its impetuous course. "Thus perish all
+tyrants over innocence and all oppressors of mankind!" Where was that
+evil and unworthy Haytian who thought he had not accomplished the
+decrees of the Eternal by exterminating those bloodthirsty tigers? "If
+there be one, let him fly--indignant nature discards him from our
+bosom--let him hide his shame far from hence! The air we breathe is not
+suited to his gross organs--it is the pure air of liberty, august and
+triumphant." Yes, they had rendered war for war, crime for crime,
+outrage for outrage. He had saved his country--he had avenged America.
+He made this avowal in the face of earth and heaven--it was his pride
+and glory. Black and yellow, whom the duplicity of Europeans had
+endeavoured to divide, now made but one family--he advised them to
+maintain that precious concord and happy harmony. In order to strengthen
+the tie let them call to remembrance the catalogue of atrocities--the
+abominable project of massacring the whole population, unblushingly
+proposed to him by the French authorities. Let that nation which was mad
+enough to attack him, come--let them bring their cohorts of homicides.
+He would allow them to land, but woe to those who approached the
+mountains! "Never again shall a colonist or a European set his foot
+upon this territory with the title of master or proprietor."
+
+On the 8th of October the writer of these bloodthirsty addresses was
+crowned as Jacques the First, Emperor of Hayti.
+
+In 1808 an attempt was made on the part of Spain to regain her old
+colony on the eastern part of the island, where France still maintained
+a nominal supremacy. Spain was now an ally of Great Britain, and, with
+the aid of British troops, she took St. Domingo and retained this part
+of the island until 1821, when a revolution took place and it became
+independent, to be almost immediately united with its sister republic.
+
+Meanwhile the Emperor Jacques did not long enjoy his throne in peace,
+for he was murdered by his coloured soldiers on the 17th of October,
+1806. A republic followed, under the presidency of General Petion, who
+was at the head of the mulattoes, but did not agree with the blacks.
+This led to a division, the north, with Cape Francois as the capital,
+coming into the hands of the negro Christophe, who got himself crowned
+as the Emperor Henry the First; the southern district, with Port au
+Prince, forming a republic under President Petion.
+
+Henry was a man of good common sense, but like most negroes, much
+inclined to ape the whites. One of his toasts at a dinner was
+characteristic: "My brother, the king of Great Britain, and may he be
+successful against Buonaparte, and continue the barrier between that
+tyrant and this kingdom." He created a legion of honour, called the
+Order of St. Henry, built a palace, and began to acquire a fleet; he
+gave balls and encouraged operas, had a great seal, gave titles of
+nobility, and procured a set of regalia and jewels, with velvet robes
+and all other appendages of royalty. Under his rule the country
+flourished, for he would have no idlers. Yet he was a tyrant, and at
+last, in 1820, he was attacked by his own guard, and committed suicide
+to prevent falling into their hands. President Boyer, who had succeeded
+Petion, now took advantage of the confusion to incorporate the two
+districts, and two years later he added the revolted Spanish portion,
+thus bringing the whole island under one rule, the presidency of which
+he held for twenty-two years.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+XIII.
+
+EMANCIPATION OF THE SPANISH MAIN.
+
+
+The influence of the French Revolution was felt in most of the other
+islands, but nowhere did it lead to such disasters as befel Hispaniola.
+In 1795 there was an insurrection in the island of Grenada, where the
+coloured people, under French influence, nearly drove the English out of
+the colony. Even when defeated they held their own in the mountains for
+about a year, committing many atrocities on the whites who fell into
+their hands. In most of the French islands there were insurrections more
+or less dangerous, some of which were put down by the British
+conquerors, who thus helped to keep the peace. It could not be expected,
+however, that small places like Martinique and Guadeloupe would ever
+have made such stubborn resistance as the great island of Hispaniola.
+
+A very great impression was made on the Spanish colonies, who during the
+war, owing to the distracted condition of the mother country, attained
+to a degree of freedom hitherto beyond their reach. This led to
+unfavourable comparisons between past and present, and the feeling that
+grew up was fomented by the British, who now had many opportunities
+from the measure of free trade which resulted from the peculiar
+circumstances of that period. Secret societies were then common all over
+Europe, and in Spain they were not wanting. In the early years of this
+century one of the most energetic members was Francisco Miranda, a
+native of Caracas, who had been a soldier under Washington, and had
+distinguished himself by his prominence in many of the revolutionary
+projects of the time. He was the prime organiser of the Creoles of South
+America, and under his auspices the "Gran Reunion Americana" was founded
+in London. Bolivar and San Martin were initiated into this society, and
+took its oath to fight for the emancipation of South America. Miranda
+did his best to ensure the co-operation of Great Britain and the United
+States, but failing in this, determined to get up one or more
+insurrections without their assistance.
+
+On the 27th of March, 1806, he sailed with three vessels and two hundred
+men from Jacmel, Hayti, and on the 11th of April arrived at the Dutch
+island of Aruba, from whence the little company proceeded to Puerto
+Cabello. The demonstration, however, was nipped in the bud, for two of
+his vessels being almost immediately captured by the Spaniards, Miranda
+was obliged to fly in the other to Barbados. Here he met Admiral
+Cochrane, with whom he entered into an arrangement for British
+assistance. Conceiving that it might be mutually advantageous to Great
+Britain and the Spanish provinces that the latter should be freed from
+the yoke of Spain, the admiral agreed to support him in a descent on
+Venezuela, between the coasts opposite Trinidad and Aruba. The only
+stipulation was for free trade with Great Britain as against her
+enemies, and with that Miranda went off to Trinidad.
+
+Here he hoped to gain recruits from among the Spanish people of the
+island, to whom he issued an address. The glorious opportunity, he said,
+presented itself of relieving from oppression and arbitrary government a
+people who were worthy of a better fate, but who were shackled by a
+despotism too cruel for human nature longer to endure. Groaning under
+their afflictions they hailed with extended arms the noble cause of
+freedom and independence, and called upon them to share the God-like
+action of relieving them.
+
+This stirring address made little impression, and consequently few
+followers were enrolled. However, he got eight armed vessels and two
+traders, and sailed from Trinidad on the 25th of July, 1806, for Coro on
+the Main. The fort and city were taken, but the people, instead of
+joyfully welcoming their deliverers, ran away and could not be induced
+to return. Miranda, finding the place untenable, went over to Aruba, of
+which he took possession as a basis for further operations. But the
+British authorities looked upon his scheme as impracticable, especially
+as it tended to injure their trade, and in November Miranda was
+compelled to disband his little company of less than three hundred at
+Trinidad.
+
+The time for a revolution had not yet arrived, but it was fast
+approaching. It could not be expected that Great Britain would assist
+filibustering against her ally, which Spain now became, and without some
+outside assistance Miranda found it impossible to do anything. However,
+the people themselves were at last aroused, and on the 19th of April,
+1810, the city of Caracas deposed the captain-general and appointed a
+Junta to rule in the name of the king. This body invited the other
+provinces to join and form a league for mutual protection against the
+French, who now had virtual possession of the mother country. Other
+provinces took the Government side and prepared to suppress the revolt,
+which led Caracas to ask the assistance of Great Britain and the United
+States.
+
+Among the Venezuelans was Simon Bolivar, who afterwards became the most
+important personage in the struggle for independence. Like Miranda, he
+was a native of South America, and like him had imbibed revolutionary
+ideas in Paris. He was a planter, and had taken no part in the overthrow
+of the captain-general, but from his principles being well known, he was
+appointed with others to proceed to London in the interests of the
+Junta. On their arrival they were answered cautiously, the authorities
+not wishing to commit themselves under the circumstances. Here Bolivar
+met Miranda, and took the oath of the "Gran Reunion," promising to work
+for the independence of South America, notwithstanding his nominal
+position as an advocate of the king of Spain against Napoleon.
+
+Meanwhile the Spanish Regency had proclaimed the leaders of the movement
+to be rebels, declaring war against them and blockading their ports.
+The Central Junta responded by raising an army, which was defeated with
+considerable loss at Coro and had to retire on Caracas. This caused some
+discouragement, but Miranda now arrived, was welcomed with an ovation,
+and appointed lieutenant-general of the army. He was also asked to draw
+up a constitution and to become one of the deputies at the first
+congress of Venezuela to be held in March, 1811.
+
+[Illustration: LA GUAYRA ON THE MAIN.
+
+(_From Andrews' "West Indies."_)]
+
+No longer was there any question of the French, the struggle was for
+entire independence. A civil war began, which raged with varying
+fortunes for twelve years, in the course of which were enacted scenes
+more worthy of the days of buccaneers than the beginning of the
+nineteenth century. In 1812 Caracas was destroyed by an earthquake, and
+in another locality perished the greater portion of a thousand men,
+marching against the Spaniards. It was reported that those provinces
+where the revolution had most influence suffered greatest, while those
+more loyal almost escaped. This was due to the fact that the mountainous
+region, in which Caracas is situated, felt the full effect of the
+earthquake, but the priests, who were mostly loyalists, told the
+ignorant peasantry that it was a judgment on the Patriots. The result
+was that large bodies deserted, until the whole Patriot army became
+disorganised. Miranda was captured and sent to Spain, where he died in
+prison in 1816, but Bolivar managed to escape.
+
+New Granada had revolted before Venezuela and was more successful. It
+was to this province that Bolivar retired after the downfall of the
+Patriot cause in Venezuela. Then the Spanish captain-general,
+Monteverde, who was called "the Pacificator," commenced his work by
+imprisoning so many Patriots that the gaols were choked, and many died
+of hunger and suffocation. In the country districts he let his troops
+ravage and plunder like hordes of banditti. Even his superiors were at
+length compelled to recall him on account of the numerous complaints and
+petitions. At last the people were again fairly roused, until there came
+a war of extermination, in which both parties tried to outvie the other
+in murder and rapine.
+
+Off the peninsula of Paria lay the small island of Chacachacare, and on
+it forty-five fugitives took refuge, where they consulted as to the
+renewal of the war. With only six muskets and some pistols, they landed
+on the coast on the 13th of March, 1813, surprised the guard of Gueiria,
+took their arms and marched into the town, where they were joined by the
+garrison, making their number two hundred. Thus began the second war, in
+which the Patriots, assisted by the return of Bolivar and a body of
+troops from New Granada, again took possession of a large part of the
+province. On the 15th of June Bolivar proclaimed extermination to the
+Royalists, and named the year, the third of independence and first of
+the war to the death. This severity created many enemies in Venezuela,
+as well as in other countries, and even Bolivar himself afterwards said
+that the proclamation had been issued in a delirium. However, the result
+was that both sides became more ferocious than ever, especially when the
+Indians were induced to join the Patriots.
+
+On the 6th of August Bolivar entered Caracas in triumph. The bells rang,
+cannons roared, and the people cheered him as their liberator. His path
+was strewn with flowers, blessings were called down upon his head, and
+beautiful girls, dressed in white and the national colours, led his
+horse and crowned him with laurel. The prison doors were opened, the
+Patriots set free, and, in spite of his proclamation, no act of
+retaliation sullied his triumph. Two days later he re-established the
+republic and proclaimed himself Dictator as well as liberator.
+
+There were now two Dictators in Venezuela, Marino in the east and
+Bolivar in the west, but the Spaniards were by no means conquered.
+Bolivar published another decree on the 6th of September, that all
+Americans who were even suspected of being Royalists were traitors to
+their country, and should be treated as such. Ten days later twelve
+thousand men arrived from Spain, and Bolivar, who had been besieging
+Puerto Cabello, was forced to retire. This encouraged the Royalists, who
+got the llaneros of the Orinoco on their side by promises of freedom to
+kill and plunder in the cause of the king, and threats of punishing by
+death all who disregarded the call to arms.
+
+Bolivar was captain-general, but he shared his power with Marino, the
+rights of both resting on force alone. To put an end to this, an
+assembly of notables was convened at Caracas, to whom he resigned his
+office, and then accepted it again at their request. But the Patriots,
+even when united, were as yet unable to stand before the Spanish army,
+and very shortly afterwards their flag was only visible on the island
+of Margarita. Bolivar again took refuge in New Granada, where he was
+elected captain-general, and entitled Liberator and Illustrious
+Pacificator. He, however, quarrelled with the Governor of Carthagena,
+and was forced to fly to Jamaica, saying before his departure that
+Carthagena preferred her own destruction to obedience to the federal
+government.
+
+In 1815, after the great peace, Marshal Morillo came out with 10,600 men
+selected from the army that had fought against Napoleon. He was to
+reduce the whole of the Main from Spanish Guiana to Darien, dealing
+first with Margarita. In the course of a year he did this, committing
+such atrocities as made his name a byword over the whole of South
+America. In the siege of Carthagena, which lasted about three months,
+the Patriots suffered greatly, hundreds dying of starvation; but at
+last, on the 6th of December, 1815, it was captured. An amnesty was
+proclaimed, but in spite of that four hundred old men, women, and
+children who surrendered were all killed, while most of the stronger men
+who survived managed to escape.
+
+The remnant of the Patriots was now scattered over the country as
+guerillas, and while Morillo was subduing New Granada a fresh signal for
+a general revolt was given. The Royalist Governor, in November, 1815,
+ordered the arrest of Arismendi, who had been pardoned, and at once the
+Margaritans rose, took possession of a part of the island, captured the
+fort, and killed the whole garrison. At the same time the guerillas
+united under Paez, who now came to the front as a llanero and leader of
+his class. Thus the struggle was resumed with all its former virulence.
+
+Bolivar, when he heard of the fall of Carthagena, went over to
+Hispaniola to meet President Petion, who was an ardent supporter of the
+revolution. Here he received assistance of arms and money, with which he
+began to fit out an expedition to recover his lost position. There were
+many refugees from the Main on that island, but they were not altogether
+friendly with the late Dictator, however Petion managed to secure their
+co-operation. It followed, therefore, that on the 16th of March, 1816,
+three hundred Patriots left for Margarita, where they captured two
+Spanish vessels and united with their fellow-countrymen under Arismendi.
+Going over to the Main they soon got together a powerful force which
+overran the whole country and ultimately achieved its independence.
+
+But before this happened the Patriots met with many reverses. Sometimes
+it appeared as if they would be utterly exterminated; then the tide
+turned in their favour and they were again successful. The country was
+devastated by both parties, until cultivation was abandoned in many
+districts. Provisions for the armies were often unattainable, and this
+drove the soldiers to plunder wherever there was an opportunity, no
+matter that the sufferers were of their own party.
+
+The struggle was watched with sympathy by the people of England, and
+Canning went so far as to make a declaration of neutrality favourable to
+the Patriots. Then came a systematic attempt to raise British
+volunteers, and, as there were many officers and men who had been
+disbanded since the great peace, a considerable force was raised.
+Carried away by enthusiasm they would hear nothing of the difficulties
+and dangers they had to encounter, but rushed to fight in the ranks of a
+people striving to liberate themselves from the grossest oppression. The
+country was represented as a perfect paradise, and the officers were
+promised grants of land in this delightful Eden, while the men had
+offers of double the pay of the British army. A similar call was also
+made in Germany with good results, and it was expected that what with
+the British Legion and this other contingent the result would be no
+longer doubtful.
