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diff --git a/32783.txt b/32783.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6fda673 --- /dev/null +++ b/32783.txt @@ -0,0 +1,19332 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 8, Slice 7, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 8, Slice 7 + "Drama" to "Dublin" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: June 11, 2010 [EBook #32783] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 8 SL 7 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subsctipts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Letters topped by Macron are represented as [=x]. + +(5) Letters with a dot below are represented as [x.]. + +(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + Article DRAMA: "Incomparably the most important of recent additions + to the literary drama is Thomas Hardy's vast panorama of the + Napoleonic wars, entitled The Dynasts (1904-1908)." 'Incomparably' + amended from 'Imcomparably'. + + Article DRAVIDIAN: "Their languages form an isolated group, and it + has not been possible to prove a connexion with any other family of + languages." 'form' amended from 'from'. + + Article DRAWING: "The same analogy may be observed between two of + the senses in which the French verb tirer is frequently employed." + 'French' amended from 'Frech'. + + Article DRAWING: "Although the modern Italians have both traire and + trarre, they use delineare still in the sense of artistic drawing, + and also adombrare." 'in' amended from 'is'. + + Article DREDGE and DREDGING: "... the illustration of the + geographical distribution of marine animals, and the more accurate + determination of the fossils of the Pliocene period." + 'illustration' amended from 'illlustration'. + + Article DRENTE: "... and in 1818 the Society of Charity + (Maatschappij van Weldadigheid) was formed with Count van den Bosch + at its head." 'Weldadigheid' amended from 'Weldadigkeid'. + + Article DRENTE: "In later times forest culture was added, and the + Gerard Adriaan van Swieten schools of forestry, agriculture and + horticulture were established by Major van Swieten in memory of his + son." 'Swieten' amended from 'Sweiten'. + + Article DREW: "From 1861 to 1892 she had the management of the Arch + Street theatre in Philadelphia." 'From' amended from 'Fom'. + + Article DRIFT: "Thus it is possible to speak of a snow-drift, an + accumulation driven by the wind; of a ship drifting out of its + course; of the drift of a speech, i.e. its general tendency." + 'accumulation' amended from 'accumlation'. + + Article DUBLIN: "But the old jealousy arose in the reign of George + I., and in the reign of George III." 'jealousy' amended from + 'jealously'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME VIII, SLICE VII + + Drama to Dublin + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + DRAMA (part) DRONFIELD + DRAMBURG DROPSY + DRAMMEN DROPWORT + DRANE, AUGUSTA THEODOSIA DROSHKY + DRAPER, JOHN WILLIAM DROSTE-HULSHOFF, ANNETTE ELISABETH + DRAPER DROSTE-VISCHERING, CLEMENS AUGUST + DRAUGHT DROUAIS, JEAN GERMAIN + DRAUGHTS DROUET, JEAN BAPTISTE + DRAUPADI DROWNING AND LIFE SAVING + DRAVE DROYSEN, JOHANN GUSTAV + DRAVIDIAN DROZ, ANTOINE GUSTAVE + DRAWBACK DROZ, FRANCOIS-XAVIER JOSEPH + DRAWING DRUG (district of British India) + DRAWING AND QUARTERIN DRUG (medicine) + DRAWING-ROOM DRUIDISM + DRAYTON, MICHAEL DRUIDS, ORDER OF + DREAM DRUM + DREDGE and DREDGING DRUMMOND, HENRY (1786-1860) + DRELINCOURT, CHARLES DRUMMOND, HENRY (1851-1897) + DRENTE DRUMMOND, THOMAS + DRESDEN DRUMMOND, WILLIAM + DRESS DRUNKENNESS + DRESSER DRURY, SIR WILLIAM + DREUX DRUSES + DREW DRUSIUS JOHANNES + DREW, SAMUEL DRUSUS, MARCUS LIVIUS + DREWENZ DRUSUS, NERO CLAUDIUS + DREXEL, ANTHONY JOSEPH DRUSUS CAESAR + DREYFUS, ALFRED DRYADES + DRIBURG DRYANDER, JONAS + DRIFFIELD DRYBURGH ABBEY + DRIFT DRYDEN, JOHN + DRILL DRYOPITHECUS + DRINKING VESSELS DRY ROT + DRIPSTONE DUALISM + DRISLER, HENRY DUALLA + DRIVER, SAMUEL ROLLES DU BARRY, MARIE JEANNE BECU + DRIVING DU BARTAS, GUILLAUME DE SALUSTE + DROGHEDA DUBAWNT + DROIT DUBBO + DROITWICH DU BELLAY, GUILLAUME + DROME DU BELLAY, JEAN + DROMEDARY DU BELLAY, JOACHIM + DROMORE DUBLIN (county of Ireland) + DROMOS DUBLIN (city of Ireland) + DRONE + + + + +DRAMA. (Continued from Volume 8 Slice 6.) + + +10. MEDIEVAL DRAMA + + Ecclesiastical and monastic literary drama. + + Hrosvitha. + +While the scattered and persecuted strollers thus kept alive something +of the popularity, if not of the loftier traditions, of their art, +neither, on the other hand, was there an utter absence of written +compositions to bridge the gap between ancient and modern dramatic +literature. In the midst of the condemnation with which the Christian +Church visited the stage, its professors and votaries, we find +individual ecclesiastics resorting in their writings to both the tragic +and the comic form of the ancient drama. These isolated productions, +which include the [Greek: Christos paschon] (_Passion of Christ_) +formerly attributed to St Gregory Nazianzen, and the _Querolus_, long +fathered upon Plautus himself, were doubtless mostly written for +educational purposes--whether Euripides and Lycophron, or Menander, +Plautus and Terence, served as the outward models. The same was probably +the design of the famous "comedies" of Hrosvitha, the Benedictine nun of +Gandersheim, in Eastphalian Saxony, which associate themselves in the +history of Christian literature with the spiritual revival of the 10th +century in the days of Otto the Great. While avowedly imitated in form +from the comedies of Terence, these religious exercises derive their +themes--martyrdoms,[1] and miraculous or otherwise startling +conversions[2]--from the legends of Christian saints. Thus, from perhaps +the 9th to the 12th centuries, Germany and France, and through the +latter, by means of the Norman Conquest, England, became acquainted with +what may be called the literary monastic drama. It was no doubt +occasionally performed by the children under the care of monks or nuns, +or by the religious themselves; an exhibition of the former kind was +that of the _Play of St Katharine_, acted at Dunstable about the year +1110 in "copes" by the scholars of the Norman Geoffrey, afterwards abbot +of St Albans. Nothing is known concerning it except the fact of its +performance, which was certainly not regarded as a novelty. + + + The joculatores, jongleurs, minstrels. + +These efforts of the cloister came in time to blend themselves with more +popular forms of the early medieval drama. The natural agents in the +transmission of these popular forms were those _mimes_, whom, while the +representatives of more elaborate developments, the "pantomimes" in +particular, had inevitably succumbed, the Roman drama had left surviving +it, unextinguished and unextinguishable. Above all, it is necessary to +point out how in the long interval now in question--the "dark ages," +which may, from the present point of view, be reckoned from about the +6th to the 11th century--the Latin and the Teutonic elements of what may +be broadly designated as medieval "minstrelsy," more or less +imperceptibly, coalesced. The traditions of the disestablished and +disendowed _mimus_ combined with the "occupation" of the Teutonic +_scop_, who as a professional personage does not occur in the earliest +Teutonic poetry, but on the other hand is very distinctly traceable +under this name or that of the "gleeman," in Anglo-Saxon literature, +before it fell under the control of the Christian Church. Her influence +and that of docile rulers, both in England and in the far wider area of +the Frank empire, gradually prevailed even over the inherited goodwill +which neither Alfred nor even Charles the Great had denied to the +composite growth in which _mimus_ and _scop_ alike had a share. + +How far the _joculatores_--which in the early middle ages came to be the +name most widely given to these irresponsible transmitters of a great +artistic trust--kept alive the usage of entertainments more essentially +dramatic than the minor varieties of their performances, we cannot say. +In different countries these entertainers suited themselves to different +tastes, and with the rise of native literatures to different literary +tendencies. The literature of the _troubadours_ of Provence, which +communicated itself to Spain and Italy, came only into isolated contact +with the beginnings of the religious drama; in northern France the +_jongleurs_, as the _joculatores_ were now called, were confounded with +the _trouveres_, who, to the accompaniment of _vielle_ or harp, sang the +_chansons de geste_ commemorative of deeds of war. As appointed servants +of particular households they were here, and afterwards in England, +called _menestrels_ (from _ministeriales_) or _minstrels_. Such a +_histrio_ or _mimus_ (as he is called) was Taillefer, who rode first +into the fight at Hastings, singing his songs of Roland and Charlemagne, +and tossing his sword in the air and catching it again. In England such +accomplished minstrels easily outshone the less versatile gleemen of +pre-Norman times, and one or two of them appeared as landholders in +Domesday Book, and many enjoyed the favour of the Norman, Angevin and +Plantagenet kings. But here, as elsewhere, the humbler members of the +craft spent their lives in strolling from castle to convent, from +village-green to city-street, and there exhibiting their skill as +dancers, tumblers, jugglers proper, and as masquers and conductors of +bears and other dumb contributors to popular wonder and merriment. Their +only chance of survival finally came to lie in organization under the +protection of powerful nobles; but when, in the 15th century in England, +companies of players issued forth from towns and villages, the +profession, in so far as its members had not secured preference, saw +itself threatened with ruin. + + + Survivals and adaptations of pagan festive ceremonies and usages. + +In any attempt to explain the transmission of dramatic elements from +pagan to Christian times, and the influence exercised by this +transmission upon the beginnings of the medieval drama, account should +finally be taken of the pertinacious survival of popular festive rites +and ceremonies. From the days of Gregory the Great, i.e. from the end of +the 6th century onwards, the Western Church tolerated and even attracted +to her own festivals popular customs, significant of rejoicing, which +were in truth relics of heathen ritual. Such were the Mithraic feast of +the 25th of December, or the egg of Eostre-tide, and a multitude of +Celtic or Teutonic agricultural ceremonies. These rites, originally +symbolical of propitiation or of weather-magic, were of a semi-dramatic +nature--such as the dipping of the neck of corn in water, sprinkling +holy drops upon persons or animals, processions of beasts or men in +beast-masks, dressing trees with flowers, and the like, but above all +ceremonial dances, often in disguise. The sword-dance, recorded by +Tacitus, of which an important feature was the symbolic threat of death +to a victim, endured (though it is rarely mentioned) to the later middle +ages. By this time it had attracted to itself a variety of additional +features, and of characters familiar as pace-eggers, mummers, +morris-dancers (probably of distinct origin), who continually enlarged +the scope of their performances, especially as regarded their comic +element. The dramatic "expulsion of death," or winter, by the +destruction of a lay-figure--common through western Europe about the 8th +century--seems connected with a more elaborate rite, in which a +disguised performer (who perhaps originally represented summer) was +slain and afterwards revived (the _Pfingstl_, Jack in the Green, or +Green Knight). This representation, after acquiring a comic complexion, +was annexed by the character dancers, who about the 15th century took to +adding still livelier incidents from songs treating of popular heroes, +such as St George and Robin Hood; which latter found a place in the +festivities of May Day with their central figure, the May Queen. The +earliest ceremonial observances of this sort were clearly connected with +pastoral and agricultural life; but the inhabitants of the towns also +came to have a share in them; and so, as will be seen later, did the +clergy. They were in particular responsible for the buffooneries of the +feast of fools (or asses), which enjoyed the greatest popularity in +France (though protests against it are on record from the 11th century +onwards to the 17th), but was well known from London to Constantinople. +This riotous New Year's celebration was probably derived from the +ancient Kalend feasts, which may have bequeathed to it both the +hobby-horse and the lord, or bishop, of misrule. In the 16th century the +feast of fools was combined with the elaborate festivities of courts and +cities during the twelve Christmas feast-days--the season when +throughout the previous two centuries the "mummers" especially +flourished, who in their disguisings and "_viseres_" began as dancers +gesticulating in dumb-show, but ultimately developed into actors proper. + + + The liturgy the main source of the medieval religious drama. + + Tropes. + +Thus the literary and the professional element, as well as that of +popular festive usages, had survived to become tributaries to the main +stream of the early Christian drama, which had its direct source in the +liturgy of the Church itself. The service of the Mass contains in itself +dramatic elements, and combines with the reading out of portions of +Scripture by the priest--its "epical" part--a "lyrical" part in the +anthems and responses of the congregation. At a very early +period--certainly already in the 5th century--it was usual on special +occasions to increase the attractions of public worship by living +pictures, illustrating the Gospel narrative and accompanied by songs; +and thus a certain amount of action gradually introduced itself into the +service. The insertion, before or after sung portions of the service, of +tropes, originally one or more verses of texts, usually serving as +introits and in connexion with the gospel of the day, and recited by the +two halves of the choir, naturally led to dialogue chanting; and this +was frequently accompanied by illustrative fragments of action, such as +drawing down the veil from before the altar. + + + The liturgical mystery. + +This practice of interpolations in the offices of the church, which is +attested by texts from the 9th century onwards (the so-called +"Winchester tropes" belong to the 10th and 11th), progressed, till on +the great festivals of the church the epical part of the liturgy was +systematically connected with spectacular and in some measure mimical +adjuncts, the lyrical accompaniment being of course retained. Thus the +_liturgical mystery_--the earliest form of the Christian drama--was +gradually called into existence. This had certainly been accomplished as +early as the 10th century, when on great ecclesiastical festivals it was +customary for the priests to perform in the churches these offices (as +they were called). The whole Easter story, from the burial to Emmaus, +was thus presented, the Maries and the angel adding their lyrical +_planctus_; while the surroundings of the Nativity--the Shepherds, the +Innocents, &c.--were linked with the Shepherds of Epiphany by a +recitation of "Prophets," including Vergil and the Sibyl. Before long, +from the 11th century onwards, _mysteries_, as they were called, were +produced in France on scriptural subjects unconnected with the great +Church festivals--such as the Wise and Foolish Virgins, Adam (with the +fall of Lucifer), Daniel, Lazarus, &c. Compositions on the last-named +two themes remain from the hand of one of the very earliest of medieval +play-writers, Hilarius, who may have been an Englishman, and who +certainly studied under Abelard. He also wrote a "miracle" of St +Nicholas, one of the most widely popular of medieval saints. Into the +pieces founded on the Scripture narrative outside characters and +incidents were occasionally introduced, by way of diverting the +audience. + + + The collective mystery. + +These mysteries and miracles being as yet represented by the clergy +only, the language in which they were usually written is Latin--in many +varieties of verse with occasional prose; but already in the 11th +century the further step was taken of composing these texts in the +vernacular--the earliest example being the mystery of the Resurrection. +In time a whole series of mysteries was joined together; a process which +was at first roughly and then more elaborately pursued in France and +elsewhere, and finally resulted in the _collective mystery_--merely a +scholars' term of course, but one to which the principal examples of the +English mystery-drama correspond. + + + Mysteries, miracles, and morals distinguished. + +The productions of the medieval religious drama it is usual technically +to divide into three classes. The _mysteries_ proper deal with +scriptural events only, their purpose being to set forth, with the aid +of the prophetic or preparatory history of the Old Testament, and more +especially of the fulfilling events of the New, the central mystery of +the Redemption of the world, as accomplished by the Nativity, the +Passion and the Resurrection. But in fact these were not kept +distinctly apart from the _miracle-plays_, or _miracles_, which are +strictly speaking concerned with the legends of the saints of the +church; and in England the name _mysteries_ was not in use. Of these +species the miracles must more especially have been fed from the +resources of the monastic literary drama. Thirdly, the _moralities_, or +_moral-plays_, teach and illustrate the same truths--not, however, by +direct representation of scriptural or legendary events and personages, +but allegorically, their characters being personified virtues or +qualities. Of the moralities the Norman _trouveres_ had been the +inventors; and doubtless this innovation connects itself with the +endeavour, which in France had almost proved victorious by the end of +the 13th century, to emancipate dramatic performances from the control +of the church. + + + The clergy and the religious drama. + +The attitude of the clergy towards the dramatic performances which had +arisen out of the elaboration of the services of the church, but soon +admitted elements from other sources, was not, and could not be, +uniform. As the plays grew longer, their paraphernalia more extensive, +and their spectators more numerous, they began to be represented outside +as well as inside the churches, at first in the churchyards, and the use +of the vulgar tongue came to be gradually preferred. A Beverley +Resurrection play (1220 c.) and some others are bilingual. Miracles were +less dependent on this connexion with the church services than mysteries +proper; and lay associations, gilds, and schools in particular, soon +began to act plays in honour of their patron saints in or near their own +halls. Lastly, as scenes and characters of a more or less trivial +description were admitted even into the plays acted or superintended by +the clergy, as some of these characters came to be depended on by the +audiences for conventional extravagance or fun, every new Herod seeking +to out-Herod his predecessor, and the devils and their chief asserting +themselves as indispensable favourites, the comic element in the +religious drama increased; and that drama itself, even where it remained +associated with the church, grew more and more profane. The endeavour to +sanctify the popular tastes to religious uses, which connects itself +with the institution of the great festival of Corpus Christi (1264, +confirmed 1311), when the symbol of the mystery of the Incarnation was +borne in solemn procession, led to the closer union of the dramatic +exhibitions (hence often called _processus_) with this and other +religious feasts; but it neither limited their range nor controlled +their development. + + + Progress of the medieval drama in Europe. + +It is impossible to condense into a few sentences the extremely varied +history of the processes of transformation undergone by the medieval +drama in Europe during the two centuries--from about 1200 to about +1400--in which it ran a course of its own, and during the succeeding +period, in which it was only partially affected by the influence of the +Renaissance. A few typical phenomena may, however, be noted in the case +of the drama of each of the several chief countries of the West; where +the vernacular successfully supplanted Latin as the ordinary medium of +dramatic speech, where song was effectually ousted by recitation and +dialogue, and where finally, though the emancipation was on this head +nowhere absolute, the religious drama gave place to the secular. + + + France. + +In France, where dramatic performances had never fallen entirely into +the hands of the clergy, the progress was speediest and most decided +towards forms approaching those of the modern drama. The earliest play +in the French tongue, however, the 12th-century _Adam_, supposed to have +been written by a Norman in England (as is a fragmentary _Resurrection_ +of much the same date), still reveals its connexion with the liturgical +drama. Jean Bodel of Arras' miracle-play of _St Nicolas_ (before 1205) +is already the production of a secular author, probably designed for the +edification of some civic confraternity to which he belonged, and has +some realistic features. On the other hand, the _Theophilus_ of Rutebeuf +(d. c. 1280) treats its Faust-like theme, with which we meet again in +Low-German dramatic literature two centuries later, in a rather lifeless +form but in a highly religious spirit, and belongs to the cycle of +miracles of the Virgin of which examples abound throughout this period. +Easter or Passion plays were fully established in popular acceptance in +Paris as well as in other towns of France by the end of the 14th +century; and in 1402 the _Confrerie de la Passion_, who at first devoted +themselves exclusively to the performance of this species, obtained a +royal privilege for the purpose. These series of religious plays were +both extensive and elaborate; perhaps the most notable series (c. 1450) +is that by Arnoul Greban, who died as a canon of Le Mans, his native +town. Its revision, by Jean Michel, containing much illustrative detail +(first performed at Angers in 1486), was very popular. Still more +elaborate is the Rouen Christmas mystery of 1474, and the celebrated +_Mystere du vieil testament_, produced at Abbeville in 1458, and +performed at Paris in 1500. Most of the Provencal Christmas and Passion +plays date from the 14th century, as well as a miracle of St Agnes. The +miracles of saints were popular in all parts of France, and the +diversity of local colouring naturally imparted to these productions +contributed materially to the growth of the early French drama. The +miracles of Ste Genevieve and St Denis came directly home to the +inhabitants of Paris, as that of St Martin to the citizens of Tours; +while the early victories of St Louis over the English might claim a +national significance for the dramatic celebration of his deeds. The +local saints of Provence were in their turn honoured by miracles dating +from the 15th and 16th centuries. + +It is less easy to trace the origins of the comic medieval drama in +France, connected as they are with an extraordinary variety of +associations for professional, pious and pleasurable purposes. The _ludi +inhonesti_ in which the students of a Paris college (Navarre) were in +1315 debarred from engaging cannot be proved to have been dramatic +performances; the earliest known secular plays presented by university +students in France were moralities, performed in 1426 and 1431. These +plays, depicting conflicts between opposing influences--and at bottom +the struggle between good and evil in the human soul--become more +frequent from about this time onwards. Now it is (at Rennes in 1439) the +contention between _Bien-avise_ and _Mal-avise_ (who at the close find +themselves respectively in charge of _Bonne-fin_ and _Male-fin_); now, +one between _l'homme juste_ and _l'homme mondain_; now, the contrasted +story of _Les Enfants de Maintenant_, who, however, is no abstraction, +but an honest baker with a wife called Mignotte. Political and social +problems are likewise treated; and the _Mystere du Concile de Bale_--an +historical morality--dates back to 1432. But thought is taken even more +largely of the sufferings of the people than of the controversies of the +Church; and in 1507 we even meet with a hygienic or abstinence morality +(by N. de la Chesnaye) in which "Banquet" enters into a conspiracy with +"Apoplexy," "Epilepsy" and the whole regiment of diseases. + +Long before this development of an artificial species had been +consummated--from the beginning of the 14th century onwards--the famous +fraternity or professional union of the Basoche (clerks of the Parlement +and the Chatelet) had been entrusted with the conduct of popular +festivals at Paris, in which, as of right, they took a prominent +personal share; and from a date unknown they had performed plays. But +after the _Confrerie de la Passion_ had been allowed to monopolize the +religious drama, the _basochiens_ had confined themselves to the +presentment of moralities and of farces (from Italian _farsa_, Latin +_farcita_), in which political satire had as a matter of course when +possible found a place. A third association, calling themselves the +_Enfans sans souci_, had, apparently also early in the 15th century, +acquired celebrity by their performances of short comic plays called +soties--in which, as it would seem, at first allegorical figures +ironically "played the fool," but which were probably before long not +very carefully kept distinct from the farces of the Basoche, and were +like these on occasion made to serve the purposes of State or of Church. +Other confraternities and associations readily took a leaf out of the +book of these devil-may-care good-fellows, and interwove their religious +and moral plays with comic scenes and characters from actual life, thus +becoming more and more free and secular in their dramatic methods, and +unconsciously preparing the transition to the regular drama. + +The earliest example of a serious secular play known to have been +written in the French tongue is the _Estoire de Griseldis_ (1393); which +is in the style of the miracles of the Virgin, but is largely indebted +to Petrarch. The _Mystere du siege d'Orleans_, on the other hand, +written about half a century later, in the epic tediousness of its +manner comes near to a chronicle history, and interests us chiefly as +the earliest of many efforts to bring Joan of Arc on the stage. Jacques +Milet's celebrated mystery of the _Destruction de Troye la grant_ (1452) +seems to have been addressed to readers and not to hearers only. The +beginnings of the French regular comic drama are again more difficult to +extract from the copious literature of farces and soties, which, after +mingling actual types with abstract and allegorical figures, gradually +came to exclude all but the concrete personages; moreover, the large +majority of these productions in their extant form belong to a later +period than that now under consideration. But there is ample evidence +that the most famous of all medieval farces, the immortal _Maistre +Pierre Pathelin_ (otherwise _L'Avocat Pathelin_), was written before +1470 and acted by the _basochiens_; and we may conclude that this +delightful story of the biter bit, and the profession outwitted, +typifies a multitude of similar comic episodes of real life, dramatized +for the delectation of clerks, lawyers and students, and of all lovers +of laughter. + + + The Netherlands. + +In the neighbouring Netherlands many Easter and Christmas mysteries are +noted from the middle of the 15th century, attesting the enduring +popularity of these religious plays; and with them the celebrated series +of the Seven Joys of Maria--of which the first is the Annunciation and +the seventh the Ascension. To about the same date belongs the small +group of the so-called _abele spelen_ (as who should say plays easily +managed), chiefly on chivalrous themes. Though allegorical figures are +already to be found in the Netherlands miracles of Mary, the species of +the moralities was specially cultivated during the great Burgundian +period of this century by the chambers or lodges of the _Rederijkers_ +(rhetoricians)--the well-known civic associations which devoted +themselves to the cultivation of learned poetry and took an active share +in the festivals that formed one of the most characteristic features of +the life of the Low Countries. Among these moralities was that of +_Elckerlijk_ (printed 1495 and presumably by Peter Dorlandus), which +there is good reason for regarding as the original of one of the finest +of English moralities, _Everyman_. + + + Italy. + +In Italy the liturgical drama must have run its course as elsewhere; but +the traces of it are few, and confined to the north-east. The collective +mystery, so common in other Western countries, is in Italian literature +represented by a single example only--a _Passione di Gesu Cristo_, +performed at Revello in Saluzzo in the 15th century; though there are +some traces of other cyclic dramas of the kind. The Italian religious +plays, called _figure_ when on Old, _vangeli_ when on New, Testament +subjects, and differing from those of northern Europe chiefly by the +less degree of coarseness in their comic characters, seem largely to +have sprung out of the development of the processional element in the +festivals of the Church. Besides such processions as that of the Three +Kings at Epiphany in Milan, there were the penitential processions and +songs (_laude_), which at Assisi, Perugia and elsewhere already +contained a dramatic element; and at Siena, Florence and other centres +these again developed into the so-called (_sacre_) _rappresentazioni_, +which became the most usual name for this kind of entertainment. Such a +piece was the _San Giovanni e San Paolo_ (1489), by Lorenzo the +Magnificent--the prince who afterwards sought to reform the Italian +stage by paganizing it; another was the _Santa Teodora_, by Luigi Pulci +(d. 1487); _San Giovanni Gualberto_ (of Florence) treats the religious +experience of a latter-day saint; _Rosana e Ulimento_ is a love-story +with a Christian moral. Passion plays were performed at Rome in the +Coliseum by the _Compagnia del Gonfalone_; but there is no evidence on +this head before the end of the 15th century. In general, the +spectacular magnificence of Italian theatrical displays accorded with +the growing pomp of the processions both ecclesiastical and lay--called +_trionfi_ already in the days of Dante; while the religious drama +gradually acquired an artificial character and elaboration of form +assimilating it to the classical attempts, to be noted below, which gave +rise to the regular Italian drama. The poetry of the Troubadours, which +had come from Provence into Italy, here frequently took a dramatic form, +and may have suggested some of his earlier poetic experiments to +Petrarch. + +It was a matter of course that remnants of the ancient popular dramatic +entertainments should have survived in particular abundance on Italian +soil. They were to be recognized in the improvised farces performed at +the courts, in the churches (_farse spirituali_), and among the people; +the Roman carnival had preserved its wagon-plays, and various links +remained to connect the modern comic drama of the Italians with the +_Atellanes_ and _mimes_ of their ancestors. But the more notable later +comic developments, which belong to the 16th century, will be more +appropriately noticed below. Moralities proper had not flourished in +Italy, where the love of the concrete has always been dominant in +popular taste; more numerous are examples of scenes, largely +mythological, in which the influence of the Renaissance is already +perceptible, of eclogues, and of allegorical festival-plays of various +sorts. + + + Spain. + +In Spain hardly a monument of the medieval religious drama has been +preserved. There is manuscript evidence of the 11th century attesting +the early addition of dramatic elements to the Easter office; and a +Spanish fragment of the Three Kings Epiphany play, dating from the 12th +century, is, like the French _Adam_, one of the very earliest examples +of the medieval drama in the vernacular. But that religious plays were +performed in Spain is clear from the permission granted by Alphonso X. +of Castile (d. 1284) to the clergy to represent them, while prohibiting +the performance by them of _juegos de escarnio_ (mocking plays). The +earliest Spanish plays which we possess belong to the end of the 15th or +beginning of the 16th century, and already show humanistic influence. In +1472 the couplets of _Mingo Revulgo_ (i.e. Domingo Vulgus, the common +people), and about the same time another dialogue by the same author, +offer examples of a sort resembling the Italian _contrasti_ (see below). + + + Germany. + +The German religious plays in the vernacular, the earliest of which date +from the 14th and 15th centuries, and were produced at Trier, +Wolfenbuttel, Innsbruck, Vienna, Berlin, &c., were of a simple kind; but +in some of them, though they were written by clerks, there are traces of +the minstrels' hands. The earliest complete Christmas play in German, +contained in a 14th-century St Gallen MS., has nothing in it to suggest +a Latin original. On the other hand, the play of _The Wise and the +Foolish Virgins_, in a Thuringian MS. thought to be as early as 1328, a +piece of remarkable dignity, was evidently based on a Latin play. Other +festivals besides Christmas were celebrated by plays; but down to the +Reformation Easter enjoyed a preference. In the same century +miracle-plays began to be performed, in honour of St Catherine, St +Dorothea and other saints. But all these productions seem to belong to a +period when the drama was still under ecclesiastical control. Gradually, +as the liturgical drama returned to the simpler forms from which it had +so surprisingly expanded, and ultimately died out, the religious plays +performed outside the churches expanded more freely; and the type of +mystery associated with the name of the Frankfort canon Baldemar von +Peterweil communicated itself, with other examples, to the receptive +region of the south-west. The Corpus Christi plays, or (as they were here +called) _Frohnleichnamsspiele_, are notable, since that of Innsbruck +(1391) is probably the earliest extant example of its class. The number +of non-scriptural religious plays in Germany was much smaller than that +in France; but it may be noted that (in accordance with a long-enduring +popular notion) the theme of the last judgment was common in Germany in +the latter part of the middle ages. Of this theme _Antichrist_ may be +regarded as an episode, though in 1469 an _Antichrist_ appears to have +occupied at Frankfort four days in its performance. The earlier (12th +century) _Antichrist_ is a production quite unique of its kind; this +political protest breathes the Ghibelline spirit of the reign (Frederick +Barbarossa's) in which it was composed. + +Though many of the early German plays contain an element of the +moralities, there were few representative German examples of the +species. The academical instinct, or some other influence, kept the more +elaborate productions on the whole apart from the drolleries of the +professional strollers (_fahrende Leute_), whose Shrove-Tuesday plays +(_Fastnachtsspiele_) and cognate productions reproduced the practical +fun of common life. Occasionally, no doubt, as in the Lubeck +_Fastnachtsspiel_ of the Five Virtues, the two species may have more or +less closely approached to one another. When, in the course of the 15th +century, Hans Rosenplut, called Schnepperer--or Hans Schnepperer, called +Rosenplut--the predecessor of Hans Sachs, first gave a more enduring +form to the popular Shrove-Tuesday plays, a connexion was already +establishing itself between the dramatic amusements of the people and +the literary efforts of the "master-singers" of the towns. But, while +the main productivity of the writers of moralities and cognate +productions--a species particularly suited to German latitudes--falls +into the periods of Renaissance and Reformation, the religious drama +proper survived far beyond either in Catholic Germany, and, in fact, was +not suppressed in Bavaria and Tirol till the end of the 18th century.[3] + + + Sweden, Carpathian lands, &c. + +It may be added that the performance of miracle-plays is traceable in +Sweden in the latter half of the 14th century; and that the German +clerks and laymen who immigrated into the Carpathian lands, and into +Galicia in particular, in the later middle ages, brought with them their +religious plays together with other elements of culture. This fact is +the more striking, inasmuch as, though Czech Easter plays were performed +about the end of the 14th century, we hear of none among the Magyars, or +among their neighbours of the Eastern empire. + + + Religious drama in England. + + Cornish miracle-plays. + +Coming now to the English religious drama, we find that from its extant +literature a fair general idea may be derived of the character of these +medieval productions. The _miracle-plays_, _miracles_ or _plays_ (these +being the terms used in England) of which we hear in London in the 12th +century were probably written in Latin and acted by ecclesiastics; but +already in the following century mention is made--in the way of +prohibition--of plays acted by professional players. (Isolated +moralities of the 12th century are not to be regarded as popular +productions.) In England as elsewhere, the clergy either sought to +retain their control over the religious plays, which continued to be +occasionally acted in churches even after the Reformation, or else +reprobated them with or without qualifications. In Cornwall miracles in +the native Cymric dialect were performed at an early date; but those +which have been preserved are apparently copies of English (with the +occasional use of French) originals; they were represented, unlike the +English plays, in the open country, in extensive amphitheatres +constructed for the purpose--one of which, at St Just near Penzance, has +recently been restored. + + + Localities of the performance of miracle-plays. + + The York, Towneley, Chester and Coventry plays. + +The flourishing period of English miracle-plays begins with the practice +of their performance by trading-companies in the towns, though these +bodies were by no means possessed of any special privileges for the +purpose. Of this practice Chester is said to have set the example +(1268-1276); it was followed in the course of the 13th and 14th +centuries by many other towns, while in yet others traces of such +performances are not to be found till the 15th, or even the 16th. These +towns with their neighbourhoods include, starting from East Anglia, +where the religious drama was particularly at home, Wymondham, Norwich, +Sleaford, Lincoln, Leeds, Wakefield, Beverley, York, Newcastle-on-Tyne, +with a deviation across the border to Edinburgh and Aberdeen. In the +north-west they are found at Kendal, Lancaster, Preston, Chester; +whence they may be supposed to have migrated to Dublin. In the west they +are noticeable at Shrewsbury, Worcester and Tewkesbury; in the Midlands +at Coventry and Leicester; in the east at Cambridge and Bassingbourne, +Heybridge and Manningtree; to which places have to be added Reading, +Winchester, Canterbury, Bethesda and London, in which last the +performers were the parish-clerks. Four collections, in addition to some +single examples of such plays, have come down to us, the _York_ plays, +the so-called _Towneley_ plays, which were probably acted at the fairs +of Widkirk, near Wakefield, and those bearing the names of _Chester_ and +of _Coventry_. Their dates, in the forms in which they have come down to +us, are more or less uncertain; that of the _York_ may on the whole be +concluded to be earlier than that of the _Towneley_, which were probably +put together about the middle of the 14th century; the _Chester_ may be +ascribed to the close of the 14th or the earlier part of the 15th; the +body of the _Coventry_ probably belongs to the 15th or 16th. Many of the +individual plays in these collections were doubtless founded on French +originals; others are taken direct from Scripture, from the apocryphal +gospels, or from the legends of the saints. Their characteristic feature +is the combination of a whole series of plays into one _collective_ +whole, exhibiting the entire course of Bible history from the creation +to the day of judgment. For this combination it is unnecessary to +suppose that they were generally indebted to foreign examples, though +there are several remarkable coincidences between the Chester plays and +the French _Mystere du vieil testament_. Indeed, the oldest of the +series--the _York_ plays--exhibits a fairly close parallel to the scheme +of the _Cursor mundi_, an epic poem of Northumbrian origin, which early +in the 14th century had set an example of treatment that unmistakably +influenced the collective mysteries as a whole. Among the isolated plays +of the same type which have come down to us may be mentioned _The +Harrowing of Hell_ (the Saviour's descent into hell), an East-Midland +production which professes to tell of "a strif of Jesu and of Satan" and +is probably the earliest dramatic, or all but dramatic, work in English +that has been preserved; and several belonging to a series known as the +_Digby Mysteries_, including _Parfre's Candlemas Day_ (the massacre of +the Innocents), and the very interesting miracle of _Mary Magdalene_. Of +the so-called "Paternoster" and "Creed" plays (which exhibit the +miraculous powers of portions of the Church service) no example remains, +though of some we have an account; the Croxton _Play of the Sacrament_, +the MS. of which is preserved at Dublin, and which seems to date from +the latter half of the 15th century, exhibits the triumph of the holy +wafer over wicked Jewish wiles. + + + English collective mysteries. + +To return to the collective mysteries, as they present themselves to us +in the chief extant series. "The manner of these plays," we read in a +description of those at Chester, dating from the close of the 16th +century, "were:--Every company had his pageant, which pageants were a +high scaffold with two rooms, a higher and a lower, upon four wheels. In +the lower they apparelled themselves, and in the higher room they +played, being all open at the top, that all beholders might hear and see +them. The places where they played them was in every street. They began +first at the abbey gates, and when the first pageant was played, it was +wheeled to the high cross before the mayor, and so to every street, and +so every street had a pageant playing before them at one time till all +the pageants appointed for the day were played; and when one pageant was +near ended, word was brought from street to street, that so they might +come in place thereof, exceedingly orderly, and all the streets have +their pageants afore them all at one time playing together; to see which +plays was great resort, and also scaffolds and stages made in the +streets in those places where they determined to play their pageants." + +Each play, then, was performed by the representative of a particular +trade or company, after whom it was called the fishers', glovers', &c., +_pageant_; while a general prologue was spoken by a herald. As a rule +the movable stage sufficed for the action, though we find horsemen +riding up to the scaffold, and Herod instructed to "rage in the pagond +and in the strete also." There is no probability that the stage was, as +in France, divided into three platforms with a dark cavern at the side +of the lowest, appropriated respectively to the Heavenly Father and his +angels, to saints and glorified men, to mere men, and to souls in hell. +But the last-named locality was frequently displayed in the English +miracles, with or without fire in its mouth. The costumes were in part +conventional,--divine and saintly personages being distinguished by gilt +hair and beards, Herod being clad as a Saracen, the demons wearing +hideous heads, the souls black and white coats according to their kind, +and the angels gold skins and wings. + + + Character of the Plays. + +Doubtless these performances abounded in what seem to us ludicrous +features; and, though their main purpose was serious, they were not in +England at least intended to be devoid of fun. But many of the features +in question are in truth only homely and _naif_, and the simplicity of +feeling which they exhibit is at times pathetic rather than laughable. +The occasional grossness is due to an absence of refinement of taste +rather than to an obliquity of moral sentiment. These features the four +series have more or less in common, still there are certain obvious +distinctions between them. The _York_ plays (48), which were performed +at Corpus Christi, are comparatively free from the tendency to +jocularity and vulgarity observable in the _Towneley_; several of the +plays concerned with the New Testament and early Christian story are, +however, in substance common to both series. The _Towneley Plays_ or +_Wakefield Mysteries_ (32) were undoubtedly composed by the friars of +Widkirk or Nostel; but they are of a popular character; and, while +somewhat over-free in tone, are superior in vivacity and humour to both +the later collections. The _Chester Plays_ (25) were undoubtedly +indebted both to the _Mystere du vieil testament_ and to earlier French +mysteries; they are less popular in character than the earlier two +cycles, and on the whole undistinguished by original power of pathos or +humour. There is, on the other hand, a notable inner completeness in +this series, which includes a play of _Antichrist_, devoid of course of +any modern application. While these plays were performed at Whitsuntide, +the _Coventry Plays_ (42) were Corpus Christi performances. Though there +is no proof that the extant series were composed by the Grey Friars, +they reveal a considerable knowledge of ecclesiastical literature. For +the rest, they are far more effectively written than the _Chester +Plays_, and occasionally rise to real dramatic force. In the _Coventry_ +series there is already to be observed an element of abstract figures, +which connects them with a different species of the medieval drama. + + + Moralities. + + The Devil and the Vice. + +The _moralities_ corresponded to the love for allegory which manifests +itself in so many periods of English literature, and which, while +dominating the whole field of medieval literature, was nowhere more +assiduously and effectively cultivated than in England. It is necessary +to bear this in mind, in order to understand what to us seems so +strange, the popularity of the moral-plays, which indeed never equalled +that of the miracles, but sufficed to maintain the former species till +it received a fresh impulse from the connexion established between it +and the "new learning," together with the new political and religious +ideas and questions, of the Reformation age. Moreover, a specially +popular element was supplied to these plays, which in manner of +representation differed in no essential point from the miracles, in a +character borrowed from the latter, and, in the moralities, usually +provided with a companion whose task it was to lighten the weight of +such abstractions as Sapience and Justice. These were the Devil and his +attendant the _Vice_, of whom the latter seems to have been of native +origin, and, as he was usually dressed in a fool's habit, was probably +suggested by the familiar custom of keeping an attendant fool at court +or in great houses. The Vice had many _aliases_ (_Shift_, _Ambidexter_, +_Sin_, _Fraud_, _Iniquity_, &c.), but his usual duty is to torment and +tease the Devil his master for the edification and diversion of the +audience. He was gradually blended with the domestic fool, who survived +in the regular drama. There are other concrete elements in the +moralities; for typical figures are often fitted with concrete names, +and thus all but converted into concrete human personages. + + + Groups of English moralities. + +The earlier English moralities[4]--from the reign of Henry VI. to that +of Henry VII.--usually allegorize the conflict between good and evil in +the mind and life of man, without any side-intention of theological +controversy. Such also is still essentially the purpose of the extant +morality by Henry VIII.'s poet, the witty Skelton.[5] _Everyman_ (pr. c. +1529), perhaps the most perfect example of its class, with which the +present generation has fortunately become familiar, contains passages +certainly designed to enforce the specific teaching of Rome. But its +Dutch original was written at least a generation earlier, and could have +no controversial intention. On the other hand, R. Wever's _Lusty +Juventus_ breathes the spirit of the dogmatic reformation of the reign +of Edward VI. Theological controversy largely occupies the moralities of +the earlier part of Elizabeth's reign,[6] and connects itself with +political feeling in a famous morality, Sir David Lyndsay's _Satire of +the Three Estaitis_, written and acted (at Cupar, in 1539) on the other +side of the border, where such efforts as the religious drama proper had +made had been extinguished by the Reformation. Only a single English +political morality proper remains to us, which belongs to the beginning +of the reign of Elizabeth.[7] Another series connects itself with the +ideas of the Renaissance rather than the Reformation, treating of +intellectual progress rather than of moral conduct;[8] this extends from +the reign of Henry VIII. to that of his younger daughter. Besides these, +there remain some Elizabethan moralities which have no special +theological or scientific purpose, and which are none the less lively in +consequence.[9] + + + Transition from the morality to the regular drama. + + Heywood's interludes. + +The transition from the morality to the regular drama in England was +effected, on the one hand, by the intermixture of historical personages +with abstractions--as in Bishop Bale's _Kyng Johan_ (c. 1548)--which +easily led over to the _chronicle history_; on the other, by the +introduction of types of real life by the side of abstract figures. This +latter tendency, of which instances occur in earlier plays, is +observable in several of the 16th-century moralities;[10] but before +most of these were written, a further step in advance had been taken by +a man of genius, John Heywood (b. c. 1500, d. between 1577 and 1587), +whose "interludes"[11] were short farces in the French manner. The term +"interludes" was by no means new, but had been applied by friend and foe +to religious plays, and plays (including moralities) in general, already +in the 14th century. But it conveniently serves to designate a species +which marks a distinct stage in the history of the modern drama. +Heywood's interludes dealt entirely with real--very real--men and women. +Orthodox and conservative, he had at the same time a keen eye for the +vices as well as the follies of his age, and not the least for those of +the clerical profession. Other writers, such as T. Ingeland,[12] took +the same direction; and the allegory of abstractions was thus undermined +on the stage, very much as in didactic literature the ground had been +cut from under its feet by the _Ship of Fooles_. Thus the interludes +facilitated the advent of comedy, without having superseded the earlier +form. Both moralities and miracle-plays survived into the Elizabethan +age after the regular drama had already begun its course. + + + Pageants. + +Such, in barest outline, was the progress of dramatic entertainments in +the principal countries of Europe, before the revival of classical +studies brought about a return to the examples of the classical drama, +or before this return had distinctly asserted itself. It must not, +however, be forgotten that from an early period in England as elsewhere +had flourished a species of entertainments, not properly speaking +dramatic, but largely contributing to form and foster a taste for +dramatic spectacles. The _pageants_--as they were called in +England--were the successors of those _ridings_ from which, when they +gladdened "Chepe," Chaucer's idle apprentice would not keep away; but +they had advanced in splendour and ingenuity of device under the +influence of Flemish and other foreign examples. Costumed figures +represented before gaping citizens the heroes of mythology and history, +and the abstractions of moral, patriotic, or municipal allegory; and the +city of London clung with special fervour to these exhibitions, which +the Elizabethan drama was neither able nor--as represented by most of +its poets who composed devices and short texts for these and similar +shows--willing to oust from popular favour. Some of the greatest and +some of the least of English dramatists were the ministers of pageantry; +and perhaps it would have been an advantage for the future of the +theatre if the legitimate drama and the _Triumphs of Old Drapery_ had +been more jealously kept apart. With the reign of Henry VIII. there also +set in a varied succession of entertainments at court and in the houses +of the great nobles, which may be said to have lasted through the Tudor +and early Stuart periods; but it would be an endless task to attempt to +discriminate the dramatic elements contained in these productions. The +"mask," stated to have been introduced from Italy into England as a new +diversion in 1512-1513, at first merely added a fresh element of +"disguising" to those already in use; as a quasi-dramatic species +("mask" or "masque") capable of a great literary development it hardly +asserted itself till quite the end of the 16th century. + + +11. THE MODERN NATIONAL DRAMA + + Influence of the Renaissance. + +The literary influence which finally transformed the growths noticed +above into the national dramas of the several countries of Europe, was +that of the Renaissance. Among the remains of classical antiquity which +were studied, translated and imitated, those of the drama necessarily +held a prominent place. Never altogether lost sight of, they now became +subjects of devoted research and models for more or less exact +imitation, first in Greek or Latin, then in modern tongues; and these +essentially literary endeavours came into more or less direct contact +with, and acquired more or less control over, dramatic performances and +entertainments already in existence. This process it will be most +convenient to pursue _seriatim_, in connexion with the rise and progress +of the several dramatic literatures of the West. For no sooner had the +stream of the modern drama, whose source and contributories have been +described, been brought back into the ancient bed, than its flow +diverged into a number of national currents, unequal in impetus and +strength, and varying in accordance with their manifold surroundings. +And even of these it is only possible to survey the most productive or +important. + + +(a) _Italy._ + + The modern Italian drama. + +The priority in this as in most of the other aspects of the Renaissance +belongs to Italy. In ultimate achievement the Italian drama fell short +of the fulness of the results obtained elsewhere--a surprising fact when +it is considered, not only that the Italian language had the +vantage-ground of closest relationship to the Latin, but that the genius +of the Italian people has at all times led it to love the drama. The +cause is doubtless to be sought in the lack, noticeable in Italian +national life during a long period, and more especially during the +troubled days of division and strife coinciding with the rise and +earlier promise of Italian dramatic literature, of those loftiest and +most potent impulses of popular feeling to which a national drama owes +so much of its strength. This deficiency was due partly to the +peculiarities of the Italian character, partly to the political and +ecclesiastical experiences which Italy was fated to undergo. The +Italians were alike strangers to the enthusiasm of patriotism, which was +as the breath in the nostrils of the English Elizabethan age, and to the +religious devotion which identified Spain with the spirit of the +Catholic revival. The clear-sightedness of the Italians had something to +do with this, for they were too intelligent to believe in their tyrants, +and too free from illusions to deliver up their minds to their priests. +Finally, the chilling and enervating effects of a pressure of foreign +domination, such as no Western people with a history and a civilization +like those of Italy has ever experienced, contributed to paralyse for +many generations the higher efforts of the dramatic art. No basis was +permanently found for a really national tragedy; while literary comedy, +after turning from the direct imitation of Latin models to a more +popular form, lost itself in an abandoned immorality of tone and in +reckless insolence of invective against particular classes of society. +Though its productivity long continued, the poetic drama more and more +concentrated its efforts upon subordinate or subsidiary species, +artificial in origin and decorative in purpose, and surrendered its +substance to the overpowering aids of music, dancing and spectacle. Only +a single form of the Italian drama, improvised comedy, remained truly +national; and this was of its nature dissociated from higher literary +effort. The revival of Italian tragedy in later times is due partly to +the imitation of French models, partly to the endeavour of a brilliant +genius to infuse into his art the historical and political spirit. +Comedy likewise attained to new growths of considerable significance, +when it was sought to accommodate its popular forms to the +representation of real life in a wider range, and again to render it +more poetical in accordance with the tendencies of modern romanticism. + +The regular Italian drama, in both its tragic and its comic branches, +began with a reproduction, in the Latin language, of classical +models--the first step, as it was to prove, towards the transformation +of the medieval into the modern drama, and the birth of modern dramatic +literature. But the process was both tentative and tedious, and must +have died away but for the pomp and circumstance with which some of the +patrons of the Renaissance at Florence, Rome and elsewhere surrounded +these manifestations of a fashionable taste, and for the patriotic +inspiration which from the first induced Italian writers to dramatize +themes of national historic interest. Greek tragedy had been long +forgotten, and one or two indications in the earlier part of the 16th +century of Italian interest in the Greek drama, chiefly due to the +printing presses, may be passed by.[13] To the later middle ages +classical tragedy meant Seneca, and even his plays remained unremembered +till the study of them was revived by the Paduan judge Lovato de' Lovati +(Lupatus, d. 1309). Of the comedies of Plautus three-fifths were not +rediscovered till 1429; and though Terence was much read in the schools, +he found no dramatic imitators, _pour le bon motif_ or otherwise, since +Hrosvitha. + +Thus the first medieval follower of Seneca, Albertino Mussato +(1261-1330) may in a sense be called the father of modern dramatic +literature. Born at Padua, to which city all his services were given, he +in 1315 brought out his _Eccerinis_, a Latin tragedy very near to the +confines of epic poetry, intended to warn the Paduans against the +designs of Can Grande della Scala by the example of the tyrant Ezzelino. +Other tragedies of much the same type followed during the ensuing +century; such as L. da Fabiano's _De casu Caesenae_ (1377) a sort of +chronicle history in Latin prose on Cardinal Albornoz' capture of +Caesena.[14] Purely classical themes were treated in the _Achilleis_ of +A. de' Loschi of Vicenza (d. 1441), formerly attributed to Mussato, +several passages of which are taken verbally from Seneca; in the +celebrated _Progne_ of the Venetian Gregorio Cornaro, which is dated +1428-1429, and in later Latin productions included among the +translations and imitations of Greek and Latin tragedies and comedies by +Bishop Martirano (d. 1557), the friend of Pope Leo X.,[15] and the +efforts of Pomponius Laetus and his followers, who, with the aid of +Cardinal Raffaele Riario (1451-1521), sought to revive the ancient +theatre, with all its classical associations, at Rome. + +In this general movement Latin comedy had quickly followed suit, and, as +just indicated, it is almost impossible, when we reach the height of the +Italian Renaissance under the Medici at Florence and at Rome in +particular, to review the progress of either species apart from that of +the other. If we possessed the lost _Philologia_ of Petrarch, of which, +as of a juvenile work, he declared himself ashamed, this would be the +earliest of extant humanistic comedies. As it is, this position is held +by _Paulus_, a Latin comedy of life on the classic model, by the +orthodox P. P. Vergerio (1370-1444); which was followed by many +others.[16] + + + Italian tragedy in the 16th century. + +Early in the 16th century, tragedy began to be written in the native +tongue; but it retained from the first, and never wholly lost, the +impress of its origin. Whatever the source of its subjects--which, +though mostly of classical origin, were occasionally derived from native +romance, or even due to invention--they were all treated with a +predilection for the horrible, inspired by the example of Seneca, though +no doubt encouraged by a perennial national taste. The chorus, +stationary on the stage as in old Roman tragedy, was not reduced to a +merely occasional appearance between the acts till the beginning of the +17th century, or ousted altogether from the tragic drama till the +earlier half of the 18th. Thus the changes undergone by Italian tragedy +were for a long series of generations chiefly confined to the form of +versification and the choice of themes; nor was it, at all events till +the last century of the course which it has hitherto run, more than the +aftergrowth of an aftergrowth. The honour of having been the earliest +tragedy in Italian seems to belong to A. da Pistoia's _Pamfila_ (1499), +of which the subject was taken from Boccaccio, introduced by the ghost +of Seneca, and marred in the taking. Carretto's _Sofonisba_, which +hardly rises above the art of a chronicle history, though provided with +a chorus, followed in 1502. But the play usually associated with the +beginning of Italian tragedy--that with which "th' Italian scene first +learned to glow"--was another _Sofonisba_, acted before Leo X. in 1515, +and written in blank hendecasyllables instead of the _ottava_ and _terza +rima_ of the earlier tragedians (retaining, however, the lyric measures +of the chorus), by G. G. Trissino, who was employed as nuncio by that +pope. Other tragedies of the former half of the 16th century, largely +inspired by Trissino's example, were the _Rosmunda_ of Rucellai, a +nephew of Lorenzo the Magnificent (1516); Martelli's _Tullia_, +Alamanni's _Antigone_ (1532); the _Canace_ of Sperone Speroni, the +envious _Mopsus_ of Tasso, who, like Guarini, took Sperone's elaborate +style for his model; the _Orazia_, the earliest dramatic treatment of +this famous subject by the notorious Aretino (1549); and the nine +tragedies of G. B. Giraldi (Cinthio) of Ferrara, among which +_L'Orbecche_ (1541) is accounted the best and the bloodiest. Cinthio, +the author of those _Hecatommithi_ to which Shakespeare was indebted for +so many of his subjects, was (supposing him to have invented these) the +first Italian who was the author of the fables of his own dramas; he +introduced some novelties into dramatic construction, separating the +prologue and probably also the epilogue from the action, and has by some +been regarded as the inventor of the pastoral drama. But his style was +arid. In the latter half of the 16th century may be mentioned the +_Didone_ and the _Marianna_ of L. Dolce, the translator of Euripides and +Seneca (1565); A. Leonico's _Il Soldato_ (1550); the _Adriana_ (acted +before 1561 or 1586) of L. Groto, which treats the story of _Romeo and +Juliet_; Tasso's _Torrismondo_ (1587); the _Tancredi_ of Asinari (1588); +and the _Merope_ of Torelli (1593), the last who employed the stationary +chorus (_coro fisso_) on the Italian stage. Leonico's _Soldato_ is +noticeable as supposed to have given rise to the _tragedia cittadina_, +or domestic tragedy, of which there are few examples in the Italian +drama, and De Velo's _Tamar_ (1586) as written in prose. Subjects of +modern historical interest were in this period treated only in isolated +instances.[17] + + + Italian tragedy in the 17th and 18th centuries. + + Maffei. + + Metastasio. + + Alfieri. + +The tragedians of the 17th century continued to pursue the beaten track, +marked out already in the 16th by rigid prescription. In course of time, +however, they sought by the introduction of musical airs to compromise +with the danger with which their art was threatened of being (in +Voltaire's phrase) extinguished by the beautiful monster, the opera, now +rapidly gaining ground in the country of its origin. (See OPERA.) To +Count P. Bonarelli (1589-1659), the author of _Solimano_, is on the +other hand ascribed the first disuse of the chorus in Italian tragedy. +The innovation of the use of rhyme attempted in the learned +Pallavicino's _Erminigildo_ (1655), and defended by him in a discourse +prefixed to the play, was unable to achieve a permanent success in Italy +any more than in England; its chief representative was afterwards +Martelli (d. 1727), whose rhymed Alexandrian verse (_Martelliano_), +though on one occasion used in comedy by Goldoni, failed to commend +itself to the popular taste. By the end of the 17th century Italian +tragedy seemed destined to expire, and the great tragic actor Cotta had +withdrawn in disgust at the apathy of the public towards the higher +forms of the drama. The 18th century was, however, to witness a change, +the beginnings of which are attributed to the institution of the Academy +of the Arcadians at Rome (1690). The principal efforts of the new school +of writers and critics were directed to the abolition of the chorus, and +to a general increase of freedom in treatment. Before long the marquis +S. Maffei with his _Merope_ (first printed 1713) achieved one of the +most brilliant successes recorded in the history of dramatic literature. +This play, which is devoid of any love-story, long continued to be +considered the masterpiece of Italian tragedy; Voltaire, who declared it +"worthy of the most glorious days of Athens," adapted it for the French +stage, and it inspired a celebrated production of the English drama.[18] +It was followed by a tragedy full of horrors,[19] noticeable as having +given rise to the first Italian dramatic _parody_; and by the highly +esteemed productions of Granelli (d. 1769) and his contemporary +Bettinelli. P. T. Metastasio (1698-1782), who had early begun his career +as a dramatist by a strict adherence to the precepts of Aristotle, +gained celebrity by his contributions to the operatic drama at Naples, +Venice and Vienna (where he held office as _poeta cesareo_, whose +function was to arrange the court entertainments). But his _libretti_ +have a poetic value of their own;[20] and Voltaire pronounced much of +him worthy of Corneille and of Racine, when at their best. The influence +of Voltaire had now come to predominate over the Italian drama; and, in +accordance with the spirit of the times, greater freedom prevailed in +the choice of tragic themes. Thus the greatest of Italian tragic poets. +Count V. Alfieri (1749-1803), found his path prepared for him. Alfieri's +grand and impassioned treatment of his subjects caused his faultiness of +form, which he never altogether overcame, to be forgotten. His themes +were partly classical;[21] but the spirit of a love of freedom which his +creations[22] breathe was the herald of the national ideas of the +future. Spurning the usages of French tragedy, his plays, which abound +in soliloquies, owe part of their effect to an impassioned force of +declamation, part to those "points" by which Italian acting seems +pre-eminently capable of thrilling an audience. He has much besides the +subjects of two of his dramas[23] in common with Schiller, but his +amazon-muse (as Schlegel called her) was not schooled into serenity, +like the muse of the German poet. Among his numerous plays (21), +_Merope_ and _Saul_, and perhaps _Mirra_, are accounted his +masterpieces. + + + Tragedians since Alfieri. + +The political colouring given by Alfieri to Italian tragedy reappears in +the plays of U. Foscolo and A. Manzoni, both of whom are under the +influence of the romantic school of modern literature; and to these +names must be added those of S. Pellico and G. B. Niccolini (1785-1861), +Paolo Giacometti (b. 1816) and others, whose dramas[24] treat largely +national themes familiar to all students of modern history and +literature. In their hands Italian tragedy upon the whole adhered to its +love of strong situations and passionate declamation. Since the +successful efforts of G. Modena (1804-1861) renovated the tragic stage +in Italy, the art of tragic acting long stood at a higher level in this +than in almost any other European country; in Adelaide Ristori (Marchesa +del Grillo) the tragic stage lost one of the greatest of modern +actresses; and Ernesto Rossi (1827-1896) and Tommaso Salvini long +remained rivals in the noblest forms of tragedy. + + + Italian comedy; popular forms. + + Commedia dell' arte. + + Masked comedy. + +In comedy, the efforts of the scholars of the Italian Renaissance for a +time went side by side with the progress of the popular entertainments +noticed above. While the _contrasti_ of the close of the 15th and of the +16th century were disputations between pairs of abstract or allegorical +figures, in the _frottola_ human types take the place of abstractions, +and more than two characters appear. The _farsa_ (a name used of a wide +variety of entertainments) was still under medieval influences, and in +this popular form Alione of Asti (soon after 1500) was specially +productive. To these popular diversions a new literary as well as social +significance was given by the Neapolitan court-poet Sannazaro (c. 1492); +about the same time a _capitano valoroso_, Venturino of Pesara, first +brought on the modern stage the _capitano glorioso_ or _spavente_, the +military braggart, who owed his origin both to Plautus[25] and to the +Spanish officers who abounded in the Italy of those days. The popular +character-comedy, a relic of the ancient _Atellanae_, likewise took a +new lease of life--and this in a double form. The _improvised_ comedy +(_commedia a soggetto_) was now as a rule performed by professional +actors, members of a _craft_, and was thence called the _commedia dell' +arte_, which is said to have been invented by Francesco (called +Terenziano) Cherea, the favourite player of Leo X. Its scenes, still +unwritten except in skeleton (_scenario_), were connected together by +the ligatures or links (_lazzi_) of the _arlecchino_, the descendant of +the ancient Roman _sannio_ (whence our _zany_). Harlequin's summit of +glory was probably reached early in the 17th century, when he was +ennobled in the person of Cecchino by the emperor Matthias; of +Cecchino's successors, Zaccagnino and Truffaldino, we read that "they +shut the door in Italy to good harlequins." Distinct from this growth is +that of the _masked_ comedy, the action of which was chiefly carried on +by certain typical figures in masks, speaking in local dialects,[26] +but which was not improvised, and indeed from the nature of the case +hardly could have been. Its inventor was A. Beolco of Padua, who called +himself Ruzzante (joker), and is memorable under that name as the first +actor-playwright--a combination of extreme significance for the history +of the modern stage. He published six comedies in various dialects, +including the Greek of the day (1530). This was the masked comedy to +which the Italians so tenaciously clung, and in which, as all their own +and imitable by no other nation, they took so great a pride that even +Goldoni was unable to overthrow it. Improvisation and burlesque, alike +abominable to comedy proper, were inseparable from the species. + + + Early Italian regular comedy. + +Meanwhile, the Latin imitations of Roman, varied by occasional +translations of Greek, comedies early led to the production of Italian +translations, several of which were performed at Ferrara in the last +quarter of the 15th century, whence they spread to Milan, Pavia and +other towns of the north. Contemporaneously, imitations of Latin comedy +made their appearance, for the most part in rhymed verse; most of them +applying classical treatment to subjects derived from Boccaccio's and +other _novelle_, some still mere adaptations of ancient models. In these +circumstances it is all but idle to assign the honour of having been +"the first Italian comedy"--and thus the first comedy in modern dramatic +literature--to any particular play. Boiardo's _Timone_ (before 1494), +for which this distinction was frequently claimed, is to a large extent +founded on a dialogue of Lucian's; and, since some of its personages are +abstractions, and Olympus is domesticated on an upper stage, it cannot +be regarded as more than a transition from the moralities. A. Ricci's _I +Tre Tiranni_ (before 1530) seems still to belong to the same +transitional species. Among the earlier imitators of Latin comedy in the +vernacular may be noted G. Visconti, one of the poets patronized by +Ludovico il Moro at Milan;[27] the Florentines G. B. Araldo, J. Nardi, +the historian,[28] and D. Gianotti.[29] The step--very important had it +been adopted consistently or with a view to consistency--of substituting +prose for verse as the diction of comedy, is sometimes attributed to +Ariosto; but, though his first two comedies were originally written in +prose, the experiment was not new, nor did he persist in its adoption. +Caretto's _I Sei Contenti_ dates from the end of the 15th century, and +Publio Filippo's _Formicone_, taken from Apuleius, followed quite early +in the 16th. Machiavelli, as will be seen, wrote comedies both in prose +and in verse. + +But, whoever wrote the first Italian comedy, Ludovico Ariosto was the +first master of the species. All but the first two of his comedies, +belonging as they do to the field of _commedia erudita_, or scholarly +comedy, are in blank verse, to which he gave a singular mobility by the +dactylic ending of the line (_sdrucciolo_). Ariosto's models were the +masterpieces of the _palliata_, and his morals those of his age, which +emulated those of the worst days of ancient Rome or Byzantium in +looseness, and surpassed them in effrontery. He chose his subjects +accordingly; but his dramatic genius displayed itself in the effective +drawing of character,[30] and more especially in the skilful management +of complicated intrigues.[31] Such, with an additional brilliancy of wit +and lasciviousness of tone, are likewise the characteristics of +Machiavelli's famous prose comedy, the _Mandragola_ (_The Magic +Draught_);[32] and at the height of their success, of the plays of P. +Aretino,[33] especially the prose _Marescalco_ (1526-1527) whose name, +it has been said, ought to be written in asterisks. It may be added that +the plays of Ariosto and his followers were represented with magnificent +scenery and settings. Other dramatists of the 16th century were B. +Accolti, whose _Virginia_ (prob. before 1513) treats the story from +Boccaccio which reappears in _All's Well that Ends Well_; G. Cecchi, F. +d'Ambra, A. F. Grazzini, N. Secco or Secchi and L. Dolce--all writers of +romantic comedy of intrigue in verse or prose. + + + The pastoral drama. + +During the same century the "pastoral drama" flourished in Italy. The +origin of this peculiar species--which was the bucolic idyll in a +dramatic form, and which freely lent itself to the introduction of both +mythological and allegorical elements--was purely literary, and arose +directly out of the classical studies and tastes of the Renaissance. It +was very far removed from the genuine peasant plays which flourished in +Venetia and Tuscany early in the 16th century. The earliest example of +the artificial, but in some of its productions exquisite, growth in +question was the renowned scholar A. Politian's _Orfeo_ (1472), which +begins like an idyll and ends like a tragedy. Intended to be performed +with music--for the pastoral drama is the parent of the opera--this +beautiful work tells its story simply. N. da Correggio's (1450-1508) +_Cefalo_, or _Aurora_, and others followed, before in 1554 A. Beccari +produced, as totally new of its kind, his Arcadian pastoral drama _Il +Sagrifizio_, in which the comic element predominates. But an epoch in +the history of the species is marked by the _Aminta_ of Tasso (1573), in +whose Arcadia is allegorically mirrored the Ferrara court. Adorned by +choral lyrics of great beauty, it presents an allegorical treatment of a +social and moral problem; and since the conception of the characters, +all of whom think and speak of nothing but love, is artificial, the +charm of the poem lies not in the interest of its action, but in the +passion and sweetness of its sentiment. This work was the model of many +others, and the pastoral drama reached its height of popularity in the +famous _Pastor fido_ (written before 1590) of G. B. Guarini, which, +while founded on a tragic love-story, introduces into its complicated +plot a comic element, partly with a satirical intention. It is one of +those exceptional works which, by circumstance as well as by merit, have +become the property of the world's literature at large. Thus, both in +Italian and in other literatures, the pastoral drama became a distinct +species, characterized, like the great body of modern pastoral poetry in +general, by a tendency either towards the artificial or towards the +burlesque. Its artificiality affected the entire growth of Italian +comedy, including the _commedia dell' arte_, and impressed itself in an +intensified form upon the opera. The foremost Italian masters of the +last-named species, so far as it can claim to be included in the poetic +drama, were A. Zeno (1668-1750) and P. Metastasio. + + + Comedy in the 17th and 18th centuries. + + Goldoni. + + Gozzi. + +The comic dramatists of the 17th century are grouped as followers of the +classical and of the romantic school, G. B. della Porta (q.v.) and G. A. +Cicognini (whom Goldoni describes as full of whining pathos and +commonplace drollery, but as still possessing a great power to interest) +being regarded as the leading representatives of the former. But neither +of these largely intermixed groups of writers could, with all its +fertility, prevail against the competition, on the one hand of the +musical drama, and on the other of the popular farcical entertainments +and those introduced in imitation of Spanish examples. Italian comedy +had fallen into decay, when its reform was undertaken by the wonderful +theatrical genius of C. Goldoni. One of the most fertile and rapid of +playwrights (of his 150 comedies 16 were written and acted in a single +year), he at the same time pursued definite aims as a dramatist. +Disgusted with the conventional buffoonery, and ashamed of the rampant +immorality of the Italian comic stage, he drew his characters from real +life, whether of his native city (Venice)[34] or of society at large, +and sought to enforce virtuous and pathetic sentiments without +neglecting the essential objects of his art. Happy and various in his +choice of themes, and dipping deep into a popular life with which he had +a genuine sympathy, he produced, besides comedies of general human +character,[35] plays on subjects drawn from literary biography[36] or +from fiction.[37] Goldoni, whose style was considered defective by the +purists whom Italy has at no time lacked, met with a severe critic and a +temporarily successful rival in Count C. Gozzi (1722-1806), who sought +to rescue the comic drama from its association with the actual life of +the middle classes, and to infuse a new spirit into the figures of the +old masked comedy by the invention of a new species. His themes were +taken from Neapolitan[38] and Oriental[39] fairy tales, to which he +accommodated some of the standing figures upon which Goldoni had made +war. This attempt at mingling fancy and humour--occasionally of a +directly satirical turn[40]--was in harmony with the tendencies of the +modern romantic school; and Gozzi's efforts, which though successful +found hardly any imitators in Italy, have a family resemblance to those +of Tieck and of some more recent writers whose art wings its flight, +through the windows, "over the hills and far away." + + + Comedians after Goldoni. + +During the latter part of the 18th and the early years of the 19th +century comedy continued to follow the course marked out by its +acknowledged master Goldoni, under the influence of the sentimental +drama of France and other countries. Abati Andrea Villi, the marquis +Albergati Capacelli, Antonio Simone Sografi (1760-1825), Federici, and +Pietro Napoli Signorelli (1731-1815), the historian of the drama, are +mentioned among the writers of this school; to the 19th century belong +Count Giraud, Marchisio (who took his subjects especially from +commercial life), and Nota, a fertile writer, among whose plays are +three treating the lives of poets. Of still more recent date are L. B. +Bon and A. Brofferio. At the same time, the comedy of dialect to which +the example of Goldoni had given sanction in Venice, flourished there as +well as in the mutually remote spheres of Piedmont and Naples. Quite +modern developments must remain unnoticed here; but the fact cannot be +ignored that they signally illustrate the perennial vitality of the +modern drama in the home of its beginnings. A new realistic style set +fully in about the middle of the 18th century with P. Ferrari and A. +Torelli; and though an historical reaction towards classical and +medieval themes is associated with the names of P. Cossa and G. Giacosa, +modernism reasserted itself through P. Bracco and other dramatists. It +should be noted that the influence of great actors, more especially +Ermete Novelli and Eleanora Duse, must be credited with a large share of +the success with which the Italian stage has held its own even against +the foreign influences to which it gave room. And it would seem as if +even the paradoxical endeavour of the poet Gabrielle d' Annunzio to +lyricize the drama by ignoring action as its essence were a problem for +the solution of which the stage can furnish unexpected conditions of its +own. In any event, both Italian tragedy and Italian comedy have survived +periods of a seemingly hopeless decline; and the fear has vanished that +either the opera or the ballet might succeed in ousting from the +national stage the legitimate forms of the national drama. + + +(b) _Greece._ + + Modern Greek and Dalmatian drama. + +The dramatic literature of the later Hellenes is a creation of the +literary movement which preceded their noble struggle for independence, +or which may be said to form part of that struggle. After beginning with +dramatic dialogues of a patriotic tendency, it took a step in advance +with the tragedies of J. R. Nerulos[41] (1778-1850), whose name belongs +to the political as well as to the literary history of his country. His +comedies--especially one directed against the excesses of +journalism[42]--largely contributed to open a literary life for the +modern Greek tongue. Among the earlier patriotic Greek dramatists of the +19th century are T. Alkaeos, J. Zampelios (whose tragic style was +influenced by that of Alfieri),[43] S. K. Karydis and A. Valaoritis. A. +Zoiros[44] is noteworthy as having introduced the use of prose into +Greek tragedy, while preserving to it that association with sentiments +and aspirations which will probably long continue to pervade the chief +productions of modern Greek literature. The love of the theatre is +ineradicable from Attic as it is from Italian soil; and the tendencies +of the young dramatic literature of Hellas which is not wholly absorbed +in the effort to keep abreast of recent modern developments, seem to +justify the hope that a worthy future awaits it. + +Under Italian influence an interesting dramatic growth attained to some +vitality in the Dalmatian lands about the beginning of the 16th century, +where the religious drama, whose days were passing away in Italy, found +favour with a people with a scant popular literature of its own. At +Ragusa Italian literary influence had been spread by the followers of +Petrarch from the later years of the 15th century; here several +Servo-Croatian writers produced religious plays in the manner of the +Italian _rappresentazioni_; and a gifted poet, Martin Drzic, composed, +besides religious plays and farces, a species of pastoral which enjoyed +much favour. + + +(c) _Spain._ + +Spain is the only country of modern Europe which shares with England the +honour of having achieved, at a relatively early date, the creation of a +genuinely national form of the regular drama. So proper to Spain was the +form of the drama which she produced and perfected, that to it the term +_romantic_ has been specifically applied, though so restricted a use of +the epithet is clearly unjustifiable. The influences which from the +Romance peoples--in whom Christian and Germanic elements mingled with +the legacy of Roman law, learning and culture--spread to the Germanic +nations were represented with the most signal force and fulness in the +institutions of chivalry,--to which, in the words of Scott, "it was +peculiar to blend military valour with the strongest passions which +actuate the human mind, the feelings of devotion and those of love." +These feelings, in their combined operation upon the national character, +and in their reflection in the national literature, were not confined to +Spain; but nowhere did they so long or so late continue to animate the +moral life of a nation. + +Outward causes contributed to this result. For centuries after the +crusades had become a mere memory, Spain was a battle-ground between the +Cross and the Crescent. And it was just at the time when the Renaissance +was establishing new starting-points for the literary progress of +Europe, that Christian Spain rose to the height of Catholic as well as +national self-consciousness by the expulsion of the Moors and the +conquest of the New World. From their rulers or rivals of so many +centuries the Spaniards derived that rich, if not very varied, glow of +colour which became permanently distinctive of their national life, and +more especially of its literary and artistic expressions; they also +perhaps derived from the same source a not less characteristically +refined treatment of the passion of love. The ideas of Spanish +chivalry--more especially religious devotion and a punctilious sense of +personal honour--asserted themselves (according to a process often +observable in the history of civilization) with peculiar distinctness in +literature and art, after the period of great achievements to which they +had contributed in other fields had come to an end. The ripest glories +of the Spanish drama belong to an age of national decay--mindful, it is +true, of the ideas of a greater past. The chivalrous enthusiasm +pervading so many of the masterpieces of its literature is indeed a +distinctive feature of the Spanish nation in all, even in the least +hopeful, periods of its later history; and the religious ardour breathed +by these works, though associating itself with what is called the +Catholic Reaction, is in truth only a manifestation of the spirit which +informed the noblest part of the Reformation movement itself. The +Spanish drama neither sought nor could seek to emancipate itself from +views and forms of religious life more than ever sacred to the Spanish +people since the glorious days of Ferdinand and Isabella; and it is not +so much in the beginnings as in the great age of Spanish dramatic +literature that it seems most difficult to distinguish between what is +to be termed a religious and what a secular play. After Spain had thus, +the first after England among modern European countries, fully unfolded +that incomparably richest expression of national life and sentiment in +an artistic form--a truly national dramatic literature,--the terrible +decay of her greatness and prosperity gradually impaired the strength of +a brilliant but, of its nature, dependent growth. In the absence of high +original genius the Spanish dramatists began to turn to foreign models, +though little supported in such attempts by popular sympathy; and it is +only in more recent times that the Spanish drama has sought to reproduce +the ancient forms from whose masterpieces the nation had never become +estranged, while accommodating them to tastes and tendencies shared by +later Spanish literature with that of Europe at large. + + + Early efforts. + + Gil Vicente. + +The earlier dramatic efforts of Spanish literature may without +inconvenience be briefly dismissed. The reputed author of the _Coplas de +Mingo Revulgo_ (R. Cota the elder) likewise composed the first act of a +story of intrigue and character, purely dramatic but not intended for +representation. This tragic comedy of _Calisto and Meliboea_, which was +completed (in 21 acts) by 1499, afterwards became famous under the name +of _Celestina_; it was frequently imitated and translated, and was +adapted for the Spanish stage by R. de Zepeda in 1582. But the father of +the Spanish drama was J. de la Enzina, whose _representaciones_ under +the name of "eclogues" were dramatic dialogues of a religious or +pastoral character. His attempts were imitated more especially by the +Portuguese Gil Vicente, whose writings for the stage appear to be +included in the period 1502-1536, and who wrote both in Spanish and in +his native tongue. A further impulse came, as was natural, from +Spaniards resident in Italy, and especially from B. de Torres Naharro, +who in 1517 published, as the chief among the "firstlings of his genius" +(_Propaladia_), a series of eight _comedias_--a term generally applied +in Spanish literature to any kind of drama. He claimed some knowledge of +the theory of the ancient drama, divided his plays into _jornadas_[45] +(to correspond to acts), and opened them with an _introyto_ (prologue). +Very various in their subjects, and occasionally odd in form,[46] they +were gross as well as audacious in tone, and were soon prohibited by the +Inquisition. The church remained unwilling to renounce her control over +such dramatic exhibitions as she permitted, and sought to suppress the +few plays on not strictly religious subjects which appeared in the early +part of the reign of Charles I. Though the universities produced both +translations from the classical drama and modern Latin plays, these +exercised very little general effect. Juan Perez' (Petreius') posthumous +Latin comedies were mainly versions of Ariosto.[47] + + + Lope de Rueda and his followers. + + Classical dramas. + +Thus the foundation of the Spanish national theatre was reserved for a +man of the people. Cervantes has vividly sketched the humble resources +which were at the command of Lope de Rueda, a mechanic of Seville, who +with his friend the bookseller Timoneda, and two brother authors and +actors in his strolling company, succeeded in bringing dramatic +entertainments out of the churches and palaces into the public places of +the towns, where they were produced on temporary scaffolds. The manager +carried about his properties in a corn-sack; and the "comedies" were +still only "dialogues, and a species of eclogues between two or three +shepherds and a shepherdess," enlivened at times by intermezzos of +favourite comic figures, such as the negress or the Biscayan, "played +with inconceivable talent and truthfulness by Lope." One of his plays at +least,[48] and one of Timoneda's,[49] seem to have been taken from an +Italian source; others mingled modern themes with classical +apparitions,[50] one of Timoneda's was (perhaps again through the +Italian) from Plautus.[51] Others of a slighter description were called +_pasos_,--a species afterwards termed _entremeses_ and resembling the +modern French _proverbes_. With these popular efforts of Lope de Rueda +and his friends a considerable dramatic activity began in the years +1560-1590 in several Spanish cities, and before the close of this period +permanent theatres began to be fitted up at Madrid. Yet Spanish dramatic +literature might still have been led to follow Italian into an imitation +of classical models. Two plays by G. Bermudez (1577), called by their +learned author "the first Spanish tragedies," treating the national +subject of Inez de Castro, but divided into five acts, composed in +various metres, and introducing a chorus; a _Dido_ (c. 1580) by C. de +Virues (who claimed to have first divided dramas into three _jornadas_); +and the tragedies of L. L. de Argensola (acted 1585, and praised in _Don +Quixote_) alike represent this tendency. + + + Cervantes. + +Such were the alternatives which had opened for the Spanish drama, when +at last, about the same time as that of the English, its future was +determined by writers of original genius. The first of these was the +immortal Cervantes, who, however, failed to anticipate by his earlier +plays (1584-1588) the great (though to him unproductive) success of his +famous romance. In his endeavour to give a poetic character to the drama +he fell upon the expedient of introducing personified abstractions +speaking a "divine" or elevated language--a device which was for a time +favourably received. But these plays exhibit a neglect or ignorance of +the laws of dramatic construction; their action is episodical; and it is +from the realism of these episodes (especially in the _Numancia_, which +is crowded with both figures and incidents), and from the power and flow +of the declamation, that their effect must have been derived. When in +his later years (1615) Cervantes returned to dramatic composition, the +style and form of the national drama had been definitively settled by a +large number of writers, the brilliant success of whose acknowledged +chief may previously have diverted Cervantes from his labours for the +theatre. His influence upon the general progress of dramatic literature +is, however, to be sought, not only in his plays, but also in those +_novelas exemplares_--incomparable alike in their clearness and their +terseness of narrative--to which more than one drama is indebted for its +plot, and for much of its dialogue to boot. + + + Lope de Vega. + +Lope de Vega, one of the most astonishing geniuses the world has known, +permanently established the national forms of the Spanish drama. Some of +these were in their beginnings taken over by him from ruder +predecessors; some were cultivated with equal or even superior success +by subsequent authors; but in variety, as in fertility of dramatic +production, he has no rivals. His fertility, which was such that he +wrote about 1500 plays, besides 300 dramatic works classed as _autos +sacramentales_ and _entremeses_, and a vast series of other literary +compositions, has indisputably prejudiced his reputation with those to +whom he is but a name and a number. Yet as a dramatist Lope more fully +exemplifies the capabilities of the Spanish theatre than any of his +successors, though as a poet Calderon may deserve the palm. Nor would it +be possible to imagine a truer representative of the Spain of his age +than a poet who, after suffering the hardships of poverty and exile, and +the pangs of passion, sailed against the foes of the faith in the +Invincible Armada, subsequently became a member of the Holy Inquisition +and of the order of St Francis, and after having been decorated by the +pope with the cross of Malta and a theological doctorate, honoured by +the nobility, and idolized by the nation, ended with the names of Jesus +and Mary on his lips. From the plays of such a writer we may best learn +the manners and the sentiments, the ideas of religion and honour, of the +Spain of the Philippine age, the age when she was most prominent in the +eyes of Europe and most glorious in her own. For, with all its +inventiveness and vigour, the genius of Lope primarily set itself the +task of pleasing his public,--the very spirit of whose inner as well as +outer life is accordingly mirrored in his dramatic works. In them we +have, in the words of Lope's French translator Baret, "the movement, the +clamour, the conflict of unforeseen intrigues suitable to unreflecting +spectators; perpetual flatteries addressed to an unextinguishable +national pride; the painting of passions dear to a people never tired of +admiring itself; the absolute sway of the point of honour; the +deification of revenge; the adoration of symbols; buffoonery and +burlesque, everywhere beloved of the multitude, but here never defiled +by obscenities, for this people has a sense of delicacy, and the +foundation of its character is nobility; lastly, the flow of proverbs +which at times escape from the _gracioso_" (the comic servant +domesticated in the Spanish drama by Lope)--"the commonplace literature +of those who possess no other." + + + Comedias de capa y espada. + + Heroicas. + + Comedias de santos. + + Autos sacramentales. + + Entremeses. + +The plays of Lope, and those of the national Spanish drama in general, +are divided into classes which it is naturally not always easy, and +which there is no reason to suppose him always to have intended, to keep +distinct from one another. After in his early youth composing eclogues, +pastoral plays, and allegorical moralities in the old style, he began +his theatrical activity at Madrid about 1590, and the plays which he +thenceforth produced have been distributed under the following heads. +The _comedias_, all of which are in verse, include (1) the so-called _c. +de capa y espada_--not comedies proper, but dramas in which the +principal personages are taken from the class of society that wears +cloak and sword. Gallantry is their main theme, an interesting and +complicated, but well-constructed and perspicuous intrigue their chief +feature; and this is usually accompanied by an underplot in which the +_gracioso_ plays his part. Their titles are frequently taken from the +old proverbs or proverbial phrases of the people[52] upon the theme +suggested, by which the plays often (as G. H. Lewes admirably expresses +it) constitute a kind of gloss (_glosa_) in action. This is the +favourite species of the national Spanish theatre; and to the plots of +the plays belonging to it the drama of other nations owes a debt almost +incalculable in extent. (2) The _c. heroicas_ are distinguished by some +of their personages being of royal or very high rank, and by their +themes being often historical and largely[53] (though not +invariably[54]) taken from the national annals, or founded on +contemporary or recent events.[55] Hence they exhibit a greater gravity +of tone; but in other respects there is no difference between them and +the cloak-and-sword comedies with which they share the element of comic +underplots. Occasionally Lope condescended in the opposite direction, to +(3) plays of which the scene is laid in common life, but for which no +special name appears to have existed.[56] Meanwhile, both he and his +successors were too devoted sons of the church not to acknowledge in +some sort her claim to influence the national drama. This claim she had +never relinquished, even when she could no longer retain an absolute +control over the stage. For a time, indeed, she was able to reassert +even this; for the exhibition of all secular plays was in 1598 +prohibited by the dying Philip II., and remained so for two years; and +Lope with his usual facility proceeded to supply religious plays of +various kinds. After a few dramas on scriptural subjects he turned to +the legends of the saints; and the _comedias de santos_, of which he +wrote a great number, became an accepted later Spanish variety of the +miracle-play. True, however, to the popular instincts of his genius, he +threw himself with special zeal and success into the composition of +another kind of religious plays--a development of the Corpus Christi +pageants, in honour of which all the theatres had to close their doors +for a month. These were the famous _autos sacramentales_ (i.e. solemn +"acts" or proceedings in honour of the Sacrament), which were performed +in the open air by actors who had filled the cars of the sacred +procession. Of these Lope wrote about 400. These entertainments were +arranged on a fixed scheme, comprising a prologue in dialogue between +two or more actors in character (_loa_), a farce (_entremes_), and the +_auto_ proper, an allegorical scene of religious purport, as an example +of which Ticknor cites the _Bridge of the World_,--in which the Prince +of Darkness in vain seeks to defend the bridge against the Knight of the +Cross, who finally leads the Soul of Man in triumph across it. Not all +the _entremeses_ of Lope and others were, however, composed for +insertion in these _autos_. This long-lived popular species, together +with the old kind of dramatic dialogue called _eclogues_, completes the +list of the varieties of his dramatic works. + + + The school of Lope. + +The example of Lope was followed by a large number of writers, and Spain +thus rapidly became possessed of a dramatic literature almost +unparalleled in quantity--for in fertility also Lope was but the first +among many. Among the writers of Lope's school, his friend G. de Castro +(1569-1631) must not be passed by, for his _Cid_[57] was the basis of +Corneille's; nor J. P. de Montalban, "the first-born of Lope's genius," +the extravagance of whose imagination, like that of Lee, culminated in +madness. Soon after him died (1639) Juan Ruiz de Alarcon, in whose +plays, as contrasted with those of Lope, has been recognized the +distinctive element of a moral purpose. To G. Tellez, called Tirso de +Molina (d. 1648), no similar praise seems due; but the frivolous gaiety +of the inventor of the complete character of Don Juan was accompanied by +ingenuity in the construction of his excellent[58] though at times +"sensational"[59] plots. F. de Rojas Zorrilla (b. 1607), who was largely +plundered by the French dramatists of the latter half of the century, +survived Molina for about a generation. In vain scholars of strictly +classical tastes protested in essays in prose and verse against the +ascendancy of the popular drama; the prohibition of Philip II. had been +recalled two years after his death and was never renewed; and the +activity of the theatre spread through the towns and villages of the +land, everywhere under the controlling influence of the school of +writers who had established so complete a harmony between the drama and +the tastes and tendencies of the people. + + + Calderon. + +The glories of Spanish dramatic literature reached their height in P. +Calderon de la Barca, though in the history of the Spanish theatre he +holds only the second place. He elaborated some of the forms of the +national drama, but brought about no changes of moment in any of them. +Even the brilliancy of his style, glittering with a constant +reproduction of the same family of tropes, and the variety of his +melodious versification, are mere intensifications of the poetic +qualities of Lope, while in their moral and religious sentiments, and +their general views of history and society, there is no difference +between the two. Like Lope, Calderon was a soldier in his youth and an +ecclesiastic in his later years; like his senior, he suited himself to +the tastes of both court and people, and applied his genius with equal +facility to the treatment of religious and of secular themes. In +fertility Calderon was inferior to Lope (for he wrote not many more than +100 plays); but he surpasses the elder poet in richness of style, and +more especially in fire of imagination. In his _autos_ (of which he is +said to have left not less than 73), Calderon probably attained to his +most distinctive excellence; some of these appear to take a wide range +of allegorical invention,[60] while they uniformly possess great beauty +of poetical detail. Other of his most famous or interesting pieces are +_comedias de santos_.[61] In his secular plays he treats as wide a +variety of subjects as Lope, but it is not a dissimilar variety; nor +would it be easy to decide whether a poet so uniformly admirable within +his limits has achieved greater success in romantic historical +tragedy,[62] in the comedy of amorous intrigue,[63] or in a dramatic +work combining fancy and artificiality in such a degree that it has been +diversely described as a romantic caprice and as a philosophical +poem.[64] + + + Contemporaries of Calderon. + + Moreto and the comedia de figuron. + +During the life of the second great master of the Spanish drama there +was little apparent abatement in the productivity of its literature; +while the _autos_ continued to flourish in Madrid and elsewhere, till in +1765 (shortly before the expulsion of the Jesuits from Spain) their +public representation was prohibited by royal decree. In the world of +fashion, the opera had reached Spain already during Calderon's lifetime, +together with other French influences, and the great dramatist had +himself written one or two of his plays for performance with music. But +the regular national drama continued to command popular favour, and with +A. Moreto may be said to have actually taken a step in advance. While he +wrote in all the forms established by Lope and cultivated by Calderon, +his manner seems most nearly to approach the masterpieces of French and +later English comedy of character; he was the earliest writer of the +_comedias de figuron_, in which the most prominent personage is (in +Congreve's phrase) "a character of affectation," in other words, the +Spanish fop of real life.[65] His masterpiece, a favourite of many +stages, is one of the most graceful and pleasing of modern +comedies--simple but interesting in plot, and true to nature, with +something like Shakespearian truth.[66] Other writers trod more closely +in the footsteps of the masters without effecting any noticeable changes +in the form of the Spanish drama; even the _saynete_ (tit-bit), which +owes its name to Benavente (fl. 1645), was only a kind of _entremes_. +The Spanish drama in all its forms retained its command over the nation, +because they were alike popular in origin and character; nor is there +any other example of so complete an adaptation of a national art to the +national taste and sentiment in its ethics and aesthetics, in the nature +of the plots of the plays (whatever their origin), in the motives of +their actions, in the conduct and tone and in the very costume of their +characters. + + + Decay of the national Spanish drama. + + The French school of the 18th century. + + Other later dramatists. + +National as it was, and because of this very quality, the Spanish drama +was fated to share the lot of the people it so fully represented. At the +end of the 17th century, when the Spanish throne at last became the +declared apple of discord among the governments of Europe, the Spanish +people lay, in the words of an historian of its later days, "like a +corpse, incapable of feeling its own impotence." That national art to +which it had so faithfully clung had fallen into decline and decay with +the spirit of Spain itself. By the time of the close of the great war, +the theatre had sunk into a mere amusement of the populace, which during +the greater part of the 18th century, while allowing the old masters the +measure of favour which accords with traditional esteem, continued to +uphold the representatives of the old drama in its degeneracy--authors on +the level of their audiences. But the Spanish court was now French, and +in the drama, even more than in any other form of art, France was the +arbiter of taste in Europe. With the restoration of peace accordingly +began isolated attempts to impose the French canons of dramatic theory, +and to follow the example of French dramatic practice; and in the middle +of the century these endeavours assumed more definite form. Montiano's +bloodless tragedy of _Virginia_ (1750), which was never acted, was +accompanied by a discourse endeavouring to reconcile the doctrines of the +author with the practice of the old Spanish dramatists; the play itself +was in blank verse (a metre never used by Calderon, though occasionally +by Lope), instead of the old national ballad-measures (the +romance-measure with assonance and the rhymed _redondilla_ quatrain) +preferred by the old masters among the variety of metres employed by +them. The earliest Spanish comedy in the French form (a translation only, +though written in the national metre)[67] (1751), and the first original +Spanish comedy on the same model, Nicolas Moratin's _Petimetra_ +(_Petite-Maitresse_), printed in 1726 with a critical dissertation, +likewise remained unacted. In 1770, however, the same author's +_Hormesinda_, an historic drama on a national theme and in the national +metre, but adhering to the French rules, appeared on the stage; and +similar attempts followed in tragedy by the same writer and others +(including Ayala, who ventured in 1775 to compete with Cervantes on the +theme of Numantia), and in comedy by Iriarte and Jovellanos (afterwards +minister under Godoy), who produced a sentimental comedy in Diderot's +manner.[68] But these endeavours failed to effect any change in the +popular theatre, which was with more success raised from its deepest +degradation by R. de la Cruz, a fertile author of light pieces of genuine +humour, especially _saynetes_, depicting the manners of the middle and +lower classes. In literary circles Garcia de la Huerta's voluminous +collection of the old plays (1785) gave a new impulse to dramatic +productivity, and the conflict continued between representatives of the +old school, such as Luciano Francisco Comella (1716-1779) and of the new, +such as the younger Moratin, whose comedies--of which the last and most +successful[69] was in prose--raised him to the foremost position among +the dramatists of his age. In tragedy N. de Cienfuegos likewise showed +some originality. After, however, the troubles of the French domination +and the war had come to an end, the precepts and examples of the new +school failed to reassert themselves. + +Already in 1815 an active critical controversy was carried on by Buhl de +Faber against the efforts of J. Faber and Alcala Galiano to uphold the +principles of classicism; and with the aid of the eminent actor Maiquez +the old romantic masterpieces were easily reinstated in the public +favour, which as a matter of fact they had never forfeited. The Spanish +dramatists of the 19th century, after passing, as in the instance of F. +Martinez de la Rosa and Breton de los Herreros, from the system of +French comedy to the manner of the national drama, appear either to have +stood under the influence of the French romantic school, or to have +returned once more to the old Spanish models. Among the former class A. +Gil y Zarate, of the latter J. Zorrilla, are mentioned as specially +prominent. The most renowned Spanish dramatist at the opening of the +20th century was the veteran politician and man of letters J. Echegaray. + +Meanwhile, the old religious performances are not wholly extinct in +Spain, and the relics of the solemn pageantry with which they were +associated may long continue to survive there, as in the case of the +_pasos_, which claim to have been exhibited in Holy Week at Seville for +at least three centuries. As to the theatre itself, there can be no fear +either that the imitation of foreign examples will satisfy Spanish +dramatists--especially when, like the author of _Dona Perfecta_ (Perez +Galdos), they have excellent home material of their own for +adaptation,--or that the Spanish public itself, with fine actors and +actresses still upholding the lofty traditions of the national drama, +will remain too fatigued to consume the drama unless bit by bit--in the +shape of _zarzuelas_ and similar one-act confections. Whatever may be +the future of one of the noblest of modern dramatic literatures, it may +confidently be predicted that, so long as Spain is Spain, her theatre +will not be permanently either denationalized or degraded. + + +(d) _Portugal._ + + The Portuguese drama. + +The Portuguese drama in its earlier phases, especially before in the +latter part of the 14th century the nation completely achieved its +independence, seems to have followed much the same course as the +Spanish; and the religious drama in all its prevailing forms and direct +outgrowths retained its popularity even by the side of the products of +the Renaissance. In the later period of that movement translations of +classical dramas into the vernacular were stimulated by the cosmopolitan +example of George Buchanan, who for a time held a post in the university +of Coimbra; to this class of play Teive's _Johannes_ (1553) may be +supposed to have belonged. In the next generation Antonio Ferreira[70] +and others still wrote comedies more or less on the classical model. But +the rather vague title of "the Plautus of Portugal" is accorded to an +earlier comic writer, the celebrated Gil Vicente, who died about 1536, +after, it is stated, producing forty-two plays. He was the founder of +popular Portuguese comedy, and his plays were called _autos_, or by the +common name of _praticas_.[71] Among his most gifted successors are +mentioned A. Ribeiro, called _Chiado_ (the mocking-bird), who died in +1590;[72] his brother Jeronymo, B. Dias, A. Pires, J. Pinto, H. Lopes +and others. The dramatic efforts of the illustrious poet Luis de Camoes +(Camoens) are relatively of slight importance; they consist of one of +the many modern versions of the _Amphitruo_, and of two other comedies, +of which the earlier (_Filodemo_) was acted at Goa in 1553, the subjects +having a romantic colour.[73] Of greater importance were the +contributions to dramatic literature of F. de Sa de Miranda, who, being +well acquainted with both Spanish and Italian life, sought early in his +career to domesticate the Italian comedy of intrigue on the Portuguese +stage;[74] but he failed to carry with him the public taste, which +preferred the _autos_ of Gil Vicente. The followers of Miranda were, +however, more successful than he had been himself, among them the +already-mentioned Antonio Ferreira; the prose plays of Jorge Ferreira de +Vasconcellos, which bear some resemblance to the Spanish _Celestina_, +are valuable as pictures of contemporary manners in city and court.[75] + +The later Portuguese dramatic literature seems also to have passed +through phases corresponding to those of the Spanish, though with +special features of its own. In the 18th century Alcino Mycenio +(1728-1770), known as Domingos dos Reis Quito in everyday life, in which +his avocation was that of Allan Ramsay, was remarkably successful with a +series of plays,[76] including of course an _Inez de Castro_, which in a +subsequent adaptation by J. B. Gomes long held the national stage. +Another dramatist, of both merit and higher aspirations, was Lycidas +Cynthio (_alias_ Manoel de Figueiredo, 1725-1801).[77] But the romantic +movement was very late in coming to Portugal. Curiously enough, one of +its chief representatives, the viscount da Almeida Garrett, exhibited +his sympathy with French, revolutionary and anti-English ideas by a +tragedy on the subject of Cato;[78] but his later works were mainly on +national subjects.[79] The expansive tendencies of later Portuguese +dramatic literature are illustrated by the translations of A. F. de +Castilho, who even ventured upon Goethe's _Faust_ (1872). Among +19th-century dramatists are to be noted Pereira da Cunha, R. Cordeiro, +E. Biester, L. Palmeirin, and Garrett's disciple F. G. de Amorim, by +whom both political and social themes have been freely treated. The +reaction against romanticism observable in Portuguese poetic literature +can hardly fail to affect (or perhaps has already affected) the growth +of the national drama; for the receptive qualities of both are not less +striking than the productive. + + +(e) _France._ + + The French regular drama. + +France was the only country, besides Italy, in which classical tragedy +was naturalized. In 1531 the Benedictine Barthelemy of Loches printed a +_Christus Xylonicus_; and a very notable impulse was given both to the +translation and to the imitation of ancient models by a series of +efforts made in the university of Paris and other French places of +learning. The most successful of these attempts was the _Johannes +Baptistes_ of George Buchanan, who taught in Paris for five years and at +a rather later date resided at Bordeaux, where in 1540 he composed this +celebrated tragedy (afterwards translated into four or five modern +languages), in which it is now ascertained that he had in view the trial +and condemnation of Sir Thomas More. He also wrote _Jephthah_, and +translated into Latin the _Medea_ and _Alcestis_ of Euripides. At a +rather later date the great scholar M. A. Muret (Muretus) produced his +_Julius Caesar_, a work perhaps superior in correctness to Buchanan's +tragic masterpiece, but inferior to it in likeness to life. About the +same time the enthusiasm of the Paris classicists showed itself in +several translations of Sophoclean and Euripidean tragedies into French +verse.