+
+On their arrival at Margarita, however, they at once began to perceive
+that poverty reigned everywhere, and that no provision whatever had been
+made for them. The Patriots foraged for themselves, and anything like a
+commissariat was virtually unknown; but British soldiers were not
+accustomed to such a state of things. Then the food supply was at the
+best only live cattle, which they had to kill for themselves, cassava
+bread, and a few roots such as yams. The rations were so irregular, that
+one or two days would pass without any supply whatever, and this
+ultimately led to complaints and something like a mutiny, which was put
+down with the "cat."
+
+After some delay the British Legion was sent on to the Main, where they
+were worse off than in Margarita. Instead of welcoming them, the
+Patriots seemed to be jealous, and did not even give them the
+opportunity of fighting as they wished. When posted before Cumana they
+were exposed to the burning sun and drenching rains, without tents or
+any other shelter; their drinking water was stagnant and brackish, and
+for rations had only a pound of beef per day for each man, from oxen
+which they had to butcher. They were also greatly shocked at the
+enormities of the Patriots, who carried on the struggle in a manner
+suggestive of the Middle Ages rather than modern days. Prisoners were
+indiscriminately massacred, their murderers enjoying the work as if it
+were a recreation. It is true that in the then condition of the country
+large bodies of prisoners could neither be fed nor guarded; still the
+British could not but feel that the cause they had joined was not
+altogether what it had been represented. Want of proper food led to
+sickness, and soon they became quite broken down. Many died of fever and
+dysentery, some deserted and got away as best they could, the general
+result being that little benefit was derived from the British Legion by
+Venezuela.
+
+If such was the experience of the foreigners, what must have been that
+of the Patriots? They were certainly more used to the country and its
+food, and therefore suffered less from sickness; but this advantage was
+lost when it came to actual starvation. With the men engaged in the
+struggle, only the women and children were left to cultivate enough
+cassava to keep body and soul together. Even this little was often
+stolen by a foraging party, who did not hesitate to murder the whole
+family if any objection was made. Fugitives, if not cut off, made their
+way in canoes to Trinidad and Demerara, often arriving almost dead from
+the privations they had endured. Delicate Spanish ladies and little
+children sometimes arrived--their pitiable condition causing an outflow
+of sympathy from the planters, and a feeling of detestation for their
+persecutors.
+
+At the commencement of the year 1820 the Columbian Republic had become
+an accomplished fact, and on the 25th of November an armistice was
+concluded between Morillo and Bolivar, which virtually ended the
+struggle. The United States had looked upon it with favour, and
+Lafayette in France said that opposition to the independence of the New
+World would only cause suffering, but not imperil the idea. In 1823 the
+celebrated Monroe doctrine was formulated, and Canning said in the same
+year that the battle was won and Spanish America was free.
+
+Central America had not suffered like Venezuela and New Granada. From
+Mexico to Panama was the old captain-generalship of Guatemala, but
+little interest was taken in the province, Spain leaving it almost
+entirely in the hands of the Catholic Missions. It was not until
+Columbia had gained her independence that Guatemala moved in the same
+direction, although there were slight disturbances in Costa Rica and
+Nicaragua from 1813 to 1815. At first there was a project to found a
+kingdom, but this gave way to the proposal for union with Mexico under
+the Emperor Iturbide, which was carried out, but did not last long. In
+1823 Central America established a Federal Republic, and at once
+abolished slavery and declared the slave-trade to be piracy--a decision
+to which the other revolted colonies came about the same time.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+XIV.
+
+ABOLITION OF SLAVERY.
+
+
+Negro slavery, although it formed the sinews and backbone of the
+plantations, was, as we have seen, considered unjust by the French
+republicans and immoral by a large section of the benevolent in Great
+Britain and the United States. In both countries the Society of Friends,
+or Quakers, commenced to influence public opinion against its
+continuance as early as about 1770, and had it not been for the French
+Revolution it is probable that emancipation would have taken place early
+in this century. The premature and inconsiderate action of the French in
+Hayti lost to France her most valuable plantation, for some years giving
+such an example of what might happen were emancipation to be granted
+elsewhere, that those in favour of the system could always point to it
+with the finger of warning. Yet with all that the friends of the slave
+were undaunted; and as a beginning, in 1807, they procured the abolition
+of the slave-trade as far as Great Britain and her colonies were
+concerned, and then went on to get the traffic prohibited by other
+nations. Denmark had led the van by declaring it unlawful as early as
+1792, but little impression was made until the nation most concerned
+took action.
+
+This was a great blow to the British West Indies. The labour question
+had always been of the first importance, and to put a sudden stop to the
+supply meant a check to all progress. For twenty years before a great
+impetus had been given to planting, which was much assisted by the
+downfall of Hayti and consequent reduction of her produce to such an
+extent that she no longer affected the market. Now that the planters
+could get no more negroes, anything like enlargement of the acreage
+under cultivation was impossible. Latterly, also, produce had diminished
+in price, which made cheap labour all the more important. They had great
+difficulty in making their estates pay, and when sugar fell to half its
+former value a cry of "Ruin!" went forth all over the West Indies. It is
+interesting to note that the panacea which they expected would save them
+was free trade. At that time the British warehouses were filled with
+sugar and other tropical produce, while every continental port was
+closed by Napoleon, and the United States by the navigation laws. Not
+only did Great Britain store the produce of her own colonies, but that
+from those of the French and Dutch as well. In 1812 it was stated that
+the sugar consumption of Great Britain amounted to 225,000 hogsheads,
+while the production of her colonies was 150,000 in excess of this. The
+Southern States had just taken up cotton cultivation, and brought the
+price of that article too low for the West Indian planter, and, as if
+that were not enough, coffee also fell in price to an alarming extent.
+
+Sugar paid best, and was therefore fostered to the exclusion of the
+other products; and now began the plantation system which became so
+obnoxious to the anti-slavery party. Hitherto, with a full supply of
+labour, the negroes did little work as compared with their
+capabilities--now something like the factory system of the mother
+country was introduced. The old methods would no longer enable the
+planter to get a profit, and he must make the best of his labour supply.
+Great administrative ability, more careful management, attention to
+economy, and concentration, were all necessary to prevent losses, and
+that these were not wanting can easily be seen from the results. The
+slaves were driven into the field in gangs, and kept at work by the
+threat of the driver's whip, while the overseers and manager gave most
+careful attention to the whole system.
+
+Not only did the negroes work, but the whites also; in fact, on the part
+of the latter there was a continual strain after a fortune on which to
+retire from this tiresome and harassing work of nigger-driving. Where
+one succeeded, ten failed; many died of the exposure and of the
+_anti-malarial_ drinks they imbibed so plentifully. So great was the
+mortality that the colonies became proverbial for their number of
+widows, some of whom, however, were not above managing their own
+plantations. It was a race for wealth, to which everything else was
+secondary.
+
+The slaves diminished every year in the absence of additions from
+outside, as the whites would have done under similar circumstances.
+That there was no natural increase was mainly due to the fact that the
+sexes were unequal, and then, again, maternal affection was sadly
+wanting in the women, who seemed to care less for their children than
+some domestic animals. This state of things was mainly the outcome of
+the system, which was undoubtedly immoral, but the mental disabilities
+of the race must also be taken into consideration. The anti-slavery
+party considered that environment was everything; if they could only
+free the negro from compulsory servitude he would at once become an
+industrious labourer. Yes, in their opinion, if he had the incentive of
+wages, it would make him a credit to himself and his community. The
+slaves, they said, were worked to death, yet as free men they would do
+more and perform their tasks better. Their experience with free workmen
+led to these conclusions, but this could not apply to the West Indies
+nor to the negro race.
+
+The anti-slavery party was very strong, and although it is not stated
+that they took "Perish the colonies!" for their motto, it is very
+certain that they cared little about the future of either white or black
+as long as they carried their object. To this end every possible case of
+oppression and ill-treatment was exaggerated, and spoken of as if it
+were common, notwithstanding that the case only came to their notice
+through the trial and punishment of the offender. The fact was the
+planter could not afford to ill-treat his slave--no other animal of his
+live stock was of so much value. If a valuable horse were killed
+another could be obtained to replace him, but this was almost impossible
+in the case of the negro. Formerly, when he cost about L20, it might
+have paid to work him to death; now that his price was five or six times
+as much, self-interest alone prevented ill-treatment. There was a strong
+public opinion in every colony which prevented cruelty, and there were
+societies in some which gave prizes to those in charge of estates who
+raised the greatest number of children in proportion to their negroes.
+This breeding of negroes was necessarily very slow work, and did little
+to make up for the stoppage of importation. It followed, therefore, that
+every year the amount of available labour became less.
+
+In 1815 the anti-slavery party commenced a further agitation in favour
+of the negro, with the result that a Registrar of slaves was appointed
+for each colony, and ultimately a Protector. By obtaining an annual
+census they hoped to have some check on the decrease, and at the same
+time see if any Africans were surreptitiously imported. In some places
+there was already a slave registration for the purpose of adjusting the
+head-tax; here the planters did not oppose the measure, although they
+resented interference. Others, like Barbados, protested against the
+innovation as something quite unnecessary, or even if desirable, not to
+be imposed upon them from outside. This led to a great deal of
+discussion at the planters' tables, where the slave waiters listened to
+what was said, and from thence carried garbled reports to the others.
+
+In every colony were numbers of free negroes and coloured people, some
+of whom were loafers and spongers on the slaves, while others went about
+the country peddling. Having nothing to do, they became the
+news-carriers and circulators of garbled reports. In 1815 there lived in
+Barbados a free coloured man named Washington Franklin, who, like many
+negroes, was possessed of a good memory and a great power of
+declamation. Getting hold of the English and colonial newspapers, he
+would read the speeches of Wilberforce and others, and after putting his
+own construction on them, retail them in language tending to rouse the
+slaves. To him was due an impression that prevailed in Barbados,
+probably from a misunderstanding of the Registry Bill, that they were
+all to be free at the beginning of the year 1816. When New Year's Day
+had passed they became dissatisfied, believing that their masters had
+received orders to set them free, but would not execute them. They had
+heard of the successful rising in Hayti, and were determined to attempt
+a similar revolt in Barbados.
+
+After waiting for the expected freedom until the 14th of April, they
+determined on that day to have a general rising, which was signalled by
+burning heaps of cane-trash in the parish of St. Philip. Soon the fields
+were set on fire, and frenzied mobs, continually increasing in numbers,
+went from one plantation to another seeking arms. This went on for two
+days, but on the arrival of the militia they dispersed, leaving a waste
+behind. As usual a great many of the negroes were executed, although it
+does not appear that any whites got killed in the revolt. However, the
+Registry Act was delayed for two years, to be ultimately passed in
+January, 1817.
+
+Towards the end of the last century a new class of men appeared in the
+West Indies--the Protestant missionaries. Catholic missions had been
+established in the Spanish possessions since the time of Columbus, but
+hitherto, with the exception of a few Moravians, no other Church had
+done anything to convert the slaves in the British colonies. Between
+1780 and 1790, Methodist societies were established in most of the
+islands, notwithstanding the opposition of the planters, who in some
+cases appear to have thought that baptized Christians could no longer be
+held in slavery. This vulgar error, however, was not the real cause of
+the antagonism to these teachers, but rather the feeling natural to a
+master which makes him resent any outside interference between himself
+and his servants. The best and kindest were the first to feel this. The
+slaves were their children, and to them they applied, in all their
+troubles and difficulties, as to a great father. It followed, therefore,
+that when the missionaries came and proclaimed themselves friends to the
+slaves, giving them advice in secular as well as religious matters, the
+cordial feeling was broken. "Massa" was much put out, for he liked to
+hold the position of a little god to these poor ignorant creatures over
+whom he held such power. The slaves were sometimes whipped as bad
+children when they did wrong, and as children they cared little for a
+flogging. It is easily conceivable that a humane missionary might feel
+more pain at witnessing such a punishment than the culprit himself, but
+it is a fact that cruel punishment was never mentioned by the slaves as
+an excuse for a revolt.
+
+The missionaries were shocked at the apparent nakedness and destitution
+of the negroes, as a visitor to the West Indies will be even now. They
+did not remember that their clothing and houses were well suited to the
+climate, and that a home in the English sense of the word would not have
+been appreciated by them. These things were reported to the societies at
+home, the members of which knew no more about the tropics than the
+merchant who once sent a consignment of warming-pans to Barbados. Those
+who wanted to raise a cry of cruelty to the poor slave, circulated these
+facts, and put their own construction upon them, one going so far as to
+state that there were no chimneys to the houses, as if this omission
+were a slave disability or oppression, although any visitor to the
+colonies could have told him that these conveniences were hardly found
+anywhere.
+
+The negro willingly listened to his friend the missionary, and felt
+eager to perform the rites and ceremonies of the little congregation.
+The Established Church was that of England, and although in some places
+there were special services for the blacks, in others "slaves and dogs"
+were refused admission. This exclusiveness threw the slaves into the
+hands of the Moravians, Baptists, Methodists, and the agents of the
+London Missionary Society. The Church government of some of these was in
+the hands of the congregation, and as this was a sort of playing at
+"Massa," the slave took to them all the more readily.
+
+No doubt these ministers were very good men, and animated by a great
+love for the negroes, but this did not prevent their being misunderstood
+by both master and slave. Then many of them were connected with the
+anti-slavery society, and however careful they might be not to offend
+local prejudices, by speaking against the obnoxious system, as
+conscientious men they could not help showing their bias. The
+established clergymen, on the contrary, when they preached to the
+slaves, told them to "be subject to the powers that be," and to remain
+content in the condition where Providence had placed them.
+
+At first most of the planters only sneered at these attempts to convert
+the slaves, but when they saw what an attraction the chapels became,
+they opposed them openly. Gangs of young fellows would attend, and
+sometimes break up the meetings by jeering at the preacher. In 1807 an
+ordinance was passed in Jamaica "for preventing the profanation of
+religious rites and false worshipping of God, under the pretence of
+preaching and teaching, by illiterate, ignorant, and ill-disposed
+persons, and of the mischief consequent thereupon." Considering it the
+first duty of all magistrates to encourage the solemn exercise of
+religion, and whereas nothing tended more to bring it into disrepute
+than the pretended preaching and expounding of the Word of God by
+ignorant persons and false enthusiasts, to persons of colour and slaves,
+it was enacted that, after the 1st of July, no unauthorised person
+should presume to teach, preach, offer public prayer, or sing psalms to
+any assembly of these people, on pain of a fine of a hundred pounds,
+imprisonment for six months, or whipping. Similar punishments were also
+to be inflicted on any one preaching in an unlicensed building, as well
+as on the owner of a house or yard in which it had been permitted.