[80] + + + Jodelle. + +Thus the beginnings of the regular drama in France, which, without +absolutely determining, potently swayed its entire course, came to +connect themselves directly with the great literary movement of the +Renaissance. Du Bellay sounded the note of attack which converted that +movement in France into an endeavour to transform the national +literature; and in Ronsard the classical school of poetry put forward +its conquering hero and sovereign lawgiver. Among the disciples who +gathered round Ronsard, and with him formed the "Pleiad" of French +literature, Etienne Jodelle, the reformer of the French theatre, soon +held a distinguished place. The stage of this period left ample room for +the enterprise of this youthful writer. The popularity of the old +entertainments had reached its height when Louis XII., in his conflict +with Pope Julius II., had not scrupled to call in the aid of Pierre +Gringoire (Gringon), and when the _Mere sotte_ had mockingly masqueraded +in the petticoats of Holy Church. In the reign of Francis I. the +Inquisition, and on occasion the king himself, had to some extent +succeeded in repressing the audacity of the actors, whose follies were +at the same time an utter abomination in the eyes of the Huguenots. For +a time the very mysteries of the Brethren of the Passion had been +prohibited; while the moralities and farces had sunk to an almost +contemptible level. Yet to this reign belong the contributions to +farce-literature of three writers so distinguished as Rabelais +(non-extant), Clement Marot and Queen Margaret of Navarre. Meanwhile +isolated translations of Italian[81] as well as classical dramas had in +literature begun the movement which Jodelle now transferred to the stage +itself. His tragedy _Cleopatre captive_ was produced there on the same +day as his comedy _L'Eugene_, in 1552, his _Didon se sacrifiant_ +following in 1558. Thus at a time when a national theatre was perhaps +impossible in a country distracted by civil and religious conflicts, +whose monarchy had not yet welded together a number of provinces +attached each to its own traditions, and whose population, especially in +the capital, was enervated by frivolity or enslaved by fanaticism, was +born that long-lived artificial growth, the so-called classical tragedy +of France. For French comedy, though subjected to the same influences as +tragedy, had a national basis upon which to proceed, and its history is +partly that of a modification of old popular forms. + + + French tragedy in the 16th century. + +The history of French tragedy begins with the _Cleopatre captive_, in +the representation of which the author, together with other members of +the "Pleiad," took part. It is a tragedy in the manner of Seneca, devoid +of action and provided with a ghost and a chorus. Though mainly written +in the five-foot Iambic couplet, it already contains passages in the +Alexandrine metre, which soon afterwards J. de La Peruse by his _Medee_ +(pr. 1556) established in French tragedy, and which Jodelle employed in +his _Didon_. Numerous tragedies followed in the same style by various +authors, among whom Gabriel Bounyn produced the first French regular +tragedy on a subject neither Greek nor Roman,[82] and the brothers de la +Taille,[83] and J. Grevin,[84] distinguished themselves by their style. +In the reign of Charles IX. a vain attempt was made by Nicolas Filleul +to introduce the pastoral style of the Italians into French tragedy;[85] +and the Brotherhood of the Passion was intermingling with pastoral plays +its still continued reproductions of the old entertainments, and the +religious drama making its expiring efforts, among which T. Le Coq's +interesting mystery of _Cain_ (1580) should be noted. Beza's _Abraham +sacrifiant_ (1550), J. de Coignac's _Goliath_ (dedicated to Edward VI.), +Rivandeau's _Haman_ (1561), belong to a group of Biblical tragedies, +inspired by Calvinist influences. But these more and more approached to +the examples of the classical school, which, in spite of all +difficulties and rivalries, prevailed. Among its followers Montchretien +exhibited unusual vigour of rhetoric,[86] and in R. Garnier French +tragedy reached the greatest height in nobility and dignity of style, as +well as in the exhibition of dramatic passion, to which it attained +before Corneille. In his tragedies[87] choruses are still interspersed +among the long Alexandrine tirades of the dialogue. + + + Comedy under Italian influence. + +During this period comedy had likewise been influenced by classical +models; but the distance was less between the national farces and +Terence, than between the mysteries and moralities, and Seneca and the +Greeks. _L'Eugene_ differs little in style from the more elaborate of +the old farces; and while it satirizes the foibles of the clergy without +any appreciable abatement of the old licence, its theme is the favourite +burden of the French comic theatre in all times--_le cocuage_. The +examples, however, which directly facilitated the productivity of the +French comic dramatists of this period, among whom Jean de la Taille was +the first to attempt a regular comedy in prose,[88] were those of the +Italian stage, which in 1576 established a permanent colony in France, +destined to survive there till the close of the 17th century, by which +time it had adopted the French language, and was ready to coalesce with +French actors, without, however, relinquishing all remembrance of its +origin. R. Belleau, a member of the "Pleiad," produced a comedy in which +the type (already approached by Jodelle) of the swaggering captain +appears,[89] J. Grevin copied Italian intrigue, characters and +manners;[90] O. de Turnebe (d. 1581) borrowed the title of one Italian +play[91] and perhaps parts of the plots of others; the Florentine F. +d'Amboise (d. 1558) produced versions of two Italian comedies;[92] and +the foremost French comic poet of the century, P. de Larivey, likewise +an Italian born (of the name of Pietro Giunto), openly professed to +imitate the poets of his native country. His plays are more or less +literal translations of L. Dolce,[93] Secchi[94] and other Italian +dramatists; and this lively and witty author, to whom Moliere owes much, +thus connects two of the most important and successful growths of the +modern comic drama. + +The close conjunction between the history of a living dramatic +literature and that of the theatre can least of all be ignored in the +case of France, where the actor's art has gone through so ample an +evolution, and where the theatre has so long and continuously formed an +important part of the national life. By the middle of the 16th century +not only had theatrical representations, now quite emancipated from +clerical control, here and there already become matters of speculation +and business, but the acting profession was beginning to organize itself +as such; strolling companies of actors had become a more or less +frequent experience; and the attitude of the church and of civic +respectability were once more coming to be systematically hostile to the +stage and its representatives. + + + French tragedy and comedy in the 17th century before Corneille. + +Before, however, either tragedy or comedy in France entered into the +period of their history when genius was to illuminate both of them with +creations of undying merit, and before the theatre had associated itself +enduringly with the artistic and literary divisions of court and society +and the people at large, the country had passed through a new phase of +the national life. When the troubles and terrors of the great civil and +religious wars of the 16th century were over at last, they were found to +have produced a reaction towards culture and refinement which spread +from certain spheres of society whose influence was for a time +prevailing. The seal had been set upon the results of the Renaissance by +Malherbe, the father of French style. The masses meanwhile continued to +solace or distract their weariness and their sufferings with the help of +the accredited ministers of that half-cynical gaiety which has always +lighted up the darkest hours of French popular life. In the troublous +days preceding Richelieu's definitive accession to power (1624), the +_tabarinades_--a kind of street dialogue recalling the earliest days of +the popular drama--had made the Pont-Neuf the favourite theatre of the +Parisian populace. Meanwhile the influence of Spain, which Henry IV. had +overcome in politics, had throughout his reign and afterwards been +predominant in other spheres, and not the least in that of literature. +The _stilo culto_, of which Gongora was the native Spanish, Marino the +Italian, and Lyly the English representative, asserted its dominion over +the favourite authors of French society; the pastoral romance of Honore +d'Urfe--the text-book of pseudo-pastoral gallantry--was the parent of +the romances of the Scuderys, de La Calprenede and Mme de La Fayette; +the Hotel de Rambouillet was in its glory; the true (not the false) +_precieuses_ sat on the heights of intellectual society; and J. L. G. de +Balzac (ridiculed in the earliest French dramatic parody)[95] and +Voiture were the dictators of its literature. Much of the French drama +of this age is of the same kind as its romance-literature, like which it +fell under the polite castigation of Boileau's satire. Heroic love +(quite a technical passion), "fertile in tender sentiments," seized hold +of the theatre as well as of the romances; and La Calprenede, G. de +Scudery[96] and his sister and others were equally fashionable in both +species. The Gascon Cyrano de Bergerac, though not altogether +insignificant as a dramatist,[97] gained his chief literary reputation +by a Rabelaisian fiction. Meanwhile, Spanish and Italian models +continued to influence both branches of the drama. Everybody knew by +heart Gongora's version of the story of "young Pyramus and his love +Thisbe," as dramatized by Th. Viaud (1590-1626); and the sentiment of +Tristan[98] (1601-1655) overpowered Herod on the stage, and drew tears +from Cardinal Richelieu in the audience. J. Mairet was noted for +superior vigour.[99] P. Du Ryer's style is described as, while otherwise +superior to that of his contemporaries, Italian in its defects. A +mixture of the forms of classical comedy with elements of Spanish and of +the Italian pastoral was attempted with great temporary success by A. +Hardy, a playwright who thanked Heaven that he knew the precepts of his +art while preferring to follow the demands of his trade. The mixture of +styles begun by him was carried on by the marquis de Racan,[100] J. de +Rotrou and others; and among these comedies of intrigue in the Spanish +manner the earliest efforts of Corneille himself[101] are to be classed. +Rotrou's noteworthier productions[102] are later in date than the event +which marks an epoch in the history of the French drama, the appearance +of Corneille's _Cid_ (1636). + + + Corneille. + +P. Corneille is justly revered as the first, and in some respects the +unequalled, great master of French tragedy, whatever may have been +unsound in his theories, or defective in his practice. The attempts of +his predecessors had been without life, because they lacked really +tragic characters and the play of really tragic passions; while their +style had been either pedantically imitative or a medley of plagiarisms. +He conquered tragedy at once for the national theatre and for the +national literature--and this, not by a long tentative process of +production, but by a few masterpieces, which may be held to be +comprehended within the ten years 1636 to 1646; for in his many later +tragedies he never again proved fully equal to himself. The French +tragedy, of which the great age begins with the _Cid_, _Horace_, +_Cinna_, _Polyeucte_ and _Rodogune_, was not, whatever it professed to +be, a copy of the classical tragedy of Greeks or Romans, or an imitation +of the Italian imitations of these; nor, though in his later tragedies +Corneille depended less and less upon characters, and more and more, +after the fashion of the Spaniards, upon situations, and even upon +spectacle, were the forms of the Spanish drama able to assert their +dominion over the French tragic stage. The mould of French tragedy was +cast by Corneille; but the creative power of his genius was unable to +fill it with more than a few examples. His range of passions and +characters was limited; he preferred, he said, the reproach of having +made his women too heroic to that of having made his men effeminate. His +actions inclined too much to the exhibition of conflicts political +rather than broadly ethical in their significance. The defects of his +style are of less moment; but in this, as in other respects, he was, +with all his strength and brilliancy, not one of those rarest of artists +who are at the same time the example and the despair of their +successors. The _examens_ which he printed of all his plays up to 1660 +show how much self-criticism (though it may not always be as in this +case conscious) contributes to the true fertility of genius. + +In comedy also Corneille begins the first great original epoch of French +dramatic literature; for it was to him that Moliere owed the inspiration +of the tone and style which he made those of the higher forms of French +comedy. But _Le Menteur_ (the parent, with its sequel, of a numerous +dramatic progeny[103]) was itself derived from a Spanish original,[104] +which it did not (as was the case with the _Cid_) transform into +something new. French tragi-comedy Corneille can hardly be said to have +invented;[105] and of the mongrel growths of sentimental comedy and of +domestic drama or _drame_, he rather suggested than exemplified the +conditions. + + + Racine. + +The tragic art of Racine supplements rather than surpasses that of his +older contemporary. His works reflect the serene and settled formality +of an age in which the sun of monarchy shone with an effulgence no +clouds seemed capable of obscuring, and in which the life of a nation +seemed reducible to the surroundings of a court. The tone of the poetic +literature of such an age is not necessarily unreal, because the range +of its ideas is limited, and because its forms seem to exist by an +immutable authority. That Racine should permanently hold the position +which belongs to him in French dramatic literature is due to the fact +that to him it was given to present these forms--the forms approved by +his age--in what may reasonably be called perfection; and, from the +point of view of workmanship, Sophocles could not have achieved more. +What his plays contain is another question. They suit themselves so well +to the successive phases in the life of Louis XIV., that Madame de +Sevigne described Racine as having in his later years loved God as he +had formerly loved his mistresses; and this sally at all events +indicates the range of passions which inspired his tragic muse. His +heroes are all of one type--that of a gracious gloriousness; his +heroines vary in their fortunes, but they are all the "trophies of +love,"[106] with the exception of the scriptural figures, which stand +apart from the rest.[107] T. Corneille, Campistron, Joseph Duche +(1668-1704), Antoin de Lafosse (c. 1653-1708) and Quinault were mere +followers of one or both of the great masters of tragedy, though the +last named achieved a reputation of his own in the bastard species of +the opera. + + + Characteristics of French classical tragedy. + +The type of French tragedy thus established, like everything else which +formed part of the "age of Louis XIV.," proclaimed itself as the +definitively settled model of its kind, and was accepted as such by a +submissive world. Proud of its self-imposed fetters, French tragedy +dictatorially denied the liberty of which it had deprived itself to the +art of which it claimed to furnish the highest examples. Yet, though +calling itself classical, it had not caught the essential spirit of the +tragedy of the Greeks. The elevation of tone which characterizes the +serious drama of the age of Louis XIV. is a true elevation, but its +heights do not lose themselves in a sphere peopled by the myths of a +national religion, still less in the region of great thoughts which ask +Heaven to stoop to the aspirations and the failures of man. The +personages of this drama are conventional like its themes, but the +convention is with itself only; Orestes and Iphigenia have not brought +with them the cries of the stern goddesses and the flame on the altar of +Artemis; their passions like their speech are cadenced by a modern +measure. In construction, the simplicity and regularity of the ancient +models are stereotyped into a rigid etiquette by the exigencies of the +court-theatre, which is but an apartment of the palace. The unities of +time and place, with the Greeks mere rules of convenience, French +tragedy imposes upon itself as a permanent yoke. The Euripidean prologue +is judiciously exchanged for the exposition of the first act, and the +lyrical element essential to Greek tragedy is easily suppressed in its +would-be copy; lyrical passages still occur in some of Corneille's early +masterpieces,[108] but the chorus is consistently banished, to reappear +only in Racine's latest works[109] as a scholastic experiment +appropriate to a conventual atmosphere. Its uses for explanation and +comment are served by the expedient, which in its turn becomes +conventional, of the conversations with _confidants_ and _confidantes_, +which more than sufficiently supply the foil of general sentiments. The +epical element is allowed full play in narrative passages, more +especially in those which relate parts of the catastrophe,[110] and, +while preserving the stage intact from realisms, suit themselves to the +generally rhetorical character of this species of the tragic drama. This +character impressed itself more and more upon the tragic art of a +rhetorical nation in an age when the loftiest themes were in the pulpit +receiving the most artistic oratorical treatment, and developed in the +style of French classical tragedy the qualities which cause it to become +something between prose and poetry--or to appear (in the phrase of a +French critic) like prose in full dress. The force of this description +is borne out by the fact that the distinction between the versification +of French tragedy and that of French comedy seems at times +imperceptible. + + + Voltaire. + +The universal genius of Voltaire found it necessary to shine in all +branches of literature, and in tragedy to surpass predecessors whom his +own authority declared to have surpassed the efforts of the Attic muse. +He succeeded in impressing the world with the belief that his +innovations had imparted a fresh vitality to French tragedy; in truth, +however, they represent no essential advance in art, but rather +augmented the rhetorical tendency which paralyses true dramatic life. +Such life as his plays possess lies in their political and social +sentiments, their invective against tyranny,[111] and their exposure of +fanaticism.[112] In other respects his versatility was barren of +enduring results. He might take his themes from French history,[113] or +from Chinese,[114] or Egyptian,[115] or Syrian,[116] from the days of +the Epigoni[117] or from those of the Crusades;[118] he might appreciate +Shakespeare, with a more or less partial comprehension of his strength, +and condescendingly borrow from and improve the barbarian.[119] But he +added nothing to French tragedy where it was weakest--in character; and +where it was strongest--in diction--he never equalled Corneille in fire +or Racine in refinement. While the criticism to which French tragedy in +this age at last began to be subjected has left unimpaired the real +titles to immortality of its great masters, the French theatre itself +has all but buried in respectful oblivion the dramatic works bearing the +name of Voltaire--a name persistently belittled, but second to none in +the history of modern progress and of modern civilization. + + + French classical tragedy in its decline. + +As it is of relatively little interest to note the ramifications of an +art in its decline, the contrasts need not be pursued among the +contemporaries of Voltaire, between his imitator Bernard Joseph Saurin +(1706-1781), Saurin's royalist rival de Belloy, Racine's imitator +Lagrange-Chancel and Voltaire's own would-be rival, the "terrible" +Crebillon the elder, who professed to vindicate to French tragedy, +already mistress of the heavens through Corneille, and of the earth +through Racine, Pluto's supplementary realm, but who, though thus +essaying to carry tragedy lower, failed to carry it farther. In the +latter part of the 18th century French classical tragedy as a literary +growth was dying a slow death, however numerous might be the leaves +which sprouted from the decaying tree. Its form had been permanently +fixed; and even Shakespeare, as manipulated by Ducis[120]--an author +whose tastes were better than his times--failed to bring about a change. +"It is a Moor, not a Frenchman, who has written this play," cried a +spectator of Ducis' _Othello_ (1791); but Talma's conviction was almost +as strong as his capacity was great for convincing his public; and he +certainly did much to prepare the influence which Shakespeare was +gradually to assert over the French drama, and which was aided by +translations, more especially that of Pierre Letourneur (1736-1788), +which had attracted the sympathy of Diderot and the execrations of the +aged Voltaire.[121] Meanwhile, the command which classical French +tragedy continued to assert over the stage was due in part, no doubt, to +the love of Roman drapery--not always abundant, but always in the grand +style--which characterized the Revolution, and which was by the +Revolution handed down to the Empire. It was likewise, and more +signally, due to the great actors who freed the tragic stage from much +of its artificiality and animated it by their genius. No great artist +has ever more generously estimated the labours of a predecessor than +Talma judged those of Le Kain; but it was Talma himself whose genius was +pre-eminently fitted to reproduce the great figures of antiquity in the +mimic world, which, like the world outside, both required and possessed +its Caesar. He, like Rachel after him, reconciled French classical +tragedy with nature; and it is upon the art of great original actors +such as these that the theatrical future of this form of the drama in +France depends. Mere whims of fashion--even when inspired by political +feeling--will not waft back to it a real popularity; nor will occasional +literary aftergrowths, however meritorious, such as the admirable +_Lucrece_ of F. Ponsard and the attempts of even more recent writers, +suffice to re-establish a living union between it and the progress of +the national literature. + + + Comedy. + + Moliere. + +The rival influences under which classical tragedy has after a long +struggle virtually become a thing of the past in French literature are +also to be traced in the history of French comedy, which under the +co-operation of other influences produced a wide variety of growths. The +germs of most of these--though not of all--are to be found in the works +of the most versatile, the most sure-footed, and, in some respects, the +most consummate master of the comic drama whom the world has +known--Moliere. What Moliere found in existence was a comedy of +intrigue, derived from Spanish or Italian examples, and the elements of +a comedy of character, in French and more especially in Italian farce +and ballet-pantomime. Corneille's _Menteur_ had pointed the way to a +fuller combination of character with intrigue, and in this direction +Moliere's genius exercised the height of its creative powers. After +beginning with farces, he produced in the earliest of his plays (from +1652), of which more than fragments remain, comedies of intrigue which +are at the same time marvellously lively pictures of manners, and then +proceeded, with the _Ecole des maris_ (1661), to begin a long series of +masterpieces of comedy of character. Yet even these, the chief of which +are altogether unrivalled in dramatic literature, do not exhaust the +variety of his productions. To define the range of his art is as +difficult as to express in words the essence of his genius. For though +he has been copied ever since he wrote, neither his spirit nor his +manner has descended in full to any of his copyists, whole schools of +whom have missed elements of both. A Moliere can only be judged in his +relations to the history of comedy at large. He was indeed the inheritor +of many forms and styles--remaining a stranger to those of Old Attic +comedy only, rooted as it was in the political life of a free imperial +city; though even the rich extravagances of Aristophanes' burlesque was +not left wholly unreproduced by him. Moliere is both a satirist and a +humorist; he displays at times the sentiments of a loyal courtier, at +others that gay spirit of opposition which is all but indispensable to a +popular French wit. His comedies offer elaborate and subtle--even +tender--pictures of human character in its eternal types, lively +sketches of social follies and literary extravagances, and broad appeals +to the ordinary sources of vulgar merriment. Light and perspicuous in +construction, he is master of the delicate play of irony, the +penetrating force of wit, and the expansive gaiety of frolicsome fun. +Faithful to the canons of artistic taste, and under the sure guidance of +true natural humour, his style suits itself to every species attempted +by him. His morality is the reverse of rigid, but its aberrations are +not those of prurience, nor its laws those of pretence; and, wholly free +as he was from the didactic aim which is foreign to all true dramatic +representation, the services rendered by him to his art are not the less +services rendered to society, concerning which the laughter of genuine +comedy tells the truth. He raised the comedy of character out of the +lower sphere of caricature, and in his greatest creations subordinated +to the highest ends of all dramatic composition the plots he so +skilfully built, and the pictures of the manners he so faithfully +reproduced. + + + Moliere's contemporaries and successors. + +Even among the French comic dramatists of this age there must have been +many who "were not aware" that Moliere was its greatest poet. For though +he had made the true path luminous to them, their efforts were still +often of a tentative kind, and one was reviving _Pathelin_ while another +was translating the _Andria_. A more unique attempt was made in one of +the very few really modern versions of an Aristophanic comedy, which +deserves to be called an original copy--the _Plaideurs_ of Racine. The +tragic poets Quinault and Campistron likewise wrote comedies, one[122] +or more of which furnished materials to contemporary English +dramatists, as did one of the felicitous plays in which Boursault +introduced Mercury and Aesop into the theatrical _salon_.[123] Antoine +Montfleury (1640-1685), Baron and Dancourt, who were actors like +Moliere, likewise wrote comedies. But if the mantle of Moliere can be +said to have fallen upon any of his contemporaries or successors, this +honour must be ascribed to J. F. Regnard, who imitated the great master +in both themes and characters,[124] while the skilfulness of his plots, +and his gaiety of the treatment even of subjects tempting into the +by-path of sentimental comedy,[125] entitle him to be regarded as a +comic poet of original genius. With him C. R. Dufresny occasionally +collaborated. + +In the next generation (that of Voltaire) comedy gradually--but only +gradually--surrendered for a time the very essence of its vitality to +the seductions of a hybrid species, which disguised its identity under +more than a single name. A. R. le Sage, who as a comic dramatist at +first followed successfully in the footsteps of Moliere, proved himself +on the stage as well as in picturesque fiction a keen observer and +inimitable satirist of human life.[126] The light texture of the playful +and elegant art of J. B. L. Gresset was shown on the stage in a +character comedy of merit;[127] and in a comedy which reveals something +of his pointed wit, A. Piron produced something like a new type of +enduring ridiculousness.[128] P. C. de Marivaux, the French _Spectator_, +is usually supposed to have formed the connecting link between the "old" +French comedy and the "new" and bastard variety. Yet, though his minute +analysis of the tender passion excited the scorn of Voltaire, it should +not be overlooked that in _marivaudage_ proper the wit holds the balance +to the sentiment, and that in some of this frequently misjudged writer's +earlier and most delightful plays the elegance and gaiety of diction are +as irresistible as the pathetic sentiment, which is in fact rather an +ingredient in his comedy than the pervading characteristic of it.[129] +Some of the comedies of P. H. Destouches no doubt have a serious basis, +and in his later plays he comes near to a kind of drama in which the +comic purpose has been virtually submerged.[130] The writer who is +actually to be credited with the transition to sentimental comedy, and +who was fully conscious of the change which he was helping to effect, +was Nivelle de La Chaussee, in whose hands French comedy became a +champion of the sanctity of marriage, and reproduced the sentiments--in +one instance even the characters--of Richardson.[131] To his play _La +Fausse Antipathie_ the author supplied a _critique_, amounting to an +apology for the new species of which it was designed as an example. + +The new species known as _comedie larmoyante_ was now fairly in the +ascendant; and it would be easy to show how even Voltaire, who had +deprecated the innovation, had to yield to a power greater than his own, +and introduced the sentimental element into some of his comedies.[132] +The further step, by which _comedie larmoyante_ was transformed into +_tragedie bourgeoise_, from which the comic element was to all intents +and purposes extruded, was taken by a great French writer, D. Diderot; +to whose influence it was largely due that the species which had +attained to this consummation for more than a generation ruled supreme +in the dramatic literature of Europe. But the final impulse, as Diderot +himself virtually acknowledged in the _entretiens_ subjoined by him to +his _Fils naturel_ (1757), had been given by a far humbler citizen of +the world of letters, the author of _The London Merchant_. Diderot's own +plays were a literary rather than a theatrical success. _Le Fils naturel +ou les epreuves de la vertu_ was not publicly performed till 1771, and +then only in deference to the determination of a single actor of the +Francais (Mole); nor was the performance of it repeated. Diderot's +second play, _Le Pere de famille_, printed in 1758 with a _Discours sur +la poesie dramatique_, went through a few public performances in 1761; +and a later revival was unsuccessful. But "at a distance," as was well +said, the effect of Diderot's endeavours, the earlier in particular, was +extremely great, and Lessing, though very critical as to particular +points, greatly helped to spread it. Diderot had for the first time +consciously sought to proclaim the theatre an agency of social reform, +and to entrust to it as its task the propagation of the gospel of +philanthropy. Though the execution of his dramatic works fell far short +of his aims; though Madame de Stael was not far wrong in denouncing them +as exhibiting not nature itself, but "the affectation of nature," yet +they contained, in a measure almost unequalled in the history of the +modern drama, the fermenting element which never seems to subside. Their +author announced them as examples of a third dramatic form--the _genre +serieux_--which he declared to be the consummation of the dramatic art. +Making war upon the frigid artificiality of classical tragedy, he +banished verse from the new species. The effect of these plays was +intended to spring from their truth to nature--a truth such as no +spectator could mistake, and which should bring home its moral teachings +to the business as well as the bosoms of all. The theatre was to become +a real and realistic school of the principles of society and of the +conduct of life--it was, in other words, to usurp functions with which +it has no concern, and to essay the direct reformation of mankind. The +idea was neither new nor just; but its speciousness will probably +continue to commend it to many enthusiastic minds, whensoever and in +whatsoever shape it is revived. + + + The comedy of the Revolution and the first empire. + + Vaudevilles, etc. + +From this point the history of the French drama becomes that of a +conflict between an enfeebled artistic school and a tendency which is +hardly to be dignified by the name of a school at all. Among the +successful dramatists following on Diderot may be mentioned the critical +and versatile J. F. Marmontel, and more especially M. J. Sedaine, who +though chiefly working for the opera, produced two comedies of +acknowledged merit.[133] P. A. C. de Beaumarchais (1732-1799), who for +his early sentimental plays,[134] in which he imitated Diderot, invented +the appellation _drame_--so convenient in its vagueness that it became +the accepted name of the hybrid species to which they belonged--in two +works of a very different kind, the famous _Barbier de Seville_ and the +still more famous _Mariage de Figaro_, boldly carried comedy back into +its old Spanish atmosphere of intrigue; but, while surpassing all his +predecessors in the skill with which he constructed his frivolous plots, +he drew his characters with a lightness and sureness of touch peculiar +to himself, animated his dialogue with an unparalleled brilliancy of +wit, and seasoned action as well as dialogue with a political and social +meaning, which caused his epigrams to become proverbs, and which marks +his _Figaro_ as a herald of the Revolution. Such plays as these were ill +suited to the rule of the despot whose vigilance could not overlook +their significance. The comedy of the empire is, in the hands of Collin +d'Harleville, Louis Picard (1769-1828), A. Duval, Etienne and others, +mainly a harmless comedy of manners; nor was the attempted innovation of +N. Lemercier--who was fain to invent a new species, that of historical +comedy--more than a flattering self-delusion. The theatre had its share +in all the movements and changes which ensued in France; though the most +important revolution which the drama itself was to undergo was not one +of wholly native origin. Those branches of the drama which belong +specifically to the history of the opera, or which associate themselves +with it, are here passed by. Among them was the _vaudeville_ (from Val +de Vire in Calvados), which began as an interspersion of pantomime with +the airs of popular songs, and which, after the Italian masks had been +removed from it, was cultivated by Ponsard and Marmontel, while Sedaine +wrote a didactic poem on the subject (1756). Sedaine was the father of +the _opera-comique_ proper;[135] Marmontel,[136] as well as +Rousseau,[137] likewise composed _operettes_--a smaller sort of opera, +at first of the pastoral variety; and these flexible species easily +entered into combination. The melodrama proper, of which the invention +is also attributed to Rousseau,[138] in its latter development became +merely a drama accentuated by music, though usually in little need of +any accentuation. + + + The stage. + + Transition to the romantic school. + +The chief home of the regular drama, however, demanded efforts of +another kind. At the Theatre Francais, or Comedie Francaise, whose +history as that of a single company of actors had begun in 1680, the +party-strife of the times made itself audible; and the most prominent +tragic poet of the Revolution, M. J. de Chenier, a disciple of Voltaire +in dramatic poetry as well as in political philosophy, wrote for the +national stage the historical drama--with a political moral[139]--in +which in the memorable year 1789 the actor Talma achieved his first +complete triumph. But the victorious Revolution proclaimed among other +liberties that of the theatres in Paris, of which soon not less than 50 +were open. In 1807 the empire restricted the number to 9, and reinstated +the Theatre Francais in sole possession (or nearly such) of the right of +performing the classic drama. No writer of note was, however, tempted or +inspired by the rewards and other encouragements offered by Napoleon to +produce such a classic tragedy as the emperor would have willingly +stamped from out of the earth. The tragedies of C. Delavigne represent +the transition from the expiring efforts of the classical to the +ambitious beginnings of the romantic school of the French drama. + + + The romantic school. + +Of modern romantic drama in France it must suffice to say that it +derives some of its characteristics from the general movement of +romanticism which in various ways and at various points of time +transformed nearly every modern European literature, others from the +rhetorical tendency which is a French national feature. Victor Hugo was +the founder whom it followed in a spirit of high emprise to success upon +success, his own being the most conspicuous of all;[140] A. Dumas the +elder its unshrinking middleman. The marvellous fire and grandeur of +genius of the former, always in extremes but often most sublime at the +height of danger, was nowhere more signally such than in the drama; +Dumas was a Briareus, working, however, with many hands besides his own. +Together with them may, with more or less precision, be classed in the +romantic school of dramatists A. de Vigny[141] and George Sand,[142] +neither of whom, however, attained to the highest rank in the drama, and +Jules Sandeau;[143] A. de Musset, whose originality pervades all his +plays, but whose later works, more especially in his prose "proverbs" +and pieces of a similar kind, have a flavour of a delicacy altogether +indescribable;[144] perhaps also P. Merimee (1803-1870), who invented +not only Spanish dramas but a Spanish dramatist, and who was never more +audacious than when he seemed most _naif_.[145] + + + Modern schools. + +The romantic school was not destined to exercise a permanent control +over French public taste; but it can hardly be said to have been +overthrown by the brief classical revival begun by F. Ponsard, and +continued, though in closer contact with modern ideas, both by him[146] +and by E. Augier, a dramatist who gradually attained to an extraordinary +effectiveness in the self-restrained treatment of social as well as of +historical themes.[147] While the theatrical fecundity and the +remarkable constructive ability of E. Scribe[148] supplied a long series +of productions attesting the rapid growth of the playwright's mastery +over the secrets of his craft the name of his competitors is legion. +Among them may be mentioned, if only as the authors of two of the most +successful plays of the historical species produced in the century, two +writers of great eminence--C. Delavigne[149] and E. Legouve.[150] Later +developments of the drama bore the impress of a period of social decay, +prepared to probe its own sufferings, while glad at times to take refuge +in the gaiety traditional in France in her more light-hearted days, but +which even then had not yet deserted either French social life or the +theatre which reflected it. After a fashion which would have startled +even Diderot, while recalling his efforts in the earnestness of its +endeavour to arouse moral interests to which the theatre had long been a +stranger, A. Dumas the younger set himself to reform society by means of +the stage.[151] But the technical skill which he and contemporary +dramatists displayed in the execution of their self-imposed task was +such as had been undreamt of by Diderot. O. Feuillet, more eminent as a +novelist than on the stage, applied himself, though with the aid of +fewer prefaces, to the solution of the same or similar problems; while +the extraordinary versatility of V. Sardou and his unfailing +constructive skill was applied by him to almost every kind of serious, +or serio-comic, drama--even the most solid of all.[152] In the same +period, while E. Pailleron revived some of the most characteristic +tendencies of the best French satirical comedy in ridiculing the pompous +pretentiousness of learning for its own sake,[153] the light-hearted +gaiety of E. Labiche changed into something not altogether similar in +the productions of the comic muse of L. Halevy and H. Meilhac, ranging +from the licence of the musical burlesque which was the congenial +delight of the later days of the Second Empire to a species of comedy in +which the ingredients of bitterness and even of sadness found a +place.[154] + + + Tendencies of the drama and of the theatre in France. + +Dramatic criticism in France has had a material share in the maintenance +of a deep as well as wide national interest in the preservation of a high +standard of excellence both in the performance of plays and in the plays +themselves. Among its modern representatives the foremost place would +probably be by common consent allowed to F. Sarcey, whose Monday +theatrical _feuilleton_ in the _Temps_ was long awaited week by week as +an oracle of dramaturgy. But he was only the first among equals, and the +successor and the predecessor of writers who have at least sought to be +equal to a function of real public importance. For it seems hardly within +the range of probability to suppose that the theatre will for many a +generation to come lose the hold which it has established over the +intellectual and moral sympathies of nearly the whole of the educated--to +say nothing of a great part of the half-educated--population of France. +This does not, of course, imply that the creative activity of French +dramatic literature is certain to endure. Since the great changes set in +which were consequent upon the disastrous war of 1870, French dramatic +literature has reflected more than one phase of national sentiment and +opinion, and has represented the aspirations, the sympathies and the +philosophy of life of more than one class in the community. Thus it has +had its episodes of reaction in the midst of an onward flow of which it +would be difficult to predict the end. The tendency of what can only +vaguely be described as the naturalistic school of writers has +corresponded to that even more prominent in the dramatic literatures of +certain other European nations; but it must be allowed that a new poetic +will have to be constructed if the freedom of development which the +dramatic, like all other arts, is entitled to claim is to be reconciled +to laws deducible from the whole previous history of the drama. The +reaction towards earlier forms has asserted itself in various +ways--through the poetic plays of the later years of F. Coppee; in the +success (notable for reasons other than artistic) of Vicomte H. de +Bornier's first tragedy; and of late more especially in the +dramas--highly original and truly romantic in both form and treatment--of +E. Rostand. + +The art of acting is not altogether dependent upon the measure of +contemporary literary productivity, even in France, where the connexion +between dramatic literature and the stage has perhaps been more +continuously intimate than in many other countries. Talma and Mlle Mars +flourished in one of the most barren ages of the French literary drama; +and though this cannot be asserted of the two most brilliant stars of +the French 19th century tragic stage, Rachel and Sarah Bernhardt, or of +their comic contemporaries from Frederick-Lemaitre down to types less +unique than the "Talma of the boulevards," the constantly accumulating +experience of the successive schools of acting in France may here ensure +to the art a future not less notable than its past. Moreover, the French +theatre has long been, and is more than ever likely to continue, an +affair of the state as well as of the nation; and the judicious policy +of not leaving the chief theatres at the mercy of shifting fashion and +the base demands of idleness and sensuality will remain the surest +guarantee for the maintenance of a high standard both in principle and +in practice. So long as France continues to maintain her ascendancy over +other nations in matters of taste, and in much else that adorns, +brightens and quickens social life, the predominant influence of the +French theatre over the theatres of other nations is likewise assured. +But dramatic literature is becoming international to a degree hardly +dreamt of half a century ago; and the distinctive development of the +French theatre cannot fail to be affected by the success or failure of +the national drama in retaining and developing its own most +characteristic qualities. Its history shows periods of marvellously +rapid advance, of hardly less swift decline, and of frequent though at +times fitful recovery. Its future may be equally varied; but it will +remain not less dependent on the conditions which in every people, +ancient or modern, have proved to be indispensable to national vigour +and vitality. (A. W. W.) + +_Recent French Drama._--The last twenty-five years of the 19th century +witnessed an important change in the constructive methods, as well as in +the moral tendencies, of the French playwrights. Of the two leading +dramatists who reigned supreme over the _haute comedie_ in 1875, one, +Emile Augier, had almost ended his career, but the other, Alexandre +Dumas, was to maintain his ascendancy for many years longer. Sardou's +fertility of invention, and extraordinary cleverness at manipulating a +complicated intrigue, were also greatly admired, and much was expected +from Edouard Pailleron's brilliant and--as it seemed--inexhaustible wit +in satirizing the whims and weaknesses of high-born and highly-cultured +society. Alexandre Dumas had created and still monopolized the problem +play, of which _Le Demi-monde_, _Le Fils naturel_, _La Question +d'argent_, _Les Idees de Madame Aubray_, _La Femme de Claude_, _Monsieur +Alphonse_, _La Visite de noces_, _L'Etrangere_, _Francillon_ and +_Denise_ may be mentioned as the most characteristic specimens. The +problem play is the presentation of a particular case, with a view to a +general conclusion on some important question of human conduct. This +afforded the author, who was, in his way, a moralist and a reformer, +excellent opportunities for humorous discussions and the display of that +familiar eloquence which was his greatest gift and most effective +faculty. Among other subjects, the social position of women had an +all-powerful attraction for his mind, and many of his later plays were +written with the object of placing in strong relief the remarkable +inequality of the sexes, both as regards freedom of action and +responsibility, in modern marriage. Like all the dramatists of his time, +he adhered to Scribe's mode of play-writing--a mixture of the _drame +bourgeois_, as initiated by Diderot, and the comedy of character and +manners, long in vogue--from the days of Moliere, Regnard, Destouches +and Marivaux, down to the beginning of the 19th century. In his prefaces +Dumas often undertook the defence of the system which, in his +estimation, was best calculated to serve the purpose of the artist, the +humorist and the moralist--a dramatist being, as he conceived, a +combination of the three. + +Though the majority of French playgoers continued to side with him, and +to cling to the time-honoured theatrical beliefs, a few young men were +beginning to murmur against the too elaborate mechanism and artificial +logic. Scribe and his successors, whose plays were a combination of +comedy and drama, were wont to devote the first act to a brilliant and +witty presentation of personages, then to crowd the following scenes +with incidents, until the action was brought to a climax about the end +of the fourth act, invariably concluding, in the fifth, with an +optimistic _denouement_, just before midnight, the time appointed by +police regulations for the closing of playhouses. At the same time a +more serious and far-reaching criticism was levelled at the very +principles on which the conception of human life was then dependent. A +new philosophy, based on scientific research, had been gradually gaining +ground and penetrating the French mind. A host of bold writers had been +trying, with considerable firmness and continuity of purpose, to start a +new kind of fiction, writing in perfect accordance with the determinist +theories of Auguste Comte, Darwin and Taine. The long-disputed success +of the Naturalistic School carried everything before it during the years +1875-1885, and its triumphant leaders were tempted to make the best of +their advantage by annexing a new province and establishing a footing on +the stage. In this they failed signally, either when they were assisted +by professional dramatists or when left to their own resources. It +became evident that Naturalism, to be made acceptable on the stage, +would have to undergo a special process of transformation and be handled +in a peculiar way. Henry Becque succeeded in embodying the new theories +in two plays, which at first met with very indifferent success, but were +revived at a later period, and finally obtained permanent recognition in +the French theatre--even with the acquiescence of the most learned +critics, when they discovered, or fancied they discovered, that Becque's +comedies agreed, in the main, with Moliere's conception of dramatic art. +In _Les Corbeaux_ and _La Parisienne_ the plot is very simple; the +episodes are incidents taken from ordinary life. No extraneous character +is introduced to discuss moral and social theories, or to acquaint us +with the psychology of the real _dramatis personae_, or to suggest +humorous observations about the progress of the dramatic action. The +characters are left to tell their own tale in their own words, which are +sometimes very comical, sometimes very repulsive, but purport to be +always true to nature. Human will, which was the soul and mainspring of +French tragedy in the 17th century, and played such a paramount part in +the _drame bourgeois_ and the _haute comedie_ of the 19th, appears in M. +Becque's plays to have fallen from its former exalted position and to +have ceased to be a free agent. It is a mere passive instrument to our +inner desires and instincts and appetites, which, in their turn, obey +natural laws. Thus, in Becque's comedies, as in the old Greek drama, +destiny, not man, is the chief actor, the real but unseen protagonist. + +Becque was not a prolific writer, and when he died, in 1899, it was +remarked that he had spent the last ten years of his life in comparative +inactivity. But during these years his young and ardent disciples had +spared no effort in putting their master's theories to the test. It had +occurred to a gifted and enterprising actor-manager, named Andre +Antoine, that the time had come for trying dramatic experiments in a +continued and methodical manner. For this purpose he gathered around him +a number of young authors, and produced their plays before a select +audience of subscribers, who had paid in advance for their +season-tickets. The entertainment was a strictly private one. In this +way Antoine made himself independent of the censors, and at the same +time was no longer obliged to consider the requirements of the average +playgoer, as is the case with ordinary managers, anxious, above all +things, to secure long runs. At the Theatre Libre the most successful +play was not to be performed for more than three nights. + +The reform attempted was to consist in the elimination of what was +contrary to nature in Dumas's and Augier's comedies: of the _intrigue +parallele_ or underplot, of the over-numerous and improbable incidents +which followed the first act and taxed the spectator's memory to the +verge of fatigue; and, lastly, of the conventional _denouement_ for +which there was no justification. A true study of character was to take +the place of Sardou's complicated fabrications and Dumas's problem +plays. The authors would present the spectator with a fragment of life, +but would force no conclusion upon him at the termination of the play. +The reformation in histrionic art was to proceed apace. The actors and +actresses of the preceding period had striven to give full effect to +certain witty utterances of the author, or to preserve and to develop +their own personal peculiarities or oddities. Antoine and his +fellow-artists did their best to make the public realize, in every word +and every gesture, the characteristic features and ruling passions of +the men and women they were supposed to represent. + +It was in the early autumn of 1887 that the Theatre Libre opened its +doors for the first time. It struggled on for eight years amidst +unfailing curiosity, but not without encountering some adverse, or even +derisive, criticism from a considerable portion of the public and the +press. The Theatre Libre brought under public notice such men as George +Courteline and George Ancey, who gave respectively, in _Bonbouroche_ and +_La Dupe_, specimens of a comic vein called the "_comique cruel_." +Fabre, in _L'Argent_, approached if not surpassed his master, Henry +Becque. Brieux, in _Blanchette_, gave promise of talent, which he has +since in a great measure justified. In _Les Fossiles_ and _L'Envers +d'une sainte_, by Francois de Curel, were found evidences of dramatic +vigour and concentrated energy, allied with a remarkable gift for the +minute analysis of feeling. Antoine's activity was not exclusively +confined to the efforts of the French Naturalistic School; he included +the Norwegian drama in his programme, and successively produced several +of Ibsen's plays. They received a large amount of attention from the +critics, the views then expressed ranging from the wildest enthusiasm to +the bitterest irony. Francisque Sarcey was decidedly hostile, and Jules +Lemaitre, who ranked next to him in authority, ventured to suggest that +Ibsen's ideas were nothing better than long-discarded social and +literary paradoxes, borrowed from Pierre Leroux through George Sand, and +returned to the French market as novelties. Ibsen was not understood by +the French public at large, though his influence could be clearly traced +on thoughtful men like Paul Hervieu and Francois de Curel. + +The authors of the Theatre Libre were sadly wanting in tact and +patience. They went at once to extremes, and, while trying to free +themselves from an obsolete form of drama, fell into a state of anarchy. +If a too elaborate plot is a fault, no plot at all is an absurdity. The +old school had been severely taken to task for devoting the first act to +the delineation of character, and the delineation of character was now +found to have extended over the whole play; and worse still, most of +these young men seemed to find pleasure in importing a low vocabulary on +to the stage; they made it their special object to place before the +spectator revolting pictures of the grossest immorality. In this they +were supported by a knot of noisy and unwise admirers, whose misplaced +approval largely contributed towards bringing an otherwise useful and +interesting undertaking into disrepute. The result was that after the +lapse of eight years the little group collected round Antoine had lost +in cohesion and spirit, that it was both less hopeful and less compact +than it had been at the outset of the campaign. But some authors who had +kept aloof from the movement were not slow in reaping the moral and +intellectual profit of these tentative experiments. Among them must be +cited George de Porto-Riche, Henri Lavedan, Paul Hervieu, Maurice Donnay +and Jules Lemaitre. Alone among the authors of the Theatre Libre, E. +Brieux secured an assured position on the regular stage. Instead of +attacking the vices and follies of his times, he has made a name by +satirizing the weak points or the wrong application of certain +fundamental principles by which modern institutions are supported. He +mocked at universal suffrage in _L'Engrenage_, at art in _Menages +d'artistes_, at popular instruction in _Blanchette_, at charity in _Les +Bienfaiteurs_, at science in _L'Evasion_, and then at law in _La Robe +rouge_. Of _Les Trois Filles de M. Dupont_, one is an old maid with a +strong bent towards mysticism, another is a star in the demi-monde, and +the third is married. Neither religion, nor free love, nor marriage has +made one of the three happy. The strange fact about Brieux is that he +propounds his uncomfortable ideas with an incredible amount of dash and +spirit. + +All the plays written by the above-mentioned authors, and by those who +follow in their steps, have been said to constitute the "new comedy." +But one may question the advisability of applying the same name to +literary works which present so little, if any, family likeness. It was +tacitly agreed to remove the intricacies of the plot and the forced +_denouement_. But no one will trace in those plays the uniformity of +moral purpose which would justify us in comprising them under the same +head, as products of the same school. Then, before the Naturalistic, or +half-Naturalistic, School had attained to a practical result or taken a +definite shape, a wave of Romanticism swept over the French public, and +in a measure brought back the old artistic and literary dogmas +propounded by Victor Hugo and the generation of 1830. Signs of a revival +in French dramatic poetry were not lacking. The success of _La Fille de +Roland_, by the Vicomte de Bornier, was restricted to the more +cultivated classes, but the vogue of Jean Richepin's _Chemineau_ was at +once general and lasting. _Cyrano de Bergerac_, produced in the last +days of 1897, brought a world-wide reputation to its young author, +Edmond Rostand. This play combines sparkling wit and brilliancy of +imagination with delightful touches of pathos and delicate tenderness. +It was assumed that Rostand was endowed to an extraordinary degree both +with theatrical genius and the poetic faculty. _L'Aiglon_ fell short of +this too favourable judgment. It is more a dramatic poem than a real +drama, and the author handles history with the same childish +incompetence and inaccuracy as Hugo did in _Cromwell_, in _Ruy Blas_ and +_Hernani_. The persistent approbation of the public seemed, however, to +indicate a growing taste for poetry, even when unsupported by dramatic +interest--a curious symptom among the least poetical of modern European +races. + +To sum up, the French, as regards the present condition of their drama, +were confronted with two alternative movements. Naturalism, furthered by +science and philosophy, was contending against traditions three +centuries old, and seemed unable to crystallize into masterly works; +while romantic drama, founded on vague and exploded theories, had become +embodied in productions of real artistic beauty, which have been warmly +welcomed by the general playgoer. It should nevertheless be noted that +in _Cyrano_ and _L'Aiglon_ human will, which was the main-spring of +Corneille's tragedy and Hugo's drama, tried to reassert itself, but was +baffled by circumstance, and had to submit to inexorable laws. This +showed that the victorious school would have to reckon with the +doctrines of the defeated party, and suggested that a determinist +theatre might be the ultimate outcome of a compromise. (A. FI.) + + +(f) _English Drama._ + +Among the nations of Germanic descent the English alone succeeded, +mainly through the influence of the Renaissance movement, in +transforming the later growths of the medieval drama into the beginnings +of a great and enduring national dramatic literature, second neither in +volume nor in splendour to any other in the records of the world. And, +although in England, as elsewhere, the preparatory process had been +continuing for some generations, its consummation coincided with one of +the greatest epochs of English national history, and indeed forms one of +the chief glories of that epoch itself; so that, in thinking or speaking +of the Elizabethan age and the Elizabethan drama, the one can scarcely +be thought or spoken of without the other. + + + Beginnings of the regular drama. + +It is of course conceivable that the regular drama, or drama proper, +might in England have been called into life without the direct influence +of classical examples. Already in the reign of Edward VI. the spirit of +the Reformation had (with the aid of a newly awakened desire for the +study of history, which was no doubt largely due to Italian examples) +quickened the relatively inanimate species of the morality into the +beginning of a new development.[155] But though the _Kyng Johan_ of Bale +(much as this author abhorred the chronicles as written by +ecclesiastics) came very near to the chronicle histories, there is no +proof whatever that the work, long hidden away for very good reasons, +actually served as a transition to the new species; and Bale's +production was entirely unknown to the particular chronicle history +which treated the same subject. Before the earliest example of this +transitional species was produced, English tragedy had directly +connected its beginnings with classical models. + + + Imitation of classical examples. + +Much in the same way, nothing could have been more natural and in +accordance with the previous sluggish evolution of the English drama +than that a gradual transition, however complete in the end, should have +been effected from the moralities to comedy. It was not, however, John +Heywood himself who was to accomplish any such transition; possibly, he +was himself the author of the morality _Genus humanum_ performed at the +coronation feast of Queen Mary, whose council speedily forbade the +performance of interludes without the queen's licence. Nor are we able +to conjecture the nature of the pieces bearing this name composed by +Richard Farrant, afterwards the master of the Children of St George's at +Windsor, or of William Hunnis, master under Queen Elizabeth of the +Children of the Chapel Royal. But the process of transition is visible +in productions, also called interludes, but charged with serious +purpose, such as T. Ingeland's noteworthy _Disobedient Child_ (before +1560), and plays in which the element of abstractions is perceptibly +yielding to that of real personages, or in which the characters are for +the most part historical or the main element in the action belongs to +the sphere of romantic narrative.[156] The demonstration would, however, +be alien to the purpose of indicating the main conditions of the growth +of the English drama. The immediate origin of the earliest extant +English comedy must, like that of the first English tragedy, be sought, +not in the development of any popular literary or theatrical +antecedents, but in the imitation, more or less direct, of classical +models. This cardinal fact, unmistakable though it is, has frequently +been ignored or obscured by writers intent upon investigating the +_origines_ of our drama, and to this day remains without adequate +acknowledgment in most of the literary histories accessible to the great +body of students. + +It is true that in tracing the entrance of the drama into the national +literature there is no reason for seeking to distinguish very narrowly +between the several tributaries to the main stream which fertilized this +as well as other fields under Renaissance culture. The universities then +still remained, and for a time became more prominently than ever, the +leading agents of education in all its existent stages; and it is a +patent fact that no influence could have been so strong upon the +Elizabethan dramatists as that to which they had been subjected during +the university life through which the large majority of them had passed. +The corporate life of the universities, and the enthusiasms (habitually +unanimous) of their undergraduates and younger graduates, communicated +this influence, as it were automatically, to the students, and to the +learned societies themselves, of the Inns of Court. In the Tudor, as +afterwards in the early Stuart, times, these Inns were at once the +seminaries of loyalty, and the obvious resort for the supply of young +men of spirit desirous of honouring a learned court by contributing to +its choicer amusements. Thus, whether we trace them in the universities, +in the "bowers" or halls of the lawyers, or in the palaces of the +sovereign, the beginnings of the English academical drama, which in +later Elizabethan and Jacobean literature cannot claim to be more than a +subordinate species of the national drama, in an earlier period served +as the actual link between classical tragedy and comedy and the +surviving native growths, and supplied the actual impulse towards the +beginnings of English tragedy and comedy. + + + The earlier academical drama. + +The academical drama of the early years of Elizabeth's reign and of the +preceding part of the Tudor period--including the school-drama in the +narrower sense of the term and other performances of academical +origin--consisted, apart from actual reproductions of classical plays in +original Latin or in Latin versions of the Greek, in adaptations of +Latin originals, or of Latin or English plays directly modelled on +classical examples. A notable series of plays of this kind was performed +in the hall of Christ Church, Oxford, from the first year of Edward VI. +onward, when N. Grimald's _Archipropheta_, treating in classic form the +story of St John the Baptist, but introducing the Vice and comic scenes, +was brought out.[157] Others were J. Calfhill's _Progne_ and R. +Edwardes' _Palaemon and Arcyte_ (both 1566), and, from about 1580 +onwards, a succession of Latin plays by William Gager, beginning with +the tragedy _Meleager_, and including, with other tragedies,[158] a +comedy _Rivales_. Yet another comedy, acted at Christ Church, and +extolled in 1591 by Harington for "harmless mirth," was the _Bellum +grammaticale_, or Civil War between Nouns and Verbs, which may have been +a revision of a comedy written by Bale's friend, R. Radcliff, in 1538, +but of which in any case the ultimate origin was a celebrated Italian +allegorical treatise.[159] In Cambridge, as is not surprising, the +activity of the early academical friends and favourers of the drama was +even more marked. At St John's College, where Bishop Watson's Latin +tragedy called _Absolom_ was produced within the years 1534 and 1544, +plays were, according to Ascham, repeatedly performed about the middle +of the century; at Christ's a controversial drama in the Lutheran +interest called _Pammachius_, of which Gardiner complained to the privy +council, and which seems afterwards to have been translated by Bale, was +acted in 1544; and at Trinity there was a long series of performances +which began with Christopherson's _Jephtha_ about 1546, and consisted +partly of reproductions of classical works,[160] partly of plays and +"shows" unnamed; while on one occasion at all events, in 1559, "two +English plays" were produced. In 1560 was acted, doubtless in the +original Latin, and not in Palsgrave's English translation (1540) for +schoolboys, the celebrated "comedy" of _Acolastus_, by W. Gnaphaeus, on +the story of the Prodigal Son. The long series of Trinity plays +interspersed with occasional plays at King's (where Udall's _Ezechias_ +was produced in English in 1564), at St John's (where T. Legge's +_Richardus III._ was first acted in 1573), and, as will be seen below, +at Christ's, continued, with few noticeable breaks, up to the time when +the Elizabethan drama was in full activity.[161] Among the "academical" +plays not traceable to any particular university source may be +mentioned, as acted at court so early as the end of 1565 or the +beginning of 1566, the Latin _Sapientia Solomonis_, which generally +follows the biblical narrative, but introduces a comic element in the +sayings of the popular Marcolph, who here appears as a court fool. + + + Influence of Seneca. + +It was under the direct influence of the Renaissance, viewed primarily, +in England as elsewhere, as a revival of classical studies, and in +connexion with the growing taste in university and cognate circles of +society, and at a court which prided itself on its love and patronage of +learning, that English tragedy and comedy took their actual beginnings. +Those of comedy, as it would seem, preceded those of tragedy by a few +years. Already in Queen Mary's reign, translation was found the readiest +form of expression offering itself to literary scholarship; and Italian +examples helped to commend Seneca, the most modern of the ancient +tragedians, and the imitator of the most human among the masters of +Attic tragedy, as a favourite subject for such exercises. In the very +year of Elizabeth's accession--seven years after Jodelle had brought out +the earliest French tragedy--a group of English university scholars +began to put forth a series of translations of the ten tragedies of +Seneca, which one of them, T. Newton, in 1581 collected into a single +volume. The earliest of these versions was that of the _Troades_ (1559) +by Jasper Heywood, a son of the author of the _Interludes_. He also +published the _Thyestes_ (1560) and the _Hercules Furens_ (1561); the +names of his fellow-translators were A. Neville, T. Nuce, J. Studley and +the T. Newton aforesaid. These translations, which occasionally include +original interpolations ("additions," a term which was to become a +technical one in English dramaturgy), are in no instance in blank verse, +the favourite metre of the dialogue being the couplets of +fourteen-syllable lines best known through Chapman's _Homer_. + + + Earliest English tragedies. + +The authority of Seneca, once established in the English literary world, +maintained itself there long after English drama had emancipated itself +from the task of imitating this pallid model, and, occasionally, +Seneca's own prototype, Euripides.[162] Nor can it be doubted that some +translation of the Latin tragic poet had at one time or another passed +through Shakespeare's own hands. But what is of present importance is +that to the direct influence of Seneca is to be ascribed the composition +of the first English tragedy which we possess. Of _Gorboduc_ (afterwards +re-named _Ferrex and Porrex_), first acted on the 18th of January 1562 +by the members of the Inner Temple before Queen Elizabeth, the first +three acts are stated to have been written by T. Norton; the rest of the +play (if not more) was the work of T. Sackville, afterwards Lord +Buckhurst and earl of Dorset, whom Jasper Heywood praised for his +sonnets, but who is better known for his leading share in The _Mirror +for Magistrates_. Though the subject of _Gorboduc_ is a British legend, +and though the action is neither copied nor adapted from any treated by +Seneca, yet the resemblance between this tragedy and the _Thebais_ is +too strong to be fortuitous. In all formal matters--chorus, messengers, +&c.--_Gorboduc_ adheres to the usage of classical tragedy; but the +authors show no respect for the unities of time or place. Strong in +construction, the tragedy is--like its model, Seneca--weak in +characterization. The dialogue, it should be noticed, is in blank verse; +and the device of the _dumb-show_, in which the contents of each act are +in succession set forth in pantomime only, is employed at once to +instruct and to stimulate the spectator. + +The nearly contemporary _Apius and Virginia_ (c. 1563), though it takes +its subject--destined to become a perennial one on the modern +stage--from Roman story; the _Historie of Horestes_ (pr. 1567); and T. +Preston's _Cambises King of Percia_ (1569-1570), are somewhat rougher in +form, and, the first and last of them at all events, more violent in +diction, than _Gorboduc_. They still contain elements of the moralities +(above all the Vice) and none of the formal features of classical +tragedy. But a _Julyus Sesyar_ seems to have been performed, in +precisely the same circumstances as _Gorboduc_, so early as 1562; and, +four years later, G. Gascoigne, the author of the satire _The Steele +Glass_, produced with the aid of two associates (F. Kinwelmersh and Sir +Christopher Yelverton, who wrote an epilogue), _Jocasta_, a virtual +translation of L. Dolce's _Giocasta_, which was an adaptation, probably, +of R. Winter's Latin translation of the _Phoenissae_ of Euripides.[163] +Between the years 1567 and 1580 a large proportion of the plays +presented at court by choir- or school-boys, and by various companies of +actors, were taken from Greek legend or Roman history; as was R. +Edwardes' _Damon and Pithias_ (perhaps as early as 1564-1565), which +already shades off from tragedy into what soon came to be called +tragi-comedy.[164] Simultaneously with the influence, exercised directly +or indirectly, of classical literature, that of Italian, both dramatic +and narrative, with its marked tendency to treat native themes, asserted +itself, and, while diversifying the current of early English tragedy, +infused into it a long-abiding element of passion. There are sufficient +grounds for concluding that a play on the subject of _Romeo and Juliet_, +which L. da Porto and M. Bandello had treated in prose narrative--that +of the latter having through a French version formed itself into an +English poem--was seen on an English stage in or before 1562. _Gismonde +of Salerne_, a play founded on Boccaccio, was acted before Queen +Elizabeth at the Inner Temple in 1568, nearly a generation before it was +published, rewritten in blank verse by R. Wilmot, one of the performers, +then in holy orders; G. Whetstone's _Promos and Cassandra_, founded on +G. Cinthio (from which came the plot of _Measure for Measure_), +followed, printed in 1578; and there were other "casts of Italian +devices" belonging to this age, in which the choice of a striking theme +still seemed the chief preoccupation of English tragic poets. + +From the double danger which threatened English tragedy in the days of +its infancy--that it would congeal on the wintry heights of classical +themes, or dissolve its vigour in the glowing heat of a passion fiercer +than that of the Italians--_Ingleso Italianato e un diavolo +incarnato_--it was preserved more than by any other cause by its happy +association with the traditions of the national history. An exceptional +position might seem to be in this respect occupied by T. Hughes' +interesting tragedy _The Misfortunes of Arthur_ (1587). But the author +of this play--in certain portions of whose framework there were +associated with him seven other members of Gray's Inn, including Francis +Bacon, and which was presented before Queen Elizabeth like +_Gorboduc_--in truth followed the example of the authors of that work +both in choice of theme, in details of form, and in a general though far +from servile imitation of the manner of Seneca; nor does he represent +any very material advance upon the first English tragedy. + + + Chronicle histories. + +Fortunately, at the very time when from such beginnings as those just +described the English tragic drama was to set forth upon a course in +which it was to achieve so much, a new sphere of activity suggested +itself. And in this, after a few more or less tentative efforts, English +dramatists very speedily came to feel at home. In their direct +dramatization of passages or portions of English history (in which the +doings and sufferings of King Arthur could only by courtesy or poetic +licence be included) classical models would be of scant service, while +Italian examples of the treatment of national historical subjects, +having to deal with material so wholly different, could not be followed +with advantage. The native species of the _chronicle history_, which +designedly assumed this name in order to make clear its origin and +purpose, essayed nothing more or less than a dramatic version of an +existing chronicle. Obviously, while the transition from half +historical, half epical narrative often implied carrying over into the +new form some of the features of the old, it was only when the subject +matter had been remoulded and recast that a true dramatic action could +result. But the _histories_ to be found among the plays of Shakespeare +and one or two other Elizabethans are true dramas, and it would be +inconvenient to include these in the transitional species of those known +as _chronicle histories_. Among these ruder compositions, which +intermixed the blank verse introduced on the Stage by _Gorboduc_ with +prose, and freely combined or placed side by side tragic and comic +ingredients, we have but few distinct examples. One of these is _The +Famous Victories of Henry the Fifth_, known to have been acted before +1588; in which both the verse and the prose are frequently of a very +rude sort, while it is neither divided into acts or scenes nor, in +general, constructed with any measure of dramatic skill. But its vigour +and freshness are considerable, and in many passages we recognize +familiar situations and favourite figures in later masterpieces of the +English historical drama. The second is _The Troublesome Raigne of King +John_, in two parts (printed in 1591), an epical narrative transferred +to the stage, neither a didactic effort like Bale's, nor a living drama +like Shakespeare's, but a far from contemptible treatment of its +historical theme. _The True Chronicle History of King Leir_ (acted in +1593) in form resembles the above, though it is not properly on a +national subject (its story is taken from Geoffrey of Monmouth); but, +with all its defects, it seems only to await the touch of the master's +hand to become a tragedy of supreme effectiveness. A yet further step +was taken in the _Tragedy of Sir Thomas More_ (c. 1590)--in which +Shakespeare's hand has been thought traceable, and which deserves its +designation of "tragedy" not so much on account of the relative nearness +of the historical subject to the date of its dramatic treatment, as +because of the tragic responsibility of character here already clearly +worked out. + + + Earliest comedies. + +Such had been the beginnings of tragedy in England up to the time when +the genius of English dramatists was impelled by the spirit that +dominates a great creative epoch of literature to seize the form ready +to their hands. The birth of English comedy, at all times a process of +less labour and eased by an always ready popular responsiveness to the +most tentative efforts of art, had slightly preceded that of her serious +sister. As has been seen from the brief review given above of the early +history of the English academical drama, isolated Latin comedies had +been performed in the original or in English versions as early as the +reign of Henry VIII.--perhaps even earlier; while the morality and its +direct descendant, the interlude, pointed the way towards popular +treatment in the vernacular of actions and characters equally well +suited for the diversion of Roman, Italian and English audiences. Thus +there was no innovation in the adaptation by N. Udal (q.v.) of the +_Miles Gloriosus_ of Plautus under the title of _Ralph Roister Doister_, +which may claim to be the earliest extant English comedy. It has a +genuinely popular vein of humour, and the names fit the characters after +a fashion familiar to the moralities. The second English comedy--in the +opinion of at least one high authority our first--is _Misogonus_, which +was certainly written as early as 1560. Its scene is laid in Italy; but +the Vice, commonly called "Cacurgus," is both by himself and others +frequently designated as "Will Summer," in allusion to Henry VIII.'s +celebrated jester. _Gammer Gurton's Needle_, long regarded as the +earliest of all _English_ comedies, was printed in 1575, as acted "not +long ago in Christ's College, Cambridge." Its authorship was till +recently attributed to John Still (afterwards bishop of Bath and Wells), +who was a resident M.A. at Christ's, when a play was performed there in +1566. But the evidence of his authorship is inconclusive, and the play +"made by Mr. S., Master of Arts," may be by William Stevenson, or by +some other contemporary. This comedy is slighter in plot and coarser in +diction than _Ralph Roister Doister_, but by no means unamusing. + +In the main, however, early English comedy, while occasionally +introducing characters and scenes of thoroughly native origin and +complexion (e.g. Grim, the Collier of Croydon),[165] was content to +borrow its themes from classical or Italian sources.[166] G. Gascoigne's +_Supposes_ (acted at Gray's Inn in 1566) is a translation of _I +Suppositi_ of Ariosto, remarkable for the flowing facility of its +prose. While, on the one hand, the mixture of tragic with comic motives, +which was to become so distinctive a feature of the Elizabethan drama, +was already leading in the direction of tragi-comedy, the precedent of +the Italian pastoral drama encouraged the introduction of figures and +stories derived from classical mythology; and the rapid and diversified +influence of Italian comedy, in close touch with Italian prose fiction, +seemed likely to affect and quicken continuously the growth of the +lighter branch of the English drama. + + + Conditions of the early Elizabethan drama. + +Out of such promises as these the glories of English drama were ripened +by the warmth and light of the great Elizabethan age--of which the +beginnings may fairly be reckoned from the third decennium of the reign +to which it owes its name. The queen's steady love of dramatic +entertainments could not of itself have led, though it undoubtedly +contributed, to such a result. Against the attacks which a nascent +puritanism was already directing against the stage by the hands of J. +Northbrooke,[167] the repentant playwright S. Gosson,[168] P. +Stubbes,[169] and others,[170] were to be set not only the frugal favour +of royalty and the more liberal patronage of great nobles,[171] but the +fact that literary authorities were already weighing the endeavours of +the English drama in the balance of respectful criticism, and that in +the abstract at least the claims of both tragedy and comedy were upheld +by those who shrank from the desipience of idle pastimes. It is +noticeable that this period in the history of the English theatre +coincides with the beginning of the remarkable series of visits made to +Germany by companies of English comedians, which did not come to an end +till the period immediately before the Thirty Years' War, and were +occasionally resumed after its close. As at home the popularity of the +stage increased, the functions of playwright and actor, whether combined +or not, began to hold out a reasonable promise of personal gain. Nor, +above all, was that higher impulse which leads men of talent and genius +to attempt forms of art in harmony with the tastes and tendencies of +their times wanting to the group of writers who can be remembered by no +nobler name than that of Shakespeare's predecessors. + + + The predecessors of Shakespeare. + +The lives of all of these are, of course, in part contemporary with the +life of Shakespeare himself; nor was there any substantial difference in +the circumstances under which most of them, and he, led their lives as +dramatic authors. A distinction was manifestly kept up between poets and +playwrights. Of the contempt entertained for the actor's profession some +fell to the share of the dramatist; "even Lodge," says C. M. Ingleby, +"who had indeed never trod the stage, but had written several plays, and +had no reason to be ashamed of his antecedents, speaks of the vocation +of the play-maker as sharing the odium attaching to the actor." Among +the dramatists themselves good fellowship and literary partnership only +at times asserted themselves as stronger than the tendency to mutual +jealousy and abuse; of all chapters of dramatic history, the annals of +the early Elizabethan stage perhaps least resemble those of Arcadia. + + + History of the Elizabethan stage. + +Moreover, the theatre had hardly found its strength as a powerful +element in the national life, when it was involved in a bitter +controversy, with which it had originally no connexion, on behalf of an +ally whose sympathy with it can only have been of a very limited kind. +The Marprelate controversy, into which, among leading playwrights, Lyly +and Nashe were drawn, in 1589 led to a stoppage of stage-plays which +proved only temporary; but the general result of the attempt to make the +stage a vehicle of political abuse and invective was beyond a doubt to +coarsen and degrade both plays and players. Scurrilous attempts and +rough repression continued during the years 1590-1593; and the true +remedy was at last applied, when from about 1594, the chief London +actors became divided into two great rival companies--the lord +chamberlain's and the lord admiral's--which alone received licences. +Instead of half a dozen or more companies whose jealousies communicated +themselves to the playwrights belonging to them, there were now, besides +the Children of the Chapel, two established bodies of actors, directed +by steady and, in the full sense of the word, respectable men. To the +lord chamberlain's company, which, after being settled at "the Theater" +(opened as early as 1576 or 1577), moved to Blackfriars, purchased by +James Burbage, in 1596, and to the Globe on the Bankside in 1599, +Shakespeare and Richard Burbage, the greatest of the Elizabethan actors, +belonged; the lord admiral's was managed by Philip Henslowe, the author +of the _Diary_, and Edward Alleyn, the founder of Dulwich College, and +was ultimately, in 1600, settled at the Fortune. In these and other +houses were performed the plays of the Elizabethan dramatists, with few +adventitious aids, the performance being crowded into a brief afternoon, +when it is obvious that only the idler sections of the population could +attend. No woman might appear at a playhouse, unless masked; on the +stage, down to the Restoration, women's parts continued to be acted by +boys. + +It is futile to take no account of such outward circumstances as these +and many which cannot here be noted in surveying the progress of the +literature of the Elizabethan drama. Like that of the Restoration--and +like that of the present day--it was necessarily influenced in its +method and spirit of treatment by the conditions and restrictions which +governed the place and circumstances of the performance of plays, +including the construction of theatre and stage, as well as by the +social composition of its audiences, which the local accommodation, not +less than the entertainment, provided for them had to take into account. +But to these things a mere allusion must suffice. It may safely be said, +at the same time, that no dramatic literature which has any claim to +rank beside the Elizabethan--not that of Athens nor those of modern +Italy and Spain, nor those of France and Germany in their classic +periods--had to contend against such odds; a mighty inherent strength +alone ensured to it the vitality which it so triumphantly asserted, and +which enabled it to run so unequalled a course. + + + Lyly. + + Kyd. + + Marlowe. + + Peele. + + Greene. + +Among Shakespeare's predecessors, John Lyly, whose plays were all +written for the Children of the Chapel and the Children of St Paul's, +holds a position apart in English dramatic literature. The euphuism, to +which his famous romance gave its name, likewise distinguishes his +mythological,[172] quasi-historical,[173] allegorical,[174] and +satirical[175] comedies. But his real service to the progress of English +drama is to be sought neither in his choice of subjects nor in his +imagery--though to his fondness for fairylore and for the whole +phantasmagoria of legend, classical as well as romantic, his +contemporaries, and Shakespeare in particular, were indebted for a +stimulative precedent, and though in his _Endimion_ at all events he +excites curiosity by an allegorical treatment of contemporary characters +and events. It does not even lie in the songs interspersed in his plays, +though none of his predecessors had in the slightest degree anticipated +the lyric grace which distinguishes some of these incidental efforts. It +consists in his adoption of Gascoigne's innovation of writing plays in +prose; and in his having, though under the fetters of an affected and +pretentious style, given the first example of brisk and vivacious +dialogue--an example to which even such successors as Shakespeare and +Jonson were indebted. Thomas Kyd, the author of the _Spanish Tragedy_ +(preceded or followed by the first part of _Jeronimo_), and probably of +several plays whose author was unnamed, possesses some of the +characteristics, but none of the genius, of the greatest tragic +dramatist who preceded Shakespeare. No slighter tribute than this is +assuredly the due of Christopher Marlowe, whose violent end prematurely +closed a poetic career of dazzling brilliancy. His earliest play, +_Tamburlaine the Great_, in which the use of blank verse was introduced +upon the English public stage, while full of the "high astounding terms" +of an extravagant and often bombastic diction, is already marked by the +passion which was the poet's most characteristic feature, and which was +to find expression so luxuriantly beautiful in his _Doctor Faustus,_ and +so surpassingly violent in his _Jew of Malta_. His masterpiece, _Edward +II._, is a tragedy of singular pathos and of a dramatic power +unapproached by any of his contemporaries. George Peele was a far more +versatile writer even as a dramatist; but, though his plays contain +passages of exquisite beauty, not one of them is worthy to be ranked by +the side of Marlowe's _Edward II._, compared with which, if indeed not +absolutely, Peele's _Chronicle of Edward I._ still stands on the level +of the species to which its title and character alike assign it. His +finest play is undoubtedly _David and Bethsabe_, which resembles _Edward +I._ in construction, but far surpasses it in beauty of language and +versification, besides treating its subject with greatly superior +dignity. If the difference between Peele and Shakespeare is still, in +many respects besides that of genius, an immeasurable one, we seem to +come into something like a Shakespearian atmosphere in more than one +passage of the plays of the unfortunate Robert Greene--unfortunate +perhaps in nothing more enduringly than in the proof which he left +behind him of his supercilious jealousy of Shakespeare. Greene's genius, +most conspicuous in plays treating English life and scenes, could, +notwithstanding his academic self-sufficiency, at times free itself from +the pedantry apt to beset the flight of Peele's and at times even of +Marlowe's muse; and his most delightful work[176] seems to breathe +something of the air, sweet and fresh like no other, which blows over an +English countryside. Thomas Lodge, whose dramatic, and much less of +course his literary activity, is measured by the only play that we know +to have been wholly his;[177] Thomas Nashe, the redoubtable pamphleteer +and the father of the English picaresque novel;[178] Henry Chettle, who +worked the chords of both pity[179] and terror[180] with equal vigour, +and Anthony Munday, better remembered for his city pageants than for his +plays, are among the other more important writers of the early +Elizabethan drama, though not all of them can strictly speaking be +called predecessors of Shakespeare. It is not possible here to enumerate +the more interesting of the anonymous plays which belong to this +"pre-Shakespearian" period of the Elizabethan drama; but many of them +are by intrinsic merit as well as for special causes deserving of the +attention of the student. + + + Common characteristics of the early Elizabethans. + +The common characteristics of nearly all these dramatists and plays were +in accordance with those of the great age to which they belonged. +Stirring times called for stirring themes, such as those of "Mahomet, +Scipio and Tamerlane"; and these again for a corresponding vigour of +treatment. Neatness and symmetry of construction were neglected for +fulness and variety of matter. Novelty and grandeur of subject seemed +well matched by a swelling amplitude and often reckless extravagance of +diction. As if from an inner necessity, the balance of rhymed couplets +gave way to the impetuous march of blank verse; "strong lines" were as +inevitably called for as strong situations and strong characters. +Although the chief of these poets are marked off from one another by the +individual genius which impressed itself upon both the form and the +matter of their works, yet the stamp of the age is upon them all. +Writing for the stage only, of which some of them possessed a personal +experience and from which none of them held aloof, they acquired an +instinctive insight into the laws of dramatic cause and effect, and +infused a warm vitality into the dramatic literature which they +produced, so to speak, for immediate consumption. On the other hand, the +same cause made rapidity of workmanship indispensable to a successful +playwright. _How_ a play was produced, how many hands had been at work +upon it, what loans and what spoliations had been made in the process, +were considerations of less moment than the question _whether_ it was +produced, and whether it succeeded. His harness--frequently double or +triple--was inseparable from the lusty Pegasus of the early English +drama, and its genius toiled, to borrow the phrase of the Attic +comedian, "like an Arcadian mercenary." + + + Progress of tragedy and comedy before Shakespeare. + +This period of the English drama, though it is far from being one of +crude effort, could not therefore yet be one of full consummation. In +tragedy the advance which had been made in the choice of great themes, +in knitting closer the connection between the theatre and the national +history, in vindicating to passion its right to adequate expression, was +already enormous. In comedy the advance had been less decisive and less +independent; much had been gained in reaching greater freedom of form +and something in enlarging the range of subjects; but artificiality had +proved a snare in the one direction, while the licence of the comic +stage, upheld by favourite "clowns," such as Kemp or Tarlton, had not +succumbed before less elastic demands. The way of escaping from the +dilemma had, however, been already recognized to lie in the construction +of suitable plots, for which a full storehouse was open in the popular +traditions preserved in national ballads, and in the growing literature +of translated foreign fiction, or of native imitations of it. Meanwhile, +the aberration of the comic stage to political and religious +controversy, which it could never hope to treat with Attic freedom in a +country provided with a strong monarchy and a dogmatic religion, seemed +likely to extinguish the promise of the beginnings of English romantic +comedy. + + + Shakespeare. + +These were the circumstances under which the greatest of dramatists +began to devote his genius to the theatre. Shakespeare's career as a +writer of plays can have differed little in its beginnings from those of +his contemporaries and rivals. Before or while he was proceeding from +the re-touching and re-writing of the plays of others to original +dramatic composition, the most gifted of those whom we have termed his +predecessors had passed away. He had been decried as an actor before he +was known as an author; and after living through days of darkness for +the theatre, if not for himself, attained, before the close of the +century, to the beginnings of his prosperity and the beginnings of his +fame. But if we call him fortunate, it is not because of such rewards as +these. As a poet, Shakespeare was no doubt happy in his times, which +intensified the strength of the national character, expanded the +activities of the national mind, and were able to add their stimulus +even to such a creative power as his. He was happy in the antecedents of +the form of literature which commended itself to his choice, and in the +opportunities which it offered in so many directions for an advance to +heights yet undiscovered and unknown. What he actually accomplished was +due to his genius, whose achievements are immeasurable like itself. His +influence upon the progress of English drama divides itself in very +unequal proportions into a direct and an indirect influence. To the +former alone reference can here be made. + + + Shakespeare and the national historical drama. + +Already the first editors of Shakespeare's works in a collected form +recognized so marked a distinction between his plays taken from English +history and those treating other historical subjects (whether ancient or +modern) that, while they included the latter among the tragedies at +large, they grouped the former as _histories_ by themselves. These +_histories_ are in their literary genesis a development of the +_chronicle histories_ of Shakespeare's predecessors and contemporaries, +the taste for which had greatly increased towards the beginning of his +own career as a dramatist, in accordance with the general progress of +national life and sentiment in this epoch. Though it cannot be assumed +that Shakespeare composed his several dramas from English history in the +sequence of the chronology of their themes, his genius gave to the +entire series an inner harmony, and a continuity corresponding to that +which is distinctive of the national life, such as not unnaturally +inspired certain commentators with the wish to prove it a symmetrically +constructed whole. He thus brought this peculiarly national species to a +perfection which made it difficult, if not impossible, for his later +contemporaries and successors to make more than an occasional addition +to his series. None of them was, however, found able or ready to take up +the thread where Shakespeare had left it, after perfunctorily attaching +the present to the past by a work (probably not all his own) which must +be regarded as the end rather than the crown of the series of his +_histories_.[181] But to furnish such supplements accorded little with +the tastes and tendencies of the later Elizabethans; and with the +exception of an isolated work,[182] the national historical drama in +Shakespeare reached at once its perfection and its close. The ruder form +of the old chronicle history for a time survived the advance made upon +it; but the efforts in this field of T. Heywood,[183] S. Rowley,[184] +and others are, from a literary point of view, anachronisms. + +Of Shakespeare's other plays the several groups exercised a more direct +influence upon the general progress of our dramatic literature. His +Roman tragedies, though following their authorities with much the same +fidelity as that of the English _histories_, even more effectively +taught the great lesson of free dramatic treatment of historic themes, +and thus pre-eminently became the perennial models of the modern +historic drama. His tragedies on other subjects, which necessarily +admitted of a more absolute freedom of treatment, established themselves +as the examples for all time of the highest kind of tragedy. Where else +is exhibited with the same fulness the struggle between will and +obstacle, character and circumstance? Where is mirrored with equal power +and variety the working of those passions in the mastery of which over +man lies his doom? Here, above all, Shakespeare as compared with his +predecessors, as well as with his successors, "_is_ that nature which +they paint and draw." He threw open to modern tragedy a range of +hitherto unknown breadth and depth and height, and emancipated the +national drama in its noblest forms from limits to which it could never +again restrict itself without a consciousness of having renounced its +enfranchisement. Happily for the variety of his creative genius on the +English stage, no divorce had been proclaimed between the serious and +the comic, and no division of species had been established such as he +himself ridicules as pedantic when it professes to be exhaustive. The +comedies of Shakespeare accordingly refuse to be tabulated in deference +to any method of classification deserving to be called precise; and +several of them are comedies only according to a purely technical use of +the term. In those in which the instinct of reader or spectator +recognizes the comic interest to be supreme, it is still of its nature +incidental to the progress of the action; for the criticism seems just, +as well as in agreement with what we can conclude as to Shakespeare's +process of construction, that among all his comedies not more than a +single one[185] is in both design and effect a comedy of character +proper. Thus in this direction, while the unparalleled wealth of his +invention renewed or created a whole gallery of types, he left much to +be done by his successors; while the truest secrets of his comic art, +which interweaves fancy with observation, draws wisdom from the lips of +fools, and imbues with character what all other hands would have left +shadowy, monstrous or trivial, are among the things inimitable belonging +to the individuality of his poetic genius. + + + His style and its influence. + +The influences of Shakespeare's diction and versification upon those of +the English drama in general can hardly be overrated, though it would be +next to impossible to state them definitely. In these points, +Shakespeare's manner as a writer was progressive; and this progress has +been deemed sufficiently well traceable in his plays to be used as an +aid in seeking to determine their chronological sequence. The general +laws of this progress accord with those of the natural advance of +creative genius; artificiality gives way to freedom, and freedom in its +turn submits to a greater degree of regularity and care. In +versification as in diction the earliest and the latest period of +Shakespeare's dramatic writing are more easily recognizable than what +lies between and may be called the _normal_ period, the plays belonging +to which in form most resemble one another, and are least affected by +distinguishable peculiarities--such as the rhymes and intentionally +euphuistic colouring of style which characterize the earliest, or the +feminine endings of the lines and the more condensed manner of +expression common to the latest of his plays. But, such distinctions +apart, there can be no doubt but that in verse and in prose alike, +Shakespeare's style, so far as it admitted of reproduction, is itself to +be regarded as the _norm_ of that of the Elizabethan drama; that in it +the prose form of English comedy possesses its first accepted model; and +that in it the chosen metre of the English versified drama established +itself as irremovable unless at the risk of an artificial experiment. + + + Influence of his method of construction. + +The assertion may seem paradoxical, that it is by their construction +that Shakespeare's plays exerted the most palpable influence upon the +English drama, as well as upon the modern drama of the Germanic nations +in general, and upon such forms of the Romance drama as have been in +more recent times based upon it. For it was not in construction that his +greatest strength lay, or that the individuality of his genius could +raise him above the conditions under which he worked in common with his +immediate predecessors and contemporaries. Yet the fact that he accepted +these conditions, while producing works of matchless strength and of +unequalled fidelity to the demands of nature and art, established them +as inseparable from the Shakespearian drama--to use a term which is +perhaps unavoidable but has been often misapplied. The great and +irresistible demand on the part of Shakespeare's public was for +_incident_--a demand which of itself necessitated a method of +construction different from that of the Greek drama, or of those +modelled more or less closely upon it. To no other reason is to be +ascribed the circumstance that Shakespeare so constantly combined two +actions in the course of a single play, not merely supplementing the one +by means of the other as a bye- or under-plot. In no respect is the +progress of his technical skill as a dramatist more apparent,--a +proposition which a comparison of plays clearly ascribable to successive +periods of his life must be left to prove. + + + His characters. + +Should it, however, be sought to express in one word the greatest debt of +the drama to Shakespeare, this word must be the same as that which +expresses his supreme gift as a dramatist. It is in _characterization_--in +the drawing of characters ranging through almost every type of humanity +which furnishes a fit subject for the tragic or the comic art--that he +remains absolutely unapproached; and it was in this direction that he +pointed the way which the English drama could not henceforth desert +without becoming untrue to itself. It may have been a mere error of +judgment which afterwards held him to have been surpassed by others in +particular fields of characterization (setting him down, forsooth, as +supremely excellent in male, but not in female, characters). But it was a +sure sign of decay when English writers began to shrink from following him +in the endeavour to make the drama a mirror of humanity, and when, in +self-condemned arrogance, they thrust unreality back upon a stage which he +had animated with the warm breath of life, where Juliet had blossomed like +a flower of spring, and where Othello's noble nature had suffered and +sinned. + + + Forms of the later Elizabethan drama. + + The pastoral drama. + +By the numerous body of poets who, contemporary with Shakespeare or in +the next generation, cultivated the wide field of the national drama, +every form commending itself to the tastes and sympathies of the +national genius was essayed. None were neglected except those from which +the spirit of English literature had been estranged by the Reformation, +and those which had from the first been artificial importations of the +Renaissance. The mystery could not in England, as in Spain, produce such +an aftergrowth as the _auto_, and the confines of the religious drama +were only now and then tentatively touched.[186] The direct imitations +of classical examples were, except perhaps in the continued efforts of +the academical drama, few and feeble. Chapman, while resorting to use of +narrative in tragedy and perhaps otherwise indebted to ancient models, +was no follower of them in essentials. S. Daniel (1562-1619) may be +regarded as a belated disciple of Seneca,[187] while experiments like W. +Alexander's (afterwards earl of Stirling) _Monarchicke Tragedies_[188] +(1603-1605) are the mere isolated efforts of a student, and more +exclusively so than Milton's imposing _Samson Agonistes_, which belongs +to a later date (1677). At the opposite end of the dramatic scale, the +light gaiety of the Italian and French farce could not establish itself +on the English popular stage without more substantial adjuncts; the +Englishman's festive digestion long continued robust, and he liked his +amusements solid. In the pastoral drama and the mask, however, many +English dramatists found special opportunities for the exercise of their +lyrical gifts and of their inventive powers. The former could never +become other than an exotic, so long as it retained the artificial +character of its origin. Shakespeare had accordingly only blended +elements derived from it into the action of his romantic comedies. In +more or less isolated works Jonson, Fletcher, Daniel, Randolph, and +others sought to rival Tasso and Guarini--Jonson[189] coming nearest to +nationalizing an essentially foreign growth by the fresh simplicity of +his treatment, Fletcher[190] bearing away the palm for beauty of poetic +execution; Daniel being distinguished by simpler beauties of style in +both verse and prose.[191] + + + The mask. + +The mask (or masque) was a more elastic kind of composition, mixing in +varying proportions its constituent elements of declamation and +dialogue, music and dancing, decoration and scenery. In its least +elaborate literary form--which, of course, externally was the most +elaborate--it closely approached the pageant; in other instances the +distinctness of its characters or the fulness of the action introduced +into its scheme, brought it nearer to the regular drama. A frequent +ornament of Queen Elizabeth's progresses, it was cultivated with +increased assiduity in the reign of James I., and in that of his +successor outshone, by the favour it enjoyed with court and nobility, +the attractions of the regular drama itself. Most of the later +Elizabethan dramatists contributed to this species, upon which +Shakespeare expended the resources of his fancy only incidentally in the +course of his dramas; but by far the most successful writer of masks was +Ben Jonson, of whose numerous compositions of this kind many hold a +permanent place in English poetic literature, and "next" whom, in his +own judgment, "only Fletcher and Chapman could write a mask." From a +poetic point of view, however, they were at least rivalled by Dekker and +Ford; in productivity and favour T. Campion, who was equally eminent as +poet and as musician, seems for a time to have excelled. Inasmuch, +however, as the history of the mask in England is to a great extent that +of "painting and carpentry" and of Inigo Jones, and as, moreover, this +kind of piece, while admitting dramatic elements, is of its nature +occasional, it need not further be pursued here. The _Microcosmus_ of T. +Nabbes (printed 1637), which is very like a morality, seems to have been +the first mask brought upon the public stage. It was the performance of +a mask by Queen Henrietta Maria and her ladies at Whitehall which had +some years previously (1632) been thought to have supplied to the +invective of _Histrio-Mastix_ against the stage the occasion for +disloyal innuendo; and it was for the performance of a mask in a great +nobleman's castle that Milton--a Puritan of a very different cast--not +long afterwards (1634) wrote one of the loftiest and loveliest of +English poems. _Comus_ has been judged and condemned as a +drama--unjustly, for the dramatic qualities of a mask are not essential +to it as a species. Yet its history in England remains inseparably +connected with that of the Elizabethan drama. In later times the mask +merged into the opera, or continued a humble life of its own apart from +contact with higher literary effort. It is strange that later English +poets should have done so little to restore to its nobler uses, and to +invest with a new significance, a form so capable of further development +as the poetic mask. + + + The later Elizabethan drama. + +The annals of English drama proper in the period reaching from the +closing years of Elizabeth to the outbreak of the great Revolution +include, together with numerous names relatively insignificant, many +illustrious in the history of our poetic literature. Among Shakespeare's +contemporaries and successors there is, however, but one who by the +energy of his genius, not less than by the circumstances of his literary +career, reached undisputed primacy among his fellows. Ben Jonson, to +whom in his latter days a whole generation of younger writers did filial +homage as to their veteran chief, was alone in full truth the founder of +a school or family of dramatists. Yet his pre-eminence did not (whatever +he or his followers may have thought) extend to both branches of the +regular drama. In tragedy he fell short of the highest success; the +weight of his learning lay too heavily upon his efforts to draw from +deeper sources than those which had sufficed for Shakespeare. Such as +they are, his tragic works[192] stand almost, though not quite, alone in +this period as examples of sustained effort in historic tragedy proper. +G. Chapman treated stirring themes, more especially from modern French +history,[193] always with vigour, and at times with genuine +effectiveness; but, though rich in beauties of detail, he failed in this +branch of the drama to follow Shakespeare even at a distance in the +supreme art of fully developing a character by means of the action. +Mention has been made above of Ford's isolated effort in the direction +of historic tragedy, as well as of excursions into the still popular +domain of the chronicle history by T. Heywood, Dekker and others, which +cannot be regarded as anything more than retrogressions. With the great +body of the English dramatists of this and of the next period, tragedy +had passed into a phase where its interest depended mainly upon plot and +incident. The romantic tragedies and tragi-comedies which crowd English +literature in this period constitute together a growth of at first sight +astonishing exuberance, and in mere externals of theme--ranging as these +plays do from Byzantium to ancient Britain, and from the Caesars of +ancient Rome to the tyrants of the Renaissance--of equally astonishing +variety. The sources from which these subjects were derived had been +perennially augmenting. Besides Italian, Spanish and French fiction, +original or translated, besides British legend in its Romance dress, and +English fiction in its humbler or in its more ambitious and artificial +forms, the contemporary foreign drama, especially the Spanish, offered +opportunities for resort. To the English, as to the French and Italian +drama, of both this and the following century, the prolific dramatists +clustering round Lope de Vega and Calderon, and the native or +naturalized fictions from which they drew their materials supplied a +whole arsenal of plots, incidents and situations--among others to +Middleton, to Webster, and most signally to Beaumont and Fletcher. And, +in addition to these resources, a new field of supply was at hand since +English dramatists had begun to regard events and episodes of domestic +life as fit subjects for tragic treatment. Domestic tragedy of this +description was indeed no novelty on the English stage; Shakespeare +himself may have retouched with his master-hand more than one effort of +this kind;[194] but T. Heywood may be set down as the first who achieved +any work of considerable literary value of this class,[195] to which +some of the plays of T. Dekker, T. Middleton, and others likewise more +or less belong. Yet, in contrast to this wide variety of sources, and +consequent apparent variety of themes, the number of _motives_ +employed--at least as a rule--in the tragic drama of this period was +comparatively small and limited. Hence it is that, notwithstanding the +diversity of subjects among the tragic dramas of such writers as +Marston, Webster, Fletcher, Ford and Shirley, an impression of sameness +is left upon us by a connected perusal of these works. Scheming +ambition, conjugal jealousy, absolute female devotion, unbridled +masculine passion--such are the motives which constantly recur in the +Decameron of our later Elizabethan drama. And this impression is +heightened by the want of moderation, by the extravagance of passion, +which these dramatists so habitually exhibit in the treatment of their +favourite themes. All the tragic poets of this period are not equally +amenable to this charge; in J. Webster,[196] master as he is of the +effects of the horrible, and in J. Ford,[197] surpassingly seductive in +his sweetness, the monotony of exaggerated passion is broken by those +marvellously sudden and subtle touches through which their tragic genius +creates its most thrilling effects. Nor will the tendency to excess of +passion which F. Beaumont and J. Fletcher undoubtedly exhibit be +confounded with their distinctive power of sustaining tenderly pathetic +characters and irresistibly moving situations in a degree unequalled by +any of their contemporaries--a power seconded by a beauty of diction and +softness of versification which for a time raised them to the highest +pinnacle of popular esteem, and which entitles them in their +conjunction, and Fletcher as an independent worker, to an enduring +pre-eminence among their fellows. In their morals Beaumont and Fletcher +are not above the level of their age. The manliness of sentiment and +occasionally greater width of outlook which ennoble the rhetorical +genius of P. Massinger, and the gift of poetic illustration which +entitles J. Shirley to be remembered not merely as the latest and the +most fertile of this group of dramatists, have less direct bearing upon +the general character of the tragic art of the period. The common +features of the romantic tragedy of this age are sufficiently marked; +but they leave unobscured the distinctive features in its individual +writers of which a discerning criticism has been able to take note. + +In comedy, on the other hand, the genius and the insight of Jonson +pointed the way to a steady and legitimate advance. His theory of +"humours" (which found the most palpable expression in two of his +earliest plays[198]), if translated into the ordinary language of +dramatic art, signifies the paramount importance in the comic drama of +the presentation of distinctive human types. As such it survived by name +into the Restoration age[199] and cannot be said to have ever died out. +In the actual reproduction of humanity in its infinite but never, in his +hands, alien variety, it was impossible that Shakespeare should be +excelled by Jonson; but in the consciousness with which he recognized +and indicated the highest sphere of a comic dramatist's labours, he +rendered to the drama a direct service which the greater master had left +unperformed. By the rest of his contemporaries and his successors, some +of whom, such as R. Brome, were content avowedly to follow in his +footsteps, Jonson was only occasionally rivalled in individual instances +of comic creations; in the entirety of its achievements his genius as a +comic dramatist remained unapproached. The favourite types of Jonsonian +comedy, to which Dekker, J. Marston and Chapman had, though to no large +extent, added others of their own, were elaborated with incessant zeal +and remarkable effect by their contemporaries and successors. It was +after a very different fashion from that in which the Roman comedians +reiterated the ordinary types of the New Attic comedy, that the +inexhaustible _verve_ of T. Middleton, the buoyant productivity of +Fletcher, the observant humour of N. Field, and the artistic +versatility of Shirley--not to mention many later and not necessarily +minor names[200]--mirrored in innumerable pictures of contemporary life +the undying follies and foibles of mankind. As comedians of manners more +than one of these surpassed the old master, not indeed in distinctness +and correctness--the fruits of the most painstaking genius that ever +fitted a learned sock to the representation of the living realities of +life--but in a lightness not incompatible with sureness of touch; while +in the construction of plots the access of abundant new materials, and +the greater elasticity in treatment resulting from accumulated +experience, enabled them to advance from success to success. Thus the +comic dramatic literature from Jonson to Shirley is unsurpassed as a +comedy of manners, while as a comedy of character it at least defies +comparison with any other national literary growth preceding or +contemporaneous with it. Though the younger generation, of which W. +Cartwright may be taken as an example, was unequal in originality or +force to its predecessors, yet so little exhausted was the vitality of +the species, that its traditions survived the _interregnum_ of the +Revolution, and connected themselves more closely than is sometimes +assumed with later growths of English comedy. + + + The later academical drama. + +Such was also the case with a special growth which had continued side by +side, but in growing frequency of contact, with the progress of the +national drama. The academical drama of the later Elizabethan period and +of the first two Stuart reigns by no means fell off either in activity +or in variety from that of the preceding generations. At Oxford, after +an apparent break of several years--though in the course of these one or +two new plays, including a _Tancred_ by Sir Henry Wotton at Queen's, +seem to have been produced--a long succession of English plays, some in +Latin doubtless from time to time intervening, were performed, from the +early years of the 17th century onwards to the dark days of the national +theatre and beyond. The production of these plays was distributed among +several colleges, among which the most conspicuously active were Christ +Church and St John's, where a whole series of festal performances took +place under the collective title of _The Christmas Prince_ (i.e. master +of the Christmas revels). They included a wide variety of pieces, from +the treatment by an author unnamed of the story of "Ovid's owne +Narcissus" (1602) and S. Daniel's _Queen's Arcadia_ (1606) to Barten +Holiday's _Technogamia_ (1618), a complicated allegory on the relations +between the arts and sciences quite in the manner of the moralities; +interspersed by romantic dramas of the ordinary contemporary type by T. +Goffe (1591-1629), W. Cartwright, J. Maine (1604-1672) and others. At +Cambridge the list of Latin and English academical plays, performed in +the latter half of Elizabeth's reign at Trinity, St John's, Queen's and +a few other colleges, contains several examples in each language which +for one reason or another possess a special interest. Thus E. Forsett's +_Pedantius_, probably acted at Trinity in 1581, ridicules a personage +who lived very near the rose--the redoubtable Gabriel Harvey;[201] a +_Laelia_, acted at Queen's in 1590 and again in 1598, resembles _Twelfth +Night_ in part of its plot; while in _Silvanus_, performed in 1596, +probably at St John's, there are certain striking similarities to _As +You Like It_. These are in Latin, as are the comedies _Hispanus_ +(containing some curious allusions to the Armada, Drake and Dr Lopez) +and _Machiavellus_, acted at St John's in 1597.[202] By far the most +interesting of the English plays of the later Cambridge series, and, it +may be averred, of the remains of the English academical drama as a +whole, are the Parnassus Plays (q.v.), successively produced at St +John's in 1598-1602, which illustrate with much truthfulness as well as +fancy the relations between university life and the outside world, +including the world of letters and of the stage. Upon a different, but +also a very notable, aspect of English university life--the relations +between town and gown--a partisan light is thrown by _Club-Law_, acted +at Clare in 1599--and in G. Ruggle's celebrated Latin comedy of +_Ignoramus_, twice acted by members of Clare at Trinity in 1615 before +King James I. On one of these occasions were also produced in English T. +Tomkis' comedy _Albumazar_ (a play absurdly attributed to Shakespeare), +and Phineas Fletcher's _Sicelides_, a "piscatory" (i.e. a pastoral drama +in which the place of the shepherds is taken by fishermen). Latin and +English plays continued to be brought out in Cambridge till the year of +the outbreak of the Civil War, T. Randolph and A. Cowley[203] being +among the authors of some of the latest so produced; and with the +Restoration the usage recommenced, the _Adelphi_ of Terence and other +Latin comedies being performed as they had been a century earlier. A +complete survey and classification of the English academical drama, for +which the materials are at last being collected and compared, will prove +of an importance which is only beginning to be recognized to the future +historian of the English drama. + + + The stage. + +To return to the general current of that drama. The rivals against which +it had to contend in the times with which its greatest epoch came to an +end have in their turn been noticed. From the masks and triumphs at +court and at the houses of the nobility, with their Olympuses and +Parnassuses built by Inigo Jones, and filled with goddesses and nymphs +clad in the gorgeous costumes designed by his inventive hand, to the +city pageants and shows by land and water--from the tilts and +tournaments at Whitehall to the more philosophical devices at the Inns +of Court and the academical plays at the universities--down even to the +brief but thrilling theatrical excitements of Bartholomew Fair and the +"Ninevitical motions" of the puppets--in all these ways the various +sections of the theatrical public were tempted aside. Foreign +performers--French and Spanish actors, and even French actresses--paid +visits to London. But the national drama held its ground. The art of +acting maintained itself at least on the level to which it had been +brought by Shakespeare's associates and contemporaries, Burbage and +Heminge, Alleyn, Lewin, Taylor, and others "of the older sort." The +profession of actor came to be more generally than of old separated from +that of playwright, though they were still (as in the case of Field) +occasionally combined. But this rather led to an increased appreciation +of the artistic merit of actors who valued the dignity of their own +profession and whose co-operation the authors learnt to esteem as of +independent significance. The stage was purged from the barbarism of the +old school of clowns. Women's parts were still acted by boys, many of +whom attained to considerable celebrity; and a practice was thus +continued which must assuredly have placed the English theatre at a +considerable disadvantage as compared with the Spanish (where it never +obtained), and which may, while it has been held to have facilitated +freedom of fancy, more certainly encouraged the extreme licence of +expression cherished by the dramatists. The arrangement of the stage, +which facilitated a rapid succession of scenes without any necessity for +their being organically connected with one another, remained essentially +what it had been in Shakespeare's days; though the primitive expedients +for indicating locality had begun to be occasionally exchanged for +scenery more or less appropriate to the place of action. Costume was +apparently cultivated with much greater care; and the English stage of +this period had probably gone a not inconsiderable way in a direction to +which it is obviously in the interests of the dramatic art to set some +bounds, if it is to depend for its popular success upon its qualities as +such, and upon the interpretation of its agents upon the stage. At the +same time, the drama had begun largely to avail itself of adventitious +aids to favour. The system of prologues and epilogues, and of +dedications to published plays, was more uniformly employed than it had +been by Shakespeare as the conventional method of recommending authors +and actors to the favour of individual patrons, and to that of their +chief patron, the public. + + + The drama and Puritanism. + + Closing of the theatres. + +Up to the outbreak of the Civil War the drama in all its forms continued +to enjoy the favour or good-will of the court, although a close +supervision was exercised over all attempts to make the stage the +vehicle of political references or allusions. The regular official agent +of this supervision was the master of the revels; but under James I. a +special ordinance, in harmony with the king's ideas concerning the +dignity of the throne, was passed "against representing any modern +Christian king in plays on the stage." The theatre could hardly expect +to be allowed a liberty of speech in reference to matters of state +denied to the public at large; and occasional attempts to indulge in the +freedom of criticism dear to the spirit of comedy met with more or less +decisive repression and punishment.[204] But the sympathies of the +dramatists were so entirely on the side of the court that the real +difficulties against which the theatre had to contend came from a +directly opposite quarter. With the growth of Puritanism the feeling of +hostility to the stage increased in a large part of the population, well +represented by the civic authorities of the capital. This hostility +found many ways of expressing itself. The attempts to suppress the +Blackfriars theatre (1619, 1631, 1633) proved abortive; but the +representation of stage-plays continued to be prohibited on Sundays, and +during the prevalence of the plague in London in 1637 was temporarily +suspended altogether. The desire of the Puritans of the more pronounced +type openly aimed at a permanent closing of the theatres. The war +between them and the dramatists was accordingly of a life-and-death +kind. On the one hand, the drama heaped its bitterest and often coarsest +attacks upon whatever savoured of the Puritan spirit; gibes, taunts, +caricatures in ridicule and aspersion of Puritans and Puritanism make up +a great part of the comic literature of the later Elizabethan drama and +of its aftergrowth in the reigns of the first two Stuarts. This feeling +of hostility, to which Shakespeare was no stranger,[205] though he +cannot be connected with the authorship of one of its earliest and +coarsest expressions,[206] rose into a spirit of open defiance in some +of the masterpieces of Ben Jonson;[207] and the comedies of his +contemporaries and successors[208] abound in caricatured reproductions +of the more common or more extravagant types of Puritan life. On the +other hand, the moral defects, the looseness of tone, the mockery of +ties sanctioned by law and consecrated by religion, the tendency to +treat middle-class life as the hunting-ground for the diversions of the +upper classes, which degraded so much of the dramatic literature of the +age, intensified the Puritan opposition to all and any stage plays. A +patient endeavour to reform instead of suppressing the drama was not to +be looked for from such adversaries, should they ever possess the means +of carrying out their views; and whenever Puritanism should victoriously +assert itself in the state, the stage was doomed. Among the attacks +directed against it in its careless heyday of prosperity Prynne's +_Histrio-Mastix_ (1632), while it involved its author in shamefully +cruel persecution, did not remain wholly without effect upon the tone of +the dramatic literature of the subsequent period; but the quarrel +between Puritanism and the theatre was too old and too deep to end in +any but one way, so soon as the latter was deprived of its protectors. +The Civil War began in August 1642; and early in the following month was +published the ordinance of the Lords and Commons, which, after a brief +and solemn preamble, commanded "that while these sad causes and +set-times of humiliation do continue, public stage plays shall cease and +be forborne." Many actors and playwrights followed the fortunes of the +royal cause in the field; some may have gone into a more or less +voluntary exile; upon those who lingered on in the familiar haunts the +hand of power lay heavy; and, though there seems reason to believe that +dramatic entertainments of one kind or another continued to be +occasionally presented, stringent ordinances gave summary powers to +magistrates against any players found engaged in such proceedings +(1647), and bade them treat all stage-players as rogues, and pull down +all stage galleries, seats and boxes (1648). A few dramatic works were +published in this period;[209] while at fairs about the country were +acted farces called "drolls," consisting of the most vulgar scenes to be +found in popular plays. Thus, the life of the drama was not absolutely +extinguished; and its darkest day proved briefer than perhaps either its +friends or its foes could have supposed. + + + Revival of the drama. + +Already "in Oliver's time" private performances took place from time to +time at noblemen's houses and (though not undisturbed) in the old haunt +of the drama, the Red Bull. In 1656 the ingenuity of Sir William +Davenant whose name (though not really so significant in the dramatic as +in another field of English literature) is memorable as connecting +together two distinct periods in it, ventured on a bolder step in the +production of a quasi-dramatic entertainment "of declamation and music"; +and in the following year he brought out with scenery and music a piece +which was afterwards in an enlarged form acted and printed as the first +part of his opera, _The Siege of Rhodes_. This entertainment he +afterwards removed from the private house where it had been produced to +the Cockpit, where he soon ventured upon the performance of regular +plays written by himself. Thus, under the cover of two sister arts, +whose aid was in the sequel to prove by no means altogether beneficial +to its progress, the English drama had boldly anticipated the +Restoration, and was no longer hiding its head when that much-desired +event was actually brought about. Soon after Charles II.'s entry into +London, two theatrical companies are known to have been acting in the +capital. For these companies patents were soon granted, under the names +of "the Duke (of York)'s" and "the King's Servants," to Davenant and one +of the brothers Killigrew respectively--the former from 1662 acting at +Lincoln's Inn Fields, then at Dorset Garden in Salisbury Court, the +latter from 1663 at the Theatre Royal near Drury Lane. These companies +were united from 1682, a royal licence being granted in 1695 to a rival +company which performed in Lincoln's Inn Fields, and which migrated to +Covent Garden in 1733. Meanwhile, Vanbrugh had in 1705 built the theatre +in the Haymarket; and a theatre in Goodman's Fields--afterwards rendered +famous by the first appearance of Garrick--led a fitful existence from +1729 to 1733. The act of 1737 deprived the crown of the power of +licensing any more theatres; so that the history of the English stage +for a long period was confined to a restricted area. The rule which +prevailed after the Restoration, that neither of the rival companies +should ever attempt a play produced by the other, operated beneficially +both upon the activity of dramatic authorship and upon the progress of +the art of acting, which was not exposed to the full effects of that +deplorable spirit of personal rivalry which too often leads even most +intelligent actors to attempt parts for which they have no special +qualification. There can be little doubt that the actor's art has rarely +flourished more in England than in the days of T. Betterton and his +contemporaries, among whose names those of Hart, Mohun, Kynaston, Nokes, +Mrs Barry, Mrs Betterton, Mrs Bracegirdle and Mrs Eleanor Gwyn have, +together with many others, survived in various connexions among the +memories of the Restoration age. No higher praise has ever been given to +an actor than that which Addison bestowed upon Betterton, in describing +his performance of _Othello_ as a proof that Shakespeare could not have +written the most striking passages of the character otherwise than he +has done. + + + The Irish stage. + +It may here be noticed that the fortunes of the Irish theatre in general +followed those of the English, of which of course it was merely a +branch. Of native dramatic compositions in earlier times not a trace +remains in Ireland; and the drama was introduced into that country as an +English exotic--apparently already in the reign of Henry VIII., and more +largely in that of Elizabeth. The first theatre in Dublin was built in +1635; but in 1641 it was closed, and even after the Restoration the +Irish stage continued in a precarious condition till near the end of the +century. About that time an extraordinarily strong taste for the theatre +took possession of Irish society, and during the greater part of the +18th century the Dublin stage rivalled the English in the brilliancy of +its stars. Betterton's rival, R. Wilks, Garrick's predecessor in the +homage paid to Shakespeare, Macklin, and his competitor for favour, the +"silver-tongued" Barry, were alike products of the Irish stage, as were +Mrs Woffington and other well-known actresses. Nor should it be +forgotten that three of the foremost English writers of comedy in its +later days, Congreve, Farquhar and Sheridan, were Irish, the first by +education, and the latter two by birth also. + + + The later Stuart drama. + +Already in the period preceding the outbreak of the Civil War the +English drama had perceptibly sunk from the height to which it had been +raised by the great Elizabethans. When it had once more recovered +possession of that arena with which no living drama can dispense, it +would have been futile to demand that the dramatists should return +altogether into the ancient paths, unaffected by the influences, native +or foreign, in operation around them. But there was no reason why the +new drama should not, like the Elizabethan, have been true in spirit to +the higher purposes of the dramatic art, to the nobler tendencies of the +national life, and to the demands of moral law. Because the later Stuart +drama as a whole proved untrue to these, and, while following its own +courses, never more than partially returned from the aberrations to +which it condemned itself, its history is that of a decay which the +indisputable brilliancy, borrowed or original, of many of its +productions is incapable of concealing. + + + Tragedy. + +Owing in part to the influence of the French theatre, which by this time +had taken the place of the Spanish as the ruling drama of Europe, the +separation between tragedy and comedy is clearly marked in +post-Restoration plays. Comic scenes are still occasionally introduced +into tragedies by some dramatists who adhered more closely to the +Elizabethan models (such as Otway and Crowne), but the practice fell +into disuse; while the endeavour to elevate comedy by pathetic scenes +and motives is one of the characteristic marks of the beginning of +another period in English dramatic literature. The successive phases +through which English tragedy passed in the later Stuart times cannot be +always kept distinct from one another; and the guidance offered by the +theories put forth by some of the dramatists in support of their +practice is often delusive. Following the example of Corneille, Dryden +and his contemporaries and successors were fond of proclaiming their +adherence to this or that principle of dramatic construction or form, +and of upholding, with much show of dialectical acumen, maxims derived +by them from French or other sources, or elaborated with modifications +and variations of their own, but usually amounting to little more than +what Scott calls "certain romantic whimsical imitations of the dramatic +art." Students of the drama will find much entertainment and much +instruction in these prefaces, apologies, dialogues and treatises. They +will acknowledge that Dryden's incomparable vigour does not desert him +either in the exposing or in the upholding of fallacies, while _le bon +sens_, which he hardly ever fails to exhibit, and which is a more +eclectic gift than common-sense, serves as a sure guide to the best +intelligence of his age. Even Rymer,[210] usually regarded as having +touched the nadir of dramatic criticism, will be found to be not wholly +without grains of salt. But Restoration tragedy itself must not be +studied by the light of Restoration criticism. So long as any dramatic +power remained in the tragic poets--and it is absent from none of the +chief among them from Dryden to Rowe--the struggle between fashion +(disguised as theory) and instinct (tending in the direction of the +Elizabethan traditions) could never wholly determine itself in favour of +the former. + +Lord Orrery, in deference, as he declares, to the expressed tastes of +his sovereign King Charles II. himself, was the first to set up the +standard of _heroic plays_.[211] This new species of tragedy (for such +it professed to be) commended itself by its novel choice of themes, to a +large extent supplied by recent French romance--the _romans de longue +haleine_ of the Scuderys and their contemporaries--and by French plays +treating similar themes. It likewise borrowed from France that garb of +rhyme which the English drama had so long abandoned, and which now +reappeared in the heroic couplet. But the themes which to readers of +novels might seem of their nature inexhaustible could not long suffice +to satisfy the more capricious appetite of theatrical audiences; and the +form, in the application which it was more or less sought to enforce for +it, was doomed to remain an exotic. In conjunction with his +brother-in-law Sir R. Howard,[212] and afterwards more confidently by +himself,[213] Dryden threw the incomparable vigour and brilliancy of his +genius into the scale, which soon rose to the full height of fashionable +popularity. At first he claimed for English tragedy the right to combine +her native inheritance of freedom with these valuable foreign +acquisitions.[214] Nor was he dismayed by the ridicule which the +celebrated burlesque (by the duke of Buckingham and others) of _The +Rehearsal_ (1671) cast upon heroic plays, without discriminating between +them and such other materials for ridicule as the contemporary drama +supplied to its facetious authors, but returned[215] to the defence of a +species which he was himself in the end to abandon.[216] The desire for +change proved stronger than the love of consistency--which in Dryden was +never more than theoretical. After summoning tragedy to rival the +freedom (without disdaining the machinery) of opera--with whose birth +its own revival was as a matter of fact simultaneous--he came to +recognize in characterization the truest secret of the master-spirit of +the Elizabethan drama,[217] and after audaciously, but in one instance +not altogether unhappily, essaying to rival Shakespeare on his own +ground,[218] produced under the influence of the same views at least one +work of striking merit.[219] But he was already growing weary of the +stage itself as well as of the rhymed heroic drama; and, though he put +an end to the species to which he had given temporary vitality, he +failed effectively to point the way to a more legitimate development of +English tragedy. Among the other tragic poets of this period, N. Lee, in +the outward form of his dramas, accommodated his practice to that of +Dryden, with whom he occasionally co-operated as a dramatist, and like +whom he allowed political partisanship to intrude upon the stage.[220] +His rhetorical genius was not devoid of genuine energy, nor is he to be +regarded as a mere imitator. T. Otway, the most gifted tragic poet of +the younger generation contemporary with Dryden, inherited something of +the spirit of the Elizabethan drama; he possessed a real gift of tragic +pathos and melting tenderness; but his genius had a worse alloy than +stageyness, and, though he was often happy in his novel choice of +themes, his most successful efforts fail to satisfy tests supplementary +to that of the stage.[221] Among dramatists who contributed to the vogue +of the "heroic" play may be mentioned J. Bankes, J. Weston, C. Hopkins, +E. Cooke, R. Gould, S. Pordage, T. Rymer and Elkanah Settle. The +productivity of J. Crowne (d. c. 1703)[222] covers part of the earlier +period as well as of the later, to which properly belong T. Southerne, a +writer gifted with much pathetic power, but probably chiefly indebted +for his long-lived popularity to his skill in the discovery of +"sensational" plots; and Lord Lansdowne ("Granville the polite") (c. +1667-1735). Congreve, by virtue of a single long celebrated but not +really remarkable tragedy,[223] and N. Rowe, may be further singled out +from the list of the tragic dramatists of this period, many of whom +were, like their comic contemporaries, mere translators or adapters from +the French. The tragedies of Rowe, whose direct services to the study of +Shakespeare deserve remembrance, indicate with singular distinctness the +transition from the fuller declamatory style of Dryden to the calmer and +thinner manner of Addison.[224] In tragedy (as to a more marked degree +in comedy) the excesses (both of style and subject) of the past period +of the English drama had produced an inevitable reaction; decorum was +asserting its claims on the stage as in society; and French tragedy had +set the example of sacrificing what passion--and what vigour--it +retained in favour of qualities more acceptable to the "reformed" court +of Louis XIV. Addison, in allowing his _Cato_ to take its chance upon +the stage, when a moment of political excitement (April 1713) ensured to +it an extraordinary success, to which no feature in it corresponds, +except an unusual number of lines predestined to become familiar +quotations, unconsciously sealed the doom of English national tragedy. +The "first reasonable English tragedy," as Voltaire called it, had been +produced, and the oscillations of the tragic drama of the Restoration +were at an end. + + + Comedy. + +English comedy in this period displayed no similar desire to cut itself +off from the native soil, though it freely borrowed the materials for +its plots and many of its figures from Spanish, and afterwards more +generally from French, originals. The spirit of the old romantic comedy +had long since fled; the graceful artificialities of the pastoral drama, +even the light texture of the mask, ill suited the demands of an age +which made no secret to itself of the grossness of its sensuality. With +a few unimportant exceptions, such poetic elements as admitted of being +combined with the poetic drama were absorbed by the opera and the +ballet. No new species of the comic drama formed itself, though towards +the close of the period may be noticed the beginnings of modern English +farce. Political and religious partisanship, generally in accordance +with the dominant reaction against Puritanism, were allowed to find +expression in the directest and coarsest forms upon the stage, and to +hasten the necessity for a more systematic control than even the times +before the Revolution had found requisite. At the same time the +unblushing indecency which the Restoration had spread through court and +capital had established its dominion over the comic stage, corrupting +the manners, and with them the morals, of its dramatists, and forbidding +them, at the risk of seeming dull, to be anything but improper. Much of +this found its way even into the epilogues, which, together with the +prologues, proved so important an adjunct of the Restoration drama. +These influences determine the general character of what is with a more +than chronological meaning termed the comedy of the Restoration. In +construction, the national love of fulness and solidity of dramatic +treatment induced its authors to alter what they borrowed from foreign +sources, adding to complicated Spanish plots characters of native +English directness, and supplementing single French plots by the +addition of others.[225] At the same time, the higher efforts of French +comedy of character, as well as the refinement of expression in the list +of their models, notably in Moliere, were alike seasoned to suit the +coarser appetites and grosser palates of English patrons. The English +comic writers often succeeded in strengthening the borrowed texture of +their plays, but they never added comic humour without at the same time +adding coarseness of their own. Such were the productions of Sir George +Etheredge, Sir Charles Sedley, and the "mob of gentlemen who wrote with +ease"; nor was there any signal difference between their productions and +those of a playwright-actor such as J. Lacy (d. 1681), and a +professional dramatist of undoubted ability such as J. Crowne. Such, +though often displaying the brilliancy of a genius which even where it +sank could never wholly abandon its prerogative, were, it must be +confessed, the comedies of Dryden himself. On the other hand, the lowest +literary deeps of the Restoration drama were sounded by T. D'Urfey, +while of its moral degradation the "divine Astraea," the "unspeakable" +Mrs Aphra Behn, has an indefeasible title to be considered the most +faithful representative. T. Shadwell, fated, like the tragic poet +Elkanah Settle, to be chiefly remembered as a victim of Dryden's satire, +deserves more honourable mention. Like J. Wilson, whose plays seem to +class him with the pre-Restoration dramatists, Shadwell had caught +something not only of the art, but also of the spirit, of Ben Jonson; +but in most of his works he was, like the rest of his earlier +contemporaries, and like the brilliant group which succeeded them, +content to take his moral tone from the reckless society for which, or +in deference to the tastes of which, he wrote.[226] The absence of a +moral sense, which, together with a grossness of expression often +defying exaggeration, characterizes English comic dramatists from the +days of Dryden to those of Congreve, is the main cause of their failure +to satisfy the demands which are legitimately to be made upon their art. +They essayed to draw character as well as to paint manners, but they +rarely proved equal to the former and higher task; and, while choosing +the means which most readily commended their plays to the favour of +their immediate public, they achieved but little as interpreters of +those essential distinctions which their art is capable of +illustrating.[227] Within these limits, though occasionally passing +beyond them, and always with the same deference to the immoral tone +which seemed to have become an indispensable adjunct of the comic style, +even the greatest comic authors of this age moved. W. Wycherley was a +comic dramatist of real power, who drew his characters with vigour and +distinctness, and constructed his plots and chose his language with +natural ease. He lacks gaiety of spirit, and his wit is of a cynical +turn. But, while he ruthlessly uncloaks the vices of his age, his own +moral tone is affected by their influence in as marked a degree as that +of the most light-hearted of his contemporaries.[228] The most brilliant +of these was indisputably W. Congreve, who is not only one of the very +wittiest of English writers, but equally excels in the graceful ease of +his dialogue, and draws his characters and constructs his plots with the +same masterly skill. His chief fault as a dramatist is one of +excess--the brilliancy of the dialogue, whoever be the speaker, +overpowers the distinction between the "humours" of his personages. +Though he is less brutal in expression than "manly" Wycherley, and less +coarse than the lively Sir J. Vanbrugh, licentiousness in him as in them +corrupts the spirit of his comic art; but of his best though not most +successful play[229] it must be allowed that the issue of the main plot +is on the side of virtue. G. Farquhar, whose morality is on a par with +that of the other members of this group, is inferior to them in +brilliancy; but as pictures of manners in a wider sphere of life than +that which contemporary comedy usually chose to illustrate, two of his +plays deserve to be noticed, in which we already seem to be entering the +atmosphere of the 18th-century novel.[230] His influence upon Lessing is +a remarkable fact in the international history of dramatic literature. + + + Sentimental comedy. + +The improvement which now begins to manifest itself in the moral tone +and spirit of English comedy is partly due to the reaction against the +reaction of the Restoration, partly to the punishment which the excesses +of the comic stage had brought upon it in the invective of Jeremy +Collier[231] (1698), of all the assaults the theatre in England has had +to undergo the best-founded, and that which produced the most +perceptible results. The comic poets, who had always been more or less +conscious of their sins, and had at all events not defended them by the +ingenious sophistries which it has pleased later literary criticism to +suggest on their behalf, now began with uneasy merriment to allude in +their prologues to the reformation which had come over the spirit of the +town. Writers like Mrs Centlivre became anxious to reclaim their +offenders with much emphasis in the fifth act; and Colley Cibber--whose +_Apology for his Life_ furnishes a useful view of this and the +subsequent period of the history of the stage, with which he was +connected as author, manager and actor (excelling in this capacity as +representative of those fools with which he peopled the comic +stage)[232]--may be credited with having first deliberately made the +pathetic treatment of a moral sentiment the basis of the action of a +comic drama. But he cannot be said to have consistently pursued the vein +which in his _Careless Husband_ (1704) he had essayed. His _Non-Juror_ +is a political adaptation of _Tartuffe_; and his almost equally +celebrated _Provoked Husband_ only supplied a happy ending to Vanbrugh's +unfinished play. Sir R. Steele, in accordance with his general +tendencies as a writer, pursued a still more definite moral purpose in +his comedies; but his genius perhaps lacked the sustained vigour +necessary for a dramatist, and his humour naturally sought the aid of +pathos. From partial[233] he passed to more complete[234] experiment; +and thus these two writers, who transplanted to the comic stage a +tendency towards the treatment of domestic themes noticeable in such +writers of Restoration tragedy as Southerne and Rowe, became the +founders of _sentimental comedy_, a species which exercised a most +depressing influence upon the progress of English drama, and helped to +hasten the decline of its comic branch. With _Cato_ English tragedy +committed suicide, though its pale ghost survived; with _The Conscious +Lovers_ English comedy sank for long into the tearful embraces of +artificiality and weakness. + + + The drama and stage in the period before Garrick. + + Garrick. + +During the 18th century the productions of dramatic literature were +still as a rule legitimately designed to meet the demands of the stage, +from which its higher efforts afterwards to so large an extent became +dissociated. The goodwill of most sections of the public continued to be +steadily accorded to a theatre which had ceased to defy the accepted +laws and traditions of morality; and the opposition still aroused by it +was confined to a small minority of thinkers, though these included some +who were far from being puritans. John Dennis was not thought to have +the worst of the controversy, when he defended the stage against the +attack of an opponent far above him in stature--the great mystic William +Law[235]--and to John Wesley himself it seemed that "a great deal more +might be said in defence of seeing a serious tragedy" than of taking +part in the amusements of bear-baiting and cock-fighting. On the other +hand, the demands of the stage and those of its patrons and of the +public of the "Augustan" age, and of that which succeeded it, were, in +general, fast bound by the trammels of a taste with which a revival of +the poetic drama long remained irreconcilable. There is every reason to +conclude that the art of acting progressed in the same direction of +artificiality, and became stereotyped in forms corresponding to the +"chant" which represented tragic declamation in a series of actors +ending with Quin and Macklin. In the latter must be recognized features +of a precursor, but it was reserved to the genius of Garrick, whose +theatrical career extended from 1741 to 1776, to open a new era in his +art. His unparalleled success was due in the first instance to his +incomparable natural gifts; yet these were indisputably enhanced by a +careful and continued literary training, and ennobled by a purpose +which prompted him to essay the noblest, as he was capable of performing +the most various, range of English theatrical characters. By devoting +himself as actor and manager with special zeal to the production of +Shakespeare, Garrick permanently popularized on the national stage the +greatest creations of English drama, and indirectly helped to seal the +doom of what survived of the tendency to maintain in the most ambitious +walks of dramatic literature the nerveless traditions of the +pseudo-classical school. A generation of celebrated actors and +actresses, many of whom live for us in the drastic epigrams of +Churchill's _Rosciad_ (1761), were his helpmates or his rivals; but +their fame has paled, while his is destined to endure as that of one of +the typical masters of his art. + + + Decline of tragedy. + +The contrast between the tragedy of the 18th century and those plays of +Shakespeare and one or two other Elizabethans which already before +Garrick were known to the English stage, was weakened by the mutilated +form in which the old masterpieces generally, if not always, made their +appearance there. Even so, however, there are perhaps few instances in +theatrical history in which so unequal a competition was so long +sustained. In the hands of the tragic poets of the age of Pope, as well +as that of Johnson, tragedy had hopelessly stiffened into the forms of +its accepted French models. Direct reproductions of these continued, as +in Ambrose Philips's and Charles Johnson's (1679-1748) translations from +Racine, and Aaron Hill's from Voltaire. Among other tragic dramatists of +the earlier part of the century may be mentioned J. Hughes, who, after +assisting Addison in his _Cato_, produced at least one praiseworthy +tragedy of his own;[236] E. Fenton, a joint translator of "Pope's +_Homer_" and the author of one extremely successful drama on a theme of +singularly enduring interest,[237] and L. Theobald the first hero of the +_Dunciad_, who, besides translations of Greek dramas, produced a few +more or less original plays, one of which he was daring enough to father +upon Shakespeare.[238] A more distinguished name is that of J. Thomson, +whose unlucky _Sophonisba_ and subsequent tragedies are, however, barely +remembered by the side of his poems (_The Seasons_, &c.). The literary +genius of E. Young, on the other hand, possessed vigour and variety +enough to distinguish his tragedies from the ordinary level of Augustan +plays; in one of them he seems to challenge comparison in the treatment +of his theme with a very different rival,[239] but by his main +characteristics as a dramatist he belongs to the school of his +contemporaries. The endeavour of G. Lillo, in his _London Merchant, or +George Barnwell_ (1731), to bring the tragic lessons of terror and pity +directly home to his fellow-citizens exercised an extraordinarily +widespread as well as enduring effect on the history of the 18th-century +drama. At home, they gave birth to the new, or, more properly speaking, +to the revived, species of domestic tragedy, which connects itself more +or less closely with a notable epoch in the history of English +prose-fiction as well as of English painting. Abroad, this play--whose +success was of the kind which nothing can kill--supplied the text to the +teachings of Diderot, as well as an example to his own dramatic +attempts; and through Diderot the impulse communicated itself to +Lessing, and long exercised a great effect upon the literature of the +German stage. At the same time, it must be allowed that Lillo's +pedestrian muse failed in the end to satisfy higher artistic demands +than those met in his most popular play, while in another[240] she was +less consciously guilty of an aberration towards that "tragedy of +destiny," which, in the modern drama at least, obscures the ethical +character of all tragic actions. "Classical" tragedy in the generation +of Dr Johnson pursued the even tenor of its way, the dictator himself +treading with solemn footfall in the accustomed path,[241] and W. Mason +making the futile attempt to produce a close imitation of Greek +models.[242] The best-remembered tragedy of the century, Home's +_Douglas_ (1757), was the production of an author whose famous kinsman, +David Hume (though no friend of the contemporary English stage), had +advised him "to read Shakespeare, but to get Racine and Voltaire by +heart." The indisputable merits of the play cannot blind us to the fact +that _Douglas_ is the offspring of _Merope_. + + + English opera. + +While thus no high creative talent arose to revive the poetic genius of +English tragedy, comedy, which had to contend against the same rivals, +naturally met the demands of the conflict with greater buoyancy. The +history of the most formidable of those rivals, Music, forms no part of +this sketch; but the points of contact between its progress and the +history of dramatic literature cannot be altogether left out of sight. +H. Purcell's endeavours to unite English music to the words of English +poets were now a thing of the past; analogous attempts in the direction +of musical dialogue, which have been insufficiently noticed, had +likewise proved transitory; and the isolated efforts of Addison[243] and +others to recover the operatic stage for the native tongue had proved +powerless. Italian texts, which had first made their entrance piecemeal, +in the end asserted themselves in their entirety; and the marvellously +assimilative genius of Handel completed the triumphs of a form of art +which no longer had any connexion with the English drama, and which +reached the height of its fashionable popularity about the time when +Garrick began to adorn the national stage. In one form, however, the +English opera was preserved as a pleasing species of the popular drama. +The pastoral drama had (in 1725) produced an isolated aftergrowth in +Allan Ramsay's _Gentle Shepherd_, which, with genuine freshness and +humour, but without a trace of burlesque, transferred to the scenery of +the Pentland Hills the lovely tale of Florizel and Perdita. The dramatic +form of this poem is only an accident, but it doubtless suggested an +experiment of a different kind to the most playful of London wits. Gay's +"Newgate Pastoral" of _The Beggar's Opera_ (1728), in which the amusing +text of a burlesque farce was interspersed with songs set to popular +airs, caught the fancy of the town by this novel combination, and became +the ancestor of a series of agreeable productions, none of which, +however, not even its own continuation, _Polly_ (amazingly successful in +book form, after its production was forbidden by the lord chamberlain), +have ever rivalled it in success or celebrity. Among these may be +mentioned the pieces of I. Bickerstaffe[244] and C. Dibdin.[245] The +opera in England, as elsewhere, thus absorbed what vitality remained to +the pastoral drama, while to the ballet and the pantomime (whose glories +in England began at Covent Garden in 1733, and to whose popularity even +Garrick was obliged to defer) was left (in the 18th century at all +events) the inheritance of the external attractions of the mask and the +pageant. + + + Comedy. Burlesque. + + The Licensing Act. + +In the face of such various rivalries it is not strange that comedy, +instead of adhering to the narrow path which Steele and others had +marked out for her, should have permitted herself some vagaries of her +own. Gay's example pointed the way to a fatally facile form of the comic +art; and burlesque began to contribute its influence to the decline of +comedy. In an age when party-government was severely straining the +capabilities of its system, dramatic satire had not far to look for a +source of effective seasonings. The audacity of H. Fielding, whose +regular comedies (original or adapted) have secured no enduring +remembrance, but whose love of parody was afterwards to suggest to him +the theme of the first of the novels which have made his name immortal, +accordingly ventured in two extravaganzas[246] (so we should call them +in these days) upon a larger admixture of political with literary and +other satire. A third attempt[247] (which never reached the stage) +furnished the offended minister, Sir Robert Walpole, with the desired +occasion for placing a curb upon the licence of the theatre, such as +had already been advocated by a representative of its old civic +adversaries. The famous act of 1737 asserted no new principle, but +converted into legal power the customary authority hither exercised by +the lord chamberlain (to whom it had descended from the master of the +revels). The regular censorship which this act established has not +appreciably affected the literary progress of the English drama, and the +objections which have been raised against it seem to have addressed +themselves to practice rather than to principle. The liberty of the +stage is a question differing in its conditions from that of the liberty +of speech in general, or even from that of the liberty of the press; and +occasional lapses of official judgment weigh lightly in the balance +against the obvious advantages of a system which in a free country needs +only the vigilance of public opinion to prevent its abuse. The policy of +the restraint which the act of 1737 put upon the number of playhouses is +a different, but has long become an obsolete, question.[248] + + + Comedy in the latter half of the 18th century. + +Brought back into its accustomed grooves, English comedy seemed inclined +to leave to farce the domain of healthy ridicule, and to coalesce with +domestic tragedy in the attempt to make the stage a vehicle of homespun +didactic morality. Farce had now become a genuine English species, and +has as such retained its vitality through all the subsequent fortunes of +the stage; it was actively cultivated by Garrick as both actor and +author; and he undoubtedly had more than a hand in the very best farce +of this age, which is ascribed to clerical authorship.[249] S. Foote, +whose comedies[250] and farces are distinguished both by wit and by +variety of characters (though it was an absurd misapplication of a great +name to call him the English Aristophanes), introduced into comic acting +the abuse of personal mimicry, for the exhibition of which he +ingeniously invented a series of entertainments, the parents of a long +progeny of imitations. Meanwhile, the domestic drama of the sentimental +kind achieved, though not immediately, a success only inferior to that +of _The London Merchant_, in _The Gamester_ of E. Moore, to which +Garrick seems to have directly contributed;[251] and sentimental comedy +courted sympathetic applause in the works of A. Murphy, the single +comedy of W. Whitehead,[252] and the earliest of H. Kelly.[153] It +cannot be said that this species was extinguished, as it is sometimes +assumed to have been, by O. Goldsmith; but he certainly published a +direct protest against it between the production of his admirable +character-comedy of _The Good-Natured Man_, and his delightfully brisk +and fresh _She Stoops to Conquer_, which, after startling critical +propriety from its self-conceit, taught comedy no longer to fear being +true to herself. The most successful efforts of the elder G. Colman[254] +had in them something of the spirit of genuine comedy, besides a finish +which, however playwrights may shut their eyes to the fact, is one of +the qualities which ensure a long life to a play. And in the +masterpieces of R. B. Sheridan some of the happiest features of the +comedy of Congreve were revived, together with its too uniform +brilliancy of dialogue, but without its indecency of tone. The varnish +of the age is indeed upon the style, and the hollowness of its morality +in much of the sentiment (even where that sentiment is meant for the +audience) of _The Rivals_ and _The School for Scandal_; but in tact of +construction, in distinctness of characters, and in pungency of social +satire, they are to be ranked among the glories of English comedy. +Something in Sheridan's style, but quite without his brilliancy, is the +most successful play[255] of the unfortunate General Burgoyne. R. +Cumberland, who too consciously endeavoured to excel both in sentimental +morality and in comic characterization, in which he was devoid of depth, +closes the list of authors of higher pretensions who wrote for the +theatre.[256] Like him, Mrs Cowley[257] ("Anna Matilda"), T. +Holcroft,[258] and G. Colman the younger,[259] all writers of popular +comedies, as well as the prolific J. O'Keefe (1746-1833), who +contributed to nearly every species of the comic drama, survived into +the 19th century. To an earlier date belong the favourite burlesques of +O'Keefe's countryman K. O'Hara[260] (d. 1782), good examples of a +species the further history of which may be left aside. In the hands of +at least one later writer, J. R. Planche, it proved capable of +satisfying a more refined taste than his successors have habitually +consulted. + + + The English drama of the 19th century. + +The decline of dramatic composition of the higher class, perceptible in +the history of the English theatre about the beginning of the 19th +century, was justly attributed by Sir Walter Scott to the wearing out of +the French model that had been so long wrought upon; but when he +asserted that the new impulse which was sought in the dramatic +literature of Germany was derived from some of its worst, instead of +from its noblest, productions--from Kotzebue rather than from Lessing, +Schiller and Goethe--he showed a very imperfect acquaintance with a +complicated literary movement which was obliquely reflected in the +stage-plays of Iffland and his contemporaries. The change which was +coming over English literature was in truth of a wider and deeper nature +than it was possible for even one of its chief representatives to +perceive. As that literature freed itself from the fetters so long worn +by it as indispensable ornaments, and threw aside the veil which had so +long obscured both the full glory of its past and the lofty capabilities +of its future, it could not resort except tentatively to a form which +like the dramatic is bound by a hundred bonds to the life of the age +itself. Soon, the poems with which Scott and Byron, and the unrivalled +prose fictions with which Scott, both satisfied and stimulated the +imaginative demands of the public, diverted the attention of the +cultivated classes from dramatic literature, which was unable to escape, +with the light foot of verse or prose fiction, into "the new, the +romantic land." New themes, new ideas, new forms occupied a new +generation of writers and readers; nor did the drama readily lend itself +as a vessel into which to pour so many fermenting elements. In Byron the +impressions produced upon a mind not less open to impulses from without +than subjective in its way of recasting them, called forth a series of +dramatic attempts betraying a more or less wilful ignorance of the +demands of dramatic compositions; his beautiful _Manfred_, partly +suggested by Goethe's _Faust_, and his powerful _Cain_, have but the +form of plays; his tragedies on Italian historical subjects show some +resemblance in their political rhetoric to the contemporary works of +Alfieri; his _Sardanapalus_, autobiographically interesting, fails to +meet the demands of the stage; his _Werner_ (of which the authorship has +been ascribed to the duchess of Devonshire) is a hastily dramatized +sensation novel. To Coleridge (1772-1834), who gave to English +literature a splendidly loose translation of Schiller's _Wallenstein_, +the same poet's _Robbers_ (to which Wordsworth's only dramatic attempt, +the _Borderers_, is likewise indebted) had probably suggested the +subject of his tragedy of _Osorio_, afterwards acted under the title of +_Remorse_. Far superior to this is his later drama of _Zapolya_, a +genuine homage to Shakespeare, out of the themes of two of whose plays +it is gracefully woven. Scott, who in his earlier days had translated +Goethe's _Gutz von Berlichingen_, gained no reputation by his own +dramatic compositions. W. S. Landor, apart from those _Imaginary +Conversations_ upon which he best loved to expend powers of observation +and characterization such as have been given to few playwrights, cast +in a formally dramatic mould studies of character of which the value is +far from being confined to their wealth in beauties of detail. Of these +the magnificent, but in construction altogether undramatic, _Count +Julian_, is the most noteworthy. Shelley's _The Cenci_, on the other +hand, is not only a poem of great beauty, but a drama of true power, +abnormally revolting indeed in theme, but singularly pure and delicate +in treatment. A humbler niche in the temple of dramatic literature +belongs to some of the plays of C. R. Maturin,[261] Sir T. N. +Talfourd,[262] and Dean Milman.[263] + +Divorced, except for passing moments, from the stage, English dramatic +literature could during much the greater part of the 19th century hardly +be regarded as a connected national growth; though, already in the last +decades of the Victorian age, the revival of public interest in the +theatre co-operated with a gradual change in poetic taste to awaken the +hope of a future living reunion. Among English poets who lived in this +period, Sir Henry Taylor probably approached nearest to the objective +treatment and the amplitude of style characteristic of the Elizabethan +drama.[264] R. H. Horne, long an almost solitary survivor of the +romantic school, was able in at least one memorable dramatic attempt to +revive something of the early Elizabethan spirit.[265] Of the chief +poets of the age, Tennyson only in his later years addressed himself to +a form of composition little suited to his genius, though the very fact +of the homage paid by him to the national forms of the historic drama +and of romantic comedy could not fail to ennoble the contemporary +stage.[266] Matthew Arnold's stately revival of the traditions of +classical tragedy proper, on the other hand, deliberately excluded +itself from any such contact;[267] while Longfellow's refined literary +culture and graceful facility of form made ready use of a quasi-dramatic +medieval vesture.[268] William Morris's single "morality," too, cannot +be regarded as a contribution to dramatic literature proper.[269] Of +very different importance are the excursions into dramatic composition +of Robert Browning, whose place in the living inheritance of the English +drama has in one instance at least been not unsuccessfully vindicated by +a later age, and some of whose greatest gifts are beyond a doubt +displayed in his dramatic work;[270] and the sustained endeavours of A. +C. Swinburne, after adding a flower of exquisite beauty to the wreath +which the lovers of the Attic muse have laid at her feet, to enrich the +national historic drama by a trilogy instinct with the ardent eloquence +of passion.[271] Until a date too near the times in which we live to +admit of its being fixed with precision, most of the English writers who +sought to preserve a connexion between their dramatic productions and +the demands of the stage addressed themselves to the theatrical rather +than the literary public--for the distinction, in those times at all +events, was by no means without a difference. The modestly simple and +judiciously concentrated efforts of Joanna Baillie deserve a respectful +remembrance in the records of literature as well as of the stage, though +the day has passed when the theory which suggested her _Plays on the +Passions_ could find acceptance among critics, or her exemplifications +of it satisfy the demands of playgoers. Sheridan Knowles, on the other +hand, composed his conventional semblances of genuine tragedy and comedy +with a thorough knowledge of stage effect, and some of them can hardly +yet be said to have vanished from the stage.[272] The first Lord Lytton, +though his plays were for the most part of a lighter texture, showed +even more artificiality of sentiment in their conception and execution; +but the romantic touch which he imparted to at least one of them +accounts for its long-lived popularity. Among later Victorian +playwrights T. W. Robertson brought back a breath of naturalness into +the acted comic drama; Tom Taylor, rivalling Lope in fertility, made +little pretence to original invention, but adapted with an instinct that +rarely failed him, and materially helped to keep the theatrical +diversions of his age sound and pure; an endeavour in which he had the +co-operation of Charles Reade and that of most of those who competed +with them for the favour of generations of playgoers more easily +contented than their successors. The one deplorable aspect of this age +of the English drama was to be found neither in the sphere of tragedy +nor in that of comedy--nor even in that of farce. It was presented in +the low depths of contemporary burlesque, which had degenerated from the +graceful extravaganza of J. R. Planche into witless and tasteless +emptiness. + +Curiously enough, it was at this point that something like real +originality--discovering a new sub-species of its own--first began, with +the aid of a sister-art, to renovate the English popular comic stage. At +the beginning of the 19th century the greatest tragic actress of the +English theatre, Mrs Siddons, had passed her prime; and before its +second decade had closed, not only she (1812) but her brother John +Kemble (1817), the representative of a grand style of acting which later +generations might conceivably find overpowering, had withdrawn from the +boards. Mrs Siddons was soon followed into retirement by her successor +Miss O'Neill (1819); while Kemble's brilliant later rival, Edmund Kean, +an actor the intuitions of whose genius seem to have supplied, so far as +intuition ever can supply, the absence of a consecutive self-culture, +remained on the stage till his death in 1833. Young, Macready, and +others handed down some of the traditions of the older school of acting +to the very few artists who remained to suggest its semblance to a later +generation. Even these--among them S. Phelps, whose special merit it was +to present to a later age, accustomed to elaborate theatrical +environments, dramatic masterpieces as dependent upon themselves and +adequate interpretation; and the foremost English actress of the earlier +Victorian age, Helen Faucit (Lady Martin)--were unable to leave a school +of acting behind them. Still less was this possible to Charles Kean the +younger, with whom the decorative production of Shakespearian plays +really had its beginning; or even to Sir Henry Irving, an actor of +genius, but also an irrepressible and almost eccentric theatrical +personality, whose great service to the English drama was his faith in +its masterpieces. The comic stage was fortunate in an ampler +aftergrowth, from generation to generation, of the successors of the old +actors who live for us all in the reminiscences of Charles Lamb; nor +were the links suddenly snapped which bound the humours of the present +to those of the past. In the first decade of the 20th century a +generation still survived which could recall, with many other similar +joys, the brilliant levity of Charles Mathews the younger; the not less +irresistible stolidity of J. B. Buckstone; the solemn fooling of H. +Compton (1805-1877); the subtle humours of J. L. Toole, and the frolic +charm of Marie Wilton (Lady Bancroft), the most original comic actress +of her time. (A. W. W.) + +_Recent English Drama._--In England the whole mechanism of theatrical +life had undergone a radical change in the middle decades of the 19th +century. At the root of this change lay the immense growth of population +and the enormously increased facilities of communication between London +and the provinces. Similar causes came into operation, of course, in +France, Germany and Austria, but were much less distinctly felt, because +the numerous and important subventioned theatres of these countries +remained more or less unaffected by economic influences. Free trade in +theatricals (subject only to certain licensing regulations and to a +court censorship of new plays) was established in England by an act of +1843, which abolished the long moribund monopoly of the "legitimate +drama" claimed by the "Patent Theatres" of Drury Lane and Covent Garden. +The drama was thus formally subjected to the operation of the law of +supply and demand, like any other article of commerce, and managers were +left, unaided and unhampered by any subvention or privilege, to cater to +the tastes of a huge and growing community. Theatres very soon +multiplied, competition grew ever keener, and the long run, with its +accompaniments of ostentatious decoration and lavish advertisement, +became the one object of managerial effort. This process of evolution +may be said to have begun in the second quarter of the 19th century and +completed itself in the 3rd. The system which obtains to-day, almost +unforeseen in 1825, was in full operation in 1875. The repertory +theatre, with its constant changes of programme, maintained on the +continent partly by subventions, partly by the mere force of artistic +tradition, had become in England a faint and far-off memory. There was +not a single theatre in London at which plays, old and new, were not +selected and mounted solely with a view to their continuous performance +for as many nights as possible, anything short of fifty nights +constituting an ignominious and probably ruinous failure. It was found, +too, that those theatres were most successful which were devoted +exclusively to exploiting the talent of an individual actor. Thus when +the fourth quarter of the century opened, the long "run" and the +actor-manager were in firm possession of the field. + +The outlook was in many ways far from encouraging. It was not quite so +black, indeed, as it had been in the late 'fifties and early 'sixties, +when the "legitimate" enterprises of Phelps at Sadler's Wells and +Charles Kean at the Princess's had failed to hold their ground, and when +modern comedy and drama were represented almost exclusively by +adaptations from the French. There had been a slight stirring of +originality in the series of comedies produced by T. W. Robertson at the +Prince of Wales's theatre, where, under the management of Bancroft +(q.v.) a new school of mounting and acting, minutely faithful (in theory +at any rate) to everyday reality, had come into existence. But the hopes +of a revival of English comedy seemed to have died with Robertson's +death. One of his followers, James Albery, possessed both imagination +and wit, but had not the strength of character to do justice to his +talent, and sank into a mere adapter. In the plays of another disciple, +H. J. Byron, the Robertsonian or "cup-and-saucer" school declined upon +sheer inanity. Of the numerous plays signed by Tom Taylor some were +original in substance, but all were cast in the machine-made French +mould. Wilkie Collins, in dramatizing some of his novels, produced +somewhat crude anticipations of the modern "problem play." The literary +talent of W. S. Gilbert displayed itself in a group of comedies both in +verse and prose; but Gilbert saw life from too peculiar an angle to +represent it otherwise than fantastically. The Robertsonian impulse +seemed to have died utterly away, leaving behind it only five or six +very insubstantial comedies and a subdued, unrhetorical method in +acting. This method the Bancrofts proceeded to apply, during the +'seventies, to revivals of stage classics, such as _The School for +Scandal_, _Money_ and _Masks and Faces_, and to adaptations from the +French of Sardou. + +While the modern drama appeared to have relapsed into a comatose +condition, poetic and romantic drama was giving some signs of life. At +the Lyceum in 1871 Henry Irving had leapt into fame by means of his +performance of Mathias in _The Bells_, an adaptation from the French of +Erckmann-Chatrian. He followed this up by an admirably picturesque +performance of the title-part in _Charles I._ by W. G. Wills. In the +autumn of 1874 the great success of Irving's Hamlet was hailed as the +prelude to a revival of tragic acting. As a matter of fact, it was the +prelude to a long series of remarkable achievements in romantic drama +and melodrama. Irving's lack of physical and vocal resources prevented +him from scaling the heights of tragedy, and his Othello, Macbeth, and +Lear could not be ranked among his successes; but he was admirable in +such parts as Richard III., Shylock, Iago and Wolsey, while in +melodramatic parts, such as Louis XI. and the hero and villain of _The +Lyons Mail_, he was unsurpassed. Mephistopheles in a version of _Faust_ +(1885), perhaps the greatest popular success of his career, added +nothing to his reputation for artistic intelligence; but on the other +hand his Becket in Tennyson's play of that name (1893) was one of his +most masterly efforts. His management of the Lyceum (1878-1899) did so +much to raise the status of the actor and to restore the prestige of +poetic drama, that the knighthood conferred upon him in 1895 was felt to +be no more than an appropriate recognition of his services. But his +managerial career had scarcely any significance for the living English +drama. He seldom experimented with a new play, and, of the few which he +did produce, only _The Cup_ and _Becket_ by Lord Tennyson have the +remotest chance of being remembered. + +To trace the history of the new English drama, then, we must go back to +the Prince of Wales's theatre. Even while it seemed that French comedy +of the school of Scribe was resuming its baneful predominance, the seeds +of a new order of things were slowly germinating. _Diplomacy_, an +adaptation of Sardou's _Dora_, produced in 1878, brought together on the +Prince of Wales's stage Mr and Mrs Bancroft, Mr and Mrs Kendal, John +Clayton and Arthur Cecil--in other words, the future managers of the +Haymarket, the St James's and the Court theatres, which were destined to +see the first real stirrings of a literary revival. Mr and Mrs Kendal, +who, in conjunction with John Hare, managed the St James's theatre from +1879 to 1888, produced A. W. Pinero's first play of any consequence, +_The Money-Spinner_ (1881), and afterwards _The Squire_ (1882) and _The +Hobby Horse_ (1887). The Bancrofts, who, after entirely rebuilding the +Haymarket theatre, managed it from 1880 till their retirement in 1885, +produced in 1883 Pinero's _Lords and Commons_; and Messrs Clayton and +Cecil produced at the Court theatre between 1885 and 1887 his three +brilliant farces, _The Magistrate_, _The Schoolmistress_ and _Dandy +Dick_, which, with the sentimental comedy, _Sweet Lavender_, produced at +Terry's theatre in 1888, assured his position as an original and fertile +dramatic humorist of no small literary power. It is to be noted, +however, that Pinero was almost the only original playwright represented +under the Bancroft, Hare-Kendal and Clayton-Cecil managements, which +relied for the rest upon adaptations and revivals. Adaptations of French +vaudevilles were the staple productions of Charles Wyndham's management +at the Criterion from its beginning in 1876 until 1893, when he first +produced an original play of any importance. When Herbert Beerbohm Tree +went into management at the Haymarket in 1887, he still relied largely +on plays of foreign origin. George Alexander's first managerial ventures +(Avenue theatre, 1890) were two adaptations from the French. Until well +on in the 'eighties, indeed, adaptation from the French was held the +normal occupation of the British playwright, and original composition a +mere episode. Robertson, Byron, Albery, Gilbert, Tom Taylor, Charles +Reade, Herman Merivale, G. W. Godfrey, all produced numerous +adaptations; Sydney Grundy was for twenty years occupied almost +exclusively in this class of work; Pinero himself has adapted more than +one French play. The 'eighties, then, may on the whole be regarded as +showing a very gradual decline in the predominance of France on the +English stage, and an equally slow revival of originality, so far as +comedy and drama were concerned, manifesting itself mainly in the plays +of Pinero. + +The reaction against French influence, however, was no less apparent in +the domain of melodrama and operetta than in that of comedy and drama. +Until well on in the 'seventies, D'Ennery and his disciples, adapted and +imitated by Dion Boucicault and others, ruled the melodramatic stage. +The reaction asserted itself in two quarters--in the East End at the +Grecian theatre, and in the West End at the Princess's. In _The World_, +produced at Drury Lane in 1880, Paul Meritt (d. 1895) and Henry Pettitt +(d. 1893) brought to the West End the "Grecian" type of popular drama; +and at Drury Lane it survived in the elaborately spectacular form +imparted to it by Sir Augustus Harris, who managed that theatre from +1879 till his death in 1896. The production of G. R. Sims's _Lights o' +London_ at the Princess's in 1881, under Wilson Barrett's management, +also marked a new departure. This style of melodrama was chiefly +cultivated at the Adelphi theatre, from 1882 until the end of the +century, when it died out there as a regular institution, apparently +because a host of suburban theatres drew away its audiences. Of all +these English melodramas, only one, _The Silver King_, by Henry Arthur +Jones (Princess's, 1882), could for a moment compare in invention or +technical skill with the French dramas they supplanted. The fact +remains, however, that even on this lowest level of dramatic art the +current of the time set decisively towards home-made pictures of English +life, however crude and puerile. + +For twenty-five years, from 1865 to 1890, the English stage was overrun +with French operettas of the school of Offenbach. Hastily adapted by +slovenly hacks, their librettos (often witty in the original) became +incredible farragos of metreless doggrel and punning ineptitude. The +great majority of them are now so utterly forgotten that it is hard to +realize how, in their heyday, they swarmed on every hand in London and +the provinces. The reaction began in 1875 with the performance at the +Royalty theatre of _Trial by Jury_, by W. S. Gilbert and Arthur +Sullivan. This was the prelude to that brilliant series of witty and +melodious extravaganzas which began with _The Sorcerer_ at the Opera +Comique theatre in 1877, but was mainly associated with the Savoy +theatre, opened by R. D'Oyly Carte (d. 1901) in 1881. Little by little +the Gilbert and Sullivan operettas (of which the most famous, perhaps, +were _H.M.S. Pinafore_, 1878, _Patience_, 1881, and _The Mikado_, 1885) +undermined the popularity of the French opera-bouffes, and at the same +time that of the indigenous "burlesques" which, graceful enough in the +hands of their inventor J. R. Planche, had become mere incoherent +jumbles of buffoonery, devoid alike of dramatic ingenuity and of +literary form. When, early in the 'nineties, the collaboration between +Gilbert and Sullivan became intermittent, and the vogue of the Savoy +somewhat declined, a new class of extravaganza arose, under the +designation of "musical comedy" or "musical farce." It first took form +in a piece called _In Town_, by Messrs "Adrian Ross" and Osmond Carr +(Prince of Wales's theatre, 1892), and rapidly became very popular. In +these plays the scene and costumes are almost always modern though +sometimes exotic, and the prose dialogue, setting forth an attenuated +and entirely negligible plot, is frequently interrupted by musical +numbers. The lyrics are often very clever pieces of rhyming, totally +different from the inane doggrel of the old opera-bouffes and +burlesques. In other respects there is little to be said for the +literary or intellectual quality of "musical farce"; but, being an +entirely English (or Anglo-American) product, it falls into line with +the other indications we have noted of the general decline--one might +almost say extinction--of French influence on the English stage. + +To what causes are we to trace this gradual disuse of adaptation? In the +domain of modern comedy and drama, to two causes acting simultaneously: +the decline in France of the method of Scribe, which produced +"well-made," exportable plays, more or less suited to any climate and +environment; and the rise in England of a generation of playwrights more +original, thoughtful and able than their predecessors. It is not at all +to be taken for granted that the falling off in the supply of exportable +plays meant a decline in the absolute merit of French drama. The +historian of the future may very possibly regard the movement in France, +no less than the movement in England, as a step in advance, and may even +see in the two movements co-ordinate manifestations of one tendency. Be +this as it may, the fact is certain that as the playwrights of the +Second Empire gradually died off, and were succeeded by the authors of +the "new comedy," plays which would bear transplantation became ever +fewer and farther between. Of recent years Henri Bernstein, author of +_Le Voleur_ and _Samson_, has been almost the only French dramatist +whose works have found a ready and steady market in England. Attempts to +acclimatize French poetical drama--_Pour la Couronne_, _Le Chemineau_, +_Cyrano de Bergerac_--were all more or less unsuccessful. + +Having noted the decline of adaptation, we may now trace a stage farther +the development of the English drama. The first stage, already surveyed, +ends with the production of _Sweet Lavender_ in 1888. Up to this point +its author, Pinero (b. 1855), stood practically alone, and had won his +chief successes as a humorist. Henry Arthur Jones (b. 1851) was known as +little more than an able melodramatist, though in one play, _Saints and +Sinners_ (1884), he had made some attempt at a serious study of +provincial life. R. C. Carton (b. 1856) had written, in collaboration, +one or two plays of slight account. Sydney Grundy (b. 1848) had produced +scarcely any original work. The second stage may be taken as extending +from 1889 to 1893. On the 24th of April 1889 John Hare opened the new +Garrick theatre with _The Profligate_, by Pinero--an unripe and +superficial piece of work in many ways, but still a great advance, both +in ambition and achievement, upon any original work the stage had seen +for many a year. + +With all its faults, it may be said that _The Profligate_ notably +enlarged at one stroke the domain open to the English dramatist. And it +did not stand alone. The same year saw the production of two plays by H. +A. Jones, _Wealth_ and _The Middleman_, in which a distinct effort +towards a serious criticism of life was observable, and of two plays by +Sydney Grundy, _A Fool's Paradise_ and _A White Lie_, which, though very +French in method, were at least original in substance. Jones during the +next two years made a steady advance with _Judah_ (1890), _The Dancing +Girl_ and _The Crusaders_ (1891). Pinero in these years was putting +forth less than his whole strength in _The Cabinet Minister_ (1890), +_Lady Bountiful_ and _The Times_ (1891), and _The Amazons_ (March 1893). +But meanwhile new talents were coming forward. The management of George +Alexander, which opened at the Avenue theatre in 1890, but was +transferred in the following year to the St James's, brought prominently +to the front R. C. Carton, Haddon Chambers and Oscar Wilde. Carton's two +sentimental comedies, _Sunlight and Shadow_ (1890) and _Liberty Hall_ +(1892), showed excellent workmanship, but did not yet reveal his true +originality as a humorist. Haddon Chambers's work (notably _The Idler_, +1891) was as yet sufficiently commonplace; but in _Lady Windermere's +Fan_ (1892) Oscar Wilde showed himself at his first attempt a brilliant +and accomplished dramatist. Wilde's subsequent plays, _A Woman of No +Importance_ (1893) and _An Ideal Husband_ and _The Importance of being +Earnest_ (1895), though marred by mannerism and insincerity, did much to +promote the movement we are here tracing. + +As the production of _The Profligate_ marked the opening of the second +period in the revival of English drama, so the production of the same +author's _The Second Mrs Tanqueray_ is very clearly the starting-point +of the third period. Before attempting to trace its course we may do +well to glance at certain conditions which probably influenced it. + +In the first place, economic conditions. The Bancroft-Robertson movement +at the old Prince of Wales's, between 1865 and 1870, was of even more +importance from an economic than from a literary point of view. By +making their little theatre a luxurious place of resort, and faithfully +imitating in their productions the accent, costume and furniture of +upper and upper-middle class life, the Bancrofts had initiated a +reconciliation between society and the stage. Throughout the middle +decades of the century it was the constant complaint of the managers +that the world of wealth and fashion could not be tempted to the +theatre. The Bancroft management changed all that. It was at the Prince +of Wales's that half-guinea stalls were first introduced; and these +stalls were always filled. As other theatres adopted the same policy of +upholstery, both on and off the stage, fashion extended its complaisance +to them as well. In yet another way the reconciliation was promoted--by +the ever-increasing tendency of young men and women of good birth and +education to seek a career upon the English stage. The theatre, in +short, became at this period one of the favourite amusements of +fashionable (though scarcely of intellectual) society in London. It is +often contended that the influence of the sensual and cynical stall +audience is a pernicious one. In some ways, no doubt, it is detrimental; +but there is another side to the case. Even the cynicism of society +marks an intellectual advance upon the sheer rusticity which prevailed +during the middle years of the 19th century and accepted without a +murmur plays (original and adapted) which bore no sort of relation to +life. In a celebrated essay published in 1879, Matthew Arnold (whose +occasional dramatic criticisms were very influential in intellectual +circles) dwelt on the sufficiently obvious fact that the result of +giving English names and costumes to French characters was to make their +sayings and doings utterly unreal and "fantastic." During the years of +French ascendancy, audiences had quite forgotten that it was possible +for the stage to be other than "fantastic" in this sense. They no +longer thought of comparing the mimic world with the real world, but +were content with what may be called abstract humour and pathos, often +of the crudest quality. The cultivation of external realism, coinciding +with, and in part occasioning, the return of society to the playhouse, +gradually led to a demand for some approach to plausibility in character +and action as well as in costume and decoration. The stage ceased to be +entirely "fantastic," and began to essay, however imperfectly, the +representation, the criticism of life. It cannot be denied that the +influence of society tended to narrow the outlook of English dramatists +and to trivialize their tone of thought. But this was a passing phase of +development; and cleverly trivial representations of reality are, after +all, to be preferred to brainless concoctions of sheer emptiness. + +Quite as important, from the economic point of view, as the +reconciliation of society to the stage, was the reorganization of the +mechanism of theatrical life in the provinces which took place between +1865 and 1875. From the Restoration to the middle of the 19th century +the system of "stock companies" had been universal. Every great town in +the three kingdoms had its established theatre with a resident company, +playing the "legitimate" repertory, and competing, often by illegitimate +means, for the possession of new London successes. The smaller towns, +and even villages, were grouped into local "circuits," each served by +one manager with his troupe of strollers. The "circuits" supplied actors +to the resident stock companies, and the stock companies served as +nurseries to the patent theatres in London. Metropolitan "stars" +travelled from one country theatre to another, generally alone, +sometimes with one or two subordinates in their train, and were +"supported," as the phrase went, by the stock company of each theatre. +Under this system, scenery, costumes and appointments were often +grotesquely inadequate, and performances almost always rough and +unfinished. On the other hand, the constant practice in a great number +and variety of characters afforded valuable training for actors, and +developed many remarkable talents. As a source of revenue to authors, +the provinces were practically negligible. Stageright was unprotected by +law; and even if it had been protected, it is doubtful whether authors +could have got any considerable fees out of country managers, whose +precarious ventures usually left them a small enough margin of profit. + +The spread of railways throughout the country gradually put an end to +this system. The "circuits" disappeared early in the 'fifties, the stock +companies survived until about the middle of the 'seventies. As soon as +it was found easy to transport whole companies, and even great +quantities of scenery, from theatre to theatre throughout the length and +breadth of Great Britain, it became apparent that the rough makeshifts +of the stock company system were doomed. Here again we can trace to the +old Prince of Wales's theatre the first distinct impulse towards the new +order of things. Robertson's comedies not only encouraged but absolutely +required a style of art, in mounting, stage-management and acting, not +to be found in the country theatres. To entrust them to the stock +companies was well-nigh impossible. On the other hand, to quote Sir +Squire Bancroft, "perhaps no play was ever better suited than _Caste_ to +a travelling company; the parts being few, the scenery and dresses quite +simple, and consequently the expenses very much reduced." In 1867, then, +a company was organized and rehearsed in London to carry round the +provincial theatres as exact a reproduction as possible of the London +performance of _Caste_ and Robertson's other comedies. The smoothness of +the representation, the delicacy of the interplay among the characters, +were new to provincial audiences, and the success was remarkable. About +the same time the whole Haymarket company, under Buckstone's management, +began to make frequent rounds of the country theatres; and other +"touring combinations" were soon organized. It is manifest that the +"combination" system and the stock company system cannot long coexist, +for a manager cannot afford to keep a stock company idle while a London +combination is occupying his theatre. The stock companies, therefore, +soon dwindled away, and were probably quite extinct before the end of +the 'seventies. Under the present system, no sooner is a play an +established success in London than it is reproduced in one, two or three +exact copies and sent round the provincial theatres (and the numerous +suburban theatres which have sprung up since 1895), Company A serving +first-class towns, Company B the second-class towns, and so forth. The +process is very like that of taking plaster casts of a statue, and the +provincial companies often stand to their London originals very much in +the relation of plaster to marble. Even the London scenery is faithfully +reproduced in material of extra strength, to stand the wear-and-tear of +constant removal. The result is that, instead of the square pegs in +round holes of the old stock company system, provincial audiences now +see pegs carefully adjusted to the particular holes they occupy, and +often incapable of fitting any other. Instead of the rough performances +of old, they are now accustomed to performances of a mechanical and +soulless smoothness. + +In some ways the gain in this respect is undeniable, in other ways the +loss is great. The provinces are no longer, in any effective sense, a +nursery of fresh talents for the London theatres, for the art acquired +in touring combinations is that of mimicry rather than of acting. +Moreover, provincial playgoers have lost all personal interest and pride +in their local theatres, which have no longer any individuality of their +own, but serve as a mere frame for the presentation of a series of +ready-made London pictures. Christmas pantomime is the only theatrical +product that has any really local flavour in it, and even this is often +only a second-hand London production, touched up with a few topical +allusions. Again, the railways which bring London productions to the +country take country playgoers by the thousand to London. The wealthier +classes, in the Lancashire, Yorkshire and Midland towns at any rate, do +almost all their theatre-going in London, or during the autumn months +when the leading London companies go on tour. Thus the better class of +comedy and drama has a hard fight to maintain itself in the provinces, +and the companies devoted to melodrama and musical farce enjoy an +ominous preponderance of popularity. + +On the whole, however--and this is the main point to be observed with +regard to the literary development of the drama--the economic movement +of the five- and twenty years between 1865 and 1890 was enormously to +the advantage of the dramatic author. A London success meant a long +series of full houses at high prices, on which he took a handsome +percentage. The provinces, in which a popular playwright would often +have three or four plays going the rounds simultaneously, became a +steady source of income. And, finally, it was found possible, even +before international copyright came into force, to protect stageright in +the United States, so that about the beginning of the 'eighties large +receipts began to pour in from America. Thus successful dramatists, +instead of living from hand to mouth, like their predecessors of the +previous generation, found themselves in comfortable and even opulent +circumstances. They had leisure for reading, thought and careful +composition, and they could afford to gratify their ambition with an +occasional artistic experiment. Failure might mean a momentary loss of +prestige, but it would not spell ruin. A distinctly progressive spirit, +then, began to animate the leading English dramatists--a spirit which +found intelligent sympathy in such managers as John Hare, George +Alexander, Beerbohm Tree and Charles Wyndham. Nor must it be forgotten +that, though the laws of literary property, internal and international, +remained far from perfect, it was found possible to print and publish +plays without incurring loss of stageright either at home or in America. +The playwrights of the present generation have accordingly a motive for +giving literary form and polish to their work which was quite +inoperative with their predecessors, whose productions were either kept +jealously in manuscript or printed only in miserable and totally +unreadable stage editions. It is no small stimulus to ambition to know +that even if a play prove to be in advance of the standards of taste or +thought among the public to which it is originally presented, it will +not perish utterly, but will, if it have any inherent vitality, continue +to live as literature. + + + Influence of foreign drama. + +Having now summed up the economic conditions which made for progress, +let us glance at certain intellectual influences which tended in the +same direction. The establishment of the Theatre Libre in Paris, towards +the close of 1887, unquestionably marked the beginning of a period of +restless experiment throughout the theatrical world of Europe. A. +Antoine and his supporters were in open rebellion against the artificial +methods of Scribe and the Second Empire playwrights. Their effort was to +transfer to the stage the realism, the so-called "naturalism," which had +been dominant in French fiction since 1870 or earlier; and this +naturalism was doubtless, in its turn, the outcome of the scientific +movement of the century. New methods (or ideals) of observation, and new +views as to the history and destiny of the race, could not fail to +produce a profound effect upon art; and though the modern theatre is a +cumbrous contrivance, slow to adjust its orientation to the winds of the +spirit, even it at last began to revolve, like a rusty windmill, so as +to fill its sails in the main current of the intellectual atmosphere. +Within three or four years of its inception, Antoine's experiment had +been imitated in Germany, England and America. The "Freie Buhne" of +Berlin came into existence in 1889, the Independent Theatre of London in +1891. Similar enterprises were set on foot in Munich and other cities. +In America several less formal experiments of a like nature were +attempted, chiefly in Boston and New York. Nor must it be forgotten that +in Paris itself the Theatre Libre did not stand alone. Many other +_theatres a cote_ sprang up, under such titles as "Theatre d'Art," +"Theatre Moderne," "Theatre de l'Avenir Dramatique." The most important +and least ephemeral was the "Theatre de l'OEuvre," founded in 1893 by +Alex. Lugne-Poe, which represented mainly, though not exclusively, the +symbolist reaction against naturalism. + +The impulse which led to the establishment of the Theatre Libre was, in +the first instance, entirely French. If any foreign influence helped to +shape its course, it was that of the great Russian novelists. Tolstoi's +_Puissance des tenebres_ was the only "exotic" play announced in +Antoine's opening manifesto. But the whole movement was soon to receive +a potent stimulus from the Norwegian poet Henrik Ibsen. + +Ibsen's early romantic plays had been known in Germany since 1875. In +1878 _Pillars of Society_ and in 1880 _A Doll's House_ achieved wide +popularity, and held the German stage side by side with _A Bankruptcy_, +by Bjurnstjerne Bjurnson. But these plays had little influence on the +German drama. Their methods were, indeed, not essentially different from +those of the French school of the Second Empire, which were then +dominant in Germany as well as everywhere else. It was _Ghosts_ (acted +in Augsburg and Meiningen 1886, in Berlin 1887) that gave the impulse +which, coalescing with the kindred impulse from the French Theatre +Libre, was destined in the course of a few years to create a new +dramatic literature in Germany. During the middle decades of the century +Germany had produced some dramatists of solid and even remarkable +talent, such as Friedrich Hebbel, Heinrich Laube, Karl Gutzkow and +Gustav Freytag. Even the generation which held the stage after 1870, and +included Paul Heyse, Paul Lindau and Adolf Wilbrandt, with numerous +writers of light comedy and farce, such as E. Wichert, O. Blumenthal, G. +von Moser, A. L'Arronge and F. von Schunthan, had produced a good many +works of some merit. But, in the main, French artificiality and +frivolity predominated on the German stage. In point of native talent +and originality, the Austrian popular playwright Ludwig Anzengruber was +well ahead of his North German contemporaries. It was in 1889, with the +establishment of the Berlin Freie Buhne, that the reaction definitely +set in. In Berlin, as afterwards in London, _Ghosts_ was the first play +produced on the outpost stage, but it was followed in Berlin by a very +rapid development of native talent. Less than a month after the +performance of Ibsen's play, Gerhart Hauptmann came to the front with +_Vor Sonnenaufgang_, an immature piece of almost unrelieved Zolaism, +which he soon followed up, however, with much more important works. In +_Das Friedensfest_ (1890) and _Einsame Menschen_ (1891) he transferred +his allegiance from Zola to Ibsen. His true originality first manifested +itself in _Die Weber_ (1892); and subsequently he produced plays in +several different styles, all bearing the stamp of a potent +individuality. His most popular productions have been the dramatic poems +_Hannele_ and _Die versunkene Glocke_, the low-life comedy _Der +Biberpelz_, and the low-life tragedy _Fuhrmann Henschel_. Other +remarkable playwrights belonging to the Freie Buhne group are Max Halbe +(b. 1865), author of _Jugend_ and _Mutter Erde_, and Otto Erich +Hartleben (b. 1864), author of _Hanna Jagert_ and _Rosenmontag_. These +young men, however, so quickly gained the ear of the general public, +that the need for a special "free stage" was no longer felt, and the +Freie Buhne, having done its work, ceased to exist. Unlike the French +Theatre Libre and the English Independent theatre, it had been supported +from the outset by the most influential critics, and had won the day +almost without a battle. The productions of the new school soon made +their way even into some of the subventioned theatres; but it was the +unsubventioned Deutsches Theater of Berlin that most vigorously +continued the tradition of the Freie Buhne. One or two playwrights of +the new generation, however, did not actually belong to the Freie Buhne +group. Hermann Sudermann produced his first play, _Die Ehre_, in 1888, +and his most famous work, _Heimat_, in 1892. In him the influence of +Ibsen is very clearly perceptible; while Arthur Schnitzler of Vienna, +author of _Liebelei_, may rather be said to derive his inspiration from +the Parisian "new comedy." Originality, verging sometimes on +abnormality, distinguishes the work of Frank Wedekind (b. 1864), author +of _Erdgeist_ and _Fruhlingserwachen_. Hugo von Hofmannsthal (b. 1874), +in his _Elektra_ and _Odipus_, rehandles classic themes in the light of +modern anthropology and psychology. + +The promoters of the Theatre Libre had probably never heard of Ibsen +when they established that institution, but three years later his fame +had reached France, and _Les Revenants_ was produced by the Theatre +Libre (29th May 1890). Within the next two or three years almost all his +modern plays were acted in Paris, most of them either by the Theatre +Libre or by L'OEuvre. Close upon the heels of the Ibsen influence +followed another, less potent, but by no means negligible. The exquisite +tragic symbolism of Maurice Maeterlinck began to find numerous admirers +about 1890. In 1891 his one-act play _L'Intruse_ was acted; in 1893, +_Pelleas et Melisande_. By this time, too, the reverberation of the +impulse which the Theatre Libre had given to the Freie Buhne began to be +felt in France. In 1893 Hauptmann's _Die Weber_ was acted in Paris, and, +being frequently repeated, made a deep and lasting impression. + +The English analogue to the Theatre Libre, the Independent theatre, +opened its first season (March 13, 1891) with a performance of _Ghosts_. +This was not, however, the first introduction of Ibsen to the English +stage. On the 7th of June 1889 (six weeks after the production of _The +Profligate_) _A Doll's House_ was acted at the Novelty theatre, and ran +for three weeks, amid a storm of critical controversy. In the same year +_Pillars of Society_ was presented in London. In 1891 and 1892 _A Doll's +House_ was frequently acted; _Rosmersholm_ was produced in 1891, and +again in 1893; in May and June 1891 _Hedda Gabler_ had a run of several +weeks; and early in 1893 _The Master Builder_ enjoyed a similar passing +vogue. During these years, then, Ibsen was very much "in the air" in +England, as well as in France and Germany. The Independent theatre, in +the meantime, under the management of J. T. Grein, found but scanty +material to deal with. It presented translations of Zola's _Therese +Raquin_, and of _A Visit_, by the Danish dramatist Edward Brandes; but +it brought to the front only one English author of any note, in the +person of George Bernard Shaw, whose "didactic realistic play," +_Widowers' Houses_, it produced in December 1892. + +None the less is it true that the ferment of fresh energy, which between +1887 and 1893 had created a new dramatic literature both in France and +in Germany, was distinctly felt in England as well. England did not take +at all kindly to it. The productions of Ibsen's plays, in particular, +were received with an outcry of reprobation. A great part of this +clamour was due to sheer misunderstanding; but some of it, no doubt, +arose from genuine and deep-seated distaste. As for the dramatists of +recognized standing, they one and all, both from policy and from +conviction, adopted a hostile attitude towards Ibsen, expressing at most +a theoretical respect overborne by practical dislike. Yet his influence +permeated the atmosphere. He had revealed possibilities of technical +stagecraft and psychological delineation that, once realized, were not +to be banished from the mind of the thoughtful playwright. They haunted +him in spite of himself. Still subtler was the influence exerted over +the critics and the more intelligent public. Deeply and genuinely as +many of them disliked Ibsen's works, they found, when they returned to +the old-fashioned play, the adapted frivolity or the homegrown +sentimentalism, that they disliked this still more. On every side, then, +there was an instinctive or deliberate reaching forward towards +something new; and once again it was Pinero who ventured the decisive +step. + +On the 27th of May 1893 _The Second Mrs Tanqueray_ was produced at the +St James's theatre. With _The Second Mrs Tanqueray_ the English acted +drama ceased to be a merely insular product, and took rank in the +literature of Europe. Here was a play which, whatever its faults, was +obviously comparable with the plays of Dumas, of Sudermann, of Bjurnson, +of Echegaray. It might be better than some of these plays, worse than +others; but it stood on the same artistic level. The fact that such a +play could not only be produced, but could brilliantly succeed, on the +London stage gave a potent stimulus to progress. It encouraged ambition +in authors, enterprise in managers. What _Hernani_ was to the romantic +movement of the 'thirties, and _La Dame aux camelias_ to the realistic +movement of the 'fifties, _The Second Mrs Tanqueray_ was to the movement +of the 'nineties towards the serious stage-portraiture of English social +life. All the forces which we have been tracing--Robertsonian realism of +externals, the leisure for thought and experiment involved in vastly +improved financial conditions, the substitution in France of a simpler, +subtler technique for the outworn artifices of the Scribe school, and +the electric thrill communicated to the whole theatrical life of Europe +by contact with the genius of Ibsen--all these slowly converging forces +coalesced to produce, in _The Second Mrs Tanqueray_, an epoch-marking +play. + +Pinero followed up _Mrs Tanqueray_ with a remarkable series of +plays--_The Notorious Mrs Ebbsmith_, _The Benefit of the Doubt_, _The +Princess and the Butterfly_, _Trelawny of the "Wells_," _The Gay Lord +Quex_, _Iris_, _Letty_, _His House in Order_ and _The Thunderbolt_--all +of which show marked originality of conception and intellectual force. +In January 1893 Charles Wyndham initiated a new policy at the Criterion +theatre, and produced an original play, _The Bauble-Shop_, by Henry +Arthur Jones. It belonged very distinctly to the pre-Tanqueray order of +things; but the same author's _The Case of Rebellious Susan_, in the +following year, showed an almost startlingly sudden access of talent, +which was well maintained in such later works as _Michael and his Lost +Angel_ (1896), that admirable comedy _The Liars_ (1897), and _Mrs Dane's +Defence_ (1900). Sydney Grundy produced after 1893 by far his most +important original works, _The Greatest of These_ (1896) and _The Debt +of Honour_ (1900). R. C. Carton, breaking away from the somewhat +laboured sentimentalism of his earlier manner, produced several light +comedies of thoroughly original humour and of excellent literary +workmanship--_Lord and Lady Algy_, _Wheels within Wheels_, _Lady +Huntworth's Experiment_, _Mr Hopkinson_ and _Mr Preedy and the +Countess_. Haddon Chambers, in _The Tyranny of Tears_ (1899) and _The +Awakening_ (1901), produced two plays of a merit scarcely foreshadowed +in his earlier efforts. + +What was of more importance, a new generation of playwrights came to the +front. Its most notable representatives were J. M. Barrie, who displayed +his inexhaustible gift of humorous observation and invention in _Quality +Street_ (1902), _The Admirable Crichton_ (1903), _Little Mary_ (1903), +_Peter Pan_ (1904), _Alice Sit-by-the-Fire_ (1905) and _What Every Woman +Knows_ (1908); Mrs Craigie ("John Oliver Hobbes"), who produced in _The +Ambassador_ (1898) a comedy of fine accomplishment; and H. V. Esmond, +Alfred Sutro, Hubert Henry Davies, W. S. Maugham, Rudolf Besier, Roy +Horniman and J. B. Fagan. + +Meanwhile, the efforts to relieve the drama from the pressure of the +long-run system had not been confined to the Independent theatre. +Several other enterprises of a like nature had proved more or less +short-lived; but the Stage Society, founded in 1900, was conducted with +more energy and perseverance, and became a real force in the dramatic +world. After two seasons devoted mainly to Bernard Shaw, Ibsen, +Maeterlinck and Hauptmann, it produced in its third season _The Marrying +of Ann Leete_, by Granville Barker (b. 1877), who had developed in its +service his remarkable gifts as a producer of plays. A year or two +later, Barker staged for another organization, the New Century theatre, +Professor Gilbert Murray's rendering of the _Hippolytus_ of Euripides; +and it was partly the success of this production that suggested the +Vedrenne-Barker partnership at the Court theatre, which, between 1904 +and 1907, gave an extraordinary impulse to the intellectual life of the +theatre. Adopting the "short-run" system, as a compromise between the +long-run and the repertory systems, the Vedrenne-Barker management made +the plays of Bernard Shaw (both old and new) for the first time really +popular. Of the plays already published _You Never Can Tell_ and _Man +and Superman_ were the most successful; of the new plays, _John Bull's +Other Island_, _Major Barbara_ and _The Doctor's Dilemma_. But though +Shaw was the mainstay of the enterprise, it gave opportunities to +several other writers, the most notable being John Galsworthy (b. 1867), +author of _The Silver Box_ and _Strife_, St John Hankin (1869-1909), +author of _The Return of the Prodigal_ and _The Charity that began at +Home_, and Granville Barker himself, whose plays _The Voysey +Inheritance_ and _Waste_ (1907) were among the most important products +of this movement. It should also be noted that the production of the +_Hippolytus_ was followed up by the production of the _Trojan Women_, +the _Electra_ and the _Medea_ of Euripides, all translated by Gilbert +Murray. + +The impulse to which were due the Independent theatre, the Stage Society +and the Vedrenne-Barker management, combined with local influences to +bring about the foundation in Dublin of the Irish National theatre. Its +moving spirit was the poet W. B. Yeats (b. 1865), who wrote for it +_Cathleen-ni-Hoolihan_, _The Hour-Glass_, _The King's Threshold_ and one +or two other plays. Lady Gregory, Padraic Collum, Boyle and other +authors also contributed to the repertory of this admirable little +theatre; but its most notable products were the plays of J. M. Synge +(1871-1909), whose _Riders to the Sea_, _Well of the Saints_ and +_Playboy of the Western World_ showed a fine and original dramatic +faculty combined with extraordinary beauty of style. + +Both in Manchester and in Glasgow endeavours have been made, with +considerable success, to counteract the evils of the touring system, by +the establishment of resident companies acting the better class of +modern plays on a "short-run" plan, similar to that of the +Vedrenne-Barker management. The Manchester enterprise was to some extent +subsidized by Miss E. Horniman, and may therefore claim to be the first +endowed theatre in England. The need for endowment on a much larger +scale was, however, strongly advocated in the early years of the 20th +century by the more progressive supporters of English drama, and in 1908 +found a place in the scheme for a Shakespeare National theatre, which +was then superimposed on the earlier proposal for a memorial +commemorating the Shakespeare tercentenary, organized by an influential +committee under the chairmanship of the Lord Mayor of London. The scheme +involved the raising of L500,000, half to be devoted to the requisite +site and building, while the remainder would be invested so as to +furnish an annual subvention. + +It remains to say a few words of the English literary drama, as opposed +to the acted drama. The two classes are not nearly so distinct as they +once were; but plays continue to be produced from time to time which are +wholly unfitted for the theatre, and others which, though they may be +experimentally placed on the stage, make their appeal rather to the +reading public. Tennyson had essayed in his old age an art which is +scarcely to be mastered after the energy of youth has passed. He +continued to the last to occupy himself more or less with drama, and all +his plays, except _Harold_, found their way to the stage. _The Cup_ and +_Becket_, as we have seen, met with a certain success, but _The Promise +of May_ (1882), an essay in contemporary drama, was a disastrous +failure, while _The Falcon_ (1879) and _The Foresters_ (acted by an +American company in 1893) made little impression. Lord Tennyson was +certainly not lacking in dramatic faculty, but he worked in an outworn +form which he had no longer the strength to renovate. Swinburne +continued now and then to cast his creations in the dramatic mould, but +it cannot be said that his dramas attained either the vitality or the +popularity of his lyrical poems. _Mary Stuart_ (1881) brought his Marian +trilogy to a close. In _Locrine_ he produced a tragedy in heroic +couplets--a thing probably unattempted since the age of Dryden. _The +Sisters_ is a tragedy of modern date with a medieval drama inserted by +way of interlude. _Rosamund, Queen of the Lombards_ (1899), perhaps +approached more nearly than any of his former works to the concentration +essential to drama. It may be doubted, however, whether his copious and +ebullient style could ever really subject itself to the trammels of +dramatic form. Of other dramas on the Elizabethan model, the most +notable, perhaps, were the works of two ladies who adopt the pseudonym +of "Michael Field"; _Callirrhoe_ (1884), _Brutus Ultor_ (1887), and many +other dramas, show considerable power of imagination and expression, but +are burdened by a deliberate artificiality both of technique and style. +Alfred Austin put forth several volumes in dramatic form, such as +_Savonarola_ (1881), _Prince Lucifer_ (1887), _England's Darling_ +(1896), _Flodden Field_ (1905). They are laudable in intention and +fluent in utterance. Notable additions to the purely literary drama were +made by Robert Bridges in his _Prometheus_ (1883), _Nero_ (1885), _The +Feast of Bacchus_ (1889), and other solid plays in verse, full of +science and skill, but less charming than his lyrical poems. Sir Lewis +Morris made a dramatic experiment in _Gycia_, but was not encouraged to +repeat it. + +From the outset of his career, John Davidson (1857-1909) was haunted by +the conviction that he was a born dramatist; but his earlier plays, such +as _Smith: a Tragedy_ (1886), _Bruce: a Chronicle Play_ (1884) and +_Scaramouch in Naxos_ (1888), contained more poetry than drama; and his +later pieces, such as _Self's the Man_ (1901), _The Theatrocrat_ (1905) +and the _Triumph of Mammon_ (1907), showed a species of turbulent +imagination, but became more and more fantastic and impracticable. +Stephen Phillips (b. 1867), on the other hand, having had some +experience as an actor, wrote always with the stage in view. In his +first play, _Paolo and Francesca_ (1899; produced in 1902), he succeeded +in combining great beauty of diction with intense dramatic power and +vitality. The same may be said of _Herod_ (1900); but in _Ulysses_ +(1902) and _Nero_ (1906) a great falling-off in constructive power was +only partially redeemed by the fine inspiration of individual passages. + +The collaboration of Robert Louis Stevenson with William Ernest Henley +produced a short series of interesting experiments in drama, two of +which, _Beau Austin_ (1883) and _Admiral Guinea_ (1884), had more than a +merely experimental value. The former was an emotional comedy, treating +with rare distinction of touch a difficult, almost an impossible, +subject; the latter was a nautical melodrama, raised by force of +imagination and diction into the region of literature. Incomparably the +most important of recent additions to the literary drama is Thomas +Hardy's vast panorama of the Napoleonic wars, entitled _The Dynasts_ +(1904-1908). It is rather an epic in dialogue than a play; but however +we may classify it we cannot but recognize its extraordinary +intellectual and imaginative powers. + +_United States._--American dramatists have shown on their own account a +progressive tendency, quite as marked as that which we have been tracing +in England. Down to about 1890 the influence of France had been even +more predominant in America than in England. The only American dramatist +of eminence, Bronson Howard (1842-1908), was a disciple, though a very +able one, of the French school. A certain stirring of native +originality manifested itself during the 'eighties, when a series of +semi-improvised farces, associated with the names of two actor-managers, +Harrigan and Hart, depicted low life in New York with real observation, +though in a crude and formless manner. About the same time a native +style of popular melodrama began to make its appearance--a play of +conventional and negligible plot, which attracted by reason of one or +more faithfully observed character-types, generally taken from country +life. _The Old Homestead_, written by Denman Thompson, who himself acted +in it, was the most popular play of this class. Rude as it was, it +distinctly foreshadowed that faithfulness to the external aspects, at +any rate, of everyday life, in which lies the strength of the native +American drama. It was at a sort of free theatre in Boston that James A. +Herne (1840-1901) produced in 1891 his realistic drama of modern life, +_Margaret Fleming_, which did a great deal to awaken the interest of +literary America in the theatrical movement. Herne, an actor and a most +accomplished stage-manager, next produced a drama of rural life in New +England, _Shore Acres_ (1892), which made an immense popular success. It +was a play of the _Old Homestead_ type, but very much more coherent and +artistic. His next play, _Griffith Davenport_ (1898), founded on a +novel, was a drama of life in Virginia during the Civil War, admirable +in its strength and quiet sincerity; while in his last work, _Sag +Harbour_ (1900), Herne returned to the study of rustic character, this +time in Long Island. Herne showed human nature in its more obvious and +straightforward aspects, making no attempt at psychological subtlety; +but within his own limits he was an admirable craftsman. The same +preoccupation with local colour is manifest in the plays of Augustus M. +Thomas, a writer of genuine humour and originality. His localism +announces itself in the very titles of his most popular +plays--_Alabama_, _In Mizzoura_, _Arizona_. He also made a striking +success in _The Witching Hour_, a play dealing with the phenomena of +hypnotism and suggestion. Clyde Fitch (1865-1909), an immensely prolific +playwright of indubitable ability, after becoming known by some +experiments in quasi-historic drama (notably _Nathan Hale_, 1898; +_Barbara Frietchie_, 1899), devoted himself mainly to social drama on +the French model, in which his most notable efforts have been _The +Climbers_ (1900), _The Truth_ (1906), and _The Girl with the Green Eyes_ +(1902). In popular drama, with elaborate scenic illustration, William +Gillette (b. 1856), David Belasco (b. 1859) and Charles Klein (b. 1867) +have done notable work. William Vaughn Moody (b. 1869) produced in _The +Great Divide_ (1907) a play of somewhat higher artistic pretensions; +Eugene Walter in _Paid in Full_ (1908) and _The Easiest Way_ (1909) +dealt vigorously with characteristic themes of modern life; and Edward +Sheldon produced in _Salvation Nell_ a slum drama of very striking +realism. The poetic side of drama was mainly represented by Percy +Mackaye (b. 1875), whose _Jeanne d'Arc_ (1906) and _Sappho and Phaon_ +showed a high ambition and no small literary power. On the whole it may +be said that, though the financial conditions of the American stage are +even more unfortunate than those which prevail in England, they have +failed to check a very strong movement towards nationalism in drama. +Season by season, America writes more of her own plays, good or bad, and +becomes less dependent on imported work, whether French or English. (W. +A.) + + +(g) _German Drama._ + +The history of the German drama differs widely from that of the English, +though a close contact is observable between them at an early point, and +again at relatively recent points, in their annals. The dramatic +literature of Germany, though in its beginnings intimately connected +with the great national movement of the Reformation, soon devoted its +efforts to a sterile imitation of foreign models; while the popular +stage, persistently suiting itself to a robust but gross taste, likewise +largely due to the influence of foreign examples, seemed destined to a +hopeless decay. The literary and the acted drama were thus estranged +from one another during a period of extraordinary length; nor was it +till the middle of the 18th century that, with the opening of a more +hopeful era for the life and literature of the nation, the reunion of +dramatic literature and the stage began to accomplish itself. Before the +end of the same century the progress of the German drama in its turn +began to influence that of other nations, and by the widely +comprehensive character of its literature, as well as by the activity of +its stage, to invite a steadily increasing interest. + + + The Latin drama in Germany. + + The Jesuit drama. + +It should be premised that in its beginnings the modern German drama +might have seemed likely to be influenced even more largely than the +English or the French by the copious imitation of classical models which +marked the periods of the Renaissance and the Reformation; but here the +impulse of originality was wanting to bring about a speedy and gradually +a complete emancipation, and imitative reproduction continued in an all +but endless series. The first German (and indeed the earliest +transalpine) writer to follow in the footsteps of the modern Latin drama +of the Italians was the famous Strassburg humanist Jacob Wimpheling +(1450-1528), whose comedy of _Stylpho_ (1480), an attack upon the +ignorance of the pluralist beneficed clergy, marks a kind of epoch in +the history of German dramatic effort. It was succeeded by many other +Latin plays of various kinds, among which may be mentioned J. +Kerckmeister's _Codrus_ (1485), satirizing pedantic schoolmasters; a +series of historical dramas in a moralizing vein, partly on the Turkish +peril, as well as of comedies, by Jacob Locher (1471-1528); two plays by +the great Johann Reuchlin, of which the so-called _Henno_ went through +more than thirty editions; and the _Ludus Dianae_, with another play +likewise in honour of the emperor Maximilian I., by the celebrated +Viennese scholar Conrad Celtes (1459-1508). Sebastian Brant's _Hercules +in Bivio_ (1512) is lost; but Wilibald Pirckheimer's _Eckius dedolatus_ +(1520) survives as a dramatic contribution to Luther's controversy with +one of his most active opponents. The _Acolastus_ (1525) of W. Gnaphaeus +(_alias_ Fullonius, his native name was de Volder) should also be +mentioned in the present connexion, as, though a Dutchman by birth, he +spent most of his literary life in Germany. This Terentian version of +the parable of the Prodigal Son was printed in an almost endless number +of editions, as well as in various versions in modern tongues, among +which reference has already been made to the English, for the use of +schools, by J. Palsgrave (1540). Macropedius (Langhveldt) belongs wholly +to the Low Countries. In Germany the stream of these compositions +continued to flow almost without abatement throughout the earlier half +of the 16th century; but in the days of the Reformation it takes a turn +to scriptural subjects, and during the latter part of the century +remains on the whole faithful to this preference.[273] These Latin plays +may be called school-dramas in the most precise sense; for they were +both performed in the schools and read in class with commentaries +specially composed for them; nor was it except very reluctantly that in +this age the vernacular drama was allowed to intrude into scholastic +circles. It should be noticed that the Jesuit order, which afterwards +proved so keenly alive to the influence which dramatic performances +exercise over the youthful mind, only very gradually abandoned the +principle, formally sanctioned in their _Ratio studiorum_, that the +acting of plays (these being always in the Latin tongue) should only +rarely be permitted in their seminaries. The flourishing period of the +Jesuit drama begins with the spread of the order in the west and +south-west of the Empire in the last decade of the 16th century, and +then continues, through the vicissitudes of good and evil, with a +curious intermixture of Latin and German plays, during the whole of the +17th and the better part of the 18th. These productions, which ranged in +their subjects from biblical and classical story to themes of +contemporary history (such as the relief of Vienna by Sobiesky and the +peace of Ryswick), seem generally to bear the mark of their +authorship--that of teachers appointed by their superiors to execute +this among other tasks allotted to them; but, as it seems unnecessary to +return to this special growth, it may be added that the extraordinary +productiveness of the Jesuit dramatists, and the steadiness of +self-repetition which is equally characteristic of them, should warn us +against underrating its influence upon a considerable proportion of the +nation's educational life during a long succession of generations. + + + Beginnings of the vernacular German drama. + + Hans Sachs. + + The English comedians. + + Separation between the stage and literature. + +While the scholars of the German Renaissance, who became so largely the +agents of the Reformation, eagerly dramatized scriptural subjects in the +Latin, and sometimes (as in the case of Luther's protege P. Rebhun[274]) +in the native tongue, the same influence made itself felt in another +sphere of dramatic activity. Towards the close of the middle ages, as +has been seen, dramatic performances had in Germany, as in England, +largely fallen into the hands of the civic gilds, and the composition of +plays was more especially cultivated by the master-singers of Nuremberg +and other towns. It was thus that, under the influence of the +Reformation, and of the impulse given by Luther and others to the use of +High German as the popular literary tongue, Hans Sachs, the immortal +shoemaker of Nuremberg, seemed destined to become the father of the +popular German drama. In his plays, "spiritual," "secular," and +_Fastnachtsspiele_ alike, the interest indeed lies in the dialogue +rather than in the action, nor do they display any attempt at +development of character. In their subjects, whether derived from +Scripture or from popular legend and fiction,[275] there is no novelty, +and in their treatment no originality. But the healthy vigour and fresh +humour of this marvellously fertile author, and his innate sympathy with +the views and sentiments of the burgher class to which he belonged, were +elements of genuine promise--a promise which the event was signally to +disappoint. Though the manner of Hans Sachs found a few followers, and +is recognizable in the German popular drama even of the beginning of the +17th century, the literature of the Reformation, of which his works may +claim to form part, was soon absorbed in labours of a very different +kind. The stage, after admitting novelties introduced from Italy or +(under Jesuit supervision) from Spain, was subjected to another and +enduring influence. Among the foreign actors of various nations who +flitted through the innumerable courts of the empire, or found a +temporary home there, special prominence was acquired, towards the close +of the 16th and in the early years of the 17th century, by the "English +comedians," who appeared at Cassel, Wolfenbuttel, Berlin, Dresden, +Cologne, &c. Through these players a number of early English dramas +found their way into Germany, where they were performed in more or less +imperfect versions, and called forth imitations by native authors. Duke +Henry Julius of Brunswick-Luneburg[276] (1564-1613) and Jacob Ayrer (a +citizen of Nuremberg, where he died, 1605) represent the endeavours of +the early German drama to suit its still uncouth forms to themes +suggested by English examples; and in their works, and in those of +contemporary playwrights, there reappears no small part of what we may +conclude to have been the "English comedians'" _repertoire_.[277] (The +converse influence of German themes brought home with them by the +English actors, or set in motion by their strolling ubiquity, cannot +have been equal in extent, though Shakespeare himself may have derived +the idea of one of his plots[278] from such a source). But, though +welcome to both princes and people, the exertions of these foreign +comedians, and of the native imitators who soon arose in the earliest +professional companies of actors known in Germany, instead of bringing +about a union between the stage and literature, led to a directly +opposite result. The popularity of these strollers was owing partly to +the (very real) blood and other horrors with which their plays were +deluged, partly to the buffoonery with which they seasoned, and the +various tricks and feats with which they diversified, their +performances. The representatives of the English clowns had learnt much +on their way from their brethren in the Netherlands, where in this +period the art of grotesque acting greatly flourished. Nor were the aids +of other arts neglected,--to this day in Germany professors of the +"equestrian drama" are known by the popular appellation of "English +riders." From these true descendants of the mimes, then, the +professional actors in Germany inherited a variety of tricks and +traditions; and soon the favourite figures of the popular comic stage +became conventional, and were stereotyped by the use of masks. Among +these an acknowledged supremacy was acquired by the native _Hans Wurst_ +(Jack Pudding)--of whose name Luther disavowed the invention, and who is +known already to Hans Sachs--the privileged buffoon, and for a long +series of generations the real lord and master, of the German stage. If +that stage, with its grossness and ribaldry, seemed likely to become +permanently estranged from the tastes and sympathies of the educated +classes, the fault was by no means entirely its own and that of its +patron the populace. The times were evil times for a national effort of +any kind; and poetic literature was in all its branches passing into the +hands of scholars who were often pedants, and whose language was a +jargon of learned affectations. Thus things continued, till the awful +visitation of the Thirty Years' War cast a general blight upon the +national life, and the traditions of the popular theatre were left to +the guardianship of the marionettes (_Puppenspiele_)! + + + The literary drama of the 17th century. + +When, in the midst of that war, German poets once more began to essay +the dramatic form, the national drama was left outside their range of +vision. M. Opitz, who holds an honoured place in the history of the +German language and literature, in this branch of his labours contented +himself with translations of classical dramas and of Italian +pastorals--among the latter one of Rinuccini's _Daphne_, with which the +history of the opera in Germany begins. A. Gryphius, though as a comic +dramatist lacking neither vigour nor variety, and acquainted with +Shakespearian[279] as well as Latin and Italian examples, chiefly +devoted himself to the imitation of Latin, earlier French, and Dutch +tragedy, the rhetorical dialogue of which he effectively reproduced in +the Alexandrine metre.