+
+Another way of stopping the assembly of slaves was to pass a law against
+their meeting at night, and punish them if they left the estate without
+a written permission. There were always excuses for this apparent
+harshness, as plots had been arranged at nocturnal meetings, some of
+which had given a great deal of trouble. Even if a pass were granted to
+attend chapel, the estate's authorities could hardly be expected to
+follow and see that the slave did not go elsewhere. The missionaries
+took it that all this was done to hamper their work, but such was not
+the case altogether.
+
+The anti-slavery party became very strong about the year 1820, and every
+obnoxious regulation was a text for discourses on the infamy of the
+whole system. If a planter were punished, the case was trumpeted over
+the country to promote a greater antagonism. How absurd this really was
+could only be seen by the West Indians themselves, and if they attempted
+to say anything they were put down as liars, becaused they were biassed
+in favour of the other side. One writer pertinently remarked that, among
+the hundreds of military and naval officers stationed in the West
+Indies, not one had borne out the statements of the missionaries, and we
+may call attention to the curious fact that Captain Marryat, who was
+well acquainted with every colony, speaks always of the negro as a happy
+fellow. The genial novelist does not mince matters when he speaks of
+oppression on board ship, and it is not to be supposed that he would go
+out of his way to screen the planters.
+
+Some of the colonies passed laws against indiscriminate manumissions,
+and these were declaimed against as tyranny. Yet their wisdom was so
+patent that, under the system, they could only be heartily approved by
+every one competent to judge. There is one little fact that stands out
+most prominently as a redeeming point, if such a thing be
+possible--under slavery there was no poverty--there were no tramps nor
+beggars. The owner of the plantation had to feed his people in sickness
+and in health, in childhood and old age. If manumissions could be given
+by the mere stroke of a pen, many a poor sick or broken-down creature
+would have been cast adrift to become a burden upon the community. Now
+and again we yet hear some old woman complain that if this were slavery
+time, she would not be half-starved as she is to-day, notwithstanding
+the poor relief.
+
+It may perhaps be thought that we are attempting the defence of slavery;
+we only wish to show that it was not quite so black as it has been
+painted. It had its dark side; but, on the other hand, many a bright
+gleam can be perceived by those who have seen some who were born into
+servitude and heard their stories. They were well fed, had as much
+clothing as they really required, were as a matter of policy well
+treated as a rule, and were quite as happy as they are to-day.
+Magistrates, policemen, and gaols were almost unknown; the planter gave
+the negro a slight flogging now and then, and this ended the tale of
+his misdemeanours. A bad master might be cruel as a bad husband may be
+also, but we should not condemn marriage on account of its abuses. The
+great argument against slavery was the degradation it produced on the
+minds of both parties. However, we are not writing the history of
+slavery, but the story of the West Indies, and must apologise for the
+digression.
+
+In 1823 the House of Commons, on a motion of Fowell Buxton, "that the
+state of slavery is repugnant to the principles of the British
+Constitution, and of the Christian religion," resolved to ameliorate the
+condition of the slave by giving him civil rights and privileges. As a
+result of this, orders were sent out to abolish the flogging of women,
+and discontinue the use of the whip in the field.
+
+Already the West Indian planters were alarmed at the interference of the
+British Government, and the overriding of colonial laws by Orders in
+Council. In 1819 they had petitioned against being compelled to manumit
+their slaves in cases where they wished to buy their freedom, but their
+protests went for nothing. Now also they had to submit, although they
+did so with a bad grace. The British Government left the carrying out of
+the provisions of the resolutions to the colonial legislatures, but at
+the same time giving them to understand that there was no option.
+
+In 1811, when the Governor and Court of Policy of Demerara neglected to
+issue a proclamation allowing negroes to attend chapel in the evening,
+they received a sharp reprimand, and the Governor was superseded; now
+they knew that nothing was left but to obey orders.
+
+When, therefore, the despatch containing these resolutions arrived in
+Demerara, a meeting of the legislature was at once convened to prepare
+the necessary ordinance. There was no attempt to evade this duty or
+delay compliance, but such a radical change required great
+consideration, especially in regard to the control of females without
+the use of the whip. Negresses were, as a rule, less amenable to
+discipline than the men, and it was thought that something must be done
+to prevent insubordination. Several meetings took place from the 21st of
+July, 1823, to early in August, at which the ordinance was prepared and
+passed, but up to the 18th of the latter month it had not been
+published. Such a delay, however, did not imply any intention of evading
+the duty, for three or four weeks often elapse from the time of passing
+to the publication of a Bill.
+
+Meanwhile the negroes got an idea that something had been done in
+England for their benefit. Like the slaves in Barbados and other
+colonies, they heard discussions at their masters' tables, and supposed
+that the something which had taken place meant their total emancipation.
+"The king had freed them, but the planters refused to carry out the
+order." On the East Coast of Demerara there was then a small chapel
+belonging to the London Missionary Society, under the charge of the Rev.
+John Smith. This chapel was a rendezvous for the negroes of the
+neighbouring plantations, who not only came to service, but met
+afterwards for a little gossip. Some who could read gave their ideas of
+what they had gleaned from their masters' newspapers, while others told
+what had been said at the dinner-tables. It does not appear that Mr.
+Smith had told them anything of the new resolutions, nor is there
+evidence that the deacons of the chapel knew of them. It followed,
+therefore, that all the information they had was these garbled reports
+of their own people.
+
+On Sunday, the 17th of August, a number of the bolder spirits met after
+service and discussed a plot which had been already under consideration,
+for a general rising at eight o'clock next evening. Their idea was to
+put their masters in the stocks, arm themselves, and, when the Governor
+came, demand their supposed rights.
+
+On Monday morning a coloured servant informed his master of the plot, on
+which he at once rode off to Georgetown and interviewed the Governor.
+Warnings were sent to most of the planters, and preparations made to
+suppress the revolt if it took place, but such reports were not
+uncommon, and although the whites looked after their weapons they did
+not feel much alarm. As a matter of policy it was better to assume
+indifference, as anything like desertion of the estates, even so far as
+the sending away of women and children, would have encouraged the
+negroes.
+
+The signal was given by a fire near the chapel, on which the slaves
+assembled in great mobs, over-powered their masters, put them in the
+stocks, and took all the firearms and other weapons they could find. The
+Governor was already in the neighbourhood with a small party of
+cavalry, and on seeing the signal proceeded to inquire into its meaning.
+On the way he was met by an armed mob, who, on being asked what they
+wanted, answered, "Our right!" He told them of the new law, and promised
+a full explanation on the morrow if they would disperse and come to him
+at a neighbouring plantation. There was a slight hesitation for a few
+moments, but presently, with cries of "No! no!" and the blowing of
+shells, they drowned his voice. Then some of the more moderate advised
+him to go away, which he was obliged to do, as his whole company
+numbered hardly a dozen.
+
+Bearing in mind the disasters of the Berbice insurrection, the people of
+Georgetown were much alarmed. Placing their women and children on board
+vessels in the river, the men prepared to resist to the death. Martial
+law was proclaimed, and every person, without distinction, called upon
+to enrol at once in the militia, all exemptions being cancelled. They
+responded heartily, and soon the town put on an appearance as if
+deserted, except at those places where guards were stationed. The stores
+were closed, the slaves kept indoors, and, save for the arrival and
+departure of mounted orderlies, not a sound could be heard. Even the
+negroes themselves, in their kitchens and outbuildings, were overawed,
+and hardly spoke above a whisper.
+
+The Methodist ministers came forward and enrolled themselves in the
+militia, but they were not called upon to perform any duty. The Rev.
+John Smith, however, took no notice of the proclamation, although he
+admitted having seen it. On the evening of the revolt he went for a walk
+with his wife, and on his return found that the manager's house was
+being attacked by a mob of slaves. He succeeded by expostulation in
+preventing their doing much injury, and even rescued the manager from
+their hands, but instead of sending notice of the rising to the
+neighbouring estates he went quietly home. As far as he knew no one had
+been warned of the revolt, and he was certainly remiss in his duty when
+he did nothing whatever. When, on the following day, he was visited by a
+militia officer, and ordered to enrol himself in accordance with the
+Governor's proclamation, he refused on the ground of his exemption,
+although he knew that all exemptions had been cancelled.
+
+As usual the rebels had no proper leaders, and for some reason or
+other--the missionaries ascribed it to religious teaching--they did not
+burn the houses or destroy the crops. One or two whites who resisted
+were wounded, one at least fatally, but here again the insurgents were
+forbearing. Fortunately they were soon suppressed, and this no doubt
+prevented such atrocities as had been committed elsewhere. What with the
+soldiers, the militia, and crews of vessels in the river, the force
+brought against them was overwhelming. Only one attempt was made to
+fight, but the first volley of the troops sent the rioters scattering
+into a cotton field. In about two days the insurrection was over, and
+then came the hunt for fugitives, who as usual took to the swamp at the
+back of the estates. A large body of Indians was employed, and in the
+end most of them were captured, some to be hanged at once and others
+after sentence by court-martial.
+
+Mr. Smith's behaviour was considered as something more than
+suspicious--he was believed to have had knowledge of the plot, and
+charged with an intention to side with the negroes if he saw any
+prospect of their success. On his refusal to take part in the defence of
+the colony he was taken prisoner, and after the negroes had been tried
+and sentenced, his case was brought before a court-martial. He was
+charged with promoting discontent among the slaves, conspiring to bring
+about a revolt, knowing of the plot the day before and not reporting it,
+and holding communication with one of the leaders after it had broken
+out without attempting to capture him. The case created a great stir,
+public opinion being universal that he was the prime mover in the whole
+affair.
+
+His trial lasted over a month, at the end of which he was found guilty
+and sentenced to be hanged. This sentence, however, seems to have been
+given to satisfy the people; it was not published, nor was it intended
+to be executed without reference to the home Government. This is proved
+by the report in the "Royal Gazette" of the colony, which stated that
+the trial was over, but the nature of the proceedings was such as to
+render it imperative on the Governor to transmit them for His Majesty's
+consideration. The public were not informed of the verdict, but it is
+not to be supposed that they were ignorant of the result of the trial;
+on the contrary, the sentence met with their approval, and they
+complained of the delay in carrying it out, as compared with the hasty
+executions of the negroes. Mr. Smith was ultimately reprieved, on the
+understanding that he removed himself from the West Indies, and engaged
+never to come back to Guiana or go to any of the islands. But the poor
+missionary was sick, and under treatment before the insurrection, and it
+may be presumed that the worry of the trial hastened his end. He died in
+prison before the king's answer arrived, and was buried at night to
+prevent a hostile demonstration.
+
+We have been thus particular in giving the facts of the Demerara East
+Coast Insurrection, because it made such an impression in England. The
+anti-slavery party used the case of the "Martyr" Smith as a watchword,
+and it was a prime factor in hurrying on emancipation. The immediate
+result was an Order in Council to enable slaves to contract legal
+marriage, to hold property, to buy their freedom on a valuation by
+disinterested parties, and to put them under a Protector, whose duty was
+to see that their rights were not infringed. They were now citizens,
+their only civil disabilities being compulsory labour and a tie to the
+plantation or their masters.
+
+This, however, did not satisfy the anti-slavery party, and they went on
+with their struggle for total emancipation, in which they at last
+succeeded. In 1833 an Act of Parliament was passed, by which, after the
+1st of August, 1834, slavery was to give place to an apprenticeship of
+four or six years, according to the status of the slave, the former
+term for house-servants and the latter for labourers on the
+plantations, or "predials." Every child born after that date was to be
+entirely free, and here came in one of the greatest blemishes of the
+law. These poor infants belonged to nobody; their mothers cared little
+for them, and it could not be expected that the planters would pay to
+keep up the old system of superintendence. Even those who had been
+instrumental in getting the law passed now began to make comparisons
+between the position of the child-bearing woman under the old and new
+systems. Hitherto they were unable to find words harsh enough to use in
+condemning slavery--now they began to find that it had its good points.
+Then the new system required new administrators, and, to prevent any
+suspicion of bias, magistrates were brought from England. Yet these very
+same unbiassed gentlemen ordered flogging for the men and the treadmill
+and dark cell for the women. The Quaker delegates sent out to inspect
+the result of their work were horrified. They said that the cat was
+worse than the old whip, and that the apprenticeship system caused ten
+times more suffering than slavery.
+
+And such was really the case. The negroes could no longer be kept under
+subordination--they even claimed entire freedom at once. Several
+disturbances took place before they could be made to understand that
+they had to work seven and a half hours every day, to pay for their
+homes, provision grounds, and other allowances. In Demerara the Governor
+addressed them as erring children, telling them that they could not
+all be masters, and that every one must work. They had never seen a
+white man handle the shovel or the hoe--he was free--now they had
+attained to the same condition, the same coveted freedom from hard
+labour must be theirs also. True, there were free negroes, some of whom
+had learnt trades, but even they were above working in the field. Why
+should free negroes work? Certainly not for their wives and children.
+The women got their allowances, and the planter had hitherto looked
+after the children. The negro had no house rent to pay, his two suits of
+clothing came regularly every year, and if he was sick the doctor
+attended to him. Except to deck himself with finery, he had no use for
+money; a few would work overtime when they wanted something of that
+sort, but the majority did as little as possible.
+
+[Illustration: THE FIRST OF AUGUST.
+
+(_From Madden's "West Indies."_)]
+
+In 1838, when the house servants were to be freed, while the predials
+must serve two years longer, the difficulties of such an arrangement
+became insurmountable. A daughter or wife might be entirely free, and
+the father or husband an "apprentice." Then came the difficulty of
+classification, which the commissioners appointed to arrange the
+divisions necessarily decided against the opinion of one or the other
+disputant, driving him to appeal. All this rendered a continuance of the
+system impossible, and slavery was terminated altogether on the 1st of
+August, 1838, the planters receiving from the British people twenty
+millions sterling as compensation, being about one-third of the
+estimated value of the slaves.
+
+The French had received such a lesson from the revolt of Hayti that
+they did little for their negroes. However, after the downfall of Louis
+Philippe in 1848, the revolutionary Government abolished slavery
+throughout the colonies, without compensation.
+
+[Illustration: A RELIC OF THE SLAVERY DAYS--OLD SLAVE BUYING FISH.]
+
+After freedom had been secured in the British colonies the slaves in
+neighbouring places naturally became discontented. There were not many
+desertions from the islands, but in Guiana, where the Dutch negroes were
+slaves on one side of the river Corentyne, and the British free on the
+other, the runaways from the former caused a great deal of trouble to
+the Dutch. Whenever an opportunity occurred, a party of slaves stole a
+boat and made off to the British side, until the Surinam planters became
+much alarmed. Ultimately a Dutch gunboat was stationed at the boundary
+river, and this put an end to the migration.
+
+Some of the islands were much affected, especially those of the Danes,
+which were frequented by British vessels, and were largely English in
+their sympathies. Here the negroes soon learnt what had happened, and
+began to express dissatisfaction with their own position. However,
+Denmark saw that something had to be done, and in 1847 enacted laws for
+gradual emancipation in her islands. From the 28th of July of that year
+all children born of slaves were to be free, and at the end of twelve
+years from that time slavery was to cease altogether.