[280] Neither the turgid dramas of D. C. von +Lohenstein (1665-1684), for whose _Cleopatra_ the honour of having been +the first German tragedy has been claimed, nor even the much healthier +comedies of Chr. Weise (1642-1708) were brought upon the stage; while +the religious plays of J. Klay (1616-1656) are mere recitations +connected with the Italian growth of the _oratorio_. The frigid +allegories commemorative of contemporary events, with which the learned +from time to time supplied the theatre, and the pastoral dramas with +which the idyllic poets of Nuremberg--"the shepherds of the +Pegnitz"--after the close of the war gratified the peaceful longings of +their fellow-citizens, were alike mere scholastic efforts. These indeed +continued in the universities and _gymnasia_ to keep alive the love of +both dramatic composition and dramatic representation, and to encourage +the theatrical taste which led so many students into the professional +companies. But neither these dramatic exercises nor the _ludi Caesarei_ +in which the Jesuits at Vienna revived the pomp and pageantry, and the +mixture of classical and Christian symbolism, of the Italian +Renaissance, had any influence upon the progress of the popular drama. + + + The stage before its reform. + +The history of the German stage remains to about the second decennium of +the 18th century one of the most melancholy, as it is in its way one of +the most instructive, chapters of theatrical history. Ignored by the +world of letters, the actors in return deliberately sought to emancipate +their art from all dependence upon literary material. Improvisation +reigned supreme, not only in farce, where _Hans Wurst_, with the aid of +Italian examples, never ceased to charm his public, but in the serious +drama likewise (in which, however, he also played his part) in those +_Haupt- und Staatsactionen_ (high-matter-of-state-dramas), the plots of +which were taken from the old stores of the English comedians, from the +religious drama and its sources, and from the profane history of all +times. The hero of this period is "Magister" J. Velthen (or Veltheim), +who at the head of a company of players for a time entered the service +of the Saxon court, and, by reproducing comedies of Moliere and other +writers, sought to restrain the licence which he had himself carried +beyond all earlier precedent, but who had to fall back into the old ways +and the old life. His career exhibits the climax of the efforts of the +art of acting to stand alone; after his death (c. 1693) chaos ensues. +The strolling companies, which now included actresses, continued to +foster the popular love of the stage, and even under its most degraded +form to uphold its national character against the rivalry of the opera, +and that of the Italian _commedia dell' arte_. From the latter was +borrowed Harlequin, with whom _Hans Wurst_ was blended, and who became a +standing figure in every kind of popular play.[281] He established his +sway more especially at Vienna, where from about 1712 the first +permanent German theatre was maintained. But for the actors in general +there was little permanence, and amidst miseries of all sorts, and under +the growing ban of clerical intolerance, the popular stage seemed +destined to hopeless decay. A certain vitality of growth seems, under +clerical guidance, to have characterized the plays of the people in +Bavaria and parts of Austria. + + + F. K. Neuber, Gottsched, and the Leipzig school. + + Ekhof + +The first endeavours to reform what had thus apparently passed beyond +all reach of recovery were neither wholly nor generally successful; but +this does not diminish the honour due to two names which should never be +mentioned without respect in connexion with the history of the drama. +Friederike Karoline Neuber's (1697-1760) biography is the story of a +long-continued effort which, notwithstanding errors and weaknesses, and +though, so far as her personal fortunes were concerned, it ended in +failure, may almost be described as heroic. As directress of a company +of actors which from 1727 had its headquarters at Leipzig (hence the new +school of acting is called the Leipzig school), she resolved to put an +end to the formlessness of the existing stage, to separate tragedy and +comedy, and to extinguish Harlequin. In this endeavour she was supported +by the Leipzig professor J. Chr. Gottsched, who induced her to establish +French tragedy and comedy as the sole models of the regular drama. +Literature and the stage thus for the first time joined hands, and no +temporary mischance or personal misunderstanding can obscure the +enduring significance of the union. Not only were the abuses of a +century swept away from a representative theatre, but a large number of +literary works, designed for the stage, were produced on it. It is true +that they were but versions or imitations from the French (or in the +case of Gottsched's _Dying Cato_ from the French and English),[282] and +that at the moment of the regeneration of the German drama new fetters +were thus imposed upon it, and upon the art of acting at the same time. +But the impulse had been given, and the beginning made. On the one hand, +men of letters began to subject their dramatic compositions to the test +of performance; the tragedies and comedies of J. E. Schlegel, the +artificial and sentimental comedies of Chr. F. Gellert and others, +together with the vigorous popular comedies of the Danish dramatist +Holberg, were brought into competition with translations from the +French. On the other hand, the Leipzig school exercised a continuous +effect upon the progress of the art of acting, and before long K. Ekhof +began a career which made his art a fit subject for the critical study +of scholars, and his profession one to be esteemed by honourable men. + + + Lessing. + +Among the authors contributing to Mme. Neuber's Leipzig enterprise had +been a young student destined to complete, after a very different +fashion and with very different aims, the work which she and Gottsched +had begun. The critical genius of G. E. Lessing is peerless in its +comprehensiveness, as in its keenness and depth; but if there was any +branch of literature and art which by study and practice he made +pre-eminently his own, it was that of the drama. As bearing upon the +progress of the German theatre, his services to its literature, both +critical and creative, can only be described as inestimable. The +_Hamburgische Dramaturgie_, a series of criticisms of plays and (in its +earlier numbers) of actors, was undertaken in furtherance of the attempt +to establish at Hamburg the first national German theatre (1767-1769). +This fact alone would invest these papers with a high significance; for, +though the theatrical enterprise proved abortive, it established the +principle upon which the progress of the theatre in all countries +depends--that for the dramatic art the immediate theatrical public is no +sufficient court of appeal. But the direct effect of the _Dramaturgie_ +was to complete the task which Lessing had in previous writings begun, +and to overthrow the dominion of the arbitrary French rules and the +French models established by Gottsched. Lessing vindicated its real laws +to the drama, made clear the difference between the Greeks and their +would-be representatives, and established the claims of Shakespeare as +the modern master of both tragedy and comedy. His own dramatic +productivity was cautious, tentative, progressive. His first step was, +by his _Miss Sara Sampson_ (1755), to oppose the realism of the English +domestic drama to the artificiality of the accepted French models, in +the forms of which Chr. F. Weisse (1726-1804) was seeking to treat the +subjects of Shakespearian plays.[283] Then, in his _Minna von Barnhelm_ +(1767), which owed something to Farquhar, he essayed a national comedy +drawn from real life, and appealing to patriotic sentiments as well as +to broad human sympathies. It was written in prose (like _Miss Sara +Sampson_), but in form held a judicious mean between French and English +examples. + + + Efforts of the theatre and of literature. + +The note sounded by the criticisms of Lessing met with a ready response, +and the productivity displayed by the nascent dramatic literature of +Germany is astonishing, both in the efforts inspired by his teachings +and in those which continued to controvert or which aspired to transcend +them. On the stage, Harlequin and his surroundings proved by no means +easy to suppress, more especially at Vienna, the favourite home of +frivolous amusement; but even here a reform was gradually effected, and, +under the intelligent rule of the emperor Joseph II., a national stage +grew into being. The mantle of Ekhof fell upon the shoulders of his +eager younger rival, F. L. Schruder, who was the first to domesticate +Shakespeare upon the German stage. In dramatic literature few of +Lessing's earlier contemporaries produced any works of permanent value, +unless the religious dramas of F. G. Klopstock--a species in which he +had been preceded by J. J. Bodmer--and the patriotic _Bardietten_ of the +same author be excepted. S. Gessner, J. W. L. Gleim, and G. K. Pfeffel +(1736-1809) composed pastoral plays. But a far more potent stimulus +prompted the efforts of the younger generation. The translation of +Shakespeare, begun in 1762 by C. M. Wieland, whose own plays possess no +special significance, and completed in 1775 by Eschenburg, which +furnished the text for many of Lessing's criticisms, helps to mark an +epoch in German literature. Under the influence of Shakespeare, or of +their conceptions of his genius, arose a youthful group of writers who, +while worshipping their idol as the representative of nature, displayed +but slight anxiety to harmonize their imitations of him with the demands +of art. The notorious _Ugolino_ of H. W. von Gerstenberg seemed a +premonitory sign that the coming flood might merely rush back to the +extravagances and horrors of the old popular stage; and it was with a +sense of this danger in prospect that Lessing in his third important +drama, the prose tragedy _Emilia Galotti_ (1772), set the example of a +work of incomparable nicety in its adaptation of means to end. But +successful as it proved, it could not stay the excesses of the _Sturm +und Drang_ period which now set in. Lessing's last drama, _Nathan der +Weise_ (1779), was not measured to the standard of the contemporary +stage; but it was to exercise its influence in the progress of time--not +only by causing a reaction in tragedy from prose to blank verse (first +essayed in J. W. von Brawe's _Brutus_, 1770), but by ennobling and +elevating by its moral and intellectual grandeur the branch of +literature to which in form it belongs. + + + The Sturm und Drang. + +Meanwhile the young geniuses of the _Sturm und Drang_ had gone forth, as +worshippers rather than followers of Shakespeare, to conquer new worlds. +The name of this group of writers, more remarkable for their collective +significance than for their individual achievements, was derived from a +drama by one of the most prolific of their number, M. F. von +Klinger;[284] other members of the fraternity were J. A. Leisewitz[285] +(1752-1806), M. R. Lenz[286] and F. Muller[287] the "painter." The +youthful genius of the greatest of German poets was itself under the +influences of this period, when it produced the first of its +masterpieces. But Goethe's _Gutz von Berlichingen_ (1773), both by the +choice and treatment of its national theme, and by the incomparable +freshness and originality of its style, holds a position of its own in +German dramatic literature. Though its defiant irregularity of form +prevented its complete success upon the stage, yet its influence is far +from being represented by the series of mostly feeble imitations to +which it gave rise. The _Ritterdramen_ (plays of chivalry) had their day +like similar fashions in drama or romance; but the permanent effect of +_Gutz_ was, that it crushed as with an iron hand the last remnants of +theatrical conventionality (those of costume and scenery included), and +extinguished with them the lingering respect for rules and traditions of +dramatic composition which even Lessing had treated with consideration. +Its highest significance, however, lies in its having been the first +great dramatic work of a great national poet, and having definitively +associated the national drama with the poetic glories of the national +literature. + + + Goethe. + + Schiller. + +Thus, in the classical period of that literature, of which Goethe and +Schiller were the ruling stars, the drama had a full share of the +loftiest of its achievements. Of these, the dramatic works of Goethe +vary so widely in form and character, and connect themselves so +intimately with the different phases of the development of his own +self-directed poetic genius, that it was impossible for any of them to +become the starting-points of any general growths in the history of the +German drama. His way of composition was, moreover, so peculiar to +himself--conception often preceding execution by many years, part being +added to part under the influence of new sentiments and ideas and views +of art, flexibly followed by changes of form--that the history of his +dramas cannot be severed from his general poetic and personal biography. +His _Clavigo_ and _Stella_, which succeeded _Gutz_, are domestic dramas +in prose; but neither by these, nor by the series of charming pastorals +and operas which he composed for the Weimar court, could any influence +be exercised upon the progress of the national drama. In the first +conception of his _Faust_, he had indeed sought the suggestion of his +theme partly in popular legend, partly in a domestic motive familiar to +the authors of the _Sturm und Drang_ (the story of Gretchen); the later +additions to the First Part, and the Second Part generally, are the +results of metaphysical and critical studies and meditations belonging +to wholly different spheres of thought and experience. The dramatic +unity of the whole is thus, at the most, external only; and the standard +of judgment to be applied to this wondrous poem is not one of dramatic +criticism. _Egmont_, originally designed as a companion to _Gutz_, was +not completed till many years later; there are few dramas more effective +in parts, but the idea of a historic play is lost in the elaboration of +the most graceful of love episodes. In _Iphigenia_ and _Tasso_, Goethe +exhibited the perfection of form of which his classical period had +enabled him to acquire the mastery; but the sphere of the action of the +former (perfect though it is as a dramatic action), and the nature of +that of the latter, are equally remote from the demands of the popular +stage. Schiller's genius, unlike Goethe's, was naturally and +consistently suited to the claims of the theatre. His juvenile works, +_The Robbers_, _Fiesco_, _Kabale und Liebe_, vibrating under the +influence of an age of social revolution, combined in their prose form +the truthful expression of passion with a considerable admixture of +extravagance. But, with true insight into the demands of his art, and +with unequalled single-mindedness and self-devotion to it, Schiller +gradually emancipated himself from his earlier style; and with his +earliest tragedy in verse, _Don Carlos_, the first period of his +dramatic authorship ends, and the promise of the second announces +itself. The works which belong to this--from the _Wallenstein_ trilogy +to _Tell_--are the acknowledged masterpieces of the German poetic drama, +treating historic themes reconstructed by conscious dramatic +workmanship, and clothing their dialogue in a noble vestment of +rhetorical verse. The plays of Schiller are the living embodiment of the +theory of tragedy elaborated by Hegel, according to which its proper +theme is the divine, or, in other words, the moving ethical, element in +human action. In one of his later plays, _The Bride of Messina_, +Schiller attempted a new use of the chorus of Greek tragedy; but the +endeavour was a splendid error, and destined to exercise no lasting +effect. The reaction against Schiller's ascendancy began with writers +who could not reconcile themselves with the cosmopolitan and +non-national elements in his genius, and is still represented by eminent +critics; but the future must be left to settle the contention. + + + The popular stage. + +Schiller's later dramas had gradually conquered the stage, over which +his juvenile works had in this time triumphantly passed, but on which +his _Don Carlos_ had met with a cold welcome. For a long time, however, +its favourites were authors of a very different order, who suited +themselves to the demands of a public tolerably indifferent to the +literary progress of the drama. After popular tastes had oscillated +between the imitators of _Gotz_ and those of _Emilia Galotti_, they +entered into a more settled phase, as the establishment of standing +theatres at the courts and in the large towns increased the demand for +good "acting" plays. Famous actors, such as Schruder and A. W. Iffland, +sought by translations or compositions of their own to meet the popular +likings, which largely took the direction of that irrepressible +favourite of theatrical audiences, the sentimental domestic drama.[288] +But the most successful purveyor of such wares was an author who, though +not himself an actor, understood the theatre with a professional +instinct--August von Kotzebue. His productivity ranged from the domestic +drama and comedy of all kinds to attempts to rival Schiller and +Shakespeare in verse; and though his popularity (which ultimately proved +his doom) brought upon him the bitterest attacks of the romantic school +and other literary authorities, his self-conceit is not astonishing, and +the time has come for saying that there is some exaggeration in the +contempt which has been lavished upon him by posterity.[289] Nor should +it be forgotten that German literature had so far failed to furnish the +comic stage with any successors to _Minna von Barnhelm_; for Goethe's +efforts to dramatize characteristic events or figures of the +Revolutionary age[290] must be dismissed as failures, not from a +theatrical point of view only. The joint efforts of Goethe and Schiller +for the Weimar stage, important in many respects for the history of the +German drama, at the same time reveal the want of a national dramatic +literature sufficient to supply the needs of a theatre endeavouring to +satisfy the demands of art. + + + The romantic school. + +Meanwhile the so-called romantic school of German literature was +likewise beginning to extend its labours to original dramatic +composition. From the universality of sympathies proclaimed by this +school, to whose leaders Germany owed its classical translation of +Shakespeare,[291] and an introduction to the dramatic literatures of so +many ages and nations,[292] a variety of new dramatic impulses might be +expected; while much might be hoped for the future of the national drama +(especially in its mixed and comic species) from the alliance between +poetry and real life which they preached, and which some of them sought +personally to exemplify. But in practice universality presented itself +as peculiarity or even as eccentricity; and in the end the divorce +between poetry and real life was announced as authoritatively as their +union had been. Outside this school, the youthful talent of Th. Kurner, +whose early promise as a dramatist[293] might perhaps have ripened into +a fulness enabling him not unworthily to occupy the seat left vacant by +his father's friend Schiller, was extinguished by a patriotic death. The +efforts of M. von Collin (1779-1824) in the direction of the historical +drama remained isolated attempts. But of the leaders of the romantic +school, A. W.[294] and F. von Schlegel[295] contented themselves with +frigid classicalities; and L. Tieck, in the strange alembic of his +_Phantasus_, melted legend and fairy-tale, novel and drama,[296] poetry +and satire, into a compound, enjoyable indeed, but hardly so in its +entirety, or in many of its parts, to any but the literary mind. + + + Later dramatists. + +F. de La Motte Fouque infused a spirit of poetry into the chivalry +drama. Klemens Brentano was a fantastic dramatist unsuited to the stage. +Here a feeble outgrowth of the romanticists, the "destiny dramatists" Z. +Werner[297]--the most original of the group--A. Mullner,[298] and Baron +C. E. v. Houwald,[299] achieved a temporary _furore_; and it was with an +attempt in the same direction[300] that the Austrian dramatist F. +Grillparzer began his long career. He is assuredly, what he pronounced +himself to be, the foremost of the later dramatic poets of Germany, +unless that tribute be thought due to the genius of H. von Kleist, who +in his short life produced, besides other works, a romantic drama[301] +and a rustic comedy[302] of genuine merit, and an historical tragedy of +singular originality and power.[303] Grillparzer's long series of plays +includes poetic dramas on classical themes[304] and historical subjects +from Austrian history,[305] or treated from an Austrian point of view. +The romantic school, which through Tieck had satirized the drama of the +_bourgeoisie_ and its offshoots, was in its turn satirized by Count A. +von Platen-Hallermund's admirable imitations of Aristophanic +comedy.[306] Among the objects of his banter were the popular playwright +E. Raupach, and K. Immermann, a true poet, who is, however, less +generally remembered as a dramatist. F. Hebbel[307] is justly ranked +high among the foremost later dramatic poets of his country, few of whom +equal him in intensity. The eminent lyrical (especially ballad) poet L. +Uhland left behind him a large number of dramatic fragments, but little +or nothing really complete. Other names of literary mark are those of C. +D. Grabbe, J. Mosen, O. Ludwig[308] (1813-1865), a dramatist of great +power, and "F. Halm" (Baron von Munch-Bellinghausen) (1806-1871), and, +among writers of a more modern school, K. Gutzkow,[309] G. +Freytag,[310] and H. Laube.[311] L. Anzengruber, a writer of real genius +though restricted range, imparted a new significance to the Austrian +popular drama,[312] formerly so commonplace in the hands of F. Raimund +and J. Nestroy. + + + The German stage of the latter half of the 19th century. + +During the long period of transition which may be said to have ended +with the establishment of the new German empire, the German stage in +some measure anticipated the developments which more spacious times were +to witness in the German drama. The traditions of the national theatre +contemporary with the great epoch of the national literature were kept +alive by a succession of eminent actors--such as the nephews of Ludwig +Devrient, himself an artist of the greatest originality, whose most +conspicuous success, though nature had fitted him for Shakespeare, was +achieved in Schiller's earliest play.[313] Among the younger generation +of Devrients the most striking personality was that of Emil; his elder +brother Karl August, husband of Wilhelmine Schruder-Devrient, the +brilliant star of the operatic stage, and their son Friedrich, were also +popular actors; yet another brother, Eduard, is more widely remembered +as the historian of the German stage. Partly by reason of the number and +variety of its centres of intellectual and artistic life, Germany was +long enabled both to cherish the few masterpieces of its own drama, and, +with the aid of a language well adapted for translation, to give +admittance to the dramatic masterpieces of other nations also, and to +Shakespeare in particular, without going far in the search for +theatrical novelty or effect. But a change came over the spirit of +German theatrical management with the endeavours of H. Laube, from about +the middle of the century onwards, at Vienna (and Leipzig), which +avowedly placed the demands of the theatre as such above those of +literary merit or even of national sentiment. In a less combative +spirit, F. Dingelstedt, both at Munich, which under King Maximilian he +had made a kindly nurse of German culture, and, after his efforts there +had come to an untimely end,[314] at Weimar and at Vienna, raised the +theatre to a very high level of artistic achievement. The most memorable +event in the annals of his managements was the production on the Weimar +stage of the series of Shakespeare's _histories_. At a rather later +period, of which the height extended from 1874 to 1890, the company of +actors in the service, and under the personal direction, of Duke George +of Saxe-Meiningen, created a great effect by their performances both in +and outside Germany--not so much by their artistic improvements in +scenery and decoration, as by the extraordinary perfection of their +_ensemble_. But no dramaturgic achievement in the century could compare +in grandeur either of conception or of execution with Richard Wagner's +Bayreuth performances, where, for the first time in the history of the +modern stage, the artistic instinct ruled supreme in all the conditions +of the work and its presentment. Though the _Ring of the Nibelungs_ and +its successors belong to opera rather than drama proper, the importance +of their production (1876) should be overlooked by no student of the +dramatic art. Potent as has been the influence of foreign dramatic +literatures--whether French or Scandinavian--and that of a movement +which has been common to them all, and from which the German was perhaps +the least likely to exclude itself, the most notable feature in the +recent history of the German drama has been its quick response to wholly +new demands, which, though the attempt was made with some persistence, +could no longer be met without an effort to span the widths and sound +the depths of a more spacious and more self-conscious era.[315] + + +h. _Dutch Drama._ + +Among other modern European dramas the Dutch is interesting both in its +beginnings, which to all intents and purposes form part of those of the +German, and because of the special influence of the so-called chambers +of the _rederykers_ (rhetoricians), from the early years of the 15th +century onwards, which bear some resemblance to the associations of the +master-singers in contemporary higher Germany. The earliest of their +efforts, which so effectively tempered the despotism of both church and +state, seem to have been of a dramatic kind; and a manifold variety of +allegories, moralities and comic entertainments (_esbatementen_ or +comedies, _kluiten_ and _factien_ or farces) enhanced the attractions of +those popular pageants in which the Netherlands surpassed all other +countries of the North. The Low Countries responded more largely to the +impulse of the Renaissance than, with some local exceptions, any other +of the Germanic lands. They necessarily had a considerable share in the +cultivation of the modern Latin drama; and, while the author of +_Acolastus_ may be claimed as its own by the country of his adoption as +well as by that of his birth, G. M. Macropedius (Langhveldt) (c. +1475-1508), who may be regarded as the foremost Latin dramatist of his +age, was born and died at Hertogenbosch or in its immediate vicinity. +Macropedius, who belonged to the fraternity of the Common Life, was a +writer of great realistic power as well as of remarkable literary +versatility.[316] The art of acting flourished in the Low Countries even +during the troubles of the great revolt; but the birth of the regular +drama was delayed till the advent of quieter times. Dutch dramatic +literature begins, under the influence of the classical studies +cherished in the seats of learning founded before and after the close of +the war, with the classical tragedies of S. Koster (c. 1585-c. 1650). +The romantic dramas and farces of Gerbrand Bredero (1585-1618) and the +tragedies of P. Hooft (1581-1647) belong to the same period; but its +foremost dramatic poet was J. van den Vondel, who from an imitation of +classical models passed to more original forms of dramatic composition, +including a patriotic play and a dramatic treatment of part of what was +to form the theme of _Paradise Lost_.[317] But Vondel had no successor +of equal mark. The older form of Dutch tragedy--in which the chorus +still appeared--was, especially under the influence of the critic A. +Pels, exchanged for a close imitation of the French models, Corneille +and Racine; nor was the attempt to create a national comedy successful. +Thus no national Dutch drama was permanently called into life. + + +i. _Scandinavian Drama._ + + Denmark. + + The modern Norwegian drama. + +Still more distinctly, the dramatic literature of the Scandinavian +peoples springs from foreign growths. In Denmark, where the beginnings +of the drama in the plays of the schoolmaster Chr. Hansen recall the +mixture of religious and farcical elements in contemporary German +efforts, the drama in the latter half of the 16th century remained +essentially scholastic, and treated scriptural or classical subjects, +chiefly in the Latin tongue. J. Ranch (1539-1607) and H. S. Sthen were +authors of this type. But often in the course of the 17th century, +German and French had become the tongues of Danish literature and of the +Danish theatre; in the 18th Denmark could boast a comic dramatist of +thorough originality and of a wholly national cast. L. Holberg, one of +the most noteworthy comic poets of modern literature, not only marks an +epoch in the dramatic literature of his native land, but he contributed +to overthrow the trivialities of the German stage in its worst period, +which he satirized with merciless humour,[318] and set an example, never +surpassed, of a series of comedies[319] deriving their types from +popular life and ridiculing with healthy directness those vices and +follies which are the proper theme of the most widely effective species +of the comic drama. Among his followers, P. A. Heiberg is specially +noted. Under the influence of the Romantic school, whose influence has +nowhere proved so long-lived as in the Scandinavian north, A. +Ohlenschlager began a new era of Danish literature. His productivity, +which belongs partly to his native and partly to German literary +history, turned from foreign[320] to native themes; and other writers +followed him in his endeavours to revive the figures of Northern heroic +legend. But these themes have in their turn given way in the +Scandinavian theatre to subjects coming nearer home to the popular +consciousness, and treated with a direct appeal to the common experience +of human life, and with a searching insight into the actual motives of +human action. The most remarkable movement to be noted in the history of +the Scandinavian drama, and one of the most widely effective of those +which mark the more recent history of the Western drama in general, had +its origin in Norway. Two Norwegian dramatists, H. Ibsen and Bjurnsterne +Bjurnson, standing as it were side by side, though by no means always +judging eye to eye, have vitally influenced the whole course of modern +dramatic literature in the direction of a fearlessly candid and close +delineation of human nature. The lesser of the pair in inventive genius, +and in the power of exhibiting with scornful defiance the conflict +between soul and circumstance, but the stronger by virtue of the +conviction of hope which lies at the root of achievement, is +Bjurnson.[321] Ibsen's long career as a dramatist exhibits a succession +of many changes, but at no point any failure in the self-trust of his +genius. His early masterpieces were dramatic only in form.[322] His +world-drama of _Emperor and Galilean_ was still unsuited to a stage +rarely trodden to much purpose by idealists of Julian's type. The +beginnings of his real and revolutionary significance as a dramatist +date from the production of his first plays of contemporary life, the +admirable satirical comedy _The Pillars of Society_ (1877), the subtle +domestic drama _A Doll's House_ (1879), and the powerful but repellent +_Ghosts_ (1881),[323] which last, with the effects of its appearance, +modern dramatic literature may even to this day be said to have failed +altogether to assimilate. Ibsen's later prose comedies--(verse, he +writes, has immensely damaged the art of acting, and a tragedy in +iambics belongs to the species Dodo)--for the most part written during +an exile which accounts for the note of isolation so audible in many of +them, succeeded one another at regular biennial intervals, growing more +and more abrupt in form, cruel in method, and intense in elemental +dramatic force. The prophet at last spoke to a listening world, but +without the amplitude, the grace and the wholeheartedness which are +necessary for subduing it. But it may be long before the art which he +had chosen as the vehicle of his comments on human life and society +altogether ceases to show the impress of his genius. + + +j. _Drama of the Slav Peoples._ + + Polish. + +As to the history of the Slav drama, only a few hints can be here given. +Its origins have not yet--at least in works accessible to Western +students--been authoritatively traced. The Russian drama in its earliest +or religious beginnings is stated to have been introduced from Poland +early in the 12th century; and, again, it would seem that, when the +influence of the Renaissance touched the east of Europe, the religious +drama was cultivated in Poland in the 16th, but did not find its way +into Russia till the 17th century. It is probable that the species was, +like so many other elements of culture, imported into the Carpathian +lands in the 15th or 16th century from Germany. How far indigenous +growths, such as the Russian popular puppet-show called _vertep_, which +about the middle of the 17th century began to treat secular and popular +themes, helped to foster dramatic tendencies and tastes, cannot here be +estimated. The regular drama of eastern Europe is to all intents and +purposes of Western origin. Thus, the history of the Polish drama may be +fairly dated as beginning with the reign of the last king of Poland, +Stanislaus II. Augustus, who in 1765 solemnly opened a national theatre +at Warsaw. This institution was carried on till the fatal year 1794, and +saw the production of a considerable number of Polish plays, mostly +translated or adapted, but in part original--as in the case of one or +two of those from the active pen of the secretary to the educational +commission, Zablonski. But it was not till after the last partition +that, paradoxically though not wholly out of accordance with the history +of the relations between political and literary history, the attempts of +W. Bogulawski and J. N. Kaminski to establish and carry on a Polish +national theatre were crowned with success. Its literary mainstay was a +gifted Franco-Pole, Count Alexander Fredro (1793-1876), who in the +period between the Napoleonic revival and the long exodus fathered a +long-lived species of modern Polish comedy, French in origin (for Fredro +was a true disciple of Moliere), and wholly out of contact with the +sentiment that survived in the ashes of a doomed nation.[324] His +complaint as to the exiguity of the Polish literary public--a brace of +theatres and a bookseller's handcart--may have been premature; but a +national drama was most certainly impossible in a denationalised and +dismembered land, in whose historic capital the theatre in which Polish +plays continued to be produced seemed garrisoned by Cossack officers. + + + Russian. + +Much in the same way, though with a characteristic difference, the +Russian regular drama had its origin in the cadet corps at St +Petersburg, a pupil of which, A. Sumarokov (1718-1777), has been +regarded as the founder of the modern Russian theatre. As a tragic poet +he seems to have imitated Racine and Voltaire, though treating themes +from the national history, among others the famous dramatic subject of +the False Demetrius. He also translated _Hamlet_. As a comic dramatist +he is stated to have been less popular than as a tragedian; yet it is in +comedy that he would seem to have had the most noteworthy successors. +Among these it is impossible to pass by the empress Catherine II., whose +comedies seem to have been satirical sketches of the follies and foibles +of her subjects, and who in one comedy as well as in a tragedy had the +courage to imitate Shakespeare. Comedy aiming at social satire long +continued to temper the conditions of Russian society, and had +representatives of mark in such writers as A. N. Ostrovsky of Moscow and +Griboyedov, the author of _Gore et uma_. + +In any survey of the Slav drama that of the Czech peoples, whose +national consciousness has so fully reawakened, must not be overlooked. +A Czech theatre was called into life at Prague as early as the 18th +century; and in the 19th its demands, centring in a sense of +nationality, were met by J. N. Stepinek (1783-1844), W. C. Klicpera +(1792-1859) and J. C. Tyl (1808-1856); and later writers continued to +make use of the stage for a propaganda of historical as well as +political significance. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The following works treat the general theory of the + drama and the dramatic art, together with the principles of dramaturgy + and of the art of acting. Works which have reference to the drama of a + particular period or of a particular nation only are mentioned + separately. Works which deal with special authors only have been + intentionally omitted in this bibliography, as being mentioned in the + articles in the several authors. + + Aristotle's _Poetics_ (text and transl. by S. H. Butcher, London, + 1895; transl. by T. Twining, London, 1812; see also Donaldson's + _Theatre of the Greeks_); H. Baumgart, _Aristoteles, Lessing, u. + Goethe. Uber das ethische u. asthetische Princip der Tragudie_ + (Leipzig, 1877); H. A. Bulthaupt, _Dramaturgie des Schauspiels_ (4 + vols., Oldenburg u. Leipzig, 1893-1902); L. Campbell, _Tragic Drama in + Aeschylus, Sophocles and Shakespeare_ (London, 1904); P. Corneille, + _Discours du poeme dramatique--de la tragedie--des trois unites, + OEuvres_, vol. i. (Paris, 1862); W. L. Courtney, _The Idea of Tragedy + in Ancient and Modern Drama_ (Westminster, 1900); Diderot, _De la + poesie dramatique_. _Entretiens sur le Fils Naturel, OEuvres + completes_, vii. (Paris, 1875); J. Dryden, _Essay of Dramatic Poesy_ + and other critical essays (_Essays of J. Dryden_, ed. W. P. Ker, 2 + vols., Oxford, 1900); G. Freytag, _Die Technik des Dramas_ (5th ed., + Leipzig, 1886); G. W. F. Hegel, _Vorlesungen uber Asthetik_, ed. H. G. + Hotho, bd. 3, chap. iii. c. _Die dramatische Poesie_ (Werke, x. 3; + Berlin, 1838); G. Larroumet, _Etudes d'histoire et de critique + dramatiques_, 2 ser. (Paris, 1892-1899); G. E. Lessing, _Hamburgische + Dramaturgie_. _Erlautert von F. Schroter u. R. Thiele_ (Halle, 1877); + _Materialien zu Lessing's Hamburgische Dramaturgie, von W. Cosack_ + (Paderborn, 1876); G. H. Lewes, _On Actors and the Art of Acting_ + (London, 1875); Sir T. Martin, _Essays on the Drama_ (London, 1874); + K. Mantzius, _History of Theatrical Art in Ancient and Modern Times_, + transl. by L. von Cossel (London, 1903, &c.); G. Meredith, _Essay on + Comedy_ (Westminster, 1897); R. Prolss, _Katechismus der Dramaturgie_ + (Leipzig, 1877); H. T. Rotscher, _Die Kunst der dramatischen + Darstellung_ (3 vols., Berlin, 1841-1846); _Jahrbucher fur dramatische + Kunst u. Literatur_ (Berlin and Frankfort, 1848-1849); P. de + Saint-Victor, _Les Deux Masques, tragedie--comedie_ (3rd ed., 3 vols., + Paris, 1881, &c.); Saint-Marc Girardin, _Cours de litterature + dramatique_ (7th ed., 5 vols., Paris, 1868); A. W. von Schlegel, + _Lectures on Dramatic Art and Literature_ (Eng. transl., London, + 1846); Sir W. Scott, _Essays on Chivalry, Romance and the Drama_ + (including his article "Drama" written for the Supplement to the 4th + edition of the _Ency. Brit._, and reprinted in the 5th, 6th, 7th and + 8th editions); F. T. Vischer, _Asthetik_, vol. iv. (Stuttgart, 1857). + + The fullest general history of the drama extant is J. L. Klein's + _Geschichte des Dramas_, 13 vols. and index (Leipzig, 1865-1886). See + also, for encyclopaedic information, W. Davenport Adams, _A Dictionary + of the Drama_, vol. i. (London, 1904); C. M. E. Bequet, _Encyclopedie + de l'art dramatique_ (Paris, 1886); A. Pougin, _Dictionnaire + historique et pittoresque du theatre et des arts qui s'y rattachent_ + (Paris, 1885). + + The drama of the Eastern nations is generally treated in:--A. P. + Brozzi, _Teatri e spettacoli dei popoli orientali Ebrei, Arabi, + Persani, Indiani, Cinesi, Giapponesi e Giavanesi_ (Milan, 1887); Comte + J. A. de Gobineau, _Les Religions et les philosophies dans l'Asie + centrale_ (2nd ed., Paris, 1866). + + The following works deal with the Indian drama:--M. Schuyler, + _Bibliography of the Sanskrit Drama_ (Columbia Univ., Indo-Iranian, + ser. iii., New York, 1906); H. H. Wilson, _Select Specimens of the + Theatre of the Hindus_, transl. from the original Sanskrit (with + introduction on the dramatic system of the Hindus), 3rd ed., 2 vols. + (London, 1871); S. Levi, _Le Theatre indien_ (supplements Wilson) + (Paris, 1891). + + For Chinese:--Tscheng-Ki-Tong, _Le Theatre des Chinois_ (Paris, 1886); + see also H. A. Giles, _History of Chinese Literature_ (London, 1901). + + For Japanese:--C. Florenz, _Gesch. d. japan. Litteratur_, vol. i. 1 + (Leipzig, 1905); see also F. Brinkley, _Japan, its History, Arts and + Literature_, vol. iii. (Boston and Tokyo, 1901). + + For Persian:--A. Chodzko, _Theatre persan. Choix de teazies ou drames, + traduits pour la premiere fois du persan par A. Chodzko_ (Paris, + 1878); E. Montet, _Le Theatre en Perse_ (Geneva, 1888); Sir L. Pelly, + _The Miracle Play of Hasan and Husain, collected from oral tradition; + revised with explanatory notes by A. N. Wollaston_ (2 vols., London, + 1879). + + Of works treating of the ancient Greek and Roman drama only a small + selection can be given here. In the case of the Greek drama, the chief + histories of literature--such as G. Bernhardy's, K. O. Muller's (Eng. + tr. by Sir G. C. Lewis, with continuation by J. W. Donaldson) and G. + Murray's--and general histories--such as Grote's, Thirlwall's, + Curtius's, &c.--should also be consulted; and for the administration + and finance of the Attic theatre, Boeckh's _Public Economy of Athens_, + Eng. tr. (London, 1842). Much useful information will be found in _A + Companion to Greek Studies_, ed. by L. Whibley (Cambridge, 1905). The + standard collective edition of the ancient Greek dramatic poets is the + _Poetae scenici Graeci_, ed. C. W. Dindorf (5th ed., Leipzig, 1869), + and that of the Comic poets A. Meineke's _Historia critica comicorum + Graecorum. Cum fragmentis_ (5 vols., Berlin, 1839-1857). Aristotle's + _Poetics_, cited above, will of course be consulted for the theory of + the Greek drama in particular; and much valuable critical matter will + be found in passages of Bentley's _Phalaris_ (1699), which are + reprinted in Donaldson's _Theatre of the Greeks_. The following later + works, some of which treat of the ancient classical drama in general, + may be noted:--E. A. Chaignet, _La Tragedie grecque_ (Paris, 1877); J. + Denys, _Histoire de la comedie grecque_ (2 vols., Paris, 1886); J. W. + Donaldson, _The Theatre of the Greeks_ (7th ed., London, 1860); Du + Meril, _Histoire de la comedie. Periode primitive_ (Paris, 1864); + _Histoire de la comedie ancienne_ (Paris, 1869); A. E. Haigh, _The + Tragic Drama of the Greeks_ (Oxford, 1896); _The Attic Theatre_ + (Oxford, 1898); G. Korting, _Gesch. des Theaters in seinen Beziehungen + zur Kunstentwickelung der dramatischen Dichtkunst_, Bd. i. _Gesch. des + griechischen u. romischen Theaters_ (Paderborn, 1897); R. G. Moulton, + _The Ancient Classical Drama_ (Oxford, 1898); M. Patin, _Etude sur les + tragiques grecs_ (3 vols., Paris, 1861); C. M. Rapp, _Gesch. des + griechischen Schauspiels vom Standpunkt der dramatischen Kunst_ + (Tubingen, 1862); H. Weil, _Etudes sur le drame antique_ (Paris, + 1897); F. G. Welcker, "Die griechischen Tragodien, mit Rucksicht auf + den epischen Cyklus" (_Rhein. Mus._ Suppl. ii.) 3 pts. (Bonn, + 1839-1841). + + In addition to the works of individual Roman dramatists, and critical + writings concerning them, see _Scaenicae Romanorum poesis fragmenta_, + 2 vols. (I. Tragic, II. Comic) ed. by O. Ribbeck (3rd ed. Leipzig, + 1897-1898). W. S. Teuffel's _History of Roman Literature_, Eng. tr. (2 + vols., London, 1891-1892), and M. Schanz' _Gesch. der romischen + Litteratur bis Justinian_ (2 vols., Munich, 1890-1892), may be + consulted for a complete view of the course of the Roman drama. For + its later developments consult Dean Merivale's _History of the Romans + under the Empire_, and S. Dill's _Roman Society in the Last Days of + the Western Empire_ (London, 1898). See also L. Friedlander, + _Darstellungen aus der Sittengeschichte Roms_, 6th ed., vol. ii. + (Leipzig, 1889); M. Meyer, _Etude sur le theatre latin_ (Paris, 1847); + O. Ribbeck, _Die rumische Tragudie im Zeitalter der Republik_ + (Leipzig, 1875). + + The following works treat of the medieval drama, religious or secular, + of its origins and of usages connected with it:--H. Anz, _Die + lateinischen Magierspiele_ (Leipzig, 1905); E. K. Chambers, _The + Medieval Stage_ (2 vols., Oxford, 1903), with full bibliography; E. de + Coussemaker, _Drames liturgiques du moyen age_ (Paris, 1861); du + Meril, _Theatri liturgici quae Latina supersunt monumenta_ (Caen and + Paris, 1849); C. A. Hase, _Miracle Plays and Sacred Dramas_ (Eng. + tr.), (London, 1880); Hilarius, _Versus et ludi_, ed. + Champollion-Figeac (Paris, 1838); R. Froning, _Das Drama des + Mittelalters_ (3 vols., Stuttgart, 1891, &c.); Edwin Norris, _Ancient + Cornish Drama_ (ed. and tr. 2 vols., 1859); W. Hone, _Ancient + Mysteries Described_ (London, 1823); A. von Keller, _Fastnachtsspiele + aus dem 15. Jahrhundert_ (Stuttgart, 1858); C. Magnin, _Les Origines + du theatre moderne_, vol. i. only (Paris, 1838); F. J. Mone, + _Schauspiele des Mittelalters_ (2 vols., Karlsruhe, 1846); A. Reiners, + _Die Tropen-, Prosen-, u. Prafations-Gesange_ (Luxemburg, 1884); J. de + Rothschild, _Le Mistere du Viel Testament_, ed. J. de Rothschild (6 + vols., Paris, 1878-1891); M. Sepet, _Le Drame chretien au moyen age_ + (Paris, 1878); _Origines catholiques du theatre moderne_. _Les drames + liturgiques_ (Paris, 1901); T. Wright, _Early Mysteries and other + Latin Poems of the 12th and 13th Centuries_ (London, 1838); C. A. G. + von Zezschwitz, _Das mittelalterliche Drama_ (Leipzig, 1881). + + For French medieval drama in particular:--L. Cledat, _Le Theatre en + France au moyen age_ (Paris, 1896); E. Fournier, _Le Theatre francais + avant la Renaissance_ (Paris, 1872); _Miracles de Notre Dame par + personnages_, ed. G. Paris and U. Robert (8 vols., Paris, 1876-1893); + L. J. N. Monmerque and F. Michel, _Theatre francais au moyen age_ + (Paris, 1839); L. Petit de Julleville, _Histoire du theatre en France + au moyen age_ (5 vols., Paris, 1880-1886); E. L. N. Viollet-le-Duc, + _Ancien Theatre francais_ (10 vols., Paris, 1854-1857). + + For the medieval Italian in particular:--A. d'Ancona, _Sacre + rappresentazioni dei secoli XIV., XV. e XVI._ (Florence, 1872). + + For medieval English in particular:--Ahn, _English Mysteries and + Miracle Plays_ (Treves, 1867); S. W. Clarke, _The Miracle Play in + England_ (London, 1897); F. W. Fairholt, _Lord Mayors' Pageants_, 2 + vols. (Percy Soc.) (London, 1843-1844); A. W. Pollard, _English + Miracle Plays, Moralities and Interludes_ (3rd ed., Oxford 1898); + _Chester Plays_ ed. T. Wright, 2 vols. (Shakespeare Soc.) (London, + 1843), re-ed. by H. Deimling (part only) (E.E.T.S.) (London, 1893); + _Coventry Plays, Ludus Coventriae_, ed. J. O. Halliwell (-Phillipps) + (Shakespeare Soc.) (London, 1841); _Coventry Plays_. _Dissertation on + the pageants or mysteries at Coventry_, by T. Sharp (Coventry, 1825); + _Digby Plays_, ed. F. J. Furnivall (E.E.T.S.) (London, 1896); + _Towneley Mysteries_, ed. G. England and A. W. Pollard (E.E.T.S.) + (London, 1897); _York Plays_, ed. L. T. Smith (Oxford, 1885). + + For the German in particular:--F. J. Mone, _Altteutsche Schauspiele_ + (Quedlinburg, 1841); H. Reidt, _Das geistliche Schauspiel des + Mittelalters in Deutschland_ (Frankfort, 1868); E. Wilken, _Gesch. der + geistlichen Spiele in Deutschland_ (Guttingen, 1872). + + The revival of the classical drama in the Renaissance age is treated + in P. Bahlmann's _Die Erneuerer des antiken Dramas und ihre ersten + dramatischen Versuche_, 1314-1478 (Munster, 1896); A. Chassang's _Des + essais dramatiques imites de l'antiquite au XIV^e et XV^e siecle_ + (Paris, 1852); and in V. de Amitis' _L'Imitazione latina nella + commedia del XVI. secolo_ (Pisa, 1871). + + Both the medieval and portions of the later drama are treated in W. + Cloetta, _Beitrage zur Litteraturgeschichte des Mittelalters und der + Renaissance_ (2 vols., Halle, 1890-1892); W. Creizenach, _Geschichte + des neueren Dramas_, vols. i.-iii. (Halle, 1893-1903); R. Prulss, + _Geschichte des neueren Dramas_ (3 vols., Leipzig, 1881-1883). See + also L.-V. Gofflot, _Le Theatre au college, du moyen age a nos jours_, + Preface par Jules Claretie (Paris, 1907). + + The history of the modern Italian drama, in its various stages, is + treated by A. d'Ancona, _Origini del teatro italiano_ (2nd ed., 2 + vols., Turin, 1891); J. Dornis, _Le Theatre italien contemporain_ + (Paris, 1904); H. Lyonnet, _Le Theatre en Italie_ (Paris, 1900); L. + Riccoboni, _Histoire du theatre italien_ (2 vols., Rome, 1728-1731); + J. C. Walker, _Historical Memoir on Italian Tragedy_ (London, 1799). + See also A. Gaspary, _History of Early Italian Literature_, transl. by + H. Oelsner (London, 1901). + + Some information as to the modern Greek drama is given in R. Nicolai, + _Geschichte der neugriechischen Literatur_ (Leipzig, 1876). + + Modern Spanish drama:--M. A. Fee, _Etudes sur l'ancien theatre + espagnol_ (Paris 1873); A. Gassier, _Le Theatre espagnol_ (Paris, + 1898); G. H. Lewes, _The Spanish Drama_ (London, 1846); H. Lyonnet, + _Le Theatre en Espagne_ (Paris, 1897); A. Schaffer, _Gesch. des + spanischen Nationaldramas_ (2 vols., Leipzig, 1890); L. de + Viel-Castel, _Essai sur le theatre espagnol_ (2 vols., Paris, 1882). + See also G. Ticknor, _History of Spanish Literature_ (3 vols., London, + 1863). + + Modern Portuguese:--H. Lyonnet, _Le Theatre au Portugal_ (Paris, + 1898); see also K. von Reinhardstoettner's _Portugiesische + Literaturgeschichte_ (Sammlung Guschen) (Leipzig, 1904), which + contains a useful bibliography. + + Regular French drama (tragedy and comedy):--F. Brunetiere, _Les + Epoques du theatre francais_, 1636-1850 (Paris, 1892); E. Chasles, + _La Comedie en France au XVI^e siecle_ (Paris, 1862); E. Faguet, _La + Tragedie francaise au XVI^e siecle_ (Paris, 1883); A. Filon, _The + Modern French Drama_ (London, 1898); V. Fournel, _Le Theatre au XVII^e + siecle_ (Paris, 1892); E. Fournier, _Le Theatre francais au XVI^e et + au XVII^e siecle_ (2 vols., Paris, s.d.); F. Hawkins, _Annals of the + French Stage_ (London, 1884); H. Lucas, _Hist. philosophique et + litteraire du theatre francais depuis son origine_ (3 vols., Paris); + Parfait, _Hist. du theatre francais_ (15 vols., Paris, 1745-1749); L. + Petit de Julleville, _Le theatre en France depuis ses origines jusqu'a + nos jours_ (Paris, 1899); E. Rigal, _Le theatre francais avant la + periode classique_ (Paris, 1901); E. Roy, _Etudes sur le theatre + francais du XV^e et du XVI^e siecle_ (Dijon, 1901). + + The connexion between the Italian and French theatre in the 17th + century is traced in L. Moland, _Moliere et la comedie italienne_ (2nd + ed., Paris, 1867). See also J. C. Demogeot's, H. von Laun's and + Saintsbury's histories of French Literature. + + Of the ample literature concerned with the modern English drama the + following works may be specially mentioned, as dealing with the entire + range of the English drama, or with more than one of its periods:--D. + E. Baker, _Biographia dramatica_ (continued to 1811 by J. Reed and S. + Jones) (3 vols., London, 1812); J. P. Collier, _History of English + Dramatic Poetry_, new ed. (3 vols., London, 1879); C. Dibdin, _A + complete History of the English Stage_ (5 vols., London, 1800); J. J. + Jusserand, _Le Theatre en Angleterre_ (2nd ed., Paris, 1881); G. + Langbaine, _Lives and Characters of the English Dramatic Poets_ + (London, 1699); _The Poetical Register: or lives and characters of the + English dramatick poets_ (London, 1719); C. M. Rapp, _Studien uber das + englische Theater_, 2 parts (Tubingen, 1862); "G. S. B.", _Study of + the Prologue and Epilogue in English Literature_ (London, 1884); _The + Thespian Dictionary: or dramatic biography of the 18th century_ + (London, 1802); A. W. Ward, _History of English Dramatic Literature to + the Death of Queen Anne_ (2nd ed., 3 vols., London, 1899); see also + the histories of English Literature or Poetry, by Warton, Taine, ten + Brinck, Courthope, Saintsbury, &c. + + The following works contain the most complete lists of English + plays:--W. W. Greg, _A List of English Plays written before 1643 and + published before 1700_ (Bibliogr. Soc.) (London, 1900); J. O. + Halliwell (-Phillipps), _Dictionary of Old English Plays_ (London, + 1860); W. C. Hazlitt, _A Manual for the Collector and Amateur of Old + English Plays_ (London, 1892); R. W. Lowe, _Bibliographical Account of + English Dramatic Literature_ (London, 1888) is a valuable handbook for + the whole of English theatrical literature and matters connected with + it. The unique work of Genest, _Some Account of the English Stage from + 1660-1830_ (10 vols., Bath, 1832), includes, with a chronological + series of plays acted on the English stage, notices of unacted plays, + and critical remarks on plays and actors. "A Compleat List" of English + dramatic poets and plays to 1747 was published with T. Whincop's + _Scanderbeg_ in that year. + + The following are the principal collections of English plays--_Ancient + British Drama_, ed. Sir W. Scott (3 vols., London, 1810); _Modern + British Drama_, ed. Sir W. Scott (5 vols., London, 1811); W. Bang, + _Materialien zur Kunde des alteren englischen Dramas_ (Louvain, 1902, + &c.); A. H. Bullen, _Collection of Old English Plays_ (4 vols., + London, 1882); R. Dodsley, _A Select Collection of Old Plays_, 4th ed. + by W. C. Hazlitt (15 vols., London, 1874-1876); _Dramatists of the + Restoration_ (14 vols., Edinburgh, 1872-1879); _Early English + Dramatists_, ed. J. S. Farmer (London, 1905, &c.); C. M. Gayley, + _Representative English Comedies_ (vol. i., New York, 1903); T. + Hawkins, _Origin of the English Drama_ (3 vols., Oxford, 1773); Mrs + Inchbald, _British Theatre_, new ed. (20 vols., London, 1824), _Modern + Theatre_ (10 vols., London, 1811), _Collection of Farces and + Afterpieces_ (7 vols., London, 1815); Malone Society publications + (London, 1907, &c.); J. M. Manly, _Specimens of the Pre-Shakespearean + Drama_ (3 vols., London, 1897); _Mermaid Series of Old Dramatists_, + ed. Havelock Ellis (London, 1887. &c.); _Old English Drama_ (2 vols., + London, 1825); _Pearson's Reprints of Elizabethan and Jacobean Plays_ + (London, 1871, &c.). + + The following deal with the Elizabethan and Jacobean drama in + especial:--W. Creizenach, _Die Schauspiele der englischen Komudianten_ + (Berlin, 1895); J. W. Cunliffe, _The Influence of Seneca on + Elizabethan Tragedy_ (London, 1893); F. G. Fleay, _A Chronicle History + of the London Stage, 1559-1642_ (London, 1890), _A Biographical + Chronicle of the English Drama, 1559-1642_ (London, 1891); W. C. + Hazlitt, _The English Drama and Stage under the Tudor and Stuart + Princes, 1543-1664_ (London, 1869); W. Hazlitt, _Dramatic Literature + of the Age of Elizabeth_ (Works, ed. A. R. Waller, vol. v.) (London, + 1902); A. F. von Schack, _Die englischen Dramatiker vor, neben, und + nach Shakespeare_ (Stuttgart, 1893); J. A. Symonds, _Shakspere's + Predecessors in the English Drama_ (London, 1884). + + As to the Latin academical drama of the Elizabethan age see G. B. + Churchill and W. Keller, "Die latein. Universitats-Dramen Englands in + der Zeit d. Kunigin Elizabeth" in _Jahrbuch der deutschen + Shakespeare-Gesellschaft_. For a short bibliography of the Oxford + academical drama, 1547-1663, see the introduction to Miss M. L. Lee's + edition of _Narcissus_ (London, 1893). A list of Oxford plays will + also be found in _Notes and Queries_, ser. vii., vol. ii. For a list + of Cambridge plays from 1534 to 1671, the writer of this article is + indebted to Prof. G. C. Moore-Smith of the university of Sheffield. + + For an account of the Mask see R. Brotanek, _Die englischen + Maskenspiele_ (Vienna and Leipzig, 1902); H. A. Evans, _English + Masques_ (London, 1897); W. W. Greg, _A List of Masques, Pageants, + &c._ (Bibliogr. Soc.) (London, 1902). + + As to early London theatres see T. F. Ordish, _Early London Theatres_ + (London, 1894). + + Some information as to puppet-plays, &c., will be found in Henry + Morley's _Memoirs of Bartholomew Fair_ (London, 1859). + + Among earlier critical essays on the Elizabethan and Stuart drama + should be mentioned those of Sir Philip Sidney, G. Puttenham and W. + Webbe, T. Rymer and Dryden. For recent essays and notes on the + Elizabethan drama in general, see, besides the essays of Coleridge, + Lamb (including the introductory remarks in the _Specimens_), Hazlitt, + &c., and the remarkable series of articles in the _Retrospective + Review_ (1820-1828), the Publications and Transactions of the Old and + New Shakespeare Societies (1841, &c.; 1874, &c.), which also contain + reprints of early works of great importance for the history of the + Elizabethan drama and stage, such as Henslowe's _Diary_, &c., the + _Jahrbuch der deutschen Shakespeare-Gesellschaft_ (1865, &c.), as well + as the German journals _Anglia_, _Englische Studien_, &c., and the + _Modern Language Review_ (Cambridge). + + The later English drama from the reopening of the theatres (1660) is + treated in L. N. Chase, _The English Heroic Play_ (New York, 1903); C. + Cibber, _Apology for the Life of C. Cibber_, written by himself, new + ed. by R. W. Lowe (2 vols., London, 1889), who has also edited + Churchill's _Rosciad_ and _Apology_ (London, 1891); J. Doran, _Their + Majesties' Servants: annals of the English Stage_ (3 vols., London, + 1888); A. Filon, _Le Theatre anglais: hier, aujourd'hui, demain_ + (Paris, 1896); W. Hazlitt, _A View of the English Stage_ (_Works_, ed. + A. R. Waller, vol. viii.) (London, 1903); W. Nicholson, _The Struggle + for a Free Stage in London_ (Westminster, 1907). + + The following treat of the modern German drama in particular + periods:--R. Prulss, _Gesch. der deutschen Schauspielkunst von den + Anfangen bis 1850_ (Leipzig, 1900); R. E. Prutz, _Vorlesungen uber die + Geschichte des deutschen Theaters_ (Berlin, 1847); R. Froning, _Das + Drama der Reformationszeit_ (Stuttgart, 1900); C. Heine, _Das + Schauspiel der deutschen Wanderbuhne vor Gottsched_ (Halle, 1889); J. + Minor, _Die Schicksalstragodie in ihren Hauptvertretern_ (Frankfort, + 1883); M. Martersteig, _Das deutsche Theater im XIX^ten Jahrh._ + (Leipzig, 1904). See also G. G. Gervinus, _Geschichte der deutschen + Dichtung_ (5th ed., 5 vols., Leipzig, 1871-1874); and the literary + histories of K. Goedeke (_Grundriss_), A. Koberstein, &c. A special + aspect of the drama in modern Germany is dealt with in P. Bahlmann, + _Die lateinischen Dramen von Wimpheling's Stylpho bis zur Mitte des + XVI^ten Jahrhunderts, 1480-1550_ (Munster, 1893), and the same + author's _Jesuiten-Dramen der niederrheinischen Ordensprovinz_ + (Leipzig, 1896). + + The standard history of the modern German stage is Eduard Devrient, + _Gesch. der deutschen Schauspielkunst_ (2 vols., Leipzig, 1848-1861); + see also R. Prulss, _Gesch. der deutschen Schauspielkunst von den + Anfangen bis 1850_ (Leipzig, 1900); O. G. Fluggen, _Biographisches + Buhnen-Lexikon der deutschen Theater_ (Munich, 1892). + + A good account of the history of the Dutch drama is F. von Hellwald's + _Geschichte des hollandischen Theaters_ (Rotterdam, 1874). See also + the authorities under J. van den Vondel. + + Information concerning the Danish drama will be found in the + autobiographies of Holberg, Ohlenschlager and Andersen; see also vol. + i. of G. Brandes's _Main Currents in Nineteenth Century Literature_ + (Eng. tr., London, 1901). As to the modern Norwegian drama see the + same writer's _Ibsen-Bjornson Studies_ (Eng. tr., London, 1899); also + E. Tissot, _Le Drame norvegien_ (Paris, 1893). + + The Russian drama is treated in P. O. Morozov's _Istoria Russkago + Teatra_ (_History of the Russian Theatre_), vol. i. (St Petersburg, + 1889); see also P. de Corvin, _Le Theatre en Russie_ (Paris, 1890). A. + Bruckner, _Geschichte der russischen Literatur_ (Leipzig, 1905), may + be consulted with advantage. Information as to the dramatic portions + of other Slav literatures will be found in A. Pipin and V. Spasovich's + _Istoria Slavianskikh Literatur_ (_History of Slavonic Literatures_), + German translation by T. Pech (2 vols., Leipzig, 1880-1884). + (A. W. W.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] _Gallicanus_, part ii.; _Sapientia_. + + [2] _Gallicanus_, part i.; _Callimachus_; _Abraham_; _Paphnutius_. + + [3] The passion-play of Oberammergau, familiar in its present + artistic form to so many visitors, was instituted under special + circumstances in the days of the Thirty Years' War (1634). Various + reasons account for its having been allowed to survive. + + [4] To the earliest group belong _The Castle of Perseverance_; + _Wisdom who is Christ_; _Mankind_; to the second, or early Tudor + group, Medwell, _Nature_; _The World and the Child_; _Hycke-Scorner_, + &c. + + [5] _Magnyfycence_. + + [6] _New Custome_; N. Woodes, _The Conflict of Conscience_, &c. + + [7] _Albyon Knight_. + + [8] Rastell, _Nature of the Four Elements_; Redford, _Wit and + Science_; _The Trial of Treasure_; _The Marriage of Wit and Science_. + + [9] _The Marriage of Wit and Wisdom_; _The Contention between + Liberality and Prodigality_. + + [10] _Jack Juggler_; _Tom Tiler and his Wife_, &c. + + [11] _The Four P's_, &c. + + [12] _The Disobedient Child_ (c. 1560). + + [13] The [Greek: Christos paschon], an artificial Byzantine product, + probably of the 11th century, glorifying the Virgin in Euripidean + verse, was not known to the Western world till 1542. + + [14] Of G. Manzini della Motta's Latin tragedy on the fall of Antonio + della Scala only a chorus remains. He died after 1389. Probably to + the earlier half of the century belongs the Latin prose drama + _Columpnarium_, the story of which, though it ends happily, resembles + that of _The Cenci_. Later plays in Latin of the historic type are + the extant Landivio de' Nobili's _De captivitate Ducis Jacobi_ (the + _condottiere_ Jacopo Piccinino, d. 1464); C. Verardi's _Historia + Baetica_ (the expulsion of the Moors from Granada) (1492), and the + game author's _Ferdinandus_ (of Aragon) _Servatus_, which is called a + tragi-comedy because it is neither tragic nor comic. The Florentine L. + Dali's _Hiempsal_ (1441-1442) remains in MS. A few tragedies on + sacred subjects were produced in Italy during the last quarter of the + 15th century, and a little later. Such were the religious dramas + written for his pupils by P. Domizio, on which Politian cast + contempt; and the tragedies, following ancient models, of T. da Prato + of Treviso, B. Campagna of Verona, _De passione Redemptoris_; and G. + F. Conti, author of _Theandrothanatos_ and numerous vanished plays. + + [15] _Imber aureus_ (Danae), &c. + + [16] L. Bruni's _Poliscena_ (c. 1395); Sicco Polentone's (1370-1463) + jovial _Lusus ebriorum_ s. _De lege bibia_; the papal secretary P. + Candido Decembrio's (1399-1477) non-extant _Aphrodisia_; L. B. + Alberti's _Philodoxios_ (1424); Ugolino Pisani of Parma's (d. before + 1462) _Philogenia_ and _Confutatio coquinaria_ (a merry students' + play); the _Fraudiphila_ of A. Tridentino, also of Parma, who died + after 1470 and perhaps served Pius II.; Eneo Silvio de' Piccolomini's + own verse comedy, _Chrisis_, likewise in MS., written in 1444; P. + Domizio's _Lucinia_, acted in the palace of Lorenzo de' Medici in + 1478, &c. + + [17] Mondella, _Isifile_ (1582); Fuligni, _Bragadino_ (1589). + + [18] Home, _Douglas_. + + [19] Lazzaroni, _Ulisse il giovane_ (1719). + + [20] _Didone abbandonata_, _Siroe_, _Semiramide_, _Artaserse_, + _Demetris_, &c. + + [21] _Cleopatra_, _Antigone_, _Octavia_, _Mirope_, &c. + + [22] e.g. _Bruto I._ and _II._ + + [23] _Filippo_; _Maria Stuarda_. + + [24] Pellico, _Francesca da Rimini_; Niccolini, _Giovanni da + Procida_; _Beatrice Cenci_; Giacometti, _Cola di Rienzi_ + (Giacometti's masterpiece was _La Marte civile_). + + [25] Pyrogopolinices in the _Miles Gloriosus_. + + [26] The masked characters, each of which spoke the dialect of the + place he represented, were (according to Baretti) _Pantalone_, a + Venetian merchant; _Dottore_, a Bolognese physician; _Spaviento_, a + Neapolitan braggadocio; _Pullicinella_, a wag of Apulia; + _Giangurgulo_ and _Coviello_, clowns of Calabria; _Gelfomino_, a + Roman beau; _Brighella_, a Ferrarese pimp; and _Arlecchino_, a + blundering servant of Bergamo. Besides these and a few other such + personages (of whom four at least appeared in each play), there were + the _Amorosos_ or _Innamoratos_, men or women (the latter not before + 1560, up to which time actresses were unknown in Italy) with serious + parts, and _Smeraldina_, _Colombina_, _Spilletta_, and other + _servettas_ or waiting-maids. All these spoke Tuscan or Roman, and + wore no masks. + + [27] _Pasitea_. + + [28] _Amicizia_. + + [29] _Milesia_. + + [30] _La Lena_; _Il Negromante_. + + [31] _La Cassaria_; _I Suppositi_. + + [32] Of Machiavelli's other comedies, two are prose adaptations from + Plautus and Terence, _La Clizia_ (Casina) and _Andria_; of the two + others, simply called _Commedie_, and in verse, his authorship seems + doubtful. + + [33] _La Cortigiana_, _La Talanta_, _Il Ipocrito_, _Il Filosofo_. + + [34] _Momolo Cortesan_ (_Jerome the Accomplished Man_); _La Bottega + del caffe_, &c. + + [35] _La Vedova scaltra_ (_The Cunning Widow_); _La Putta onorata_ + (_The Respectable Girl_); _La Buona Figlia_; _La B. Sposa_; _La B. + Famiglia_; _La B. Madre_ (the last of which was unsuccessful; + "goodness," says Goldoni, "never displeases, but the public weary of + every thing"), &c.; and _Il Burbero benefico_, called in its original + French version _Le Bourru bienfaisant_. + + [36] _Moliere_; _Terenzio_; _Tasso_. + + [37] _Pamela_; _Pamela Maritata_; _Il Filosofo Inglese_ (_Mr + Spectator_). + + [38] _L' Amore delle tre melarancie_ (_The Three Lemons_); _Il + Corvo_. + + [39] _Turandot_; _Zobeide_. + + [40] _L' Amore delle tre m._ (against Goldoni); _L' Angellino + Belverde_ (_The Small Green Bird_), (against Helvetius, Rousseau and + Voltaire). + + [41] _Aspasia_; _Polyxena_. + + [42] _Ephemeridophobos_. + + [43] _Timoleon_; _Konstantinos Palaeologos_; _Rhigas of Pherae_. + + [44] _The Three Hundred_, or _The Character of the Ancient Hellene_ + (Leonidas); _The Death of the Orator_ (Demosthenes); _A Scion of + Timoleon_, &c. + + [45] The term is the same as that used in the old French collective + mysteries (_journees_). + + [46] In some of his plays (_Comedia Serafina_; _C. Tinelaria_) there + is a mixture of languages even stranger than that of dialects in the + Italian masked comedy. + + [47] _Necromanticus_, _Lena_, _Decepti_, _Suppositi_. + + [48] _Los Enganos_ (_Gli Ingannati_). + + [49] _Cornelia_ (_Il Negromante_). + + [50] Lope, _Armelina_ (Medea and Neptune as _deus ex machina_--si + modo machina adfuisset). + + [51] _Menennos_. + + [52] _El Azero de Madrid_ (_The Steel Water of Madrid_); _Dineros son + Calidad_ (= _The Dog in the Manger_), &c. + + [53] _La Estrella de Sevilla_ (_The Star of Seville_, i.e. Sancho the + Brave); _El Nuevo Mundo_ (Columbus), &c. + + [54] _Roma Abrasada_ (_R. in Ashes_--Nero). + + [55] _Arauco domado_ (_The Conquest of Arauco_, 1560). + + [56] _La Moza de cantaro_ (_The Water-maid_). + + [57] _Las Mocedades_ (_The Youthful Adventures_) _del Cid_. + + [58] _Don Gil de las calzas verdes_ (_D. G. in the Green Breeches_). + + [59] _El Burlador de Sevilla y Convivado de piedra_ (_The Deceiver of + Seville_, i.e. Don Juan, _and the Stone Guest_). + + [60] _El Divino Orfeo_, &c. + + [61] _El Magico prodigioso_; _El Purgatorio de San Patricio_; _La + Devocion de la Cruz_. + + [62] _El Principe constante_ (Don Ferdinand of Portugal). + + [63] _La Dama duende_ (_The Fairy Lady_). + + [64] _Vida es sueno_ (_Life is a Dream_). + + [65] _El Lindo Don Diego_ (_Pretty Don Diego_). + + [66] _Desden con el desden_ (_Disdain against Disdain_). + + [67] Luzan, _La Razon contra la mode_ (La Chaussee, _Le Prejuge a la + mode_). + + [68] _El Delinquente honrado (The Honoured Culprit)._ + + [69] _El Si de las ninas (The Young Maidens' Consent)._ + + [70] _O cioso_ (_The Jealous Man_), &c. His _Inez de Castro_ is a + tragedy with choruses, partly founded on the Spanish play of J. + Bermudez. + + [71] _Don Duardos_, _Amadis_, &c. + + [72] _Auto das Regateiras_ (_The Market-women_), _Pratica de + compadres_ (_The Gossips_), &c. + + [73] _Emphatri[)o]es_, _Filodemo_, _Seleuco_. + + [74] _Os Estrangeiros_, _Os Vilhalpandos_ (_The Impostors_). + + [75] _Eufrosina_, _Ulyssipo_ (Lisbon), _Aulegrafia_. + + [76] _Astarte_, _Hermione_, _Megara_. + + [77] These assumptions of names remind us that we are in the period + of the "_Arcadias_." + + [78] _Cat[=a]o_. + + [79] _Manoel de Sousa_, &c. + + [80] _Antigone_ and _Electra_; _Hecuba_; and _Iphigenia in Aulis_. + The _Andria_ was also translated, and in 1540 Ronsard translated the + _Plutus_ of Aristophanes. + + [81] Trissino, _Sofonisba_, by de Saint-Gelais. + + [82] _La Soltane_ (1561). + + [83] _Daire (Darius)._ + + [84] _La Mort de Cesar._ + + [85] _Achille_ (1563). + + [86] _Les Lacenes_; _Marie Stuart or L'Ecossaise_. + + [87] _La Juive_, &c. + + [88] _Les Corivaux_ (1573). + + [89] _La Reconnue_ (Le Capitaine Rodomont). + + [90] _Les Esbahis._ + + [91] _Les Contens_ (S. Parabosco, _I Contenti_). + + [92] _Les Neapolitaines_; _Les Desesperades de l'amour_. + + [93] _Le Laquais (Il Ragazzo)._ + + [94] _Les Tromperies (Gli Inganni)._ + + [95] "L. du Peschier" (de Barry), _La Comedie des comedies_. + + [96] _L'Amour tyrannique._ + + [97] _Agrippine_, _Le Pedant joue_. + + [98] _Marianne._ + + [99] _Sophonisbe._ + + [100] _Les Bergeries._ + + [101] _Melite_; _Clitandre_, &c. + + [102] _Le Veritable Saint Genest_; _Venceslas_. + + [103] Steele, _The Lying Lover_; Foote, _The Liar_; Goldoni, _Il + Bugiardo_. + + [104] Ruiz de Alarcon, _La Verdad sospechosa._ + + [105] _L'Illusion comique_ is antithetically mixed. + + [106] _Andromaque_; _Phedre_; _Berenice_, &c. + + [107] _Esther_; _Athalie_. + + [108] _Le Cid_; _Polyeucte_. + + [109] _Esther_; _Athalie_. + + [110] Corneille, _Rodogune_; Racine, _Phedre_. + + [111] _Brutus_; _La Mort de Cesar_; _Semiramis_. + + [112] _OEdipe_; _Le Fanatisme_ (_Mahomet_). + + [113] _Adelaide du Guesclin_. + + [114] _L'Orphelin de la Chine_. + + [115] _Tanis et Zelide_. + + [116] _Les Guebres_. + + [117] _Olimpie_. + + [118] _Tancrede_. + + [119] _La Mort de Cesar_; _Zaire_ (_Othello_). + + [120] _Hamlet_; _Le Roi Lear_, &c. + + [121] The lectures delivered by the late Professor A. Beljame at + Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1905-1906 may be mentioned as valuable + contributions to our knowledge of the growth of Shakespeare's + influence in France. + + [122] Quinault, _L'Amour indiscret_ (Newcastle and Dryden's _Sir + Martin Mar-all_). + + [123] _Le Mercure galant_; _Esope a la ville_; _Esope a la cour_ + (Vanbrugh, _Aesop_). + + [124] _Le Bal_ (_M. de Pourceaugnac_); Geronte in _Le Legataire + universel_ (Argan in _Le Malade imaginaire_); _La Critique du L._ + (_La C. de l'ecole des femmes_). + + [125] _Le Joueur_; _Le Legataire universel_. + + [126] _Crispin rival de son maitre_; _Turcaret_. + + [127] _Le Mechant_. + + [128] _La Metromanie_. + + [129] _Le Jeu de l'amour et du hasard_; _Le Legs_; _La Surprise de + l'amour_; _Les Fausses Confidences_; _L'Epreuve_. + + [130] _Le Philosophe marie_; _Le Glorieux_; _Le Dissipateur_. + + [131] _La Fausse Antipathie_; _Le Prejuge a la mode_; _L'Ecole des + amis_; _Meluside_; _Pamela_. _L'Ecole des meres_ was the play which + Frederick the Great described as turning the stage into a _bureau + general de la fadeur_. + + [132] See especially _Nanine_, founded on the original _Pamela_. + + [133] _Le Philosophe sans le savoir_; _La Gageure imprevue_. + + [134] e.g. _Eugenie_ (the original of Goethe's _Clavigo_) and _Les + Deux Amis_, or _Le Negociant de Lyon_. + + [135] _Richard Coeur de Lion_, &c. + + [136] _Zemire et Azor_; _Jeannot et Jeannette_. + + [137] _Les Muses galantes_; _Le Devin du village_. + + [138] _Pygmalion_. + + [139] _Charles IX, ou l'ecole des rois_. + + [140] _Hernani_ (1839); _Le Roi s'amuse_; _Ruy Blas_; _Les + Burgraves_, &c. Even in _Torquemada_, the fruit of its author's old + age, and full of bombast, the original power has not altogether gone + out. + + [141] _Chatterton_. + + [142] _Francois le champi_; _Claudie_. + + [143] _Le Gendre de M. Poirier_. + + [144] _On ne badine pas avec l'amour_, as interpreted by Delaunay, + must always remain the most exquisite type of this inimitable + _genre_. + + [145] _Theatre de Clara Gazul_. _La Famille Carvajal_, one of these + pieces, treats the same story as that of _The Cenci_. + + [146] _Lucrece_ (1843); _L'Honneur et l'argent_; _Charlotte Corday_. + + [147] _La Cigue_; _L'Aventuriere_; _Gabrielle_; _Le Fils de Giboyer_, + &c. + + [148] _Valerie_; _Bertrand et Raton_; _Le Verre d'eau_, &c. + + [149] _Louis XI._ + + [150] _Adrienne Lecouvreur_. + + [151] _La Dame aux camelias_; _Le Demi-monde_; _Le Supplice d'une + femme_; _Les Idees de Mme Aubray_; _L'Etrangere_; _Francillon_. + + [152] _Les Pattes de mouche_; _Nos bons villageois_; _Patrie_. + + [153] _Le Monde ou l'on s'ennuie_. + + [154] _Frou-frou_. + + [155] As has been already seen, Sir David Lyndsay's celebrated + _Satyre of the Three Estaits_, a dramatic manifesto in favour of the + Reformation, is in form a morality pure and simple. + + [156] _Tom Tiler and his Wife_ (1578); _A Knack to know a Knave_ (c. + 1594); _Sir Clyomon and Sir Clamydes_ (misattributed to G. Peele), + (printed 1599). + + [157] An earlier drama by him, _Christus redivivus_, is said to have + been printed at Cologne. + + [158] _Oedipus_; _Dido_; _Ulysses redux_. + + [159] By A. Guarna. + + [160] _Pax_; _Troas_; _Menaechmi_; _Oedipus_; _Mostellaria_; + _Hecuba_; _Amphytruo_; _Medea_. These fall between 1546 and 1560. The + date and place of the production of William Goldingham of Trinity + Hall's _Herodes_, some time after 1567, are unknown. + + [161] The date and place of performance of the Latin _Fatum + Vortigerni_ are unknown; but it was not improbably produced at a + later time than Shakespeare's _Richard II._, which it seems in + certain points to resemble. + + [162] Latin "academical" plays directly imitated from Seneca, but of + unknown date, are _Solymannidae_ (or the story of Solyman II. and his + son Mustapha), and _Tomumbeius_ (Tuman Bey, sultan of Egypt, 1516); + yet others exhibit his influence. + + [163] _"Supposes" and "Jocasta,"_ ed. J. W. Cunliffe. + + [164] His _Palamon and Arcyte_ (produced in Christ Church hall, + Oxford, in 1566) is not preserved; or we should be able to compare + with _The Two Noble Kinsmen_ this early dramatic treatment of a + singularly fine theme. + + [165] _The History of the Collier._ + + [166] _A Historie of Error_ (1577), one of the many imitations of the + _Menaechmi_, may have been the foundation of the _Comedy of Errors_. + In the previous year was printed the old _Taming of a Shrew_, founded + on a novel of G. F. Straparola. Part of the plot of Shakespeare's + _Taming of the Shrew_ may have been suggested by _The Supposes_. + + [167] _Treatise wherein Dicing, Dauncing, Vaine Playes or Enterluds + ... are reproved_, &c. (1577). + + [168] _The School of Abuse._ + + [169] _The Anatomy of Abuses._ + + [170] H. Denham, G. Whetstone (the author of _Promos and Cassandra_), + W. Rankine. + + [171] It may be mentioned that the practice of companies of players, + of one kind or another, being taken into the service of members of + the royal family, or of great nobles, dates from much earlier times + than the reign of Elizabeth. So far back as 1400/1 the corporation of + Shrewsbury paid rewards to the _histriones_ of Prince Henry and of + the earl of Stafford, and in 1408/9 reference is made to the players + of the earl and countess of Arundel, of Lord Powys, of Lord Talbot + and of Lord Furnival. + + [172] _The Woman in the Moone_; _Sapho and Phao_. + + [173] _Alexander and Campaspe._ + + [174] _Endimion_; _Mydas_. + + [175] _Gallathea._ + + [176] _Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay._ + + [177] _The Wounds of Civil War._ With Greene he wrote _A + Looking-Glass for London_. + + [178] _Summer's Last Will and Testament_ is his sole entire extant + play. _Dido, Queen of Carthage_, is by him and Marlowe. + + [179] _Patient Grissil_ (with Dekker and Haughton). + + [180] _Hoffman, or A Revenge for a Father._ + + [181] _Henry VIII._ + + [182] Ford, _Perkin Warbeck_. + + [183] _Edward IV._; _If You Know Not Me_, &c. + + [184] _Henry VIII._ + + [185] _The Merry Wives of Windsor._ + + [186] Massinger, _The Virgin Martyr_; Shirley, _St Patrick for + Ireland_. + + [187] _Cleopatra_; _Philotas_. + + [188] _Darius_; _Croesus_; _Julius Caesar_; _The Alexandraean + Tragedy_. + + [189] _The Sad Shepherd_. + + [190] _The Faithful Shepherdess._ + + [191] _The Queen's Arcadia._ + + [192] _Sejanus his Fall_; _Catiline his Conspiracy_. + + [193] _Bussy d'Ambois_; _The Revenge of B. d'A._; _The Conspiracy of + Byron_; _The Tragedy of B._; _Chabot, Admiral of France_ (with + Shirley). + + [194] _Arden of Faversham_; _A Yorkshire Tragedy_. + + [195] _A Woman killed with Kindness_; _The English Traveller_. + + [196] _Vittoria Coromboni_; _The Duchess of Malfi_. + + [197] _'Tis Pity She's a Whore_; _The Broken Heart_. + + [198] _Every Man in his Humour_; _Every Man out of his Humour_. + + [199] Shadwell, _The Humorists_. + + [200] It is impossible in a summary survey to seek to discriminate by + any kind of evidence the respective shares in many Elizabethan plays, + and the respective credit due to them, of the joint writers. Yet some + such inquiry is necessary before judging the claims to remembrance of + highly-gifted dramatists such as William Rowley, his namesake Samuel, + John Day, and not a few others. + + [201] The Latin comedy _Victoria_ by Abraham Fraunce of St John's was + written some time before 1583, and dedicated to Sir Philip Sidney; + but there is no evidence to show that it was ever acted. + + [202] (Bishop) Hacket's _Loyola_ was acted at Trinity in 1623. + + [203] _Naufragium joculare--The Guardian_ (rewritten later as _The + Cutter of Coleman Street_). + + [204] Chapman, Marston (and Jonson), _Eastward Hoe_ (1605); + Middleton, _A Game at Chess_ (1624); Shirley and Chapman, _The Ball_ + (1632); Massinger(?), _The Spanish Viceroy_ (1634). + + [205] _Twelfth Night._ + + [206] _The Puritan, or the Widow of Watling Street_, by "W. S." + (Wentworth Smith?). + + [207] _The Alchemist_; _Bartholomew Fair_. + + [208] Chapman, _An Humorous Day's Mirth_; Marston, _The Dutch + Courtesan_; Middleton, _The Family of Love_. + + [209] Among these was Sir Richard Fanshawe's English version of the + _Pastor fido_ (1646); after his death were published his translations + of two plays by A. de Mendoza. + + [210] _A Short View of Tragedy_ (1693). + + [211] _The Black Prince_; _Tryphon_; _Herod the Great_; _Altemira._ + + [212] _The Indian Queen._ + + [213] _The Indian Emperor_; _Tyrannic Love_; _The Conquest of + Granada._ + + [214] _Essay of Dramatic Poesy._ + + [215] _Essay of Heroic Plays._ + + [216] A direct satirical invective against rhymed tragedy of the + "heroic" type is to be found in Arrowsmith's comedy _Reformation_ + (1673). + + [217] _The Grounds of Criticism in Tragedy._ + + [218] _All for Love (Antony and Cleopatra)._ + + [219] _Don Sebastian._ + + [220] _The Rival Queens_; _Lucius Junius Brutus_; _The Massacre of + Paris._ + + [221] _Don Carlos_; _The Orphan_; _Venice Preserved._ + + [222] _Oroonoko_; _The Fatal Marriage._ + + [223] _The Mourning Bride._ + + [224] _The Fair Penitent_; _Jane Shore._ + + [225] A notable influence was exercised upon English comedy as well + as upon other branches of literature by C. de Saint-Evremond, a + soldier and man of fashion who was possessed of great intellectual + ability and of a charming style. Though during his long exile in + England--from 1670 to his death--he never learned English, his + critical works included _Remarks on English Comedy_ (1677), and one + of his own comedies, the celebrated _Sir Politick Would-be_, + professed to be composed "_a la maniere angloise_." + + [226] _Epsom Wells_; _The Squire of Alsatia_; _The Volunteers._ + + [227] A dramatic curiosity of a rare kind would be _The Female + Rebellion_ (1682), which has been, on evidence rather striking at + first sight, attributed to Sir Thomas Browne. It is more likely to + have been by his son. + + [228] _The Country Wife_; _The Plain-Dealer._ + + [229] _The Double Dealer._ + + [230] _The Recruiting Officer_; _The Beaux' Stratagem._ + + [231] _A Short View of the Immorality and Profaneness of the English + Stage._ + + [232] Sir Novelty Fashion (Lord Foppington), &c. + + [233] _The Lying Lover_; _The Tender Husband._ + + [234] _The Conscious Lovers._ + + [235] _The Absolute Unlawfulness of Stage Entertainments fully + Demonstrated_; _The Stage defended_, &c. (1726). + + [236] _The Siege of Damascus._ + + [237] _Mariamne._ + + [238] _The Double Falsehood._ + + [239] _The Revenge (Othello)._ + + [240] _Fatal Curiosity._ + + [241] _Irene_ (1749); _The Patriot_ attributed to Johnson, is by + Joseph Simpson. + + [242] _Elfrida_; _Caractacus_. + + [243] _Rosamunda._ + + [244] _Love in a Village_, &c. + + [245] _The Waterman_, &c. + + [246] _Pasquin_; _The Historical Register for 1736._ + + [247] _The Golden Rump._ + + [248] The first dramatic performance licensed by the lord chamberlain + after the passing of the act was appropriately entitled _The Nest of + Plays_, and consisted of three comedies named respectively _The + Prodigal Reformed_, _In Happy Constancy_ and _The Trial of Conjugal + Love_. It is a curious fact that in the first decade of the reign of + George III. a severe control of the theatre was very actively exerted + after a positive as well as a negative fashion--objectionable + passages being ruthlessly suppressed and plays actually written and + licensed for the purpose of upholding the existing regime. + + [249] J. Townley, _High Life Below Stairs_ (1759). + + [250] _The Minor_; _Taste_; _The Author_, &c. + + [251] This celebrated play was at first persistently attributed to + Miss Elizabeth Carter. + + [252] _The School for Lovers._ + + [253] _False Delicacy._ + + [254] _The Jealous Wife_; _The Clandestine Marriage._ + + [255] _The Heiress._ + + [256] _The West Indian_; _The Jew._ + + [257] _The Belle's Stratagem_; _A Bold Stroke for a Husband_, &c. + + [258] _The Road to Ruin_, &c. + + [259] _John Bull_; _The Heir at Law_, &c. + + [260] _Midas_; _The Golden Pippin._ + + [261] _Bertram._ + + [262] _Ion._ + + [263] _Fazio._ + + [264] _Philip van Artevelde._ + + [265] _The Death of Marlowe._ + + [266] _Becket_; _The Cup._ + + [267] _Merope._ + + [268] _The Golden Legend._ + + [269] _Love is Enough._ + + [270] _Strafford_; _The Blot on the Scutcheon._ + + [271] _Atalanta in Calydon_; _Bothwell_; _Chastelard_; _Mary Stuart._ + + [272] _Virginius_; _The Hunchback._ + + [273] A drama entitled _Speculum vitae humanae_ is mentioned as + produced by Archduke Ferdinand of the Tirol in 1584. + + [274] _Susanna_ (_Geistliches Spiel_) (1536), &c. Sixt Birk also + brought out a play on the story of _Susanna_, which he had previously + treated in a Latin form, in the vernacular (1552). + + [275] _Siegfried_; _Eulenspiegel_, &c. + + [276] _Susanna_; _Vincentius Ladislaus_, &c. + + [277] _Mahomet_; _Edward III._; _Hamlet_; _Romeo and Juliet_, &c. + + [278] _The Tempest_ (Ayrer, _Comedia v. d. schonen Sidea_). + + [279] _Herr Peter Squenz_ (_Pyramus and Thisbe_); + _Horribilicribrifax_ (Pistol?). + + [280] His son, Christian Gryphius, was author of a curious dramatic + summary (or _revue_) of German history, both literary and political; + but the title of this school-drama is far too long for quotation. + + [281] One of his _aliases_ was _Pickelharnig_. In 1702 the electress + Sophia is found requesting Leibniz to see whether a more satisfactory + specimen of this class cannot be procured from Berlin than is at + present to be found at Hanover. + + [282] Deschamps and Addison. + + [283] _Richard III._; _Romeo and Juliet_. + + [284] _Die Zwillinge_ (_The Twins_); _Die Soldaten_, &c. + + [285] _Julius von Tarent._ + + [286] _Der Hofmeister_ (_The Governor_), &c. + + [287] _Genoveva_, &c. + + [288] Iffland's best play is _Die Jager_ (1785), which recently still + held the stage. From Mannheim he in 1796 passed to Berlin by desire + of King Frederick William II., who thus atoned for the hardships + which he had allowed the pietistic tyranny of his minister Wollner to + inflict upon the Prussian stage as a whole. + + [289] _Die deutschen Kleinstadter_ is his most celebrated comedy and + _Menschenhass und Reue_ one of the most successful of his sentimental + dramas. According to one classification he wrote 163 plays with a + moral tendency, 5 with an immoral, and 48 doubtful. + + [290] _Der Groosskophta_ (Cagliostro); _Der Burgergeneral_. + + [291] A. W. von Schlegel and Tieck's (1797-1833). + + [292] A. W. von Schlegel, _Lectures on Dramatic Art and Literature_, + &c. + + [293] _Zriny_, &c. + + [294] _Ion._ + + [295] _Alarcos._ + + [296] _Kaiser Octavianus_; _Der gestiefelte Kater_ (_Puss in Boots_), + &c. + + [297] _Der 24. Februar_ (produced on the Weimar stage with Goethe's + sanction). + + [298] _Der 29. Februar_; _Die Schuld_ (_Guilt_). + + [299] _Das Bild_ (_The Picture_); _Der Leuchtthurm_ (_The + Lighthouse_). + + [300] _Die Ahnfrau_ (_The Ancestress_). + + [301] _Das Kathchen_ (_Kate_) _von Heilbronn_. + + [302] _Der zerbrochene Krug_ (_The Broken Pitcher_). + + [303] _Prinz Friedrich von Homburg._ + + [304] _Sappho_, _Medea_, &c. + + [305] _Konig Ottokar's Gluck und Ende_ (_Fortune and Fall_); _Der + Bruderzwist_ (_Fraternal Feud_) _in Habsburg_. + + [306] _Die verhangnissvolle Gabel_ (_The Fatal Fork_); _Der + romantische Oedipus_. + + [307] _Die Nibelungen_; _Judith_, &c. + + [308] _Der Erbforster._ + + [309] _Uriel Acosta_; _Der Kunigslieutenant._ + + [310] _Die Valentine._ + + [311] _Die Karlsschuler._ + + [312] _Der Pfarrer von Kirchfeld_; _Der Meineidbauer_; _Die + Kreuzelschreiber_; _Das vierte Gebot_. + + [313] _The Robbers_ (Franz Moor). His next most famous part was Lear. + + [314] In connexion with the production in 1855 of "F. Halm's" + _Fechter von Ravenna_, of which the authorship was claimed by a + half-demented schoolmaster. + + [315] As to more recent developments of German theatrical literature + see the article GERMAN LITERATURE, and the remarks on the influence + of foreign works in the section on _Recent English Drama_ above. + + [316] _Aluta_; _Asotus_; _Hecastus_, &c. + + [317] _Gysbrecht van Aemstel_; _Lucifer_. + + [318] _Ulysses of Ithaca._ + + [319] _The Politician-Tinman_; _Jean de France or Hans Franzen; The + Lying-In_, &c. + + [320] _Aladdin_; _Corregio._ + + [321] _Maria Stuart_; _A Bankruptcy_; _Leonarda._ + + [322] _Brand_; _Peer Gynt._ + + [323] _Samfundets Stuttere_; _Et Dukkehjem_; _Gengangere._ + + [324] _Pan Jowialski_; _Oludki i Poeta_ (_The Misanthrope and the + Poet_). + + + + +DRAMBURG, a town of Germany in the kingdom of Prussia, on the Drage, a +tributary of the Oder, 50 m. E. of Stettin, on the railway +Ruhnow-Neustettin. Pop. 5800. It contains an Evangelical church, a +gymnasium, a hospital and various administrative offices, and carries on +cotton and woollen weaving, tanning, brewing and distilling. + + + + +DRAMMEN, a seaport of Norway, in Buskerud and Jarlsberg-Laurvik _amter_ +(counties), at the head of Drammen Fjord, a western arm of Christiania +Fjord, 33 m. by rail S. W. from Christiania. Pop. (1900) 23,093. Its +situation, at the mouth of the broad Drammen river, between lofty hills, +is very beautiful. It is the junction of railways from Christiania to +Haugsund, Kongsberg and Hunefos, and to Laurvik and Skien. The town is +modern, having suffered from fires in 1866, 1870 and 1880. It consists +of three parts: Bragernaes on the north, divided by the river from +Strumsu and the port, Tangen, on the south. The prosperity of Drammen +depends mainly on the timber trade; and saw-milling is an active +industry, the logs being floated down the river from the upland +forests. Timber and wood-pulp are exported (over half of each to Great +Britain), with paper, ice and some cobalt and nickel ore. The chief +imports are British coal and German machinery. Salmon are taken in the +upper reaches of the Drammen. + + + + +DRANE, AUGUSTA THEODOSIA (1823-1894), English writer, was born at +Bromley, near Bow, on the 29th of December 1823. Brought up in the +Anglican creed, she fell under the influence of Tractarian teaching at +Torquay, and joined the Roman Catholic Church in 1850. She wrote, and +published anonymously, an essay questioning the _Morality of +Tractarianism_, which was attributed to John Henry Newman. In 1852, +after a prolonged stay in Rome, she joined the third order of St +Dominic, to which she belonged for over forty years. She was prioress +(1872-1881) of the Stone convent in Staffordshire, where she died on the +29th of April 1894. Her chief works in prose and verse are: _The History +of Saint Dominic_ (1857; enlarged edition, 1891); _The Life of St +Catherine of Siena_ (1880; 2nd ed., 1899); _Christian Schools and +Scholars_ (1867); _The Knights of St John_ (1858); _Songs in the Night_ +(1876); and the _Three Chancellors_ (1859), a sketch of the lives of +William of Wykeham, William of Waynflete and Sir Thomas More. + + A complete list of her writings is given in the _Memoir of Mother + Francis Raphael, O.S.D., Augusta Theodosia Drane_, edited by B. + Wilberforce, O.P. (London, 1895). + + + + +DRAPER, JOHN WILLIAM (1811-1882), American scientist, was born at St +Helen's, near Liverpool, on the 5th of May 1811. He studied at Woodhouse +Grove, at the University of London, and, after removing to America in +1832, at the medical school of the University of Pennsylvania in +1835-1836. In 1837 he was elected professor of chemistry in the +University of the City of New York, and was a professor in its school of +medicine in 1840-1850, president of that school in 1850-1873, and +professor of chemistry until 1881. He died at Hastings, New York, on the +4th of January 1882. He made important researches in photo-chemistry, +made portrait photography possible by his improvements (1839) on +Daguerre's process, and published a _Text-book on Chemistry_ (1846), +_Text-book on Natural Philosophy_ (1847), _Text-book on Physiology_ +(1866), and _Scientific Memoirs_ (1878) on radiant energy. He is well +known also as the author of _The History of the Intellectual Development +of Europe_ (1862), applying the methods of physical science to history, +a _History of the American Civil War_ (3 vols., 1867-1870), and a +_History of the Conflict between Religion and Science_ (1874). + +His son, HENRY DRAPER (1837-1882), graduated at the University of New +York in 1858, became professor of natural science there in 1860, and was +professor of physiology (in the medical school) and dean of the faculty +in 1866-1873. He succeeded his father as professor of chemistry, but +only for a year, dying in New York on the 20th of November 1882. Henry +Draper's most important contributions to science were made in +spectroscopy; he ruled metal gratings in 1869-1870, made valuable +spectrum photographs after 1871, and proved the presence of oxygen in +the sun in a monograph of 1877. Edward C. Pickering carried on his study +of stellar spectra with the funds of the Henry Draper Memorial at +Harvard, endowed by his widow (_nee_ Mary Anna Palmer). + + See accounts by George F. Barker in _Biographical Memoirs of the + National Academy of Science_, vols. 2 and 3 (Washington, 1886, 1888). + + + + +DRAPER, one who deals in cloth or textiles generally. The Fr. _drap_, +cloth, from which _drapier_ and Eng. "draper" are derived, is of obscure +origin. It is possible that the Low Lat. _drappus_ or _trappus_ (the +last form giving the Eng. "trappings") may be connected with words such +as "drub," Ger. _treffen_, beat; the original sense would be fulled +cloth. "Drab," dull, pale, brown, is also connected, its first meaning +being a cloth of a natural undyed colour. The Drapers' Company is one of +the great livery companies of the city of London. The fraternity is of +very early origin. Henry Fitz-Alwyn (d. 1212?), the first mayor of +London, is said to have been a draper. The first charter was granted in +1364. The Drapers' Gild was one of the numerous subdivisions of the +clothing trade, and appeared to have been confined to the retailing of +woollen cloths, the linen-drapers forming in the 15th century a separate +fraternity, which disappeared or was merged in the greater company. It +is usual for drapers to combine the sale of "drapery," i.e. of textiles +generally, with that of millinery, hosiery, &c. In _Wills_ v. _Adams_ +(reported in _The Times_, London, Nov. 20, 1908), the term "drapery" in +a restrictive covenant was held not to include all goods that a draper +might sell, such as furs or fur-lined goods. + + + + +DRAUGHT (from the common Teutonic word "to draw"; cf. Ger. _Tracht_, +load; the pronunciation led to the variant form "draft," now confined to +certain specific meanings), the act or action of drawing, extending, +pulling, &c. It is thus applied to animals used for drawing vehicles or +loads, "draught oxen," &c., to the quantity of fish taken by one "drag" +of a net, to a quantity of liquid taken or "drawn in" to the mouth, and +to a current of air in a chimney, a room or other confined space. In +furnaces the "draught" is "natural" when not increased artificially, or +"forced" when increased by mechanical methods (see BOILER). The water a +ship "draws," or her "draught," is the depth to which she sinks in the +water as measured from her keel. The word was formerly used of a "move" +in chess or similar games, and is thus, in the plural, the general +English name of the game known also as "checkers" (see DRAUGHTS). The +spelling "draft" is generally employed in the following usages. It is a +common term for a written order "drawn on" a banker or other holder of +funds for the payment of money to a third person; thus a cheque (q.v.) +is a draft. A special form of draft is a "banker's draft," an +instruction by one bank to another bank, or to a branch of the bank +making the instruction, to pay a sum of money to the order of a certain +specified person. Other meanings of "draft" are an outline, plan or +sketch, or a preliminary drawing up of an instrument, measure, document, +&c., which, after alteration and amendment, will be embodied in a final +or formal shape; an allowance made by merchants or importers to those +who sell by retail, to make up a loss incurred in weighing or measuring; +and a detachment or body of troops "drawn off" for a specific purpose, +usually a reinforcement from the depot or reserve units to those abroad +or in the field. For the use of the term "draft" or "draught" in masonry +and architecture see DRAFTED MASONRY. + + + + +DRAUGHTS (from A.S. _dragan_, to draw), a game played with pieces (or +"men") called draughtsmen on a board marked in squares of two alternate +colours. The game is called Checkers in America, and is known to the +French as _Les Dames_ and to the Germans as _Damenspiel_. Though the +game is not mentioned in the _Complete Gamester_, nor the _Academie de +jeux_, and is styled a "modern invention" by Strutt, yet a somewhat +similar game was known to the Egyptians, some of the pieces used having +been found in tombs at least as old as 1600 B.C., and part of Anect +Hat-Shepsa's board and some of her men are to be seen in the Egyptian +gallery of the British Museum. An Egyptian vase also shows a lion and an +antelope playing at draughts, with five men each, the lion making the +winning move and seizing the bag or purse that contains the stakes. +Plato ascribes the invention of the game of [Greek: pessoi], or +draughts, to Thoth, the Egyptian Hermes Trismegistus, and Homer +represents Penelope's suitors as playing it (_Odyss._ i. 107). In one +form of the game as played by the Greeks there were 25 squares, and each +player had 5 men which were probably moved along the lines. In another +there were 4 men and 16 squares with a "sacred enclosure," a square of +the same size as the others, marked in the exact centre and bisected by +one of the horizontal lines, which was known as the "sacred line." From +the incident in the game of a piece hemmed in on this line by a rival +piece having to be pushed forward as a last resort, arose the phrase "to +move the man from the sacred line" as synonymous with being hard +pressed. This and other phrases based on incidents in the game testify +to the vogue the game enjoyed in ancient Greece. The Roman game of +_Latrunculi_ was similar, but there were officers (kings in modern +draughts) as well as men. When a player's pieces were all hemmed in he +was stale-mated, to use a chess phrase (_ad incitas redactus est_), and +lost the game. Other explanations of this phrase are, however, given +(see _Les Jeux des anciens_, by Becq de Fouquieres). The fullest account +of the Roman game is to be found in the _De laude Pisonis_, written by +an anonymous contemporary of Nero (see CALPURNIUS, TITUS). Unfortunately +the texts are full of obscurities, so that it is difficult to make any +definite statements as to how the game was played. + +As early as the 11th century some form of the game was practised by the +Norsemen, for in the Icelandic saga of Grettir the Strong the board and +men are mentioned more than once. + +The history of the modern forms of the game starts with _El Ingenio o +juego de marro, de punto o damas_, published by Torquemada at Valencia +in 1547. Another Spaniard, Juan Garcia Canalejas, is said to have +published in 1610 the first edition of his work, a better-known edition +of which appeared in 1650. The third Spanish classic, that of Joseph +Carlos Garcez, was printed in Madrid in 1684. It is noteworthy that in +an illustration in Garcez's book the pieces depicted resemble somewhat +some of those used by the Egyptians, and are not unlike the pawns used +in chess. + +In 1668 Pierre Mallet had published the first French work on the game, +and elementary though his knowledge of the game seems to have been, even +in comparison with that of Canalejas or Garcez, the historical notes, +rules and instructions which he gave, served as a basis for many later +works. Mallet wrote on _Le Jeu de dames a la francaise_, which was +almost identical with the modern English game. The old French game is, +however, no longer practised in France, having been superseded by _Le +Jeu de dames a la polonaise_. Manoury gives reasons for believing that +the latter game originated in Paris about 1727. + +About 1736 a famous player named Laclef published the first book on +Polish draughts, but the first important book on the game is Manoury's +_Jeu de dames a la polonaise_, in the production of which it is said +that the author had the assistance of Diderot and other +_encyclopedistes_. This book, which appeared in 1787, was to the new +game all that Mallet's was to the old French game, and until the +appearance of Poirson Prugneaux's _Encyclopedie du jeu de dames_ in 1855 +it remained the standard authority on so-called Polish draughts. The +Polish game early attained popularity in Holland, and in 1785 the +standard Dutch work, Ephraim van Embden's _Verhandeling over het +Damspel_, was produced. In German-speaking countries the progress of the +new game was slower, and the works produced in the first half of the +19th century generally treat of the older game as well as the Polish +game. This is also the case with Petroff's book published in St +Petersburg in 1827; and similarly Zongono's, which dates from 1832, +deals with the new game and with the older Italian game. + +In 1694 Hyde wrote _Historia dami ludi seu latrinculorum_, in which he +tried to prove the identity of draughts with _ludus latrinculorum_. This +work is historical and descriptive, but contains nothing concerning the +game as played in Great Britain. The authentic history of draughts in +England commences with William Payne's _Introduction to the Game of +Draughts_, the dedication of which was written by Samuel Johnson. +Payne's games and problems were incorporated in a much more important +work, namely Sturges's _Guide to the Game of Draughts_, which appeared +in 1800 and has gone through a score of editions. About this time the +game was much practised in both England and Scotland, but the first +important production of the Scottish school was Drummond's _Scottish +Draught Player_, the first part of which dates from 1838, additional +volumes appearing in 1851-1853 and 1861. In 1852 Andrew Anderson +published his _Game of Draughts Simplified_. A first edition had +appeared in 1848, but the later print is the important one, as it +standardized the laws of the game, fixed the nomenclature of the +openings, introduced a better arrangement of the play, and, since +Anderson was one of the finest players of the game, excelled in +accuracy. In Anderson's time little was known about the openings +commencing with any move other than 11-15, and it was not until more +than thirty years later that the other openings received more adequate +recognition. This was done in Robertson's _Guide to the Game of +Draughts_, and perhaps better in Lees' _Guide_ (1892). + +Andrew Anderson was the first recognized British champion player of the +game. He and Wyllie, better known as "the herd laddie," contested five +matches for the honour, Anderson winning four to Wyllie's one. After his +victory in 1847 Anderson retired from match play and the title fell to +Wyllie, who made the game his profession and travelled all over the +English-speaking world to play it. In 1872 he successfully defended his +position against Martins, the English champion, and in 1874 against W. +R. Barker, the American champion, but two years later he was beaten by +Yates, a young American. On the latter's retirement from the game, the +championship lapsed to Wyllie, who held it successfully until his defeat +by Ferrie, the Scottish champion, in 1894. Two years later Ferrie was +beaten in his turn by Richard Jordan of Edinburgh, who had just gained +the Scottish championship; and the new holder defeated Stewart, who +challenged him in 1897, and successfully defended his title against C. +F. Barker, the American champion, to meet whom he visited Boston in 1900 +and played a drawn match. + +In 1884 the first international match between England and Scotland took +place, and resulted in so decisive a victory for the northerners that +the contest was not renewed for ten years. The matches played in 1894 +and 1899 also went strongly in favour of the Scots, but in 1903 the +Englishmen gained their first victory. + +In 1905 a British team visited America and defeated a side representing +the United States. + +The tournament for the Scottish championship has been held annually in +Glasgow since 1893. The number and skill of the Scottish players have +given this tournament its pre-eminence; but if the levelling up of the +standards of play in Scotland and England continues, the competition +which is held biennially by the English Draughts Association is likely +to rank as a serious rival to the Glasgow tourney. + +_The English Game._--Draughts as played now in English-speaking +countries is a game for two persons with a board and twenty-four +men--twelve white and twelve black--which at starting are placed as +follows: the black men on the squares numbered 1 to 12, and the white +men on the squares numbered 21 to 32 on the diagram below. In printed +diagrams the men are usually shown on the white squares for the sake of +clearness, but in actual play the black squares are generally used now. +In playing on the black squares the board must be placed with a black +square in the left-hand corner. The game is played by moving a man +forward, one square at a time except when making a capture, along the +diagonals to the right or left. Thus a white man placed on square 18 in +the diagram can move to 15 or 14. Each player moves alternately, black +always moving first. If a player touch a piece he must move that piece +and no other. If the piece cannot be moved, or if it is not the player's +turn to move, he forfeits the game. As soon as a man reaches one of the +squares farthest from his side of the board, he is "crowned" by having +one of the unused or captured men of his own colour placed on him, and +becomes a "king." A king has the power of moving and taking backwards as +well as forwards. + + BLACK. + +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ + | | 1 | | 2 | | 3 | | 4 | + +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ + | 5 | | 6 | | 7 | | 8 | | + +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ + | | 9 | |10 | |11 | |12 | + +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ + |13 | |14 | |15 | |16 | | + +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ + | |17 | |18 | |19 | |20 | + +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ + |21 | |22 | |23 | |24 | | + +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ + | |25 | |26 | |27 | |28 | + +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ + |29 | |30 | |31 | |32 | | + +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ + WHITE. + +If a man is on the square adjacent to an opponent's man, and there is an +unoccupied square beyond, the unprotected man must be captured and +removed from the board. Thus, if there is a white man on square 18, and +a black man on square 14, square 9 being vacant, and white having to +move, he jumps over 14 and remains on square 9, and the man on 14 is +taken up. + +If two or more men are so placed that one square intervenes between +each they may all be taken at one move. Thus if white having to move has +a man on 28, and black men on 24, 16 and 8, the intermediate squares and +square 3 being vacant, white could move from 28 to 3, touching 19 and 12 +en route, and take the men on 24, 16, and 8; but if there is a piece on +7 and square 10 is vacant, the piece on 7 cannot be captured, for +becoming a king ends the move. + +It is compulsory to take if possible. If a player can take a man (or a +series of men) but makes a move that does not capture (or does not +capture all that is possible), his adversary may allow the move to +stand, or he may have the move retracted and compel the player to take, +or he may allow the move to stand and remove the piece, that neglected +to capture from the board (called "huffing"). "Huff and move" go +together, i.e. the player who huffs then makes his move. When one player +has lost all his pieces, or has all those left on the board blocked, he +loses the game. + +The game is drawn when neither of the players has sufficient advantage +in force or position to enable him to win. + +The losing game, or "first off the board," is a form of draughts not +much practised now by expert draught players. The player wins who gets +all his pieces taken first. There is no "huffing"; a player who can take +must do so. + + _Draughts Openings._--As there are seven possible first moves, with + seven possible replies to each, or forty-nine in all, there is an + abundant variety of openings; but as two of these (9-14, 21-17 and + 10-14, 21-17) are obviously unsound, the number is really reduced to + forty-seven. Much difference of opinion exists regarding the relative + strength of the various openings. It was at one time generally held + that for the black side 11-15 was the best opening move. + + Towards the end of the 19th century this view became much modified, + and though 11-15 still remained the favourite, it was recognized that + 10-15, 9-14 and 11-16 were little, if at all, inferior; 10-14 and + 12-16 were rightly rated as weaker than the four moves named above, + whilst 9-13, the favourite of the "unscientific" player, was found to + be weakest of all. + + The white replies to 11-15 have gone through many vicissitudes. The + seven possible moves have each at different times figured as the + general favourite. Thus 24-19, which analysis proved to be the weakest + of the seven, was at one period described by the title of "Wyllie's + Invincible." In course of time it came to be regarded as decidedly + weak, and its name was altered to the less pretentious title of + "Second Double Corner." In the Scottish Tournament of 1894 this + opening was played between Ferrie and Stewart, and the latter won the + game with white, introducing new play which has stood the test of + analysis, and so rehabilitating the opening in public favour. The + 21-17 reply to 11-15 was introduced by Wyllie, who was so successful + with it that it became known as the "Switcher." This opening perhaps + lacks the solid strength of some of the others, but it so abounds in + traps as to be well worthy of its name. The other five replies to + 11-15, namely 24-20, 23-19, 23-18, 22-18 and 22-17, are productive of + games which give equal chances to both sides. + + The favourite replies to 10-15 are 23-18, 22-18 and 21-17, but they do + not appear to be appreciably stronger than the others, with the + possible exception of 24-20. + + In response to 11-16, 23-18 is held to give white a trifling + advantage, but it is more apparent than real. With the exception of + 23-19, which is weak, the other replies are of equal strength, and are + only slightly, if at all, inferior to the more popular 23-18. 9-14 is + most frequently encountered by 22-18, but all white's replies are + good, except of course 21-17 which loses a man, and 23-18 which + weakens the centre of white's position. + + Against 10-14 the most popular move is 22-17, which gives white an + advantage. Next in strength come 22-18 and 24-19. 23-18 is weak. + + The strongest reply to 12-16 is 24-20. The others, except 23-19, which + is weak, give no initial advantage to either side. + + As already mentioned, 9-13 is black's weakest opening move, both 22-18 + and 24-19 giving white a distinct advantage. Nevertheless 9-13 is a + favourite debut with certain expert players, especially when playing + with inferior opponents. + + The term "opening" is frequently applied in a more restricted sense + than that used above. When practically all games started with 11-15 it + was convenient to assign names to the more popular lines of play. Thus + 11-15, 23-19, 8-11, 22-17, if followed by 11-16, was called the + "Glasgow"; if followed by 9-13, 17-14, the "Laird and Lady"; if by + 3-8, the "Alma." + + The variety possible in the opening is a fair reply to the objection + sometimes heard that the game does not afford sufficient scope for + variation. As a matter of fact a practically unlimited number of + different games might be played on any one opening. + + The three following games are typical examples of the play arising + from three of the most frequently played openings:-- + + Game No. 1.--"Ayrshire Lassie" Opening. + + a 11-15 25-18 10-15 22-17 b 15-18 24-6 + a 24-20 3-8 23-19 13-22 24-20 2-9 + 8-11 26-22 6-10 26-17 18-27 17-10 + c} + 28-24 5-9 d} 27-23 11-16 31-24 8-11 + + 9-13 30-26 9-14 20-11 16-23 Drawn. + 22-18 1-5 18-9 7-16 20-16 R. Jordan. + 15-22 32-28 5-14 29-25 12-19 + + a. 11-15, 24-20 forms the "Ayrshire Lassie" opening, so named by + Wyllie. It is generally held to admit of unusual scope for the display + of critical and brilliant combinations. + + b. 16-20, 25-22, 20-27, 31-24, 8-11, 17-13, 2-6, 21-17, 14-21, 22-17, + 21-25, 17-14, 10-17, 19-1. Drawn. R. Jordan. + + (c) + + 26-23 28-19 20-16 7-11 14-10 15-10 + 9-14 2-6 6-10 19-24 26-23 23-18 + 18-9 20-11 16-11 11-18 10-7 10-15 + 5-14 8-24 10-15 24-27 4-8 20-16 + 29-25 27-20 11-7 18-15 7-3 15-22 + 11-16 10-15 14-18 27-31 8-12 16-7 + 20-11 31-26 7-3 22-18 3-7 Drawn. + 7-16 15-19 18-23 31-27 27-24 A. B. Scott. + 24-20 23-16 3-7 18-14 7-11 v. + 15-24 12-19 23-30 30-26 24-20 R. Jordan. + + (d) + + 19-16 7-10 23-19 11-15 16-11 25-30 + 12-19 6-1 15-24 27-24 18-25 20-16 + 22-17 9-14 28-19 22-25 17-14 Drawn. + 15-22 26-23 8-11 29-22 10-17 R. Jordan. + 24-6 11-15 19-16 14-18 21-14 + + Game No. 2.--"Kelso-Cross" Opening. + + a 10-15 8-12 13-22 5-9 14-18 22-25 + a 23-18 25-21 26-17 20-16 17-14 29-22 + 12-16 1-6 d 19-26 2-7 10-17 17-26 + 21-17 32-27 30-23 24-19 21-14 5-1 + 9-13 12-16 15-22 15-24 6-10 26-30 + 17-14 27-23 24-19 23-19 14-9 1-5 + 16-19 7-10 9-14 24-27 10-14 30-26 + 24-20 14-7 19-12 31-24 19-15 5-9 + 6-9 3-10 11-15 9-13 14-17 26-23 + b 27-24 c 22-17 28-24 24-20 9-5 Drawn. + R. Jordan. + + a. These two moves form the "Kelso-Cross" opening. + + b. 27-23 is also a strong line for white to adopt. + + c. 30-25, 4-8, 18-14, 9-27, 22-18, 15-22, 24-15, 11-18, 20-4, 27-32, + 26-17, 13-22, 4-8, 22-26, and black appears to have a winning + advantage. R. Jordan. + + d. Taking the piece on 18 first seems to lose, thus:-- + + 15-22 e 9-13 13-17 6-9 5-14 + 24-8 17-14 23-18 14-10 10-7 White + 4-11 10-17 17-21 9-14 2-6 wins. + 31-27 21-14 28-24 18-9 7-2 Dallas. + + e. 2-7, 27-24, 22-26, 23-18, 26-31, 18-15, 11-18, 20-2, 9-13, 2-9, + 5-14, 24-19, 13-22, 30-26. White wins. + + Game No. 3.--"Dundee" Opening. + + 12-16 11-15 c 8-12 4-8 9-14 1-26 + 24-20 20-11 17-13 18-15 26-22 31-22 + 8-12 7-16 5-9 2-7 14-17 19-23 + 28-24 24-20 22-18 30-26 21-14 13-9 + 9-14 b 16-19 15-22 10-14 18-23 12-19 + 22-17 23-16 25-18 29-25 27-18 9-6 + 3-8 12-19 14-23 14-18 6-10 7-11 + a 26-22 20-16 27-18 32-27 15-6 Drawn. + R. Jordan. + + a. This move is the favourite at this point on account of its + "trappiness," but 25-22 is probably stronger, thus: 25-22, 16-19, + 24-15, 11-25, 29-22, 8-11, 17-13, 11-16, 20-11, 7-16, and white can + with advantage continue by 27-24, 22-17, 23-19 or 22-18. + + b. 15-19, 20-11, 8-15, 23-16, 12-19, 17-13, 5-9, 30-26, 4-8, 27-23, + 8-12, 23-16, 12-19, 31-27, 1-5, 27-23, 19-24, 32-27, 24-31, 22-17. + White wins. C. F. Barker. + + c 8-11 27-18 15-18 14-10 24-27 7-10 + 16-7 15-22 14-10 19-24 31-24 27-31 + 2-11 25-18 6-15 10-7 16-20 10-26 + 22-18 10-15 17-14 18-23 3-7 31-22 + 14-23 18-14 11-16 7-3 20-27 30-25 + Drawn. R. Stewart v. R. Jordan. + + Problem No. 1 is the simplest form of that known to draughts-players + as the "First Position." It is of more frequent occurrence in actual + play than any other end-game, and is, besides, typical of a class of + draughts problems which may be described as analytical, in + contradistinction to "strokes." + + Problem No. 1, by Wm. Payne. + BLACK. + +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ + | | | | | | | | | + +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ + | | | | | | | | | + +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ + | | | | | | | | B | + +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ + | | | | | | | | | + +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ + | | | | | | | | | + +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ + | | | | |WW | | | | + +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ + | | | | | |WW | |BB | + +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ + | | | | | | | | | + +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ + WHITE. + + White to move and win. + + Solution:-- + + 27-32 18-15 15-11 11-15 28-32 19-24 + 28-24 2-28-24 12-16 19-24 27-31 White + 23-18 32-28 28-32 32-28 15-19 wins. + 3-a-24-28 1-24-20 16-19 24-27 31-26 + + a. 12-16 same as Var. I. at 5th move. + + Var. I. + + 24-27 18-15 19-16 28-32 8-12 15-11 + 15-18 b 16-20 18-23 8-12 23-18 White + 12-16 15-18 16-11 32-27 12-8 wins. + 28-32 24-19 23-19 12-8 18-15 + 27-24 32-28 11-8 27-23 8-12 + + b. 24-28 same as Var. II. at 1st move. + + Var. II. 12-16, 15-11, 16-19, 32-27, 28-32, 27-31, 32-28, 11-16, + 19-23, 16-19. White wins. + + Var. III. 24-19, 32-28, c 19-16, 28-24, 16-11, 24-20, 11-8, 18-15. + White wins. + + c. 12-16, 28-32, 19-24 or 16-20, same as Var. II. at 5th and 9th moves + respectively. White wins. + + Problem No. 2. + BLACK. + +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ + | | B | | | | B | | | + +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ + | B | | | | B | | B | | + +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ + | | | | W | | B | | | + +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ + | B | | W | | | | B | | + +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ + | | B | | W | | | | B | + +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ + | W | | W | | | | W | | + +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ + | | | | W | | W | | | + +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ + | | | W | | | | W | | + +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ + WHITE. + + White to move and win. + + Problem No. 2 is a fine example of another class of problems, namely, + "strokes." It is formed from the "Paisley" opening, thus:-- + + 11-16 22-17 11-16 26-19 9-13 15-10 + 24-19 9-13 25-21 4-8 25-22 a 2-7 + 8-11 17-14 6-9 29-25 7-11 + 28-24 10-17 23-18 13-17 19-15 + 16-20 21-14 16-23 31-26 12-16 + + a. This forms the position on the diagram. The solution is as + follows:-- + + 27-23 7-14 18-9 14-23 26-3 + 20-27 9-6 5-14 21-7 27-31 + 14-9 1-10 23-18 3-10 3-7 + + White wins. Jacques and Campbell. + + _Other Varieties._--The forms of draughts practised on the European + continent differ in some respects from the English variety, chiefly in + respect of the power assigned to a man after "crowning." The game of + _Polish Draughts_ is played in France, Holland, Belgium and Poland, + where it has entirely superseded _Le Jeu de dames a la francaise_. It + is played on a board of 100 squares with 20 men a side. The men move + and capture as in English draughts, except that in capturing they move + either forward or backward. A crowned man becomes a queen, and can + move any number of squares along the diagonal. In her capture she + takes any unguarded man or queen in any diagonal she commands, leaping + over the captured man or queen and remaining on any unoccupied square + she chooses of the same diagonal, beyond the piece taken. But if there + is another unguarded man she is bound to choose the diagonal on which + it can be taken. For example (using an English draught-board) place a + queen on square 29 and adverse men at squares 22, 16, 24, 14. The + queen is bound to move from 29 to 11, 20, 27, and having made the + captures to remain at 9 or 5, whichever she prefers. The capturing + queen or man must take all the adverse pieces that are _en prise_, or + that become so by the uncovering of any square from which a piece has + been removed during the capture, e.g. white queen at square 7, black + at squares 10, 18, 19, 22 and 27, the queen captures at 10, 22, 27 and + 19, and the piece at 22 being now removed, she must go to 15, take the + man at 18, and stay at 22, 25 or 29. In consequence of the intricacy + of some of these moves, it is customary to remove every captured piece + as it is taken. If a man arrives at a crowning square when taking, and + he can still continue to take, he must do so, and not stay on the + crowning square as at draughts. Passing a crowning square in taking + does not entitle him to be made a queen. In capturing, the player must + choose the direction by which he can take the greatest number of men + or queens, or he may be huffed. Numerical power is the criterion, e.g. + three men must be taken in preference to two queens. If the numbers + are equal and one force comprises more queens than the other, the + player may take whichever lot he chooses. This form of draughts, + played on a board of 144 squares with 30 men a side, is extensively + practised by British soldiers in India. + + The German _Damenspiel_ is Polish draughts played on a board of the + same size and with the same number of men as in the English game. It + is sometimes called Minor Polish draughts, and is practised in Germany + and Russia. + + The _Italian game_ differs from the English in two important + particulars--a man may not take a king, and when a player has the + option of capturing pieces in more than one way he must take in the + manner which captures most pieces. There is a difference too in the + placing of the board, the black square in the corner of the board + being at the player's right hand, but until a king is obtained the + differences from the English system are unimportant in practice. + + In _Spanish draughts_ the board is set as for the Italian game. The + men move as in English draughts, but, in capturing, the largest + possible number of pieces must be taken, and the king has the same + powers as in the Polish game. The game does not differ essentially + from the English game until a king is obtained, and many games from + Spanish works will be found incorporated in English books. Sometimes + the game is played with 11 men and a king, or 10 men and 2 kings a + side, instead of the regulation 12 men. + + _Turkish draughts_ differs widely from all other modern varieties of + the game. It is played on a board of 64 squares, all of which are used + in play. Each player has 16 pieces, which are not placed on the two + back rows of squares, as in chess, but on the second and third back + rows. The pieces do not move diagonally as in other forms of the game, + but straight forward or to the right or left horizontally. The king + has the same command of a horizontal or vertical row of squares that + the queen in Polish draughts has over a diagonal. Capturing is + compulsory, and the greatest possible number of pieces must be taken, + captured pieces being removed one at a time as taken. + + AUTHORITIES.