+
+This did not satisfy the negroes, who became more discontented, and in
+1848 an insurrection took place on the island of St. Croix. On the 2nd
+of July it was rumoured that the slaves would refuse to work next day,
+and in the evening the whites were alarmed by the ringing of bells and
+blowing of conch shells. At first it was considered as an alarm of fire,
+but on inquiry the whites found that the negroes had revolted, and were
+demanding their freedom. Later, people came in from the country
+districts with the news that there were noisy demonstrations, but that
+as yet no actual violence had been committed. So little alarm was as yet
+felt that no precautions were taken, although some persons became
+uneasy.
+
+Next morning the negroes streamed into Christiansted in great numbers,
+and commenced to demolish the police office. An officer coming into town
+was attacked by a woman with an axe, which fortunately missed him, but
+the crowd was so good-humoured that, on his treating the matter coolly
+he was allowed to pass: this apparent good feeling made the authorities
+hesitate in taking extreme measures, even when the mob came round the
+fort, shouting and calling for freedom. Now, however, they began to
+collect trash for the purpose of setting fire to a house, and the
+Stadthauptman and a Roman Catholic priest went among them to try
+remonstrances. All the answer they got was that the slaves could not
+fight the soldiers, but they intended to burn and destroy everything if
+freedom were not given them. One of the mob carried a British flag as an
+emblem of liberty, and several English sailors were reported as forming
+part of the crowd. Soon all their good-humour was gone, and they
+commenced plundering the stores, the whites running away to vessels in
+the harbour.
+
+About three o'clock in the afternoon the Governor arrived from St.
+Thomas, and went among the crowd telling them that they were free, at
+the same time ordering them to disperse quietly. For a few hours there
+was a lull, but next morning they reassembled in the country districts
+as if in doubt whether the Governor really meant what he had said. Some
+planters now brought their families to town, leaving their houses to be
+plundered. Parties of soldiers were sent out, and hundreds of prisoners
+were taken, the mobs, which in some cases numbered two or three
+thousand, dispersing at their appearance. Martial law was declared,
+Porto Rico sent six hundred Spanish troops, the insurrection was at last
+quelled, and peace restored. The Governor stood his trial in Denmark, to
+be acquitted, and to have his declaration of complete emancipation
+confirmed.
+
+Slavery still continued in the Dutch possessions until 1863, and even
+then it was only replaced by compulsory labour for ten years, leaving
+the final emancipation until 1873. Yet with all that there were no
+disturbances to hurry on the process or cause trouble. In Cuba a law was
+passed in 1870 to give freedom to all above the age of sixty, as well as
+to children born after the passing of the Act. This, however, was not
+enforced on account of internal dissensions, and although Porto Rico
+gave her slaves their liberty on the 23rd of March, 1873, the Cuban
+Emancipation Bill was not passed by the Spanish Senate until February,
+1880, and under that law slavery only came to an end on the 6th of
+October, 1886.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+XV.
+
+RESULTS OF EMANCIPATION.
+
+
+The slave emancipation was a terrible blow to the West Indies, and one
+from which many of the islands have not yet recovered. It was, the
+planters said, the second attempt to ruin them, the first having been
+the abolition of the slave-trade. The party who brought it about looked
+to see their _protegees_ become a contented, hard-working peasantry, in
+place of driven cattle, as they called them. The planters, on the
+contrary, were morally certain that as free men they would not work, and
+without a labour supply their estates would be utterly ruined. The
+British taxpayer grumbled at having to pay twenty millions, but this was
+a mere sop for the estate owners. With the loss of their human chattels
+the plantations in many cases became utterly valueless; for the negroes
+congregated round certain centres, leaving most of the outlying places
+without enough people to keep up the cultivation. Labour had been
+degraded by the system, and now the full effects of such influence began
+to be felt.
+
+[Illustration: NEGRESS, GUIANA.]
+
+[Illustration: NEGRESS FISH-SELLERS, GUIANA.]
+
+The compensation money, in many cases, went towards paying off mortgages
+and other claims, the holders of which saw the impending ruin and
+hastened to save themselves as far as possible. But it was not enough
+even for that, for many plantations had liens of half the appraised
+value of the land, buildings, and slaves. The last security being
+entirely gone the others became worthless, and, as no one cared to
+advance money on such risks, the nominal owners could not even get as
+much as to pay wages. A plantation valued at perhaps L60,000 a few years
+before, and easily mortgaged for half that amount, received L16,000 for
+compensation with which to pay off the claim, and then wanted cash to
+carry on as well. Banks were established, but only solvent estates could
+get help from them, and consequently hundreds were abandoned in the
+larger colonies, and hardly one, with the exception of those in
+Barbados, could produce as much sugar as formerly. West Indian Nabobs,
+who had been getting their ten thousand a year and living in England,
+went out to see what could be done. Their incomes were entirely gone,
+and with them all hopes for the future. Widows and children lost their
+only means of support, and ruin fell on hundreds of families in England
+as well as in the West Indies. But not only did this downfall affect the
+owners and their relations, but merchants as well. Old firms shook to
+their very foundations, while many became bankrupt, to bring suffering
+to the homes of thousands who had hardly known of the sugar colonies
+beyond the invectives of the anti-slavery society. Many who had been
+strong advocates of emancipation now wished they had never said anything
+about it, but the die was cast, and there could never again be anything
+like the shilly-shallying of the French at Hayti.
+
+[Illustration: CHINESE WOOD-CARRIER.]
+
+[Illustration: EAST INDIAN COOLIE.]
+
+The negroes would not work, and there were no means of forcing them to
+do so. The anti-slavery party still had their delegates in the West
+Indies to see that the "poor negro" was not oppressed in any way, and
+their representatives in Parliament to call the Government to account if
+they allowed any vagrancy laws, or even the shadow of a coercive measure
+in the colonies. One ordinance after another for this purpose was
+disallowed, until every planter was in despair.
+
+[Illustration: EAST INDIAN COOLIE FAMILY.]
+
+[Illustration: COOLIE BARBER.]
+
+To retain their labourers was a matter of life or death. Some continued
+the old slave allowances to put them in good humour, but as these made
+the negroes independent of wages, the privilege was abused. They took
+everything and did nothing in return. Some went so far as to say that
+the Queen had promised that their late masters should supply them as
+usual, entirely regardless of the amount of work they did. This made the
+planters sore. What with one trouble and another the few who survived
+the wreck hardly knew how to act. They must not do anything to drive
+their people away, for there were many inducements offered by others in
+the same predicament. The negro was master, and he knew it. So much
+depended on him that he was enticed to labour, by high wages and greater
+privileges, until this bidding of one against another produced the very
+result which it was intended to avoid.
+
+[Illustration: EAST INDIAN COOLIE GIRL.]
+
+[Illustration: COOLIE WOMEN, BRITISH GUIANA.]
+
+Something had to be done. First, the allowances of those who would not
+work were stopped; then their houses and provision grounds were taken
+away. Thousands of fruit-trees were destroyed to prevent their living on
+mangoes and bananas during the season. Then the planters attempted to
+combine to bring wages to a paying level, and this led to strikes of
+the negroes. Everything tended to further estrangement until employer
+and labourer drifted far apart. In British Guiana the negroes bought
+some of the abandoned plantations and established villages; in some
+cases they even attempted to carry them on as sugar estates, but as all
+wanted to be masters they in every case failed.
+
+[Illustration: COOLIE VEGETABLE SELLERS, BRITISH GUIANA.]
+
+[Illustration: EAST INDIAN COOLIES, TRINIDAD.]
+
+As if this were not enough, the British Government went in for free
+trade, and allowed foreign slave-grown sugar to compete with that of the
+colonies. It seemed as if the French revolutionary cry of "Perish the
+colonies!" had now been introduced into the British Parliament. From one
+point of view the planters had been amply paid with the compensation
+money. Some went so far as to say that twenty millions could have bought
+all the estates in the West Indies, implying that the colonists had no
+further claim upon them. Even the anti-slavery party would not see that
+they were encouraging the slave system in other countries by opening
+their markets. This completed the ruin begun by emancipation, but as
+long as the principles were adhered to it did not matter.
+
+[Illustration: EAST INDIAN COOLIE, TRINIDAD.]
+
+Most of the remaining plantations now fell into the hands of those who
+had liens upon them, and they, not liking to lose their money
+altogether, commenced the uphill work of again bringing them into
+cultivation. Even a few colonists continued the struggle in hopes of
+better times. In Demerara there were two cases where eminent
+lawyers--the legal profession, by the bye, doing well when everything
+else was on the verge of ruin--spent all their profits in keeping their
+sugar estates from utter abandonment. One of these got so heavily in
+debt that at one time he could not pay his house rent, and as the
+landlord dared not sue him, he had metaphorically to go on his knees and
+beg him to quit.
+
+[Illustration: TRINIDAD COOLIES.]
+
+However, the sturdy English spirit survived in a few, and they set to
+work to obtain labourers from other parts of the world. At first they
+thought of Africa, but the anti-slavery party would not hear of
+immigration from the "dark continent," for fear of abuses. Then India
+was tried, with the result that a few coolies were brought over by
+private parties, notably to Demerara by John Gladstone. But again the
+cry of slavery went forth, due to the managers leaving the new-comers in
+the hands of their headmen or sirdars. It was charged against them that
+they beat their underlings, and of course the planters had to bear the
+responsibility. The result was that East Indian immigration was
+prohibited for a time. After a hard struggle on the part of the planters
+it was renewed, and in the end prevented Trinidad and British Guiana
+from utter abandonment.
+
+Besides Hindoo coolies, Chinese were also imported, as well as Maltese,
+Madeirans, and a few Germans. At first the negro thought little of this
+competition, but when he gradually dropped into the background, with his
+missionary friends, he commenced to protest against it. His friends
+said, and it was the truth, that there was enough labour in the colonies
+to carry on the estates, but the difficulty was that it could not be
+depended upon. Then the wages demanded by the negroes was entirely
+beyond the means of the planters--the price of sugar would not admit of
+them. It was a case of cheap labour or the alternative of giving up the
+struggle, and with the East Indians, British Guiana, and Trinidad
+recovered from the brink of ruin to become more flourishing in some
+respects than in the years immediately preceding emancipation. Jamaica,
+the greatest of the British colonies, suffered the most as she got but
+few immigrants, and it is only during the last decade that she has again
+begun to hold up her head. Without healthy competition with other races,
+the negroes sunk back, until they became even more degraded than those
+of British Guiana and Trinidad.
+
+In Barbados, on the contrary, the population was so dense that the
+freedman must either work or starve. There were no waste lands and few
+absentee proprietors, nor were any of the estates abandoned. Labour was
+plentiful and cheap; it followed, therefore, that the island soon
+recovered from the check and went on prospering. The compulsion of the
+whip gave way to the force of circumstances, and the struggle for
+existence which ensued has made the Barbadian negro the most industrious
+in the West Indies. Not only is he this, but he is, like his former
+masters, intensely loyal to Great Britain and "Little England." All the
+black, coloured, and white people in the other islands call themselves
+Creoles, but he is "neither Crab (Carib) nor Creole, but true Barbadian
+born."
+
+In the French, Danish, and Dutch colonies labour laws were enforced
+after emancipation, and generally with good results. They felt the
+change, but not to such an extent as their neighbours, and recovered all
+the sooner. Then they were not utterly disheartened by the unhealthy
+competition of slave-grown products like the English. Possibly, however,
+the British freedman would not have borne coercion, for even the Danes
+resented it.
+
+We have seen already that the negroes of the island of St. Croix were by
+no means willing to submit to what they considered injustice, and how
+they forced on their own emancipation. However, down to 1878 they were
+bound to the soil as it were under annual engagements, from which they
+were not released without proper notice, even after the term had
+expired. They had houses, provision grounds, allowances, and very low
+wages, and were bound to work five days a week. The engagement expired
+annually on the 1st of October, and on that day those who did not renew
+their contract assembled in the two towns of the island for a
+jollification, where something like the old "mop" or hiring fair of
+England took place.
+
+In 1878 they somehow got the impression that the labour law was about to
+be relaxed, but there does not seem to have been any combination among
+them to obtain such an end; they were dissatisfied, and that was all.
+About the same time the Government were so assured of their peaceable
+disposition that they reduced the garrison of Christiansted, the
+capital, to sixty men. When the 1st of October arrived the negroes
+assembled as usual in Frederiksted, round the rum shops, appearing
+good-humoured, although noisy, as such a crowd always must be. Nothing
+particular happened until, at about three o'clock in the afternoon, a
+cry went up that one of their number had been beaten by a policeman, on
+which they attacked the peace officers, and drove them into the fort,
+which was police-station and barracks. Some of the principal whites came
+out and remonstrated with them, and at first they seemed as if they
+would disperse, but just then the police-master, his assistant, and two
+soldiers rode into their midst, brandishing swords and ordering them to
+move off at once. Infuriated by this, the mob attacked the horsemen with
+stones, and drove them back into the fort, which they now stormed. The
+British Vice-Consul then went among them, and, after a little parleying,
+induced them to go with him to the outskirts of the town. Here he got a
+statement of their grievances, which were--first, that their wages were
+too low (only ten cents a day); second, that the annual contract was
+slavery; third, that the manager of the estate could fine them at will;
+and fourth, that if they wanted to leave the island they were
+obstructed. Having promised to do all he could for them, the Vice-Consul
+begged them to disperse.
+
+[Illustration: BARBADOS.
+
+(_From Andrews' "West Indies."_)]
+
+[Illustration: ST. LUCIA.
+
+(_From Andrews' "West Indies."_)]
+
+They were apparently leaving the town, when a woman came running up with
+the report that the man who had been beaten by the police had just died
+in the hospital. This made them furious, and all further hopes of their
+pacification had to be given up. They invaded the hospital, knocked down
+the sick-nurse and a patient who inquired their business, and demanded
+to see the murdered man. They were informed that he was not dead but
+only dead drunk, and would soon recover if left alone. On being
+convinced of this, they again went off and attacked the fort. The
+defenders, when assailed with stones, fired over their heads, but this
+only made them all the more violent. The outer gate was broken down and
+some of the negroes were shot. Just at that moment a planter came up,
+intending to enter the fort, and at once they beat him with sticks until
+he was nearly killed.
+
+However, the bullets checked them, but only to throw the attack on other
+parts of the town. Stores were pillaged and set fire to, until a great
+portion of the town was in flames. From some of the stores they took
+weapons in the shape of cane-bills, and in one were alarmed for a few
+moments by an explosion of gunpowder. The whole of Bay Street was soon
+in flames, and like troops of fiends the negroes went dancing round the
+fires, in some places pouring on them cans of petroleum if the houses
+did not blaze up fast enough. Then the rum casks began to burst, and
+streams of burning spirit ran down the gutters, adding to the horror of
+the scene. The women were always the most reckless--they danced and
+howled with mingled joy and rage. The men added to the din by clashing
+their sticks together or against the burning stores, some blowing shells
+as a sort of rallying signal. "Our side!" was the watchword, and all who
+could not or would not repeat it were severely beaten. Most of the
+whites, however, had fled, leaving them entirely unchecked in their
+destructive work.
+
+Meanwhile the police-master had sent to Christiansted for assistance,
+and while he waited the mob again assailed the fort and again without
+success. All through the night the disturbance continued, and it was not
+until six o'clock in the morning that a small band of twenty soldiers
+arrived. At their first volley the mob dispersed, flying precipitately
+from the town to carry the riot all over the island. Two soldiers left
+in charge of a waggon were killed; and on learning this the soldiers
+were roused to a state of fury almost as great as that of the rioters.
+They hunted them from one plantation to another, invaded their huts,
+stabbed through the mattresses, and killed every negro who came in their
+way, without taking the trouble to inquire whether they had been
+concerned in the affair or not. Three hundred prisoners were taken, and
+on the 5th of October a proclamation was issued calling on all the
+negroes to return to their houses or be treated as rebels, after which
+the disturbance was quelled. Twelve hundred were sentenced to death, and
+a Commission of Inquiry was sent out from Denmark, the result of their
+report being that the obnoxious labour law was repealed.
+
+We have been thus particular in our account of this riot, because it
+exemplifies the character of the negro and is a type of such
+disturbances in other colonies. There is generally some ill-feeling at
+the bottom, but as a rule no conspiracy beforehand. When the
+dissatisfaction reaches a certain point, little is required to raise the
+passions of the black man, and that little thing is almost sure to
+occur. Unlike the European, he does not proclaim his grievances, except
+in a general way, among his own people--he has not yet arrived at that
+stage where civilised man uses the platform and press. It follows,
+therefore, that his passions smoulder for weeks and months, until some
+trifle--often a misunderstanding--brings them to the surface.
+
+At St. Croix there does not appear to have been anything like race
+prejudice, or that envious feeling which makes the negro think himself
+down-trodden by his rivals; but that is a characteristic of most riots,
+and is strikingly exemplified in two that have taken place in Demerara.
+
+After the emancipation the negro in British Guiana became of less and
+less importance as more and more immigrants arrived, until he grew quite
+sore. No longer could he demand extortionate wages, for the labour
+market was virtually governed by the current rates paid to the coolies.
+These people, however, were quite able to hold their own, and the negro
+knew this; it followed, therefore, that he vented his spite upon the
+most inoffensive people in the colony.
+
+The Portuguese from Madeira came to British Guiana absolutely destitute
+just after the failure of the vines on their island. They found the
+negro more prosperous than perhaps he has ever been since, for this was
+the time when, if he worked, he could always save money if he chose. In
+fact, many did so, and bought land which is still in the hands of some
+of their descendants, on which houses much superior to those now in
+existence were erected. The Portuguese could not endure the hard labour
+of sugar-planting, but soon found openings as small shopkeepers or
+pedlars. Hitherto there was little competition in these businesses, but
+the few who carried them on were negroes or coloured persons. These were
+soon ousted out, and the Portuguese became almost the only small trader
+in the colony. This was a grievance to the negro, who could not see that
+he himself reaped the benefit--certainly he took advantage of the
+reduced prices while abusing the sellers.
+
+At the beginning of the year 1856 the negroes of Georgetown were excited
+by the arrival of an anti-Popery agitator, who had become notorious in
+England, Scotland, and the United States. John Sayers Orr, known as "the
+Angel Gabriel," because he blew a trumpet to call the people together,
+was a native of Demerara, and soon found out what a strong antipathy to
+the Portuguese existed among the people. This suited his ideas exactly,
+for were they not Roman Catholics--the very body which he had been
+declaiming everywhere against?
+
+Soon his horn-blowing brought crowds into the market square every
+Sunday, where his harangues roused his hearers to such a pitch of fury
+that the authorities became alarmed. He was therefore arrested, brought
+before a magistrate, charged with convening an illegal assembly, and
+committed for trial. This committal of the popular hero was the spark
+which set all the negroes' passions in a blaze, but, strange to say,
+they did not attack the authorities. Their spite was against the
+Portuguese, and soon almost the whole colony was the scene of a general
+raid upon their shops. Hardly any escaped, but one after another was
+broken open and the goods either carried away or destroyed. Some went so
+far as to use the Governor's name, as if he had authorised the raid, and
+in this way got ignorant people in the country districts to help them to
+seize boats, provisions, and even the produce of the farms of the
+obnoxious Portuguese.
+
+The riot was ultimately quelled, but not before the damage amounted to
+over a quarter of a million dollars. Hundreds of prisoners were
+captured, but beyond the shooting of one policeman there does not appear
+to have been any serious casualties, neither were there any executions.
+It is interesting to note that the idea of poisoning, which is connected
+with Obeah superstition, was conspicuous here as in the Berbice slave
+insurrection. One black man charged a Portuguese with threatening to
+poison his customers with the provisions he sold them; but all the
+satisfaction the negro got was a reprimand from the magistrate.
+
+The second great riot in Georgetown is notable for its similarity to
+that at St. Croix. The feeling of antipathy to the Portuguese still
+continued, and the negro had a special grievance on account of the
+reprieve of a murderer of that nationality. If he had been black he
+would have been hanged, they said--it was colour prejudice. However, no
+disturbance took place for several months, and even then it only came
+about through a misunderstanding. A black boy buying a cent roll of
+bread in the market, snatched one of the penny rolls instead, when the
+Portuguese stall-keeper struck him down with a stick. The boy was taken
+up senseless and carried to the hospital, while his assailant through
+some misunderstanding was not arrested. At once there was a cry of
+"Portugee kill black man; Binney (the clerk of the market) let he go,"
+and they began to assail the clerk with sticks and stones.
+
+The police arrived, dispersed the mob, and shut up the market, but this
+only led to their scattering throughout the city. The report that the
+black boy was dead was carried into every yard, and at once swarms of
+women and boys, with comparatively few men, began to smash the
+Portuguese shops. The authorities did next to nothing, beyond sending
+out a few special constables, armed only with sticks, to fight against
+overpowering crowds better provided with weapons than themselves. The
+consequence was that for two days Georgetown was in the power of
+thousands of negroes, and damage resulted to the amount of nearly fifty
+thousand dollars. The disturbance was finally checked by arming the
+police, and issuing a proclamation that they were authorised to fire on
+the rioters. Not a single shot was fired, however; the threat was quite
+sufficient for the purpose.
+
+It will be seen from these cases that of late years the negroes have
+not perpetrated such massacres as once characterised their
+insurrections, but the insurrection at St. Thomas-in-the-East in Jamaica
+seems to show that the old spirit was not dead in 1865.
+
+For several years previous Jamaica had been much depressed--in fact, she
+had hardly begun to recover from the ruin which followed emancipation.
+Then came a two years' drought, which caused some distress among the
+people, who had no other means of support than what was derived from
+their small provision fields. The Baptist connexion was very strong in
+the island, and Dr. Underhill, the Secretary of its Missionary Society,
+went out, and on his return published reports blaming the Government for
+the distress, which he appears to have highly exaggerated. This tended
+to produce more dissatisfaction and to give the negroes an object on
+which they could vent their feelings. In one of Dr. Underhill's letters
+he said the people seemed to be overwhelmed with discouragement, and
+that he feared they were giving up their long struggle with injustice
+and fraud in despair. Thus a feeling was produced which only required
+some little incident to bring on a serious disturbance.
+
+On the 7th of October a black man was brought up for trial before the
+Custos of St. Thomas-in-the-East, when a somewhat orderly mob marched
+into the town to, if possible, release the prisoner. They crowded round
+the court-house and made such a disturbance that one of them was taken
+in charge, only, however, to be rescued at once by his friends. Nothing
+more was done on that day, but warrants having been issued for the arrest
+of the leaders, their execution was forcibly resisted. The negroes now
+seem to have planned a general rising and issued notices calling their
+people to arms. "Blow your shells, roll your drums; house to house take
+out every man! War is at us; my black skin, war is at hand. Every black
+man must turn at once, for the oppression is too great." They were, they
+said, ground down by an overbearing and oppressive foreigner, and if
+they did not get justice would burn and kill.
+
+On the 11th of October a mob assembled at the same court-house, and
+being resisted by a small body of volunteers, they killed the Custos,
+and every white man who opposed them, to the number of twenty-eight,
+released all the prisoners and burnt the building. Immediately
+afterwards there was a general rising in the district, which spread for
+about fifty miles.
+
+Governor Eyre, when he heard the news, at once determined to suppress
+the insurrection before it affected the whole island. Martial law was
+declared, a body of maroons employed, and within a few days the riots
+were suppressed. Many of the negroes were shot as they tried to escape,
+others taken and hanged at once, their villages burnt to the ground, and
+altogether they received such a lesson as effectually put a stop to
+anything of the kind in the future. It was stated that 439 people were
+killed and 600 flogged; a thousand houses were burnt and a great deal of
+property destroyed by both parties.
+
+The severity of Governor Eyre caused a great outcry in England,
+especially among the Baptists. Among those who were executed was Mr.
+Gordon, a member of the Assembly, who no doubt fell a victim to the
+feeling aroused among the whites. He was charged with being a prime
+instigator of the revolt, but it does not appear that he went beyond
+what is generally allowed to a political agitator. Such agitation,
+however, amongst ignorant people, who are easily excited, is
+particularly dangerous, and likely to recoil on the heads of those who
+initiate it, who must be prepared to risk the consequences.
+
+Governor Eyre was recalled, and prosecuted without success. He
+undoubtedly saved the island, and, although such executions as were
+committed can hardly be excused, yet when we consider the alarm and
+excitement, we must make some allowances. And, after all, it must be
+remembered that the loss of life would probably have been much greater
+had not the insurrection been nipped in the bud.
+
+Barbados is unique in several respects, and as may be supposed there is
+something remarkable even about her riots. The patriotism of the
+inhabitants, both black and white, is proverbial all over the West
+Indies. There is no place in the world to equal Barbados--no colony but
+what has been conquered by the enemy at some time or other. "Little
+England" was said to have offered an asylum to King George the Third
+when Buonaparte intended to invade England, and no doubt if such an
+offer was ever made it was done in all sincerity. Barbadians are proud
+of their constitution, and jealous of its infringement in the slightest
+degree. This feeling led to a disturbance in 1876, which was the
+nearest approach to an insurrection on that island in late years.
+
+It has often been suggested that a confederation of the British West
+Indies would be advantageous in many ways, and in 1876 the Secretary of
+State was of opinion that a closer union of Barbados and the other
+Windward Islands was desirable. The Governor of all the islands was then
+Mr. Pope Hennessy, who had lately been appointed, and who had been
+directed to obtain the consent of Barbados to a partial union. The
+measures proposed were of little importance, consisting only of the
+amalgamation of the prisons, lunatic asylums, and lazarettos, and the
+extension of the powers of the Chief Justice, Auditor-General, and the
+police force to cover the whole of the islands.
+
+An outsider would suppose that there was nothing offensive in these
+changes, but that, on the contrary, they would be beneficial in many
+ways, but most of the Barbadians opposed them strongly. Barbados, they
+said, was solvent, while some of the islands were on the verge of
+bankruptcy--their island should not be taxed to support paupers. They
+held meetings at which six points were agreed to, and on which the
+leaders harangued crowds throughout the island. These were, first, that
+their Court of Appeal would be abolished; second, that all the mad
+people from other islands would have to be supported by them; third,
+that all the lepers would come there; fourth, that the officials of
+other islands would live on them; fifth, that the power would be taken
+from the people and given to the Governor; and sixth, that as the House
+of Assembly had always been faithful they resented any interference with
+it.
+
+The Governor was desirous of carrying his project, and possibly went
+farther than was consistent with his instructions, which were to bring
+about the arrangement in an amicable manner. He did all he could to
+create a party in its favour, and was charged by the other side with
+using underhand means to this end. The main point, however, on which he
+laid stress, and which seems to have caused the trouble, was the
+advantage to the Barbadians of having the other islands so close as to
+become virtually like their own parishes, so that the surplus population
+would be able to take up lands that were then useless, and lying waste.
+
+Barbados is densely populated. All the lands are occupied, and it is
+very difficult to procure even a small lot--this makes the people all
+the more eager to get possession of a little freehold. Yet, with all
+this, they will not settle in other islands, where they can get a piece
+of ground for next to nothing.
+
+Somehow or other the more ignorant people seem to have got the notion
+that the Governor was promising them land in Barbados, and this made
+them enthusiastic for his project. Something like communism would, they
+thought, follow if the Confederation Act were passed, and this was the
+reason in their opinion why the other party fought against it. The
+planters spoke as if Mr. Hennessy had laid himself open to such a
+misunderstanding, and that made them all the more virulent against him.
+
+The anti-Confederation party said that it had always been the pride and
+glory of Barbados to have a separate political existence, and if under
+their own institutions they had achieved a success which made them the
+envy of their neighbours, why should they change? The majority of the
+House of Assembly were on their side, and it is difficult to understand
+why the Governor pressed the matter in the way he did. The opposition
+was no doubt foolish, but still, if the people chose to be silly, he
+could not overcome their prejudices. Party feeling ran high, only the
+mob shouting for Hennessy and Confederation. Those on one side would
+hiss him as he appeared--the others took the horses from his carriage
+and drew him along in triumph. It was reported that he never went out
+without a guard, and that even his wife lived in continual fear. She had
+been threatened with the abduction of her child, and one ruffian went so
+far as to pelt the little one as he was driven along the street, for
+which he was prosecuted.
+
+At last, on the 18th of April, 1876, when the party feeling had existed
+over six weeks, matters came to a crisis. A man went into the yard of
+Byde Mill plantation, flourishing a cane-cutter, and bearing a red flag.
+He was, he said, a Confederation man, had just come from the Governor,
+and wanted some liquor (cane juice). Getting nothing he went out and
+brought his brother who bore a sword, and the two quarrelled with the
+man in the boiling-house, the one with the sword attempting to stab him.
+They defied a constable who came to arrest them, and one blew a shell
+which brought a mob of women and children, who went into a field of
+sweet-potatoes and began to carry them off. Three mounted police
+arrived, but they were pelted with stones, and one who attempted to
+arrest the man with the sword got wounded. A magistrate then came and
+read the Riot Act, but the mob refused to disperse. As usual there were
+grievances, some complained that their pay had been stopped, which the
+manager said was because they could not work the mill full time for want
+of wind.
+
+Two cane-fields were now set on fire, and the disturbance spread, its
+great characteristic being raids upon the potato fields. In several
+places live stock were killed, dwellings broken into, and everything
+chopped or broken to pieces. A few shots were exchanged, but no one
+appears to have been killed, although many got wounds and bruises from
+sticks and stones. Everywhere the mob declared they had the authority of
+the Governor for what they were doing, and the sufferers from their
+depredations charged Mr. Hennessy with delay in putting down the
+disturbance. This, however, was probably due to the effect of the
+persecution of Governor Eyre, which has made every West Indian Governor
+hesitate before going to extremes. However, when the people from the
+country districts began to fly to Bridgetown he sent out a few soldiers
+who very quickly dispersed the mobs. A sensational telegram to London
+stated that five hundred prisoners had been taken, forty people killed
+and wounded, rioting was suspended, but their position was threatened,
+and that confidence in the Government had entirely gone. This was highly
+exaggerated, but a great deal of property was destroyed or injured,
+fifty estates pillaged, and probably over fifty persons received more or
+less serious blows.