--Falkener's _Games Ancient and Oriental_; Lees' _Guide to + the Game of Draughts_; Drummond's _Scottish Draught Players_ (Kear's + reprint); Gould's _Memorable Matches_ and _Book of Problems_, &c. The + _Draughts World_ is the principal magazine devoted to the game. In + Dunne's _Draught Players' Guide and Companion_ a section is devoted to + the non-English varieties. (J. M. M. D.; R. J.) + + + + +DRAUPADI, in Hindu legend, the daughter of Drupada, king of Panchala, +and wife of the five Pandava princes. She is an important character in +the _Mahabharata_. + + + + +DRAVE, or DRAVA (Ger. _Drau_, Hung. _Drava_, Lat. _Dravus_), one of the +principal right-bank affluents of the Danube, flowing through Austria +and Hungary. It rises below the Innichner Eck, near the Toblacher Feld +in Tirol, at an altitude of a little over 4000 ft., runs eastward, and +forms the longest longitudinal valley of the Alps. The Drave has a total +length of 450 m., while the length of its Alpine valley to Marburg is +150 m., and to its junction with the Mur 250 m. Owing to its great +extent and easy accessibility the valley of the Drave was the principal +road through which the invading peoples of the East, as the Huns, the +Slavs and the Turks, penetrated the Alpine countries. The Drave flows +through Carinthia and Styria, and enters Hungary near Friedau, where up +to its confluence with the Danube, at Almas, 14 m. E. of Esseg, it forms +the boundary between that country and Croatia-Slavonia. At its mouth the +Drave attains a breadth of 1055 ft. and a depth of 20 ft. The Drave is +navigable for rafts only from Villach, and for steamers from Barcs, a +distance of 95 m. The principal affluents of the Drave are: on the left +the Isel, the Gurk, the Lavant, and the largest of all, the Mur; and on +the right the Gail and the Drann. + + + + +DRAVIDIAN (Sanskrit _Dravida_), the name given to a collection of Indian +peoples, and their family of languages[1] comprising all the principal +forms of speech of Southern India. Their territory, which also includes +the northern half of Ceylon, extends northwards up to an irregular line +drawn from a point on the Arabian Sea about 100 m. below Goa along the +Western Ghats as far as Kolhapur, thence north-east through Hyderabad, +and farther eastwards to the Bay of Bengal. Farther to the north we find +Dravidian dialects spoken by small tribes in the Central Provinces and +Chota Nagpur, and even up to the banks of the Ganges in the Rajmahal +hills. A Dravidian dialect is, finally, spoken by the Br[=a]h[=u][=i]s +of Baluchistan in the far north-west. The various Dravidian languages, +with the number of speakers returned at the census of 1901, are as +follows:-- + + Tamil 17,494,901 + Malay[=a]lam 6,022,131 + Kanarese 10,368,515 + Tulu 535,210 + Kodagu 39,191 + Toda 805 + K[=o]ta 1,300 + Kuru[chi] 609,721 + Malto 60,777 + G[=o]nd[=i] 1,125,479 + Kui 494,099 + Telugu 20,697,264 + Br[=a]h[=u][=i] 48,589 + ---------- + Total 57,497,982 + +Of these Tamil and Malay[=a]lam can be considered as two dialects of one +and the same language, which is, in its turn, closely related to +Kanarese. Tulu, Kodagu, Toda and K[=o]ta can be described as lying +between Tamil-Malay[=a]lam and Kanarese, though they are more nearly +related to the latter than to the former. The same is the case with +Kuru[chi] and Malto, while Kui and G[=o]nd[=i] gradually approach +Telugu, which latter language seems to have branched off from the common +stock at an early date. Finally, the Br[=a]h[=u][=i] dialect of +Baluchistan has been so much influenced by other languages that it is no +longer a pure Dravidian form of speech. + +The Dravidian languages have for ages been restricted to the territory +they occupy at the present day. Moreover, they are gradually losing +ground in the north, where they meet with Aryan forms of speech. If we +compare the caste tables and the language tables in the Indian census of +1901 we find that only 1,125,479 out of the 2,286,913 G[=o]nds returned +were stated to speak the Dravidian G[=o]nd[=i]. Similarly only 1505 out +of 17,187 K[=o]l[=a]ms entered their language as K[=o]l[=a]m[=i]. Such +tribes are gradually becoming Hinduized. Their language adopts an +ever-increasing Aryan element till it is quite superseded by Aryan +speech. In the north-eastern part of the Dravidian territory, to the +east of Chanda and Bhandara, the usual state of affairs is that +Dravidian dialects are spoken in the hills while Aryan forms of speech +prevail in the plains. The Dravidian Kui thus stands out as an isolated +island in the sea of Aryan speech. + +This process has been going on from time immemorial. The Dravidians were +already settled in India when the Aryans arrived from the north-west. +The fair Aryans were at once struck by their dark hue, and named them +accordingly _krisna tvac_, the black skin. In the course of time, +however, the two races began to mix, and it is still possible to trace a +Dravidian element in the Aryan languages of North India. + +The teaching of anthropology is to the same effect. Most speakers of +Dravidian languages belong to a distinct anthropological type which is +known as the Dravidian. "The Dravidian race," says Sir H. Risley, "the +most primitive of the Indian types, occupies the oldest geological +formation in India, the medley of forest-clad ranges, terraced plateaus, +and undulating plains which stretches, roughly speaking, from the +Vindhyas to Cape Comorin. On the east and west of the peninsular area +the domain of the Dravidian is conterminous with the Ghats, while +farther north it reaches on one side to the Aravallis and on the other +to the Rajmahal hills." + +This territory is the proper home of the race. A strong Dravidian +element can, however, also be traced in the population of northern +India. In Kashmir and Punjab, where the Aryans had already settled in +those prehistoric times when the Vedic hymns were composed, the +prevailing type is the Aryan one. The same is the case in Rajputana. +From the eastern frontier of the Punjab, on the other hand, and +eastwards, a Dravidian element can be traced. This is the case in the +valleys of the Ganges and the Jumna, where the Aryans only settled at a +later period. Anthropologists also state that there is a Dravidian +element in the population of western India, from Gujarat to Coorg. + +It is thus probable that Dravidian languages have once been spoken in +many tracts which are now occupied by Aryan forms of speech. The +existence of a Dravidian dialect in Baluchistan seems to show that +Dravidian settlers have once lived in those parts. The tribe in +question, the Br[=a]h[=u][=i]s, are, however, now Eranians and not +Dravidians by race, and it is not probable that there has ever been a +numerous Dravidian population in Baluchistan. The Br[=a]h[=u][=i]s are +most likely the descendants of settlers from the south. + +There is no indication that the Dravidians have entered India from +outside or superseded an older population. For all practical purposes +they can accordingly be considered as the aborigines of the Deccan, +whence they appear to have spread over part of northern India. Their +languages form an isolated group, and it has not been possible to prove +a connexion with any other family of languages. Such attempts have been +made with reference to the Munda family, the Tibeto-Burman languages, +and the dialects spoken by the aborigines of the Australian continent. +The arguments adduced have not, however, proved to be sufficient, and +only the Australian hypothesis can still lay claim to some probability. +Till it has been more closely tested we must therefore consider the +Dravidian family as an isolated group of languages, with several +characteristic features of its own. + + The pronunciation is described as soft and mellifluous. Abruptness and + hard combinations of sounds are avoided. There is, for example, a + distinct tendency to avoid pronouncing a short consonant at the end of + a word, a very short vowel being often added after it. Thus the + pronoun of the third person singular, which is _avan_, "he," in Tamil, + is pronounced _avanu_ in Kanarese; the Sanskrit word _v[=a]k_, + "speech," is borrowed in the form _v[=a]ku_ in Tamil; the word + _gurram_, "horse," is commonly pronounced _gurramu_ in Telugu, and so + on. Combinations of consonants are further avoided in many cases where + speakers of other languages do not experience any difficulty in + pronouncing them. This tendency is well illustrated by the changes + undergone by some borrowed words. Thus the Sanskrit word + _br[=a]hmana_, "a Brahmin," becomes _bar[=a]mana_ in Kanarese and + _pir[=a]mana_ in Tamil; the Sanskrit _Dramida_, "Dravidian," is + borrowed by Tamil under the form _Tir[=a]mida_. _Dramida_, which also + occurs as _Dravida_, is in its turn developed from an older _Damila_, + which is identical with the word _Tamir_, Tamil. + + The forms _pir[=a]mana_ and _Tir[=a]mida_ in Tamil illustrate another + feature of Dravidian enunciation. There is a tendency in all of them, + and in Tamil and Malay[=a]lam it has become a law, against any word + being permitted to begin with a stopped voiced consonant (g, j, [d.], + d, b), the corresponding voiceless sounds (k, c, t, [t.], p, + respectively) being substituted. In the middle of a word or compound, + on the other hand, every consonant must be voiced. Thus the Sanskrit + word _danta_, "tooth," has been borrowed by Tamil in the form + _tandam_, and the Telugu _anna_, "elder brother," _tammulu_, "younger + brother," become when compounded _annadammulu_, "elder and younger + brothers." + + There is no strongly marked accent on any one syllable, though there + is a slight stress upon the first one. In some dialects this + equilibrium between the different parts of a word is accompanied by a + tendency to approach to each other the sound of vowels in consecutive + syllables. This tendency, which has been called the "law of harmonic + sequence," is most apparent in Telugu, where the short _u_ of certain + suffixes is replaced by _i_ when the preceding syllable contains one + of the vowels _i_ (short and long) and _ei_. Compare the dative suffix + _ku_, _ki_, in _gurramu-ku_, "to a horse"; but _tammuni-ki_, "to a + younger brother." This tendency does not, however, play a prominent + role in the Dravidian languages. + + Words are formed from roots and bases by means of suffixed formative + additions. The root itself generally remains unchanged throughout. + Thus from the Tamil base _per_, "great," we can form adjectives such + as _per-iya_ and _per-um_, "great"; verbs such as _per-u-gu_, "to + become increased"; _per-u-kku_, "to cause to increase," and so on. + + Many bases can be used at will as nouns, as adjectives, and as verbs. + Thus the Tamil _kadu_ can mean "sharpness," "sharp," and "to be + sharp." Other bases are of course more restricted in their respective + spheres. + + The inflection of words is effected by agglutination, i.e. various + additions are suffixed to the base in order to form what we would call + cases and tenses. Such additions have probably once been separate + words. Most of them are, however, now only used as suffixes. Thus from + the Tamil base _k[=o]n_, "king," we can form an accusative + _k[=o]n-ei_, a verb _k[=o]n-en_, "I am king," and so on. + + Dravidian nouns are divided into two classes, which Tamil grammarians + called high-caste and casteless respectively. The former includes + those nouns which denote beings endowed with reason, the latter all + others. Gender is only distinguished in the former class, while all + casteless nouns are neuter. The gender of animals (which are + irrational) must accordingly be distinguished by using different words + for the male and the female, or else by adding words meaning male, + female, respectively, to the name of the animal--processes which do + not, strictly speaking, fall under the head of grammar. + + There are two numbers, the singular and the plural. The latter is + formed by adding suffixes. It, however, often remains unmarked in the + case of casteless nouns. + + Cases are formed by adding postpositions and suffixes, usually to a + modified form of the noun which is commonly called the oblique base. + Thus we have the Tamil _maram_, "tree"; _maratt-[=a]l_, "from a tree"; + _maratt-u-kku_, "to a tree"; _v[=i]du_, "a house"; _v[=i]t[t.]-[=a]l_, + "from a house." The case terminations are the same in the singular and + in the plural. The genitive, which precedes the governing noun, is + often identical with the oblique base, or else it is formed by adding + suffixes. + + The numeral system is decimal and higher numbers are counted in tens; + thus Tamil _pattu_, "ten"; _iru-badu_, "two tens," "twenty." + + The personal pronoun of the first person in most dialects has a double + form in the plural, one including and the other excluding the person + addressed. Thus, Tamil _n[=a]m_, "we," i.e. I and you; _n[=a]ngal_, + "we," i.e. I and they. + + There is no relative pronoun. Relative clauses are effected by using + relative participles. Thus in Telugu the sentence "the book which you + gave to me" must be translated _m[=i]ru n[=a]ku iccina pus-takamu_, + i.e. "you me-to given book." There are several such participles in + use. Thus from the Telugu verb _kot[t.]a_, "to strike," are formed + _kot[t.]-ut-unna_, "that strikes," _kot[t.]-i-na_, "that struck," + _kot[t.][=e]_, "that would strike," "that usually strikes." By adding + pronouns, or the terminations of pronouns, to such forms, nouns are + derived which denote the person who performs the action. Thus from + Telugu _kot[t.][=e]_ and _v[=a]du_, "he," is formed + _kot[t.][=e]-v[=a]du_, "one who usually strikes." Such forms are used + as ordinary verbs, and the usual verbal forms of Dravidian languages + can broadly be described as such nouns of agency. Thus, the Telugu, + _kot[t.]in[=a]du_, "he struck," can be translated literally "a striker + in the past." + + Verbal tenses distinguish the person and number of the subject by + adding abbreviated forms of the personal pronouns. Thus in Kanarese we + have _m[=a]did-enu_, "I did"; _m[=a]did-i_, "thou didst"; + _m[=a]did-evu_, "we did"; _m[=a]did-aru_, "they did." + + One of the most characteristic features of the Dravidian verb is the + existence of a separate negative conjugation. It usually has only one + tense and is formed by adding the personal terminations to a negative + base. Thus, Kanarese _m[=a]d-enu_, "I did not"; _m[=a]d-evu_, "we did + not"; _m[=a]d-aru_, "they did not." + + The vocabulary has adopted numerous Aryan loan-words. This was a + necessary consequence of the early connexion with the superior Aryan + civilization. + + The oldest Dravidian literature is largely indebted to the Aryans + though it goes back to a very early date. Tamil, Malay[=a]lam, + Kanarese and Telugu are the principal literary languages. The language + of literature in all of them differs considerably from the colloquial. + The oldest known specimen of a Dravidian language occurs in a Greek + play which is preserved in a papyrus of the 2nd century A.D. The exact + period to which the indigenous literature can be traced back, on the + other hand, has not been fixed with certainty. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Bishop R. Caldwell, _A Comparative Grammar of the + Dravidian or South-Indian Family of Languages_ (London, 1856; 2nd + edition, 1875); Dr Friedrich Muller, _Reise der usterreichischen + Fregatte Novara um die Erde in den Jahren 1857, 1858, 1859, unter den + Befehlen des Commodore B. von Wullerstorff-Urbair: Linguistischer + Theil._ (Wien, 1867, pp. 73 and ff.); Dr Friedrich Muller, _Grundriss + der Sprachwissenschaft_, vol. iii. (Wien, 1884), pp. 106 and ff.; G. + A. Grierson, _Linguistic Survey of India_, vol. iv. "Munda and + Dravidian Languages" (Calcutta, 1906), pp. 277 and ff. by Sten Konow. + (S. K.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] In Dravidian words a line above a vowel shows that it is long. + The dotted consonants t, d, and n are pronounced by striking the tip + of the tongue against the centre of the hard palate. The dotted l is + distinguished from l in a similar way. Its sound, however, differs in + the different districts. A Greek [chi] marks the sound of _ch_ in + "loch"; _s_ is the English _sh_; _c_ the _ch_ in "church"; and _ri_ + is an _r_ which is used as a vowel. In the list of Dravidian + languages the names are spelt fully, with all the necessary + diacritical marks. In the rest of the article dots under consonants + have been omitted in these words. + + + + +DRAWBACK, in commerce, the paying back of a duty previously paid upon +the exportation of excisable articles or upon the re-exportation of +foreign goods. The object of a drawback is to enable commodities which +are subject to taxation to be exported and sold in a foreign country on +the same terms as goods from countries where they are untaxed. It +differs from a bounty in that the latter enables commodities to be sold +abroad at less than their cost price; it may occur, however, under +certain conditions that the giving of a drawback has an effect +equivalent to that of a bounty, as in the case of the so-called sugar +bounties in Germany (see SUGAR). The earlier tariffs contained elaborate +tables of the drawbacks allowed on the exportation or re-exportation of +commodities, but so far as the United Kingdom is concerned the system of +"bonded warehouses" practically abolished drawbacks, as commodities can +be warehoused (placed "in bond") until required for subsequent +exportation. + + + + +DRAWING, in art. Although the verb "to draw" has various meanings, the +substantive _drawing_ is confined by usage to its artistic sense, +delineation or design. The word "draw," from a root common to the +Teutonic languages (Goth, _dragan_, O.H.G. _drahan_, Mod. Ger. _tragen_, +which all have the sense of "carry," O. Norse _draga_, A.S. _drazan_, +_drazen_, "draw," cf. Lat. _trahere_), means to pull or "drag" (a word +of the same origin) as distinct from the action of pushing. It is thus +used of traction generally, whether by men, animals or machines. The +same idea is preserved in "drawing" as applied to the fine arts. We do +not usually say, or think, that a sculptor is drawing when he is using +his chisel, although he may be expressing or defining forms, nor that an +engraver is drawing when he is pushing the burin with the palm of the +hand, although the result may be the rendering of a design. But we do +say that an artist is drawing when he uses the lead pencil, and here we +have a motion bearing some resemblance to that of traction generally. +The action of the artist in drawing the pencil point with his fingers +along the paper is analogous, e.g., to that of a horse or man drawing a +pole over soft ground and leaving a mark behind. The same analogy may be +observed between two of the senses in which the French verb _tirer_ is +frequently employed. This word, the origin of which is quite uncertain, +was formerly used by good writers in the two senses of the verb to draw. +Thus Lafontaine says, "Six forts chevaux _tiraient_ un coche"; and +Caillieres wrote, "Il n'y a pas longtemps que je me suis fait _tirer_ +par Rigaud," meaning that Rigaud had drawn or painted his portrait. At +the present day the verb _tirer_ has fallen into disuse amongst +cultivated Frenchmen with regard to drawing and painting, but it is +still universally used for all kinds of design and even for photography +by the common people. The cultivated use it still for printing, as for +example "cette gravure sera tiree a cent exemplaires," in the sense of +pulling. A verb much more nearly related to the English verb _to draw_ +is the French _traire_ (Lat. _trahere_), which has _trait_ for its past +participle. _Traire_ is now used exclusively for milking cows and other +animals, and though the analogy between this and artistic drawing is not +obvious at first, nevertheless there is a certain analogy of motion, +since the hand passing down the teat draws the milk downwards. The word +_trait_ is much more familiar in connexion with art as "les traits du +visage," the natural markings of the face, and it is very often used in +a figurative sense, as we say "traits of character." It is familiar in +the English _portrait_, derived from _protrahere_. The ancient Romans +used words which expressed more clearly the conception that drawing was +done in line (_delineare_) or in shade (_adumbrare_), though there are +reasons for believing that the words were often indiscriminately +applied. Although the modern Italians have both _traire_ and _trarre_, +they use _delineare_ still in the sense of artistic drawing, and also +_adombrare_. The Greek verb [Greek: graphein] appears in English in +"graphic" and in many compounds, such as photograph, &c. It is worth +observing that the Greeks seem to have considered drawing and writing +(q.v.) as essentially the same process, since they used the same word +for both. This points to the early identity of the two arts when drawing +was a kind of writing, and when such writing as men had learned to +practise was essentially what we should call drawing, though of a rude +and simple kind. Even in the present day picture writing is not +unfrequently resorted to by travellers as a means of making themselves +intelligible. There is also a kind of art which is writing in the modern +sense and drawing at the same time, such as the work of the medieval +illuminators in their manuscripts. (X.) + +_The Art of Drawing._--Rather than attempt here a historical survey of +the various so-called "styles" of drawing, or write a personal +appreciation of them, it seems of greater use to give a logical account +of drawing as an art, applicable to all times and countries. Reference +to the teaching of drawing will be occasionally given rather to +illustrate the argument than with a view to its being of practical use. + +At the outset a distinction must be made between drawing as a means of +symbolic or literary expression and drawing as the direct and only means +of expressing the beauty of form. If Pharaoh wants to have it known that +a hundred ducks were consumed at one meal in his court, he employs a +draughtsman to register the fact on a frieze by picturing a row of cooks +occupied in preparing the hundred ducks. The artist in this case does +not represent the scene as he must have known it in the kitchen, with +all its variety of movement and composition (as an early Greek vase +painter conceived the interior of a vase factory), but all he does and +is required to do is to give the sufficient number of figures and ducks. +The more uniform the figures the greater will be the effect of number. +Drawing has been employed here to tell a story, and it succeeds in so +far as it tells the spectator plainly what could be told, perhaps less +conveniently, in words. It matters not whether the figures and objects +be feelingly rendered and harmoniously composed. So, to-day, a child, or +any one who has a simple trick of symbolizing figures and objects in +nature, can describe any event or moral by this process, provided the +plot be not too elaborate to be expressed by a scene, or series of +scenes, enacted by dumb symbolic figures. It is plain that the amusing +pictures in _Punch_ or _Fliegende Blatter_ would be none the more +amusing if they were done by the hand of Michelangelo, nor would the +mystic designs of Blake be more full of meaning if drawn by Rembrandt, +for in neither case do these works depend upon any subtle rendering of +the forms of nature for their success, but upon the dramatic or +intellectual imagination of the man who conceived them. When the witty +or ethical man is at the same time a master draughtsman his work has two +values, the "literary" content and the beauty of his drawing of natural +objects. But it must be borne in mind that these values are +fundamentally distinct; so much so that the spectator who has no +appreciation of the forms of nature enjoys the story told and remains +blind to the qualities of draughtsmanship, whilst the lover of nature's +forms may or may not trouble to unravel the literary plot but finds +perfect satisfaction in the drawing. By far the greater part of +illustration, and of artistic production generally, must be classed as +symbolic art. Magazine stories to-day are sometimes illustrated even by +photography, for the hand of the artist is not required. Symbolic art +describes indirectly and in a necessarily limited scope what literature +can do directly and with unlimited powers. The only content of symbolic +drawing is its literary meaning; as drawing it may be quite worthless. + +Pure drawing, however, whether it represent a dramatic event or a +knee-joint, has a content that cannot be expressed by words, and is not +necessarily directed towards literary expression. Just as a fragment of +good sculpture pleases the connoisseur without any reference either to +the whole original or to its spiritual significance, fine drawing can +appeal to the lover of nature independently of indirect considerations. + +What is the content of pure drawing? It is held by some that drawing or +monochrome can suggest colour, and many people, some consciously, others +unconsciously, attempt to represent in drawings the colours of figures +and landscape. It seems a strange aberration to argue that by different +intensities of the one colour various other colours can be suggested: it +would not be more unreasonable to maintain that E flat and F could be +suggested by striking the note G with varying strength. Now the +draughtsman employs various intensities of his monochrome as light and +shade by which to give roundness to his forms. But if on the same +drawing he uses the same means in his attempt to express colour, a +conflict would be at once set up between that which makes for form and +that which would make for colour, and the result would generally be a +confusion. Again, let one attempt to give red hair to a monochrome +drawing of a man, and if the red be plain and unmistakable to all who +are not the artist's accomplices, then the artist has succeeded; +otherwise it is bootless to treat of colour and colour values (which of +course must depend upon the existence of colour) in monochrome. Apart +from theory, if we examine the drawings, etchings and monochromes of +great artists, where do we find them attempting to give colour or colour +values? The hundreds of costume studies by Rembrandt might have been +done from white plaster models, and there are only a few exceptions +where a man has, for instance, a black hat or cloak. But in these few +instances the "colour" tone is applied with such discretion that the +true representation of the form is scarcely, perhaps only theoretically, +impaired: they certainly have gained nothing in colour value because no +specific colour is manifest in them. In Rembrandt's, Claude's or +Turner's drawings of landscapes the formation of the country, the +architecture, &c., is expressed by line, light and shade, and enhanced +by shadows cast from clouds and trees. If, in the drawings of masters, +we should find objects darker or lighter than their position in the +light would warrant, they have value (perhaps not quite a legitimate +one) for balancing the composition as a flat pattern. They were never +intended to suggest colour, nor do they. Yet, in spite of the failure to +succeed, and contrary to logical argument and the practice of great +draughtsmen, the student of most of the schools of Europe and America +still persists in doing the hair dark, and, by attempting to give colour +values to the clothes, breaks up the consistency of the whole. For the +same reason that the sculptor uses uniformly coloured material in order +that the natural light and shade may have full opportunity of making his +forms manifest to the spectator, the draughtsman confines himself to +giving light and shade only. If a monochrome has "colour tones," the +effect is similar to that produced by a draped statue made out of +variously coloured marbles--an inartistic jumble. + +As the immediate purpose and content of drawing there remains the +representation of form only. Drawing is, therefore, essentially the same +activity as sculpture, and has no additional scope. "Pupils," says +Donatello, "I give you the whole art of sculpture when I tell you to +draw" (cited by Holroyd, _Michel Angelo_, p. 2 95), and the only +practical teaching of drawing might be summed up by the inversion of the +above. + +Now if everything in nature--men, mountains or clouds--were as flat +targets, i.e. two-dimensional, drawing could be legitimately reduced to +a mechanical process,--to trace their contours upon a glass screen or +even photograph them would be all that would be required. Indeed, +provided the size of the drawing, the local colour and the texture be +the same as those of the original, a complete illusion would be the +result, in fact the proper end of one's labours. But the presence of the +third dimension in all objects causes light and shade, which in their +turn bring about radical changes of the local colour, even in uniformly +coloured objects. Now since drawing cannot suggest colour, local or +atmospherical, any attempt to effect an illusion by a monochrome is at +once defeated. If the end of drawing were to approach imitation or +illusion as nearly as possible, how is it that a mere "sketch" by a +master draughtsman can be for itself as valuable as his highly finished +drawing? And surely a masterly outline drawing of a figure or landscape +does not pretend to be an illusion. If then the draughtsman does not, +and cannot hope to imitate nature, he is compelled to state only his +ideas of it, ideas of three-dimensional form. For this reason only +drawing must be treated as an art, and not as a mechanical act of +getting an illusion. + +[Illustration: (From a Greek vase in the British Museum (E. 46). + +FIG. 1.] + +[Illustration: (From _Bulletino arch. Napol_. (1843, tom. 1, tav. 7). + +FIG. 2.] + +[Illustration: (From a drawing by Michelangelo (1854, 5, 13, i.), Print +Room, British Museum). + +FIG. 3.] + +It is interesting to trace in the history of an indigenous art the +development of drawing that shall ultimately express ideas of +three-dimensional form. Prof. Emanuel Loewy, in his _Rendering of Nature +in Early Greek Art_, demonstrates how the early Greek sculpture (and +that of all primitive peoples, children and ungifted artists) shows an +aversion from depth. Their reliefs are of the flattest description, +almost raised contours, and their figures in the round have at first +only one aspect, or flat facade, so to speak, then three and four +aspects, and finally at the date of Lysippus the figures are fully +rounded out, and the members project at liberty in all directions. Then +for the first time Greek sculpture showed a complete conception of the +body's corporeity (_Kurperlichkeit_). The primitive artist, however well +he may be _intellectually_ aware of the three dimensions of an object, +does not fully apprehend its true aspect as offered to the eye from one +point of view. Following this conclusion, it is easy to see also in the +drawing of the early Greeks, children and so on, the same lack of idea +of the third dimension. The figures on the vases of the "finest period" +(about 475 B.C.), despite occasional foreshortenings, have, when +considered as representations of solid forms, a papery appearance. They +have not half the draughtsmanship shown by the latter period of the vase +industry, where the figures, though careless, stereotyped and +ill-composed, come forwards (to use Prof. Loewy's description of later +sculpture), go backwards, twist and turn in space in a manner which +cannot be excelled. The reproductions in figs. 1, 2, 3 will illustrate +the development. The primitive draughtsman is at first bound by the +silhouette. Later, he desires to fill out the interior, but this cannot +be done without in great part modifying his contour lines, because they +are generally merely indications of the disappearing and reappearing +inner modelling, i.e. of the figure's third dimension. Finally, the +draughtsman in full possession of a feeling for the corporeity of the +object will determine his contour entirely from within, a procedure +which is the exact opposite to that of his first beginnings. He +conceives the length, breadth and depth of an object and all its parts +as solid wholes. To him a body in violent foreshortening is as easy as a +simple profile, and, though it may not be as attractive, it is perhaps +more interesting because its contours are more bound up with, and +dependent upon, the inner modelling; in other words, it has more depth. +The draughtsman's idea of a form in nature is not a "flat idea," but one +containing three dimensions. This idea he seeks to express either by +line alone or by light and shade. If an artist has not a +three-dimensional "grasp" of forms, and, like a child, confines himself +to the primitive tracing of the silhouette, his compositions may be of +excellent flat pattern, and equal to any of the designs of ancient +carpets or early Greek vases; but in the light of the above argument, +and when compared with the productions of mature draughtsmen of all ages +and countries, they cannot be said to be complete drawings, any more +than the early unifacial statues of the Greeks can be called true +plastic, simply because in neither case has the artist yet reached the +highest possible development of corporeous conception, by which truly to +interpret the solid objects of nature as we know them, and as master +draughtsmen see them. + +An attempt should be made to explain the psycho-physiological process +that must take place in the mind of the real draughtsman. When we look +at an object in nature we know its length and breadth by the flat image +on the retina; we see also the light and shade, which at once gives us a +correct idea of the object's depth or relief. But we do not, nor could +we, have this idea from the flat image on the retina alone, i.e. from +the mere perception of the light and shade: our knowledge of its depth +is the result of experience, i.e. of our having from infancy remarked a +certain dispensation of light and shade on, and peculiar to, every form +we have touched or traversed, and so, by association and inference, +being early enabled to have ideas of the depth of things by their +various arrangements of lights and darks without having to touch or +traverse them. Nevertheless the act (generally, but by no means always, +an unconscious one) of visually touching a form must necessarily take +place before we can apprehend the third dimension of a form. It is, +then, by the combination of the ideas derived from pure vision and the +ideas derived from touch that we know the length, breadth and depth of a +solid form. We have shown that the art of drawing is not an imitation, +but an expression of the artist's ideas of form; therefore all drawing +of forms that merely reproduces the image on the retina, and leaves +unconsulted the ideas of touch, is incomplete and primitive, because it +does not express a conception of form which is the result of an +association of the two senses; in other words, it does not contain an +idea of the object's relief or solidity. And all teaching of drawing +that does not impress upon the student the necessity of combining the +sense of vision with that of touch is erroneous, for it is thereby +limiting him to a mechanical task, viz. the tracing of the flat image on +the retina, which could be equally well done by mechanical means, or by +photography alone. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.] + +In most of the schools of Europe and America it is true that great +stress is laid upon the importance of giving life-like relief to +drawings, but the method by which the students are allowed to get the +relief is by employing the sense of vision only. Tracing the silhouette +of the figure as minutely as possible, they then fill it out with +inner-modelling, which also is done by vision alone, for the lights and +darks of the original are copied down as so many flat patterns fitted +together and gradated like a child's puzzle, and are not used merely as +indication by which to "feel" the depth of the object. Such a procedure +is as if in drawing a brick of which three sides were visible, one were +first to draw the entire contour (fig. 4, a), the subtle perspective of +which he might get correct with some mechanical apparatus or by infinite +mechanical pains, and then fill up the interior with its "shading" (fig. +4, b). The method would be plainly laborious, unintelligent and +unedifying, and in drawing the most complicated foreshortened forms of +the human body it would seem still more illogical. That this principle +of instruction does not help the student to grasp the three-dimensional +character properly can be proved by the twenty-minute studies of the +average student who in his fourth year has won a gold medal for an +astounding piece of life-like stippling. They are still unintelligent +contour tracings, as if of cardboard figures, with a few irrelevant +patches of dark here and there within the silhouette. + +But high modelling that would make for illusion of reality is not the +first aim of draughtsmanship, nor have the best draughtsmen employed it +save by exception. Michelangelo, Ingres, Holbein and Rembrandt have +shown us that it is possible to give sufficient relief with a mere +outline drawing. Again, the desire for salience often blunts the +student's sense of the real character of the forms he is rounding out. +So his elaborately modelled portrait may look very "life-like," but when +compared with the original it will generally be seen that the whole and +each of the individual forms of the drawing lack the peculiar character +of those of the original. It is by carefully watching for the character +of each fresh variety in figure and feature that great draughtsmen have +excelled, and not by "life-like" relief, or even a sophisticated +exposition of anatomical details at the expense of character. Can it be +seriously maintained that a masterly sudden grasp of true formal +character can be developed in a student by a system in which he +patiently spends many days and weeks in stippling into plastic +appearance one drawing which has originally been "laid in" by a +mechanical process? + +It has been shown that to attempt to make an illusion of nature is +neither within the power of monochrome nor has been the chief aim of +draughtsmen, but that the art of drawing consists in giving a plain +statement of one's ideas, be they slight or studied, of the solid forms +of nature. But the question may still be asked: Why is it that a +rigorously accurate and finished drawing by a student or artist with +_no_ such ideas or conception is not good drawing, containing as it must +do all that can be seen in the original, missing only its complete +illusion? Why, in a word, is not a photograph a work of art? + +The common explanation of the above important question is that the +artist "selects and eliminates from the forms of nature." But surely +this is the principle of the caricaturist and virtuoso? A beautiful +drawing, however slight, is but the precipitate of the whole in the +artist's mind. And a highly finished drawing by a master does not show +even any apparent selection or elimination. The adoption of the +principle of selection to differentiate art from mechanical reproduction +is fundamentally vicious, and could be shown to be wholly inapplicable +to the so-called formative arts. Nor could the theory of "selection" be +used as a principle of teaching, for if to the first question the pupil +would make, "What am I to select?" it were answered, "Only the important +things," then the next question, "What are the important things?" could +be answered only by saying, "That alone the real artist knows, but +cannot teach." Certainly there are important things that can be taught +the student in the initial stage of "laying-in" a figure, but _when_ to +begin selecting or eliminating no teacher could tell him, simply because +he must be aware that a true draughtsman can afford to eliminate nothing +when the truth of the whole is at stake. The artist's conception and its +expression may be slight or elaborate, but in neither case can selection +or elimination take place, for a true conception must be founded upon +the character of the whole, which is determined by the entire complex of +all the parts. + +To explain the essential difference between art and mechanical drawing +or mechanical reproduction, a more applicable theory must be found. +Compare the art of telling a story. If, to describe an incident in the +street you had the entire affair reenacted on the same spot, you would +have but made a mechanical reproduction of it, leaving the spectator to +simplify the affair, and construct his _own_ conception of it. You have +not given _your_ ideas of the event, and so you have not made a work of +art. So, if a man draws an object detail for detail by any mechanical +process, or traces over its photograph, he has but reduplicated the +real aspect of the object, and has failed to give the spectator a simple +and intelligible idea of it. Starting out with the generous notion of +giving all, that there may be "something for everyone," he has given +nothing. He did not originally form an intelligible and simplified idea +of the figure, so how can his drawing be expected to give one to others? + +But how can forms be made _more_ simple and intelligible than by +reproducing their aspect with absolute accuracy? Our combined sense of +vision and touch comprehends very easily certain elementary solid forms, +the sphere, the cube, the pyramid and the cylinder. No forms but these, +and their modifications, can be apprehended by the mind in one and the +same act of vision. Every complex form, even so simple as that of a +kidney, for instance, must be first broken up into its component parts +before it can be fully apprehended or remembered. Analogously with the +above, Prof. Wundt has shown how the mind can apprehend _as separate +units_ any number, of marbles for instance, up to five, after which +every number must be split up into lots of twos, threes, fours and +fives, or twenties, thirties and so on, before it can realize the full +content of that number in one and the same mental picture. So the only +way to receive an intelligible idea of a complex form, such as a human +figure, is first to discover in the figure itself, and then in all its +parts, only modifications of the above elementary solid forms, and the +drawing of a conception thus informed must needs be a very clear and +intelligible one. The more the artist is capable and practised, the more +clearly will he conceive and distinguish in nature each subtle +modification of these elementary forms, their direction, their relation +to, and their dependence upon one another. The only difference between a +good draughtsman and a bad one is the degree of subtlety of his +apprehension. Unless the draughtsman has seen some such clear forms in +his original, his labour to produce a work of art will be grievous and +fruitless. All good drawing is stamped with this kind of structural +insight. The more the artist adheres to nature, and the more finished +his drawing, the more will the lines and forms that he makes be, so to +speak, _in excess_ of those of nature, or dull imitation or photography. +It is not to be supposed that able draughtsmen work, or need ever have +worked, consciously in this manner. It is, indeed, the virtue peculiar +to the artist, as interpreter of form, that he instinctively comprehends +the real elemental character of complex forms, whilst the majority of +people (on the showing of their own drawings) entertain but confused or +_no_ ideas of them. It is because a good drawing reduces the chaos of +ideas supplied by the raw material of nature, to one intelligible manner +of seeing it, that all lovers of nature welcome it with joy. It is this +process of discovery and interpretation that marks the essential +difference between art and mechanical drawing or reproduction. Art gives +intelligible ideas of the forms of nature, mechanism attempts to +reduplicate their aspects. + +There are some who hold that drawing is not exclusively a matter of +interpreting form, but that great artists have their own "personalities" +which they infuse into their work. They will ask, How is it otherwise to +be explained that two equally good draughtsmen will invariably make +different drawings of the same figure? Is it not for the same reason +that one man will divide up a row of eight marbles into groups of four, +and another into five and three? The subjectivity of experience governs +the different conceptions that good draughtsmen will form of the same +object. Accordingly as a draughtsman feels form so will he draw it, and +it is only because our sense apparatuses are more or less similarly +constituted that we can understand and appreciate one another's +conceptions. + +But if the master draughtsman gives the true character of his model's +form, why is it that his drawings are not pleasing to all alike? Whence +the doubts and criticism that have been called forth by all original +artists? If we first examine the attitude of the average man, artist or +layman, towards nature, we can better explain his attitude towards works +of art. The average man or artist has not a highly developed +appreciation of form _per se_, whether it be the form of natural or +manufactured objects. And it would seem that he is still less a +disinterested spectator of the forms and features of his fellow beings +and animals, their movements, their colour, their value in a room or +landscape. He has sentimental, moral or intellectual preferences. In +other words, he likes or dislikes only those faces or figures which +hundreds of personal associations have taught him to like or dislike. +The riding man's admiration for the look of a particular horse is based +upon the fact that it looks like "a horse to go," and hence it is what +he calls beautiful, while the artist, in the capacity of artist and not +of sportsman, is not particular in his choice of horse-flesh, but finds +each animal equally interesting for itself alone. Consequently in art +any face, figure or object that does not come into the category of what +the average man cares for is condemned by him even as it would be in +real life, since he is no lover of form for form's sake, but provided +the subject or moral be pleasing the quality of the draughtsmanship is +of small account. The picture of a dwarf, or of an anatomy lesson, or of +a group of ordinary bourgeois folk would not really please him, even +though he were told that the work was by Velazquez, Rembrandt or Manet. +We have only to listen to the common criticism of works of art to know +that it is founded upon personal predilection only. We do not hear such +personal criticism upon drawings of landscape, not because artists do +them better, but because natural landscape has no interest for any one +other than for its form, or, at least, people do not hold such definite +personal likes or dislikes with regard to its various manifestations. +But the artist, though his own personal predilections may, and generally +do, lead him to work within that agreeable _milieu_, has, in the +capacity of artist, no subjective prejudices; indeed, if he had them, he +could not represent them by line, light and shade. He seeks always new +varieties of form; hence his subjects, and his manner of posing them, +are often unpleasing to the man who is busy with other affairs, and has +no great experience of nature's forms. Let a good draughtsman make a +successful likeness of the mother of some average man, and the latter +will be delighted, but it by no means follows that he will delight in a +drawing of the wife of the artist, though done by the same hand and with +equal skill. + +If drawing is the art of giving one's ideas of the forms of nature, then +all criticism of drawing must be based upon the question, "How far does +such and such a work show an intimate knowledge of or intelligent +visualization of the forms we know in nature?" and no other principle of +judgment can be applicable to all drawing alike. Hence only those who +have by natural endowment a clear sense of the forms of things, and who +have made more than ordinary study of them, are in a position to apply +to drawings the above criterion with any approach to infallibility. It +is a fact that there are, and always have been, a certain number of +people who agree perfectly in their appreciation of the works of certain +draughtsmen of different times and countries, and who can state reasons +for their appreciation in definite and almost identical terms, for it is +based upon knowledge and experience. To such people all fine +draughtsmanship owes its public fame, and its immortality lies in their +safe keeping. + +It may be argued that each has a right to his own opinion about form and +its representation, on the supposed ground that we all see form in +different ways. But there is a fallacy in this argument. If we take the +average man's drawing of any form more complex than a loaf of bread as a +fair and only testimony of his power of visualization of forms, we must +conclude that most of us see not differently, but _wrongly_, or rather +confusedly and disconnectedly, and that some can visualize form scarcely +at all. If this be true, the average person's sight and ability to judge +drawing is seriously diminished. If, then, drawing can be judged and +appreciated only by knowledge and experience of the forms of nature, no +critical formula could be made out so as to enable a child or savage or +ordinary civilized adult to estimate or enjoy it. If it be argued that +drawings are to be judged from some abstract or symbolic point of view, +independently of its subtle representation of form, then incompetent +drawing might be as beautiful as the competent, which would be absurd. +However, if the competent characterization of form were admitted as at +least the first condition of beautiful drawing, it would follow that +any abstract value it might have must be wholly dependent upon the +manner in which form is represented, and so it would be superfluous to +judge it by any standard other than the direct, definite and concrete +one of form. Abstract beauty, since no one has yet defined it agreeably +to all, is, apparently, with those who affect a feeling for it, a matter +of individual taste, and therefore cannot be questioned. But the clear +visualization of the forms of nature is based upon a special endowment +and knowledge, and can be criticized by demonstration. People may differ +in their tastes, but they may not, nor do they, differ upon questions of +real knowledge. Drawing, as the activity of giving one's ideas of form, +must therefore be judged not by taste but by knowledge. + +In view of the purpose and content of drawing as here demonstrated, +there is no other principle of judgment that is relevant. Yet we often +hear drawing judged by criteria which are founded upon no such concrete +base but upon certain vague abstractions; or, again, upon a literary or +moral base which could be applicable only to symbolic art. + +It is said that this or that draughtsman excels in "beauty of line." Now +in spite of the labours of many painters and theorists, it cannot +reasonably be held that one purely abstract line or curve is more +beautiful than another, for the simple reason that people have no common +ground upon which to establish the nature of abstract beauty. It may be, +however, that even as certain simple forms are more easily apprehended +than complex ones, there is the same distinction with regard to lines. +If then an artist of clean vision sees in an object of reality such +clear characteristic lines, he draws them not for their abstract beauty, +but merely because by them alone can he express his idea of the form +before him. The early Greek vase painters, and all great artists of +primitive periods, being attracted only by the silhouette, became very +subtle to observe nature's outlines in their most intelligible +character, and to this capacity is due their "beauty of line," and not +to any preconceived notion of an abstract line of perfect beauty, and +nowhere will "beauty of line" be found on Greek vases, or elsewhere, +that is not informed by, and does not express, a fine conception of +nature's contours. So too in later three-dimensional drawing there is no +beauty of line which does not intelligibly express not only the +directions and angles of the main contour, but the inner modelling, i.e. +the relief of the figure. It is only a superficial judgment that would +prefer one drawing to another, even if both may be equally good, because +the line of one is neat and the other "tormented." Contour being _in +nature_ an ideal line between one form and another, it is illogical to +treat it or criticize it in a _drawing_ as an actual and specific thing, +apart from the forms that make it and are made by it. If an artist drew +a dragon with deliberate disregard for animal construction, his drawing +would be silly, and only by a profound knowledge of the forms of nature +could it be made to have beautiful lines. Truth to nature is always +originality, and it is the only originality worth the name. + +Again, some people judge one drawing as better than another in that it +shows more "individuality" or "temperament." Now a man's individuality +is, presumably, a vague feeling in our minds produced by the net result +of the ways in which he sees, hears, loves, thinks and so on, so that we +could not tell a man's individuality from any single one of his +manifestations. With his entire work as an artist before us, i.e. his +manner of seeing, we could do no more than infer, with the help of +outside data, from the subjects he chooses, and the neatness or boldness +of his line, something about his general character, and that with small +degree of certainty. To regard a man's works of art, or indeed any of +his manifestations, from this point of view, is, after all, nothing but +a kind of inquisitive cheiromancy. Those who pretend to like the +drawings of Watteau or Michelangelo "because they show more +individuality" than the incompetent work of a beginner or poor artist +cannot be skilled in their own business, because the lady who tells your +character by your handwriting finds as much individuality in bad writing +as in good,--sometimes even more. It may be entertaining to some to +guess at the artist's character from his works by this process of +inference and comparison, but it is unreasonable to imagine that +"individuality," as such, can be made a serious criterion of aesthetic +judgment. The only individuality a draughtsman can show directly by his +drawing is his individual way of conceiving the forms of nature, and +even this is immaterial provided the conception and drawing be good. + +A word or two are necessary upon "style," which unfortunate word has +made much mystery in criticism. The great draughtsmen of every time and +country are known by their own words, as well as their works, to have +been infinitely respectful to the form of every detail in nature. Their +drawings always recall to our minds reality as we ourselves have seen it +(provided we have studied from nature and not from pictures). The +drawing of a hand, for instance, by Hokusai, Ingres or Durer, revives in +us our own impressions of the forms and aspects of real hands. In short +there is manifest in all good drawings, whatever their difference of +medium or superficial appearance, an entire dependence upon the forms of +nature. Hence we cannot imagine that they were conceived and executed +with the conscious effort to obtain some abstract style independent of +the material treated. The style they plainly have can spring from this +common quality, their truthful and well understood representation of +forms. Style, then, is the expression of a clear understanding of the +material from which the artist works. Unless a drawing shows this +understanding it would be as impossible as it would be gratuitous to +argue that it could have style. But it would seem that some people mean +by style nothing more than the mere superficial appearance of the work. +They would have a draughtsman draw "in the style of Holbein," but not +"in the style" of Rembrandt. This kind of preference, as remarked above, +is superficial, for it overlooks the main issue and purpose of drawing, +viz. the representation, by any means whatever, of the artist's ideas of +form. It is as though one should prefer a letter from Holbein to one +from Rembrandt, though both were equally expressive, simply because +Holbein's handwriting was prettier than Rembrandt's. Each draughtsman +manifests a kind of handwriting peculiar to himself even in his most +faithful rendering of form; and by this we can immediately recognize the +artist; many, for instance Hogarth and some Japanese, seem to have let +their quirks, full stops and so on, get the upper hand at the expense of +serious, sensitive draughtsmanship. + +It is fair to suppose that all abstract principles of aesthetic +judgment, such as beauty of line, personality, style, nobility of +thought, romanticism, are merely pretexts set up by people who would +still affect to admire the drawings of recognized masters when they have +neither the knowledge of, nor the care for, the forms of nature by +virtue of which alone these drawings are what they are, and by which +alone they can be immediately appreciated. (J. R. FO.) + +_Drawing-Office Work._--In modern engineering, few pieces of mechanism +are ever produced in the shops until their design has been settled in +the "drawing office," and embodied in suitable drawings showing general +and detailed views. This is a broad statement to which there are +exceptions, to be noted presently. + +Drawing-office work is divisible into four principal groups. First, +there is the actual designing, by far the most difficult work, which is +confined to relatively few well-paid men. The qualifications necessary +for it are a good scientific, mathematical and engineering training, and +a specialized experience gathered in the particular class of mechanism +to which the designing relates. Second, there is the work of the rank +and file who take instructions from the chiefs, and elaborate the +smaller details and complete the drawings. Third, there are the tracers, +either youths or girls, who copy drawings on tracing paper without +necessarily understanding them. Fourth, there is a printing department +in which phototypes are produced on sensitized paper from tracings. + +The character of the drawings used includes the general drawings, or +those which show a mechanism complete; and the detailed drawings, which +illustrate portions isolated from their connexions and relationships. +The first are retained in the office for reference, and copies are only +sent out to the men who have to assemble or erect and complete +mechanisms. The second are distributed to the several shops and +departments where sectional portions are being prepared, as pattern +shop, smithy, turnery, machine shop, &c. General drawings are, as a +rule, drawn to a small scale, ranging say from 1/8 in. to 1 in. to the +foot; but details are either to actual size, or to a large scale, as +from 1-1/2 in. to the foot or 3 in. or 6 in. to the foot. + +A large number of minutiae are omitted from general drawings, but in the +detailed ones that are sent into the shops nothing is apparently too +trivial for insertion. In this respect, however, there is much +difference observable in the practice of different firms, and in the +best practice of the present compared with that of former years. In the +detailed drawings issued by many firms now, every tiny element and +section is not only drawn to actual size, but also fully dimensioned, +and the material to be used is specified in every case. This practice +largely adds to the work of the drawing-office staff, but it pays. + +The present tendency therefore is to throw more responsibility than of +old on the drawing-office staff, in harmony with the tendency towards +greater centralization of authority. Much of detail that was formerly +left to the decision of foremen and skilled hands is now determined by +the drawing-office staff. Heterogeneity in details is thus avoided, and +the drawings reflect accurately and fully the past as well as the +present practice of the firm. To so great an extent is this the case +that the preparation of the tools, appliances, templets, jigs and +fixtures used in the shops is often now not permitted to be undertaken +until proper drawings have been prepared for them, though formerly the +foreman's own hand sketches generally sufficed. The practice of turret +work has been contributory to this result. In many establishments now +the designing of shop tools and fixtures is done in a department of the +office specially set apart for that kind of work. + +The growing specialization of the engineer's work is reflected in the +drawing office. Specialists are sought after, and receive the highest +rates of pay. A man is required to be an expert in some one branch, as +electric cranes or hydraulic machines, steel works plant, lathes, or +heavy or light machine tools. The days are past in which all-round men +were in request. In those firms which manufacture a large range of +machinery, the drawing-office staff is separated into departments, each +under its own chief, and there is seldom any transference of men from +one to another. + +Although in the majority of instances designs and drawings are completed +before the manufacture is undertaken, exceptions to this rule occur in +connexion with the work of standardizing machines and motors, for +repetitive and interchangeable manufacture on a large scale. Here it is +so essential to secure the most minute economies in manufacture that the +first articles made are of a more or less experimental character. Only +after no further improvement seems for the time being possible are the +drawings made or completed for standard use and reference. In some +modern shops even standardized drawings are scarcely used, but their +place is taken by the templets, jigs and fixtures which are employed by +the workmen as their sole guides in machining and assembling parts. By +the employment of these aids locations and dimensions are embodied and +fixed absolutely for any number of similar parts; reference to drawings +thus becomes unnecessary, and they therefore fall into disuse. + +The mechanical work of the drawing office is confined strictly to +orthographic projections and sections of objects. Perspective views are +of no value, though occasionally an object is sketched roughly in +perspective as an aid to the rapid grasp of an idea. Drawings involve +plans, elevations, and sectional views, in vertical and angular +relations. + +There are a good many conventionalities adopted which have no +correspondences in fact, with the object of saving the draughtsman's +time; or else, as in the case of superposition of plans and sections, to +show in one view what would otherwise require two drawings. Among the +convenient conventionalities are the indications of toothed wheels by +their pitch lines only, of screws by parallel lines and by diagonal +shade lines; and of rivets, bolts and studs by their centres only. The +adoption of this practice never leads to error. + +In the preliminary preparation of drawings in pencil no distinction is +made between full or unbroken lines, and dotted or centre lines, and the +actual outlines of the objects. These differences are made when the +inking-in is being done. Indian or Chinese ink is used, because it does +not run when colours are applied. There are conventional colours used to +indicate different materials. But colouring is not adopted so much as +formerly, because of the practice of making sun prints instead of the +more expensive tracings for the multiplication of drawings. When +tracings are coloured the colour is applied on the back instead of on +the side where the ink lines are drawn. + +The economical importance of the printing department of the drawing +office cannot be overestimated. Before its introduction drawings could +only be reproduced by laborious tracing on paper or cloth, the first +being flimsy, the second especially liable to absorb grease from the +hands of the workmen. By the sun copying processes (see SUN COPYING) any +number of prints can be taken from a single tracing. But even the fickle +sun is being displaced by electricity, so that prints can be made by +night as well as day, on cloudy days as well as on bright ones. Twenty +minutes of bright sunshine is required for a print, but the electric +light produces the same result within five minutes. Prints are blue, +white or brown. The advantage of white is that they can be coloured. But +the majority are blue (white lines on blue ground). All can be had on +stout, thin or medium paper. + +An innovation in drawing-office equipment is that of vertical boards, +displacing horizontal or sloping ones. They have the advantage that the +draughtsman is able to avoid a bending posture at his work. The +objection on the ground that the tee-square must be held up constantly +with one hand is overcome by supporting and balancing it with cords and +weights. (J. G. H.) + + + + +DRAWING AND QUARTERING, part of the penalty anciently ordained in +England for treason. Until 1870 the full punishment for the crime was +that the culprit be dragged on a hurdle to the place of execution; that +he be hanged by the neck but not till he was dead; that he should be +disembowelled or drawn and his entrails burned before his eyes; that his +head be cut off and his body divided into four parts or quartered. This +brutal penalty was first inflicted in 1284 on the Welsh prince David, +and on Sir William Wallace a few years later. In Richard III.'s reign +one Collingbourne, for writing the famous couplet "The Cat, the Rat and +Lovel the Dog, Rule all England under the Hog," was executed on Tower +Hill. Stow says, "After having been hanged, he was cut down immediately +and his entrails were then extracted and thrown into the fire, and all +this was so speedily done that when the executioners pulled out his +heart he spoke and said 'Jesus, Jesus.'" Edward Marcus Despard and his +six accomplices were in 1803 hanged, drawn and quartered for conspiring +to assassinate George III. The sentence was last passed (though not +carried out) upon the Fenians Burke and O'Brien in 1867. There is a +tradition that Harrison the regicide, after being disembowelled, rose +and boxed the ears of the executioner. + + + + +DRAWING-ROOM (a shortened form of "with-drawing room," the longer form +being usual in the 16th and 17th centuries), the English name generally +employed for a room used in a dwelling-house for the reception of +company. It originated in the setting apart of such a room, as the more +private and exclusive preserve of the ladies of the household, to which +they withdrew from the dining-room. The term "drawing-room" is also used +in a special sense of the formal receptions or "courts" held by the +British sovereign or his representative, at which ladies are presented, +as distinguished from a "levee," at which men are presented. + + + + +DRAYTON, MICHAEL (1563-1631), English poet, was born at Hartshill, near +Atherstone, in Warwickshire in 1563. Even in childhood it was his great +ambition to excel in writing verses. At the age of ten he was sent as +page into some great family, and a little later he is supposed to have +studied for some time at Oxford. Sir Henry Goodere of Powlesworth became +his patron, and introduced him to the countess of Bedford, and for +several years he was esquire to Sir Walter Aston. How the early part of +his life was spent, however, we possess no means of ascertaining. It has +been surmised that he served in the army abroad. In 1590 he seems to +have come up to London, and to have settled there. + +In 1591 he produced his first book, _The Harmony of the Church_, a +volume of spiritual poems, dedicated to Lady Devereux. The best piece in +this is a version of the Song of Solomon, executed with considerable +richness of expression. A singular and now incomprehensible fate befell +the book; with the exception of forty copies, seized by the archbishop +of Canterbury, the whole edition was destroyed by public order. It is +probable that he had come up to town laden with poetic writings, for he +published a vast amount within the next few years. In 1593 appeared +_Idea: The Shepherd's Garland_, a collection of nine pastorals, in which +he celebrated his own love-sorrows under the poetic name of Rowland. The +circumstances of this passion appear more distinctly in the cycle of 64 +sonnets, published in 1594, under the title of _Idea's Mirror_, by which +we learn that the lady lived by the river Ankor in Warwickshire. It +appears that he failed to win his "Idea," and lived and died a bachelor. +In 1593 appeared the first of Drayton's historical poems, _The Legend of +Piers Gaveston_, and the next year saw the publication of _Matilda_, an +epical poem in rhyme royal. It was about this time, too, that he brought +out _Endimion and Phoebe_, a volume which he never republished, but +which contains some interesting autobiographical matter, and +acknowledgments of literary help from Lodge, if not from Spenser and +Daniel also. In his _Fig for Momus_, Lodge has reciprocated these +friendly courtesies. In 1596 Drayton published his long and important +poem of _Mortimerades_, which deals with the Wars of the Roses, and is a +very serious production in _ottava rima_. He afterwards enlarged and +modified this poem, and republished it in 1603 under the title of _The +Barons' Wars_. In 1596 also appeared another historical poem, _The +Legend of Robert, Duke of Normandy_, with which _Piers Gaveston_ was +reprinted. In 1597 appeared _England's Heroical Epistles_, a series of +historical studies, in imitation of those of Ovid. These last poems, +written in the heroic couplet, contain some of the finest passages in +Drayton's writings. + +With the year 1597 the first half of the poet's literary life closes. He +had become famous by this rapid production of volumes, and he rested on +his oars. It would seem that he was much favoured at the court of +Elizabeth, and he hoped that it would be the same with her successor. +But when, in 1603, he addressed a poem of compliment to James I., on his +accession, it was ridiculed, and his services rudely rejected. His +bitterness of spirit found expression in a satire, _The Owl_, which he +printed in 1604, although he had no talent in this kind of composition. +Not much more entertaining was his scriptural narrative of _Moses in a +Map of his Miracles_, a sort of epic in heroics printed the same year. +In 1605 Drayton reprinted his most important works, that is to say, his +historical poems and the _Idea_, in a single volume which ran through +eight editions during his lifetime. He also collected his smaller +pieces, hitherto unedited, in a volume undated, but probably published +in 1605, under the title of _Poems Lyric and Pastoral_; these consisted +of odes, eclogues, and a fantastic satire called _The Man in the Moon_. +Some of the odes are extremely spirited. In this volume he printed for +the first time the famous _Ballad of Agincourt_. + +He had adopted as early as 1598 the extraordinary resolution of +celebrating all the points of topographical or antiquarian interest in +the island of Great Britain, and on this laborious work he was engaged +for many years. At last, in 1613, the first part of this vast work was +published under the title of _Poly-Olbion_, eighteen books being +produced, to which the learned Selden supplied notes. The success of +this great work, which has since become so famous, was very small at +first, and not until 1622 did Drayton succeed in finding a publisher +willing to undertake the risk of bringing out twelve more books in a +second part. This completed the survey of England, and the poet, who had +hoped "to crown Scotland with flowers," and arrive at last at the +Orcades, never crossed the Tweed. In 1627 he published another of his +miscellaneous volumes, and this contains some of his most characteristic +and exquisite writing. It consists of the following pieces: _The Battle +of Agincourt_, an historical poem in _ottava rima_ (not to be confused +with his ballad on the same subject), and _The Miseries of Queen +Margaret_, written in the same verse and manner; _Nimphidia, the Court +of Faery_, a most joyous and graceful little epic of fairyland; _The +Quest of Cinthia_ and _The Shepherd's Sirena_, two lyrical pastorals; +and finally _The Moon Calf_, a sort of satire. Of these _Nimphidia_ is +perhaps the best thing Drayton ever wrote, except his famous ballad on +the battle of Agincourt; it is quite unique of its kind and full of rare +fantastic fancy. + +The last of Drayton's voluminous publications was _The Muses' Elizium_ +in 1630. He died in London on the 23rd of December 1631, was buried in +Westminster Abbey, and had a monument placed over him by the countess of +Dorset, with memorial lines attributed to Ben Jonson. Of the particulars +of Drayton's life we know almost nothing but what he himself tells us; +he enjoyed the friendship of some of the best men of the age. He +corresponded familiarly with Drummond; Ben Jonson, William Browne, +George Wither and others were among his friends. There is a tradition +that he was a friend of Shakespeare, supported by a statement of John +Ward, once vicar of Stratford-on-Avon, that "Shakespear, Drayton and Ben +Jonson had a merry meeting, and it seems, drank too hard, for Shakespear +died of a feavour there contracted." In one of his poems, an "elegy" or +epistle to Mr Henry Reynolds, he has left some valuable criticisms on +poets whom he had known. He was even engaged in the labour of the +dramatists; at least he had a share, with Munday, Chettle and Wilson, in +writing _Sir John Oldcastle_, which was printed in 1600. That he was a +restless and discontented, as well as a worthy, man may be gathered from +his own admissions. + +The works of Drayton are bulky, and, in spite of the high place that he +holds in critical esteem, it cannot be pretended that he is much read. +For this his ponderous style is much to blame. The _Poly-Olbion_, the +most famous but far from the most successful of his writings, is tedious +and barren in the extreme. It was, he tells us, a "Herculean toil" to +him to compose it, and we are conscious of the effort. The metre in +which it is composed, a couplet of alexandrines, like the French +classical measure, is wholly unsuited to the English language, and +becomes excessively wearisome to the reader, who forgets the learning +and ingenuity of the poet in labouring through the harsh and overgrown +lines. His historical poems, which he was constantly rewriting and +improving, are much more interesting, and often rise to a true poetic +eloquence. His pastorals are brilliant, but overladen with colour and +sweet to insipidity. He is, with the one magnificent exception of "Since +there's no help, come let us kiss and part," which was first printed in +1619, an indifferent sonneteer. The poet with whom it is most natural to +compare him is Daniel; he is more rough and vigorous, more varied and +more daring than the latter, but Daniel surpasses him in grace, delicacy +and judgment. In their elegies and epistles, however, the two writers +frequently resemble each other. Drayton, however, approaches the very +first poets of the Elizabethan era in his charming _Nimphidia_, a poem +which inspired Herrick with his sweet fairy fancies and stands alone of +its kind in English literature; while some of his odes and lyrics are +inspired by noble feeling and virile imagination. + + In 1748 a folio edition of Drayton's complete works was published + under the editorial supervision of William Oldys, and again in 1753 + there appeared an issue in four volumes. But these were very + unintelligently and inaccurately prepared. A complete edition of + Drayton's works with variant readings was projected by Richard Hooper + in 1876, but was never carried to a conclusion; a volume of + selections, edited by A. H. Bullen, appeared in 1883. See especially + Oliver Elton, _Michael Drayton_ (1906). (E. G.) + + + + +DREAM (from a root _dreug_, connected with Germ. _trugen_, to deceive), +the state of consciousness during sleep; it may also be defined as a +hallucination or illusion peculiarly associated with the condition of +sleep, but not necessarily confined to that state. In sleep the +withdrawal of the mind from the external world is more complete and the +objectivity of the dream images is usually unquestioned, whereas in the +waking state the hallucination is usually recognized as such; we may, +however, be conscious that we are dreaming, and thus in a measure be +aware of the hallucinatory character of our percepts. The physiological +nature of sleep (q.v.; see also MUSCLE AND NERVE) and of dreaming is +obscure. As a rule the control over the voluntary muscles in dreams is +slight; the sleep-walker is the exception and not the rule, and the +motor activity represented in the dream is seldom realized in practice, +largely, no doubt, because we are ignorant, under these circumstances, +of the spatial relations of our bodies. Among the psychological problems +raised by dreams are the condition of attention, which is variously +regarded as altogether absent or as fixed, the extent of mental control, +and the relation of ideas and motor impulses. There is present in all +dreams a certain amount of dissociation of consciousness, or of +obstructed association, which may manifest itself in the preliminary +stage of drowsiness by such phenomena as the apparent transformation or +inversion of the words of a book. We may distinguish two types of +dreams, (a) representative or centrally initiated, (b) presentative or +due to the stimulation of the end organs of sense. In both cases, the +dream having once been initiated, we are concerned with a process of +reasoning, i.e. the combination of ideas suggested by resemblances or +other associative elements. The false reasoning of dreams is due in the +first place to the absence, to a large extent, of the memory elements on +which our ordinary reasoning depends, and, secondly, to the absence of +sensory elements. + +_Objectivity of Dreams._--In waking life we distinguish ideas or mental +images from real objects by the fact that we are able under normal +circumstances to dismiss the former at will. In sleep, on the other +hand, we have, in the first place, no real objects with which to compare +the images, which therefore take on a character of reality comparable to +the hallucination of waking life; moreover, powers of visualization and +other faculties are enhanced in sleep, so that the strength of dream +images considerably exceeds those of the mental images of the ordinary +man; changes in powers of attention, volition and memory help to +increase the hallucinatory force of the dream. In the second place, the +ideas of our dreams are presented in the form of images, which we are +unable to dismiss; we therefore mistake them for realities, exactly as +the sufferer from delirium tremens in waking life is apt to regard his +phantoms as real. + +_Relations of Dreaming and Sleep._--It has been maintained by Hamilton +and others (see below, Modern Views) that dreams invariably accompany +sleep, and that we always find ourselves dreaming when we are awakened. +But even if it were true that dreams were invariably experienced at the +moment of waking, this would not by any means establish the invariable +concomitance of dreams and sleep of all sorts; at most it would show +that imperfect sleep is a condition of dreaming; in the same way, dreams +before wakening, known to have taken place either from the recollection +of the dreamer or from the observation of another person, may clearly be +due to imperfect wakening, followed by a deepening of sleep. It is, +however, by no means true that awakening from sleep is invariably +accompanied by a dream; in considering the question it must be +recollected that it is complicated by the common experience of very +rapid forgetfulness of even a vivid and complicated dream, only the fact +of having dreamt remaining in the memory; it is clear that amnesia may +go so far that even the fact of dreaming may be forgotten. On the whole, +however, there appear to be no good grounds for the assertion that we +always dream when we are asleep. On the other hand, there is no proof +that partial awakening is a necessary condition of dreaming. + +_Representative Dreams._--Centrally initiated dreams may be due to a +kind of automatic excitation of the cerebral regions, especially in the +case of those clearly arising from the occupations or sensations of the +day or the hours immediately preceding the dream. To the same cause we +may attribute the recalling of images apparently long since forgotten. +Some of these revivals of memory may be due to the fact that links of +association which are insufficient to restore an idea to consciousness +in the waking state may suffice to do so in sleep. Just as a good +visualizer in his waking moments may call up an object never clearly +seen and yet distinguish the parts, so in sleep, as L. F. A. Maury +(1817-1892) and others have shown, an image may be more distinct in a +dream than it was when originally presented (see also below, Memory). + +_Presentative Dreams._--The dreams due to real sensations, more or less +metamorphosed, may arise (a) from the states of the internal organs, (b) +from muscular states, (c) from subjective sensations due to the +circulation, &c., or (d) from the ordinary cause of the action of +external stimuli on the organs of sense. + +(a) The state of the stomach, heart, &c., has long been recognized as +important in the causation of dreams (see below, Classical Views). The +common sensation of flying seems to be due in many cases to the +disturbance of these organs setting up sensations resembling those felt +in rapidly ascending or descending, as in a swing or a lift. Indigestion +is a frequent cause of nightmare--the term given to oppressive and +horrible dreams--and bodily discomfort is sometimes translated into the +moral region, giving rise to the dream that a murder has been committed. +(b) Dreams of flying, &c., have also been attributed to the condition of +the muscles during sleep; W. Wundt remarks that the movements of the +body, such as breathing, extensions of the limbs and so on, must give +rise to dream fancies; the awkward position of the limbs may also excite +images. (c) Especially important, probably, for the dreams of the early +part of the night are the retinal conditions to which are due the +_illusions hypnagogiques_ of the preliminary drowsy stage; but probably +Ladd goes too far in maintaining that entoptic stimuli, either intra- or +extra-organic in origin, condition all dreams. _Illusions +hypnagogiques_, termed popularly "faces in the dark," of which Maury has +given a full account, are the not uncommon sensations experienced, +usually visual and seen with both open and closed eyes, in the interval +between retiring to rest and actually falling asleep; they are +comparable to the crystal-gazing visions of waking moments; though +mainly visual they may also affect other senses. Besides the eye the ear +may supply material for dreams, when the circulation of the blood +suggests rushing waters or similar ideas. (d) It is a matter of common +observation that the temperature of the surface of the body determines +in many cases the character of the dreams, the real circumstances, as +might be expected from the general character of the dream state, being +exaggerated. In the same way the pressure of bed-clothes, obstruction of +the supply of air, &c., may serve as the starting-point of dreams. The +common dream of being unclothed may perhaps be due to this cause, the +sensations associated with clothing being absent or so far modified as +to be unrecognizable. In the same way the absence of foot-gear may +account for some dreams of flying. It is possible to test the influence +of external stimuli by direct experiment; Maury made a number of trials +with the aid of an assistant. + +_Rapidity of Dreams._--It has often been asserted that we dream with +extreme rapidity; but this statement is by no means borne out by +experiment. In a trial recorded by J. Claviere the beginning of the +dream was accurately fixed by the sounding of an alarm clock, which +rang, then was silent for 22 seconds, and then began to ring +continuously; the dream scene was in a theatre, and he found by actual +trial that the time required in ordinary life for the performance of the +scenes during the interval of silence was about the same as in ordinary +life. Spontaneous dreams seem to show a different state of things; it +must be remembered that (1) dreams are commonly a succession of images, +the number of which cannot be legitimately compared with the number of +extra-organic stimuli which would correspond to them in ordinary life; +the real comparison is with mental images; and (2) the rapidity of +association varies enormously in ordinary waking life. No proof, +therefore, that some dreams are slow can show that this mentation in +others is not extremely rapid. The most commonly quoted case is one of +Maury's; a bed-pole fell on his neck, and (so it is stated) he dreamt +of the French Revolution, the scenes culminating in the fall of the +guillotine on his neck; this has been held to show that (1) dreams are +extremely rapid; and (2) we construct a dream story leading up to the +external stimulus which is assumed to have originated the dream. But +Maury's dream was not recorded till many years after it had occurred; +there is nothing to show that the dream, in this as in other similar +cases, was not in progress when the bed-pole fell, which thus by mere +coincidence would have intervened at the psychological moment; Maury's +memory on waking may have been to some extent hallucinatory. But there +are records of waking states, not necessarily abnormal, in which +time-perception is disturbed and brief incidents seem interminably long; +on the other hand, it appears from the experiences of persons recovered +from drowning that there is great rapidity of ideation before the +extinction of consciousness; the same rapidity of thought has been +observed in a fall from a bicycle. + +_Reason in Dreams._--Studies of dreams of normal individuals based on +large collections of instances are singularly few in number; such as +there are indicate great variations in the source of dream thoughts and +images, in the coherence of the dream, and in the powers of memory. In +ordinary life attention dominates the images presented; in dreams +heterogeneous and disconnected elements are often combined; a +resemblance need not even have been consciously recognized for the mind +to combine two impressions in a dream; for example, an aching tooth may +(according to the dream) be extracted, and found to resemble rocks on +the sea-shore, which had not struck the waking mind as in any way like +teeth. Incongruence and incoherence are not, however, a necessary +characteristic of dreams, and individuals are found whose dream ideas +and scenes show a power of reasoning and orderliness equal to that of a +scene imagined or experienced in ordinary life. In some cases the +reasoning power may attain a higher level than that of the ordinary +conscious life. In a well-authenticated case Professor Hilprecht was +able in a dream to solve a difficulty connected with two Babylonian +inscriptions, which had not previously been recognized as complementary +to each other; a point of peculiar interest is the dramatic form in +which the information came to him--an old Babylonian priest appeared in +his dream and gave him the clue to the problem (see also below, +Personality). + +_Memory in Dreams._--Although prima facie the dream memory is +fragmentary and far less complete than the waking memory, it is by no +means uncommon to find a revival in sleep of early, apparently quite +forgotten, experiences: more striking is the recollection in dreams of +matters never supraliminally (see SUBLIMINAL SELF) apperceived at all. + +The relation between the memory in dreams and in the hypnotic trance is +curious: suggestions given in the trance may be accepted and then +forgotten or never remembered in ordinary life; this does not prevent +them from reappearing occasionally in dreams; conversely dreams +forgotten in ordinary life may be remembered in the hypnotic trance. +These dream memories of other states of consciousness suggest that +dreams are sometimes the product of a deeper stratum of the personality +than comes into play in ordinary waking life. It must be remembered in +this connexion that we judge of our dream consciousness by our waking +recollections, not directly, and our recollection of our dreams is +extraordinarily fragmentary; we do not know how far our dream memory +really extends. Connected with memory of other states is the question of +memory in dreams of previous dream states; occasionally a separate chain +of memory, analogous to a secondary personality, seems to be formed. We +may be also conscious that we have been dreaming, and subsequently, +without intermediate waking, relate as a dream the dream previously +experienced. In spite of the irrationality of dreams in general, it by +no means follows that the earlier and later portions of a dream do not +cohere; we may interpolate an episode and again take up the first +motive, exactly as happens in real life. The strength of the dream +memory is shown by the recurrence of images in dreams; a picture, the +page of a book, or other image may be reproduced before our eyes several +times in the course of a dream without the slightest alteration, +although the waking consciousness would be quite incapable of such a +feat of visualizing. In this connexion may be mentioned the phenomenon +of redreaming; the same dream may recur either on the same or on +different nights; this seems to be in many cases pathological or due to +drugs, but may also occur under normal conditions. + +_Personality._--As a rule the personality of the dreamer is unchanged; +but it also happens that the confusion of identity observed with regard +to other objects embraces the dreamer himself; he imagines himself to be +some one else; he is alternately actor and observer; he may see himself +playing a part or may divest himself of his body and wander +incorporeally. Ordinary dreams, however, do not go beyond a splitting of +personality; we hold conversations, and are intensely surprised at the +utterances of a dream figure, which, however, is merely an _alter ego_. +As in the case of Hilprecht (see above) the information given by another +part of the personality may not only appear but actually be novel. + +_Supernormal Dreams._--In addition to dreams in which there is a revival +of memory or a rise into consciousness of facts previously only +subliminally cognized, a certain number of dreams are on record in which +telepathy (q.v.) seems to play a part; much of the evidence is, however, +discounted by the possibility of hallucinatory memory. Another class of +dreams (prodromic) is that in which the abnormal bodily states of the +dreamer are brought to his knowledge in sleep, sometimes in a symbolical +form; thus a dream of battle or sanguinary conflict may presage a +haemorrhage. The increased power of suggestion which is the normal +accompaniment of the hypnotic trance may make its appearance in dreams, +and exercise either a curative influence or act capriciously in +producing hysteria and the tropic changes known as "stigmata." We may +meet with various forms of hyperaesthesia in dreams; quite apart from +the recovery of sight by those who have lost it wholly or in part (see +below, Dreams of the Blind), we find that the powers of the senses may +undergo an intensification, and, e.g., the power of appreciating music +be enormously enhanced in persons usually indifferent to it. Mention +must also be made of the experience of R. L. Stevenson, who tells in +_Across the Plains_ how by self-suggestion he was able to secure from +his dreams the motives of some of his best romances. + +_Voluntary Action in Dreams._--Connected with dreams voluntarily +influenced is the question of how far dreams once initiated are +modifiable at the will of the dreamer. Some few observers, like F. W. H. +Myers and Dr F. van Eeden, record that they can at longer or shorter +intervals control their actions in their dreams, though usually to a +less extent than their imagined actions in waking life. Dr van Eeden, +for example, tells us that he has what he calls a "clear dream" once a +month and is able to predetermine what he will do when he becomes aware +that he is dreaming. + +_Dreams of Children._--Opinions differ widely as to the age at which +children begin to dream; G. Compayre maintains that dreaming has been +observed in the fourth month, but reflex action is always a possible +explanation of the observed facts. S. de Sanctis found that in boys of +eleven only one out of eight said that he dreamt seldom, as against four +out of seven at the age of six; but we cannot exclude the possibility +that dreams were frequent but forgotten. If correct, the observation +suggests that dreams appear comparatively late. Individual cases of +dreaming, or possibly of waking hallucination, are known as early as the +age of two and a half years; according to de Sanctis dreams occur before +the fifth year, but are seldom remembered; as a rule the conscious dream +age begins with the fourth year; speech or movement, however, in earlier +years, though they may be attributed to reflex action, are more probably +due to dreams. + +_Dreams of the Old._--In normal individuals above the age of sixty-five +de Sanctis found dreams were rare; atmospheric influences seem to be +important elements in causing them; memory of them is weak; they are +emotionally poor, and deal with long past scenes. + +_Dreams of Adults._--Any attempt to record or influence our dreams may +be complicated by (a) direct suggestion, leading to the production of +the phenomena for which we are looking, and (b) indirect suggestion +leading to the more lively recollection of dreams in general and of +certain dreams in particular. Consequently it cannot be assumed that the +facts thus ascertained represent the normal conditions. According to F. +Heerwagen's statistics women sleep more lightly and dream more than men; +the frequency of dreams is proportional to their vividness; women who +dream sleep longer than those who do not; dreams tend to become less +frequent with advancing age. The total number of remembered dreams +varies considerably with different observers, some attaining an average +of ten per night. The senses mainly active in dreams are, according to +one set of experiments, vision in 60%, hearing in 5%, taste in 3%, and +smell in 1.5%, where the dreamers had looked at coloured papers before +falling asleep; when taste or smell had been stimulated, the visual +dreams fell to about 50%, and the sense stimulated was active twice as +often as it would otherwise be; dreams in which motion was a prominent +feature were 10% of the former class, 14% and 18% of the two latter. +Experiments by J. Mourly Vold show even more distinctly the influence of +suggestion both as to the form, visual or otherwise, and the content +(colours and forms of objects) of dreams. According to most observers +dreams are most vivid and frequent between the ages of 20 and 25, but H. +Maudsley puts the maximum between 30 and 35. De Sanctis got replies from +165 men and 55 women: the proportion between the sexes closely agrees +with the results attained by Heerwagen and M. W. Calkins; 13% of men and +33% of women said they always dreamt, 27% and 45% often, 50% and 13% +rarely, and the remainder (precisely the same percentage for men and +women--9.09) either did not dream or did not remember that they dreamt. +Nearly twice as many women as men had vivid dreams; in the matter of +complication of the dream experiences the sexes are about equal; daily +life supplies more material in the dreams of men; nearly twice as many +women as men remember their dreams clearly, a fact which hangs together +to some extent with the vividness of the dreams, though it by no means +follows that a vivid dream is well remembered. There are great +variations in the emotional character of dreams; some observers report +twice as many unpleasant dreams as the reverse; in other cases the +emotions seem to be absent; others again have none but pleasing dreams. +Individual experience also varies very largely as to the time when most +dreams are experienced; in some cases the great majority are subsequent +to 6.30 A.M.; others find that quite half occur before 4.0 A.M. + +_Dreams of the Neuropathic, Insane, Idiots, &c._--Much attention has +been given to the dreams of hysterical subjects. It appears that their +dreams are specially liable to exercise an influence over their waking +life, perhaps because they do not distinguish them, any more than their +waking hallucinations, from reality. P. Janet maintains that the cause +of hysteria may be sought in a dream. The dreams of the hysterical have +a tendency to recur. Epileptic subjects dream less than the hysterical, +and their dreams are seldom of a terrifying nature; certain dreams seem +to take the place of an epileptic attack. Dreaming seems to be rare in +idiots. De Sanctis divides paranoiacs into three classes: (a) those with +systematized delusions, (b) those with frequent hallucinations, and (c) +degenerates;--the dreams of the first class resemble their delusions; +the second class is distinguished by the complexity of its dreams; the +third by their vividness, by their delusions of megalomania, and by +their influence on daily life. Alcoholic subjects have vivid and +terrifying dreams, characterized by the frequent appearance of animals +in them, and delirium tremens may originate during sleep. + +_Dreams of the Blind, Deaf, &c._--As regards visual dreams the blind +fall into three classes--(1) those who are blind from birth or become +blind before the age of five; (2) those who become blind at the +"critical age" from five to seven; (3) those who become blind after the +age of seven. The dreams of the first class are non-visual; but in the +dreams of Helen Keller there are traces of a visual content; the second +class sometimes has visual dreams; the third class does not differ from +normal persons, though visual dreams may fade away after many years of +blindness. In the case of the partially blind the clearness of vision in +a dream exceeds that of normal life when the partial loss of sight +occurred in the sixth or later years. The education of Helen Keller is +interesting from another point of view; after losing the senses of sight +and hearing in infancy she began her education at seven years and was +able to articulate at eleven; it is recorded that she "talked" in her +dreams soon after. This accords with the experience of normal +individuals who acquire a foreign language. Her extraordinary memory +enables her to recall faintly some traces of the sunlit period of her +life, but they hardly affect her dreams, so far as can be judged. The +dreams of the blind, according to the records of F. Hitschmann, present +some peculiarities; animals as well as man speak; toothache and bodily +pains are perceived as such; impersonal dreaming, taking the form of a +drama or reading aloud, is found; and he had a strong tendency to +reproduce or create verse. + +_Dreams of Animals._--We are naturally reduced to inference in dealing +with animals as with very young children; but various observations seem +to show that dreams are common in older dogs, especially after hunting +expeditions; in young dogs sleep seems to be quieter; dogs accustomed to +the chase seem to dream more than other kinds. + +_Dreams among the Non-European Peoples._--In the lower stages of culture +the dream is regarded as no less real and its personages as no less +objective than those of the ordinary waking life; this is due in the +main to the habit of mind of such peoples (see ANIMISM), but possibly in +some measure also to the occurrence of veridical dreams (see TELEPATHY). +In either case the savage explanation is animistic, and animism is +commonly assumed to have been developed very largely as a result of +theorising dreams. Two explanations of a dream are found among the lower +races: (1) that the soul of the dreamer goes out, and visits his +friends, living or dead, his old haunts or unfamiliar scenes and so on; +or (2) that the souls of the dead and others come to visit him, either +of their own motion or at divine command. In either of the latter cases +or at a higher stage of culture when the dream is regarded as god-sent, +though no longer explained in terms of animism, it is often regarded as +oracular (see ORACLE), the explanation being sometimes symbolical, +sometimes simple. + +There are two classes of dreams which have a special importance in the +lower cultures: (1) the dream or vision of the initiation fast; and (2) +the dream caused by the process known as incubation, which is often +analogous to the initiation fast. In many parts of North America the +individual Indian acquires a tutelary spirit, known as _manito_ or +_nagual_, by his initiation dream or vision; the idea being perhaps that +the spirit by the act of appearing shows its subjection to the will of +the man. Similarly, the magician acquires his familiar in North America, +Australia and elsewhere by dreaming of an animal. Incubation consists in +retiring to sleep in a temple, sometimes on the top of a mountain or +other unusual spot, in order to obtain a revelation through a dream. +Fasting, continence and other observances are frequently prescribed as +preliminaries. Certain classes of dreams have, especially in the middle +ages, been attributed to the influence of evil spirits (see DEMONOLOGY). + +_Classical and Medieval Views of Dreams._--Side by side with the +prevalent animistic view of dreams we find in antiquity and among the +semi-civilized attempts at philosophical or physiological explanations +of dreams. Democritus, from whom the Epicureans derived their theory, +held the cause of them to be the simulacra or phantasms of corporeal +objects which are constantly floating about the atmosphere and attack +the soul in sleep--a view hardly distinguishable from animism. +Aristotle, however, refers them to the impressions left by objects seen +with the eyes of the body; he further remarks on the exaggeration of +slight stimuli when they are incorporated into a dream; a small sound +becomes a noise like thunder. Plato, too, connects dreaming with the +normal waking operations of the mind; Pliny, on the other hand, admits +this only for dreams which take place after meals, the remainder being +supernatural. Cicero, however, takes the view that they are simply +natural occurrences no more and no less than the mental operations and +sensations of the waking state. The pathological side of dreams +attracted the notice of physicians. Hippocrates was disposed to admit +that some dreams might be divine, but held that others were premonitory +of diseased states of the body. Galen took the same view in some of his +speculations. + +Symbolical interpretations are combined with pathological no less than +animistic interpretations of dreams; they are also extremely common +among the lower classes in Europe at the present day, but in this case +no consistent explanation of their importance for the divination of +future events is usually discoverable. Among the Greeks Plato in the +_Timaeus_ (ch. xlvi, xlvii) explains dreams as prophetic visions +received by the lower appetitive soul through the liver; their +interpretation requires intelligence. The Stoics seem to have held that +dreams may be a divine revelation and more than one volume on the +interpretation of dreams has come down to us, the most important being +perhaps the [Greek: Oneirokritika] of Daldianus Artemidorus. We find +parallels to this in a Mussulman work by Gabdorrachaman, translated by +Pierre Vattier under the name of _Onirocrite mussulman_, and in the +numerous books on the interpretation of dreams which circulate at the +present day. In Siam dream books are found (_Intern. Archiv fur Anthr._ +viii 150); one of the functions of the Australian medicine man is to +decide how a dream is to be interpreted. + +_Modern Views._--The doctrine of Descartes that existence depended upon +thought naturally led his followers to maintain that the mind is always +thinking and consequently that dreaming is continuous. Locke replied to +this that men are not always conscious of dreaming, and it is hard to be +conceived that the soul of the sleeping man should this moment be +thinking, while the soul of the waking man cannot recollect in the next +moment a jot of all those thoughts. That we always dream was maintained +by Leibnitz, Kant, Sir W. Hamilton and others; the latter refutes the +argument of Locke by the just observation that the somnambulist has +certainly been conscious, but fails to recall the fact when he returns +to the normal state. + +It has been commonly held by metaphysicians that the nature of dreams is +explained by the suspension of volition during sleep; Dugald Stewart +asserts that it is not wholly dormant but loses its hold on the +faculties, and he thus accounts for the incoherence of dreams and the +apparent reality of dream images. + +Cudworth, from the orderly sequence of dream combinations and their +novelty, argues that the state arises, not from any "fortuitous dancings +of the spirits," but from the "phantastical power of the soul." +According to K. A. Scherner, dreaming is a decentralization of the +movement of life; the ego becomes purely receptive and is merely the +point around which the peripheral life plays in perfect freedom. Hobbes +held that dreams all proceed from the agitation of the inward parts of a +man's body, which, owing to their connexion with the brain, serve to +keep the latter in motion. For Schopenhauer the cause of dreams is the +stimulation of the brain by the internal regions of the organism through +the sympathetic nervous system. These impressions the mind afterwards +works up into quasi-realities by means of its forms of space, time, +causality, &c. + +BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For full lists of books and articles see J. M. Baldwin's +_Dictionary of Philosophy_, bibliography volume (1906), and S. de +Sanctis, _I Sogni_, also translated in German with additions as _Die +Traume_. Important works are--Binz, _Uber den Traum_, Giessler _Aus den +Tiefen des Traumlebens_, Maury, _Le Sommeil et les reves_, Radestock, +_Schlaf und Traum_, Tessie, _Les Reves_, Spitta, _Schlaf und +Traumzustande_. For super-normal dreams see F. W. H. Myers, _Human +Personality_, vol i, and _Proc S P R_ viii 362. For voluntary dreams see +_Proc. S P R_ iv 241, xvii. 112. On prophetic dreams see _Monist_, xi +161, _Bull. Soc. Anth._ (Paris, 1901), 196, (1902), 228, _Rev. de +synthese historique_ (1901), 151, &c. On incubation see Deubner, _De +incubatione_, Maury, La Magie. On the dreams of American Indians see +_Handbook of American Indians_ (Washington, 1907), s v "Dreams" and +"Manito." On the interpretation of dreams see Freud, _Die Traumdeutung_. +Other works are F. Greenwood, _Imagination in Dreams_, Hutchinson, +_Dreams and their Meanings_. (N. W. T.) + + + + +DREDGE AND DREDGING. The word "dredge" is used in two senses. (1) From +Mid. Eng. _dragie_, through Fr. _dragee_, from Gr. [Greek: tragemata], +sweetmeats, it means a confection of sugar formed with seeds, bits of +spice or medicinal agents. The word in this sense is obsolete, but +survives in "dredger," a box with a perforated top used for sprinkling +such a sugar-mixture, flour or other powdered substance. "Dredge" is +also a local term for a mixed crop of oats and barley sown together +("maslin" or "meslin," cf. Fr. _dragee_), and in mining is applied to +ore of a mixed value. (2) Connected with "drag," or at least derived +from the same root, dredge or dredger is a mechanical appliance for +collecting together and drawing to the surface ("dredging") objects and +material from the beds of rivers or the bottom of the sea. In the +following account the operations of dredging in this sense are discussed +(1) as involved in hydraulic engineering, (2) in connexion with the work +of the naturalist in marine biology. + + +1. HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING + +Dredging is the name given by engineers to the process of excavating +materials under water, raising them to the surface and depositing them +in barges, or delivering them through a shoot, a longitudinal conveyor, +or pipes, to the place where it is desired to deposit them. It has long +been useful in works of marine and hydraulic engineering, and has been +brought in modern times to a state of high perfection. + +The employment of dredging plant and the selection of special appliances +to be used in different localities and in varying circumstances require +the exercise of sound judgment on the part of the engineer. In rivers +and estuaries where the bottom is composed of light soils, and where the +scour of the tide can be governed by training walls and other works +constructed at reasonable expense, so as to keep the channel clear +without dredging, it is manifest that dredging machinery with its large +cost for working expenses and for annual upkeep should be as far as +possible avoided. On the other hand, where the bottom consists of clay, +rock or other hard substances, dredging must, in the first instance at +any rate, be employed to deepen and widen the channel which it is sought +to improve. In some instances, such as the river Mississippi, a deep +channel has for many years been maintained by jetties, with occasional +resort to dredging to preserve the required channel section and to +hasten its enlargement. The bar of the river Mersey is 11 m. from land, +and the cost of training works would be so great as to forbid their +construction; but, by a capital expenditure of L120,000 and an annual +expense of L20,000 for three years, the depth of water over the bar at +low tide has been increased by dredging from 11 ft. to 27 ft., the +channel being 1500 ft. wide. + +_"Bag and Spoon" Dredger._--The first employment of machinery for +dredging is, like the discovery of the canal lock, claimed by Holland +and Italy, in both of which countries it is believed to have been in use +before it was introduced into Britain. The Dutch, at an early period, +used what is termed the "bag and spoon" dredger for cleansing their +canals. The "spoon" consisted of a ring of iron about 2 ft. in diameter +flattened and steeled for about a third of its circumference and having +a bag of strong leather attached to it by leathern thongs. The ring and +bag were fixed to a pole which was lowered to the bottom from the side +of a barge moored in the canal or river. The "spoon" was then dragged +along the bottom by a rope made fast to the iron ring actuated by a +windlass placed at the other end of the barge, the pole being prevented +from rising by a hitched rope which caused the "spoon" to penetrate the +bottom and fill the bag. When the "spoon" reached the end of the barge +where the windlass was placed, the winding was still continued, and the +suspended rope being nearly perpendicular the "bag" was raised to the +gunwale of the barge and the excavated material emptied into the barge. +The "bag" was then hauled back to the opposite end to be lowered for +another supply. This system is still in use, but is only adaptable to a +limited depth of water and a soft bottom; it has been largely used in +canals and frequently in the Thames. At the Fosdyke Canal in +Lincolnshire 135,000 tons were raised in the manner described. According +to J. J. Webster (_Proc. Inst. C. E._ vol. 89), the first application +of steam power for dredging operations was to a "spoon & bag" dredger +for cleansing Sunderland harbour, the engine being made by Messrs +Boulton & Watt of Soho, Birmingham. + +_Dredging by Bucket between Two Lighters._--Another plan of dredging, +practised at an early period in rivers of considerable breadth, was to +moor two barges, one on each side of the river. Between them was slung +an iron dredging bucket, which was attached to both barges by chains +wound on the barrels of a crab winch worked by six men in one barge and +round a simple windlass worked by two men in the other barge. The +bucket, being lowered at the side of the barge carrying the windlass, +was drawn across the bottom of the river by the crab winch on the other +barge; and having been raised and emptied, it was hauled across by the +opposite windlass for repetition of the process. This process was in use +in the River Tay until 1833. + +_Bucket Ladder Dredgers._--The earliest record of a bucket ladder +dredger is contained in the first paper of the first volume (1836) of +the _Transactions_ of the Institution of Civil Engineers. This machine +was brought into use at the Hull Docks about 1782. The bucket chain was +driven by two horses working a horse-gear on the deck of the vessel. The +buckets were constructed of 5/8 in. bars of iron spaced 1/8 in. apart, +and were 4 ft. long, 13 in. deep, 12 in. wide at the mouth and about 6 +in. wide at the bottom. This dredger raised about 30 tons per hour at +the cost of 2-1/2d. per ton, which covered the wages of three men working +the dredger, eight men working the lighters and the keep of three +horses. A dredger of this kind and power would only work in ballast, mud +or other soft material, but the machine was gradually improved and +increased in capacity and power by different manufacturers until it +became a very efficient machine in skilful hands, excavating and raising +material from depths of 5 ft. to 60 ft. of water at a cost not very +different from, and in many cases less than, that at which the same work +could be performed on land. With the powerful dredgers now constructed, +almost all materials, except solid rock or very large boulders, can be +dredged with ease. Loose gravel is perhaps the most favourable material +to work in, but a powerful dredger will readily break up and raise +indurated beds of gravel, clay and boulders, and has even found its way +through the surface of soft rock, though it will not penetrate very far +into it. In some cases steel diggers alternating with the buckets on the +bucket frame have been successfully employed. The construction of large +steam dredgers is now carried on by many engineering firms. The main +feature of the machine is the bucket ladder which is hung at the top end +by eye straps to the frame of the vessel, and at the lower end by a +chain reived in purchase blocks and connected to the hoisting gear, so +that the ladder may be raised and lowered to suit the varying depths of +water in which the dredger works. The upper tumbler for working the +bucket chain is generally square or pentagonal in form and made of steel +with loose steel wearing pieces securely bolted to it. The tumbler is +securely keyed to the steel shaft which is connected by gearing and +shafting to the steam engine, a friction block being inserted at a +convenient point to prevent breakage should any hidden obstacle causing +unusual strain be met with in the path of the buckets. The lower tumbler +is similar in construction to the upper tumbler, but is usually +pentagonal or hexagonal in shape. The buckets are generally made with +steel backs to which the plating of the buckets is riveted; the cutting +edge of the buckets consists of a strong steel bar suitably shaped and +riveted to the body. The intermediate links are made of hammered iron or +steel with removable steel bushes to take the wear of the connecting +pins, which are also of steel. The hoisting gear may be driven either +from the main engine by frictional gearing or by an independent set of +engines. Six anchors and chains worked by powerful steam crabs are +provided for regulating the position of the dredger in regard to its +work. + +_Barge-loading Dredgers_ used formerly to be provided with two ladders, +one on each side of the vessel, or contained in wells formed in the +vessel near each side. Two ladders were adopted, partly to permit the +dredger to excavate the material close to a quay or wall, and partly to +enable one ladder to work while the other was being repaired. Bucket +ladder dredgers are now, however, generally constructed with one central +ladder working in a well; frequently the bucket ladder projects at +either the head or stern of the vessel, to enable it to cut its own way +through a shoal or bank, a construction which has been found very +useful. In one modification of this method the bucket ladder is +supported upon a traversing frame which slides along the fixed framing +of the dredger and moves the bucket ladder forward as soon as it has +been sufficiently lowered to clear the end of the well. In places where +a large quantity of dredging has to be done, a stationary dredger with +three or four large hopper barges proves generally to be the most +economical kind of plant. It has, however, the disadvantage of requiring +large capital expenditure, while the dredger and its attendant barges +take up an amount of space which is sometimes inconvenient where traffic +is large and the navigable width narrow. The principal improvements made +in barge-loading dredgers have been the increase in the size of the +buckets and the strength of the dredging gear, the application of more +economical engines for working the machinery, and the use of frictional +gearing for driving the ladder-hoisting gear. It is very important that +the main drive be fitted with the friction blocks or clutches before +alluded to. + + Up to the year 1877 dredgers were seldom made with buckets of a + capacity exceeding 9 cub. ft., but since that time they have been + gradually increased in capacity. In the dredger "Melbourne," + constructed by Messrs William Simons & Co. to the design and + specification of Messrs Coode, Son & Matthews, about the year 1886, + the buckets had a capacity of 22 cub. ft., the dredger being capable + of making 37 ft. of water. The driving power consists of two pairs of + surface-condensing engines, each of 250 i.h.p., having cylinders 20 + in. and 40 in. in diameter respectively, with a 30 in. stroke, the + boiler pressure being 90 lb. per sq. in. The vessel is 200 ft. long + by 36 ft. wide and 11 ft. 6 in. deep, and is driven by twin screw + propellers. The gearing is arranged so that either pair of engines can + be employed for dredging. The speed under steam is 7 knots, and in + free-getting material 800 tons per hour can be dredged with ease. On + one occasion the dredger loaded 400 tons in 20 minutes. The speed of + the bucket chain is 83 lineal ft. per minute. The draught of the + dredger in working trim is 7 ft. forward and 9 ft. aft. The efficiency + of the machine, or the net work in raising materials compared with the + power exerted in the cylinders, is about 25%. The dredged material is + delivered into barges moored alongside. Contrasting favourably with + former experience, the "Melbourne" worked for the first six months + without a single breakage. She is fitted with very powerful mooring + winches, a detail which is of great importance to ensure efficiency in + working. + + The "St Austell" (Plate I. fig. 3), a powerful barge-loading dredger + 195 ft. long by 35 ft. 6 in. beam by 13 ft. deep, fitted with + twin-screw compound surface-condensing propelling engines of 1000 + i.h.p., either set of engines being available for dredging, was + constructed for H.M. Dockyard, Devonport, by Messrs Wm. Simons & Co. + in 1896. This dredger loaded thirty-five 500-ton hopper barges in the + week ending April 2, 1898, dredging 17,500 tons of material in the + working time of 29 hours 5 minutes. + + An instance of a still larger and more powerful dredger is the + "Develant," constructed by Messrs Wm. Simons & Co., for Nicolaiev, + South Russia. She is a bow-well, barge-loading, bucket ladder dredger, + with a length of 186 ft., a breadth, moulded, of 36 ft., and a depth, + moulded, of 13 ft. The bucket ladder is of sufficient length to dredge + 36 ft. below the water level. The buckets are exceptionally large, + each having a capacity of 36 cub. ft., or fully two tons weight of + material, giving a lifting capacity of 1890 tons per hour. At the + dredging trials 2000 tons of spoil were lifted in one hour with an + expenditure of 250 i.h.p. The propelling power is supplied by one pair + of compound surface-condensing marine engines of 850 i.h.p., having + two cylindrical boilers constructed for a working pressure of 120 lb. + per sq. in. Each boiler is capable of supplying steam to either the + propelling or dredging machinery, thus allowing the vessel to always + have a boiler in reserve. On the trials a speed of 8-1/2 knots was + obtained. The bucket ladder, which weighs over 100 tons, exclusive of + dredgings, is raised and lowered by a set of independent engines. For + manoeuvring, powerful winches driven by independent engines are placed + at the bow and stern. The vessel is fitted throughout with electric + light, arc lamps being provided above the deck to enable dredging to + be carried on at night. Steam steering gear, a repairing shop, a + three-ton crane, and all the latest appliances are installed on board. + + The "Derocheuse" (Plate II. fig. 12), constructed by Messrs Lobnitz & + Co., is a good example of the dredger fitted with their patent rock + cutters, as used on the Suez Canal. These rock cutters consist of + stamps passing down through the bottom of the dredger, slightly in + advance of the bucket chain, and are employed for breaking up rock in + front of the bucket ladder so that it may be raised by buckets + afterwards. This system of subaqueous rock cutting plant, on Messrs + Lobnitz's patent system, was effectively employed in deepening the + Manchester Ship Canal, and removed a considerable length of rock, + increasing the depth of water from 26 ft. to 28 ft. at a cost of about + 9d. per cub. yd. A full and illustrated description of this plant, and + of a similar plant supplied to the Argentine Government, was published + in _Engineering_ of August 17, 1906. An illustration of a bucket of 54 + cub. ft. capacity constructed by Messrs Lobnitz & Co. is given (Plate + II fig. 11), from which some idea of the size of dredging machinery as + developed in recent practice may be obtained. In regard to the depth + of water that can be obtained by dredging, it is interesting to note + that the dredger "Diver," constructed by Messrs. Hunter & English for + Mr Samuel Williams of London, is capable of working in 60 ft. of + water. In this vessel an ingenious arrangement was devised by Mr + Williams, by which part of the weight of the dredger was balanced + while the ladder itself could be drawn up through the bucket well and + placed upon the deck, enabling a long ladder to be used for a + comparatively short vessel. The "Tilbury" dredger, also constructed by + Messrs Hunter & English, was able to dredge to a depth of 45 ft. below + the surface of the water. + +_Hopper Barges._--To receive the materials excavated by barge-loading +dredgers, steam hopper barges are now generally employed, capable of +carrying 500 tons or more of excavation and of steaming loaded at a +speed of about 9 m. per hour. These hopper barges are made with hinged +flaps in their bottoms, which can be opened when the place of deposit is +reached and the dredgings easily and quickly discharged. + +Good examples of these vessels are the two steam hopper barges built for +the Conservators of the river Thames in 1898. The dimensions are: length +190 ft., breadth 30 ft., depth 13 ft. 3 in., hopper capacity 900 tons. +They are propelled by a set of triple expansion engines of 1200 i.h.p., +with two return-tube boilers having a working pressure of 160 lb. +Special appliances are provided to work the hopper doors by steam power +from independent engines placed at the forward end of the hopper. A +steam windlass is fixed forward and a steam capstan aft. The vessels are +fitted with cabins for the officers and crew. On their trial trip, the +hoppers having their full load, a speed of 11 knots was obtained, the +coal consumption being 1.44 lb. per i.h.p. + +_Methods of Dredging._--In river dredging two systems are pursued. One +plan consists in excavating a series of longitudinal furrows parallel to +the axis of the stream; the other in dredging cross furrows from side to +side of the river. It is found that inequalities are left between the +longitudinal furrows when that system is practised, which do not occur, +to the same extent, in side or cross dredging; and cross dredging leaves +a more uniform bottom. In either case the dredger is moored from the +head and stern by chains about 250 fathoms in length. These chains in +improved dredgers are wound round windlasses worked by the engine, so +that the vessel can be moved ahead or astern by simply throwing them +into or out of gear. In longitudinal dredging the vessel is worked +forward by the head chain, while the buckets are at the same time +performing the excavation, so that a longitudinal trench is made in the +bottom of the river. After proceeding a certain length, the dredger is +stopped and permitted to drop down and commence a new longitudinal +furrow, parallel to the first one. In cross dredging, on the other hand, +the vessel is supplied with four additional moorings, two on each side, +and these chains are, like the head and stern chains, wound round +barrels worked by steam power. In cross dredging we may suppose the +vessel to be moored at one side of the channel to be excavated. The +bucket frame is set in motion, but instead of the dredger being drawn +forward by the head chain, she is drawn across the river by the +starboard chains, and, having reached the extent of her work in that +direction, she is then drawn a few feet forward by the head chain, and +the bucket frame being still in motion the vessel is hauled across by +the port chains to the side whence she started. By means of this +transverse motion of the dredger a series of cross cuts is made; the +dredger takes out the whole excavation from side to side to a uniform +depth and leaves no protuberances such as are found to exist between the +furrows in longitudinal dredging, even when it is executed with great +care. The two systems will be understood by reference to fig. 1, where A +and B are the head and stern moorings, and C, D, E and F the side +moorings. The arc e f represents the course of the vessel in cross +dredging; while in longitudinal dredging, as already explained, she is +drawn forward towards A, and again dropped down to commence a new +longitudinal furrow. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Diagram showing Moorings for Transverse +Dredging.] + +_Hopper Dredgers._--In places where barge-loading dredgers are +inconvenient, owing to confined space and interference with navigation, +and where it is necessary to curtail capital expenditure, hopper +dredgers are convenient and economical. These dredgers were first +constructed by Messrs. Wm. Simons & Co. of Renfrew, who patented and +constructed what they call the "Hopper Dredger," combining in itself the +advantages of a dredger for raising material and a scow hopper vessel +for conveying it to the place of discharge, both of which services are +performed by the same engines and the same crew. + +The vessel for this type of dredger is made of sufficient length and +floating capacity to contain its own dredgings, which it carries out to +the depositing ground as soon as its hopper is full. Considerable time +is of course occupied in slipping and recovering moorings, and conveying +material to the depositing ground, but these disadvantages are in many +instances counterbalanced by the fact that less capital is required for +plant and that less room is taken up by the dredger. If the depositing +ground is far away, the time available for dredging is much curtailed, +but the four-screw hopper dredger constructed by Messrs Wm. Simons & Co. +for Bristol has done good work at the cost of 5d. per ton, including +wages, repairs, coals, grease, sundries and interest on the first cost +of the plant, notwithstanding that the material has to be taken 10 m. +from the Bristol Dock. She can lift 400 tons of stiff clay per hour from +a depth of 36 ft. below the water line, and the power required varies +from 120 i.h.p. to 150 i.h.p., according to the nature of the material. +The speed is 9 knots, and 4 propellers are provided, two at the head and +two at the stern, to enable the vessel to steam equally well either way, +as the river Avon is too narrow to permit her to be turned round. + + The hopper dredger "La Puissante" (Plate I. fig. 4), constructed by + Messrs Wm. Simons & Co. for the Suez Canal Co. for the improvement of + Port Said Roads, is a fine example of this class of dredger. She is + 275 ft. long by 47 ft. beam by 19 ft. deep. The hopper capacity is + 2000 tons, and the draught loaded 16 ft. 5 in. The maximum dredging + depth is 40 ft., and the minimum dredging depth is only limited by the + vessel's draught, she being able to cut her own way. The bucket ladder + works through the well in the stern and weighs with buckets 120 tons. + The buckets have each a capacity of 30 cub. ft. and raised on trial + 1600 tons per hour. The dredger is propelled by two sets of + independent triple expansion surface-condensing engines of 1800 i.h.p. + combined, working with steam at 160 lb. pressure, supplied by two mild + steel multitubular boilers. Each set of engines is capable of driving + the buckets independently at speeds of 16 and 20 buckets per minute. + The bucket ladder is fitted with buffer springs at its upper end to + lessen the shock when working in a seaway. The dredger can deliver the + dredged material either into its own hopper or into barges lying on + either side. The vessel obtained a speed of 9-3/4 knots per hour on + trial. The coal consumption during 6 hours' steaming trial was 1.66 + lb. per i.h.p. hour. Fig. 9 (Plate I.) shows a still larger hopper + dredger by the same constructors. + +_Dredgers fitted with Long Shoot or Shore Delivering Apparatus._--The +first instance of dredgers being fitted with long shoots was in the Suez +Canal. The soil in the lakes was very variable, the surface being +generally loose mud which lay in some places in the sand, but frequently +more or less on hard clay. Resort was had to shoots 230 ft. long, +supported on pontoons connected with the hull of the dredger. The sand +flowed away with a moderate supply of water to the shoots when they were +fixed at an inclination of about 1 in 20, but when the sand was mixed +with shells these formed a coating which prevented the stream of water +from washing out the shoot, and even with an inclination of 1 in 10 +material could not be delivered. A pair of endless chains working down +the long shoot overcame the difficulty, and also enabled hard clay in +lumps to be dealt with. One dredger turned out about 2000 cub. yds. of +thick clay in 15 hours, and when the clay was not hard it could deliver +150,000 cub. yds. in a month for several consecutive months. + +Shore delivery has been successfully effected by raising the material by +buckets in the ordinary way and delivering it into a vertical cylinder +connected with floating jointed pipes through which the dredgings pass +to the shore. This, of course, can only be done where the place of +deposit is near the spot where the material is dredged. Two plans have +been satisfactorily employed for this operation. At the Amsterdam Canal +the stuff was discharged from the buckets into a vertical cylinder, and +after being mingled with water by a revolving Woodford pump was sent off +under a head of pressure of 4 or 5 ft. to the place of deposit in a +semi-fluid state through pipes made of timber, hooped with iron. These +wooden pipes were made in lengths of about 15 ft., connected with +leather joints, and floated on the surface of the water. A somewhat +similar process was also employed on the Suez Canal. + + A dredger (Plate I. fig. 5), constructed by Messrs Hunter & English + for reclamation works on Lake Copais in Greece was fitted with + delivery belts running on rollers in steel lattice frames on each side + of the vessel supported by masts and ropes. It could deliver 100 cub. + metres per hour at 85 ft. from the centre of the dredger, at a cost of + 1.82d. per cub. metre for working expenses, with coal at 45s. per ton, + including 0.66d. per cub. metre for renewal of belts, upon which the + wear and tear was heavy. + + Another instance of the successful application of shore delivery + apparatus is that of a dredger for Lake Titicaca, Peru, constructed by + Messrs Hunter & English, which was fitted with long shoots on both + sides, conveying the dredged material about 100 ft. from the centre of + the dredger upon either side. The shoots were supported by shear-legs + and ropes, and were supplied with water from a centrifugal pump in the + engine room. This dredger could excavate and deliver 120 cub. yds. per + hour at a cost of 1.725d. per cub. yd. with coal costing 40s. per ton. + If coal had been available at the ordinary rate in England of 20s. per + ton, the cost of the dredging and delivery would have been 0.82d. per + cub. yd. for wages, coal, oil, &c., but not including the salary of + the superintendent. + + An interesting example of a shore delivering dredger is a light + draught dredger constructed by Messrs Hunter & English for the Lakes + of Albufera at the mouth of the river Ebro in Spain (Plate I. fig. 6). + The conditions laid down for this dredger were that it should float in + 18 in. of water and deliver the dredged material at 90 ft. from the + centre of its own hull. In order to meet these requirements the vessel + was made of steel plates 1/8 in. thick, and longitudinal girders from + end to end of the vessel, the upward strain of flotation being + conveyed to them from the skin plating by transverse bulkheads at + short intervals. The dredger was 94 ft. long, 25 ft. wide, and 3 ft. + deep, and the height of the top tumbler above the water was 25 ft. + When completed the dredger drew 17 in. of water. The dredgings were + delivered by the buckets upon an endless belt, driven from the main + compound surface-condensing engine, which ran over pulleys supported + upon a steel lattice girder, the outer end of which rested upon an + independent pontoon. This belt delivered the dredgings at 90 ft. from + the centre of the dredger round an arc of 180 deg. The dredger + delivered 125 cub. yds. per hour of compact clay at a cost of 1.16d. + per cub. yd. or 0.86d. per ton for wages, coal and stores. Another + method of delivering dredgings is that of pneumatic delivery, + introduced by Mr F. E. Duckham, of the Millwall Dock Co., by which the + dredgings are delivered into cylindrical tanks in the dredger, closed + by air-tight doors, and are expelled by compressed air either into the + sea or through long pipes to the land. The Millwall Dock dredger is + 113 ft. long, with a beam of 17 ft. and a depth of 12 ft. The draught + loaded is 8 ft. It contains two cylindrical tanks, having a combined + capacity of 240 cub. yds., and is fitted with compound engines of + about 200 i.h.p., with a 20 in. air-compressing cylinder. The + discharge pipe is 15 in. diameter by 150 yds. long. The nozzles of the + air-injection pipes must not be too small, otherwise the compressed + air, instead of driving out the material, simply pierces holes through + it and escapes through the discharging pipe, carrying with it all the + liquid and thin material in the tanks. The cost of working the + Millwall Dock dredger is given by Mr Duckham at 1.75d. per cub. yd. of + mud lifted, conveyed and deposited on land 450 ft. from the + water-side, for working expenses only. This dredger is believed to be + the first machine constructed with a traversing ladder, as suggested + by Captain Gibson when dock-master of the Millwall Docks. + +_Blasting combined with Dredging._--In some cases it has been found that +the bottom is too hard to be dredged until it has been to some extent +loosened and broken up. Thus at Newry, John Rennie, after blasting the +bottom in a depth of from 6 to 8 ft. at low water, removed the material +by dredging at an expense of from 4s. to 5s. per cub. yd. The same +process was adopted by Messrs Stevenson at the bar of the Erne at +Ballyshannon, where, in a situation exposed to a heavy sea, large +quantities of boulder stones were blasted, and afterwards raised by a +dredger worked by hand at a cost of 10s. 6d. per cub. yd. Sir William +Cubitt also largely employed blasting in connexion with dredging on the +Severn (see _Proc. Inst. C.E._ vol. iv. p. 362). The cost of blasting +and dredging the marl beds is given as being 4s. per cub. yd. A +combination of blasting and dredging was employed in 1875 by John Fowler +of Stockton at the river Tees. The chief novelty was in the barge upon +which the machinery was fixed. It was 58 ft. by 28 ft. by 4 ft., and had +eight legs which were let down when the barge was in position. The legs +were then fixed to the barge, so that on the tide falling it became a +fixed platform from which the drilling was done. Holes were bored and +charged, and when the tide rose the legs were heaved up and the barge +removed, after which the shots were discharged. There were 24 boring +tubes on the barge, and that was the limit which could at any time be +done in one tide. The area over which the blasting was done measured 500 +yds. in length by 200 in breadth, a small part being uncovered at low +water. The depth obtained in mid-channel was 14 ft. at low water, the +average depth of rock blasted being about 4 ft. 6 in. The holes, which +were bored with the diamond drill, varied in depth from 7 to 9 ft., the +distance between them being 10 ft. Dynamite in tin canisters fired by +patent fuse was used as the explosive, the charges being 2 lb. and +under. The rock is oolite shale of variable hardness, and the average +time occupied in drilling holes 5 ft. deep was 12 minutes. The dredger +raised the blasted rock. The cost for blasting, lifting and discharging +at sea was about 4s. per cub. yd., including interest on dredging and +other plant employed. The dredger sometimes worked a face of blasted +material of from 7 to 8 ft. The quantity blasted was 110,000 cub. yds., +and the contract for blasting so as to be lifted by the dredger was 3s. +1d. per cub. yd. A similar plan was adopted at Blyth Harbour (see _Proc. +Inst. C.E._ vol. 81, p. 302). The cost of the explosives per cub. yd. +was 1s. 4d., of boring 1s. 9d. per cub. yd., and of dredging 3s. per +cub. yd., including repairs, but nothing for the use of plant. The whole +cost worked out at 6s. 1d. per cub. yd. on the average. + +_Sand-pump Dredgers._--Perhaps the most important development which has +taken place in dredging during recent years has been the employment of +sand-pump dredgers, which are very useful for removing sandy bars where +the particular object is to remove quickly a large quantity of sand or +other soft material. They are, however, apt to make large holes, and are +therefore not fitted for positions where it is necessary to finish off +the dredging work to a uniform flat bottom, for which purpose bucket +dredgers are better adapted. Pump dredgers are, however, admirable and +economical machines for carrying out the work for which they are +specially suited. + + In the discussion upon Mr J. J. Webster's paper upon + "Dredging-Appliances" (_Proc. Inst. C.E._ vol. 89) at the Institution + of Civil Engineers in 1886, Sir John Coode stated that he had first + seen sand-pump dredgers at the mouth of the Maas in Holland. The + centrifugal pump was placed against the bulkheads in the after part of + the vessel, and the sand and water were delivered into a horizontal + breeches-piece leading into two pipes running along the full length of + the hopper. The difficulty of preventing the sand from running + overboard was entirely obviated by its being propelled by the pump + through these pipes, the bottoms of which were perforated by a series + of holes. In addition, there were a few small flap-doors fixed at + intervals, by means of which the men were able to regulate the + discharge. On being tested, the craft pumped into its hopper 400 tons + of sand in 22 minutes. The coamings round the well of the hoppers were + constructed with a dip, and when the hopper was full the water ran + over in a steady stream on either side. The proportion of sand + delivered into the hopper was about 20% of the total capacity of the + pump. The dredger was constructed by Messrs Smit of Kinderdijk, near + Rotterdam. In the same discussion Mr A. A. Langley, then engineer to + the Great Eastern railway, gave particulars of a sand pump upon the + Bazin system, which had been used successfully at Lowestoft. The boat + was 60 ft. long by 20 ft. wide, and the pump was 2 ft. in diameter, + with a two-bladed disk. The discharge pipe was 12 in. in diameter. The + pump raised 400 tons of sand, gravel and stones per hour as a maximum + quantity, the average quantity being about 200 tons per hour. The + depth dredged was from 7 ft. to 25 ft. The pump was driven by a + double-cylinder engine, having cylinders of 9 in. diameter by 10 in. + stroke, and making 120 revolutions per minute. An important + improvement was made by fitting the working faces of the pump with + india-rubber, which was very successful and largely reduced the wear + and tear. The cost of the dredging at Lowestoft was given by Mr + Langley at 2d. per ton, including delivery 2 m. out at sea. The + quantity dredged was about 200,000 tons per annum. + + One of the earliest pumps to be applied to dredging purposes was the + Woodford, which consisted of a horizontal disk with two or more arms + working in a case somewhat similar to the ordinary centrifugal pump. + The disk was keyed to a vertical shaft which was driven from above by + means of belts or other gear coupled to an ordinary portable engine. + The pump within rested on the ground; the suction pipe was so arranged + that water was drawn in with the sand or mud, the proportions being + regulated to suit the quality of the material. The discharge pipe was + rectangular and carried a vertical shaft, the whole apparatus being + adjustable to suit different depths of water. This arrangement was + very effective, and has been used on many works. Burt & Freeman's sand + pump, a modification of the Woodford pump, was used in the + construction of the Amsterdam Ship Canal, for which it was designed. + The excavations from the canal had to be deposited on the banks some + distance away from the dredgers, and after being raised by the + ordinary bucket dredger, instead of being discharged into the barges, + they were led into a vertical chamber on the top side of the pump, + suitable arrangements being made for regulating the delivery. The pump + was 3-1/2 ft. in diameter, and made about 230 revolutions per minute. + The water was drawn up on the bottom side and mixed with the + descending mud on the top side, and the two were discharged into a + pipe 15 in. in diameter. The discharge pipe was a special feature, and + consisted of a series of wooden pipes jointed together with leather + hinges and floated on buoys from the dredger to the bank. In some + cases this pipe was 300 yds. long, and discharged the material 8 ft. + above the water level. Each dredger and pump was capable of + discharging an average of 1500 cub. yds. per day of 12 hours. + Schmidt's sand pump is claimed to be an improvement on the Burt & + Freeman pump. It consists of a revolving wheel 6 ft. in diameter, with + cutters revolving under a hood which just allows the water to pass + underneath. To the top side of the hood a 20 in. suction pipe from an + ordinary centrifugal pump is attached. The pump is driven by two 16 + in. by 20 in. cylinders, at 134 revolutions per minute, the boiler + pressure being 95 lb. per sq. in. This apparatus is capable of + excavating sticky blue clayey mud, and will deliver the material at + 500 to 650 yds. distance. The best results are obtained when the + mixture of mud and water is as 1 to 6.5. The average quantity + excavated per diem by the apparatus is 1300 cub. yds., the maximum + quantity being 2500 cub. yds. + + Kennard's sand pump is entirely different from the pumps already + described, and is a direct application of the ordinary lift pump. A + wrought iron box has a suction pipe fitted at the bottom, rising about + half way up the inside of the box; on the top of the box is fitted the + actual pump and the flap valves. The apparatus is lowered by chains, + and the pump lowered from above. As soon as the box is filled with + sand it is raised, the catches holding up the bottom released, and the + contents discharged into a punt. + + Sand-pump dredgers, designed and arranged by Mr Darnton Hutton, were + extensively used on the Amsterdam Ship Canal. A centrifugal pump with + a fan 4 ft. in diameter was employed, the suction and delivery pipes, + each 18 in. in diameter, being attached to an open wrought-iron + framework. The machine was suspended between guides fixed to the end + of the vessel, which was fitted with tackle for raising, lowering and + adjusting the machine. The vessel was fitted with a steam engine and + boiler for working and manipulating the pumps and the heavy side + chains for the guidance of the dredger. The engine was 70 h.p., and + the total cost of one dredger was L8000. The number of hands required + for working this sand-pump dredger was one captain, one engineer, one + stoker and four sailors. Each machine was capable of raising about + 1300 tons of material per day, the engines working at 60 and the pump + at 180 revolutions per minute. The sand was delivered into barges + alongside the dredger. The cost of raising the material and depositing + it in barges was about 1d. per ton when the sand pumps were working, + but upon the year's work the cost was 2.4d. per cub. yd. for working + expenses and repairs, and 1.24d. per cub. yd. for interest and + depreciation at 10% upon the cost of the plant, making a total cost + for dredging of 3.64d. per cub. yd. The cost for transport was 3.588d. + per cub. yd., making a total cost for dredging and transport of + 7.234d. per cub. yd. Dredging and transport on the same works by an + ordinary bucket dredger and barges cost 8.328d. per cub. yd. + + Two of the largest and most successful instances of sand-pump dredgers + are the "Brancker" and the "G. B. Crow," belonging to the Mersey + Docks and Harbour Board. Mr A. G. Lyster gave particulars of the work + done by these dredgers in a paper read before the Engineering Congress + in 1899. They are each 320 ft. long, 47 ft. wide and 20.5 ft. deep, + the draught loaded being 16 ft. They are fitted with two centrifugal + pumps, each 6 ft. in diameter, with 36 in. suction and delivery pipes, + united into a 45 in. diameter pipe, hung by a ball and socket joint in + a trunnion, so as to work safely in a seaway when the waves are 10 ft. + high. The suction pipe is 76 ft. long and will dredge in 53 ft. of + water. The eight hoppers hold 3000 tons, equivalent when solid to 2000 + cub. yds.; they can be filled in three-quarters of an hour and + discharged in five minutes. Mr Lyster stated that up to May 1899, the + quantity removed from bar and main-channel shoals amounted to + 41,240,360 tons, giving a width of channel of 1500 ft. through the + bar, with a minimum depth of 27 ft. The cost of dredging on the bar by + the "G. B. Crow" during 1898, when 4,309,350 tons of material were + removed, was 0.61d. per ton for wages, supplies and repairs. These + figures include all direct working costs and a proportion of the + charge for actual superintendence, but no allowance for interest on + capital cost or depreciation. On an average, 20% of the sand and mud + that are raised escapes over the side of the vessel. Mr Lyster has, + however, to a considerable extent overcome this difficulty by a + special arrangement added to the hoppers (see _Proc. Inst. C.E._ vol. + 188). + + At the Engineering Conference, 1907, Mr Lyster read a note in which he + stated that the total quantity of material removed from the bar of the + Mersey, from the Crosby channel, and from other points of the main + channel by the "G. B. Crow" and "Brancker" suction dredgers amounted + to 108,675,570 tons up to the 1st of May 1907. "In the note of 1899 + (he added) it was pointed out that the Mersey was a striking instance + of the improvement of a river by dredging rather than by permanent + works, and the economy of the system as well as the advantage which + its elasticity and adaptability to varying circumstances permit, was + pointed out.... The most recent experience, which has resulted in the + adoption of the proposal to revet the Taylor's bank, indicates that + the dredging method has its limitations and cannot provide for every + contingency which is likely to arise; at the same time, the utility + and economy of the dredging system is in no way diminished.... Having + regard to the ever-increasing size of vessels, a scheme for new docks + and entrances on a very large scale received the authority of + parliament during the session of 1905-1906 In this scheme it was + considered necessary to make provision for vessels of 1000 ft. in + length and 40 ft. in draught, and having regard to this prospective + growth of vessels it has been determined still further to deepen and + improve the outer channel of the Mersey. No fixed measure of + improvement has been decided on, but after careful survey of existing + conditions and a comparison with probable requirements, it has been + determined to construct a dredger of 10,000 tons capacity, provided + with pumping power equivalent to about three times that of any + existing dredgers. By the use of this vessel it is anticipated that it + will be possible to deal with very much larger quantities of sand at a + cheaper rate, and to 10 ft. greater depth than the existing plant + permits." + + The vessel in question was launched on the Mersey from the yard of + Messrs Cammell, Laird & Co. in October 1908, and was named the + "Leviathan." Her length is 487 ft., beam 69 ft., and depth 30 ft. 7 + in. Her dredging machinery consists of four centrifugal pumps driven + by four sets of inverted triple expansion engines, and connected to + four suction tubes 90 ft. long and 42 in. in internal diameter. Her + propelling machinery, consisting of two sets of triple expansion + engines, is capable of driving her at a speed of 10 knots. + + Another powerful and successful sand-pump dredger, "Kate" (Plate I. + fig. 7), was built in 1897 by Messrs Wm. Simons & Co. Ltd. for the + East London Harbour Board, South Africa. Its dimensions are: length + 200 ft., breadth 39 ft., depth 14 ft. 6 in., hopper capacity 1000 + tons. The pumping arrangements for filling the hopper with sand or + discharging overboard consist of two centrifugal pumps, each driven + from one of the propelling engines. The suction pipes are each 27 in. + in diameter, and are so arranged that they may be used for pumping + either forward or aft, as the state of the weather may require. Four + steam cranes are provided for manipulating the suction pipes. Owing to + the exceptional weather with which the vessel had to contend, special + precautions were taken in designing the attachments of the suction + pipes to the vessel. The attachment is above deck and consists of a + series of joints, which give a perfectly free and universal movement + to the upper ends of the pipes. The joints, on each side of the + vessel, are attached to a carriage, which is traversed laterally by + hydraulic gear. By this means the pipes are pushed out well clear of + the vessel's sides when pumping, and brought inboard when not in work. + Hydraulic cushioning cylinders are provided to give any required + resistance to the fore and aft movements of the pipes. When the vessel + arrived at East London on the 18th of July 1897, there was a depth of + 14 ft. on the bar at high tide. On the 10th of October, scarcely three + months afterwards, there was a depth of 20 ft. on the bar at low + water. Working 22 days in rough weather during the month of November + 1898, the "Kate" raised and deposited 2-1/2 m. at sea 60,000 tons of + dredgings. Her best day's work (12 hours) was on the 7th of November, + when she dredged and deposited 6440 tons. + + A large quantity of sand-pump dredging has been carried out at + Boulogne and Calais by steam hopper pump dredgers, workable when the + head waves are not more than 3 ft. high and the cross waves not more + than 1-1/2 ft. high. The dredgings are taken 2 m. to sea, and the price + for dredging and depositing from 800,000 to 900,000 cub. metres in 5 + or 6 years was 7.25d. per cub. yd. The contractor offered to do the + work at 4.625d. per cub. yd. on condition of being allowed to work + either at Calais or Boulogne, as the weather might permit. Sand-pump + dredging has also been extensively carried out at the mouth of the + ports of Amsterdam, Rotterdam and on the north coast of France by sand + dredgers constructed by Messrs L. Smit & Son and G. & K. Smit. The + largest dredger, the "Amsterdam," is 141 ft. by 27 ft. by 10 ft. 8 + in., and has engines of 190 i.h.p. The hopper capacity is 10,600 cub. + ft., and the vessel can carry 600 tons of dredgings. The pump fan is 6 + ft. 3 in. in diameter by 10 in. wide, the plates being of wrought + iron, and makes 130 revolutions a minute. The pump can raise 230 cub. + ft. a minute from a depth of 33 ft., which, taking the proportion of 1 + of sand to 7 of water, gives a delivery of 29 cub. ft. of sand per + minute. The hopper containing 10,600 cub. ft. was under favourable + circumstances filled in 40 minutes. The vessels are excellent sea + boats. + +_Combined Bucket-Ladder and Sand-Pump Dredgers._--Bucket ladders and +sand pumps have also been fitted to the same dredger. A successful +example of this practice is furnished by the hopper dredger "Percy +Sanderson" (Plate I. fig. 8), constructed under the direction of Sir C. +A. Hartley, engineer of the Danube Commission for the deepening of the +river Danube and the Sulina bar. This dredger is 220 ft. by 40 ft. by 17 +ft. 2 in., and has a hopper capacity for 1250 tons of dredgings. The +buckets have each a capacity of 25 cub. ft., and are able to raise 1000 +tons of ordinary material per hour. The suction pump, which is driven by +an independent set of triple expansion engines, is capable of raising +700 tons of sand per hour, and of dredging to a depth of 35 ft. below +the water-line. The lower end of the suction pipe is controlled by +special steam appliances by which the pipe can be brought entirely +inboard. The "Percy Sanderson" raises and deposits on an average 5000 +tons of material per day. + +_Grab Dredgers._--The grab dredger was stated by Sir Benjamin Baker +(_Proc. Inst. C.E._ vol. 113, p. 38) to have been invented by Gouffe in +1703, and was worked by two ropes and a bar. Various kinds of apparatus +have been designed in the shape of grabs or buckets for dredging +purposes. These are usually worked by a steam crane, which lets the open +grab down to the surface of the ground to be excavated and then closes +it by a chain which forces the tines into the ground; the grab is then +raised by the crane, which deposits the contents either into the hopper +of the vessel upon which the crane is fixed or into another barge. + + The Priestman grab has perhaps been more extensively used than any + other apparatus of this sort. It is very useful for excavating mud, + gravel and soft sand, but is less effective with hard sand or stiff + clay--a general defect in this class of dredger. It is also capable of + lifting large loose pieces of rock weighing from 1 to 2 tons. A + dredger of this type, with grab holding 1 ton of mud, dredged during + six days, in 19 ft. of water, an average of 52-1/2 tons and a maximum + of 68-1/2 tons per hour, and during 12 days, in 16 ft. of water, an + average of 48 tons and a maximum of 58 tons per hour, at a cost of + 1.63d. per ton, excluding interest on the capital and depreciation. + The largest dredger to which this apparatus has been applied is the + grab bucket hopper dredger "Miles K. Burton" (Plate I. fig. 9), + belonging to the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board. It is equipped with 5 + grabs on Morgan's patent system, which is a modification of + Priestman's, the grabs being worked by 5 hydraulic cranes. It raised + and deposited, 12 to 15 m. at sea, 11 loads of about 1450 tons each + with a double shift of hands, at a cost of about 1s. 5d. per cub. yd. + of spoil, including the working expenses for wages of crew, fuel and + stores. Mr R. A. Marillier of Hull has stated that "the efficiency of + these grabs is not at all dependent upon the force of the blow in + falling for the penetration and grip in the material, as they do their + work very satisfactorily even when lowered quite gently on to the + material to be cut out, the jaws being so framed as to draw down and + penetrate the material as soon as the upward strain is put on the + lifting chain. Even in hard material the jaws penetrate so thoroughly + as to cause the bucket to be well filled. The grab is found to work + successfully in excavating hard clay from its natural bed on dry + land." It is claimed on behalf of grabs that they lift a smaller + proportion of water than any other class of dredger. + + Since the beginning of the 20th century considerable advance has been + made in the use of Priestman grabs, not only for dredging and + excavating (for which work they were originally designed), but also in + discharging bulk cargo. The first quadruple dredger used by the + Liverpool Docks Board had grabs of a capacity of 30 cub. ft., but + subsequently second and third quadruple dredgers were put to work in + the Liverpool Docks, with grabs having a capacity of 70 and 100 cub. + ft. respectively. In discharging coal at Southampton, Havre, Erith, + as well as at the coaling station at Purfleet on the Thames, grabs + having a capacity of about 80 cub. ft. are in constant use. Perhaps + the most difficult kind of bulk cargo to lift is "Narvick" iron ore, + which sets into a semi-solid body in the holds of the vessels, and for + this purpose one of the largest grabs, having about 150 cub. ft. + capacity and weighing about 8 tons, has been adopted. This grab was + designed as a result of experiments extending over a long period in + lifting iron ore. It is fitted with long, forged, interlocked steel + teeth for penetrating the compact material, which is very costly to + remove by hand labour. The Priestman grab is made to work with either + one or two chains or wire ropes. Grabs worked with two chains or ropes + have many advantages, and are therefore adopted for large + undertakings. + + Wild's single chain half-tine grab works entirely with a single chain, + and has been found very useful in excavating the cylinders in Castries + harbour. Upon experimenting with an ordinary grab a rather curious + condition of things was observed with respect to sinking. On + penetrating the soil to a certain depth the ground was found as it + were nested, and nothing would induce the grab to sink lower. Sir W. + Matthews suggested that a further set of external tines might possibly + get over this difficulty. A new grab having been made with this + modification, and also with a large increase of weight--all the parts + being of steel--it descended to any required depth with ease, the + outside tines loosening the ground effectually whilst the inside + bucket or tines picked up the material. + +_Miscellaneous Appliances._--There are several machines or appliances +which perhaps can hardly be called dredgers, although they are used for +cleansing and deepening rivers and harbours. + + Kingfoot's dredger, used for cleansing the river Stour, consisted of a + boat with a broad rake fitted to the bow, capable of adjustment to + different depths. At the sides of the boat were hinged two wings of + the same depth as the rake and in a line with it. When the rake was + dropped to the bottom of the river and the wings extended to the side, + they formed a sort of temporary dam, and the water began to rise + gradually. As soon as a sufficient head was raised, varying from 6 to + 12 in., the whole machine was driven forward by the pressure, and the + rake carried the mud with it. Progress at the rate of about 3 m. an + hour was made in this manner, and to prevent the accumulation of the + dredgings, operations were begun at the mouth of the river and carried + on backwards. The apparatus was very effective and the river was + cleansed thoroughly, but the distance travelled by the dredger must + have been great. + + In 1876 J. J. Rietschoten designed a "propeller dredger" for removing + the shoals of the river Maas. It consisted of an old gunboat fitted + with a pair of trussed beams, one at each side, each of which carried + a steel shaft and was capable of being lowered or raised by means of a + crab. An ordinary propeller 3 ft. 6 in. in diameter was fixed to the + lower end of the shaft, and driven by bevel gear from a cross shaft + which derived its motion by belting from the fly-wheel of a 12 h.p. + portable engine. The propellers were lowered until they nearly reached + the shoals, and were then worked at 150 revolutions per minute. This + operation scoured away the shoal effectively, for in about 40 minutes + it had been lowered about 3 ft. for a space of 150 yds. long by 8 yds. + wide. + + A. Lavalley in 1877 designed an arrangement for the harbour of Dunkirk + to overcome the difficulty of working an ordinary bucket-ladder + dredger when there is even a small swell. A pump injects water into + the sand down a pipe terminating in three nozzles to stir up the sand, + and another centrifugal pump draws up the mixed sand and water and + discharges it into a hopper, the pumps and all machinery being on + board the hopper. To allow for the rising and falling of the + vessel--either by the action of the tide or by the swell--the ends of + the pipes are made flexible. The hopper has a capacity of 190 cub. + yds., and is propelled and the pumps worked by an engine of 150 i.h.p. + From 50 to 80 cub. yds. per hour can be raised by this dredger. + + The "Aquamotrice," designed by Popie, and used on the Garonne at Agen, + appears to be a modification of the old bag and spoon arrangement. A + flat-bottomed boat 51-1/2 ft. long by 6-1/2 ft. wide was fitted at the + bow with paddles, which were actuated by the tide. Connected with the + paddles was a long chain, passing over a pulley on uprights and under + a roller, and a beam was attached to the chain 14 ft. 8 in. long, + passing through a hole in the deck. At the end of the beam was an iron + scoop 2 ft. wide and 2 ft. 6 in. deep. When the tide was strong enough + it drew the scoop along by means of the paddles and chains, and the + scoop when filled was opened by a lever and discharged. About 65 cub. + yds. of gravel could be raised by the apparatus in 12 hours. When the + tide failed the apparatus was worked by men. + + The Danube Steam Navigation Co. removed the shingle in the shallow + parts of the river by means of a triangular rake with wrought-iron + sides 18 ft. long, and fitted with 34 teeth of chilled cast iron 12 + in. deep. This rake was hung from the bow of a steamer 180 ft. long by + 21 ft. beam, and dragged across the shallows, increasing the depth of + water in one instance from 5 ft. 6 in. to 9 ft., after passing over + the bank 355 times. + + A combination of a harrow and high pressure water jets, arranged by B. + Tydeman, was found very efficacious in removing a large quantity of + mud which accumulated in the Tilbury Dock basin, which has an area of + about 17 acres, with a depth of 26 ft. at low-water spring tides. In + the first instance chain harrows merely were used, but the addition of + the water jets added materially to the success of the operation. The + system accomplished in six tides more than was done in twelve tides + without the water jets which worked at about 80 lb pressure per sq. + in. at the bottom of the dock. + + Ive's excavator consists of a long weighted spear, with a sort of + spade at the end of it. The spade is hinged at the top, and is capable + of being turned at right angles to the spear by a chain attached to + the end of the spear. The spade is driven into the ground, and after + releasing the catch which holds it in position during its descent, it + is drawn up at right angles to the spear by the chain, carrying the + material with it. Milroy's excavator is similar, but instead of having + only one spade it generally has eight, united to the periphery of an + octagonal iron frame fixed to a central vertical rod. When these eight + spades are drawn up by means of chains, they form one flat table or + tray at right angles to the central rod. In operation the spades hang + vertically, and are dropped into the material to be excavated; the + chains are then drawn up, and the table thus formed holds the material + on the top, which is lifted and discharged by releasing the spade. + This apparatus has been extensively used both in Great Britain and in + India for excavating in bridge cylinders. + + The clam shell dredger consists of two hinged buckets, which when + closed form one semi-cylindrical bucket. The buckets are held open by + chains attached to the top of a cross-head, and the machine is dropped + on to the top of the material to be dredged. The chains holding the + bucket open are then released, while the spears are held firmly in + position, the buckets being closed by another chain. Bull's dredger, + Gatmell's excavator, and Fouracre's dredger are modifications with + improvements of the clam shell dredger, and have all been used + successfully upon various works. + + Bruce & Batho's dredger, when closed, is of hemispherical form, the + bucket being composed of three or four blades. It can be worked by + either a single chain or by means of a spear, the latter being + generally used for stiff material. The advantage of this form of + dredger bucket is that the steel points of the blades are well adapted + for penetrating hard material. Messrs Bruce & Batho also designed a + dredger consisting of one of these buckets, but worked entirely by + hydraulic power. This was made for working on the Tyne. The excavator + or dredger is fixed to the end of a beam which is actuated by two + hydraulic cylinders, one being used for raising the bucket and the + other for lowering it; the hydraulic power is supplied by the pumps in + the engine-room. The novelty in the design is the ingenious way in + which the lever in ascending draws the shoot under the bucket to + receive its contents, and draws away again as the bucket descends. The + hydraulic cylinder at the end of the beam is carried on gimbals to + allow for irregularities on the surface being dredged. The hydraulic + pressure is 700 lb. per sq. in., and the pumps are used in connexion + with a steam accumulator. + + An unloading apparatus was designed by Mr A. Manning for the East & + West India Dock Co. for unloading the dredged materials out of barges + and delivering it on the marsh at the back of the bank of the river + Thames at Crossness, Kent. A stage constructed of wooden piles + commanded a series of barge beds, and the unloading dredger running + from end to end of the stage, lifted and delivered the materials on + the marsh behind the river wall at the cost of 1 d. per cub. yd. + +_Dredging on the River Scheldt below Antwerp._--This dredging took place +at Krankeloon and the Belgian Sluis under the direction of L. Van +Gansberghe. At Melsele there is a pronounced bend in the river, causing +a bar at the Pass of Port Philip, and just below the pass of Lillo there +is a cross-over in the current, making a neutral point and forming a +shoal. After dredging to 8 metres (26.24 ft.) below low tide, in clay +containing stone and ferruginous matter, a sandstone formation was +encountered, which was very compact and difficult to raise. A suction +dredger being unsuited to the work, a bucket-ladder dredger was +employed. The dredging was commenced at Krankeloon in September 1894 and +continued to the end of 1897. A depth of 6 metres (19.68 ft.) was +excavated at first, but was afterwards increased to 8 metres (26.24 +ft.). The place of deposit was at first on lands acquired by the State, +2.17 m. above Krankeloon, and placed at the disposal of the contractor. +The dredgings excavated by the bucket-ladder dredger were deposited in +scows, which were towed to the front of the deposit ground and +discharged by a suction pump fixed in a special boat, moored close to +the bank of the river. The material brought by the suction dredger in +its own hull was discharged by a plant fixed upon the dredger itself. In +both instances the material was deposited at a distance of 1640 ft. from +the river, the spoil bank varying in depth from 2 to 7 metres. The water +thrown out behind the dyke with the excavated material returned to the +river, after settlement, by a special discharge lock built under the +dyke. After 1896 the material was delivered into an abandoned pass by +means of barges with bottom hopper doors or by the suction dredger. One +suction dredger and three bucket-ladder dredgers were employed upon the +work, and a vessel called "Scheldt I." used for discharging the material +from the scows. Four tugboats and twenty scows were also employed. + + The largest dredger, "Scheldt III.," was 147.63 ft. long by 22.96 ft. + wide by 10.98 ft. deep, and had buckets of 21.18 cub. ft. capacity. + The output per hour was 10,594 cub. ft. This dredger had also a + complete installation as a suction dredger, the suction pipe being 2 + ft. diameter. The fan of the centrifugal pump was 5.25 ft. diameter, + and was driven by the motor of the bucket ladder. The three bucket + dredgers worked with head to the ebb tide. They could also work with + head to the flood tide, but it took so long a time to turn them about + that it was impracticable. The work was for from 13 to 14 hours a day + on the ebb tide. The effective daily excavation averaged 4839 cub. + yds. Each dredger was fitted with six anchors. The excavated cut was + 164 ft. wide by 6.56 ft. deep. "Scheldt III." was capable of lifting a + mass 9.84 ft. thick. The suction dredger "Scheldt II." was of the + multiple type, and is stated to be unique in construction. It can + discharge material from a scow alongside, fill its own hopper with + excavations, discharge its own load upon the bank or into a scow by + different pipes provided for the purpose, and discharge its own load + through hopper doors. The machinery is driven by a triple expansion + engine of 300 i.h.p. working the propeller by a clutch. Owing to the + rise and fall in the tide of 23 ft. the suction pipe is fitted with + spherical joints and a telescopic arrangement. The vessel is 157.5 ft. + by 28.2 ft. by 12.8 ft. The diameter of the pump is 5.25 ft. The wings + of the pump are curved, the surface being in the form of a cylinder + parallel to the axis of rotation, the directrix of which is an arc of + a circle of 2.62 ft. radius with the straight part beyond. The suction + and discharge pipes are 2 ft. diameter. A centrifugal pump is provided + for throwing water into the scows to liquefy the material during + discharge. The dredger, which is fitted with electric lights for work + at night, is held by two anchors, to prevent lurching backwards and + forwards; it can work on the flood as well as on the ebb tide, and can + excavate to a depth of 42.65 ft., the output depending upon the nature + of the material. With good material it can fill its tanks in thirty + minutes. To empty the tanks by suction and discharge upon the bank + over the dyke takes about fifty minutes, depending upon the height and + distance to which the material requires to be delivered. The daily + work has averaged eighteen hours, ten trips being made when the + distance from the dredging ground to the point of delivery is about 1 + m. When the dredged material is discharged into the Scheldt, a + quantity of 5886 cub. yds. has been raised and deposited in a day, the + mean quantity being 4700 cub. yds. When the distance of transportation + is increased to 2-1/2 m., six voyages were made in a day, and the day's + work amounted to 3530 cub. yds. + +_Gold Dredgers._--Dredgers for excavating from river beds soil +containing gold are generally fitted with a screen and elevator. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Diagram showing Action of Lobnitz Gold Dredger.] + +They have been extensively designed and built by Messrs Lobnitz & Co. +(fig. 2) and also by Messrs Hunter & English. + + The writer is indebted to the _Proceedings_ of the Institution of + Civil Engineers, and especially to the paper of Mr J. J. Webster + (_Proc. Inst. C.E._ vol. 89), for much valuable information upon the + subject treated. He is also indebted to many manufacturers who have + furnished him with particulars and photographs of dredging plant. + (W. H.*) + + +Plate I. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Barge-loading dredger, "St Austell," constructed +for the British Government by Wm. Simons & Co.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Stern-well hopper-dredger "La Puissante," by Wm. +Simons & Co. Length 275 ft., breadth 47 ft., depth 19 ft.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Dredger constructed for the Lake Copais Co. by +Hunter & English.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Light-draught dredger, with delivery apparatus +working round an arc of 210 deg., by Hunter & English.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Twin-screw sand-pump dredger, "Kate," built for +the East London Harbour Board by Wm. Simons & Co.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Twin-screw hopper-dredger, "Percy Sanderson," +built for the European Danube Commission by Wm. Simons & Co.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Twin-screw grab-dredger, "Miles K. Burton," +built for the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board by Wm. Simons & Co.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Hopper-dredger, "David Dale," with buckets of +54 cub. ft. capacity (see fig. 11) built for the North Eastern Railway +Company by Lobnitz & Co.] + + +Plate II. + +[Illustration: FIG. 11.--BUCKETS OF 5 AND 54 CUBIC FEET CAPACITY +COMPARED. + +The latter, the largest ever made, were for the hopper-dredger "David +Dale" (Plate I. fig. 10), built by Lobnitz & Co.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 12.--MODEL OF ROCK-CUTTING DREDGER, "DEROCHEUSE." + +Built for special work on the Suez Canal by Lobnitz & Co. Length 180 +ft., breadth 40 ft., depth 12 ft.] + + +2. MARINE BIOLOGY + +The naturalist's dredge is an instrument consisting essentially of a net +or bag attached to a framework of iron which forms the mouth of the net. +When in use as the apparatus is drawn over the sea-bottom mouth +forwards, some part of the framework passes beneath objects which it +meets and so causes them to enter the net. It is intended for the +collection of animals and plants living on or near the sea-bottom, or +sometimes of specimens of the sea-bottom itself, for scientific +purposes. + +Until the middle of the 18th century, naturalists who studied the marine +fauna and flora relied for their materials on shore collection and the +examination of the catches of fishing boats. Their knowledge of +creatures living below the level of low spring tides was thus gained +only from specimens cast up in storms, or caught by fishing gear +designed for the capture of certain edible species only. The first +effort made to free marine biology from these limitations was the use of +the dredge, which was built much on the plan of the oyster dredge. + + [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Otho Frederick Muller's Dredge (1770).] + + _The Oyster Dredge._--At first naturalists made use of the ordinary + oyster dredge, which is constructed as follows. The frame is an iron + triangle, the sides being the round iron "arms" of the dredge, the + base a flat bar called the shere or lip, which is sloped a little, not + perpendicular to the plane of the triangle; an iron bar parallel to + the base joins the arms. The net is fastened to the parallel bars and + the portion of the arms between them, and consists of two parts: that + attached to the shere is of round iron rings linked together by + smaller ones of wire lashings, that attached to the upper bar is of + ordinary network. Where these two portions of the bag meet a wooden + beam is fastened. In use the frame is towed forward by its apex: the + shere passes below oysters, &c., which pass back on to the iron + netting. The length of each side of the triangular frame is about 6 + ft., the width of the shere 3 in. and the height of the mouth just + under a foot. The rings vary in size, but are usually some 2-1/2 in. + in diameter. The weight is about 60 lb. This dredge was soon + abandoned: its weight was prohibitive for small boats, from which the + naturalist usually worked, its wide rings allowed precious specimens + to fall through, and its shallow net favoured the washing out of light + objects on hauling through the moving water of the surface. Moreover, + it sometimes fell on its back and was then useless, although when the + apex or towing point was weighted no great skill is needed to avoid + this. + + Otho Muller used a dredge (fig. 13) consisting of a net with a square + iron mouth, each of whose sides was furnished with a thin edge turned + slightly away from the dredge's centre. As any one of these everted + lips could act as a scraper it was a matter of indifference which + struck the bottom when the dredge was lowered. The chief defect of the + instrument was the ease with which light objects could be washed out + on hauling, owing to the size of the mouth. However, with this + instrument Muller obtained from the often stormy Scandinavian seas all + the material for his celebrated _Zoologia Danica_, a description of + the marine fauna of Denmark and Norway which was published with + excellent coloured plates in 1778; and historical interest attaches to + the dredge as the first made specially for scientific work. + + _Ball's Dredge._--About 1838 a dredge devised by Dr Ball of Dublin was + introduced. It has been used all over the world, and is so apt for its + purpose that it has suffered very little modification during its 70 + years of life. It is known as Ball's dredge or more generally simply + "the dredge." + + [Illustration: FIG. 14.--Ball's Naturalist's Dredge.] + + Ball's dredge (fig. 14) consists of a rectangular net attached to a + rectangular frame much longer than high, and furnished with rods + stretching from the four corners to meet at a point where they are + attached to the dredge rope. It differs from Muller's dredge in the + slit-like shape of the opening, which prevents much of the "washing + out" suffered by the earlier pattern, and in the edges. The long edges + only are fashioned as scrapers, being wider and heavier than Muller's, + especially in later dredges. The short edges are of round iron bar. + + Like Muller's form, Ball's dredge will act whichever side touches the + bottom first, as its frame will not remain on its short edge, and + either of the long edges acts as a scraper. The scraping lips thicken + gradually from free edge to net; they are set at 110 deg. to the plane + of the mouth, and in some later patterns curve outwards instead of + merely sloping. All dredge frames are of wrought iron. + + The thick inner edges of the scrapers are perforated by round holes at + distances of about an inch, and through these strong iron rings about + an inch in diameter are passed, and two or three similar rings run on + the short rods which form the ends of the dredge-frame. A light iron + rod, bent to the form of the dredge opening, usually runs through + these rings, and to this rod and to the rings the mouth of the + dredge-bag is securely attached by stout cord or strong copper wire. + Various materials have been used for the bag, the chief of which are + hide, canvas and netting. The hide was recommended by its strength, + but it is now abandoned. Canvas bags fill quickly with mud or sand and + then cease to operate: on the other hand wide mesh net fails to retain + small specimens. Probably the most suitable material is hand-made + netting of very strong twine, the meshes half an inch to the side, the + inter-spaces contracting to a third of an inch across when the twine + is thoroughly soaked, with an open canvas or "bread-bag" lining to the + last 6 in. of the net. A return to canvas covering has latterly + occurred in the small dredge called the mud-bag, trailed behind the + trawl of the "Albatross" for obtaining a sample of the bottom, and in + the conical dredge. + + The dimensions of the first dredges were as follows: Frame about 12 + in. by about 4 in.; scraping lips about 2 in. wide; all other iron + parts of round iron bar 5/8 in. diameter; bag rather more than 1 ft. + long. These small dredges were used from rowing boats. Larger dredges + were subsequently made for use from yawls or cutters. The mouth of + these was 18 by 5 in., the scraping lips about 2 in. wide and bag 2 + ft. deep; such a dredge weighs about 20 lb. The dredge of the + "Challenger" had a frame 4 ft. 6 in. by 1 ft. 3 in. and the bag had a + length of 4 ft. 6 in.; the "Porcupine" used a dredge of the same size + weighing 225 lb. Doubtless the size of Ball's dredge would have + grown still more had it not been proved by the "Challenger" expedition + that for many purposes trawls could be used advantageously instead of + dredges. + +_Operation of the Dredge from Small Vessels._ For work round the coasts +of Europe, at depths attainable from a row-boat or yawl, probably the +best kind of line is bolt-rope of the best Russian hemp, not less than +1-1/2 in. in circumference, containing 18 to 20 yarns in 3 strands. Each +yarn should be nearly a hundredweight, so that the breaking strain of +such a rope ought to be about a ton. Of course it is never voluntarily +exposed to such a strain, but in shallow water the dredge is often +caught among rocks or coral, and the rope should be strong enough in +such a case to bring up the boat, even if there were some little way on. +It is always well, when dredging, to ascertain the approximate depth +with the lead before casting the dredge; and the lead ought always to be +accompanied by a registering thermometer, for the subsequent haul of the +dredge will gain greatly in value as an observation in geographical +distribution, if it be accompanied by an accurate note of the bottom +temperature. For depths under 100 fathoms the amount of rope paid out +should be at least double the depth; under 30 fathoms, where one usually +works more rapidly, it should be more nearly three times; this gives a +good deal of slack before the dredge if the boat be moving very slowly, +and keeps the lip of the dredge well down. When there is anything of a +current, from whatever cause, it is usually convenient to attach a +weight, varying from 14 lb. to half a hundredweight, to the rope 3 or 4 +fathoms in front of the dredge. This prevents in some degree the lifting +of the mouth of the dredge; if the weight be attached nearer the dredge +it is apt to injure delicate objects passing in. + +In dredging in sand or mud, the dredge-rope may simply be passed through +the double eye formed by the ends of the two arms of the dredge-frame; +but in rocky or unknown ground it is better to fasten the rope to the +eye of one of the arms only, and to tie the two eyes together with three +or four turns of rope-yarn. This stop breaks much more readily than the +dredge-rope, so that if the dredge get caught it is the first thing to +give way under the strain, and in doing so it often alters the position +of the dredge so as to allow of its extrication. + +The dredge is slipped gently over the side, either from the bow or from +the stern--in a small boat more usually the latter--while there is a +little way on, and the direction which the rope takes indicates roughly +whether the dredge is going down properly. When it reaches the ground +and begins to scrape, an experienced hand upon the rope can usually +detect at once a tremor given to the dredge by the scraper passing over +the irregularities of the bottom. The due amount of rope is then paid +out, and the rope hitched to a bench or rowlock-pin. The boat should +move very slowly, probably not faster than a mile an hour. In still +water or with a very slight current the dredge of course anchors the +boat, and oars or sails are necessary; but if the boat be moving at all +it is all that is required. It is perhaps most pleasant to dredge with +a close-reefed sail before a light wind, with weights, against a very +slight tide or current; but these are conditions which cannot be +commanded. The dredge may remain down from a quarter of an hour to +twenty minutes, by which time, if things go well, it ought to be fairly +filled. In dredging from a small boat the simplest plan is for two or +three men to haul in, hand over hand, and coil in the bottom of the +boat. For a large yawl or yacht, and for depths over 50 fathoms, a winch +is a great assistance. The rope takes a couple of turns round the winch, +which is worked by two men, while a third hand takes it from the winch +and coils it down. + +It is easier to operate a dredge from a steam vessel than a sailing +boat, but if the steamer is of any size great care should be taken that +the dredge does not move too rapidly. + +Two ingenious cases of dredging under unusual conditions are worthy of +mention, one case from shore, one from ice. In the Trondligem Fjord, +Canon A. M. Norman in 1890 worked by hauling the dredge up the +precipitous shores of the fjord. The dredge was shot from a boat close +to the shore, to which after paying out some hundreds of fathoms of line +it returned. The dredge was then hauled from the top of the cliffs up +whose side it scraped. Hitches against projecting rocks were frequent +and were overcome by suddenly paying out line for a time. The dredge was +lifted into a boat when it reached the surface of the sea. The other +case occurred during the Antarctic expedition of the "Discovery." +Hodgson dropped loops of line along cracks which occasionally formed in +the ice. The ice always joined up again, but with the line below it; and +a hole being cleared at each place at which the end of the line emerged, +the dredge could be worked between them. + +The dredge comes up variously freighted according to the locality, and +the next step is to examine its contents and to store the objects of +search for future use. In a regularly organized dredging expedition a +frame or platform is often erected with a ledge round it to receive the +contents of the dredge, but it does well enough to capsize it on an old +piece of tarpaulin. There are two ways of emptying the dredge; we may +either turn it up and pour out its contents by the mouth, or we may have +a contrivance by which the bottom of the bag is made to unlace. The +first plan is the simpler and the one more usually adopted; the second +has the advantage of letting the mass slide out more smoothly and +easily, but the lacing introduces rather a damaging complication, as it +is apt to loosen or give way. Any objects visible on the surface of the +heap are now carefully removed, and placed for identification in jars or +tubs of sea-water, of which there should be a number secured in some +form of bottle basket, standing ready. The heap should not be much +disturbed, for the delicate objects contained in it have already been +unavoidably subjected to a good deal of rough usage, and the less +friction among the stones the better. + +_Examination of the Catch. Sifting._--The sorting of the catch is +facilitated by sifting. The sieves used in early English expeditions +were of various sizes and meshes, each sieve having a finer mesh than +the sieve smaller than itself. In use the whole were put together in the +form of a nest, the smallest one with the coarsest mesh being on top. A +little of the dredge's contents were then put in the top sieve, and the +whole set moved gently up and down in a tub of sea water by handles +attached to the bottom one. Objects of different sizes are thus left in +different sieves. A simple but effective plan is to let the sieves of +various sized mesh fit accurately on each other like lids, the coarsest +on top, and to pour water upon material placed on the top one. In the +United States Bureau of Fisheries ship "Albatross" these sieves are +raised to form a table and the water is led on them from a hose: the +very finest objects or sediments are retained by the waste water +escaping from a catchment tub by muslin bags let into its sides. Any of +these methods are preferable to sifting by the agitation of a sieve hung +over the side, as in the last anything passing through the sieve is gone +past recall. + +_Preservation of Specimens._--The preservation of specimens will of +course depend on the purpose for which they are intended. For +microscopic observation formaldehyde has some advantages. It can be +stored in 40% solution and used in 2%, thus saving space, and it +preserves many animals in their colours for a time: formalin +preparations do not, however, last as well as do those in spirit. The +suitable fluids for various histological inquiries are beyond the scope +of the present article; but for general marine histology Bles' fluid is +useful, being simple to prepare and not necessitating the removal of the +specimen to another fluid. It is composed of 70% alcohol 90 parts, +glacial acetic acid 7 parts, 4% formaldehyde 7 parts. + +The scientific value of a dredging depends mainly upon two things, the +care with which the objects procured are preserved and labelled for +future identification and reference, and the accuracy with which all the +circumstances of the dredging--the position, the depth, the nature of +the ground, the date, the bottom-temperature, &c.--are recorded. In the +British Marine Biological Association's work in the North Sea, a +separate sheet of a printed book with carbon paper and duplicate sheets +(which remain always on the ship) is used for the record of the +particulars of each haul; depth, gear, &c., being filled into spaces +indicated in the form. This use of previously prepared forms has been +found to be a great saving of time and avoids risk of omission. Whether +labelled externally or not, all bottles should contain parchment or good +paper labels written with a soft pencil. These cannot be lost. The more +fully details of reference number of station, gear, date, &c., are given +the better, as should a mistake be made in one particular it can +frequently be traced and rectified by means of the rest. + +_Growth of Scope of Operations._--At the Birmingham meeting of the +British Association in 1839 an important committee was appointed "for +researches with the dredge with a view to the investigation of the +marine zoology of Great Britain, the illustration of the geographical +distribution of marine animals, and the more accurate determination of +the fossils of the Pliocene period." Of this committee Edward Forbes was +the ruling spirit, and under the genial influence of his contagious +enthusiasm great progress was made during the next decade in the +knowledge of the fauna of the British seas, and many wonderfully +pleasant days were spent by the original committee and by many others +who from year to year were "added to their number." Every annual report +of the British Association contains communications from the English, the +Scottish, or the Irish branches of the committee; and in 1850 Edward +Forbes submitted its first general report on British marine zoology. +This report, as might have been anticipated from the eminent +qualifications of the reporter, was of the highest value; and, taken +along with his remarkable memoirs previously published, "On the +Distribution of the Mollusca and Radiata of the Aegean Sea," and "On the +Zoological Relations of the existing Fauna and Flora of the British +Isles," may be said to mark an era in the progress of human thought. + +The dredging operations of the British Association committee were +carried on generally under the idea that at the 100-fathom line, by +which amateur work in small boats was practically limited, the zero of +animal life was approached--a notion which was destined to be gradually +undermined, and finally overthrown. From time to time, however, there +were not wanting men of great skill and experience to maintain, with Sir +James Clark Ross, that "from however great a depth we may be enabled to +bring up mud and stones of the bed of the ocean we shall find them +teeming with animal life." Samples of the sea-bottom procured with great +difficulty and in small quantity from the first deep soundings in the +Atlantic, chiefly by the use of Brooke's sounding machine, an instrument +which by a neat contrivance disengaged its weights when it reached the +bottom, and thus allowed a tube, so arranged as to get filled with a +sample of the bottom, to be recovered by the sounding line, were eagerly +examined by microscopists; and the singular fact was established that +these samples consisted over a large part of the bed of the Atlantic of +the entire or broken shells of certain foraminifera. Dr Wallich, the +naturalist to the "Bulldog" sounding expedition under Sir Leopold +M'Clintock, reported that star-fishes, with their stomachs full of the +deep-sea foraminifera, had come up from a depth of 1200 fathoms on a +sounding line; and doubts began to be entertained whether the bottom of +the sea was in truth a desert, or whether it might not present a new +zoological region open to investigation and discovery, and peopled by a +peculiar fauna suited to its special conditions. + +In the year 1867, while the question was still undecided, two testing +investigations were undertaken independently. In America Count L. F. de +Pourtales (1824-1880), an officer employed in the United States Coast +Survey under Benjamin Peirce, commenced a series of deep dredgings +across the Gulf Stream off the coast of Florida, which were continued in +the following year, and were productive of most valuable results; and in +Great Britain the Admiralty, on the representation of the Royal Society, +placed the "Lightning," a small gun-vessel, at the disposal of a small +committee to sound and dredge in the North Atlantic between Shetland and +the Farue Islands. + +In the "Lightning," with the help of a donkey-engine for winding in, +dredging was carried on with comparative ease at a depth of 600 fathoms, +and at that depth animal life was found to be still abundant. The +results of the "Lightning's" dredgings were regarded of so great +importance to science that the Royal Society pressed upon the Admiralty +the advantage of continuing the researches, and accordingly, during the +years 1869 and 1870, the gun-boat "Porcupine" was put under the orders +of a committee consisting of Dr W. B. Carpenter, Dr Gwyn Jeffreys, and +Professor (afterwards Sir Charles) Wyville Thomson, one or other of whom +superintended the scientific work of a series of dredging trips in the +North Atlantic to the north and west of the British Islands, which +occupied two summers. + +In the "Porcupine," in the summer of 1869, dredging was carried down +successfully to a depth of 2435 fathoms, upwards of two miles and a +half, in the Bay of Biscay, and the dredge brought up well-developed +representatives of all the classes of marine invertebrates. During the +cruises of the "Porcupine" the fauna of the deep water off the western +coasts of Great Britain and of Spain and Portugal was tolerably well +ascertained, and it was found to differ greatly from the fauna of +shallow water in the same region, to possess very special characters, +and to show a very marked relation to the faunae of the earlier Tertiary +and the later Cretaceous periods. + +In the winter of 1872, as a sequel to the preliminary cruises of the +"Lightning" and "Porcupine," by far the most considerable expedition in +which systematic dredging had ever been made a special object left Great +Britain. H.M.S. "Challenger," a corvette of 2306 tons, with auxiliary +steam working to 1234 h.p., was despatched to investigate the physical +and biological conditions of the great ocean basins. + +The "Challenger" was provided with a most complete and liberal +organization for the purpose; she had powerful deck engines for hauling +in the dredge, workrooms, laboratories and libraries for investigating +the results on the spot, and a staff of competent naturalists to +undertake such investigations and to superintend the packing and +preservation of the specimens reserved for future study. Since the +"Challenger" expedition the use of wire rope has enabled far smaller +vessels to undertake deep sea work. The "Challenger," however, may be +said to have established the practicability of dredging at any known +depth. + +_Operating Dredges and Trawls in deep Seas._--Dredging operations from +large vessels in deep seas present numerous difficulties. The great +weight of the ship makes her motion, whether of progress or rolling, +irresistible to the dredge. The latter tends to jump, therefore, which +both lowers its efficiency and causes it to exert a sudden strain on the +dredge rope. + +The efficiency or evenness of dredging was secured, therefore, by the +special device of fastening a heavy weight some 200 or 300 fathoms from +the dredge end of the dredge rope. This was either lowered with the +dredge or sent down after by means of a "messenger," a ring of rope +fixed round, but running freely on, the dredge rope. The latter plan was +used on the "Challenger"; the weights were six 28 lb. leads in canvas +covers: their descent was arrested by a toggle or wooden cross-bar +previously attached to the rope at the desired point. When, however, the +rope used is of wire this front weight is unnecessary. + + The possibility of sudden strain necessitates a constant watching of + the dredge rope, as the ship's engines may at any moment be needed to + ease the tension by stopping the vessel's way, and the hauling engines + by paying out more rope. The use of accumulators both renders the + strain more gradual and gives warning of an increase or decrease; + indeed they can be calibrated and used as dynamometers to measure the + strain. One of the best forms of accumulator consists of a pile of + perforated rubber disks, which receive the strain and become + compressed in doing so. The arrangement is in essence as follows. The + disks form a column resting on a cross-bar or base, from which two + rods pass up one on each side of the column. Another cross-bar rests + on the top disk, and from it a rod passes freely down the centre + perforation of disks and base. Eyes are attached to the lower end of + this rod and to a yoke connecting the side rods at the top: a pull + exerted on these eyes is thus modified by the elasticity of the + dredge. In the "Porcupine" and other early expeditions the accumulator + was hung from the main yard arm, and the block through which the + dredge rope ran suspended from it. In more recent ships a special + derrick boom is rigged for this block, and a second accumulator is + sometimes inserted between the topping lift by which this is raised + and the end of the boom. + + The margin of safety of steel wire rope is much larger than is that of + hempen rope, a fact of importance both in towing in a rough sea and in + hauling. Galvanized steel wire with a hempen core was first used by + Agassiz on the "Blake." He states that his wire weighed one pound per + fathom, against two pounds per fathom of hempen rope, and had a + breaking strain nearly twice that of hempen rope, which bore two tons. + Thus in hauling the wire rope has both greater capability and less + actual strain. It has also the advantages of occupying a mere fraction + (1/9) of the storage space needed for rope, of lasting much longer, + and its vibrations transmit much more rapid and minute indications of + the conduct of the dredge. + + Wire rope is kept wound on reels supplied with efficient brakes to + check or stop its progress, and an engine is often fitted for winding + it in and veering it out. From the reel it passes to the drum of the + hauling engine, round which it takes some few turns; care is taken by + watching or by the use of an automatic regulator (Tanner) that it is + taken at a rate equal to that at which it is moving over the side. + From the hauling engine it passes over leading wheels (one of which + should preferably be a registering wheel and indicate the amount of + rope which has passed it), and so it reaches the end of the derrick + boom. + +The dredge is lowered from the derrick boom, which has been previously +trained over to windward so that its end is well clear of the ship, +while the ship is slowly moving forward. The rope is checked until the +net is seen to be towing clear, and then lowered rapidly. Where a weight +is used in front of the trawl Captain Calver successfully adopted the +plan of backing after sufficient line had been paid out: the part of the +rope from weight to surface thus became more vertical, while the shorter +remainder, previously in line with it, sank to the bottom without change +of relative position of weight and dredge. The ship was then ready for +towing. When no front weight is used the manoeuvre is unnecessary. + +There should be a relation maintained between speed of vessel onward and +of rope downward, or a foul haul may result owing to the gear capsizing +(in the case of a trawl), or getting the net over the mouth (in a +dredge). The most satisfactory method of ensuring this relation seems to +be so to manage the two speeds that the angle made by the dredge rope is +fairly constant. This angle can be observed with a simple clinometer. +The following table abridged from Tanner most usefully brings together +the requisite angles with other useful quantities. + + +----------+----------------+---------+---------------+---------------+ + | Depth of | Speed of ship |Length of|Angle of dredge|Angle of dredge| + | water. | while shooting | rope | rope while | rope while | + | |dredge or trawl.|required.|lowering trawl.|dragging trawl.| + +----------+----------------+---------+---------------+---------------+ + | Fathoms. | Knots. | Fathoms.| | | + | 100 | 3 | 200 | 60 | 55 | + | 200 | 3 | 400 | 60 | 55 | + | 400 | 3 | 700 | 60 | 52 | + | 600 | 2-3/4 | 1000 | 55 | 50 | + | 800 | 2-1/2 | 1200 | 50 | 44 | + | 1000 | 2-1/2 | 1500 | 50 | 40 | + | 1500 | 2-1/4 | 2166 | 50 | 40 | + | 2000 | 2 | 2670 | 45 | 35 | + | 3000 | 2 | 4000 | 40 | 35 | + +----------+----------------+---------+---------------+---------------+ + +The speed of towing, always slow, may be assumed to be approximately +correct if the appropriate angle is maintained. Hauling should at first +be slow from great depths, but may increase in speed as the gear rises. + + For further details of deep-sea dredging, especially of the hauling + machinery and management of the gear, the special reports of the + various expeditions must be consulted. Commander Tanner, U.S.N., has + given in _Deep Sea Exploration_ (1897) a very full and good account of + the equipment of an exploring ship; and to this book the present + article is much indebted. + +_Modifications and Additions to the Dredge._--From 1818, when Sir John +Ross brought up a fine Astrophyton from over 800 fathoms on a sounding +line in Baffin's Bay, instances gradually accumulated of specimens being +obtained from great depths without nets or traps. The naturalists of the +"Porcupine" and other expeditions found that echinoderms, corals and +sponges were often carried up adhering to the outer surface of the +dredge and the last few fathoms of dredge rope. In order to increase the +effectiveness of this method of capture a bar was fastened to the bottom +of the dredge, to which bunches of teased-out hemp were tied. In this +way specimens of the greatest interest, and frequently of equal +importance with those in the dredge bag, were obtained. The tangle bar +was at first attached to the back of the net. From the "Challenger" +expedition onward it has been fixed behind the net by iron bars +stretching back from the short sides of the dredge frame which pass +through eyes in their first ends (fig. 15). The swabs are thus unable to +fold over the mouth of the dredge. Rope lashings to the lips of the +dredge are sometimes added, and a weight is tied to the larger bar to +keep it down. + +[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Deep-sea Dredge, with Tangle Bar.] + +Occasionally the tangle bar is used alone (Agassiz), and one form +(Tanner) has two bars, stretching back like the side strokes of the +letter A from a strong steel spring in the form of an almost complete +circle. The whole is pulled forward from a spherical sinker fastened in +front of the spring apex; and should the apex enter a crevice between +rock masses, the side bars are closed by the pressure instead of +catching and bringing up. This is said to be a very useful instrument +among corals. + + _The Blake Dredge._--In the soft ooze which forms the bottom of deep + seas the common dredge sinks and digs much too deeply for its ordinary + purpose, owing partly to its chief weight bearing on the frame only, + partly to its everted lips. To obviate these defects Lieutenant + Commander Sigsbee of the "Blake" devised the Blake dredge. Its novel + features were the frame and lips. The former was in the form of a + skeleton box; that is, a rectangle of iron bars was placed at the back + as well as the front or mouth of the net and four more iron bars + connected the two rectangles. The lips instead of being everted were + in parallel planes--those, namely, of the top and bottom of the net. + The effect of this was to minimize digging and somewhat spread the + incidences of the weight. Another advantage was that the net being + constantly distended by its frame, and, moreover, protected top and + bottom by an external shield of canvas, quite delicate specimens + reached the surface uninjured. The dredge weighed 80 lb. and was 4 + ft. square and 9 in. deep. + + _Rake Dredges._--These are devices for collecting burrowing creatures + without filling the dredge with the soil in which they live. Holt + used, at Plymouth, a dredge whose side bars and lower lip were of + iron, the latter armed with forward and downward pointing teeth which + stirred up the sand and its denizens in front of the dredge mouth. The + upper lip of the dredge was replaced by a bar of wood. The bag was of + cheese-cloth or light open canvas, and the whole was of light + construction. The apparatus was very useful in capturing small + burrowing crustacea. The Chester rake dredge is a Blake dredge in + front of which is secured a heavy iron rectangle with teeth placed + almost at right angles to its long sides and in the plane of the + rectangle. Each of these instruments has a width along the scraping + edge of about 3 ft. + + _Triangular and Conical Dredges._--Two other dredges are worthy of + mention. The triangular dredge, much resembling Muller's but with a + triangular mouth, and hung by chains from its angles, is an old + fashion now not in general use. It is, however, very useful for rocky + ground. At the Plymouth marine laboratory was also devised the conical + dredge (1901), the circular form being the suggestion of Garstang. + This dredge (fig. 16) was intended for digging deeply. It is of + wrought iron, and of the following dimensions: diameter of mouth 16 + in., length 33 in., depth of ring at mouth 9 in. Its weight is 67 + lb. As at first used the spaces between the bars are closed by wire + netting; if used for collecting bottom samples it is furnished with a + lining of strong sail-cloth. + + [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Conical Dredge being hoisted in.] + + Its weight and the small length of edge in contact with the ground + cause this dredge to dig well, and enable the user to obtain many + objects which though quite common are of rare occurrence in an + ordinary dredge. Thus on the Brown Ridges, a fishing-ground west of + Holland, although _Donax vittalus_ is known from examination of fish + stomachs to be abundant, it is rarely taken except in the conical + dredge: the same is true of _Echinocyamus pusillus_, which is in many + parts of the North Sea abundant in bottom samples and in no ordinary + dredgings. With the sail-cloth lining the conical dredge fills in + about 10 minutes on most ground, and no material washing out of fine + sediment occurs on hauling. In shallow seas such as the North Sea + commercial beam and other trawls are now used as quantitative + instruments in the estimation of the fish population, especially of + the _Pleuronectidae_. + + _Use of Small Trawls for Dredging._--Although these trawls do not here + concern us, certain adaptations of small beam trawls for biological + exploration are of such identical use with the dredge, and differ from + it so little in structure and size, that they may be here described. + + A small beam trawl was first used from the "Challenger" (fig. 17). It + was sent down in 600 fathoms off Cape St Vincent, the reason for its + use being the frequency with which the dredge sank into the sea-bottom + and there remained until hauling. The experiment was entirely + successful. The sinking of the net was avoided, the net had a much + greater spread than the dredge, and in addition to invertebrates it + captured several fish. After this the trawl was frequently used + instead of the dredge. Indeed tangle bar, dredge and trawl form a + series which are fitted for use on the roughest, moderately rough and + fairly firm, and the softest ground respectively, although the dredge + can be used almost anywhere. + + [Illustration: From Sir Charles Wyville Thomson's _Voyage of the + "Challenger."_ By permission of Macmillan & Co., Ltd + + FIG. 17.--Trawl of the "Challenger."] + + The frame of the "Challenger" trawl consisted of a 15 ft. wooden beam + which in use was drawn over the sea-bed on two runners resembling + those of a sledge, by means of two ropes or bridles attached to eyes + in the front of the runners or "trawl heads." A net 30 ft. long was + suspended by one side to the beam by half-a-dozen stops. The remainder + of the net's mouth was of much greater length than the beam, and was + weighted with close-set rolls of sheet lead; it thus dragged along the + bottom in a curve approximately to a semicircle, behind the beam. The + net tapers towards the hinder end, and contains a second net with open + bottom, which, reaching about three-quarters of the way down the main + net, acts as a valve or pocket. Both heels (or hinder ends) of the + trawl heads and the tail of the net were weighted to assist the net in + digging sufficiently and to maintain its balance--an important point, + since if the trawl lands on its beam the net's mouth remains closed, + and nothing is caught. + + The main differences of this trawl from the dredge are the replacement + of scraping lip by ground rope, the position of this ground rope and + the greater size of the mouth. The absence of a lip makes it less + effective for burrowing and sessile creatures, but the weighted ground + rope nevertheless secures them to a very surprising extent. The + position of the ground rope is an important feature, as any free + swimming creature not disturbed until the arrival of the ground rope + cannot escape by simply rising or "striking" up. This and the greater + spread make the trawl especially suitable for the collection of fishes + and other swiftly moving animals. The first haul of the "Challenger" + trawl brought up fishes, and most of our knowledge of fish of the + greatest depths is due to it. + + A tendency to return to the use of the small beam trawl for deep-sea + work has lately shown itself. That used by Tanner on the "Albatross" + has runners more heart-shaped than the "Challenger's" instrument; the + net is fastened to the downward and backward sloping edge of the + runner as well as to the beam, being thus fixed on three sides instead + of one; and a Norwegian glass float is fastened in a network cover to + that part of the net which is above and in front of the ground rope in + use, to assist in keeping the opening clear. These floats can stand + the pressure at great depths, and do not become waterlogged as do cork + floats. The largest "Albatross" trawl has a beam 11 ft. long, runners + 2 ft. 5 in. high, and its frame weighs 275 lb. + + _Agassiz or Blake Trawl._--This is generally considered to possess + advantages over the preceding, and is decidedly better for those not + experts in trawling. Its frame (fig. 18) consists of two iron runners + each the shape of a capital letter D, joined by iron rods or pipes + which connect the middle of each stroke with the corresponding point + on the other letter. The net is a tapering one, its mouth being a + strong rope bound with finer rope for protection till the whole + reaches a thickness of some 2 in. It is fastened to the frame at four + points only, the ends of the curved rods, and thus has a rectangular + opening. + + [Illustration: From Alexander E. Agassiz's _Three Cruises of the + "Blake."_ By permission of Houghton, Mifflin & Co. + + FIG. 18.--Agassiz or Blake Trawl.] + + The chief advantage of this frame is that it does not matter in the + least which side lands first on the bottom; it is to the other trawls + what Ball's dredge is to an oyster dredge. The course can also be + altered during shooting or towing the Blake trawl with far greater + ease than is the case with others. An Agassiz trawl very successful in + the North Sea has the following dimensions: length of the connecting + rods and therefore of the mouth 8 ft., height of runners and of mouth + 1 ft. 9 in., extreme length of runners 2 ft., length of net 11 ft. 3 + in., weight of whole trawl 94 lb., 63 of which are due to the frame. + +It is instructive to note how closely our knowledge of bottom-living +forms has been associated with the instruments of capture in use. As +long as small vessels were used in dredging, the belief that life was +limited to the regions accessible to them was widely spread. The first +known denizens of great depths were the foraminifera and few echinoderms +brought up by various sounding apparatus. Next with the dredge and +tangles the number of groups obtained was much greater. As soon as +trawls were adopted fish began to make their appearance. The greatest +gaps in our knowledge still probably occur in the large and swiftly +moving forms, such as fish and cephalopods. As we can hardly hope to +move apparatus swiftly over the bottom in great depths, the way in which +improvement is possible probably is that of increasing the spread of the +nets; and a start in this direction appears to have been made by Dr +Petersen, who has devised a modified otter sieve which catches fish at +all events very well, and has been operated already at considerable +depths. + +Of the economy of quite shallow seas, however, we are still largely +ignorant. Much as has been learnt of the bionomics of the sea, it is but +a commencement; and this is of course especially true of deep seas. The +dredge and its kindred have, however, in less than a century enabled +naturalists to compile an immense mass of knowledge of the structure, +development, affinities and distribution of the animals of the sea-bed, +and in the most accessible seas to produce enumerations and +morphological accounts of them of some approach to completeness. + (J. O. B.) + + + + +DRELINCOURT, CHARLES (1595-1669), French Protestant divine, was born at +Sedan on the 10th of July 1595. In 1618 he undertook the charge of the +French Protestant church at Langres, but failed to receive the necessary +royal sanction, and early in 1620 he removed to Paris, where he was +nominated minister of the Reformed Church at Charenton. He was the +author of a large number of works in devotional and polemical theology, +several of which had great influence. His _Catechism_ (_Catechisme ou +instruction familiere_, 1652) and his _Christian's Defense against the +Fears of Death_ (_Consolations de l'ame fidele contre les frayeurs de la +mort, 1651_) became well known in England by means of translations, +which were very frequently reprinted. It has been said that Daniel Defoe +wrote his fiction of Mrs Veal (_A True Relation of the Apparition of Mrs +Veal_), who came from the other world to recommend the perusal of +_Drelincourt on Death_, for the express purpose of promoting the sale of +an English translation of the _Consolations_; Defoe's contribution is +added to the fourth edition of the translation (1706). Another popular +work of his was _Les Visites charitables pour toutes sortes de personnes +affligees_ (1669). Drelincourt's controversial works were numerous. +Directed entirely against Roman Catholicism, they did much to strengthen +and consolidate the Protestant party in France. He died on the 3rd of +November 1669. + +Several of his sons were distinguished as theologians or physicians. +Laurent (1626-1681) became a pastor, and was the author of _Sonnets +chretiens sur divers sujets_ (1677); Charles (1633-1697) was professor +of physic at the university of Leiden, and physician to the prince of +Orange; Peter (1644-1722) was ordained a priest in the Church of +England, and became dean of Armagh. + + + + +DRENTE, a province of Holland, bounded N. and N.E. by Groningen, S.E. by +the Prussian province of Hanover, S. and S.W. by Overysel, and N.W. by +Friesland; area, 1128 sq. m.; pop. (1900) 149,551. The province of +Drente is a sandy plateau forming the kernel of the surrounding +provinces. The soil consists almost entirely of sand and gravel, and is +covered with bleak moorland, patches of wood, and fen. This is only +varied by the strip of fertile clay and grass-land which is found along +the banks of the rivers, and by the areas of high fen in the +south-eastern corner and on the western borders near Assen. The surface +of the province is a gentle slope from the south-west towards the +north-east, where it terminates in the long ridge of hills known as the +Hondsrug (Dog's Back) extending along the eastern border into Groningen. +The watershed of the province runs from east to west across the middle +of the province, along the line of the Orange canal. The southern +streams are all collected at two points on the southern borders, namely, +at Meppel and Koevorden, whence they communicate with the Zwarte Water +and the Vecht respectively by means of the Meppeler Diep and the +Koevorden canal. The Steenwyker Aa, however, enters the Zuider Zee +independently. The northern rivers all flow into Groningen. The piles of +granite rocks somewhat in the shape of cromlechs which are found +scattered about this province, and especially along the western edge of +the Hondsrug, have long been named _Hunebedden_, from a popular +superstition that they were "Huns' beds." Possibly the word originally +meant "beds of the dead," or tombs. + +Two industries have for centuries been associated with the barren heaths +and sodden fens so usually found together on the sand-grounds, namely, +the cultivation of buckwheat and peat-digging. The work is conducted on +a regular system of fen colonization, the first operation being directed +towards the drainage of the country. This is effected by means of +drainage canals cut at regular intervals and connected by means of cross +ditches. These draining ditches all have their issue in a main drainage +canal, along which the transport of the peat and peat-litter takes place +and the houses of the colonists are built. The heathlands when +sufficiently drained are prepared for cultivation by being cut into sods +and burnt. This system appears to have been practised already at the end +of the 17th century. After eight years, however, the soil becomes +exhausted, and twenty to thirty years are required for its +refertilization. The cultivation of buckwheat on these grounds has +decreased, and large areas which were formerly thus treated now lie +waste. Potatoes, rye, oats, beans and peas are also largely cultivated. +In connexion with the cultivation of potatoes, factories are established +for making spirits, treacle, potato-meal, and straw-paper. Furthermore, +agriculture is everywhere accompanied on the sand-grounds by the rearing +of sheep and cattle, which assist in fertilizing the soil. Owing to the +meagreness of their food these animals are usually thin and small, but +are quickly restored when placed on richer grounds. The breeding of pigs +is also widely practised on the sand-grounds, as well as forest culture. +Of the fen-colonies in Drente the best known are those of Frederiksoord +and Veenhuizen. + +Owing to the general condition of poverty which prevailed after the +French evacuation in the second decade of the 19th century, attention +was turned to the means of industry offered by the unreclaimed +heath-lands in the eastern provinces, and in 1818 the Society of Charity +(_Maatschappij van Weldadigheid_) was formed with Count van den Bosch at +its head. This society began by establishing the free agricultural +colony of Frederiksoord, about 10 m. N. of Meppel, named after Prince +Frederick, son of William I., king of the Netherlands. An industrious +colonist could purchase a small farm on the estate and make himself +independent in two years. In addition to this, various industries were +set on foot for the benefit of those who were not capable of field work, +such as mat and rope making, and jute and cotton weaving. In later times +forest culture was added, and the Gerard Adriaan van Swieten schools of +forestry, agriculture and horticulture were established by Major van +Swieten in memory of his son. A Reformed and a Roman Catholic church are +also attached to the colony. To this colony the Society of Charity later +added the adjoining colonies of Willemsoord and Kolonie VII. in +Overysel, and Wilhelminasoord partly in Friesland. The colony of +Veenhuizen lies about 7 m. N.W. of Assen, and was founded by the same +society in 1823. In 1859, however, the Veenhuizen estates were sold to +the government for the purpose of a penal establishment for drunkards +and beggars. + +Owing to its geographical isolation, the development of Drente has +remained behind that of every other province in the Netherlands, and +there are few centres of any importance, either agricultural or +industrial. Hence the character and customs of the people have remained +peculiarly conservative. Assen is the chief town. In the south Meppel +and Koevorden absorb the largest amount of trade. Hoogeveen, situated +between these two, owes its origin to the fen reclamation which was +begun here in 1625 by Baron van Echten. In the following year it was +erected into a barony which lasted till 1795. The original industry has +long since moved onwards to other parts, but the town remains a +prosperous market centre, and has a considerable industrial activity. +Extensive fir woods have been laid out in the neighbourhood. Zuidlaren +is a picturesque village at the northern end of the Hondsrug, with an +important market. The railway from Amsterdam to Groningen traverses +Drente; branch lines connect Meppel with Leeuwarden and Assen with +Delfzyl. + +_History._--The early history of Drente is obscure. That it was +inhabited at a remote date is proved by the prehistoric sepulchral +mounds, the _Hunebedden_ already mentioned. In the 5th and 6th centuries +the country was overrun by Saxon tribes, and later on was governed by +counts under the Frankish and German kings. Of these only three are +recorded, Eberhard (943-944), Balderic (1006) and Temmo (1025). In 1046 +the emperor Henry III. gave the countship to the bishop and chapter of +Utrecht, who governed it through the burgrave, or chatelain, of +Koevorden, a dignity which became hereditary after 1143 in the family of +Ludolf or Roelof, brother of Heribert of Bierum, bishop of Utrecht +(1138-1150). This family became extinct in the male line about 1232, and +was succeeded by Henry I. of Borculo (1232-1261), who had married the +heiress of Roelof III. of Koevorden. In 1395 Reinald IV. (d. 1410) of +Borculo-Koevorden was deposed by Bishop Frederick of Utrecht, and the +country was henceforth administered by an episcopal official +(_amptman_), who was, however, generally a native. With its popularly +elected assembly of twenty-four Etten (_jurati_) Drente remained +practically independent. This state of things continued till 1522, when +it was conquered by Duke Charles of Gelderland, from whom it was taken +by the emperor Charles V. in 1536, and became part of the Habsburg +dominions. + +Drente took part in the revolt of the Netherlands, and being a district +covered by waste heath and moor was, on account of its poverty and +sparse population, not admitted into the union as a separate province, +and it had no voice in the assembly of the states-general. It was +subdued by the Spaniards in 1580, but reconquered by Maurice of Nassau +in 1594. During the years that followed, Drente, though unrepresented in +the states-general, retained its local independence and had its own +stadtholder. William Louis of Nassau-Siegen (d. 1620) held that office, +and it was held later by Maurice, Frederick Henry, William II. and +William III., princes of Orange. At the general assembly of 1651 Drente +put forward its claim to admission as a province, but was not admitted. +After the deaths of William II. (1650) and of William III. (1702) Drente +remained for a term of years without a stadtholder, but in 1722 William +Charles Henry of the house of Nassau-Siegen, who, through the extinction +of the elder line, had become prince of Orange, was elected stadtholder. +His descendants held that office, which was declared hereditary, until +the French conquest in 1795. In the following year Drente at length +obtained the privilege, which it had long sought, of being reckoned as +an eighth province with representation in the states-general. Between +1806 and 1813 Drente, with the rest of the Netherlands, was incorporated +in the French empire, and, with part of Groningen, formed the department +of Ems Occidental. With the accession of William I. as king of the +Netherlands it was restored to its old position as a province of the new +kingdom. + + + + +DRESDEN, a city of Germany, capital of the kingdom of Saxony, 71 m. +E.S.E. from Leipzig and 111 m. S. from Berlin by railway. It lies at an +altitude of 402 ft. above the Baltic, in a broad and pleasant valley on +both banks of the Elbe. The prospect of the city with its cupolas, +towers, spires and the copper green roofs of its palaces, as seen from +the distance, is one of striking beauty. On the left bank of the river +are the Altstadt (old town) with four old suburbs and numerous new +suburbs, and the Friedrichstadt (separated from the Altstadt by a long +railway viaduct); on the right, the Neustadt (new town), Antonstadt, and +the modern military suburb Alberstadt. Five fine bridges connect the +Altstadt and Neustadt. The beautiful central bridge--the Alte or +Augustusbrucke--with 16 arches, built in 1727-1731, and 1420 ft. long, +has been demolished (1906) and replaced by a wider structure. Up-stream +are the two modern Albert and Kunigin Carola bridges, and, down-stream, +the Marien and the Eisenbahn (railway) bridges. The streets of the +Alstadt are mostly narrow and somewhat gloomy, those of the Neustadt +more spacious and regular. + +On account of its delightful situation and the many objects of interest +it contains, Dresden is often called "German Florence," a name first +applied to it by the poet Herder. The richness of its art treasures, the +educational advantages it offers, and its attractive surroundings render +it a favourite resort of people with private means. There are a large +number of foreign residents, notably Austro-Hungarians and Russians, and +also a considerable colony of English and Americans, the latter +amounting to about 1500. The population of the city on the 1st of +December 1905 was 516,996, of whom 358,776 lived on the left bank +(Altstadt) and 158,220 on the right (Neustadt). The royal house belongs +to the Roman Catholic confession, but the bulk of the inhabitants are +Lutheran Protestants. + +Dresden is the residence of the king, the seat of government for the +kingdom of Saxony, and the headquarters of the XII. (Saxon) Army Corps. +Within two decades (1880-1900) the capital almost at a single bound +advanced into the front rank of German commercial and industrial towns; +but while gaining in prosperity it has lost much of its medieval aspect. +Old buildings in the heart of the Altstadt have been swept away, and +their place occupied by modern business houses and new streets. Among +the public squares in the Altstadt must be mentioned the magnificent +Theaterplatz, with a fine equestrian statue of King John, by Schilling; +the Altmarkt, with a monument commemorative of the war of 1870-71; the +Neumarkt, with a bronze statue of King Frederick Augustus II., by E. J. +Hahnel; the Postplatz, adorned by a Gothic fountain, by Semper; and the +Bismarckplatz in the Anglo-American quarter. In the Neustadt are the +market square, with a bronze equestrian statue of Augustus the Strong; +the Kaiser Wilhelmplatz; and the Albertplatz. The continuous Schloss-, +See- and Prager-Strasse, and the Wilsdruffer- and Kunig Johann-Strasse +are the main streets in the Altstadt, and the Hauptstrasse in the +Neustadt. + +The most imposing churches include the Roman Catholic Hofkirche, built +(1739-1751) by C. Chiaveri, in rococo style, with a tower 300 ft. high. +It contains a fine organ by Silbermann and pictures by Raphael Mengs and +other artists, the outside being adorned with 59 statues by Mattielli. +On the Neumarkt is the Frauenkirche, with a stone cupola rising to the +height of 311 ft.; close to the Altmarkt, the Kreuzkirche, rebuilt after +destruction by fire in 1897, also with a lofty tower surmounted by a +cupola; and near the Postplatz the Sophienkirche, with twin spires. In +the Neustadt is the Dreikunigskirche (dating from the 18th century) with +a high pinnacled tower. Among more modern churches may be mentioned: in +the Altstadt, the Johanneskirche, with a richly decorated interior; the +Lukaskirche; and the Trinitatiskirche; and in the Neustadt, the Martin +Luther-Kirche and the new garrison church. Apart from the chapels in the +royal palaces, Dresden contains in all 32 churches, viz. 21 Evangelical, +6 Roman Catholic, a Reformed, a Russian, an English (erected by Gilbert +Scott) with a graceful spire, a Scottish (Presbyterian), and an American +(Episcopal) church, the last a handsome building, with a pretty +parsonage attached. + +Of secular buildings, the most noteworthy are grouped in the Altstadt +near the river. The royal palace, built in 1530-1535 by Duke George (and +thus called Georgenschloss), was thoroughly restored, and in some +measure rebuilt between 1890 and 1902, in German Renaissance style, and +is now an exceedingly handsome structure. The Georgentor has been +widened, and through it, and beneath the royal apartments, vehicular +traffic from the centre of the town is directed to the Augustusbrucke. +The whole is surmounted by a lofty tower--387 ft.