+
+Quite a storm fell upon Hennessy, who on the 26th of April had to issue
+a proclamation threatening to direct the law officers to take prompt
+measures against those who libelled him, by saying that he had sent
+emissaries through the island to mislead the people, and that he
+countenanced and abetted the disgraceful and lawless acts of the
+marauders.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+XVI.
+
+THE ISTHMUS TRANSIT SCHEMES.
+
+
+By the second half of the last century the supply of gold and silver
+from Peru had much diminished, and the road across the isthmus almost
+fell into disuse. In 1780, during the great war, the British appear to
+have had some vague notion that it would be good policy to secure the
+track across Nicaragua, for which purpose an expedition was fitted out.
+Early in that year Nelson sailed from Jamaica with five hundred men, and
+after getting a number of Indians from the Mosquito shore and a
+reinforcement of British troops, the party made the difficult ascent of
+the San Juan river, and captured the fort of the same name. But, through
+ignorance, the whole affair proved disastrous--the fort was useless, and
+the losses through sickness very great. Of eighteen hundred men only
+three hundred and eighty survived, and Nelson himself nearly lost his
+life. He was obliged to go home to recruit, and it was only after
+spending two or three months at Bath that he recovered to continue that
+glorious career which made him so famous.
+
+However, it was not long afterwards that a project for utilising the
+isthmus was brought under the consideration of the British Government by
+General Miranda, of whom we have spoken in another chapter. He wanted
+Pitt to assist him in his projects for the emancipation of the Spanish
+colonies, and, as a means to this end, in 1790, proposed that the
+British should take possession of Darien, and thus further their
+commerce in the Pacific. Nothing was done at that time, and a few years
+later Miranda made a second proposition that the United States should
+join with Great Britain, and open roads and canals for both nations.
+
+Mr. Pitt seems to have agreed to this, and was only prevented from
+attempting to carry it out by the delay of President Adams. The United
+States were to furnish ten thousand men, and Great Britain money and
+ships. In 1801, under Lord Sidmouth, an expedition was actually set on
+foot, only to collapse at the Peace of Amiens. Again, in 1804, Pitt
+tried to carry out the project with Miranda, but the condition of Europe
+stood in the way of expeditions to the Spanish Main.
+
+[Illustration: ATLANTIC ENTRANCE TO DARIEN CANAL.
+
+(_From Cullen's "Darien Canal."_)]
+
+In enumerating the advantages likely to accrue from the emancipation of
+South America, a writer in the _Edinburgh Review_ of January, 1809, laid
+great stress upon a passage across the isthmus. It was the most
+important to the peaceful intercourse of nations of anything that
+presented itself to the enterprise of man. So far from being a romantic
+and chimerical project, it was not only practicable, but easy. The river
+Chagre, about eighteen leagues westward of Porto Bello, was navigable as
+far as Cruzes, within five leagues of Panama. But there was even a
+better route; at about five leagues from its mouth the Chagre received
+the river Trinidad, which was navigable to Embarcadero, from which
+Panama was only distant thirty miles through a level country. The ground
+had been surveyed, and not the practicability only, but the facility of
+the work _completely ascertained_. Further north was the grand lake of
+Nicaragua, which by itself almost extended the navigation from sea to
+sea. The Governor of St. John's Castle (Fort San Juan) had been
+instructed by the king of Spain to refuse permission to any British
+subject desirous of passing up or down this lake, "for if ever the
+English came to a knowledge of its importance and value they would soon
+make themselves masters of this part of the country."
+
+But not only had the best places for a canal been selected at this early
+time, but the many advantages to be derived from its construction had
+been well considered. The same writer went on to say that from this
+splendid and not difficult enterprise, not merely the commerce of the
+western shores of America would be brought, as it were, to their doors,
+but that of the South Sea whalers, who would be saved the tedious and
+dangerous voyage round Cape Horn. Then the whole of the vast interests
+of Asia would increase in value to a degree that was then difficult to
+conceive, by having a direct route across the Pacific. It would be as
+if, by some great revolution of the globe, they were brought nearer.
+Immense would be the traffic which immediately would begin to cover the
+ocean--all the riches of India and China moving towards America. Then
+also the commodities of Europe and America would be carried towards
+Asia. As a result of this, vast depots would be formed at the two
+extremities of the canal, to soon develop into great commercial cities.
+Never before had such an opportunity been offered to a nation as Great
+Britain had then before her, owing to a wonderful combination of
+circumstances.
+
+Mr. Robinson, a United States merchant, in 1821, said that the most
+ardent imagination would fail in an attempt to portray all the
+important and beneficial consequences of such a work, the magnitude and
+grandeur of which were worthy the profound attention of every commercial
+nation. The powers of the old and new world should discard all selfish
+considerations, and unite to execute it on a magnificent scale, so that
+when completed it might become, like the ocean, a highway of nations,
+the enjoyment of which should be guaranteed by all, and be exempt from
+the caprice or regulation of any one kingdom or state.
+
+Such were the views promulgated at the beginning of this century, but
+nothing was done until about 1850, when the pressure of circumstances
+again brought the isthmus into note.
+
+Darien and Panama are in the Republic of New Granada, but north of these
+come the small states of Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, San Salvador,
+and Guatemala. All of these are inhabited by true Americans--native
+races who have to a considerable extent absorbed the slight admixture of
+European blood introduced by their conquerors. Some places are so
+inaccessible as to be virtually outside the pale of civilisation. The
+roads are nothing but mule tracks, full of quagmires where the animals
+have to wade up to their girths in mud--in fact, little better than the
+paths so well described by Lionel Wafer. The rivers are numerous, and,
+on account of the heavy rainfall, their currents are very strong, and
+all the more dangerous from the numerous sandbanks and rapids which
+obstruct their course. Since the states gained their independence they
+have passed through so many changes of government that at the beginning
+hardly a month passed without a revolution in one or the other. This
+went on until 1848 without interference from outside, but with the
+discovery of gold in California came an invasion of ruffians of all
+nations.
+
+The old freebooters almost seemed to have come to life again. Hardy
+adventurers from all parts of the world rushed off to the new "El
+Dorado," woke the sleepy Nicaraguans on the San Juan river, and roused
+the people of Chagres. Over the isthmus of Panama or through the
+Nicaragua lake they flocked by thousands, necessitating the
+establishment of Transit Companies to provide them with mules, boats,
+and steamers. The easiest, although longest, route was through
+Nicaragua, which was controlled by the Vanderbilt Company, and during
+the time the "rush" lasted they took over two or three thousand per
+month. The Company had steamers on the lake to meet the throng of
+diggers as they arrived, and they passed through at regular intervals
+like a tide. The overland part of the route presented a strange
+spectacle, with their pack mules and horses. Men of all nationalities,
+armed with pistols and knives, which they were prepared to use on the
+Greasers (natives) at the slightest provocation, put these altogether in
+the background. A traveller has spoken of them as a string of romantic
+figures that could not be matched in any other part of the world. Some
+glowed with fervent passion, as if on fire, others were hard, cold, and
+rugged as the rocky passes they traversed, while a few were worn, old,
+and decaying, under the effects of the hardships and reverses of their
+stormy existence. Every line in their faces had a meaning, if it could
+only have been interpreted, telling of sin and suffering--of adventures
+more terrible than were ever portrayed by the pen of the romantic
+writer, and of experiences as fascinating as they had been dangerous.
+
+Among the results of this rush through Nicaragua was the expedition of
+William Walker, the great filibuster of this century. With fifty-five
+men he went forth from California to conquer Central America, and in the
+end nearly succeeded. He got himself elected President of Nicaragua, but
+ultimately raised such a storm that he was brought to bay by some forces
+from Honduras and Costa Rica, and had to surrender to the captain of a
+British man-of-war, by whom he was handed over to his enemies to be
+shot.
+
+With this wonderful traffic across the isthmus arose the old canal
+schemes, as well as a new one for a railway. Easy and rapid transit must
+be obtained in some way or other, and this time being in the age of
+steam, it naturally followed that the project for a railway gained
+immediate support. It was commenced in 1850, at which time the terminus
+on the Gulf side was settled, and the foundations of the new town of
+Aspinwall or Colon laid a few miles east of Chagres. The difficulties
+were enormous, on account of the marshy ground and the number of rivers
+to be crossed. The wooden bridges were almost immediately attacked by
+wood ants, floods carried away the timbers, but more distressing than
+all was the loss of life through sickness. Chinese labourers were
+imported in great numbers, only to fall victims to the same deadly
+climate which had given Porto Bello and the isthmus generally their evil
+reputation. However, the railway was completed in 1864, at the enormous
+cost of $7,500,000, although its length is only 47-1/2 miles. Thus one
+part of the great project was carried out, and a good road provided for
+passengers and light goods, the annual value of which latter is now
+about L15,000,000.
+
+But those in favour of a canal were not sleeping all this time. The old
+routes were again mooted, that through Lake Nicaragua being put down at
+194 miles in length, while the other, since known as the Panama, was
+only 51. Dr. Edward Cullen, however, in 1850 went out and made some
+surveys, with the result that he advocated the old Darien line as the
+shortest and most practicable. He would start from the same Port de
+Escoces that witnessed the downfall of William Paterson's scheme, and
+which he said was a most commodious harbour for the terminus of a canal.
+The isthmus was here only 39 miles across, and free from many of the
+difficulties which beset the other routes.
+
+As a result of Dr. Cullen's reports, in 1852 it was proposed to
+establish "The Atlantic and Pacific Junction Company," with a capital of
+fifteen millions sterling. The prospectus stated that the period had
+arrived when the spread of commerce and the flow of emigration to the
+western shores of America, Australasia, and China, demanded a passage
+more direct than those by way of the Cape of Good Hope and Cape Horn.
+Various projects had been formed for uniting the two oceans, but all
+these were open to the objection that they fell short of supplying a
+continuous channel from sea to sea, for vessels of all dimensions, by
+which alone transhipment could be obviated. Sir Charles Fox, Mr. John
+Henderson, Mr. Thomas Brassey, and Dr. Cullen had received a concession
+of territory from New Ganada to the extent of 200,000 acres, on
+condition that a deposit of L24,000 be made within twelve months. It was
+believed that the work could be completed for twelve millions.
+
+The _Times_ spoke disparagingly of the new Company, and this probably
+prevented its acceptance by the financial world. The line, it said, had
+not been actually surveyed, but only superficially examined, and, after
+all, if it were finished, it could only come into competition with the
+Nicaragua Canal, every foot of which had been the subject of precise
+estimates, and which would only cost _four millions_. Several letters
+from the projectors and supporters of the Company followed, with other
+leaders, the result being that the Darien Canal never went beyond a
+project. Presently also the rush for California abated, and the railway
+met the wants of the passengers; all the canal schemes were therefore
+again shelved for a time.
+
+Then came an almost Utopian project for a ship railway, the cars of
+which would run down into the water, take up the largest vessel, and
+carry it over without trouble or difficulty. This met with little
+encouragement, and was soon dropped.
+
+In 1879 Ferdinand de Lesseps, who had achieved such a glorious success
+with the Suez Canal, took up the matter of a canal between the two
+oceans, and summoned a congress of savants, engineers and seamen, to
+inquire into and discuss the questions of its possibility, and of the
+most suitable place for its excavation. A number of projects were
+considered, among them that of Dr. Cullen, brought forward by M. de
+Puydt, which, however, did not receive much attention, as there was a
+difference of opinion as to the reliability of the figures.
+
+The schemes were ultimately reduced to two--those for the Nicaragua and
+Panama routes. The position of the great lake caused the former to be
+thoroughly discussed; but there were several almost insurmountable
+difficulties in the way of its adoption. To clear the San Juan river,
+and make it into a great canal, would entail great labour and expense,
+and then seven or eight locks would be required. On the Pacific side
+locks would also be required for the Rivas, while the harbours of
+Greytown on the Gulf side, and Brito on the Pacific, were quite unsuited
+as termini for a canal. The total length would be 182-1/2 miles, and the
+time occupied in the passage four and a half days. There was also
+another great draw-back: Nicaragua was and is subject to earthquakes,
+which would be likely at times to interfere greatly with such heavy
+works as were required. It followed, therefore, that notwithstanding the
+powerful support of the Americans, this line was abandoned in favour of
+that from Port Simon to Panama, not far from the railway.
+
+Two French officers, MM. Wyse and Reclus, had explored the country, and
+proposed to carry the canal through the Chagres river, and thence, by
+means of a great tunnel, into the valley of the Rio Grande; but, on
+consideration, the tunnel was abandoned in favour of a deep cutting,
+which would not exceed 290 feet. The great objection to this was the
+floods of the Chagres river, which sometimes rose twenty-five feet in a
+single night; but this was got over by arranging for a separate bed for
+the canal. There were a few other difficulties, but propositions were
+made to obviate them; and at last the sub-commission reported that "the
+Panama Canal on the level technically presents itself under the most
+satisfactory conditions, and ensures every facility, as it gives every
+security, for the transit of vessels from one sea to another."
+
+Now came the question of cost. The Nicaragua Canal was estimated at
+L32,000,000, and that at Panama L40,000,000. (The reader will compare
+these with former estimates, especially that of Nicaragua as stated by
+the _Times_.) The former was rejected absolutely, on account of the
+necessity for locks, and all further discussion was concerned with the
+latter. It was then calculated that, with transit dues of fifteen francs
+per ton, the net annual profit would be L1,680,000.
+
+M. de Lesseps was elected to the Academy in 1885, when M. Renan said he
+had been born to pierce isthmuses, and that antiquity would have made
+him a god. Carried away by enthusiasm, the great projector saw no
+difficulties; he had already completed a work which had been declared
+almost impossible, now he would carry out a project similar to that
+proposed by William Paterson. However, Panama was not Suez, a rainless
+desert, but a place where floods, marshes, and quagmires took the place
+of almost level sands.
+
+M. Wyse had vainly tried to start a Company; but when Lesseps, with all
+the prestige of his Suez Canal, joined him, there was comparatively
+little difficulty. Personally, Lesseps seems to have known little of
+Panama--all his knowledge was gained at second hand. The first public
+subscription was invited in July, 1879, the capital being 400,000,000
+francs (L16,000,000), in 800,000 shares at 500 francs each. This large
+sum, however, was not obtained at once, only L3,200,000 being applied
+for. However, Lesseps was not discouraged, but determined to go on with
+the work, trusting that money would flow in as it was wanted, which
+ultimately proved to be the case, until the project appeared hopeless.
+He visited the isthmus, and made a triumphal progress over the line; he
+even witnessed one of the great floods of the Chagres river, which rose
+forty feet and covered the railway. Undaunted by this, he went over to
+Panama, and on the 5th of January, 1880, inaugurated the great canal
+with a ceremony and _fete_. He then stated that success was assured, and
+declared, upon his word of honour, that the work would be much easier on
+the isthmus than in the desert of Suez.
+
+In March following he visited New York, where he was but coldly
+received, on account of American jealousy of European influence. The
+President said that the capital invested in such an enterprise by
+corporations or citizens of other countries must be protected by one or
+more of the great Powers, but no European Power could intervene for such
+protection without adopting means which the United States would deem
+inadmissible. This did not damp his enthusiasm; if other countries would
+not assist, all the credit would go to France. The Company had a
+concession from the Columbian Republic for twelve years, and the United
+States would not be likely to interfere.
+
+It will be interesting here to compare the estimates for the canal by
+different persons and at different times within two years:--
+
+    M. Wyse, 1879                              L17,080,000
+    The Paris Congress, 1879                    41,760,000
+    The Lesseps Commission, February, 1880      33,720,000
+    M. de Lesseps himself,     "        "       26,320,000
+    Rectified estimate, September, 1880         21,200,000
+
+Lesseps said he had an offer from a contractor to complete the work for
+twenty millions. Backed by the press and the deputies, the Company's
+shares sold freely, and on the 3rd of March, 1881, it was fully
+established. It was promised that in the course of that year the line of
+the canal should be cleared, and dredging commenced. Lesseps expected to
+finish in 1887, but in 1884 and the two following years he was obliged
+to advance the time to 1890. The canal was to be 47 miles long, 70 feet
+wide at the bottom, and 29 feet deep.
+
+Little was done in 1881, but the work was divided into five sections,
+and in the following year dredging and excavating were commenced. But,
+even thus early, it was found to be more difficult than had been
+expected. Up to March, 1883, only 659,703 metres had been excavated,
+which was reckoned to be about 1/130th of the whole. This would not do,
+as it meant that over a century would pass before its completion. About
+seven thousand labourers, mostly Jamaica negroes, were employed at that
+time, and this number was increased until, in 1888, there were 11,500.
+In 1884 the average amount excavated was 600,000 metres per month,
+against Lesseps' estimate of two millions. Yet, with all that, it was
+calculated that in this year only 1/180th of the material had been taken
+out.
+
+The difficulties were enormous. First, there was trouble to find dumping
+places, where the earth would not be again washed into the excavations
+by heavy floods. Then came the rank vegetation, which was continually
+stretching from either side to choke the clearing. Weeds grew six to
+eight feet high in a rainy season, and these, with the straggling vines,
+kept a little army at work to clear them away from the embankments and
+tracks. The workmen suffered greatly from yellow and other fevers, and
+L600,000 was spent on hospitals and their appurtenances. Money was spent
+profusely on such things as grand offices and a magnificent house to
+lodge the President, if he should ever come to inspect the works. All
+along the route were ornamental bungalows, and the director-general at
+Panama had a salary of L20,000, besides a house and other allowances.
+Even he suffered from fever, and his wife and daughter died of it.
+
+Up to 1888 about fifty millions sterling had been spent, and hardly a
+fifth of the work was finished. Then financial difficulties led to an
+arrangement for merging it in a new Company, which proposed to complete
+the canal on a new plan. Notwithstanding all the objections to locks, it
+was now proposed to save such an immense work of excavation by erecting
+four on either side, thus bringing the highest water level to 123 feet.
+Eighteen and a half miles were said to have been completed, of which
+five were on the Pacific side and the remainder on the Gulf. To carry
+out the new plan, L36,000,000 more were required, but, as a matter of
+fact, only a third of the work necessary for this revised scheme had
+been done.
+
+Then came the downfall, which has been compared to that of the South Sea
+Bubble. When the Company went into liquidation, scores of shady
+transactions came to light. Editors of newspapers and deputies had been
+bribed to gain their support, and money had been wasted in almost every
+possible manner. In February, 1893, M. Ferdinand de Lesseps and four
+other directors were prosecuted, with the result that he, MM. C. de
+Lesseps, Fontaine, and Cottin, were convicted of breach of trust and
+swindling, the two former being sentenced to five years' imprisonment
+and 3,000 francs fines each, and the latter two years and 20,000 francs
+fines. M. Eiffel, the architect of the great tower of Paris, was found
+guilty of breach of trust, and sentenced to two years' imprisonment and
+a fine of 20,000 francs. Nine persons were then charged with receiving
+bribes, one of whom, M. Baihaut, admitted that he got 375,000 francs.
+Three were found guilty, sentenced to imprisonment, fines, and to pay
+the liquidators of the company the amount of M. Baihaut's bribe. Charles
+de Lesseps appealed against the charges of swindling, and these were
+quashed on the ground that the transactions had occurred more than five
+years before, thus getting the longer terms of imprisonment and fines of
+the three principals reduced.
+
+Ferdinand de Lesseps hardly knew what was going on; he was old, feeble,
+and in a state of apathy and stupor. Pity for his condition prevented
+the carrying out of the sentence as far as he was concerned, and he died
+on the 7th of December, 1894. The _Times_, in noticing his death, said
+the story was a most pitiful one. The blame of the Panama affair must be
+laid upon the people and the public temper. Bribery and corruption were
+symptoms of a thoroughly unhealthy state of things. An infatuated public
+provided enormous sums; when these were spent, more went the same way,
+and to get these contributions everything possible was done. Lesseps was
+no engineer, but a diplomatist, planning great schemes and the means of
+carrying them out. He was the man of the moment in France. He was
+neither a financier nor an engineer, neither an impostor nor a swindler.
+He was a man of great originality, of indomitable perseverance, of
+boundless faith in himself, and of singular powers of fascination over
+others.
+
+Meanwhile several attempts had been made to get money to carry on the
+work, one of which was by means of a lottery. But the French people were
+discouraged, and were no longer prepared to throw good money after bad.
+It followed, therefore, that although in 1894 a new company, with a
+capital of sixty-five million francs, was proposed, and that it was
+announced in August that eight hundred workmen were engaged, it does not
+appear that anything is being done. If, as has been stated, only a third
+of the work has been accomplished for, say, thirty millions, allowing
+for waste of money, it can hardly be expected that double this amount
+will ever be obtained. What with the heavy floods and rank vegetation, a
+great deal will have to be done to recover lost ground; in fact, some of
+the excavations must be filled up by this time. Those who know the
+country can easily understand that the handsome bungalows, hospitals,
+and workmen's houses must be overrun by wood-ants, and that the
+machinery is mostly spoilt by rust. Even if the canal is ever finished
+with locks, it is doubtful whether it could pay a dividend, as the work
+of keeping it open by dredging would be very expensive. No doubt it
+would be a boon to the world if it were finished, but capitalists expect
+profit, and will hardly be inclined to assist without such expectations.
+
+[Illustration: EUROPE SUPPORTED BY AFRICA AND AMERICA.
+
+(_From Stedman's "Surinam."_)]
+
+The Nicaragua canal has been in course of excavation for several years
+past by an American Company. As finally adopted, it is to have a total
+length of 169.4 miles, of which 56-1/2 will be through the lake, and 641/2
+through the San Juan river. There are to be three locks on either side,
+which may cause trouble in case of a violent earthquake; and then,
+again, the length of the journey will be against it as compared with
+that of Panama. It has been attempted in the United States to make it a
+national work, and the sum of a hundred million dollars is asked from
+the American Government, or at least a guarantee on the issue of bonds
+to that amount. We believe that very little enthusiasm for the project
+has been shown. In August, 1893, the Company was unable to meet its
+obligations, and a receiver was appointed, since which time we believe
+the work is being continued, and that it has been decided to complete it
+as soon as possible. M. de Varigny, in _L'Illustration_ of June the 1st,
+1895, gives the following opinion on the work and its political
+importance:--
+
+"That the Washington statesmen take account of the fact that the cutting
+of the isthmus is difficult, costly, and, in case of a rupture with
+England, dangerous, we cannot doubt. But such is the fascination of
+great enterprises, of grand words and grand theories, that senators and
+representatives hesitate to oppose the current of opinion that is
+bearing along the masses.
+
+"The work has begun, and we can only hope that it will succeed. There
+cannot be too many gates of communication between different peoples. The
+United States undertake to open this. Can they do it, and doing it, will
+they give up the advantages they will thereby acquire? The future will
+show."
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+    Acosta, Pedro de, explorer of the Orinoco, 43
+
+    African slavery, 157
+
+    Aguirre the Tyrant, 38
+
+    Alfinger, Ambrosio de, searches for "El Dorado," 34
+
+    Altienza, Donna Inez de, murdered by Aguirre, 39
+
+    Amazon Company, 83
+
+    Amazon, expedition of Ursua and Aguirre, 38
+
+    American Indian, his character, 1
+
+    _Amis des Noirs_, 257
+
+    "Angel Gabriel," John Sayers Orr, rouses the negroes of Demerara, 335
+
+    Antigua, 165
+
+    Anti-slavery party, 289, 298
+
+    Apprenticeship, negro, 306
+
+    Araby, a leader of bush negroes, 227
+
+    Arawaks,
+      their character, 2;
+      Columbus tries to enslave them, 9;
+      the Spanish sovereign's good feeling for them, 9;
+      their treatment by the first colonists, 11;
+      did not lay up provisions, 12;
+      thinks Spaniards gods, 12;
+      refuse to be slaves, 18;
+      die off in great numbers, 18;
+      in Guiana, 23, 75
+
+    Araya, Dutch at, 75
+
+    Armada, Spanish, 63, 64
+
+    Aruba, 277
+
+    Aspinwall, 352
+
+    _Assiento_ contract to supply slaves, 196
+
+    Ayscue, Sir George, reduces Barbados for the Parliament, 124
+
+
+    Bahamas,
+      natives kidnapped, 19;
+      settled by English, 86;
+      resort of buccaneers, 96;
+      captured by Spaniards, 117
+
+    Baihaut, M., bribed by Panama Canal Company, 361
+
+    Bannister, Major, English Governor of Surinam, 169
+
+    Barbados,
+      first colonised, 85;
+      protests against grant to Earl of Carlisle, 117;
+      result of the English revolution, 117;
+      Charles II. proclaimed king, 122;
+      Sir George Ayscue arrives to subdue the island, 124;
+      attack on Hole Town, 126;
+      the island surrenders, 128;
+      sufferings of a bond-servant in, 151;
+      De Ruyter driven off from, 161;
+      its unique position, 208;
+      negro plots, 213;
+      anti-slavery insurrection, 293;
+      result of emancipation, 328;
+      confederation disturbances, 341
+
+    Barker, Andrew, a rover, 62
+
+    Baron, a bush negro chief, 229
+
+    Basco, Michael de, a buccaneer, 99, 102
+
+    Baskerville, Sir Thomas, a companion of Drake, 65
+
+    Beaudierre, Mons. de, a sympathiser with the coloured people of
+      Hayti, 259
+
+    Berbice,
+      supplies cut off during war, 170;
+      captured by French corsairs, 178, 179;
+      great slave insurrection, 218
+
+    Belize, 250
+
+    Berrie, one of Ralegh's captains, 74
+
+    Berrio, Antonio de, Spanish Governor of Trinidad, 69
+
+    Bolivar, Simon, Liberator of Venezuela, 279
+
+    Bond-servants, 149
+
+    Boyer, President of Hayti, 275
+
+    Brethren of the coast, 93
+
+    British Guiana, 328, 334
+
+    British Legion in Venezuela, 286
+
+    Bull of Partition,
+      its terms, 48;
+      disputed, 49;
+      practically revoked, 134
+
+    Bush negroes, 225
+
+    Buxton, Fowell, 300
+
+    Byam, Major, Governor of Surinam, 128
+
+    Byron, Admiral, 241, 242
+
+
+    Caciques of the Indians, their position, 4
+
+    California rush, 351
+
+    Campeachy, Bay of, 96, 200
+
+    Cannibals, 20, 31
+
+    Canning's declaration of neutrality, 285
+
+    Caribana, 75
+
+    Caribbee Islands, 20, 85
+
+    Caribs,
+      their character, 6;
+      cannibalism, 20, 31;
+      hatred of Spaniards, 20;
+      in Guiana, 23, 75;
+      in St. Kitt's, 88
+
+    Carlisle, Earl of, Grantee of Caribbee Islands, 85, 122
+
+    Carthagena,
+      taken by French, 178;
+      great fair, 184;
+      attacked by Admiral Vernon, 205
+
+    Cary, Colonel, favours the buccaneers, 165
+
+    Casas, Las, 46
+
+    Cassard, Jacques,
+      the corsair, 179;
+      captures St. Eustatius, 180;
+      Curacao, 181
+
+    Cattle, wild, 21
+
+    "Cavaliers" and "Roundheads" in Barbados, 119
+
+    Central American Republics, 288
+
+    Chagres, 352
+
+    Charbon, Jan Abraham, 219
+
+    Charles I. and the Colonies, 114
+
+    Charles II.