--the highest in +Dresden. The interior is splendidly decorated. In the palace chapel are +pictures by Rembrandt, Nicolas Poussin, Guido Reni and Annibale Caracci. +The adjoining Prinzen-Palais on the Taschenberg, built in 1715, has a +fine chapel, in which are various works of S. Torelli; it has also a +library of 20,000 volumes. The Zwinger, begun in 1711, and built in the +rococo style, forms an enclosure, within which is a statue of King +Frederick Augustus I. It was intended to be the vestibule to a palace, +but now contains a number of collections of great value. Until 1846 it +was open at the north side; but this space has since been occupied by +the museum, a beautiful Renaissance building, the exterior of which is +adorned by statues of Michelangelo, Raphael, Giotto, Dante, Goethe and +other artists and poets by Rietschel and Hahnel, and it contains the +famous picture gallery. The Bruhl palace, built in 1737 by Count Bruhl, +the minister of Augustus II., has been in some measure demolished to +make room for the new Standehaus (diet house), with its main facade +facing the Hofkirche; before the main entrance there is an equestrian +statue (1906) of King Albert. Close by is the Bruhl Terrace, approached +by a fine flight of steps, on which are groups, by Schilling, +representing Morning, Evening, Day and Night. The terrace commands a +view of the Elbe and the distant heights of Loschwitz and the Weisser +Hirsch, but the prospect has of late years become somewhat marred, owing +to the extension of the town up the river and to the two new up-stream +bridges. The Japanese palace in the Neustadt, built in 1715 as a summer +residence for Augustus II., receives its name from certain oriental +figures with which it is decorated; it is sometimes called the Augusteum +and contains the royal library. Among other buildings of note is the +Hoftheatre, a magnificent edifice in the Renaissance style, built after +the designs of Semper, to replace the theatre burnt in 1869, and +completed in 1878. A new town hall of huge dimensions, also in German +Renaissance, with an octagon tower 400 ft. in height, stands on the +former southern ramparts of the inner town, close to the Kreuzkirche. In +the Altstadt the most striking of the newer edifices is the +Kunstakademie, constructed from designs by K. Lipsius in the Italian +Renaissance style, 1890-1894. The Albertinum, formerly the arsenal, +built in 1559-1563, was rebuilt 1884-1889, and fitted up as a museum of +oriental and classical antiquities, and as the depository of the state +archives. On the right bank of the Elbe in Neustadt stand the fine +buildings of the ministries of war, of finance, justice, the interior +and education. The public monuments of Dresden also include the Moritz +Monument, a relief dedicated by the elector Augustus to his brother +Maurice, a statue of Weber the composer by Rietschel, a bronze statue of +Theodor Kurner by Hahnel, the Rietschel monument on the Bruhl Terrace by +Schilling, a bust of Gutzkow, and a statue of Bismarck on the promenade. +In the suburbs which encircle the old town are to be noted the vast +central Hauptbahnhof (1893-1898) occupying the site of the old +Buhmischer railway station, the new premises of the municipal hospital +and the Ausstellungs-Halle (exhibition buildings). + +The chief pleasure-ground of Dresden is the Grosser Garten, in which +there are a summer theatre, the Reitschel museum, and a chateau +containing a museum of antiquities. The latter is composed chiefly of +objects removed from the churches in consequence of the Reformation. +Near the chateau is the zoological garden, formed in 1860, and +excellently arranged. A little to the south of Dresden, on the left bank +of the Elbe, is the village Racknitz, in which is Moreau's monument, +erected on the spot where he was mortally wounded in 1813. The mountains +of Saxon Switzerland are seen from this neighbourhood. + +_Art._--Dresden owes a large part of its fame to its extensive artistic, +literary and scientific collections. Of these the most valuable is its +splendid picture gallery, founded by Augustus I. and increased by his +successors at great cost. It is in the museum, and contains about 2500 +pictures, being especially rich in specimens of the Italian, Dutch and +Flemish schools. The gem of the collection is Raphael's "Madonna di San +Sisto," for which a room is set apart. There is also a special room for +the "Madonna" of the younger Holbein. Other paintings with which the +name of the gallery is generally associated are Correggio's "La Notte" +and "Mary Magdalene"; Titian's "Tribute Money" and "Venus"; "The +Adoration" and "The Marriage in Cana," by Paul Veronese; Andrea del +Sarto's "Abraham's Sacrifice"; Rembrandt's "Portrait of Himself with his +Wife sitting on his Knee"; "The Judgment of Paris" and "The Boar Hunt," +by Rubens; Van Dyck's "Charles I., his Queen, and their Children." + +Of modern painters, this magnificent collection contains masterpieces by +Defregger, Vautier, Makart, Munkacsy, Fritz von Uhde, Bucklin, Hans +Thoma; portraits by Leon Pohle, Delaroche and Sargent; landscapes by +Andreas and Oswald Achenbach and allegorical works by Sascha Schneider. +In separate compartments there are a number of crayon portraits, most of +them by Rosalba Carriera, and views of Dresden by Canaletto and other +artists. Besides the picture gallery the museum includes a magnificent +collection of engravings and drawings. There are upwards of 400,000 +specimens, arranged in twelve classes, so as to mark the great epochs in +the history of art. A collection of casts, likewise in the museum, is +designed to display the progress of plastic art from the time of the +Egyptians and Assyrians to modern ages. This collection was begun by +Raphael Mengs, who secured casts of the most valuable antiques in Italy, +some of which no longer exist. + +The Japanese palace contains a public library of more than 400,000 +volumes, with about 3000 MSS. and 20,000 maps. It is especially rich in +the ancient classics, and in works bearing on literary history and the +history of Germany, Poland and France. There are also a valuable cabinet +of coins and a collection of ancient works of art. A collection of +porcelain in the "Museum Johanneum" (which once contained the picture +gallery) is made up of specimens of Chinese, Japanese, East Indian, +Sevres and Meissen manufacture, carefully arranged in chronological +order. There is in the same building an excellent Historical Museum. In +the Grune Gewulbe (Green Vault) of the Royal Palace, so called from the +character of its original decorations, there is an unequalled collection +of precious stones, pearls and works of art in gold, silver, amber and +ivory. The objects, which are about 3000 in number, are arranged in +eight rooms. They include the regalia of Augustus II. as king of Poland; +the electoral sword of Saxony; a group by Dinglinger, in gold and +enamel, representing the court of the grand mogul Aurungzebe, and +consisting of 132 figures upon a plate of silver 4 ft. 4 in. square; the +largest onyx known, 6-2/3 in. by 2-1/4 in.; a pearl representing the +dwarf of Charles II. of Spain; and a green brilliant weighing 40 carats. +The royal palace also has a gallery of arms consisting of more than 2000 +weapons of artistic or historical value. In the Zwinger are the +zoological and mineralogical museums and a collection of instruments +used in mathematical and physical science. Among other collections is +that of the Kurner museum with numerous reminiscences of the +Goethe-Schiller epoch, and of the wars of liberation (1813-15), and +containing valuable manuscripts and relics. Founded by Hofrath Dr Emil +Peschel, it has passed into the possession of the city. + +_Education._--Dresden is the seat of a number of well-known scientific +associations. The educational institutions are numerous and of a high +order, including a technical high school (with about 1100 students), +which enjoys the privilege of conferring the degrees of doctor of +engineering, doctor of technical sciences, &c., a veterinary college, a +political-economic institution (Gehestiftung), with library, a school of +architects, a royal and four municipal gymnasia, numerous lower grade +and popular schools, the royal conservatorium for music and drama, and a +celebrated academy of painting. Dresden has several important hospitals, +asylums and other charitable institutions. + +_Music and the Theatres._--Besides the two royal theatres, Dresden +possesses several minor theatres and music halls. The pride of place in +the world of music is held by the orchestra attached to the court +theatre. Founded by Augustus II., it has become famous throughout the +world, owing to the masters who have from time to time been associated +with it--such as Paer, Weber, Reissiger and Wagner. Symphony and popular +concerts are held throughout the year in various public halls, and, +during the winter, concerts of church music are frequently given in the +Protestant Kreuz- and Frauen-Kirchen, and on Sundays in the Roman +Catholic church. + +_Communications and Industries._--Dresden lies at the centre of an +extensive railway system, which places it in communication with the +chief cities of northern and central Germany as well as with Austria and +the East. Here cross the grand trunk lines Berlin-Vienna, +Chemnitz-Gurlitz-Breslau. It is connected by two lines of railway with +Leipzig and by local lines with neighbouring smaller towns. The +navigation on the Elbe has of recent years largely developed, and, in +addition to trade by river with Bohemia and Magdeburg-Hamburg, there is +a considerable pleasure-boat traffic during the summer months. The +communications within the city are maintained by an excellent system of +electric trams, which bring the more distant suburbs into easy connexion +with the business centre. A considerable business is done on the +exchange, chiefly in local industrial shares, and the financial +institutions number some fifty banks, among them branches of the Reichs +Bank and of the Deutsche Bank. Among the more notable industries may be +mentioned the manufacture of china (see CERAMICS), of gold and silver +ornaments, cigarettes, chocolate, coloured postcards, perfumery, +straw-plaiting, artificial flowers, agricultural machinery, paper, +photographic and other scientific instruments. There are several great +breweries; corn trade is carried on, and an extensive business is done +in books and objects of art. + +_Surroundings._--The environs of the city are delightful. To the north +are the vine-clad hills of the Lussnitz commanding views of the valley +of the Elbe from Dresden to Meissen; behind them, on an island in a +lake, is the castle of Moritzburg, the hunting box of the king of +Saxony. On the right bank of the Elbe, 3 m. above the city, lies the +village of Loschwitz, where Schiller, in the summer of 1786, wrote the +greater part of his _Don Carlos_: above it on the fringe of the Dresdner +Heide, the climatic health resort Weisser-Hirsch; farther up the river +towards Pirna the royal summer palace Pillnitz; to the south the +Plauensche Grund, and still farther the Rabenauer Grund. + +_History._--Dresden (Old Slav _Drezga_, forest, _Drezgajan_, +forest-dwellers), which is known to have existed in 1206, is of Slavonic +origin, and was originally founded on the right bank of the Elbe, on the +site of the present Neustadt, which is thus actually the _old_ town. It +became the capital of Henry the Illustrious, margrave of Meissen, in +1270, but belonged for some time after his death, first to Wenceslaus of +Bohemia, and next to the margrave of Brandenburg. Early in the 14th +century it was restored to the margrave of Meissen. On the division of +Saxony in 1485 it fell to the Albertine line, which has since held it. +Having been burned almost to the ground in 1491, it was rebuilt; and in +the 16th century the fortifications were begun and gradually extended. +John George II., in the 17th century, formed the Grosser Garten, and +otherwise greatly improved the town; but it was in the first half of the +18th century, under Augustus I. and Augustus II., who were kings of +Poland as well as electors of Saxony, that Dresden assumed something +like its present appearance. The Neustadt, which had been burned down in +the 17th century, was founded anew by Augustus I.; he also founded +Friedrichstadt. The town suffered severely during the Seven Years' War, +being bombarded in 1760. Some damage was also inflicted on it in 1813, +when Napoleon made it the centre of his operations; one of the +buttresses and two arches of the old bridge were then blown up. The +dismantling of the fortifications had been begun by the French in 1810, +and was gradually completed after 1817, the space occupied by them being +appropriated to gardens and promenades. Many buildings were completed or +founded by King Anthony, from whom Antonstadt derives its name. Dresden +again suffered severely during the revolution of 1849, but all traces of +the disturbances which then took place were soon effaced. In 1866 it was +occupied by the Prussians, who did not finally evacuate it until the +spring of the following year. Since that time numerous improvements have +been carried out. + + See Lindau, _Geschichte der Haupt- und Residenzstadt Dresden_ (2 + vols., Dresden, 1884-1885); Prulss, _Geschichte des Hoftheaters in + Dresden_ (Dresden, 1877); Schumann, _Fuhrer durch die kunigl. + Sammlungen zu Dresden_ (1903); Woerl, _Fuhrer durch Dresden_; Daniel, + _Deutschland_ (1894). + + +BATTLE OF DRESDEN. The battle of Dresden, the last of the great +victories of Napoleon, was fought on the 26th and 27th of August 1813. +The intervention of Austria in the War of Liberation, and the consequent +advance of the Allies under the Austrian field-marshal Prince +Schwarzenberg from Prague upon Dresden, recalled Napoleon from Silesia, +where he was engaged against the Prussians and Russians under Blucher. +Only by a narrow margin of time, indeed, was he able to bring back +sufficient troops for the first day's battle. He detached a column under +Vandamme to the mountains to interpose between Schwarzenberg and Prague +(see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS); the rest of the army pressed on by forced +marches for Dresden, around which a position for the whole army had been +chosen and fortified, though at the moment this was held by less than +20,000 men under Gouvion St Cyr, who retired thither from the mountains, +leaving a garrison in Kunigstein, and had repeatedly sent reports to the +emperor as to the allied masses gathering to the southward. The battle +of the first day began late in the afternoon, for Schwarzenberg waited +as long as possible for the corps of Klenau, which formed his extreme +left wing on the Freiberg road. At last, about 6 p.m. he decided to wait +no longer, and six heavy columns of attack advanced against the suburbs +defended by St Cyr and now also by the leading troops of the main army. +Three hundred guns covered the assault, and Dresden was set on fire in +places by the cannonade, while the French columns marched unceasingly +over the bridges and through the Altstadt. On the right the Russians +under Wittgenstein advanced from Striesen, the Prussians under Kleist +through the Grosser Garten, whilst Prussians under Prince Augustus and +Austrians under Colloredo moved upon the Moczinski redoubt, which was +the scene of the most desperate fighting, and was repeatedly taken and +retaken. The attack to the westward was carried out by the other +Austrian corps; Klenau, however, was still far distant. In the end, the +French defences remained unshaken. Ney led a counter-attack against the +Allies' left, the Moczinski redoubt was definitely recaptured from +Colloredo, and the Prussians were driven out of the Grosser Garten. The +_coup_ of the Allies had failed, for every hour saw the arrival of fresh +forces on the side of Napoleon, and at length the Austrian leader drew +off his men to the heights again. He was prepared to fight another +battle on the morrow--indeed he could scarcely have avoided it had he +wished to do so, for behind him lay the mountain defiles, towards which +Vandamme was marching with all speed. + +[Illustration: Emery Walker sc.] + +Napoleon's plan for the 27th was, as usual, simple in its outline. As at +Friedland, a ravine separated a part of the hostile line of battle from +the rest. The villages west of the Plauen ravine and even Lubda were +occupied in the early morning by General Metzko with the leading +division of Klenau's corps from Freiberg, and upon Metzko Napoleon +intended first to throw the weight of his attack, giving to Victor's +infantry and the cavalry of Murat, king of Naples, the task of +overwhelming the isolated Austrians. The centre, aided by the defences +of the Dresden suburbs, could hold its own, as the events of the 26th +had shown, the left, now under Ney, with whom served Kellermann's +cavalry and the Young Guard, was to attack Wittgenstein's Russians on +the Pirna road. Thus, for once, Napoleon decided to attack both flanks +of the enemy. His motives in so doing have been much discussed by the +critics; Vandamme's movements, it may be suggested, contributed to the +French emperor's plan, which if carried out would open the Pirna road. +Still, the left attack may have had a purely tactical object, for in +that quarter was the main body of the Prussians and Russians, and +Napoleon's method was always to concentrate the fury of the attack on +the heaviest masses of the enemy, i.e. the best target for his own +artillery. A very heavy rainstorm during the night seriously affected +the movements of troops on the following day, but all to Napoleon's +advantage, for his more mobile artillery, reinforced by every horse +available in and about Dresden, was still able to move where the Allied +guns sank in mud. Further, if the cavalry had to walk, or at most trot, +through the fields the opposing infantry was almost always unable to +fire their muskets. "You cannot fire; surrender," said Murat to an +Austrian battalion in the battle. "Never," they replied; "you cannot +charge us." On the appearance of Murat's horse artillery, however, they +had to surrender at once. Under such conditions, Metzko, unsupported +either by Klenau or the main army beyond the ravine, was an easy victim. +Victor from Lubda drove in the advanced posts and assaulted the line of +villages Wolfnitz-Tultschen; Metzko had to retire to the higher ground +S.W. of the first line, and Murat, with an overwhelming cavalry force +from Cotta and Burgstadl, outflanked his left, broke up whole +battalions, and finally, with the assistance of the renewed frontal +attack of Victor's infantry, annihilated the division. The Austrian +corps of Gyulai arrived too late to save it. A few formed bodies escaped +across the ravine, but Metzko and three-fourths of his men were killed +or taken prisoners. + +Meanwhile Ney on the other flank, with his left on the Pillnitz road and +his right on the Grosser Garten, had opened his attack. The Russians +offered a strenuous resistance, defending Seidnitz, Gross Dubritz and +Reick with their usual steadiness, and Ney was so far advanced that +several generals at the Allied headquarters suggested a counter-attack +of the centre by way of Strehlen, so as to cut off the French left from +Dresden. This plan was adopted, but, owing to various misunderstandings, +failed of execution. Thus the Allied centre remained inactive all day, +cannonaded by the Dresden redoubts. One incident only, but that of great +importance, took place here. The tsar, the king of Prussia, +Schwarzenberg and a very large headquarter staff watched the fighting +from a hill near Racknitz and offered an easy mark to the French guns. +In default of formed bodies to fire at, the latter had for a moment +ceased fire; Napoleon, riding by, half carelessly told them to reopen, +and one of their first shots, directed at 2000 yards range against the +mass of officers on the sky-line, mortally wounded General Moreau, who +was standing by the emperor Alexander. A council of war followed. The +Allied sovereigns were for continuing the fight; Schwarzenberg, however, +knowing the exhaustion of his troops decided to retreat. As at Bautzen, +the French cavalry was unable to make any effective pursuit. + +The forces engaged were 96,000 French, Saxons, &c., and 200,000 +Austrians, Russians and Prussians. The French losses were about 10,000, +or a little over 10%, those of the Allies 38,000 killed, wounded and +prisoners (the latter 23,000) or 19%. They lost also 15 colours and 26 +guns. + + + + +DRESS (from the Fr. _dresser_, to set out, arrange, formed from Lat. +_directus_, arranged, _dirigere_, to direct, arrange), a substantive of +which the current meaning is that of clothing or costume in general, or, +specifically, the principal outer garment worn by a woman (see COSTUME). +The verb "to dress" has various applications which can be deduced from +its original meaning. It is thus used not only of the putting on of +clothing, but of the preparing and finishing of leather, the preparation +of food for eating, the application of cleansing and healing substances +or of bandages, &c., to a wound, the drawing up in a correct line of a +body of troops, and, generally, adorning or decking out, as of a ship +with flags. In the language of the theatre the "dresser" is the person +who looks after the actor's wardrobe and assists him in the changing of +his costumes. For the printer's use of "dresser" see TYPOGRAPHY. + + + + +DRESSER, in furniture, a form of sideboard. The name is derived from the +Fr. _dressoir_, a piece of furniture used to range or _dresser_ the more +costly appointments of the table. The appliance is the direct descendant +of the credence and the buffet, and is, indeed, a much more legitimate +inheritor of their functions than the modern sideboard, which, as we +know it, is practically an 18th-century invention. It developed into its +present shape about the second quarter of the 17th century, and has +since then changed but little. As a piece of movable furniture it was +made rarely, if at all, after the beginning of the 19th century until +the revival of interest in what is called "farmhouse furniture" at the +very beginning of the 20th century led in the first place to the +construction of many imitation antique dressers from derelict pieces of +old oak, and especially from panels of chests, and in the second to the +making of avowed imitations. The dresser conformed to a model which +varied only in detail and in ornament. Its simple and agreeable form +consisted of a long and rather narrow table or slab, with drawers or +cupboards beneath and a tall upright closed-in back arranged with a +varying number of shallow shelves for the reception of plates; hooks for +mugs were often fixed upon the face of these shelves. Towards the end of +the 17th century small cupboards were often added to the superstructure. +The majority of these dressers were made of oak, but when, early in the +Georgian period mahogany came into general use, they were frequently +inlaid with that wood; holly and box were also used for inlaying, most +frequently in the shape of plain bands or lines. A peculiarly effective +combination of oak and mahogany is found in the dressers, as in other +"farmhouse furniture," made on the borders of Staffordshire and +Shropshire. The excellence of the work of this kind in that district and +in the country lying west of it may perhaps explain the expression +"Welsh dresser," which is now no more than a trade term, not necessarily +suggestive of the place of origin, and applied to all dressers of this +type. They are most frequently found in the houses of small yeomen and +substantial farmers, into which fashion penetrated slowly. The dresser +is now most familiar as necessary plenishing of the kitchen, in which it +is invariably a fixture. In form it is essentially identical with the +movable variety, but it is usually much larger, is made of deal or other +soft wood, and the superstructure has no back. + + + + +DREUX, a town of north-western France, capital of an arrondissement in +the department of Eure-et-Loir, 27 m. N.N.W. of Chartres by rail. Pop. +(1906) 8209. It is situated on the Blaise, which at this point divides +into several arms. It is overlooked from the north by an eminence on +which stands a ruined medieval castle; within the enclosure of this +building is a gorgeous chapel, begun in 1816 by the dowager duchess of +Orleans, and completed and adorned at great cost by Louis Philippe. It +contains the tombs of the Orleans family, chief among them that of Louis +Philippe, whose remains were removed from England to Dreux in 1876. The +sculptures on the tombs and the stained glass of the chapel windows are +masterpieces of modern art. The older of the two hotels-de-ville of +Dreux was built in the early 16th century, chiefly by Clement Metezau, +the founder of a famous family of architects, natives of the town. It is +notable both for the graceful carvings of the facade and for the fine +staircase and architectural details of the interior. The church of St +Pierre, which is Gothic in style, contains good stained glass and other +works of art. The town has a statue of the poet Jean de Rotrou, born +there in 1609. Dreux is the seat of a subprefect. Among the public +institutions are tribunals of first instance and of commerce, and a +communal college. The manufacture of boots and shoes, metal-founding and +tanning, are carried on, and there is trade in wheat and other +agricultural products and poultry. + +Dreux was the capital of the Gallic tribe of the _Durocasses_. In 1188 +it was taken and burnt by the English; and in 1562 Gaspard de Coligny, +and Louis I., prince of Conde, were defeated in its vicinity by Anne de +Montmorency and Francis, duke of Guise. In 1593 Henry IV. captured the +town after a fortnight's siege. It was occupied by the Germans on the +9th of October 1870, was subsequently evacuated, and was again taken, on +the 17th of November, by General Von Tresckow. In the 10th century Dreux +was the chief town of a countship, which Odo, count of Chartres, ceded +to king Robert, and Louis VI. gave to his son Robert, whose grandson +Peter of Dreux, younger brother of Count Robert III., became duke of +Brittany by his marriage with Alix, daughter of Constance of Brittany by +her second husband Guy of Thouars. By the marriage of the countess +Jeanne II. with Louis, viscount of Thouars (d. 1370), the Capetian +countship of Dreux passed into the Thouars family. In 1377 and 1378, +however, two of the three co-heiresses of Jeanne, Perronelle and +Marguerite, sold their shares of the countship to King Charles V. +Charles VI. gave it to Arnaud Amanien d'Albret, but took it back in +order to give it to his brother Louis of Orleans (1407); later he gave +it back to the lords of Albret. Francis of Cleves laid claim to it in +the 16th century as heir of the d'Albrets of Orval, but the parlement of +Paris declared the countship to be crown property. It was given to +Catherine de' Medici (1539), then to Francis, duke of Alencon (1569); it +was pledged to Charles de Bourbon, count of Soissons, and through him +passed to the houses of Orleans, Vendome and Conde. + + + + +DREW, the name of a family of American actors. JOHN DREW (1827-1862) was +born in Dublin and made his first New York appearance in 1846. He played +Irish and light comedy parts with success in all the American cities, +and was manager of the Arch Street theatre in Philadelphia. He visited +England in 1855, and Australia in 1859, and died in Philadelphia. His +wife, LOUISE LANE DREW (1820-1897), was the daughter of a London actor, +and in 1827 went to America, appearing as the Duke of York to the elder +Booth's Richard III., and as Albert to Edwin Forrest's William Tell. +After this she starred as a child actress, and then as leading lady. She +had been twice married before she became Mrs Drew in 1850. From 1861 to +1892 she had the management of the Arch Street theatre in Philadelphia. +In 1880 she toured with Joseph Jefferson in his elaborate revival of +_The Rivals_, playing Mrs Malaprop to perfection. She had three +children, John, Sidney and Georgiana, wife of Maurice Barrymore +(1847-1905), and mother of Lionel and Ethel Barrymore, all actors. The +eldest son, JOHN DREW (b. 1853), began his stage career under his +mother's management in Philadelphia as Plumper in _Cool as a Cucumber_, +on the 22nd of March 1873; and after playing with Edwin Booth and +others, became leading man in Augustin Daly's company in 1879. His +association with this company, and with Ada Rehan as the leading lady, +constituted a brilliant period in recent stage history, his Petruchio +being only one, though perhaps the most striking, of a series of famous +impersonations. In 1892 he left Daly's company, and began a career as a +"star." + + + + +DREW, SAMUEL (1765-1833), English theologian, was born in the parish of +St Austell, in Cornwall, on the 6th of March 1765. His father was a poor +farm labourer, and could not afford to send him to school long enough +even to learn to read and write. At ten he was apprenticed to a +shoemaker, and at twenty he settled in the town of St Austell, first as +manager for a shoemaker, and in 1787 began business on his own account. +He had already gained a reputation in his narrow circle as a keen +debater and a jovial companion, and it is said that he had several +smuggling adventures. He was first aroused to serious thought in 1785 by +a funeral sermon preached over his elder brother by Adam Clarke. He +joined the Methodists, was soon employed as a class leader and local +preacher, and continued to preach till a few months before his death. +His opportunities of gaining knowledge were very scanty, but he +strenuously set himself to make the most of them. It is stated that an +accidental introduction to Locke's great essay determined the ultimate +direction of his studies. In 1798 the first part of Thomas Paine's _Age +of Reason_ was put into his hands; and in the following year he made his +first appearance as an author by publishing his _Remarks_ on that work. +The book was favourably received, and was republished in 1820. Drew had +begun to meditate a greater attempt before he wrote his _Remarks on +Paine_; and, encouraged by the antiquary John Whitaker, he published his +_Essay on the Immateriality and Immortality of the Soul_ in 1802. This +work made the "Cornish metaphysician," as he was called, widely known, +and for some time it held a high place in the judgment of the religious +world as a conclusive argument on its subject. A fifth edition appeared +in 1831. Drew continued to work at his trade till 1805, when he entered +into an engagement with Dr Thomas Coke, a prominent Wesleyan official, +which enabled him to devote himself entirely to literature. In 1809 he +published his _Essay on the Identity and General Resurrection of the +Human Body_, perhaps the most original of his works, which reached a +second edition in 1822. In 1814 he completed a history of Cornwall begun +by F. Hitchins. In 1819 he removed to Liverpool, being appointed editor +of the _Imperial Magazine_, then newly established, and in 1821 to +London, the business being then transferred to the capital. Here he +filled the post of editor till his death, and had also the supervision +of all works issued from the Caxton Press. He was an unsuccessful +competitor for the Burnett prize offered in 1811 for an essay on the +existence and attributes of God. The work which he then wrote, and which +in his own judgment was his best, was published in 1820, under the title +of _An Attempt to demonstrate from Reason and Revelation the Necessary +Existence, Essential Perfections, and Superintending Providence of an +Eternal Being, who is the Creator, the Supporter, and the Governor of +all Things_ (2 vols. 8 vo). This procured him the degree of M.A. from +the university of Aberdeen. Among Drew's lesser writings are a _Life of +Dr Thomas Coke_ (1817), and a work on the deity of Christ (1813). He +died at Helston in Cornwall on the 29th of March 1833. He was a man of +strong mind, honourable spirit and affectionate disposition, energetic +both in speech and in writing. + + A memoir of his life by his eldest son appeared in 1834. + + + + +DREWENZ, a river of Germany, a right-bank tributary of the Vistula. It +rises on the plateau of Hohenstein in East Prussia, 5 m. S.W. of the +town of Hohenstein. After passing through the lake of Drewenz (7 m. +long), it flows S.W. through flat marshy country, and forms, from just +below the town of Strassburg to that of Leibitsch, a distance of 30 m., +the frontier between Prussia and Russian Poland. After a course of 148 +m. it enters the Vistula from the right, a little above the fortress of +Thorn. It is navigable only for rafts. Lake Drewenz is connected with +Elbing (and so with the Baltic) by the navigable Elbing-Oberland Canal. + + + + +DREXEL, ANTHONY JOSEPH (1826-1893), American banker, was born in +Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 13th of September 1826. He was the +son of Francis M. Drexel (1792-1863), a native of Austrian Tirol, who +emigrated to America in 1817, and, after some years spent as a +portrait-painter, became a banker and the founder of the house of Drexel +& Company. Anthony, who entered his father's counting-house in 1839, +eventually, with his brothers Francis and Joseph, succeeded to the +control of the business, and organized the banking houses of Drexel, +Morgan & Company, New York, of which his brother Joseph W. (1833-1888) +was long the resident head, and of Drexel, Harjes & Company, Paris. In +1864 he joined his friend George W. Childs in the purchase of the +Philadelphia _Public Ledger_, and with him in 1892 founded the Printers' +Home for union men at Colorado Springs. In 1891 he founded, and endowed +with $2,000,000, the Drexel Institute of Art, Science and Industry in +Philadelphia, the buildings for which he constructed at a cost of +$750,000. This institution provides technical instruction for both night +and day classes and public lecture courses, and has a good museum and a +library of 35,000 volumes. Drexel died at Carlsbad, Germany, on the 30th +of June 1893. + + + + +DREYFUS, ALFRED (1859- ), French soldier, of Jewish parentage, the +scandal of whose condemnation for treason and subsequent rehabilitation +convulsed French political life between 1894 and 1899, and only ended in +1906, was born in Mulhausen, Upper Alsace, removing to Paris in 1874. +After going through the usual course of military instruction with +credit, he became a sous-lieutenant in the artillery in 1882, and was +promoted captain in 1889; and, after passing through the _Ecole de +Guerre_ with distinction, he was appointed to the general staff. His +name was, however, unknown to the general public till he was arrested on +the 15th of October 1894 on a charge of selling military secrets to +Germany, condemned, publicly degraded (January 4, 1895), and transported +(March 10) to the Ile du Diable, French Guiana. The story of the +subsequent proceedings in this celebrated case is told in the article +ANTI-SEMITISM, and need not here be repeated. It was not till 1899 that +the unfortunate prisoner was brought back to France for retrial by +court-martial, and even then, so strong was the anti-Semitic and +military prejudice, he was again found guilty "with extenuating +circumstances" at Rennes (September 9), though ten days later he was +"pardoned" by President Loubet. It was not till the Cour de Cassation +ordered a further investigation, and on the 12th of July 1906 decided +that his conviction had been based on a forgery and that Dreyfus was +innocent, that the agitation came to a final conclusion. He was then +restored to his rank in the army and promoted major. But the +anti-Semitic and anti-Dreyfusard spirit in certain French circles could +not easily be quelled even then; and on the occasion of the translation +of the remains of Emile Zola (Dreyfus's determined champion) to the +Pantheon on the 4th of June 1908, Major Dreyfus was shot at and wounded +by a fanatical journalist named Gregori, who was subsequently acquitted +by a Paris jury of the charge of attempted murder, his own plea being +that he had merely intended a "demonstration." + + See Dreyfus's own _Five Years of my Life_ (1901), and literature cited + under ANTI-SEMITISM. + + + + +DRIBURG, a town and spa of Germany, in Prussian Westphalia, pleasantly +situated on the Aa and the railway Soest-Huxter-Berlin. Pop. 2600. It +has an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church and some glass +manufactures. It is celebrated for its saline-ferruginous springs, +discovered in 766, and since 1779 largely frequented in summer. In the +vicinity are the ruins of Iburg, a castle destroyed by Charlemagne in +775, and bestowed by him upon the bishopric of Paderborn. + + + + +DRIFFIELD (officially Great Driffield), a market town in the Buckrose +parliamentary division of the East Riding of Yorkshire, England, 19-1/2 +m. N. by W. from Hull, the junction of several branch lines of the North +Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 5766. It is pleasantly +situated at the foot of the Wolds, and is connected with Hull by a +navigable canal. The church of All Saints is of various dates from +Norman onwards. The town is the centre of a rich agricultural district, +and large markets and fairs are held. There are works for the +manufacture of oil-cake. Driffield is of high antiquity, and numerous +tumuli are seen in the vicinity, while there is an excellent private +antiquarian museum in the town. + + + + +DRIFT (from "drive"), a verb or noun used in various connexions with the +sense of propelled motion, especially (but not necessarily) of an +aimless sort, undirected. Thus it is possible to speak of a snow-drift, +an accumulation driven by the wind; of a ship drifting out of its +course; of the drift of a speech, i.e. its general tendency. The word is +also used in some technical senses, more immediately resulting from the +action of driving something in. But the most important technical use of +the word is in geology, as introduced by C. Lyell in 1840 in place of +"Diluvium." The earlier geologists had been in the habit of dividing the +Quaternary deposits into an older Diluvium and a younger Alluvium; the +latter is still employed in England, but the former has dropped out of +use, though it is still retained by some continental writers. The +Alluvium was distinguished from Diluvium by the fact that its mammalian +fossils were representatives of still living forms, but it is a matter +of great difficulty to separate these two divisions in practice. "The +term drift is now applied generally to the Quaternary deposits, which +consist for the most part of gravel, sand, loam or brickearth and clay; +it naturally refers to strata laid down at some distance from the rocks +to whose destruction they are largely due; but, although applied to +river deposits, the word drift is more appropriately used in reference +to the accumulations of the Glacial period. + +"The occurrence of stones and boulders far removed from their parent +source early attracted the attention of geologists, but for a long +period the phenomena, now known as of glacial origin, were unexplained, +and the drifts were looked upon as little more than 'extraneous +rubbish,' the product of geological agents, quite distinct from those +which helped to form the more 'solid' rocks that underlie them." (See H. +B. Woodward, _The Geology of England and Wales_, 2nd ed., 1887.) The +conception of an underlying "solid" geological structure covered by a +superficial mantle of "drift" is still retained for certain practical +purposes; thus, the Geological Survey of Great Britain issues many of +the maps in two forms, the "Solid Edition," showing the "solid geology," +which embraces all igneous rocks and the stratified rocks older than +Pleistocene, and the "Drift Edition," which shows only such older strata +as are unobscured by drift. + +In writing and in conversation the geological expression "drift" is now +usually understood to mean Glacial drift, including boulder clay and all +the varieties of sand, gravel and clay deposits formed by the agency of +ice sheets, glaciers and icebergs. But in the "Drift" maps many other +types of deposit are indicated, such, for instance, as the ordinary +modern alluvium of rivers, and the older river terraces (River-drift of +various ages), including gravels, brickearth and loam; old raised sea +beaches and blown-sand (Aeolian-drift); the "Head" of Cornwall and +Devon, an angular detritus consisting of stones with clay or loam; +clay-with-flints, rainwash (landwash), scree and talus; the "Warp," a +marine and estuarine silt and clay of the Humber; and also beds of peat +and diatomite. + + See GLACIAL PERIOD; PLEISTOCENE; BOULDER CLAY. (J. A. H.) + + + + +DRILL. (1) A tool for boring or making holes in hard substances, such as +stone, metal, &c. (an adaptation in the 17th century from the Dutch +_dril_ or _drille_, from _drillen_, to turn, bore a hole; according to +the New English Dictionary the word is not to be connected with the +English "thrill"). The word _drillen_ was used in Dutch, German and +Danish, from the 17th century for training in military exercises and was +adopted into English in the same sense. The origin of the application +seems to be in the primary sense of "to turn round," from the turning of +the troops in their evolutions and from the turning of the weapons in +the soldiers' hands. Drill is, formally, the preparation of soldiers for +their duties in war by the practice or rehearsal of movements in +military order and the handling of arms, and, psychologically, the +method of producing in the individual soldier habits of self-control and +of mechanically precise actions under disturbing conditions, and of +rendering the common instinctive will of a body of men, large or small, +amenable to the control of, and susceptible to a stimulus imparted by +its commander's will. + +(2) A furrow made in the soil in which seed may be sown, and a machine +used for sowing seed in such furrows (see SOWING). The word is somewhat +doubtful in origin. It may be the same as an obsolete word "drill," to +trickle, flow in drops, also a small stream or flow of water, a rill, +and is possibly an altered form of "trill." + +(3) In zoology, the native name of a large short-tailed west African +baboon, _Papio leucophaeus_, closely allied to the mandrill (q.v.), but +distinguished by the absence of brilliant blue and scarlet on the jaws +of the fully adult males. + +[Illustration] + +(4) The name of a fabric made in both linen and cotton, and commonly +bleached and finished stiff. The word is a shortened form of "drilling," +from the German _drillich_, or "three-threaded," and is so named because +the weave originally used in its construction is what is termed the +three-leaf twill, nine repeats of which appear in the accompanying +figure, while immediately below the design is an intersection of all the +nine threads with the first pick. It is essentially a warp-faced fabric; +that is, the upper surface is composed mostly of warp threads. In the +figure it will be seen that two out of every three threads appear on the +surface, and, by introducing a greater number of threads per inch than +picks per inch, the weft is made to occupy a still more subordinate +position so far as the upper surface of the cloth is concerned. Although +the weave shown is still extensively used in this branch, there are +others, e.g. the 4-thread and the 5-thread weaves, which are employed +for the production of this cloth. Large quantities of drill are shipped +to the Eastern markets and to other sub-tropical centres, from which it +is sold for clothing. In temperate climates it forms a satisfactory +material for ladies' and children's summer clothing, and it is used by +chefs, hairdressers, provision merchants, grocers, buttermen, painters +and decorators, &c., while many of the long jackets or overalls, such as +those worn by many mill and factory managers, are made from the same +material. + + + + +DRINKING VESSELS.[1] The use of special vessels for drinking purposes +may fairly be assumed to have had a natural origin and development. From +a practical point of view it would soon be found desirable to provide +vessels for liquids in addition to those serving to hold food. As in +many other commonplace details of modern life, we must turn to the +primitive races to understand how our present conditions were reached. +In almost all parts of the world many of the products of nature are +capable of serving such purposes, with little or no change at the hands +of man; in tropical and sub-tropical climates the coco-nut and the gourd +or calabash require but little change to adapt them as the most +convenient of drinking utensils; the eggs of the larger birds, such as +the ostrich or the emu, shells, like the nautilus and other univalves, +as well as the deeper bivalves, are equally convenient. Such natural +objects are in fact used by the uncivilized tribes of Africa, America +and Polynesia, as well as, in some cases, by the white races who have +intruded into those parts of the world, and adopted some of the native +habits. In Paraguay, for example, the so-called "Paraguay tea," an +infusion of the _yerba mate_ (_Ilex paraguayensis_), is drunk through a +tube from a small gourd held in the hand, and often handsomely mounted +in silver or even gold. In the same way, as we shall see, civilized man +has adopted nearly all the natural forms that were found convenient by +the savage, altering and adorning them in accordance with the taste of +the time or country where they were used. + +Another line of development, however, has been found to be the natural +outcome of the human mind. Nothing could form a more practical drinking +cup than the half of a coco-nut shell or part of a gourd. Such cups, +however, in the countries where the plants producing them are common, +would be easily obtained, and every one, rich or poor, could possess one +or more. In order, therefore, to distinguish the chief's possessions +from those of his inferiors, his cup is often made with great labour, +from some more intractable material, wood or stone, though in +practically the same form as that of the natural object. + + + Early drinking cups. + +Among European races in medieval times the same lines have been +followed, though for different reasons. Human ingenuity, though perhaps +originally inspired by natural forms, is apt to turn aside into more +artificial channels. The invention of the potter's art (see CERAMICS), +where the plastic nature of the raw material renders it capable of +infinite changes of form, gave rise to types of vessels having no +obvious or necessary relation to the productions of nature. In Britain +and in northern Europe generally, the interments of the races of the +Neolithic and Bronze Ages have furnished vessels of pottery of a +beaker-like form, to which the name of "drinking-cups" has been given. +It must be confessed that the evidence for attributing such a use to +them is slender, and mainly consists of the fact that their thin lips +would render them better adapted for the purpose than the other pottery +vessels found with them, some of which, on equally slight grounds, have +been called food vessels. The general use and acceptance of the term by +two generations of archaeologists is, however, an adequate reason for a +passing mention in this place. In the later prehistoric times of Europe +vessels of gold, bronze and other materials, including amber, were made, +sometimes of elegant forms, and would seem to have been used as drinking +vessels; still, this is again an assumption, though a fairly probable +one. A small gold cup with handle was found in a barrow at Rillaton, +Cornwall; one of amber of a similar form was found at Hove, and a third +of shale near Honiton. All of these doubtless may be referred to the +Bronze Age. + + + New forms found by Schliemann. + +Schliemann found many drinking vessels in his exploration of the +superimposed cities of Troy. A pretty form is that found in the first +city. It is of clay, and closely resembles an early Victorian tea cup on +a high foot. This form is of interest, as Schliemann discovered the same +both at Tiryns and Mycenae, five from the latter site being of gold, +while the type also occurs from Ialysus in Rhodes in association with +bronze swords. This Trojan cup was found at a depth of 50 ft. below the +present surface and about 18 ft. below the stratum of what Schliemann +claimed to be the Homeric Troy. In his second city appears a different +type of ware, somewhat fantastic in form, one vessel being in the form +of a sow, while others foreshadow the _crater_ and _amphora_ of later +and more familiar Greek wares. + +But the drinking vessel to which Schliemann draws most attention is the +tall cup of a trumpet form furnished with two earlike loop handles. This +curious and original type occurs also in the Third (or Homeric), Fourth +and Sixth Cities, with little if any change. Schliemann devotes some +pages to the discussion of the form, in which he sees the [Greek: depas +amphikypellon][2] of Homer, which has been more usually understood to +mean an hour-glass shaped cup, in which the distinguishing feature was +two cups, not two handles. He applies the same term to a drinking vessel +of a very different form, found with several others in the Third City. +This is a sauce-boat shaped vessel[3] of gold, made with a lip for +pouring or drinking at either end, and with two loop handles. This +equals those previously mentioned in originality of form; with it were +found others of gold, silver and electrum (i.e. 4 parts of gold to 1 of +silver). Of these three were shaped like 18th-century coffee cups but +wanting handles. In the Sixth City appear forms more nearly approaching +those of later times, particularly prototypes of the _cantharus_ and +_scyphus_. + +These discoveries in the various strata of Troy may be taken as the +analogues in the Mediterranean and hither Asia of the later Stone and +Bronze Ages of northern Europe, with an allowance of some centuries of +greater antiquity for the former. + +It is not proposed in this article to deal with the ceramic and metallic +drinking vessels of the Greeks and Romans, of what is generally known as +the classical period (see CERAMICS and PLATE). It may be mentioned, +however, that both on the Rhine and in various places in Britain, +notably at Castor in Northamptonshire and in the New Forest, were +factories where large numbers of _pocula_ or drinking cups were made; +those made on the Rhine and at Castor bearing legends to indicate their +use. Many of these are to be seen in the British Museum and in the +Wallraf-Richartz Museum in Cologne. + + + Gothic and Scandinavian types. + +After the decline of Roman power, the Gothic and Scandinavian races who +replaced the Romans in central and northern Europe brought with them +their own forms and types of drinking vessels. These, from about the 4th +century, replaced the well-known Roman vessels. The northern barbarians +were as great drinkers as fighters, and their literature recites with +equal zest the richness of their drinking cups as the power and deadly +qualities of their arms. Fortunately the practice of burying with the +dead warrior all his property, or at least as much of it as he would be +supposed to need, has preserved to our day the actual vessels in use by +the pagan northmen who pervaded northern Europe from the 4th century +onward. Saxon graves in Britain have furnished great numbers of drinking +cups and horns, in many cases quite unbroken. From the remains, of which +the chief series are in the British and Liverpool Museums, we can learn +a great deal to amplify the references in literature. The richest single +interment that has yet been found was within the present churchyard at +Taplow. Here under a huge mound lay buried a Saxon chieftain surrounded +by his belongings; arms defensive and offensive, his drinking cups, and +even his game of draughts. The drinking vessels consisted of five cows' +horns and four glass cups. The former were of great size, 2 ft. long, +richly mounted at the mouth and at the point with silver bands embossed +and gilt. The glasses also were of great size and of a type familiar in +Saxon interments. Each was of a trumpet shape, with a small foot, while +the sides were ornamented with hollow pointed tubes bent downwards, and +open on the inner side, so that the liquid would fill them. Such a plan +is most unpractical, and it must have been very difficult to keep the +vessels clean. Glasses of this uncommon form have not been found +elsewhere than in Saxon graves, either in England or in the north of the +continent. Other types are perhaps nearly as characteristic, though of +simpler construction. One of these is a simple cone of glass, sometimes +quite plain, at others ornamented with an applied spiral glass thread, +or more rarely with festoons of white glass embedded in the body of the +vessel. A third form is a plain cup or bowl widely expanded at the mouth +and with a rounded base, so that it could only be set down when empty, +in fact a true "tumbler." This feature is in fact a very common one in +the drinking vessels of the Saxon race. There are many other varieties, +plain cylindrical goblets, generally with ornamental glass threads on +the outside, and a more usual type has a rounded body somewhat of the +shape of an orange with a wide plain mouth. Many of all these classes +were found in the famous cemetery known as the King's Field at Faversham +in Kent (the relics from which are now in the British Museum), at +Chessel Down in the Isle of Wight, and in the cemetery within the +ancient camp on High Down, near Worthing. In Belgium, France and Germany +the same types occur, and even as far north as Scandinavia, where they +are found in association with Roman coins of the 4th century. On the +continent, however, additional types are found that do not occur in +Britain--one of these is a drinking glass in the form of a hunting horn +with glass threads forming an ornamental design on the outside. From the +wide distribution of these types, it seems certain that they sprang +originally from a common centre, and the slender evidence available on +the subject seems to point to that centre having been somewhere on the +lower Rhine. Although glass seems to have been popular and by no means +rare as a material for drinking vessels, other materials also were used. +A large number of the smaller pottery vessels would serve such a +purpose, and in one grave at Broomfield in Essex two small wooden cups +were found which, from their small size and thinness, were no doubt used +for liquid. + +Of the later Saxon domestic utensils nothing remains, the habit of +burying such objects with the dead having ceased on the gradual +introduction of Christianity through the country. Manuscripts are our +only resource, and they are not only of great rarity, but in the main +rudely and conventionally drawn in their details. In those of the 9th to +the 11th century various simple forms are seen, some resembling our +modern tumbler in shape, others like a dice box. Horns as drinking +vessels certainly retained their popularity at all times, surviving +especially among the northern nations, and many of the vessels of this +form were no doubt actual horns, though horn-shaped vessels were often +made of other materials. Until we come to the 13th and 14th centuries +there is an absolute dearth of the actual objects used in domestic life. +And here we begin with plate used in the service of the church. + + + Church vessels. + +The drinking vessel possessing the most unbroken history is doubtless +the chalice of the Christian Church.[4] Like other ceremonial objects it +was no doubt differentiated from the drinking cups in ordinary use by a +gradual transition, and in the early centuries it is unlikely that it +differed either in form or material from the ordinary domestic vessel of +the time. Figures of such vessels, apparently with a symbolic intention, +are found upon early Christian tombstones, and it has been contended +that the vessel indicated the grave of a priest. While this may be the +case, the similarity of the vessel represented to the ordinary +non-liturgical form renders the conclusion somewhat weak. Among objects +found under conditions which lend colour to their specific use as +chalices are the bottoms of glass vessels found inserted in plaster in +the Catacombs at Rome; but here again the Jesuit Padre Garrucci was +unable to find any evidence to support such a conclusion. It is not in +fact until the 6th century that the sacred vessel would appear to have +assumed a definite form. From about that time date the lost golden +chalices of Monza, representations of which still exist in that city; +and the famous chalice of Gourdon in the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris +is probably of about the same time. All of these are two-handled with a +vase-shaped body and supported on a high foot; and thus quite unlike the +more recent medieval types. Two glass vases of exactly this two-handled +form are in the Slade collection at the British Museum, and may well +have been chalices. Another chalice, in the same collection, of the 6th +or 7th century, was found with a silver treasure at Lampsacus on the +Hellespont. It is of silver, with a cylindrical body and small expanding +foot; with it were found a number of silver spoons and dishes, the +former inscribed with the names of Apostles, Greek hexameters and lines +from Virgil's Eclogues. No doubt the whole was the treasure of a +monastery, buried and never reclaimed. So far as evidence exists for the +form of the chalice, the vase-shape with two handles seems to have been +mainly succeeded by a goblet with straight sides and without handles; +these latter in great part disappeared. Then came the rounded cup-shaped +bowl as seen in the well-known Kremsmunster chalice. An interesting +silver vessel, probably a chalice, found at Trewhiddle in Cornwall, is +in the British Museum. It is of plain semi-oviform shape, and dates from +the 9th century. The 13th century chalice was usually a broad somewhat +shallow cup, on a conical base, and squat in its general lines as +compared with those of later date. These gradually became taller, and +with a bowl smaller in proportion, following the tendency of the civil +vessels towards more elegant lines. Both civil and religious vessels +eventually carried this tendency to an extreme point, so that in the +17th century the continental chalices and standing cups had lost all +sense of true artistic proportions; the bowl of the chalice had greatly +shrunk in size while the foot had become huge and highly elaborate, both +in general form and in ornamental details. In Britain chalices ceased to +be used in the English church in the reign of Edward VI., and were +replaced by communion cups. These were much plainer in make, recalling +in their outlines the goblet form of about a thousand years earlier, the +sides of the bowl being concave, or nearly straight, as opposed to the +convexity of the chalice, while the paten was reversed over the mouth +and so arranged as to form a closely fitting cover. With the beginning +of the 17th century English communion cups again followed the civil +fashion in adapting the outline of the Venetian drinking glass, a shape +which has survived to our own days. + +The materials of which chalices were made in the early centuries seem to +have been as various as those of ordinary vessels. Glass was undoubtedly +a favourite substance, perhaps from its lending itself readily to +scrupulous cleanliness; but wood, horn, ivory and similar materials were +undoubtedly in use, and were from time to time condemned as improper by +the Fathers of the Church. Pewter was in common use, and it was not an +unusual practice in the 12th and 13th centuries to place sacramental +vessels, of this or more precious metal, in the grave of an +ecclesiastic. Bronze was also used, and the Kremsmunster chalice is of +that metal, which was a favourite one in the Celtic church. But gold or +silver chalices were no doubt always preferred when they could be +obtained. + +It may be mentioned here that it was a common practice in the 16th +century and later in England for laymen to make gifts to the church of +vessels of an entirely domestic character for use in the service. Many +of these from their associations, and in the character of the designs +upon them, were entirely unsuited for such purposes, and in our own +time, when a healthy desire has sprung up for the proper investigation +of such matters, many such unsuitable vessels have been withdrawn from +use. Domestic plate, however, being much more highly appreciated by +collectors, there has been a regrettable tendency on the part of the +holders of such pieces to sell them to the highest bidders; the tendency +is to be deplored, for while they remain the property of the church, +they are a national asset; if sold by auction, there is a great +probability of their going abroad. + + + Medieval vessels for common uses. + + Mazers. + +It would seem fairly certain that the ordinary drinking vessel of +medieval times was, like the trenchers of wood, turned on the lathe. Of +these the commoner varieties have entirely disappeared, having become +useless from distortion or other damage. Such as have come down to our +own time owe their preservation to the added refinement of a silver +mount. Vessels of this kind are known as _mazer_ bowls, a word of +uncertain origin, but undoubtedly, in the medieval sense, indicating +wood of some more or less valuable kind, and not improbably, in the 16th +century, maple or a wood of that appearance. Spenser in the "Shepherd's +Kalendar" speaks of "a mazer ywrought of the maple warre." Although such +vessels are mentioned in the inventories and other contemporary records +as far back as the 12th century, no example is known to exist of an +earlier date than the 14th century, of which date there are two in the +possession of Harbledown hospital. This type of drinking vessel was in +common use in well-to-do households until the 16th century, when a +change of fashion and the greater luxury and refinement dictated the +adoption of more elegant and complex forms. The ordinary mazer was a +shallow bowl (see PLATE, Plate II.) about 6 in. in diameter, with a +broad expanding rim of silver gilt often engraved with a motto in black +letter or Lombardic capitals, at times referring to the function of the +cup, such as:-- + + "In the name of the Trinity + Fille the Kup and drinke to me." + +or, + + "Potum et nos benedicat Agios." + +Within the bowl, in the centre is often found a circular medallion +called a "print" with some device upon it, engraved and filled with +enamel. The reason of this addition may conceivably be found in the fact +that such bowls were sometimes made from the lower half of a gourd or +calabash, in the centre of which would be a rough projection whence the +fibres of the fruit had diverged. A rarer form of mazer has the +characters just mentioned and in addition is mounted upon a high foot, +bringing it nearer to the category of standing cups or "hanaps." The +famous Scrope mazer belonging to York Minster (early 15th century) +stands upon three small feet. Of the hanap type examples are in the +possession of Pembroke College, Cambridge (the Foundress' Cup), and All +Souls' College, Oxford, the former an exceedingly fine specimen, of the +third quarter of the 15th century. The form dictated originally by the +simple wooden cup was at times carried out entirely in silver, or even +in stone, mazer-like cups being found either entirely in metal or with +the main portion made of serpentine or some other ornamental stone. An +example of the former from the Hamilton Palace collection, as well as +several ordinary mazers, are to be seen in the British Museum. The types +above described are of English origin, with the exception of that made +entirely of silver, which is thought to be French. Most of the +continental forms differed from the English, and were more elaborately +finished. One of the finest is that which belonged to Louis de Male, +last count of Flanders. It is an exceedingly thin, shallow bowl of +fine-grained wood, with a cover of the same make. The latter is +surmounted by a silver figure of a falcon holding a shield in its mouth +with the arms of the count. The foot is of silver with lozenge-shaped +panels inserted, bearing in enamel the arms of the count. A German form +of the 16th century consisted of a depressed sphere of wood for the +bowl, with a silver rim, and a cover formed of a similarly shaped +sphere, called in France a "creusequin." Such mazers were furnished in +addition with a short metal handle turned up at the end, a feature +unknown in the English types. All of these again are to be seen in the +British Museum series. + + + Hanaps. + +Although the use of wooden vessels more or less elaborately mounted was +continued well into the 16th century as a fashion, many other materials +of far greater value were in use among the wealthy long before that +time. Crystal, agate and other hard stones, ivory, Chinese porcelain, as +well as more ordinary wares, were all in use, as well as the precious +metals. The inventories of the 14th and 15th centuries are full of +entries showing that such precious cups were fairly common. Of gold cups +of any antiquity naturally but few remain; the intrinsic value of the +metal probably is a sufficient explanation. One of the most important in +existence is however preserved in the British Museum, viz. the royal +gold cup of the kings of England and France. It is of nearly pure gold +with a broad bowl and a high foot, the cover pyramidal. The whole is +ornamented with translucent enamels of the most perfect quality, and +with a little damage in one part, absolutely well preserved. The +subjects represented on it are scenes from the life of St Agnes, in two +rows, one on the cover and one outside the bowl; on the foot are the +symbols of the four Evangelists, and around the base a coronal of leaves +alternating with pearls; the cover originally had a similar adjunct, but +it has unfortunately been cut away. This is the only piece of royal +plate of the treasures of the kings of England and France that now +remains, and its history has been traced from the time it was made, +about the year 1380, to the present time. It was made by one of the +goldsmiths of the luxurious Duc de Berri, the brother of Charles V. of +France, no doubt to offer as a gift to the king, whose birthday was +St Agnes' day. It was, however, never presented, probably owing to the +death of Charles V. in 1380. The duc de Berri was not on friendly terms +with his nephew Charles VI., but on their being reconciled he presented +the young king with this cup. The troubles of his reign led to the +invasion of France by Henry V. of England, and the ultimate appointment +of his brother, John, duke of Bedford, as regent. The necessities of the +half-insane Charles doubtless caused this cup and other valuables to +pass into the possession of the regent in exchange for ready money, for +it appears in the duke of Bedford's will, under which it passed into the +treasury of Henry VI. There it remained and appears in all subsequent +royal inventories up to the time of James I. This monarch, whose motto +was "Beati pacifici," received with joy the embassy sent from Spain in +the year 1610 to conclude the first treaty of peace with England since +the Armada, and showered upon the envoy, Don Juan de Velasco, constable +of Castile, the most lavish and extravagant gifts. The constable, in +fact, was so impressed by the warmth of his reception that he printed an +account of his embassy, and from this work the main story of the cup has +eventually been traced. On his return to Spain the constable, a piously +disposed man, presented this cup, with many other valuable gifts, to the +convent of Santa Clara Medina de Pomar at Burgos, of which his sister +was Superior. Although it was a domestic vessel, a "hanap" in fact, the +constable elected that it should be consecrated and made use of as a +chalice at great festivals. And so it continued to be used from the +early years of the 17th century until about the year 1882, when the +convent having fallen upon evil times, it was decided to sell this +precious relic. A priest from the Argentine being at the time in Burgos, +it was confided to him to sell in Paris, and he deposited the sum of +L100 by way of security. This was all that the unfortunate nuns at +Burgos ever received in return for their chalice, for they never saw the +priest again. He took the cup to Paris, arriving in the month of +September, when the majority of the well-to-do are away from town. After +many failures to dispose of it, he ultimately succeeded in selling it to +Baron Jerome Pichon for the sum of about L400, practically its weight in +gold. The baron, after vainly trying to resell it at various sums from +L20,000 downwards, eventually parted with it to Messrs Wertheimer of +Bond Street for L8000, and that firm very liberally ceded it to Sir +Wollaston Franks for the same sum, and it was finally secured by a +subscription for the British Museum. + + +Plate I. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--ROMAN GLASS CUP. With representation of a +chariot race. Found at Colchester.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--TEUTONIC GLASS CUP. From a grave at Selzen, +Rhenish Hesse.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--SAXON GLASS "TUMBLER."] + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--FRANKISH GLASS DRINKING HORN. Bingerbruck.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.--SAXON COW'S HORN. Mounted in silver. Taplow.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.--SAXON TRUMPET-SHAPED DRINKING VESSEL. With +hollow tubular ornamentation.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.--THE ROYAL GOLD ENAMELLED HANAP. Made about +1380.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 8.--SARACENIC ENAMELLED GOBLET. With French silver +mountings. Fourteenth century.] + + +Plate II. + +All the objects represented on these two plates are in the British +Museum. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--VENETIAN GLASS GOBLET. With enamelled +decoration. Fifteenth century.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--ENGLISH "BLACKJACK." With initials of Charles I. +and date 1646.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--THE ROCHESTER MAZER. Presented by Brother Robert +Peacham. Sixteenth century.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--CHINESE CUP. Carved from rhinoceros horn. +Eighteenth century.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.--ENGLISH GLASS TANKARD. Bearing the Arms of Lord +Burleigh.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.--COCO-NUT CUP. German, about 1600.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.--SWISS "TANZENMANN." Seventeenth century.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 8.--A GLASS "YARD OF ALE" (English). Eighteenth +century.] + +Such is the story of one of the most remarkable "hanaps" in existence. +The word "hanap" is translated by Cotgrave in his French dictionary of +1660 as "a drinking cup or goblet," and probably was intended to mean +what would be called a standing cup, that is, raised on a foot, to +distinguish it from a bowl of the mazer class. Such vessels were chiefly +used to ornament the dinner table or sideboard, in the way that +loving-cups are now used at civic banquets, where, almost alone in fact, +the ancient ceremonial of the table is still observed to some extent; +and the loving-cup is the direct descendant of the hanap of the middle +ages. + + + Nefs. + +Of all the ornaments of the table in medieval times the most conspicuous +was probably the "nef." This was in the form of a ship (_navis_), as its +name implies, and originally was designed to hold the table utensils of +the host--knives, napkins, and at times even the wine. Some of the later +examples which alone survive are carried out with the greatest +elaboration, the sails and rigging being carefully finished and with a +number of figures on the deck. The reason for the existence of such an +article of table furniture was doubtless the fear of poison. As in +course of time this became less, the nef changed its character, and +became either a mere ornament, or sometimes was capable of being used as +a drinking vessel. The former, however, was much more common, and the +number of nefs that can be practically used as drinking cups is small. + + + 16th-century types. + +In the 15th and 16th centuries the shapes, decoration and materials of +drinking vessels were almost endless. A favourite object to be so +adapted was an ostrich egg, and many can be seen in museums in elaborate +silver mounts; coco-nuts were also used in the same way, and Chinese +and other Oriental wares then of great variety, were often turned into +cups and vases by ingeniously devised silver mounting. The use of +drinking vessels either formed of actual horns or of other materials was +common in the 15th and 16th centuries, especially in the north. They +were usually provided with feet so as to serve as standing cups, and +some of them were mounted with great richness. An excellent example is +the famous drinking-horn in the possession of Queen's College, Oxford, +dating from the 14th century. The medieval beliefs about "griffins' +claws" still survived to this late date, and a horn cup in the British +Museum bears the inscription "Ein Greifen Klau bin ich genannt, In Asia, +Africa wohl bekannt." Another horn, probably that of an ibex, is in the +same institution, and has a silver mount inscribed "Gryphi unguis divo +Cuthberto dunelmensi sacer." The elegant natural curve of the horn adds +greatly to the charm of the vessel. In Germany the ingenuity of the +silversmith was turned in the direction of making vessels in the forms +of animals, at times in allusion to the coat of arms of the patron. +Stags, lions, bears and various birds are often found; the head +generally removable so as to form a small cup Switzerland and south +Germany had a special type, in the form of the figure of a peasant, +generally in wood, carrying on his back a large basket, which edged with +silver formed the drinking cup. This type is only found in wine-growing +districts, the basket being used for carrying grapes. In Germany such +cups are called "Buttenmann," in Switzerland "Tanzenmann." The royal and +princely museums of Germany contain great numbers of such vessels, the +Green Vault in Dresden in particular, while a good number are to be seen +in our own great museums. A curious fancy, combining instruction with +conviviality, was to make cups in the form of a globe, terrestrial or +celestial, which are still useful as showing the state of geographical +or astronomical knowledge at the time. Several of those made in the 16th +century are still in existence, one in the British Museum, a second at +Nancy, and others are in Copenhagen and Zurich and in private +collections. The upper half of the globe is removable, leaving the lower +as the drinking cup. Ivory both from the beauty of its colour and the +evenness of its structure has been a favourite material for drinking +vessels at all times, and would seem to have been continuously used from +the earliest period, whether derived from Asia or Africa, while the +semi-fossil mammoth ivory of Siberia has not been neglected. In general, +however, the vessels made from this material presented no essential +differences of form from those in wood, until the art of lathe-turning +attained great perfection, when a wide field was opened for ingenuity +and even extravagance of form. The most remarkable examples of the +possibilities of this kind of mechanical skill are seen in the +productions of the Nuremberg turners of the 17th century, whose +elaborate and entirely useless _tours de force_ comprise among many +other things standing cups of ivory sometimes 2 ft. high, exemplifying +every eccentricity of which the lathe is capable. Peter Zick (d. 1632) +and his three sons were celebrated for such work. Several pieces, +doubtless from their hands, are in the British Museum. + + + Glass cups. + +The use of glass cups was not common in England until the 16th century, +Venice having practically the monopoly of the supply. A silver-mounted +glass goblet which belonged to the great Lord Burghley is, however, in +the British Museum, where there is also a very large series of Venetian +drinking glasses of various kinds, clear and lace glass as well as some +of the 15th-century goblets with enamelled designs, now of the greatest +rarity. The relations of Venice with the East were of so intimate a +character that the earlier forms of Venetian glasses were nearly +identical with those of the Mahommedan East. + +A common type of Arab drinking glass resembled our modern tumbler (a +beaker), but gradually expanding in a curve towards the mouth, and often +enamelled. The enamelled designs were at times related to the purpose of +the vessel, figures drinking and the like, but more commonly bore either +a mark of ownership, such as the armorial device of an emir, or some +simple decorative design. This simple form probably has its origin in +the horn cup made from the base of a cow's horn and closed at the +smaller end. The later forms in the late 15th century and after, +followed the fashion in other materials, and were raised on a tall foot, +so that from the 16th century onwards the type of wine glass has hardly +changed, except in details. An interesting variety in one detail is seen +in the German fashion of providing an elaborate silver stand into which +the foot of such an ordinary-shaped glass was made to fit. Frequently, +as might be expected, such stands are found without glasses, and their +use then seems difficult to explain. + +Another characteristic German type is the "wiederkom," a vessel more +conspicuous for capacity than for its artistic qualities. It is usually +a cylindrical vessel of green glass often holding as much as a quart, +elaborately enamelled with coats of arms and views of well-known places; +and at times when the cup was a wedding gift the figures of the bride +and bridegroom are seen upon it. + +A very fanciful kind of cup was known in England as a "yard of ale," a +long tube of glass generally shaped like a coach horn, but ending +sometimes in three prongs as a trident, the opening in the latter being +at the end of the handle, which was about a yard in length. + +Small silver cups were often made in dozens with various devices, +differing in each, such as the signs of the zodiac, the occupations of +the months, or figures of the classical gods and goddesses, engraved +upon them. + +The tankard came into fashion in the 16th century, a practical, but +seldom graceful object. At first some attempt was made, by shaping the +sides, to attain to some artistic quality, but usually the tankard from +the late 16th century to the present time is found with straight sides, +either vertical or contracting towards the top, which is of course +always furnished with a hinged lid. + + + 17th and 18th century types. + +A material that has one obvious merit, that of being practically +unbreakable, is leather, and drinking cups were often made of it. The +flagon called a "black jack" is the best-known, and examples are very +common, mostly of the 17th and 18th centuries. A quaint fashion was to +have a leather cup made in the form of a lady's shoe; this, however, was +confined to Germany and might be thought in somewhat questionable taste. + +In the 17th and 18th centuries a great impetus was given to the +production of curious drinking vessels in pottery. In England at various +potting centres a great number of cups called "tygs" were made: +capacious mugs with several handles, three or four, round the sides, so +that the cup could be readily passed from one to the other. Many of +these have quaint devices and inscriptions upon them. Another favourite +plan is to make a jug with open-work round the neck and a variety of +spouts, one only communicating with the liquid. These "puzzle jugs" no +doubt caused a good deal of amusement when attempted by a novice, who +would inevitably spill some of the contents. + +The horn of the rhinoceros is much favoured by the Chinese as a material +for drinking cups often of a somewhat archaic form. The dense structure +of the horn is well adapted for the purpose, and its beautiful amber hue +makes the vessel a very agreeable object to the eye. The usual form is +of a boat shape on a square foot, and the carved decoration is often +copied from that of the bronze vessels of the earlier dynasties. Others +are treated in a freer and more naturalistic manner, the bowl being +formed as the flower of the magnolia, and the entire horn, at times more +than 2 ft. in length, is utilized in carrying out the design. One of +this kind is in the Victoria and Albert Museum. Cups of the former type +are commonly found imitated in ivory-white porcelain, and are known as +"libation cups." Rhinoceros horn is held by the Chinese to be an +antidote against poison, a belief shared by other nations. + + + Tea and coffee cups. + +There is but little to be said about the vessels used in the drinking of +tea and coffee. In Europe the type has practically remained unchanged +since the introduction of tea and coffee drinking, except that in the +18th century the tea-cups imported from China had no handles, and were +generally thinner than the coffee cups. In Japan there is a ceremonious +way of drinking tea, known as _Cha no yu_. Here powdered green tea is +used; the party assembles in a small pavilion in a garden, and the tea +is made in accordance with a rigid etiquette. The infusion is stirred +with a whisk in a rudely fashioned bowl, holding about a pint, and +passed from one guest to another. The bowls are of very thick pottery, +never of porcelain, and the most valued kind is that made in Korea. In +the drinking of rice spirit (sake) in Japan small wide shallow cups are +used, made generally of porcelain, but sometimes of finely lacquered +wood. Both kinds are usually ornamented with elaborate and sometimes +allusive designs. + + + Savage utensils. + +Among savage races the most peculiar drinking ceremony is that of kava +drinking in Polynesia, principally in the Fijian, Tongan and Samoan +groups. The best description of the process is given in Mariner's +_Tonga_. The principal vessel is usually a large bowl, sometimes +measuring 2 or 3 ft. in diameter, cut from a solid block of wood. It has +four short legs and an ear at one side to which a rope of coco-nut fibre +is generally attached. The liquid is prepared in this bowl and ladled +out in small cups often made of coco-nut shells, and these are handed +round with great ceremony. Both the bowl and the cups become coated in +the inside with a highly polished layer, pale blue in colour; but this +beautiful tint fades when the vessel is out of use, and it is therefore +very rarely seen in specimens in Europe. The kava itself is prepared +from the root of a tree of the pepper family (_Piper methysticum_); the +root is cut into pieces of a convenient size, and these are given to +young men and women of the company, who masticate them, and the lumps +thus shredded are placed in the large bowl, water is poured over them, +and the mass is strained with great care by wringing it in strips of the +inner bark of the _hibiscus_. The liquor is slightly intoxicating. + +If the Polynesian method of preparing kava as a drink is distasteful to +our ideas, the favourite drinking bowl of the old Tibetans is even more +so. Friar Odoric (14th century), quoted by Yule, describes how the +Tibetan youth "takes his father's head and straightway cooks and eats +it, and of the skull he makes a goblet from which he and all his family +always drink devoutly to the memory of the deceased father." This +recalls Livy's account of the Boii in Upper Italy, who made a drinking +vessel of the head of the Roman consul Postumus. Among the Tibetans +skulls are still used, but generally for libations only; for this +purpose great care is exercised in the selection of the skull, and the +"points" of a good skull are well understood by the Lamas. + (C. H. RD.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The verb "to drink" is Common Teut.; cf. Ger. _trinken_, &c. + + [2] See PLATE, Plate I. + + [3] See PLATE, Plate I. + + [4] For two illustrations see PLATE, Plate II. + + + + +DRIPSTONE, in architecture, a projecting moulding weathered on the upper +surface and throated underneath so as to form a drip. The term is more +correctly applied to a string course. When carried round an arch its +more correct description would be a hood (q.v.). When employed inside a +building it serves a decorative purpose only. + + + + +DRISLER, HENRY (1818-1897), American classical scholar, was born on the +27th of December 1818, on Staten Island, New York. He graduated at +Columbia College in 1839, taught classics in the Columbia grammar school +for four years, and was then appointed tutor in classics in the college. +In 1845 he became adjunct professor of Latin and Greek there, in 1857 +was appointed to the new separate chair of Latin language and +literature, and ten years later succeeded Dr Charles Anthon as Jay +professor of Greek language and literature. He was acting president in +1867 and in 1888-1889, and from 1890 to his retirement as professor +emeritus in 1894 was dean of the school of arts. He died in New York +City on the 30th of November 1897. Dr Drisler completed and supplemented +Dr Anthon's labours as an editor of classical texts. His criticisms and +corrections of Liddell and Scott's _Greek-English Lexicon_, of which he +brought out a revised American edition in 1846, won his name a place on +the title-page of the British edition in 1879, and in 1870 he published +a revised and enlarged edition of Yonge's _English-Greek Lexicon_. He +was ardently opposed to slavery, and brilliantly refuted _The Bible View +of Slavery_, written by Bishop J. H. Hopkins of Vermont, in a _Reply_ +(1863), which meets the bishop on purely Biblical ground and displays +the wide range of Dr Drisler's scholarship. + + + + +DRIVER, SAMUEL ROLLES (1846- ), English divine and Hebrew scholar, was +born at Southampton on the 2nd of October 1846. He was educated at +Winchester and New College, Oxford, where he had a distinguished career, +taking a first class in Literae Humaniores in 1869. He was awarded the +Pusey and Ellerton scholarship in 1866, the Kennicott scholarship in +1870 (both Hebrew), and the Houghton Syriac prize in 1872. From 1870 he +was a fellow, and from 1875 also a tutor, of New College, and in 1883 +succeeded Pusey as regius professor of Hebrew and canon of Christ +Church. He was a member of the Old Testament Revision Committee +(1876-1884) and examining chaplain to the bishop of Southwell +(1884-1904); received the honorary degrees of doctor of literature of +Dublin (1892), doctor of divinity of Glasgow (1901), doctor of +literature of Cambridge (1905); and was elected a fellow of the British +Academy in 1902. Dr Driver devoted his life to the study, both textual +and critical, of the Old Testament. Among his numerous works are +commentaries on Joel and Amos (1897); Deuteronomy (1902); Daniel (1901); +Genesis (1909); the Minor Prophets, Nahum to Malachi (1905); Job (1905); +Jeremiah (1906); Leviticus (1894 Hebrew text, 1898 trans. and notes); +Samuel (Hebrew text, 1890). Among his more general works are: _Treatise +on the Use of the Tenses in Hebrew_ (1892); _Isaiah, his Life and Times_ +(1893); _Introd. to the Literature of the Old Test._ (1897, ed. 1909); +_Sermons on Subjects connected with the Old Testament_ (1892); _The +Parallel Psalter_ (1904); _Heb. and Eng. Lexicon of the O.T._ (in +collaboration, 1906); _Modern Research as illustrating the Bible_ +(1909); articles in the _Ency. Brit._, _Ency. Bibl._ and Hastings' +_Dict. of the Bible_. + + + + +DRIVING (from "to drive," i.e. generally to propel, force along or in, a +word common in various forms to the Teutonic languages), a word used in +a restricted sense for the art of controlling and directing draught +animals from a coach or other conveyance or movable machine to which +they are harnessed for the purpose of traction. This has been an +occupation practised since domesticated animals were first put to this +use. In various parts of the world a number of different animals have +been, and still are, so employed; of these the horse, ox, mule and ass +are the most common, though their place is taken by the reindeer in +northern latitudes, and by the Eskimo dog in arctic and antarctic +regions. The driving of each of these requires special skill, only to be +acquired by practice combined with knowledge of the characteristics +peculiar to the several animals employed. The most accomplished driver +of spirited horses would probably be in difficulties if called upon to +drive sixteen or twenty dogs in an arctic sledge, or a team of oxen or +mules drawing the guns of a mountain battery; and the adept in either of +these branches of the art might provoke the compassion of a farmer from +Lincolnshire or Texas by his attempts to manage a pair of Clydesdale +horses in the plough or the reaping machine. + +Under all these different conditions driving is a work of utility, of +economic value to civilized society. But from very early times driving, +especially of horses, has also been regarded as a sport or pastime. This +probably arose in the first instance from its association with battle. +In the earliest historical records, such as the Old Testament and the +Homeric poems, the driver of the chariot fills a place of importance in +the economy of war; and on his skill and efficiency the fate of kings, +and even of kingdoms, must often have depended. The statement in the +Book of Kings that Jehu the son of Nimshi was recognized from a distance +by his style of driving appears to indicate that the warrior himself on +occasion took the place of the professional charioteer; and although it +would be unsafe to infer from the story that the pleasure derived from +the occupation was his motive for doing so, the name of this king of +Israel has become the eponym of drivers. Among the Greeks at an equally +early period driving was a recognized form of sport, to the popularity +of which Horace afterwards made allusion. Racing between teams of horses +harnessed to war-chariots took the place occupied by saddle-horse +racing and American trotting races (see HORSE-RACING) in the sport of +modern times. The element of danger doubtless gave pleasurable +excitement to chariot racing and kept alive its association with +incidents familiar in war; just as at a later period, when the +institution of chivalry had given the armed knight on horseback a +conspicuous place in medieval warfare, the tournament became the most +popular sport of the aristocracy throughout Europe. + +This element of danger cannot be said to enter usually into the +enjoyment of driving at the present day. Though accidents occasionally +happen, the pastime is practically unattended by serious risk; and the +source of the pleasure it affords the driver must be sought in the skill +it requires, combined with the love of the horse which is common to +sportsmen, and of exercise of power. The art of driving as practised +to-day for pleasure without profit, and without the excitement of +racing, is of quite modern development. Oliver Cromwell, indeed, met +with a mishap in Hyde Park while driving a team of four horses presented +to him by the count of Oldenburg, which was the subject of more than one +satirical allusion by contemporary royalist writers; but two things were +needed before much enjoyment could be found in driving apart from +utility. These were the invention of carriages on springs, and the +construction of roads with smooth and solid surface. The former did not +come into general use till near the end of the 18th century, and it was +about the same period that the engineering skill of Thomas Telford and +the invention of John London Macadam combined to provide the latter. The +influence on driving of these two developments was soon apparent. +Throughout the 18th century stage-coaches, ponderous unwieldy vehicles +without springs, had toiled slowly over rough and deeply rutted tracks +as a means of communication between different parts of Great Britain; +but those who made use of them did so as a matter of necessity and not +for enjoyment. But by the beginning of the 19th century the improvement +in carriage-building and road-construction alike had greatly diminished +the discomfort of travel; and interest in driving for its own sake grew +so rapidly that in 1807 the first association of amateur coachmen was +formed. This was the Bensington Driving Club, the forerunner of many +aristocratic clubs for gentlemen interested in driving as a pastime. + +In modern driving one, two or four horses are usually employed. When a +greater number than four is put in harness, as in the case of the state +equipages of royal personages on occasions of ceremony, the horses are +not driven but are controlled by "postillions" mounted on the near-side +horse of each pair. When two horses are used they may either be placed +side by side, in "double harness," which is the commoner mode of driving +a pair of horses, or one following the other, in a "tandem." Four +horses, or "four-in-hand," are harnessed in two pairs, one following the +other, and called respectively the "leaders" and the "wheelers"--the +same terms being used for the two horses of a tandem. + +Though it is a less difficult accomplishment to drive a single horse +than a tandem or four-in-hand, or even a pair, it nevertheless requires +both knowledge and the skill that practice alone confers. The driver +should have some knowledge of equine character, and complete familiarity +with every part of the harness he uses, and with the purpose which each +buckle or strap is intended to serve. The indefinable quality known in +horsemanship as "good hands" is scarcely less desirable on the box-seat +than in the saddle. It is often said to be unattainable by those who do +not possess it by nature; but though this may be true to some extent, +"good hands" are partly at least the result of learning the correct +position for the arm and hand that holds the reins. The reins are held +in the left hand, which should be kept at about the level of the lowest +button of the driver's waistcoat, and near the body though not pressed +against it. The driving hand should never be reached forward more than a +few inches, nor raised as high as the breast. The upper arm should lie +loosely against the side, the forearm horizontal across the front of the +body, forming a right angle or thereabouts at the elbow-joint, the +wrist very slightly bent inwards, and the back of the hand and knuckles +facing outwards towards the horses. In this position the three joints of +the arm form a kind of automatic spring that secures the "give" to the +movement of the horse's mouth which, in conjunction with firmness, is a +large part of what is meant by "good hands." But this result is only +obtained if the reins be also held with the proper degree of bearing on +the bit. What the proper degree may be depends greatly on the character +of the horses and the severity of the bit. Pulling horses must be +restrained by a strong draw on their bits, such as would bring other +animals to a standstill. But under no circumstances, no matter how +sluggish the horses may be, should the reins be allowed to lie slack; +for if this is done the horse receives no support in the event of a +sudden stumble, and no control if he shies unexpectedly. The driver +should therefore always just "feel his horse's mouth" as lightly as +possible; he then has the animal well under control in readiness for +every emergency, while avoiding such a pull on the mouth as would cause +a high-spirited horse to chafe and fret. Well-broken carriage horses +should always be willing to run into their bits, and those that draw +back when lightly held in hand should be kept up to the bit with the +whip. + +These principles are common to all branches of the art of driving, +whether of one, two or four horses. When they are observed no great +difficulty confronts the coachman who is content with single or double +harness, provided he has acquired the eye for pace and distance, and the +instinctive realization of the length of the carriage behind him, +without which he may suffer collision with other vehicles, or allow +insufficient room in turning a corner or entering a gateway. For before +he can have had the practice by which alone this knowledge is to be +gained, the beginner will have learnt such elementary facts as that his +horses must be held well in hand going down hill and given their heads +on an ascent, and that on no account should the horse's mouth be +"jobbed" by the driver jerking the reins; he will also have learnt a +good deal about the character and temperament of the horse, on which so +much of the art of driving depends, and which can best be studied on the +box-seat and not at all in the library. If he has pursued this study +with any degree of insight, he will have learnt further to be sparing in +the use of the hand-brake with which most modern carriages are provided. +This apparatus is most useful in case of emergency, or for taking weight +off the carriage on a really steep descent; but the habit which too many +coachmen fall into of using the brake on every trifling decline should +be avoided. Its effect is that the horses are continually doing +collar-work, and are thus deprived of the relief which ought to be given +them by occasional light pole or shaft work instead. + + + Tandem and four-in-hand. + +When the ambition of the amateur coachman leads him to attempt a tandem +or four-in-hand he enters on a much more complex department of the art +of driving. In the first place he has now four reins instead of two to +manipulate, and the increase of weight on his hand, especially when four +horses are being driven, requires considerable strength of wrist to +support it without tiring. It is of the first importance, moreover, that +he should know instinctively the position in his hand of each of the +reins, and be able automatically and instantaneously to lay a finger on +any one of them. The driver who has to look at his reins to find the +off-side leader's rein, or who touches the near-side wheeler's in +mistake for it, is in peril of a catastrophe. It is therefore essential +that the reins should be correctly disposed between the fingers of the +left hand, and that the driver should as quickly as possible accustom +himself to handle them automatically. This is somewhat more difficult in +driving tandem than in driving four-in-hand, because in the latter case +there is greater spread of the reins in front of the hand than with +tandem, where the reins lie much more nearly parallel one above the +other. The actual holding of the reins is the same in both cases. The +coachman should be careful to take the reins in his hand before mounting +to the box-seat, as otherwise his team may make a start without his +having the means to control them. It is customary to hitch the reins, +ready for him to take them, on the outside terret (the ring on the pad +through which the rein runs) of the wheeler--the off-side wheeler in +four-in-hand. Standing on the ground beside the off-side wheel of his +carriage, ready to mount to the box-seat, the coachman, after drawing up +his reins till he almost feels the horses' mouths, must then let out +about a foot of slack in his off-side reins, in order that when on his +seat he may find all the reins as nearly as possible equal in length in +his hand. He mounts with them disposed in his right hand precisely as +they will be in his left when ready to start. The leaders' reins should +be separated by the forefinger, and the wheelers' by the middle finger. +The near-leader's rein will then be uppermost of the four, between the +forefinger and thumb; then between the forefinger and middle finger are +two reins together--the off-leader's and the near-wheeler's in the order +named; while at the bottom, between the middle and third fingers, is the +off-wheeler's rein. It will be found that held thus the reins spread +immediately in front of the hand in such a way that each several rein, +and each pair of reins--two near-side, two off-side, two wheelers' or +two leaders'--can be conveniently manipulated; and the proficient driver +can instinctively and instantaneously grasp any of them he chooses with +his right hand without having to turn his eyes from the road before him +to the reins in his hand. Having seated himself on the box and +transferred the reins, thus disposed, from the right to the left hand, +the coachman should shorten them till he just feels his wheelers' mouths +and holds back his leaders sufficiently to prevent them quite tightening +their traces; then, when he has taken the whip from its socket in his +right hand, he is ready to start. This is an operation requiring careful +management, to secure that leaders and wheelers start simultaneously; +for if the leaders start first they will be drawn up sharp by their +bits, or, what is worse, if their reins have not been sufficiently +shortened they will jump into their collars and possibly break a +swinging bar, and in either case they will be fretted and disconcerted +and will possibly in consequence either kick or rear; if the wheelers +start before the leaders they will ram the swinging bars under the tails +of the latter, with results equally unfortunate. The worst possible +method of starting is suddenly to give the horses their heads and use +the whip. But no positive rule can be laid down, for it is just one of +those points which depend largely on familiarity with the horses forming +the team. Horses even moderately accustomed to the work will generally +start best in obedience to the voice, and their attention may +simultaneously be aroused by gently feeling their mouths. When once +started the driver should at once see that his team is going straight. +If the leaders and wheelers are not exactly on the same line, this or +that rein must be shortened or lengthened as the case may require; and +it is to be noticed that as the near-wheeler's and off-leader's reins +lie together between the same fingers, a simultaneous shortening or +lengthening of these two reins will usually produce the desired result. +With rare exceptions, reins should be shortened or lengthened by pushing +them back or drawing them forward with the right hand from in front of +the driving hand, and not from behind it. As soon as the team is in +motion the leaders may be let out till they draw their traces taut; but +draught should be taken off them on falling ground or while rounding a +corner. Good drivers touch the reins as little as possible with the +whip-hand, and nothing is less workmanlike than for a coachman to act as +if he were an angler continually letting out or reeling in his line. In +rounding a corner a loop of an inch or two of the leaders' rein on the +side to which the turn is to be made is taken up by the right hand and +placed under the left thumb. This "points the leaders," who accordingly +make the required turn, while at the same time the right hand bears +lightly on the wheelers' rein of the opposite side, to prevent them +making the turn too sharply for safety to the coach behind them. As soon +as the turn is made--and all this applies equally to the passing of +other vehicles or obstacles on the road--the driver's left thumb +releases the loop, which runs out of itself, and the team returns to the +straight formation. A circumstance useful to bear in mind is that the +swinging bars are wider than the maximum width of the coach; +consequently the driver knows that wherever the swinging bars can pass +through with safety--and as they are before his eyes the calculation is +easy--the coach will safely follow. + + + The use of the whip. + +A necessary part of driving four horses or tandem is the proper use of +the whip. The novice, before beginning to drive, should acquire the +knack--which can only be learnt by practical instruction and +experiment--of catching up the thong of the whip on to the stick by a +flick of the wrist. With practice this is done almost automatically and +without looking at the whip. It is not merely an ornamental +accomplishment, but a necessary one; for in no other way can the whip be +kept in constant readiness for use either on wheelers or leaders as the +need of the moment may dictate. The point of the thong is confined in +the whip-hand when striking the wheelers (which should be done in front +of the pad), and is released for reaching the leaders. Considerable +dexterity is required in using the whip on the leaders without at the +same time touching, or at all events alarming or fretting, the wheelers. +The thong of the whip should reach the leaders from beneath the swinging +bar; and proficient "whips" can unerringly strike even the near leader +from under the off-side bar without disturbing the equanimity of any +other member of the team. This demands great skill and accuracy; but no +coachman is competent to drive four horses until he is able to touch +with the whip any particular horse that may require it, and no other. + +Essential as is proficiency in the use of the whip when driving four +horses, it is even more imperative for the driver of tandem. For in +four-in-hand the leaders act in some measure as a restraint upon each +other's freedom of action, whereas the leader in tandem is entirely +independent and therefore more difficult to control. If he takes it into +his head to turn completely round and face the driver, there is no +effectual means of preventing him. It is here that a prompt and accurate +use of the whip is important. A sharp cut with the thong of the whip on +the side to which he is turning will often drive the leader back into +his place. But it must be done instantaneously, and the driver who has +got his thong coiled round the stick of his whip, or who cannot make +certain of striking the horse on precisely the desired spot, will miss +the opportunity and may find his team in a sad mess, possibly with +disastrous results. If the leader, in spite of a stroke from the whip at +the right moment and on the right spot, still persists in turning, the +only thing to be done is to turn the wheeler also; and then when the +tandem has been straightened, to turn the horses back once more to their +original direction. For this reason it is never safe to harness a tandem +to a four-wheeled vehicle; because if it should be necessary to turn the +wheeler sharply round, the fore-carriage would probably lock and the +trap be overturned. Of comparatively recent years a great improvement +has been effected in the harnessing of a tandem by the introduction of +swinging bars similar to those used in four-in-hand. Formerly the +leading traces in tandem drew direct from tugs on the wheeler's hames, +or less frequently from the stops on the shafts. This left a +considerable length of trace which, when draught was taken off the +leader, hung slack between the two horses; with the result that either +of them might get a leg over the leading trace, with dangerous +consequences. In the more modern arrangement short traces attached to +the wheeler's tugs hold a bar, which is kept in place by a few inches of +chain from the kidney-link on the wheeler's collar. This bar is +connected by short traces or chains with a second bar to which the +leader's true traces are hooked in the usual way, allowing him a +comfortable distance clear of the bar precisely as in four-in-hand. The +leader thus draws as before from the wheeler's tugs; but the length of +trace is broken up by the two swinging bars, and as these are prevented +from falling low by their attachment to the wheeler's collar, the danger +from a too slack leading trace is reduced to a minimum; though care is +needed when the leader is not pulling to prevent the bar falling on his +hocks. + +Expert tandem driving, owing to the greater freedom of the leader from +control, is a more difficult art than the driving of four horses, in +spite of the fact that the weight on the hand is much less severe; but +the general principles of the two are the same. In Great Britain, +however, the coach-and-four is the more popular. It is more showy than +tandem; it keeps alive the romantic associations of the days when the +stagecoach was the ordinary means of locomotion; and a coach, or "drag," +accommodates a larger party of passengers to a race-meeting or other +expedition for pleasure than a dogcart. But for those whose means do not +permit the more costly luxury of a four-horse team, a tandem will be +found to make all the demand on skill and nerve which, in combination +with the taste for horses, makes the art of driving a source of +enjoyment. + + See Donald Walker, _British Manly Exercises: in which Riding, Driving, + Racing are now first described_ (London, 1834); Fuller, _Essay on + Wheel Carriages_ (London, 1828); William Bridges Adams, _English + Pleasure Carriages: their Origin, History, Materials, Construction_ + (London, 1837); _The Equestrian: A Handbook of Horsemanship, + containing Plain Rules for Riding, Driving and the Management of the + Horse_ (London, 1854); a Cavalry Officer, _The Handy Horse Book; or + Practical Instruction in Driving and the Management of the Horse_ + (London, 1865-1867, 1871-1881); H. J. Helm, _American Roadsters and + Trotting Horses_ (Chicago, 1878); E. M. Stratton, _The World on + Wheels_ (New York, 1878); J. H. Walsh ("Stonehenge"), _Riding and + Driving_ (London, 1863); James A. Garland, _The Private Stable_ (2nd + ed., Boston, 1902); the Duke of Beaufort, _Driving_ (The Badminton + Library, London, 1889), containing a bibliography; F. H. Huth, _Works + on Horses and Equitation: A Bibliographical Record of Hippology_ + (London, 1887). (R. J. M.) + + + + +DROGHEDA, a municipal borough, seaport and market town, on the southern +border of Co. Louth, Ireland, in the south parliamentary division, on +the river Boyne, about 4 m. from its mouth in Drogheda Bay, and 31-1/2 +m. N. by W. from Dublin on the Great Northern main line. Pop. (1901) +12,760. It occupies both banks of the river; but the northern division +is the larger of the two, and has received greater attention in modern +times. The ancient fortifications, still extant in the beginning of the +19th century, have disappeared almost entirely, but of the four gateways +one named after St Lawrence remains nearly perfect, consisting of two +loopholed circular towers; and there are considerable ruins of another, +the West or Butler Gate. Among the public buildings are a mansion-house +or mayoralty, with a suite of assembly rooms attached; and the Tholsel, +a square building with a cupola. St Peter's chapel formerly served as +the cathedral of the Roman Catholic archbishopric of Armagh; and in the +abbey of the Dominican nuns there is still preserved the head of Oliver +Plunkett, the archbishop who was executed at Tyburn in 1681 on an +unfounded charge of treason. There was formerly an archiepiscopal palace +in the town, built by Archbishop Hampton about 1620; and the Dominicans, +the Franciscans, the Augustinians, the Carmelites and the knights of St +John have monastic establishments. Of the Dominican monastery (1224) +there still exists the stately Magdalen tower; while of the Augustinian +abbey of St Mary d'Urso (1206) there are the tower and a fine pointed +arch. At the head of the educational institutions there is a classical +school endowed by Erasmus Smith. There is also a blue-coat school, +founded about 1727 for the education of freemen's sons. The present +building was erected in 1870. Benjamin Whitworth, M.P., was a generous +benefactor to the town, who built the Whitworth Hall, furnished half the +funds for the construction of waterworks, established a cotton factory, +and is commemorated by a statue in the Mall. The industrial +establishments comprise cotton, flax and flour mills, sawmills, +tanneries, salt and soap works, breweries, chemical manure and +engineering works. The town is the headquarters of the valuable Boyne +salmon-fishery. A brisk trade is carried on mainly in agricultural +produce, especially with Liverpool (which is distant 135 m. due E.) and +with Glasgow. Many works of improvement have been effected from time to +time in the harbour, the quays of which occupy both sides of the river, +the principal, 1000 yds. in length, being on the north side. Here is a +depth of 21 ft. at the highest and 14 ft. at the lowest tides. The tide +reaches 2-1/2 m. above the town to Oldbridge; and barges of 50 tons +burden can proceed 19 m. inland to Navan. The river is crossed by a +bridge for ordinary traffic, and by a fine railway viaduct. The town is +governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. + +In the earliest notices the town of Drogheda is called Inver-Colpa or +the Port of Colpa; the present name signifies "The Bridge over the +Ford." In 1152 the place is mentioned as the seat of a synod convened by +the papal legate, Cardinal Paparo; in 1224 it was chosen by Lucas de +Netterville, archbishop of Armagh, for the foundation of the Dominican +friary of which there are still remains; and in 1228 the two divisions +of the town received separate incorporation from Henry III. But there +grew up a strong feeling of hostility between Drogheda _versus Uriel_ +and Drogheda _versus Midiam_, in consequence of trading vessels lading +their cargoes in the latter or southern town, to avoid the pontage duty +levied in the former or northern town. At length, after much blood had +been shed in the dispute, Philip Bennett, a monk residing in the town, +succeeded by his eloquence, on the festival of Corpus Christi, 1412, in +persuading the authorities of the two corporations to send to Henry IV. +for a new charter sanctioning their combination, and this was granted on +the 1st of November. Drogheda was always considered by the English a +place of much importance. In the reign of Edward III. it was classed +along with Dublin, Waterford and Kilkenny as one of the four staple +towns of Ireland. Richard II. received in its Dominican monastery the +submissions of O'Neal, O'Donnell and other chieftains of Ulster and +Leinster. The right of coining money was bestowed on the town, and +parliaments were several times held within its walls. In the reign of +Edward IV. the mayor received a sword of state and an annuity of L20, in +recognition of the services rendered by the inhabitants at Malpus Bridge +against O'Reilly; the still greater honour of having a university with +the same privileges as that of Oxford remained a mere paper distinction, +owing to the poverty of the town and the unsettled state of the country; +and an attempt made by the corporation in modern times to resuscitate +their rights proved unsuccessful. In 1495 Poyning's laws were enacted by +a parliament held in the town. In the civil wars of 1641 the place was +besieged by O'Neal and the Northern Irish forces; but it was gallantly +defended by Sir Henry Tichbourne, and after a long blockade was relieved +by the Marquess of Ormond. The same nobleman relieved it a second time, +when it was invested by the Parliamentary army under Colonel Jones. In +1649 it was captured by Cromwell, after a short though spirited defence; +and nearly every individual within its walls, without distinction of age +or sex, was put to the sword. Thirty only escaped, who were afterwards +transported as slaves to Barbados. In 1690 it was garrisoned by King +James's army; but after the decisive battle of the Boyne (q.v.) it +surrendered to the conqueror without a struggle, in consequence of a +threat that quarter would not be granted if the town were taken by +storm. + +Drogheda ceased to be a parliamentary borough in 1885, and a county of a +town in 1898. Before 1885 it returned one member, and before the Union +in 1800 it returned four members to the Irish parliament. + +From the close of the 12th century, certainly long before the +Reformation and for some time after it, the primates of Ireland lived in +Drogheda. Being mostly Englishmen, they preferred to reside in the +portion of their diocese within the gate, and Drogheda, being a walled +town, was less liable to attack from the natives. From 1417 onwards +Drogheda was their chief place of residence and of burial. Its proximity +to Dublin, the seat of government and of the Irish parliament, in which +the primates were such prominent figures, induced them to prefer it to +_Ardmacha inter Hibernicos_. Archbishop O'Scanlain, who did much in the +building of the cathedral at Armagh, preferred to live at Drogheda, and +there he was buried in 1270. Near Drogheda in later times was the +primates' castle and summer palace at Termonfeckin, some ruins of which +remain. In Drogheda itself there is now not a vestige of the palace, +except the name "Palace Street." It stood at the corner of the main +street near St Lawrence's gate, and its grounds extended back to St +Peter's church. The primates of the 15th century were buried in or near +Drogheda. After the Reformation five in succession lived in Drogheda and +there were buried, though there is now nothing to fix the spot where any +of them lies. The last of these--Christopher Hampton--who was +consecrated to the primacy in 1613, repaired the ruined cathedral of +Armagh. He built a new and handsome palace at Drogheda, and he repaired +the old disused palace at Armagh and bestowed on it a demesne of 300 +acres. + + + + +DROIT (Fr. for "right," from Lat. _directus_, straight), a legal title, +claim or due; a term used in English law in the phrase _droits of +admiralty_, certain customary rights or perquisites formerly belonging +to the lord high admiral, but now to the crown for public purposes and +paid into the exchequer. These _droits_ (see also WRECK) consisted of +flotsam, jetsam, ligan, treasure, deodand, derelict, within the +admiral's jurisdiction; all fines, forfeitures, ransoms, recognizances +and pecuniary punishments; all sturgeons, whales, porpoises, dolphins, +grampuses and such large fishes; all ships and goods of the enemy coming +into any creek, road or port, by durance or mistake; all ships seized at +sea, salvage, &c., with the share of prizes--such shares being +afterwards called "tenths," in imitation of the French, who gave their +admiral a _droit de dixieme_. The _droits of admiralty_ were definitely +surrendered for the benefit of the public by Prince George of Denmark, +when lord high admiral of England in 1702. American law does not +recognize any such _droits_, and the disposition of captured property is +regulated by various acts of Congress. + +The term _droit_ is also used in various legal connexions (for _French +law_, see FRANCE: _law_), such as the _droit_ of angary (q.v.), the +_droit d'achat_ (right of pre-emption) in the case of contraband (q.v.), +the feudal _droit de bris_ (see WRECK), the _droit de regale_ or ancient +royal privilege of claiming the revenues and patronage of a vacant +bishopric, and the feudal droits of seignory generally. + + + + +DROITWICH, a market town and municipal borough in the Droitwich +parliamentary division of Worcestershire, England, 5-1/2 m. N.N.E. of +Worcester, and 126 m. N.W. by W. from London by the Great Western +railway. Pop. (1901) 4201. It is served by the Bristol-Birmingham line +of the Midland railway, and by the Worcester-Shrewsbury line of the +Great Western. It stands on the river Salwarpe, an eastern tributary of +the Severn. There is connexion with the Severn by canal. There are three +parish churches, St Andrew, St Peter and St Michael, of which the two +first are fine old buildings in mixed styles, while St Michael's is +modern. The principal occupation is the manufacture of the salt obtained +from the brine springs or _wyches_, to which the town probably owes both +its name and its origin. The springs also give Droitwich a considerable +reputation as a health resort. There are Royal Brine baths, supplied +with water of extreme saltness, St Andrew's baths, and a private bath +hospital. The water is used in cases of gout, rheumatism and kindred +diseases. Owing to the pumping of the brine for the salt-works there is +a continual subsidence of the ground, detrimental to the buildings, and +new houses are mostly built in the suburbs. In the pleasant well-wooded +district surrounding Droitwich the most noteworthy points are Hindlip +Hall, 3 m. S., where (in a former mansion) some of the conspirators in +the Gunpowder Plot defied search for eight days (1605); and Westwood, a +fine hall of Elizabethan and Carolean date on the site of a Benedictine +nunnery, a mile west of Droitwich, which offered a retreat to many +Royalist cavaliers and churchmen during the Commonwealth. Droitwich is +governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 1856 acres. + +A Roman villa, with various relics, has been discovered here, but it is +doubtful how far the Romans made use of the brine springs. Droitwich +(_Wic_, _Salturic_, _Wich_) probably owed its origin to the springs, +which are mentioned in several charters before the Conquest. At the time +of the Domesday Survey all the salt springs belonged to the king, who +received from them a yearly farm of L65, but the manor was divided +between several churches and tenants-in-chief. The burgesses of +Droitwich are mentioned in the Domesday Survey, but they probably only +had certain franchises in connexion with the salt trade. The town is +first called a borough in the pipe roll of 2 Henry II., when an aid of +20s. was paid, but the burgesses did not receive their first charter +until 1215, when King John granted them freedom from toll throughout the +kingdom and the privilege of holding the town at a fee-farm of L100. The +burgesses appear to have had much difficulty in paying this large farm; +in 1227 the king pardoned twenty-eight marks of the thirty-two due as +tallage, while in 1237 they were L23 in arrears for the farm. They +continued, however, to pay the farm until the payment gradually lapsed +in the 18th century. In medieval times Droitwich was governed by two +bailiffs and twelve jurats, the former being elected every year by the +burgesses; Queen Mary granted the incorporation charter in 1554 under +the name of the bailiffs and burgesses. James I. in 1625 granted another +and fuller charter, which remained the governing charter until the +Municipal Reform Act. King John's charter granted the burgesses a fair +on the feast of SS. Andrew and Nicholas lasting for eight days, but +Edward III. in 1330 granted instead two fairs on the vigil and day of St +Thomas the Martyr and the vigil and day of SS. Simon and Jude. Queen +Mary granted three new fairs, and James I. changed the market day from +Monday to Friday. + + + + +DROME, a department in the south-east of France, formed of parts of +Dauphine and Provence, and bounded W. by the Rhone, which separates it +from Ardeche, N. and N.E. by Isere, E. by Hautes-Alpes, S.E. by +Basses-Alpes, and S. by Vaucluse; area 2533 sq. m.; pop. (1906) 297,270. +Drome is traversed from east to west by numerous rivers of the Rhone +basin, chief among which are the Isere in the north, the Drome in the +centre and the Aygues in the south. The left bank of the Rhone is +bordered by alluvial plains and low hills, but to the east of this zone +the department is covered to the extent of two-thirds of its surface by +spurs of the Alps, sloping down towards the west. To the north of the +Drome lie the Vercors and the Royans, a region of forest-clad ridges +running uniformly north and south. South of that river the mountain +system is broken, irregular and intersected everywhere by torrents. The +most easterly portion of the department, where it touches the mountains +of the Devoluy, contains its culminating summit (7890 ft.). North of the +Isere stretches a district of low hills terminating on the limits of the +department in the Valloire, its most productive portion. The climate, +except in the valleys bordering the Rhone, is cold, and winds blow +incessantly. Snow is visible on the mountain-tops during the greater +part of the year. + +The agriculture of the department is moderately prosperous. The main +crops are wheat, which is grown chiefly on the banks of the Isere and +Rhone, oats and potatoes. Large flocks of sheep feed on the pastures in +the south; cattle-raising is carried on principally in the north-east. +Good wines, among which the famous Hermitage growth ranks first, are +grown on the hills and plains near the Rhone and Drome. Fruit culture is +much practised. Olives and figs are grown in the south; the cultivation +of mulberries and walnuts is more widely spread. In the rearing of +silkworms Drome ranks high in importance among French departments. The +Montelimar district is noted for its truffles, which are also found +elsewhere in the department. The mineral products of Drome include +lignite, blende, galena, calamine, freestone, lime, cement, potter's +clay and kaolin. Brick and tile works, potteries and porcelain +manufactories exist in several localities. The industries comprise +flour-milling, distilling, wood-sawing, turnery and dyeing. The chief +textile industry is the preparation and weaving of silk, which is +carried on in a number of towns. Woollen and cotton goods are also +manufactured. Leather working and boot-making, which are carried on on a +large scale at Romans, are important, and the manufacture of machinery, +hats, confectionery and paper employs much labour. Drome exports fruit, +oil, cheese, wine, wool, live stock and its manufactured articles; the +chief import is coal. It is served by the Paris-Lyon railway, and the +Rhone and Isere furnish over 100 m. of navigable waterway. The canal de +la Bourne, the only one in the department, is used for purposes of +irrigation only. Drome is divided into the arrondissements of Valence, +Die, Montelimar and Nyons, comprising 29 cantons and 379 communes. The +capital is Valence, which is the seat of a bishopric of the province of +Avignon. The department forms part of the academie (educational +division) of Grenoble, where its court of appeal is also located, and of +the region of the XIV. army corps. + +Besides Valence, the chief towns of the department are Die, Montelimar, +Crest and Romans (qq.v.). Nyons is a small industrial town with a +medieval bridge and remains of ramparts. Suze-la-Rousse is dominated by +a fine chateau with fortifications of the 12th and 14th centuries; in +the interior the buildings are in the Renaissance style. At St Donat +there are remains of the palace of the kings of Cisjuran Burgundy; +though but little of the building is of an earlier date than the 12th +century, it is the oldest example of civil architecture in France. The +churches of Leoncel, St Restitut and La Garde-Adhemar, all of Romanesque +architecture, are also of antiquarian interest. St Paul-Trois-Chateaux, +an old Roman town, once the seat of a bishopric, has a Romanesque +cathedral. At Grignan there are remains of the Renaissance chateau where +Madame de Sevigne died. At Tain there is a sacrificial altar of A.D. +184. + + + + +DROMEDARY (from the Gr. [Greek: dromas, dromados], running, [Greek: +dramein], to run), a word applied to swift riding camels of either the +Arabian or the Bactrian species. (See CAMEL.) + + + + +DROMORE, a market town of Co. Down, Ireland, in the west parliamentary +division, on the upper Lagan, 17-1/2 m. S.W. of Belfast by a branch of +the Great Northern railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 2307. It is in +the linen manufacturing district. The town is of high antiquity, and was +the seat of a bishopric, which grew out of an abbey of Canons Regular +attributed to St Colman in the 6th century, and was united in 1842 to +Down and Connor. The town and cathedral were wholly destroyed during the +insurrection of 1641, and the present church was built by Bishop Jeremy +Taylor in 1661, who is buried here, as also is Thomas Percy, another +famous bishop of the diocese, who laid out the fine grounds of the +palace. Remains of a castle and earthworks are to be seen, together with +a large rath or encampment known as the Great Fort. The town gives its +name to a Roman Catholic diocese. + + + + +DROMOS (Gr. for running-place), in architecture, the name of the +entrance passage leading down to the beehive tombs in Greece, open to +the air and enclosed between stone walls. + + + + +DRONE, in music[1] (corresponding to Fr. _bourdon_; Ger. _Summer_, +_Stimmer_, _Hummel_; Ital. _bordone_), the bass pipe or pipes of the +bagpipe, having no lateral holes and therefore giving out the same note +without intermission as long as there is wind in the bag, thus forming a +continuous pedal, or drone bass. The drone consists of a jointed pipe +having a cylindrical bore and usually terminating in a bell. During the +middle ages bagpipes are represented in miniatures with conical +drones,[2] and M. Praetorius[3] gives a drawing of a bagpipe, which he +calls _Grosser Bock_, having two drones ending in a curved ram's horn. +The drone pipe has, instead of a mouthpiece, a socket fitted with a +reed, and inserted into a stock or short pipe immovably fixed in an +aperture of the bag. The reed is of the kind known as beating reed or +_squeaker_, prepared by making a cut in the direction of the +circumference of the pipe and splitting back the reed from the cut +towards a joint or knot, thus leaving a flap or tongue which vibrates or +beats, alternately opening and closing the aperture. The sound is +produced by the stream of air forced from the bag by the pressure of the +performer's arm causing the reed tongue to vibrate over the aperture, +thus setting the whole column of air in vibration. Like all cylindrical +pipes with reed mouthpiece, the drone pipe has the acoustic properties +of the closed pipe and produces a note of the same pitch as that of an +open pipe twice its length. The conical drones mentioned above would, +therefore, speak an octave higher than a cylindrical drone of the same +length. The drones are tuned by means of sliding tubes at the joints. + +The drones of the old French _cornemuse_ played in concert with the +_hautbois de Poitou_ (see BAGPIPE), and differing from the shepherd's +_cornemuse_ or _chalemie_, formed an exception to this method of +construction, being furnished with double reeds like that of the oboe. +The drones of the musette and of the union pipes of Ireland are also +constructed on an altogether different plan. Instead of having long +cumbersome pipes, pointing over the shoulder, the musette drones consist +of a short barrel containing lengths of tubing necessary for four or +five drones, reduced to the most compact form and resembling the rackett +(q.v.). The narrow bores are pierced longitudinally through the +thickness of the barrel in parallel channels communicating with each +other in twos or threes, and so arranged as to provide the requisite +length for each drone. The reeds are double reeds all set in the wooden +stock within the bag. By means of regulating slides (called in English +_regulators_ and in French _layettes_), which may be pushed up and down +in longitudinal grooves round the circumference of the barrel, the +length of each drone tube can be so regulated that a simple harmonic +bass consisting of the common chord is obtainable. In the union pipes +the drones are separate pipes having keys played by the elbow, which +correspond to the sliders in the musette drone and produce the same kind +of harmonic bass. The modern Egyptian arghool consists of a kind of +clarinet with a drone attached to it by means of waxed thread; in this +case the beating reed of the drone is set in vibration directly by the +breath of the performer, who takes both mouthpieces into his mouth, +without the medium of a wind reservoir. Mersenne gave very clear +descriptions of the construction of cornemuse and musette, with clear +illustrations of the reeds and stock.