+      declared king in the Bermudas and Virginia, 117;
+      Barbados, 122;
+      his interest in the plantations, 135
+
+    Chinese labourers introduced, 327
+
+    Christianity forced on the natives, 8, 27
+
+    Christophe, a Haytian leader, 269, 274
+
+    Clervaux, a Haytian leader, 271
+
+    Clifford, Jeronomy, case of, 173
+
+    Cochrane, Admiral, 277
+
+    Codrington, Colonel, 119
+
+    Coffee, 143
+
+    Coffee, leader of rebel slaves in Berbice, 221, 223
+
+    Coke, John, 84
+
+    Colon, 352
+
+    Colonies, Spanish, in Hispaniola, 11, 14
+
+    Coloured people in Hayti, 257
+
+    Columbian Republic, 288
+
+    Columbus' opinion of the natives, 6
+
+    Confederation in Barbados, 341
+
+    Contraband trade with Spanish colonies, 53, 57, 201
+
+    Convict labour, 147
+
+    Coolies, East Indian, 327
+
+    Cooper, Anthony Ashley, 147
+
+    Corsairs, 49, 177
+
+    Corteso, Juan, an "El Dorado" seeker, 45
+
+    Costa Rica, 288
+
+    Cottin, M., 360
+
+    Cotton, 15, 18, 141
+
+    Council for Plantations, 135, 146
+
+    Cromwell and the West Indies, 129
+
+    Cudjo, a maroon chief, 215
+
+    Cuba, 20
+
+    Cullen, Dr. E., projector of the Darien Canal, 353
+
+    Curacao, 115, 152, 165, 180, 238
+
+
+    Darbey, John, an English prisoner in Cuba, 171
+
+    Darien Canal, 353
+
+    Darien scheme, 188
+
+    Delgado, Augustine, an "El Dorado" seeker, 46
+
+    Demerara, 213, 246, 252, 301
+
+    Dessalines,
+      a chief in the Haytian insurrection, 271;
+      crowned emperor, 274
+
+    Dogs,
+      hunt Indians, 16;
+      run wild, 22;
+      hunt maroons, 235;
+      hunt rebel negroes, 271
+
+    Dominica, 91, 116, 238, 241, 249
+
+    _Dominus Vobiscum_, one of the first English vessels in the West
+      Indies, 49
+
+    D'Oyley, Governor of Jamaica, 134
+
+    Drake, Sir Francis,
+      voyage with Hawkins, 57;
+      raid on Nombre de Dios, 59;
+      great expedition to the West Indies, 63;
+      captures St. Domingo, 64;
+      last voyage, 65;
+      death, 65
+
+    Drax, Colonel, 120
+
+    Du Casse, a French corsair, 177
+
+    Dudley, Sir Robert, 66
+
+    Dutch, 67, 75, 84, 86, 115, 129, 166
+
+
+    Edwards, Bryan, 157
+
+    Eiffel, M., 360
+
+    "El Dorado,"
+      the quest for, 23;
+      dangers, 24;
+      germ of the story, 32;
+      Martinez' report, 44
+
+    Elizabeth, Queen, 67
+
+    Emancipation,
+      Great Britain, 289;
+      France, 310;
+      Denmark, 312;
+      Holland, 313;
+      Spain, 313
+
+    Enambuc, M. d', first French settler, 87-8, 116
+
+    Enciso, Bachelor, 29
+
+    English and Dutch, 67, 68, 114
+
+    Essequebo, 213
+
+    Everson, a Dutch pirate, 177
+
+    Eyre, Governor of Jamaica, 339
+
+
+    Fedreman, Nicholas, an "El Dorado" seeker, 35
+
+    Ferdinand and Isabella,
+      kind feelings towards the Indians, 10;
+      grant from the Pope, 48
+
+    Fontaine, Father, a Catholic missionary, 134
+
+    Fontaine, M., a Panama defaulter, 360
+
+    Fourgeaud, Colonel, 227
+
+    Franklin, Washington, 294
+
+    Free trade, 324
+
+    French,
+      in the West Indies, 49-51, 87;
+      company for settling the islands, 116;
+      character of, 167;
+      revolution, its influence on Hayti, effect on the Spanish Main, 276
+
+
+    George of Spires, an "El Dorado" seeker, 35
+
+    German knights in Venezuela, 33
+
+    Gold-hunting, 11, 15, 23, 29, 73
+
+    Gordon, Mr., a Member of the Jamaica Assembly, executed, 340
+
+    Grasse, Count de, 241, 249
+
+    Grenada, 238
+
+    Groenwegel, Commander of Essequebo, 86
+
+    Guadeloupe, 238, 251
+
+    _Guanin_, 23
+
+    Guatavita, Lake of, 32
+
+    Guatemala, 288
+
+    Guiana, 23, 69
+
+    Guianians, 44
+
+    Guichen, Admiral de, 241, 249
+
+    Gueiria, 282
+
+    Guzman, Fernando de, 38
+
+
+    Haiti, Hayti, or Hispaniola,
+      its inhabitants, 3;
+      colonised, 11;
+      gold found, 11;
+      almost ruined by becoming depopulated, 21;
+      a resort of buccaneers, 91;
+      under the French, 251;
+      downfall, 257;
+      British invasion, 268;
+      republics and empires, 274
+
+    Hall, Captain, exploit of, 206
+
+    Harcourt, Robert, in Guiana, 76
+
+    Harry, a Guiana Indian, in London, 77, 78
+
+    Hartop, Job, a prisoner in Mexico, 58
+
+    Havana,
+      ransomed, 50;
+      sacked and burnt, 51
+
+    Hawkins, Sir John,
+      first voyage, 53;
+      second, 54;
+      third, 57;
+      final trip with Drake, and death, 65
+
+    Hawkins, William, voyage to Brazil, 52
+
+    Hennessy, Governor John Pope, of Barbados, 341, 345
+
+    Henri I. (Christophe), Emperor of Hayti, 274
+
+    Henry VIII. of England sends an expedition to the West Indies, 49
+
+    Herera, Alonzo de, 45
+
+    Hogs naturalised in Hispaniola, see Haiti
+
+    Hondo river, 250
+
+    Hood, Sir Samuel, 238
+
+    Hoogenheim, Wolfert Simon van, Governor of Berbice, 218
+
+    Huten, Philip von, an "El Dorado" seeker, 36
+
+
+    Iala, Father, an "El Dorado" seeker, 45
+
+    Indian, character of, 1
+
+
+    Jackson, Colonel, captures Santiago de la Vega, 116
+
+    Jacques I. (Dessalines), Emperor of Hayti, 274
+
+    Jamaica,
+      Valdivia wrecked off the coast, 30;
+      attacked by Colonel Jackson, 116;
+      captured by English, 131;
+      Spanish attempt to recapture, 133;
+      the first real British colony, 136;
+      progress of, 155;
+      authorities refuse help to the Darien colony, 193;
+      slave revolts, 214;
+      serious negro insurrection, 338
+
+    James I.,
+      friendship for Spain, 82, 114;
+      dispute with Spain about the West Indies and Virginia, 113
+
+    Jeffreys, Judge, sends prisoners to Barbados, 150
+
+    Jenkins, Captain, and his ear, 202
+
+    Jervis, Admiral Sir John, 251
+
+    Jews in the West Indies, 239, 245
+
+
+    Keymis, Captain, a follower of Ralegh, 74, 77-9, 81
+
+    Kyk-over-al, Dutch fort in Essequebo, 76
+
+
+    Labour difficulties, 14, 137, 321
+
+    Lafayette, 260
+
+    Lawrence, Captain, an English pirate, 99
+
+    Legrand, Pierre, a French pirate, 99
+
+    Leigh, Charles, first English settler in Guiana, 76
+
+    Lesseps, Ferdinand de, and his Panama scheme, 356
+
+    Lolonois, the great pirate, 101
+
+
+    Macatoa, reported a very rich city, 36
+
+    Madeirans imported into British Guiana, 327
+
+    Maltese imported into British Guiana, 327
+
+    Manoa, city of, fabulous residence of "El Dorado," 44
+
+    Margarita, 114, 152
+
+    Marino, Dictator of Venezuela, 283
+
+    Maroons or Simarons, 59, 211, 232
+
+    Martinez, Juan de, his report of "El Dorado," 43
+
+    Martinique, 116, 182, 238, 251, 259
+
+    Mauduit, Captain, murdered in the Haytian revolt, 262
+
+    Merrifield, Ralph, one of the first settlers in St. Kitt's, 85
+
+    Methodists, 295
+
+    Miranda, Francisco, leader of the revolution in Venezuela, 277, 347
+
+    Missionaries, Protestant, 295, 327
+
+    Montbar, the French pirate, 100
+
+    Montserrat, 161, 165, 249
+
+    Morgan, Captain (afterwards Sir Henry), the English buccaneer, 102, 177
+
+    Morgan, Colonel, 162
+
+    Morillo, Marshal, Spanish leader in Venezuela, 284
+
+
+    _Navio de permisso_, 199
+
+    Negro slavery, 52, 59, 139, 156, 210
+
+    Negroes, free, difficulties with, 329
+
+    Nelson, Lord,
+      flying trip to the West Indies, 254;
+      his expedition to Nicaragua, 346
+
+    Nevis, 161, 249
+
+    New Edinburgh, 192
+
+    New Granada, 32, 33, 281, 288
+
+    New World, 1
+
+    Nicaragua and the canal scheme, 288, 346, 351, 355, 362
+
+    North, Roger, a settler in Guiana, 83, 85
+
+    _Nueva Dorado_, 70
+
+
+    Ojeda, Alonzo de, 27
+
+    Omaguas, reported a rich nation, 36
+
+    Ophir, 15, 23
+
+    Ordas, Diego de, explores the Orinoco, 43
+
+    Orders in Council, 300
+
+    Orr, John Sayers, "the Angel Gabriel," creates a disturbance in
+    Demerara, 335
+
+    Ouverture, Toussaint L', leader of the Haytian negroes, 268
+
+    Oxenham or Oxnam, John, crosses the Isthmus, 61
+
+    Oyapok, English colonies in the, 76, 83
+
+
+    Panama, 186, 347, 350
+
+    Panama Canal, 347, 353, 355
+
+    Panama Railway, 352
+
+    Parima Lake, 33
+
+    Paterson, William, and the Darien scheme, 188
+
+    Penn and Venables, Generals, expedition to the West Indies, 130
+
+    Perez, Diego, a gallant Spaniard, 50
+
+    Petion, President of Hayti, 274, 285
+
+    Philips, Miles, an English prisoner in Mexico, 58
+
+    Pirates in the West Indies, 49, 90
+
+    Pitman, Henry, a bond-servant, 150
+
+    Pitt, in favour of a Panama Canal, 347
+
+    Plantations, 143, 154, 291
+
+    Pointis, de, a leader of buccaneers, 178
+
+    Pomeroon, 75, 161
+
+    Pope, The,
+      issues Bull of Partition, 48;
+      acknowledges French rights in the West Indies, 134
+
+    Popham, Captain, captures Spanish letters, 69
+
+    Porto Bello,
+      its fair, 185;
+      captured by Vernon, 204
+
+    Porto Rico, 20, 49
+
+    Prince of Orange in England, 252
+
+    Privateers, 96, 98
+
+    Proclamations to the Indians, 27, 30
+
+    Providence Island, 86
+
+    Puerto Cabello, 277
+
+
+    Quesada, Herman de, an "El Dorado" seeker, 36
+
+
+    Ralegh Sir Walter,
+      at Trinidad, 66;
+      his "Letters Patent," 68;
+      his interest in Guiana, 69;
+      captures Trinidad, 70;
+      searches for "El Dorado," 72;
+      sent to the Tower, 76;
+      liberated, 77;
+      goes again to Guiana, 78;
+      capture of St. Thome, 79;
+      his execution, 82
+
+    Reclus, M., a Panama Canal projector, 356
+
+    Regapo, Leonard, a Guiana Indian, in London, 77
+
+    _Repartimientos_, 15
+
+    Robespierre, 260
+
+    Rodney, Admiral, 237, 242
+
+    Rossy, Sieur du, 116
+
+    Route of Spanish trade, 49
+
+    Rovers to the Main, 49, 66
+
+    Royal African Company for introducing slaves, 149
+
+    Rupert, Prince, 124
+
+    Ruyter, Admiral de, attacks Barbados, 161
+
+
+    St. Christopher's, or St. Kitt's,
+      settled by Thomas Warner, 84;
+      granted to the Earl of Carlisle, 85;
+      d'Enambuc arrives, 87;
+      divided between English and French, 88;
+      attacked by Spaniards, 114;
+      granted to a French Company, 116;
+      bond-servants in, 153;
+      quarrels between English and French, 162, 177, 207;
+      captured by French, 249
+
+    St. Croix or Santa Cruz, riots in, 311, 329
+
+    St. Domingo,
+      captured by Drake, 64;
+      attempted by Penn and Venables, 131
+
+    St. Eustatius, 86, 161, 181, 238, 243
+
+    St. Lucia, 238, 241, 251
+
+    St. Martin's, 115, 116
+
+    St. Thomas, 239
+
+    St. Vincent, 238
+
+    Salle, General de la, French Governor of St. Kitt's, 162
+
+    San Juan river, 346
+
+    Santa Martha, captured by French pirates, 51
+
+    Santiago de Cuba, gallant fight at, 50
+
+    Santiago de la Vega captured by English, 116
+
+    Savile, Henry, his "Libel of Spanish Lies," 66
+
+    Sedenno, Antonio, an "El Dorado" seeker, 45
+
+    Serfdom, 137, 145
+
+    Shelley, Colonel, a "Cavalier" in Barbados, 121
+
+    Simarons, _see_ Maroons
+
+    Slaves,
+      Indian, 19;
+      negro, 52, 59, 139, 156, 210, 289;
+      white (bond-servants), 146;
+      insurrections, 213, 294, 302;
+      abolition of the African trade, 255, 289;
+      runaways, 210;
+      Registrar and Protector of, 293;
+      emancipation of, 309;
+      reviews of slavery, 289
+
+    Smith, Rev. John, a missionary sentenced to death in connection with
+      a slave revolt, 303-6
+
+    South Sea Bubble, 187, 196
+
+    Spain,
+      character of her people, 9;
+      introducing Christianity, 9;
+      wanton cruelty to the natives, 18;
+      hardiness of Spaniards, 25;
+      their audacity, 30;
+      Spanish claim to supremacy, 114;
+      interference with their trade, 133;
+      Spanish cruelty to prisoners of war, 171
+
+    "Spiriting" or kidnapping white servants, 146;
+      made felony 147
+
+    Sugar cane, 19, 141
+
+    Suicides, 18
+
+    Surinam, 161, 165, 167, 171, 179
+
+    Sylva, Gaspar de, an "El Dorado" seeker, 45
+
+
+    Tison, Thomas, first English trader to West Indies, 49
+
+    Tobacco, 141
+
+    Tobago, 115, 238, 251
+
+    Toledo, Don Frederic de, captures St. Kitt's, 114
+
+    Tortuga, the great rendezvous of the buccaneers, 95, 102, 165
+
+    Trade forced upon the Spanish settlers, 53, 57
+
+    Transported convicts, 147
+
+    Treasure seeking, 23
+
+    Trelawny Town, 232
+
+    Tribute imposed on natives, 15
+
+    Trinidad, 70, 328
+
+
+    Ursua, Pedro de, murdered by the tyrant Aguirre, 38
+
+    Utrecht, treaty of, 196
+
+
+    Valdivia, his shipwreck, 30
+
+    Van Horn the pirate, 103
+
+    Vanderbilt Transit Company, 351
+
+    Venables and Penn, Generals, their expedition, 130
+
+    Venezuela,
+      the treasure seekers in, 23;
+      her struggle for independence, 277
+
+    Vernon, Admiral, 204, 205, 337
+
+    Virgin Islands, 96
+
+    Virginia, 113
+
+
+    Wafer, Lionel, his journey across the Isthmus, 105
+
+    Walker, William, the modern filibuster, 352
+
+    Walrond, Colonel, a "Cavalier" in Barbados, 121
+
+    Warner, Thomas, founder of the colony of St. Kitt's, 84, 85, 88
+
+    Wars,
+      England and Spain, 63, 114, 130;
+      Holland and Spain, 87, 114;
+      France and Spain, 116;
+      England and Holland, 129, 160;
+      England and France against Holland and Spain, 170;
+      France against England and Holland, 177;
+      Spain, England, and Holland against France, 178;
+      England and Holland against France and Spain, 195;
+      England and Spain, 203;
+      England and her revolted colonies, 241;
+      France, Spain, and Holland join in the quarrel, 243;
+      commencement of the great French war, 251;
+      England and the United States, 255
+
+    Watts, Governor, of St. Kitt's, 162
+
+    Welsers of Augsburg, 33
+
+    West India Company of Holland, 87
+
+    William III. and the Darien scheme, 194
+
+    Willoughby, Lord, Governor of Barbados, 122, 124-8, 164
+
+    Wyse, M., a Panama Canal projector, 356
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The Gresham Press,
+
+UNWIN BROTHERS,
+
+WOKING AND LONDON.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The West Indies and the Spanish Main
+[1899], by James Rodway
+
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