[4] There are allusions in the +Greek classics which point to the existence of a pipe with a drone, +either of the arghool or the bagpipe type.[5] (K. S.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] For the "drone," the male of the honey bee, see BEE. The musical + sense, both for the noise made and for the instrument, comes from the + buzzing of the bee. + + [2] British Museum, Add. MS. 12,228 (Italian work), _Roman du Roy + Meliadus_, 14th century, fol. 221 b., and Add. MS. 18,851, end 15th + century (Spanish work illustrated by Flemish artists), fol. 13. + + [3] _Syntagma musicum. Theatrum instrumentorum_, pl. xi. No. 6. + + [4] _L'Harmonie universelle_ (Paris, 1636-1637), t. ii. bk. 5, pp. + 282-287 and p. 305. + + [5] Plato, _Crito_, 54; Aristophanes, _Acharnians_, 865, where some + musicians are in derision dubbed "bumblebee pipers." See BAGPIPE; + also Kathleen Schlesinger, "Researches into the Origin of the Organs + of the Ancients," _Intern. mus. Ges._ vol. ii. (1901), Sammelband ii. + pp. 188-202. + + + + +DRONFIELD, an urban district in the north-eastern parliamentary division +of Derbyshire, England, 6 m. S. of Sheffield, on the Midland railway. +Pop. (1901) 3809. It lies on the small river Drone, a tributary of the +Rother, in a busy industrial district in which are numerous coal-mines, +and there are iron foundries and manufactures of tools and other iron +and steel goods. The church of St John the Baptist, with a lofty spire, +is a good example of Decorated work, with Perpendicular additions. + + + + +DROPSY (contracted from the old word _hydropisy_, derived from the Gr. +[Greek: udrops]; [Greek: udor], water, and [Greek: ops], appearance), +the name given to a collection of simple serous fluid in all or any of +the cavities of the body, or in the meshes of its tissues. Dropsy of the +subcutaneous connective tissue is termed _oedema_ when it is localized +and limited in extent; when more diffuse it is termed _anasarca_; the +term _oedema_ is also applied to dropsies of some of the internal +organs, notably to that of the lungs. _Hydrocephalus_ signifies an +accumulation of fluid within the ventricles of the brain or in the +arachnoid cavity; _hydrothorax_, a collection of fluid in one or both +pleural cavities; _hydropericardium_, in the pericardium; _ascites_, in +the peritoneum; and, when _anasarca_ is conjoined with the accumulation +of fluid in one or more of the serous cavities, the dropsy is said to be +general (see also PATHOLOGY). + +Dropsy (excluding "epidemic dropsy," for which see below) is essentially +a symptom and not a specific disease, and is merely an exaggeration of a +certain state of health. Fluid, known as lymph, is continually passing +through the capillary walls into the tissues, and in health this is +removed as fast as it is exuded, in one or more of three ways: part of +it is used in the nutrition of the tissues, part is returned to the +general circulation by the veins, and part by the lymphatics. Any +accumulation constitutes dropsy and is a sign of disease, though not a +disease in itself. The serous effusions due to inflammation are not +included under the term dropsy. A dropsical fluid varies considerably in +composition according to its position in the body, but varies only +slightly according to the disease which has given rise to it. Its +specific gravity ranges between 1008 and 1018; the mineral salts present +are the same and in about the same proportion as those of blood, nor do +they vary with the position of the exudation. The quantity of albumin, +however, depends much on the position of the fluid, and slightly on the +underlying disease. In oedema the fluid contains only traces, whereas a +pleural or peritoneal effusion is always highly albuminous. Also an +effusion due to heart disease contains more albumin than one due to +kidney disease. In appearance it may be colourless, greenish or reddish +from the presence of blood pigment, or yellowish from the presence of +bile pigment; transparent or opalescent or milky from the presence of +fatty matter derived from the chyle. The membrane from which the +dropsical fluid escapes is healthy, or at least not inflamed, and only +somewhat sodden by long contact with the fluid--the morbid condition on +which the transudation depends lying elsewhere. + +The simplest cause of dropsy is purely mechanical, blood pressure being +raised beyond a certain point owing to venous obstruction. This may be +due to thrombosis of a vein as in phlegmasia dolens (white leg), +retardation of venous circulation as in varicose veins, or obstruction +of a vein due to the pressure of an aneurism or tumour. Cardiac and +renal dropsy are more complicated in origin, but cardiac dropsy is +probably due to diminished absorption, and renal dropsy, when +unassociated with heart failure, to increased exudation. But the +starting point of acute renal dropsy, of the dropsy sometimes occurring +in diabetes, and that of chlorosis is the toxic condition of the blood. +For accounts of the various local dropsies see HYDROCEPHALUS; ASCITES; +LIVER, &c.; general dropsy, or dropsy which depends on causes acting on +the system at large, is due chiefly to diseases of the heart, kidneys or +lungs, occasionally on lardaceous disease, more rarely still on diabetes +or one of the anaemias. + +Broadly speaking, 50% of cases of general dropsy are due to disease of +the heart or aorta, and 25% to renal troubles. The natural tendency of +all diseases of the heart is to transfer the blood pressure from the +arteries to the veins, and, so soon as this has reached a sufficient +degree, dropsy in the form of local _oedema_ commences to appear at +whatever may be the most depending part of the body--the instep and +ankle in the upright position, the lower part of the back or the lungs +if the patient be in bed--and this tends gradually to increase till all +the cavities of the body are invaded by the serous accumulation. The +diseases of the lungs which produce dropsy are those which obstruct the +passage of the blood through them, such as emphysema and fibrosis, and +thus act precisely like disease of the heart in transferring the blood +pressure from the arteries to the veins, inducing dropsy in exactly a +similar manner. The dropsy of renal disease is dependent for the most +part on an excess of exudation, due largely to an increase of arterial +and cardiac tension. This in its turn produces arterial thickening and +cardiac hypertrophy, which, if the case be sufficiently prolonged, +brings about a natural removal of the fluid. In kidney cases, in the +absence of cardiac disease, the dropsy will be found to appear first +about the loose cellular tissue surrounding the eyes, where the vessels, +turgid with watery blood, have less efficient support. The dropsy of +chlorosis is very similar to renal dropsy, a toxic condition of blood +being present in both; also other forms of anaemia, as also hydraemia, +tend to produce or assist in the production of dropsical effusions. + +For the treatment of dropsy the reader is referred to the articles on +the several diseases of which it is a symptom. Briefly, however, tapping +of the abdomen or puncture of the legs are constantly resorted to in +severe cases. Dehydration by diet is very valuable under certain +circumstances when the dropsy is other than renal. And there is the +routine treatment by drugs, purgative, diaphoretic and diuretic as the +symptoms of the case may demand. + +It may be well to mention that there are certain affections which may be +termed _spurious dropsies_, such as _ovarian dropsy_, which is only a +cystic disease of the ovary; _hydrometria_, dropsy of the uterus, due to +inflammatory occlusion of the os uteri; _hydronephrosis_, dropsy of the +kidney, due to obstruction of the ureter, and subsequent distension of +these organs by serous accumulations; other hollow organs may also be +similarly affected. + +Having no known relation to the preceding is _epidemic dropsy_, the +first recorded outbreak of which occurred in Calcutta in the year 1877. +It disappeared during the hot weather of the following year, only to +recur over a wider area in the cold months of 1878 to 1879, and once +again in the cold of 1879 to 1880. Since then only isolated cases have +been recorded in the immediate neighbourhood of Calcutta, though +epidemics have broken out in other places both by land and sea. At the +end of 1902 an outbreak occurred in the Barisal gaol, Bengal, in which +nearly one-third of the cases ended fatally. Dropsy was an invariable +feature of the disease, and was either the first symptom or occurred +early. The lower limbs were first affected, trunk and upper limbs later +in severe cases, the face very rarely. It was accompanied by pyrexia, +gastro-enteritis, deep-seated pains in limbs and body, and burning and +pricking of the skin. Various rashes appeared early in the attack, while +eczema, desquamation and even ulceration supervened later. Anaemia was +very marked, giving rise in Mauritius to the name of acute anaemic +dropsy. The duration of the disease was very variable, the limits being +three weeks and three months. Death was often sudden, resulting chiefly +from cardiac and respiratory complications. The cause of the disease has +remained obscure, but there is reason to suppose that it was originally +imported from the Madras famine tracts. + + + + +DROPWORT, in botany, the common name for a species of _Spiraea_, _S. +filipendula_ (nat. ord. _Rosaceae_), found in dry pastures. It is a +perennial herb, with much divided radical leaves and an erect stem 2 to +3 ft. high bearing a loose terminal inflorescence of small white +flowers, closely resembling those of the nearly allied species _S. +Ulmaria_, or meadowsweet. + +Water Dropwort, _Oenanthe crocata_ (nat. ord. _Umbelliferae_), is a tall +herbaceous plant growing in marshes and ditches. The stem, which springs +from a cluster of thickened roots, is stout, branched, hollow and 2 to 5 +ft. high; the leaves are large and pinnately divided, and the flowers +are borne in a compound umbel, the long rays bearing dense partial +umbels of small white flowers. The plant, which is very poisonous, is +often mistaken for celery. + + + + +DROSHKY (Russ. _drozhki_, diminutive of _drogi_, a wagon), a light +four-wheeled uncovered carriage used in Russia. Properly it consists of +two pairs of wheels joined by a board. This forms a seat for the +passengers who sit sideways, while the driver sits astride in front. The +word _Droschke_, however, is applied especially in Germany to light +carriages generally which ply for hire. + + + + +DROSTE-HULSHOFF, ANNETTE ELISABETH, FREIIN VON (1797-1848), German poet, +was born at the family seat of Hulshoff near Munster in Westphalia on +the 10th of January 1797. Her early mental training was largely +influenced by her cousin, Clemens August, Freiherr von Droste zu +Vischering, who, as archbishop of Cologne, became notorious for his +extreme ultramontane views (see below); and she received a more liberal +education than in those days ordinarily fell to a woman's lot. After +prolonged visits among the intellectual circles at Coblenz, Bonn and +Cologne, she retired to the estate of Ruschhaus near Munster, belonging +to her mother's family. In 1841, owing to delicate health, she went to +reside in the house of her brother-in-law, the well-known scholar, +Joseph, Freiherr von Lassberg (1770-1855), at Schloss Meersburg on the +Lake of Constance, where she met Levin Schucking (q.v.); and there she +died on the 24th of May 1848. Annette von Droste-Hulshoff is, beyond +doubt, the most gifted and original of German women poets. Her verse is +strong and vigorous, but often unmusical even to harshness; one looks in +vain for a touch of sentimentality or melting sweetness in it. As a +lyric poet, she is at her best when she is able to attune her thoughts +to the sober landscape of the Westphalian moorlands of her home. Her +narrative poetry, and especially _Das Hospiz auf dem Grossen St Bernard_ +and _Die Schlacht im Loener Bruch_ (both 1838), belongs to the best +German poetry of its kind. She was a strict Roman Catholic, and her +religious poems, published in 1852, after her death, under the title +_Das geistliche Jahr, nebst einem Anhang religiuser Gedichte_, enjoyed +great popularity. + + Annette von Droste-Hulshoff's _Gedichte_ were first published in 1844 + during her lifetime, and a number of her poems were translated into + English by Thomas Medwin. The most complete edition of her works is + that in 4 vols. edited by E. von Droste-Hulshoff (Munster, 1886). The + _Ausgewahlte Gedichte_ were edited by W. von Scholz (Leipzig, 1901). + See Levin Schucking, _Annette von Droste-Hulshoff, ein Lebensbild_ + (2nd ed., Hanover, 1871)--her letters to L. Schucking were published + at Leipzig in 1893; also H. Hueffer, _Annette von Droste-Hulshoff und + ihre Werke_ (Gotha, 1887), and W. Kreiten, _Annette von + Droste-Hulshoff_ (2nd ed., Paderborn, 1900). + + + + +DROSTE-VISCHERING, CLEMENS AUGUST, BARON VON (1773-1845), German Roman +Catholic divine, was born at Munster on the 21st of January 1773. He was +educated in his native town and entered the priesthood in 1798; in 1807 +the local chapter elected him vicar-general. This office he resigned in +1813 through his opposition to Napoleon, but assumed it again after the +battle of Waterloo (1815) until a disagreement with the Prussian +government in 1820 led to his abdication. He remained in private life +until 1835, when he was appointed archbishop of Cologne. Here again his +zeal for the supremacy of the church led him to break the agreement +between the state and the Catholic bishops which he had signed at his +installation, and he was arrested by the Prussian government in November +1837. A battle of pamphlets raged for some time; Droste was not +re-installed but was obliged to accept a coadjutor. His chief works +were: _Uber die Religionsfreiheit der Katholiken_ (1817), and _Uber den +Frieden unter der Kirche und den Staaten_ (1843). + + See Carl Mirbt's article in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyk. fur prot. Theol._ + v. 23. + + + + +DROUAIS, JEAN GERMAIN (1763-1788), French historical painter, was born +at Paris on the 25th of November 1763. His father, Francois Hubert +Drouais, and his grandfather, Hubert Drouais, were well-known portrait +painters; and it was from his father that he received his first artistic +instruction. He was afterwards entrusted to the care of Brenet, an +excellent teacher, though his own pictures did not take high rank. In +1780 David, who had just returned from Rome, opened a school of painting +in Paris, and Drouais was one of his earliest and most promising pupils. +He adopted the classical style of his master, and gave his whole time to +study--painting during the day, and spending a great part of every night +in designing. For weeks together it is said that he never left his +studio. In 1783 he was admitted to compete for the great prize of +painting offered by the Academy, the subject being the "Widow of Nain." +After inspecting the works of his fellow-competitors, however, he lost +hope and destroyed his own canvas, but was consoled by the assurance of +his master David that had he not done so he would have won the prize. +Next year he was triumphantly successful, the "Woman of Canaan at the +Feet of Christ," with which he gained the prize, being compared by +competent critics with the works of Poussin. He was carried shoulder +high by his fellow-students through the streets to his mother's house, +and a place was afterwards found for his picture in the Louvre. His +success making him only the more eager to perfect himself in his art, he +accompanied David to Rome, where he worked even more assiduously than in +Paris. He was most strongly influenced by the remains of ancient art and +by the works of Raphael. Goethe, who was at Rome at the time it was +finished, has recorded the deep impression made by his "Marius at +Minturno," which he characterizes as in some respects superior to the +work of David, his master. The last picture which he completed was his +"Philoctetus on the Island of Lemnos." He died on the 15th of July +1788. A monument to his memory was erected by his fellow-students in the +church of Santa Maria in the Via Lata. + + + + +DROUET, JEAN BAPTISTE (1763-1824), French Revolutionist, chiefly noted +for the part he played in the arrest of Louis XVI. at Varennes, was born +at Sainte-Menehould. He served for seven years in the army, and +afterwards assisted his father, who was post-master of his native town. +The carriages conveying the royal family on their flight to the frontier +stopped at his door on the evening of the 21st of June 1791; and the +passengers, travelling under assumed names, were recognized by Drouet, +who immediately took steps which led to their arrest and detection on +reaching Varennes. For this service the Assembly awarded him 30,000 +francs, but he appears to have declined the reward. In September 1792 he +was elected deputy to the Convention, and took his place with the most +violent party. He voted the death of the king without appeal, showed +implacable hostility to the Girondins, and proposed the slaughter of all +English residents in France. Sent as commissioner to the army of the +north, he was captured at the siege of Maubeuge and imprisoned at +Spielberg till the close of 1795. He then became a member of the Council +of Five Hundred, and was named secretary. Drouet was implicated in the +conspiracy of Babeuf, and was imprisoned; but he made his escape into +Switzerland, and thence to Teneriffe. There he took part in the +successful resistance to the attempt of Nelson on the island, in 1797, +and later visited India. The first empire found in him a docile +sub-prefect of Sainte-Menehould. After the second Restoration he was +compelled to quit France. Returning secretly he settled at Macon, under +the name of Merger and a guise of piety, and preserved his incognito +till his death on the 11th of April 1824. + + See G. Lenotre, _Le Drame de Varennes_ (Paris, 1905). + + + + +DROWNING AND LIFE SAVING. To "drown" (a verb used both transitively and +intransitively, of which the origin, though traced to earlier forms, is +unknown) is to suffer or inflict death by submersion in water, or +figuratively to submerge entirely in water or some other liquid. As a +form of ancient capital punishment, the method of drowning is referred +to at the end of this article, but the interest of the subject is mainly +associated with rescue-work in cases of accident. + +Death from drowning is the result of asphyxia, due to the stoppage of a +supply of fresh air to the lungs. There is a certain amount of +stationary air in the lungs, and into this is diffused oxygen from the +fresh air taken in, while the carbonic acid which it has taken from the +blood through the walls of the capillaries is driven out. This process +of exchange is ever proceeding, the whole of it being regulated from the +nervous centre at the base of the brain. When a person gets under water +and cannot swim, there is a natural tendency to struggle, and in the +efforts to respire water is drawn into the windpipe and cough is brought +on. This expels the air from the lungs with the water which threatened +to suffocate him, and as further efforts are made to respire more water +is taken in and has to be swallowed. Meanwhile, the oxygen in the lungs +is gradually diminishing, the quantity of carbonic acid is increasing, +and at length the air in the lungs becomes too impure to effect an +exchange with the blood. Then the blood passing into the heart becomes +venous and the heart begins to send out venous instead of arterial blood +to all parts of the body. Immediately a dull, sickening pain becomes +apparent at the base of the neck, and insensibility rapidly ensues. This +arises from the affection of the respiratory nerve centre. In a short +space of time the face becomes dark and congested through the veins +being gorged with blood, and the heart ultimately ceases to beat. + +When a person unable to swim falls into the water, he usually rises to +the surface, throws up his arms and calls for help. This, with the water +swallowed, will make him sink, and if the arms are moved above the head +when under water, he will, as a natural consequence, sink still lower. +The struggle will be prolonged a few seconds, and then probably cease +for a time, allowing him to rise again, though perhaps not sufficiently +high to enable him to get another breath of air. If still conscious, he +will renew his struggle, more feebly perhaps, but with the same result. +As soon as insensibility occurs, the body sinks altogether, owing to the +loss of air and the filling of the stomach with water. There is a +general belief that a drowning person must rise three times before he +finally sinks, but this is a fallacy. The question whether he rises at +all, or how often he does so, entirely depends upon circumstances. A man +may get entangled among weeds, which prevent his coming to the surface, +or he may die through heart failure from the shock or fright of entering +the water. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--1st Release Method.] + +On seeing a person struggling in the water in danger of drowning, no +time should be lost in going to his assistance, for he may sink at once, +and then there is danger of missing the body when searching under water +for it, or it may get entangled among weeds and then the rescuer's task +is rendered doubly dangerous. Before diving in to the rescue the boots +and heavy clothing should be discarded if possible, and in cases where a +leap has to be made from a height, such as a bridge, high embankment, +vessel or pier, or where the depth of the water is not known, it is best +to drop in feet first. Where weeds abound there is always danger of +entanglement, and therefore progress should be made in the direction of +the stream. When approaching a drowning man there is always the danger +of being clutched, but a swimmer who knows the right way to deal with a +man in the water can easily avoid this; but if through some mistake he +finds himself seized by the drowning person, a necessary thing for the +swimmer to do is to take advantage of his knowledge of the water and +keep uppermost, as this weakens the drowning person and makes the effort +of effecting a release much easier than would otherwise be the case. To +the Royal Life Saving Society in England is due the credit of +disseminating, throughout the entire world, the ideas of swimmers, based +on practical experience, as to the safest methods which should be +adopted for release and rescue, and their methods, as well as the +approved ones for resuscitation, are now taught in almost every school +and college. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--2nd Release Method.] + +If the rescuer be held by the wrists, he must turn both arms +simultaneously against the drowning person's thumbs, and bring his arms +at right angles to the body, thus dislocating the thumbs of the drowning +person if he does not leave go (fig. 1). If he be clutched round the +neck he must take a deep breath and lean well over the drowning person, +at the same time placing one hand in the small of his back, then raise +the other arm in line with the shoulder, and pass it over the drowning +person's arm, then pinch the nostrils close with the fingers, and at the +same time place the palm of the hand on the chin and push away with all +possible force. By the firm holding of the nose the drowning person is +made to open his mouth for breathing, and as he will then be under +water, choking ensues and he gives way to the rescuer, who then gains +complete control (fig. 2). One of the most dangerous clutches is that +round the body and arms or round the body only. When so tackled the +rescuer should lean well over the drowning person, take a breath as +before, and either withdraw both arms in an upward direction in front of +his body, or else act in the same way as when releasing oneself when +clutched round the neck. In any case one hand must be placed on the +drowning man's shoulder, and the palm of the other hand against his +chin, and at the same time one knee should be brought up against the +lower part of his chest. Then, with a strong and sudden push, the arms +and legs should be stretched out straight and the whole weight of the +body thrown backwards. This sudden and totally unexpected action will +break the clutch and leave the rescuer free to get hold of the drowning +person in such a manner as to be able to bring him to land (fig. 3). + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--3rd Release Method.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Easiest method of carrying a person not +struggling.] + +There are several practical methods of carrying a person through the +water, the easiest assistance to render being that to a swimmer attacked +by cramp or exhaustion, or a drowning person who may be obedient and +remain quiet when approached and assured of safety. Then the person +assisted should place his arms on the rescuer's shoulders, close to the +neck, with the arms at full stretch, lie on his back perfectly still, +with the head well back. The rescuer will then be uppermost, and having +his arms and legs free can, with the breast stroke, make rapid progress +to the shore; indeed a good pace can easily be made (fig. 4). In this, +as in the other methods afterwards described, every care should be taken +to keep the face of the drowning person above the water. All jerking, +struggling or tugging should be avoided, and the stroke of the legs be +regular and well timed, thus husbanding strength for further effort. The +drowning person being able to breathe with freedom is reassured, and is +likely to cease struggling, feeling that he is in safe hands. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.--1st Rescue Method.] + +When a drowning person is not struggling, but yet seems likely to do so +when approached, the best method of rescue is to swim straight up, turn +him on his back, and then place the hands on either side of his face. +Then the rescuer should lie on his back, holding the drowning man in +front of him, and swim with the back stroke, always taking care to keep +the man's face above water (fig. 5). If the man be struggling and in a +condition difficult to manage, he should be turned on his back as +before, and a firm hold taken of his arms just above his elbows. Then +the man's arms should be drawn up at right angles to his body and the +rescuer should start swimming with the back stroke (fig. 6). He should +take particular care not to go against the current or stream, and +thereby avoid exhaustion. If the arms be difficult to grasp, or the +struggling so violent as to prevent a firm hold, the rescuer should slip +his hands under the armpits of the drowning person, and place them on +his chest or round his arms, then raise them at right angles to his +body, thus placing the drowning person completely in his power. The +journey to land can then be made by swimming on the back as in the other +methods (fig. 7). In carrying a person through the water, it will be of +much advantage to keep his elbows well out from the sides, as this +expands the chest, inflates the lungs and adds to his buoyancy. The legs +should be kept well up to the surface and the whole body as horizontal +as possible. This avoids a drag through the water, and will considerably +help the rescuer. In some cases it may happen that the drowning person +has sunk to the bottom and does not rise again. In that event the +rescuer should look for bubbles rising to the surface before diving in. +In still water the bubbles rise perpendicularly; in running water they +rise obliquely, so that the rescuer must look for his object higher up +the stream than where the bubbles rise. It is also well to remember that +in running water a body may be carried along by the current and must be +looked for in the direction in which it flows. When a drowning person is +recovered on the bottom, the rescuer should seize him by the head or +shoulders, place the left foot on the ground and the right knee in the +small of his back, and then, with a vigorous push, come to the surface. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.--2nd Rescue Method.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.--3rd Rescue Method.] + +When the rescuer reaches land with an insensible person, no time should +be lost in sending for a medical man, but in the meantime an attempt to +induce artificial respiration may be made. The first recorded cases of +resuscitating the apparently drowned are mentioned in the notes to +William Derham's _Physico-Theology_, as having occurred at Troningholm +and Oxford, about 1650. In 1745 Dr J. Fothergill read a paper on the +subject before the Royal Society. It dealt with the recovery of a man +dead in appearance by distending the lungs by Mr William Tossack, +surgeon in Alloa, in 1744. In 1767 several cases of resuscitation were +reported in Switzerland, and shortly after a society was formed at +Amsterdam for recovery of the apparently drowned, and to instruct the +common people as to the best manner of treating them when rescued, and +to reward the people for their services. In 1773 Dr A. Johnson suggested +the formation of a similar society in England, and Dr Thomas Cogan +translated the memoirs of the Amsterdam society. Dr William Hawes +secured a copy and tried to form a society. There was, however, a strong +prejudice against the idea, but he publicly offered rewards to persons +who, between Westminster and London Bridges, should rescue drowning +persons and bring them to certain places on shore in order that +resuscitation might be attempted. In this way he was instrumental in the +saving of several lives, and paid the rewards out of his own pocket, +until his zeal brought him sympathy and the Royal Humane Society was +founded. This was in 1774. The system then in vogue was a means of +inducing artificial respiration by inserting the pipe of a pair of +bellows into one nostril and closing the other. Air was forced into the +lungs and then expelled by pressing the chest, thus imitating +respiration. Dr Hawes used for his resuscitation work a kind of cradle, +in which the subject was placed, and then raised over a furnace. +Bleeding, holding up by the heels, rolling on casks, &c. were at various +times resorted to. Simple means are often as effective as the official +ones. In 1891 a subject was restored in Australia by being held over a +smoky fire, which is the native method of restoring life; while a few +years back, at an English riverside town, a patient was saved by the +placing of a handkerchief over his mouth and the alternate blowing into +and drawing air out of the lungs until natural breathing was restored. + +One of the oldest methods of resuscitation was that of Dr Marshall Hall +(1790-1857), introduced in 1856. In this method the operator takes his +place at the patient's left side, and places a roll of clothing or +pillow (which must be the same length as that used in the previous +methods), so that it may be in position under the chest when the patient +is turned over. The assistant at the head pays particular attention to +the patient's arms, that they may not be laid upon or twisted at the +wrists, elbows, hands or shoulders. The patient is then turned face +downwards, with the body reclining over the pillow, the operator makes a +firm pressure with the hand upon the back, between and on the shoulder +blades, he then pulls the patient slowly up on to the side towards +himself. Once in position, the operator pushes the patient back again +until the face is downward, when the pressure on the back is to be +repeated. These three movements must be continued at the rate of about +fifteen times a minute, until natural breathing has been restored. + +Then came the methods of Dr H. R. Silvester and Dr Benjamin Howard, of +New York. + +When using the Silvester method, or, for the matter of that, any other +method, the first thing to do is to send for medical assistance. Dr +Silvester recommended that the patient should not be carried face +downwards or held up by his feet. All rough usage should be avoided, +especially twisting or bending of limbs, and the patient must not be +allowed to remain on the back unless the tongue is pulled forward. In +the event of respiration not being entirely suspended when a person is +lifted out of the water, it may not be necessary to imitate breathing, +but natural respiration may be assisted by the application of an +irritant substance to the nostrils and tickling the nose. +Smelling-salts, pepper and snuff may be used, or hot and cold water +alternately dashed on the face or chest. Provided no sign of life can be +seen or felt or the heart's action heard, promotion of breathing, _not_ +circulation must be the first aim and effort. Lay the patient flat on +his back, with the head at a slightly higher level than the feet. Remove +all tight clothing about the neck, chest and abdomen, and loosen the +braces, belts or corsets. The operator taking his place at the head, +with an assistant on one side, will turn the patient over until he is +lying face downwards, his head resting upon one arm. He should then, +after the assistant has given one or two sharp blows with the open hand +between the shoulder blades, wipe and clear the mouth, throat and +nostrils of all matter that may prevent the air from entering the lungs, +using a handkerchief for this purpose. This being done, the patient +should be turned upon his back, the tongue pulled forward and kept in +position by means of a dry cloth, handkerchief or piece of string tied +round the jaw. Every care must be taken not to let it fall back into the +mouth and thus obstruct the air passages. When this work has been +accomplished (it should only last a few seconds) the operator at the +head should lift the patient, handling the head and shoulders very +carefully, in order that the assistant may place a roll of clothing or +pillow under the shoulder blades. The roll being placed in position, the +operator will lean forward and grasp the arms below the elbows. He will +then draw the patient's arms steadily upwards and outwards, above the +head, until fully extended in line with the body. Having held the arms +in this position for about one second, the operator will carry them back +again and press them firmly against the side and front of the chest for +another second. By these means an exchange of air is produced in the +lungs similar to that effected by natural respiration. These movements +must be repeated carefully and deliberately about fifteen times a +minute, and persevered in. When natural respiration is once established, +the operator should cease to imitate the movements of breathing, and +proceed with the treatment for _the promotion of warmth and +circulation_. + +Friction over the surface of the body must be at once resorted to, using +handkerchiefs, flannels, &c., so as to propel the blood along the veins +towards the heart, while the operator attends to the mouth, nose and +throat. The friction along the legs, arms and body should all be towards +the heart and should be continued after the patient has been wrapped in +blankets or some dry clothing. As soon as possible, the patient should +be removed to the nearest house and further efforts made to promote +warmth by the application of hot flannels to the pit of the stomach, and +bottles or bladders of hot water, heated bricks, &c. to the armpits, +between the thighs and to the soles of the feet. If there be pain or +difficulty in breathing, apply a hot linseed meal poultice to the chest. +On the restoration of life, a teaspoonful of warm water should be given; +and then, if the power of swallowing has returned, very small quantities +of wine, warm brandy and water, beef tea or coffee administered, the +patient kept in bed, and a disposition to sleep encouraged. The patient +should be carefully watched for some time to see that breathing does not +fail, and, should any signs of failure appear, artificial respiration +should at once be resumed. While the patient is in the house, care +should be taken to let the air circulate freely about the room and all +overcrowding should be prevented. + +In the Howard method there are only two movements; its knowledge is said +to be necessary in case the patient's arm be in any way injured, or a +more vigorous method than the "Silvester" deemed necessary, _but care +should be exercised not to injure the patient by too forcible pressure_. +The patient is laid on his back, the roll is larger than that used in +the Silvester method, and is placed farther under the back in order that +the lower part of the chest may be highest. After adjusting the roll, +the operator kneels astride of the patient, while his assistant goes to +the head, lifts the patient's arms beyond the head, and holds them to +the ground, cleans the mouth and nose, and attends to the tongue. The +operator, with his fingers spread well apart, taking care that the +thumbs do not press into the pit of the stomach, grasps the most +compressible part of the lower ribs, and with both hands applies +pressure firmly by leaning over the patient; then he springs back, +lifting his hands off the patient. Artificial respiration is thus +effected, and continued at the rate of about fifteen times a minute. +When natural breathing has been restored, the treatment is the same as +in the Silvester method. + +These methods have now been superseded by the Schafer method, which has +been taken up by the Royal Life Saving Society, a body instituted in +1891 for the promotion of technical education in life saving and +resuscitation of the apparently drowned. The Schafer method has much to +recommend it, owing to its extreme simplicity and the ease with which +the physical operations necessary to carry on artificial respiration may +be performed, hardly any muscular exertion being required. It involves +no risk of injury to the congested liver or to any other organ, and as +the patient is laid face downwards, there is no possibility of the air +passages being blocked by the falling back of the tongue into the +pharynx. The water and mucus can also be expelled much more readily from +the air passages through the mouth and nostrils. + +It was due to the happy selection of Professor E. A. Schafer, as +chairman of a committee appointed by the Royal Medical & Chirurgical +Society for the investigation of the methods in use for resuscitation of +the apparently drowned, that the new method was devised. This committee +made many experiments upon the cadaver but failed to arrive at any +definite conclusion by that means. The necessity then appeared of +thorough investigation of the subject by experiments upon animals, so +that the phenomena attendant upon drowning might be better known, and +the various methods of resuscitation properly tried. These experiments +were made in Edinburgh by Professor Schafer, with the co-operation of +Dr P. T. Herring, and the results obtained were embodied in the report +of the committee, which was presented to the Royal Medical and +Chirurgical Society in 1904, and published as a supplement to volume 86 +of the _Transactions_ of the society. As the direct outcome of these +experiments, Professor Schafer was led to believe that a pressure method +of resuscitation was not only simpler to perform but also more +efficacious than any other. This conclusion was put to the test by +measurements of the results obtained upon the normal human subject by +the various methods in vogue; from these measurements, which were +published in the _Proceedings_ of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in +December 1903, it appeared that when such pressure is exerted in the +prone position the highest degree of efficiency as well as simplicity is +obtained. The description of this method was communicated to the Royal +Medical and Chirurgical Society, and was published in the following year +(1904) in volume 87 of the _Transactions_ of the society. + +Thus it came about that by investigating the phenomena of drowning, and +the means of resuscitation in dogs, and by applying the results obtained +to man, the method which the society now advocates as the best was +arrived at. In the experiments referred to, it was found necessary to +drown 38 dogs, all but two of which were from first to last in a +complete state of anaesthesia, the two exceptions having been simply +drowned without anaesthesia. It is important that the public should +understand that the evolution of a method which will probably be the +means of saving thousands of lives has resulted from the painless +sacrifice of less than 40 dogs, a number which would doubtless in any +case have been destroyed by drowning or some other form of suffocation, +but without the benefit of the anaesthetics which were employed in the +experiments. + +[Illustration: FIG 8..--Schafer method of treatment of the apparently +drowned. Position A.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Schafer method of treatment of the apparently +drowned. Position B.] + +Professor Schafer describes the method as follows:--Lay the subject face +downwards on the ground, then without stopping to remove the clothing +the operator should at once place himself in position astride or at one +side of the subject, facing his head and kneeling upon one or both +knees. He then places his hands flat over the lower part of the back (on +the lowest ribs), one on each side (fig. 8), and then gradually throws +the weight of his body forward on to them so as to produce firm pressure +(fig. 9)--which must not be violent, or upon the patient's chest. By +this means the air, and water if any, are driven out of the patient's +lungs. Immediately thereafter the operator raises his body slowly so as +to remove the pressure, but the hands are left in position. This forward +and backward movement is repeated every four or five seconds; in other +words, the body of the operator is swayed slowly forwards and backwards +upon the arms from twelve to fifteen times a minute, and should be +continued for at least half an hour, or until the natural respirations +are resumed. Whilst one person is carrying out artificial respiration in +this way, others may, if there be opportunity, busy themselves with +applying hot flannels to the body and limbs, and hot bottles to the +feet, but no attempt should be made to remove the wet clothing or to +give any restoratives by the mouth until natural breathing has +recommenced. + +In his paper read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh in December 1903 +Professor Schafer gave the following table of the relative exchanges of +air under different methods:-- + + +------------------------------+--------+---------------+--------------+ + | | Number | Amount of air |Amount of air | + | Mode of Respiration. | per | exchanged per |exchanged per | + | | minute.| respiration. | minute. | + +------------------------------+--------+---------------+--------------+ + | Natural respiration (supine) | 13 | 489 c.c. | 6.460 c.c. | + | Natural " (prone) | 12.5 | 422 " | 5.240 " | + | Prone (pressure), "Schafer" | 13 | 520 " | 6.760 " | + | Supine (pressure), "Howard" | 13.6 | 295 " | 4.020 " | + | Rolling (with pressure), | | | | + | "Marshall Hall" | 13 | 254 " | 3.300 " | + | Rolling (without pressure), | | | | + | "Marshall Hall" | 12 | 192 " | 2.300 " | + | Traction (with pressure), | | | | + | "Silvester" | 12.8 | 178 " | 2.280 " | + +------------------------------+--------+---------------+--------------+ + +These experiments all tend to show that by far the most efficient method +of performing artificial respiration is that of intermittent pressure +upon the lower ribs with the subject in the prone position or face +downward. It is also the easiest to perform, requiring practically no +exertion, as the weight of the operator's body produces the effect, and +the swinging forwards and backwards of the body some thirteen times a +minute, which alone is required, is by no means fatiguing, and has the +further great advantage that it can be effectively carried out by one +person. + + See Taylor, _Medical Jurisprudence_; "Description of a simple and + efficient method of performing artificial respiration in the human + subject, especially in cases of drowning," by E. A. Schafer, F.R.S. + (vol. 87, _Medico-Chirurgical Society's Transactions_); "The relative + efficiency of certain methods of performing artificial respiration in + man," by E. A. Schafer, F.R.S. (vol. 23, part i. _Proceedings of the + Royal Society of Edinburgh_); _A Method for the Treatment of the + Apparently Drowned_, by R. S. Bowles (London, 1903); _Handbook of + Instruction_, Royal Life Saving Society (London, 1908). (W. HY.) + +_Penal Use of Drowning._--As a form of capital punishment, drowning was +once common throughout Europe, but it is now only practised in +Mahommedan countries and the Far East. Tacitus states that the ancient +Germans hanged criminals of any rank, but those of the low classes were +drowned beneath hurdles in fens and bogs. The Romans also drowned +convicts. The Lex Cornelia ordained that parricides should be sewn in a +sack with a dog, cock, viper and ape, and thrown into the sea. The law +of ancient Burgundy ordered that an unfaithful wife should be smothered +in mud. The Anglo-Saxon punishment for women guilty of theft was +drowning. So usual was the penalty in the middle ages that grants of +life and death jurisdiction were worded to be "_cum fossa et furca_" +(i.e. "with drowning-pit and gallows"). The owner of Baynard's Castle, +London, in the reign of John, had powers of trying criminals, and his +descendants long afterwards claimed the privileges, the most valued of +which was the right of drowning in the Thames traitors taken within +their jurisdiction. Drowning was the punishment ordained by Richard +Coeur de Lion for any soldier of his army who killed a fellow-crusader +during the passage to the Holy Land. Drowning was usually reserved for +women as being the least brutal form of death-penalty, but occasionally +a male criminal was so executed as a matter of favour. Thus in Scotland +in 1526 a man convicted of theft and sacrilege was ordered to be drowned +"by the queen's special grace." In 1611 a man was drowned at Edinburgh +for stealing a lamb, and in 1623 eleven gipsy women suffered there. By +that date the penalty was obsolete in England. It survived in Scotland +till 1685 (the year of the drowning of the Wigtoun martyrs). The last +execution by drowning in Switzerland was in 1652, in Austria 1776, in +Iceland 1777; while in France during the Revolution the penalty was +revived in the terrible _Noyades_ carried out by the terrorist Jean +Baptiste Carrier at Nantes. It was abolished in Russia at the beginning +of the 18th century. + + + + +DROYSEN, JOHANN GUSTAV (1808-1884), German historian, was born on the +6th of July 1808 at Treptow in Pomerania. His father, Johann Christoph +Droysen, was an army chaplain, in which capacity he was present at the +celebrated siege of Kolberg in 1806-7. As a child young Droysen +witnessed some of the military operations during the War of Liberation, +for his father was pastor at Greifenhagen, in the immediate +neighbourhood of Stettin, which was held by the French during the +greater part of 1813. The impressions of these early years laid the +foundation of the ardent attachment to Prussia which distinguished him, +like so many other historians of his generation. He was educated at the +gymnasium of Stettin and at the university of Berlin; in 1829 he became +a master at the Graue Kloster (or Grey Friars), one of the oldest +schools in Berlin; besides his work there he gave lectures at the +university, from 1833 as _privat-dozent_, and from 1835 as professor, +without a salary. During these years he was occupied with classical +antiquity; he published a translation of Aeschylus and a paraphrase of +Aristophanes, but the work by which he made himself known as a historian +was his _Geschichte Alexanders des Grossen_ (Berlin, 1833, and other +editions), a book which still remains probably the best work on the +subject. It was in some ways the herald of a new school of German +historical thought, for it shows that idealization of power and success +which he had learnt from the teaching of Hegel. It was followed by other +volumes dealing with the successors of Alexander, published under the +title of _Geschichte des Hellenismus_ (Hamburg, 1836-1843). A new and +revised edition of the whole work was published in 1885; it has been +translated into French, but not into English. + +In 1840 Droysen was appointed professor of history at Kiel. He was at +once attracted into the political movement for the defence of the rights +of the Elbe duchies, of which Kiel was the centre. Like his predecessor +F. C. Dahlmann, he placed his historical learning at the service of the +estates of Schleswig-Holstein and composed the address of 1844, in which +the estates protested against the claim of the king of Denmark to alter +the law of succession in the duchies. In 1848 he was elected a member of +the Frankfort parliament, and acted as secretary to the committee for +drawing up the constitution. He was a determined supporter of Prussian +ascendancy, and was one of the first members to retire after the king of +Prussia refused the imperial crown in 1849. During the next two years he +continued to support the cause of the duchies, and in 1850, with Carl +Samwer, he published a history of the dealings of Denmark with +Schleswig-Holstein, _Die Herzogthumer Schleswig-Holstein und das +Kunigreich Danemark seit dem Jahre 1806_ (Hamburg, 1850). A translation +was published in London in the same year under the title _The Policy of +Denmark towards the Duchies of Schleswig-Holstein_. The work was one of +great political importance, and had much to do with the formation of +German public opinion on the rights of the duchies in their struggle +with Denmark. + +After 1851 it was impossible for him to remain at Kiel, and he was +appointed to a professorship at Jena; in 1859 he was called to Berlin, +where he remained till his death. In his later years he was almost +entirely occupied with Prussian history. In 1851 he brought out a life +of Count Yorck von Wartenburg (Berlin, 1851-1852, and many later +editions), one of the best biographies in the German language, and then +began his great work on the _Geschichte der preussischen Politik_ +(Berlin, 1855-1886). Seven volumes were published, the last not till +after his death. It forms a complete history of the growth of the +Prussian monarchy down to the year 1756. This, like all Droysen's work, +shows a strongly marked individuality, and a great power of tracing the +manner in which important dynamic forces worked themselves out in +history. It was this characteristic quality of comprehensiveness that +also gave him so much influence as a teacher. + +Droysen, who was twice married, died in Berlin on the 19th of June 1884. +His eldest son, Gustav, is the author of several well-known historical +works, namely, _Gustav Adolf_ (Leipzig, 1869-1870); _Herzog Bernhard von +Weimar_ (Leipzig, 1885); an admirable _Historischer Handatlas_ (Leipzig, +1885), and several writings on various events of the Thirty Years' War. +Another son, Hans Droysen, is the author of some works on Greek history +and antiquities. + + See M. Duncker, _Johann Gustav Droysen, ein Nachruf_ (Berlin, 1885); + and Dahlmann-Waitz, _Quellenkunde der deutschen Geschichte_ (Leipzig, + 1906). (J. W. HE.) + + + + +DROZ, ANTOINE GUSTAVE (1832-1895), French man of letters, son of the +sculptor J. A. Droz (1807-1872), was born in Paris on the 9th of June +1832. He was educated as an artist, and began to exhibit in the Salon of +1857. A series of sketches dealing gaily and lightly with the intimacies +of family life, published in the _Vie parisienne_ and issued in book +form as _Monsieur, Madame et Bebe_ (1866), won for the author an +immediate and great success. _Entre nous_ (1867) was built on a similar +plan, and was followed by some psychological novels: _Le Cahier bleu de +Mlle Cibot_ (1868); _Autour d'une source_ (1869); _Un Paquet de lettres_ +(1870); _Babolein_ (1872); _Les Etangs_ (1875); _L'Enfant_ (1885). His +_Tristesses et sourires_ (1884) is a delicate analysis of the niceties +of family intercourse and its difficulties. Droz's first book was +translated into English under the title of _Papa, Mamma and Baby_ +(1887). _Un Ete a la campagne_, a book which caused considerable +scandal, was erroneously attributed to him. He died on the 22nd of +October 1895. + + + + +DROZ, FRANCOIS-XAVIER JOSEPH (1773-1850), French writer on ethics and +political science, was born on the 31st of October 1773 at Besancon, +where his family had furnished men of considerable mark to the legal +profession. His own legal studies led him to Paris in 1792; he arrived +on the very day after the dethronement of the king, and was present +during the massacres of September; on the declaration of war he joined +the volunteer _bataillon_ of the Doubs, and for the next three years +served in the Army of the Rhine. Receiving his discharge on the score of +ill-health, he obtained a much more congenial post in the newly-founded +_ecole centrale_ of Besancon; and in 1799 he made his first appearance +as an author by an _Essai sur l'art oratoire_ (Paris, Fructidor, An +VII.), in which he acknowledges his indebtedness more especially to Hugh +Blair. Removing to Paris in 1803, he became intimate not only with the +like-minded Ducis, but also with the sceptical Cabanis; and it was on +this philosopher's advice that, in order to catch the public ear, he +produced the romance of _Lina_, which Sainte-Beuve has characterized as +a mingled echo of Florian and _Werther_. Like several other literary men +of the time, he obtained a post in the revenue office known as the +_Droits reunis_; but from 1814 he devoted himself exclusively to +literature and became a contributor to various journals. Already +favourably known by his _Essai sur l'art d'etre heureux_ (Paris, 1806), +his _Eloge de Montaigne_ (1812), and his _Essai sur le beau dans les +arts_ (1815), he not only gained the Monthyon prize in 1823 by his work +_De la philosophie morale ou des differents systemes sur la science de +la vie_, but also in 1824 obtained admission to the Academie Francaise. +The main doctrine inculcated in this last treatise is that society will +never be in a proper state till men have been educated to think of their +duties and not of their rights. It was followed in 1825 by _Application +de la morale a la philosophie et a la politique_, and in 1829 by +_Economie politique, ou principes de la science des richesses_, a +methodical and clearly written treatise, which was edited by Michel +Chevalier in 1854. His next and greatest work was a _Histoire du regne +de Louis XVI_ (3 vols., Paris, 1839-1842). As he advanced in life Droz +became more and more decidedly religious, and the last work of his +prolific pen was _Pensees du Christianisme_ (1842). Few have left so +blameless a reputation: in the words of Sainte-Beuve, he was born and he +remained all his life of the race of the good and the just. + + See Guizot, _Discours academiques_; Montalembert, "Discours de + reception," in _Memoires de l'Academie francaise_; Sainte-Beuve, + _Causeries du lundi_, t. iii.; Michel Chevalier, Notice prefixed to + the _Economie politique_. + + + + +DRUG, a district and town of British India, in the Chhattisgarh division +of the Central Provinces. The district was formed in 1906 out of +portions of the districts of Bilaspur and Raipur. It has an area of 3807 +sq. m., and the population on that area in 1901 was 628,885, showing a +heavy decrease in the preceding decade, owing to the famines of 1897 and +1900. The district is a long narrow tract, with lofty ridges of gravel +in the centre and north, but otherwise consisting of open rolling +country. The Tendula and Seonath are the principal rivers. Rich black +soil covers a large part of the district, and rice, wheat and other +crops are grown. The main line of the Bengal-Nagpur railway passes +through the district. Drug, the capital of the district, is on the +railway, 685 m. from Bombay, and had in 1901 a population of 4002. +Bell-metal-founding and cotton-weaving are carried on. + + + + +DRUG (from Fr. _drogue_, a word common in Romance languages, cf. Span. +and Ital. _droga_; the origin of the word is obscure, but may possibly +be connected with Dutch _droog_, dry), any organic and inorganic +substance used in the preparation of medicines, by itself or in +combination with others, and either prepared by some method or used in a +natural state (see PHARMACOLOGY and PHARMACOPOEIA). In a particular +sense "drug" is often used synonymously for narcotics or poisonous +substances, and hence "to drug" means to stupefy or poison. The word is +also applied to any article for which there is no sale, or of which the +value has greatly depreciated--a "drug in the market." + + + + +DRUIDISM, the name usually given to the religious system of the ancient +inhabitants of Gaul and the British Islands. The word Druid (Lat. +_druida_) probably represents a Gaulish _druid-s_, Irish _drui_, gen. +sing. _druad_. On the analogy of Irish _sui<su-vid-s_ the word has been +analysed into _dru-vid-_, "very knowing, wise." The ancient Welsh form +of the word does not exist. Welsh _derwydd_ and _dryw_ are probably to +be regarded as of recent coinage, as also the Breton forms _drouiz_, +_druz_. The important part played by the oak in the religious cults of +other countries suggests a connexion with Greek [Greek: drus], oak, but +this etymology is rather in disfavour at the present time. + +We find in Caesar the first and at the same time the most circumstantial +account of the Druids to be met with in the classical writers. He tells +us that all men of any rank and dignity in Gaul were included among the +Druids or the nobles. In other words, the Druids constituted the learned +and the priestly class, and they were in addition the chief expounders +and guardians of the law. We are, however, informed by Diodorus and +Strabo that this class was composed of Druids, bards and soothsayers. +Hence Caesar seems to assign more extensive functions to the Druids than +they actually possessed. The substance of Caesar's account is as +follows. On those who refused to submit to their decisions they had the +power of inflicting severe penalties, of which excommunication from +society was the most dreaded. As they were not a hereditary caste and +enjoyed exemption from service in the field as well as from payment of +taxes, admission to the order was eagerly sought after by the youth of +Gaul. The course of training to which a novice had to submit was +protracted, extending sometimes over twenty years. All instruction was +communicated orally, but for ordinary purposes they had a written +language in which they used the Greek characters. The president of the +order, whose office was elective and who enjoyed the dignity for life, +had supreme authority among them. They taught that the soul was +immortal. Astrology, geography, physical science and natural theology +were their favourite studies. + +Britain was the headquarters of Druidism, but once every year a general +assembly of the order was held within the territories of the Carnutes in +Gaul. The Gauls were accustomed to offer human sacrifices, usually +criminals. Cicero remarks on the existence among the Gauls of augurs or +soothsayers, known by the name of Druids, with one of whom, Divitiacus, +an Aeduan, he was acquainted. Diodorus informs us that a sacrifice +acceptable to the gods must be attended by a Druid, for they are the +intermediaries. Before a battle they often throw themselves between two +armies to bring about peace. They are said to have had a firm belief in +the immortality of the soul and in metempsychosis, a fact which led +several ancient writers to conclude that they had been influenced by the +teaching of the Greek philosopher Pythagoras. + +A rescript of Augustus forbade Roman citizens to practise druidical +rites. In Strabo we find the Druids still acting as arbiters in public +and private matters, but they no longer deal with cases of murder. Under +Tiberius the Druids were suppressed by a decree of the senate, but this +had to be renewed by Claudius in A.D. 54. In Mela we find the Druids +teaching in the depths of a forest or in caverns. In Pliny their +activity is limited to the practice of medicine and sorcery. According +to this writer the Druids held the mistletoe in the highest veneration. +Groves of oak were their chosen retreat. Whatever grew on that tree was +thought to be a gift from heaven, more especially the mistletoe. When +thus found, the mistletoe was cut with a golden knife by a priest clad +in a white robe, two white bulls being sacrificed on the spot. Tacitus, +in describing the attack made on the island of Mona (Anglesea) by the +Romans under Suetonius Paulinus, represents the legionaries as being +awe-struck on landing by the appearance of a band of Druids, who, with +hands uplifted towards heaven, poured forth terrible imprecations on the +heads of the invaders. The courage of the Romans, however, soon overcame +such fears; the Britons were put to flight; and the groves of Mona, the +scene of many a sacrifice and bloody rite, were cut down. + +After this the continental Druids disappear entirely, and are only +referred to on very rare occasions. Ausonius, for instance, +apostrophizes the rhetorician Attius Patera as sprung from a race of +Druids. + +When we turn to the British Islands we find, as we should expect, no +traces of the Druids in England and Wales after the conquest of Anglesea +mentioned above, except in the story of Vortigern as recounted by +Nennius. After being excommunicated by Germanus the British leader +invites twelve Druids to assist him. These probably came from North +Britain. In Irish literature, however, the Druids are frequently +mentioned, and their functions in the island seem to correspond fairly +well to those of their Gaulish brethren described by classical writers. +The functions of Caesar's Druids we here find distributed amongst +Druids, bards and poets (_fili_), but even in very early times the poet +has usurped many of the duties of the Druid and finally supplants him +with the spread of Christianity. The following is the position of the +Druid in the pagan literature. The most important documents are +contained in MSS. of the 12th century, but the texts themselves go back +in large measure to about A.D. 700. In the heroic cycles the Druids do +not appear to have formed any corporation, nor do they seem to have been +exempt from military service. Cathbu (Cathbad), the Druid connected with +Conchobar, king of Ulster, in the older cycle is accompanied by a number +of youths (100 according to the oldest version) who are desirous of +learning his art, though what this consisted in we are not told. The +Druids are represented as being able to foretell the future and to +perform magic. Before setting out on the great expedition against +Ulster, Medb, queen of Connaught, goes to consult her Druid, and just +before the famous heroine Derdriu (Deirdre) is born, Cathbu prophesies +what sort of a woman she will be. We may cite two instances of the +magical skill of the Druids. The hero Cuchulinn has returned from the +land of the fairies after having been enticed thither by a fairy-woman +named Fand, whom he is now unable to forget. He is given a potion by +some Druids, which banishes all memory of his recent adventures and +which also rids his wife Emer of the pangs of jealousy. More remarkable +still is the story of Etain. This lady, now the wife of Eochaid Airem, +high-king of Ireland, was in a former existence the beloved of the god +Mider, who again seeks her love and carries her off. The king has +recourse to his Druid Dal[=a]n, who requires a whole year to discover +the haunt of the couple. This he accomplished by means of four wands of +yew inscribed with ogam characters. The following description of the +band of Cathbu's Druids occurs in the epic tale, the _Cattle-spoiling of +Cualnge_ (Cooley): "The attendant raises his eyes towards heaven and +observes the clouds and answers the band around him. They all raise +their eyes towards heaven, observe the clouds, and hurl spells against +the elements, so that they arouse strife amongst them and clouds of fire +are driven towards the camp of the men of Ireland." We are further told +that at the court of Conchobar no one had the right to speak before the +Druids had spoken. In other texts the Druids are able to produce +insanity. + +In the religious literature they are almost exclusively represented as +magicians and diviners opposing the Christian missionaries, though we +find two of them acting as tutors to the daughters of Laegaire, the +high-king, at the coming of St Patrick. They are represented as +endeavouring to prevent the progress of St Patrick and St Columba by +raising clouds and mist. Before the battle of Culdremne (561) a Druid +made an _airbe druad_ (fence of protection?) round one of the armies, +but what is precisely meant by the phrase is obscure. The Irish Druids +seem to have had a peculiar tonsure. The word _drui_ is always used to +render the Latin _magus_, and in one passage St Columba speaks of Christ +as his Druid. + + See D'Arbois de Jubainville, _Les Druides et les dieux celtiques a + forme d'animaux_ (Paris, 1906), and _Introduction a l'etude de la + litterature celtique_ (Paris, 1883); P. W. Joyce, _A Social History of + Ancient Ireland_ (London, 1903). (E. C. Q.) + + + + +DRUIDS, ORDER OF, a friendly society founded, as an imitation of the +ancient Druids, in London in 1781. They adopted Masonic rites and spread +to America (1833) and Australia. Their lodges are called "Groves." In +1872 the Order was introduced into Germany. (See FRIENDLY SOCIETIES.) + + + + +DRUM (early forms _drome_ or _dromme_, a word common to many Teut. +languages, cf. Dan. _tromme_, Ger. _Trommel_: the word is ultimately the +same as "trumpet," and is probably onomatopoeic in origin; it appears +late in Eng. about the middle of the 16th century), the name given to +the well-known musical instrument (see below) and also to many objects +resembling it in shape. Thus it is used of any receptacle of similar +shape, as a "drum" of oil, &c.; in machinery, of a revolving cylinder, +round which belting is passed; of the _tympanum_ or cylindrically shaped +middle ear, and specially of the membrane that closes the external +auditory meatus; and, in architecture, of the substructure of a dome +when raised to some height above the pendentives. The architectural drum +had a twofold object; first, to give greater elevation to the dome +externally so that it should rise well above the surrounding building, +and secondly, to allow of the interior being lighted with vertical +windows cut in the drum, instead of forming penetrations in the dome +itself, as in St Sophia, Constantinople. The term is also applied to the +circular blocks of stone, which in columns of large dimensions were +built with a series of drums. At Selinus in Sicily some of these great +circular blocks are found on the road between the quarries and the +temples; they vary from 8 to 10 ft. in diameter, being about 6 ft. high. +The term _frusta_ is sometimes applied to them. + +In music the drum (Fr. _tambour_; Ger. _Trommel_; Ital. _tamburo_) is an +instrument of percussion common in some form to all nations and ages. It +consists of a frame or vessel forming a resonant cavity, over one or +both ends of which is stretched a skin or vellum set in vibration by +direct percussion of hand or stick. Drums fall into two divisions +according to the nature of their sonority:--(1) instruments producing +sounds of definite musical pitch, and qualified thereby to take part in +the harmony of the orchestra, such as the kettledrum (q.v.); (2) +instruments of indefinite sonorousness, and therefore excluded from the +harmony of the orchestra; such are the bass drum, the side or snare +drum, the tenor drum, the tambourine, all used for marking the rhythm +and adding tone colour. + +Drums are further divided into three classes according to special +features of construction:--(1) instruments having a skin stretched over +one end of the resonant cavity, the other being open, such as the +tambourine (q.v.) and the _darabukkeh_ or Egyptian drum, shaped like a +mushroom; (2) instruments consisting of a cup-shaped receptacle of +metal, wood or earthenware entirely closed by a skin or vellum stretched +across the opening, as in the kettledrum; (3) a receptacle in the shape +of a cylinder closed at both ends by skins, as in the bass drum, side +drum, &c. + +Skin or parchment only acquires the elasticity requisite to produce +vibration by tension; the vibrations of the parchment are taken up by +the air enclosed in the receptacle, which thus reinforces the sound +produced by the parchment. The _tone_ of the instrument whether definite +or indefinite depends upon the dimensions of the vellum, the shape of +the resonant receptacle, and the method of percussion. The _intensity_ +of the sound depends upon the degree of percussive force used and the +diameter of the vellum in proportion to the dimensions of the resonant +receptacle; the material of which the latter consists has little or no +influence on the tone of the instrument. The _pitch_ of the sound is +determined by the dimensions of the vellum taken in conjunction with the +degree of tension, the pitch varying in acuteness directly with the +degree of tension and inversely with the size of the vellum. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Military Bass Drum (Besson & Co.)] + +The _bass drum_ or Turkish drum (Fr. _grosse caisse_; Ger. _Grosse +Trommel_; Ital. _gran cassa_ or _tamburo grande_) consists of a short +cylinder of very wide diameter covered at both ends by vellum stretched +over thin hoops, which in turn are kept in place by larger hoops fitting +tightly over them. At regular intervals in the two large hoops are bored +holes through which passes an endless cord stretched in zig-zag round +the cylinder and connecting the two hoops. The tension of the vellum is +controlled by means of leather braces which are made to slide up and +down the zig-zag of cord, slackening or tightening the large hoops, and +with them the vellum, at the will of the performer. Systems of rods and +screws are also used for the purpose. The bass drum is mounted on a +stand when used in the orchestra. The sound is produced by striking the +centre of the vellum on the one end of the drum with a stick having a +large soft round knob composed of wood covered with cork, sponge or +felt. The bass drum cannot be tuned since it gives out no definite note, +but the pitch may be varied, according as a rich full tone or a mere +dull thud be required, by tightening or loosening the braces; the +instrument can, moreover, be muffled by covering it with a piece of +cloth. The music for the bass drum is generally written on a stave with +a bass clef, [Illustration: notes], the C being merely used to show the +rhythm and accents. Sometimes the stave is dispensed with, a single note +on a single line being sufficient. The bass drum has a place in every +orchestra, although it is used but sparingly to accentuate the rhythm. +It is possible to make gradations in _forte_ and _piano_ on the bass +drum, and to play quavers and semi-quavers in moderate _tempo_. A roll +is sometimes played by holding a short stick, furnished with a knob at +each end, in the middle and striking in quick succession with each knob +alternately; two kettledrum sticks answer the purpose still better. It +is understood that the cymbals play the same music as the bass drum +unless the composer has written _senza piatti_ over the part. Wagner did +not once score for the bass drum after he composed _Rienzi_, but Verdi, +Gounod, Berlioz and Sullivan used it effectively. The bass drum was +formerly known as the _long drum_, the cylinder being long in proportion +to the diameter. + +The _side_ or _snare drum_ (Fr. _tambour militaire_; Ger. +_Militartrommel_; Ital. _tamburo militare_) is an instrument consisting +of a small wooden or brass cylinder with a vellum at each end. The +parchments are lapped over small hoops and pressed firmly down by larger +hoops. As in the bass drum, these and the vellums are tightened or +slackened by means of cords and leather braces, or by a system of rods +and screws. Across the lower head are stretched two or more catgut +strings called snares, which produce a rattling sound at each stroke on +the upper head, owing to the sympathetic vibration of the lower head +which jars against the snares. The upper head, set in vibration by +direct percussion from the sticks, induces sympathetic vibrations in the +air contained within the resonating receptacle, and these vibrations are +communicated to the lower head. The presence of the snares across the +diameter of the latter produces a phenomenon which gives the side drum +its peculiar timbre, changing the nature of the vibrations, now no +longer free: the snares form a kind of nodal contact, inducing double +the number of vibrations and a sound approximately an octave higher than +would be the case were the heads left to vibrate freely. Moreover, the +vibrations of the upper head being weaker, the latter is compelled to +vibrate synchronously with the lower vellum.[1] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Guards pattern Side Drum (Besson & Co.).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Regulation Side Drum (Besson & Co.).] + +The side drum, so called because it is worn at the side, is struck in +the centre by two small wooden sticks with elongated heads or knobs of +hard wood, producing a hard rasping sound when the drum is played singly +and in close proximity to the hearer; when, however, several drums are +played simultaneously or with other instruments the effect is brilliant +and exhilarating. The roll is produced by striking two blows alternately +with each hand quite regularly and very rapidly, the result being a +rattling tremolo. This roll ("daddy-mammy") is very difficult to +acquire, and requires long practice. The side drum can be muffled by +loosening the snares or by inserting a piece of silk or cloth between +the snares and the parchment. An impressive effect is produced by a +continued roll on muffled drums in funeral marches. The notation for the +side drum is similar to that in use for the bass drum; the value of the +note is alone of importance; the place of the note on the staff is +immaterial and purely a matter of custom. In orchestral scores, a single +line is often used, or the part for side and bass drum is written on the +same staff. A great variety of rhythmical figures can be played on the +side drum, such as + +[Illustration: notes] + +The _tenor drum_ (Fr. _caisse roulante_; Ger. _Roll-_ or _Ruhrtrommel_; +Ital. _tamburo rulante_) is similar to the side drum but has a larger +cylinder of wood and no snares; consequently its timbre lacks the +brilliancy and incisiveness of the side drum. It is used for the roll in +military bands, in some theatre orchestras, and on the stage. + +The _tambourin de Provence_ is a small drum with a long cylinder of +narrow diameter used in the Basque provinces with a small pipe +(_galoubet_) having three holes. The drum is beaten with one stick only, +the performer steadying it with the hand which fingers the pipe. The +tambourin and galoubet are in fact a survival of the pipe and tabor +(q.v.). + +The popularity of all kinds of drums in the most ancient civilizations +is established beyond a doubt by the numerous representations of the +instrument in a variety of shapes and sizes on the monuments and +paintings of Egypt, Assyria, India and Persia. The _tympanon_, under +which name seem to have been included tambourines and kettledrums, as +well as the dulcimer (during the middle ages), was in use among Greeks +and Romans chiefly in the worship of Cybele and Bacchus; it was +introduced through the medium of the Roman civilization into western +Europe. It is often said that the drum was introduced by the crusaders, +but it was certainly known in England long before the crusades, for Bede +(_Musica practica_) mentions it in his list of instruments, and +Cassiodorus (ii. p. 507) describes it. The side drum was, until the +reign of Elizabeth, of a much larger size than now and was held +horizontally and beaten on one head only. It is not known at what date +snares were added; Praetorius (_Syntagma musicum_, 1618) and Mersenne +(_L'Harmonie universelle_, Paris, 1636) both mention them. A drawing of +a side drum showing a snare appears in a book[2] from the printing press +of J. Badius Ascensius (1510); the instrument also has cords and braces. +Another woodcut of the same century is given as frontispiece to an +edition of Flavius Vegetius Renatus.[3] An actual side drum with two +curved drumsticks belonging to the ancient Egyptians was found during +the excavations conducted at Thebes in 1823.[4] It measured 1-1/2 ft. in +height by 2 ft. in diameter; the tension of the heads was regulated by +cords braced by means of catgut encircling both ends of the drum, and +wound separately round each cord so that these could be tightened or +slackened at will by pulling the catgut bands closer together or pushing +them farther apart. The Berlin Museum possesses some ancient Egyptian +straight drumsticks with handle and knob. Drums were used at the battle +of Halidon Hill (1333). An old ballad celebrating Edward III.'s victory +on this occasion appears in a chronicle of the 14th century, preserved +in the British Museum (Harl. MS. 4690), + + "This was do with merry sowne. + With pipes trumpes and tabers thereto. + And loud clariones they blew also." + +A prose account of the battle in the same MS. states that the "Englische +mynstrelles beaten their tabers and blewen their trompes and pipers +pipenede loude and made a great schowte upon the Skottes." + +Froissart, under date 1338, gives details of the means taken by the +Scots to intimidate the soldiers of Edward III.[5] Having mentioned +their great horns, he adds, "ils font si grand' noise avec grands +tambours qu'ils ont aussi." The same chronicler, describing the +triumphal entry of Edward III. into Calais (1347), gives the following +list of instruments used: "trompes, tambours, nacaires, chalemies, +muses."[6] + +Drums were used in the British army in the 16th century to give signals +in war and peace-side drums by the infantry and dragoons, and +kettledrums by the cavalry.[7] In the reign of Henry VIII. two drummers +were allowed to every company of 100 men. The chief drum beats used by +the infantry in the 17th century[8] were _call_, _troop_, _preparative_, +_march_, _battaile_ and _retreat_; these were later[9] changed to +_general_, _reveille_, _assembly_ or _troop_, _tattoo_, _chamade_, &c. +The side drum was admitted into the orchestra in the 17th century, when +Marais (1636-1728) scored for it in his opera _Alcione_. (K. S.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See Victor Mahillon, _Catalogue descriptif_ (Ghent, 1880), vol. + i. pp. 19 and 20. + + [2] Joannes Mauburnius, _Rosetum exercitiorum spiritualium et + sacrarum meditationum_ (Paris, 1510), Alphabetum, ix. + + [3] _Vier Bucher der Ritterschaft; mit manicherleyen gerusten_, &c.; + (Augsburg, 1534). + + [4] Carl Engel, _The Music of the Most Ancient Nations_ (London, + 1864), p. 219. + + [5] _Chron._ ii. p. 737, see also Grose's _Military Antiquities_, ii. + 41. + + [6] See Froissart in J. A. Buchon, _Pantheon litt._ (Paris, 1837), + vol. i. cap. 322, p. 273. + + [7] Sir John Smythe, _A Brief Discourse_ (London, 1594), pp. 158-159. + + [8] Lieut.-Col. W. Bariffe, _Militarie Discipline, or the Young + Artilleryman_ (London, 1643). + + [9] Sir James Turner, _Pallas armata_ (1685), xxi. 302. + + + + +DRUMMOND, HENRY (1786-1860), English banker, politician and writer, best +known as one of the founders of the Catholic Apostolic or "Irvingite" +Church, was born at the Grange, near Alresford, Hampshire, on the 5th of +December 1786. He was the eldest son of Henry Drummond, a prominent +London banker, by a daughter of the first Lord Melville. He was educated +at Harrow and at Christ Church, Oxford, but took no degree. His name is +permanently connected with the university through the chair of political +economy which he founded in 1825. He entered parliament in early life, +and took an active interest from the first in nearly all departments of +politics. Thoroughly independent and often eccentric in his views, he +yet acted generally with the Conservative party. His speeches were often +almost inaudible but were generally lucid and informing, and on occasion +caustic and severe. From 1847 until his death in 1860 he represented +West Surrey in parliament. Drummond took a deep interest in religious +subjects, and published numerous books and pamphlets on such questions +as the interpretation of prophecy, the circulation of the Apocrypha, the +principles of Christianity, &c., which attracted considerable attention. +In 1817 he met Robert Haldane at Geneva, and continued his movement +against the Socinian tendencies then prevalent in that city. In later +years he was intimately associated with the origin and spread of the +Catholic Apostolic Church. Meetings of those who sympathized with the +views of Edward Irving were held for the study of prophecy at Drummond's +seat, Albury Park, in Surrey; he contributed very liberally to the funds +of the new church; and he became one of its leading office-bearers, +visiting Scotland as an "apostle" and being ordained as an "angel" for +that kingdom. The numerous works he wrote in defence of its distinctive +doctrines and practice were generally clear and vigorous, if seldom +convincing. He died on the 20th of February 1860. + + + + +DRUMMOND, HENRY (1851-1897), Scottish evangelical writer and lecturer, +was born in Stirling on the 17th of August 1851. He was educated at +Edinburgh University, where he displayed a strong inclination for +physical and mathematical science. The religious element was an even +more powerful factor in his nature, and disposed him to enter the Free +Church of Scotland. While preparing for the ministry, he became for a +time deeply interested in the evangelizing mission of Moody and Sankey, +in which he actively co-operated for two years. In 1877 he became +lecturer on natural science in the Free Church College, which enabled +him to combine all the pursuits for which he felt a vocation. His +studies resulted in his writing _Natural Law in the Spiritual World_, +the argument of which was that the scientific principle of continuity +extended from the physical world to the spiritual. Before the book +issued from the press (1883), a sudden invitation from the African Lakes +Company drew Drummond away to Central Africa. Upon his return in the +following year he found himself famous. Large bodies of serious readers, +alike among the religious and the scientific classes, discovered in +_Natural Law_ the common standing-ground which they needed; and the +universality of the demand proved, if nothing more, the seasonableness +of its publication. Drummond continued to be actively interested in +missionary and other movements among the Free Church students. In 1888 +he published _Tropical Africa_, a valuable digest of information. In +1890 he travelled in Australia, and in 1893 delivered the Lowell +Lectures at Boston. It had been his intention to reserve them for mature +revision, but an attempted piracy compelled him to hasten their +publication, and they appeared in 1894 under the title of _The Ascent of +Man_. Their object was to vindicate for altruism, or the disinterested +care and compassion of animals for each other, an important part in +effecting "the survival of the fittest," a thesis previously maintained +by Professor John Fiske. Drummond's health failed shortly afterwards, +and he died on the 11th of March 1897. His character was full of charm. +His writings were too nicely adapted to the needs of his own day to +justify the expectation that they would long survive it, but few men +exercised more religious influence in their own generation, especially +on young men. + + + + +DRUMMOND, THOMAS (1797-1840), British inventor and administrator, was +born at Edinburgh on the 10th of October 1797, and was educated at the +high school there. He was appointed to a cadetship at the Royal Military +Academy, Woolwich, in 1813; and in 1815 he entered the Royal Engineers. +In 1819, when meditating the renunciation of military service for the +bar, he made the acquaintance of Colonel T. F. Colby (1784-1852), from +whom in the following year he received an appointment on the +trigonometrical survey of Great Britain. During his winters in London he +attended the chemical lectures of W. T. Brande and M. Faraday at the +Royal Institution, and the mention at one of these of the brilliant +luminosity of lime when incandescent suggested to him the employment of +the lime light for making distant surveying stations visible. In 1825, +when he was assisting Colby in the Irish survey, his lime-light +apparatus ("Drummond light") was put to a practical test, and enabled +observations to be completed between Divis mountain, near Belfast, and +Slieve Snaght, a distance of 67 m. About the same time he also devised +an improved heliostat, and in 1829 he was employed in adopting his light +for lighthouse purposes. In 1831 he entered political life and was +appointed superintendent of the boundary commission. Four years later he +was made under-secretary of state for Ireland, where he proved himself a +most successful administrator, and did much to promote law and order. It +was he who in 1838 told the Irish landlords that "property has its +duties as well as its rights." In 1836 he proposed the appointment of a +commission on railways in Ireland, and took a large share in its work, +which resulted in the recommendation, not, however, carried out, that +the state should construct a system of lines throughout the island. +Drummond's health was undermined by overwork, and he died at Dublin on +the 15th of April 1840. + + See _Life_ by J. F. M'Lennan (1867); _Life and Letters_ by R. Barry + O'Brien (1889); and Sir T. A. Larcom in _Papers on the Duties of the + Royal Engineers_, vol. iv. (1840). + + + + +DRUMMOND, WILLIAM (1585-1649), called "of Hawthornden," Scottish poet, +was born at Hawthornden, near Edinburgh, on the 13th of December 1585. +His father, John Drummond, was the first laird of Hawthornden; and his +mother was Susannah Fowler, sister of William Fowler (q.v.), poet and +courtier. Drummond received his early education at the high school of +Edinburgh, and graduated in July 1605 as M.A. of the recently founded +university of Edinburgh. His father was a gentleman usher at the English +court (as he had been at the Scottish court from 1590) and William, in a +visit to London in 1606, describes the festivities in connexion with the +visit of the king of Denmark. Drummond spent two years at Bourges and +Paris in the study of law; and, in 1609, he was again in Scotland, +where, by the death of his father in the following year, he became laird +of Hawthornden at the early age of twenty-four. The list of books he +read up to this time is preserved in his own handwriting. It indicates a +strong preference for imaginative literature, and shows that he was +keenly interested in contemporary verse. His collection (now in the +library of the university of Edinburgh) contains many first editions of +the most famous productions of the age. On finding himself his own +master, Drummond naturally abandoned law for the muses; "for," says his +biographer in 1711, "the delicacy of his wit always run on the +pleasantness and usefulness of history, and on the fame and softness of +poetry." In 1612 began his correspondence with Sir William Alexander of +Menstrie, afterwards earl of Stirling (q.v.), which ripened into a +life-long friendship after Drummond's visit to Menstrie in 1614. + +Drummond's first publication appeared in 1613, an elegy on the death of +Henry, prince of Wales, called _Teares on the Death of Meliades_ +(_Moeliades_, 3rd edit. 1614). The poem shows the influence of Spenser's +and Sidney's pastoralism. In the same year he published an anthology of +the elegies of Chapman, Wither and others, entitled _Mausoleum_, or _The +Choisest Flowres of the Epitaphs_. In 1616, the year of Shakespeare's +death, appeared _Poems: Amorous, Funerall, Divine, Pastorall: in +Sonnets, Songs, Sextains, Madrigals_, being substantially the story of +his love for Mary Cunningham of Barns, who was about to become his wife +when she died in 1615. The poems bear marks of a close study of Sidney, +and of the Italian poets. He sometimes translates direct from the +Italian, especially from Marini. _Forth Feasting: A Panegyricke to the +King's Most Excellent Majestie_ (1617), a poem written in heroic +couplets of remarkable facility, celebrates James's visit to Scotland in +that year. In 1618 Drummond began a correspondence with Michael Drayton. +The two poets continued to write at intervals for thirteen years, the +last letter being dated in the year of Drayton's death. The latter had +almost been persuaded by his "dear Drummond" to print the later books of +_Poly-Olbion_ at Hart's Edinburgh press. In the winter of 1618-1619, +Drummond had included Ben Jonson in his circle of literary friends, and +at Christmas 1618 was honoured with a visit of a fortnight or more from +the dramatist. The account of their conversations, long supposed to be +lost, was discovered in the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh, by David +Laing, and was edited for the Shakespeare Society in 1842 and printed by +Gifford & Cunningham. The conversations are full of literary gossip, and +embody Ben's opinion of himself and of his host, whom he frankly told +that "his verses were too much of the schooles, and were not after the +fancie of the time," and again that he "was too good and simple, and +that oft a man's modestie made a fool of his witt." But the publication +of what was obviously intended merely for a private journal has given +Jonson an undeserved reputation for harsh judgments, and has cast blame +on Drummond for blackening his guest's memory. + +In 1623 appeared the poet's fourth publication, entitled _Flowers of +Sion: By William Drummond of Hawthornedenne: to which is adjoyned his +Cypresse Grove_. From 1625 till 1630 Drummond was probably for the most +part engaged in travelling on the Continent. In 1627, however, he seems +to have been home for a short time, as, in that year, he appears in the +entirely new character of the holder of a patent for the construction of +military machines, entitled "Litera Magistri Gulielmi Drummond de +Fabrica Machinarum Militarium, Anno 1627." The same year, 1627, is the +date of Drummond's munificent gift (referred to above) of about 500 +volumes to the library of the university of Edinburgh. + +In 1630 Drummond again began to reside permanently at Hawthornden, and +in 1632 he married Elizabeth Logan, by whom he had five sons and four +daughters. In 1633 Charles made his coronation-visit to Scotland; and +Drummond's pen was employed in writing congratulatory speeches and +verses. As Drummond preferred Episcopacy to Presbytery, and was an +extremely loyal subject, he supported Charles's general policy, though +he protested against the methods employed to enforce it. When Lord +Balmerino was put on his trial on the capital charge of retaining in his +possession a petition regarded as a libel on the king's government, +Drummond in an energetic "Letter" (1635) urged the injustice and folly +of the proceedings. About this time a claim by the earl of Menteith to +the earldom of Strathearn, which was based on the assertion that Robert +III., husband of Annabella Drummond, was illegitimate, roused the poet's +pride of blood and prompted him to prepare an historical defence of his +house. Partly to please his kinsman the earl of Perth, and partly to +satisfy his own curiosity, the poet made researches in the genealogy of +the family. This investigation was the real secret of Drummond's +interest in Scottish history; and so we find that he now began his +_History of Scotland during the Reigns of the Five Jameses_, a work +which did not appear till 1655, and is remarkable only for its good +literary style. His next work was called forth by the king's enforced +submission to the opposition of his Scottish subjects. It is entitled +_Irene: or a Remonstrance for Concord, Amity, and Love amongst His +Majesty's Subjects_ (1638), and embodies Drummond's political creed of +submission to authority as the only logical refuge from democracy, which +he hated. In 1639 Drummond had to sign the Covenant in self-protection, +but was uneasy under the burden, as several political squibs by him +testify. In 1643 he published [Greek: Skiamachia]: _or a Defence of a +Petition tendered to the Lords of the Council of Scotland by certain +Noblemen and Gentlemen_, a political pamphlet in support of those +royalists in Scotland who wished to espouse the king's cause against the +English parliament. Its burden is an invective on the intolerance of the +then dominant Presbyterian clergy. + +His later works may be described briefly as royalist pamphlets, written +with more or less caution, as the times required. Drummond took the part +of Montrose; and a letter from the Royalist leader in 1646 acknowledged +his services. He also wrote a pamphlet, "A Vindication of the +Hamiltons," supporting the claims of the duke of Hamilton to lead the +Scottish army which was to release Charles I. It is said that Drummond's +health received a severe shock when news was brought of the king's +execution. He died on the 4th of December 1649. He was buried in his +parish church of Lasswade. + +Drummond's most important works are the _Cypresse Grove_ and the poems. +The _Cypresse Grove_ exhibits great wealth of illustration, and an +extraordinary command of musical English. It is an essay on the folly of +the fear of death. "This globe of the earth," says he, "which seemeth +huge to us, in respect of the universe, and compared with that wide +pavilion of heaven, is less than little, of no sensible quantity, and +but as a point." This is one of Drummond's favourite moods; and he uses +constantly in his poems such phrases as "the All," "this great All." +Even in such of his poems as may be called more distinctively Christian, +this philosophic conception is at work. + +A noteworthy feature in Drummond's poetry, as in that of his courtier +contemporaries Ayton (q.v.), Lord Stirling and others, is that it +manifests no characteristic Scottish element, but owes its birth and +inspiration rather to the English and Italian masters. Drummond was +essentially a follower of Spenser, but, amid all his sensuousness, and +even in those lines most conspicuously beautiful, there is a dash of +melancholy thoughtfulness--a tendency deepened by the death of his first +love, Mary Cunningham. Drummond was called "the Scottish Petrarch"; and +his sonnets, which are the expression of a genuine passion, stand far +above most of the contemporary Petrarcan imitations. A remarkable +burlesque poem _Polemo-Middinia inter Vitarvam et Nebernam_ (printed +anonymously in 1684) has been persistently, and with good reason, +ascribed to him. It is a mock-heroic tale, in dog-Latin, of a country +feud on the Fifeshire lands of his old friends the Cunninghams. + + Drummond's _Poems_, with _Cypresse Grove_, the _History_, and a few of + the minor tracts, were collected in 1656 and edited by Edward + Phillips, Milton's nephew. _The Works of William Drummond, of + Hawthornden_ (1711), edited by Bishop Sage and Thomas Ruddiman, + contains a life by the former, and some of the poet's letters. A + handsome edition of the _Poems_ was printed by the Maitland Club in + 1832. Later editions are by Peter Cunningham (1833), by William R. + Turnbull in "The Library of Old Authors" (1856), and by W. C. Ward + (1894) for "The Muses' Library." The standard biography of Drummond is + by David Masson (1873). Extracts from the Hawthornden MSS. preserved + in the Library of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland were printed + by David Laing in _Archaeologia Scotica_, vol. iv. + + + + +DRUNKENNESS, a term signifying generally a state resulting from +excessive drinking, and usually associated with alcoholic intoxication, +or alcohol poisoning. It may represent either an _act_ or a _habit_, the +latter consisting in frequent repetitions of the former. As an act it +may be an accident, most usually arising from the incautious use of one +or other of the commonly employed intoxicating agents; as a habit (as in +the form of chronic alcoholism) it is one of the most degrading forms of +vice which can result from the enfeeblement of the moral principle by +persistent self-indulgence. + +What appears to be "intoxication" may arise from many different causes +(e.g. epilepsy, fractured skull, intracranial haemorrhage, and the +toxaemic coma of diabetes and uraemia), and the close resemblance +between the pathological and the toxic phenomena has been the cause of +many untoward accidents. Cold alone may produce such peculiar effects +that Captain Parry said in his _Journal_, "I cannot help thinking that +many a man may have been punished for intoxication who was only +suffering from the benumbing effects of frost; for I have more than once +seen our people in a state so exactly resembling that of the most +stupid intoxication, that I should certainly have charged them with the +offence had I not been quite sure that no possible means were afforded +them on Melville Island to procure anything stronger than snow water." +The same confusion is frequently found in cases which come before the +police-courts, people being arrested as "drunk and disorderly" who can +prove that the symptoms were not due to over-indulgence in drink at all. +Some individuals have, moreover, a special idiosyncrasy or +susceptibility to alcohol, due to heredity or to one of the sequelae of +sunstroke or cranial injury. The children of drunkards are usually very +susceptible to the poison, becoming intoxicated by a far smaller +quantity than is needed by a normal person. + +But, as a rule, the phenomena of drunkenness are actually due to +excessive consumption of some intoxicating liquid. The physiological +action of all such agents may be described as a cumulative production of +paralysis of various parts of the nervous system, but this effect +results only in doses of a certain amount--a dose which varies with the +agent, the race and the individual. Even the cup so often said to +"cheer, but not inebriate," cannot be regarded as altogether free from +the last-named effect. Tea-sots are well known to be affected with +palpitation and irregularity of the heart, as well as with more or less +sleeplessness, mental irritability and muscular tremors, which in some +culminate in paralysis; while positive intoxication has been known to be +the result of the excessive use of strong tea. In short, from tea to +haschisch we have, through hops, alcohol, tobacco and opium, a sort of +graduated scale of intoxicants, which stimulate in small doses and +narcotize in larger,--the narcotic dose having no stimulating properties +whatever, and only appearing to possess them from the fact that the +agent can only be gradually taken up by the blood, and the system thus +comes primarily under the influence of a stimulant dose. In certain +circumstances and with certain agents--as in the production of +chloroform narcosis--this precursory stage is capable of being much +abbreviated, if not altogether annihilated; while with other agents--as +tea--the narcotic stage is by no means always or readily produced. + +No subject in modern times has led to more extreme opinions than this of +indulgence in "intoxicants" to any degree whatever. It is well to +remember that (in spite of apparently authoritative modern views to the +contrary) there is not a shadow of proof that the moderate use of any +one of these agents as a stimulant has any definite tendency to lead to +its abuse; it is otherwise with their employment as narcotics, which, +once indulged in, is almost certain to lead to repetition, and to a more +or less rapid process of degradation, though there are many exceptions +to this latter statement. It is interesting to know that a former +English judge, who lived to nearly ninety years of age, believed he had +prolonged his life and added greatly to his comfort by the moderate use +of ether, which he was led to employ because neither wine nor tobacco +agreed with him; while the immoderate use of the same agent has given +rise to a most deleterious form of drunkenness, both in parts of Ireland +and in some of the large industrial centres in Great Britain. + +Various modern biologists have discussed, with more or less acceptance +in certain circles, the historical conditions in various races and in +different countries as to the use and abuse of intoxicants, and have +drawn varying conclusions from their theories. It has even been +contended, with much show of learned authority, that since drunkenness +leads to disease and early death, the proneness to strong drink in the +long run causes the elimination of the unfit, and results in a general +sobering of the community, a race being therefore temperate in +proportion to its past sufferings through alcohol. But on this subject +it may be said that, at least, no agreement has been reached. + +The effects of intoxicants are variously modified by the temperament of +the individual and the nature of the inebriant. When that is alcohol, +its action on an average individual is first to fill him with a serene +and perfect self-complacency. His feelings and faculties are exalted +into a state of great activity and buoyancy, so that his language +becomes enthusiastic, and his conversation vivacious if not brilliant. +The senses gradually become hazy, a soft humming seems to fill the +pauses of the conversation, and modify the tones of the speaker, a filmy +haze obscures the vision, the head seems lighter than usual, the +equilibrium unstable. By-and-by objects appear double, or flit +confusedly before the eyes; judgment is abolished, secretiveness +annihilated, and the drunkard pours forth all that is within him with +unrestrained communicativeness; he becomes boisterous, ridiculous, and +sinks at length into a mere animal. Every one around him, the very +houses, trees, even the earth itself, seem drunken and unstable, he +alone sober, till at last the final stage is reached, and he falls on +the ground insensible--_dead drunk_ (alcoholic coma)--a state from +which, after profound slumber, he at last awakes feverish, exhausted, +sick and giddy, with ringing ears, a throbbing heart and a violent +headache. + +The poison primarily affects the cerebral lobes, and the other parts of +the cerebro-spinal system are consecutively involved, till in the state +of _dead-drunkenness_ the only parts not invaded by a benumbing +paralysis are those automatic centres in the medulla oblongata which +regulate and maintain the circulation and respiration. But even these +centres are not unaffected; the paralysis of these as of the other +sections of the cerebro-spinal system varies in its incompleteness, and +at times becomes complete, the coma of drunkenness terminating in death. +More usually the intoxicant is gradually eliminated, and the individual +restored to consciousness, a consciousness disturbed by the secondary +results of the agent he has abused, which vary with the nature of that +agent. Whether, however, directly or indirectly through the nervous +system, the stomach suffers in every case; thus nutrition is interfered +with by the defective ingestion of food, as well as by the +mal-assimilation of that which is ingested; and from this cause, as well +as by the peculiar local action of the various poisons, the various +organic degenerations are induced (cirrhosis of the liver, &c.) which in +most cases shorten the drunkard's days. + +The primary discomforts of an act of drunkenness are readily removed for +the time by a repetition of the cause. Thus what has been an act may +readily become a habit, all the more readily that each repetition more +and more enfeebles both the will and the judgment, till they become +utterly unfit to resist the temptation to indulgence supplied by the +knowledge of the temporary relief to suffering which is sure to follow, +and in spite of the consciousness that each repetition of the act only +forges their chains more tightly. From this condition there is no hope +of relief but in enforced abstinence; any one in this condition must be +regarded as temporarily insane (see INSANITY and NEUROPATHOLOGY), and +ought to be placed in an inebriate asylum till he regain sufficient +self-control to enable him to overcome his love for drink. Numerous +"cures" have been started in recent years, which have often succeeded in +individual cases. An anti-alcoholic serum obtained from alcoholized +horses has been advocated by Dr Sapelier. + +For the law concerning drunkenness the reader is referred to INEBRIETY, +LAW OF. Its prevalence as a vice has varied considerably according to +the state of education or comfort in different classes of society. In +considering the extent to which intemperance has prevailed, the +statistics of prosecutions upon which such comparisons are usually based +are far from being completely satisfactory, but, inasmuch as they +constitute the only possible data for such comparisons, we are compelled +to accept them. The following table gives the average number of persons +per 1000 of the population proceeded against for drunkenness in England +and Wales for quinquennial periods, dating from 1857, the first year of +the Judicial Statistics:-- + + 1857-1861 4.28 + 1862-1866 4.78 + 1867-1871 5.47 + 1872-1876 7.83 + 1877-1881 7.25 + 1882-1886 6.90 + 1887-1891 6.19 + 1892-1896 5.84 + 1897-1901 6.42 + 1902-1906 6.51 + +The figures, it will be seen, show a steady decline from 1872-1876 (when +the consumption of alcohol was quite abnormal) to 1892-1896. After that +year, however, the figures again rose. The increase was especially +marked in 1899, when a tide of exceptional prosperity was again +accompanied by great drunkenness. It is also disquieting to discover +that the average number of prosecutions for drunkenness in the three +years 1897-1899 was 51% higher than the average for 1857-1861, and 35% +higher than the average for 1862-1866. That the increase was partly due +to more efficient police administration is probable, but that this is +not a complete explanation of the figures is made evident by an analysis +of the general statistics of crime during the same period, from which it +may be seen that, while crime generally (excluding drunkenness) +decreased 28% in England and Wales since 1857-1861, drunkenness +increased 51%. Speaking generally, it may be said that in the United +Kingdom drunkenness appears chiefly prevalent in the seaport and mining +districts. If a line be drawn from the mouth of the Severn to the Wash, +it will be found that the "black" counties, without exception, lie to +the north-west of this line. The worst counties in England and Wales in +the matter of drunkenness are Northumberland, Durham and Glamorganshire, +while Pembrokeshire and Lancashire follow close behind. The most sober +counties, on the other hand, are Cambridgeshire, Suffolk, Oxfordshire +and Wiltshire. Averages based upon the returns of entire counties do +not, however, afford a complete guide to the distribution of +drunkenness, inasmuch as offences are not equally distributed over the +whole area of a county. A heavy ratio of drunkenness in a small district +may often give a county an unfavourable position in the general +averages, notwithstanding favourable conditions in the rest of its area. + +Analysis of the prosecutions for drunkenness shows that about 24% of the +total number of offences are committed by women. In the larger towns the +proportion, as a rule, is higher. In London, 38% of the drunkenness is +attributable to women; in Manchester, 36%; in Belfast and Glasgow, 32%. +In Liverpool, on the other hand, the proportion is only 24%. The +much-controverted question as to whether intemperance is increasing +among women can hardly, however, be decided by an appeal to the criminal +statistics. So far as these statistics throw any light at all upon the +question, they suggest important local differences. A more direct clue +is afforded by the registrar-general's annual returns of deaths directly +attributed to intemperance. The figures are given below. In order to +eliminate accidental variations, the comparison is based upon the +average mortality during consecutive periods:-- + + +---------------+----------------------+----------+----------+ + | Years. | Average No. of deaths| Males | Females | + | | (England and Wales). | per cent.| per cent.| + +---------------+----------------------+----------+----------+ + | 1877-1881 | 1071 | 69 | 31 | + | 1882-1886 | 1320 | 66 | 34 | + | 1887-1891 | 1710 | 64 | 36 | + | 1892-1896 | 2044 | 61 | 39 | + | 1897-1899 | 2577 | 61 | 39 | + | 1899 | 2871 | 60 | 40 | + +---------------+----------------------+----------+----------+ + +For the ten years ending 1904, out of 26,426 deaths from alcoholism, +59.34% were males and 40.66% females. + +The figures are certainly striking. They show, it will be noticed, that +out of every 100 deaths from alcoholic excess in England and Wales women +contributed nine more at the end of the century then they did in 1880. +If, instead of taking the total number of deaths, we take the ratio per +million persons living, the increase is seen even more clearly:-- + + +------------------+----------------+----------------+ + | Years. | Males per | Females per | + | | million living.| million living.| + +------------------+----------------+----------------+ + | 1877-1881 | 60 | 25 | + | 1882-1886 | 67 | 32 | + | 1887-1891 | 79 | 42 | + | 1892-1896 | 86 | 51 | + | 1897-1899 | 103 | 63 | + | 1899 | 112 | 70 | + +------------------+----------------+----------------+ + + +It appears that, while the ratio of mortality from alcoholic excess +increased 87% among males during the last two decades of the century, +among females it increased by no less than 180%. + +See also LIQUOR LAWS and TEMPERANCE. + + + + +DRURY, SIR WILLIAM (1527-1579), English statesman and soldier, was a son +of Sir Robert Drury of Hedgerley in Buckinghamshire, and grandson of +another Sir Robert Drury (d. 1536), who was speaker of the House of +Commons in 1495. He was born at Hawstead in Suffolk on the 2nd of +October 1527, and was educated at Gonville Hall, Cambridge. Fighting in +France, Drury was taken prisoner in 1544; then after his release he +helped Lord Russell, afterwards earl of Bedford, to quell a rising in +Devonshire in 1549, but he did not come to the front until the reign of +Elizabeth. In 1559 he was sent to Edinburgh to report on the condition +of Scottish politics, and five years later he became marshal and +deputy-governor of Berwick. Again in Scotland in January 1570, it is +interesting to note that the regent James Stewart, earl of Murray, was +proceeding to keep an appointment with Drury in Linlithgow when he was +mortally wounded, and it was probably intended to murder the English +envoy also. After this event Drury led two raids into Scotland; at least +thrice he went to that country on more peaceable errands, during which, +however, his life was continually in danger from assassins; and he +commanded the force which compelled Edinburgh Castle to surrender in May +1573. In 1576 he was sent to Ireland as president of Munster, where his +stern rule was very successful, and in 1578 he became lord justice to +the Irish council, taking the chief control of affairs after the +departure of Sir Henry Sidney. The rising of the earl of Desmond had +just broken out when Sir William died in October 1579. + + Drury's letters to Lord Burghley and others are invaluable for the + story of the relations between England and Scotland at this time. + + + + +DRUSES, or DRUZES (Arab. _Druz_), a people of mid-Syria (for the +derivation of the name see HISTORY section below), distributed nowadays +into three isolated groups, of which the most numerous inhabits Jebel +Hauran (Jebel Druz), E. of Jordan (about 55,000); the second, the +_cazas_ of Shuf and Metn in Lebanon (about 50,000); the third, the +_cazas_ of Hasbeya, Rasheya, W. al Ajem, Homs, Hamadiyeh and Selimiyeh +in Anti-Lebanon and Hermon (about 45,000). The first group, which has +been greatly increased by migrants from the second, since the +establishment of the privileged Lebanon province (1861) under Christian +auspices, lives apart from other peoples in semi-independence. The +second is now confined to the southern Lebanon, and even there is +greatly outnumbered by Maronites, who, in the whole "Mountain," stand to +Druses as 9 to 2. The third is counterbalanced everywhere by a large +population of Moslem and Orthodox Syrians. The Hauran, therefore, has +become the stronghold of the Druses, offering nowadays the best field +for studying their peculiar customs and religion; and the group there +still increases at the expense of the other groups, despite efforts on +the part of the Ottoman government to check Druse migration by both +conciliatory and repressive measures. The actual distinction of the +Druses, as a racial unity, despite their dispersion, depends so +exclusively on the peculiarity of their common religion, that it will be +well at once to give an account of Druse creed and practice as they are +understood to stand at the present day. How this religion may have grown +up and come to be theirs will be considered later. + +_Religion._--Druse religion is a secret faith, and the following account +is given with all reserves. There are many indications that a more +primitive cult, containing elements of Nature worship, preceded it, and +still survives in the popular practices of the more remote Druse +districts, e.g. in the eastern Hauran. The _Muwahhidin_ (Unitarians), as +the Druses call themselves, believe that there is one and only one God, +indefinable, incomprehensible, ineffable, passionless. He has made +himself known to men by successive incarnations, of which the last was +Hakim, the sixth Fatimite caliph. How many these incarnations have been +is stated variously; but seventy, one for each period of the world, +seems the best-attested number. Jesus appears to be accepted as one +such incarnation, but not Mahomet, although it is agreed that, in his +time, the "Universal Intelligence" (see later) was made flesh, in the +person of Mikdad al-Aswad. No further incarnation can now take place: in +Hakim a final appeal was made to mankind, and after the door of mercy +had stood open to all for twenty-six years, it was finally and for ever +closed. When the tribulation of the faithful has reached its height, +Hakim will reappear to conquer the world and render his religion +supreme. Druses, believed to be dispersed in China, will return to +Syria. The combined body of the Faithful will take Mecca, and finally +Jerusalem, and all the world will accept the Faith. The first of the +creatures of God is the Universal Intelligence or Spirit, impersonated +in Hamza, Hakim's vizier. This Spirit was the creator of all subordinate +beings, and alone has immediate communion with the Deity. Next in rank, +and equally supporting the throne of the Almighty, are four Ministering +Spirits, the Soul, the Word, the Right Wing and the Left Wing, who, in +Hakim's time, were embodied respectively in Ismael Darazi, Mahommed ibn +Wahab, Selama ibn Abd al-Wahal and Baha ud-Din; and beneath these again +are spiritual agents of various ranks. The material world is an +emanation from, and a "mirror" of, the Divine Intelligence. The number +of human beings admits neither of increase nor of decrease, and a +regular process of metempsychosis goes on continually. The souls of the +virtuous pass after death into ever new incarnations of greater +perfection, till at last they reach a point at which they can be +re-absorbed into the Deity itself; those of the wicked may be degraded +to the level of camels or dogs. All previous religions are mere types of +the true, and their sacred books and observances are to be interpreted +allegorically. The Gospel and the Koran are both regarded as inspired +books, but not as religious guides. The latter function is performed +solely by the Druse Scriptures. As the admission of converts is no +longer permitted, the faithful are enjoined to keep their doctrine +secret from the profane; and in order that their allegiance may not +bring them into danger, they are allowed (like Persian mystics) to make +outward profession of whatever religion is dominant around them. To this +latter indulgence is to be attributed the apparent indifferentism which +leads to their joining Moslems in prayers and ablutions, or sprinkling +themselves with holy water in Maronite churches. Obedience is required +to the seven commandments of Hamza, the first and greatest of which +enjoins truth in words (but only those of Druse speaking with Druse); +the second, watchfulness over the safety of the brethren; the third, +absolute renunciation of every other religion; the fourth, complete +separation from all who are in error; the fifth, recognition of the +unity of "Our Lord" in all ages; the sixth, complete resignation to his +will; and the seventh, complete obedience to his orders. Prayer, +however, is regarded as an impertinent interference with the Creator; +while, at the same time, instead of the fatalistic predestination of +Mahommedanism, the freedom of the human will is distinctly maintained. +Not only is the charge of secrecy rigidly obeyed in regard to the alien +world, but full initiation into the deeper mysteries of the creed is +permitted only to a special class designated _Akils_, (Arabic _'Akl_, +intelligence), in contradistinction from whom all other members of the +Druse community, whatever may be their position or attainments, are +called _Jahel_, the Ignorant. About 15% of the adult population belong +to the order of Akils. Admission is granted to any Druse of either sex +who expresses willingness to conform to the laws of the society, and +during a year of probation gives sufficient proof of sincerity and +stability of purpose. There appears to be no formal distinction of rank +among the various members; and though the amir, Beshir Shehab, used to +appoint a sheikh of the Akils, the person thus distinguished obtained no +primacy over his fellows. Exceptional influence depends upon exceptional +sanctity or ability. All are required to abstain from tobacco and wine; +the women used not to be allowed to wear gold or silver, or silk or +brocade, but this rule is commonly broken now; and although neither +celibacy nor retirement from the affairs of the world is either +imperative or customary, unusual respect is shown to those who +voluntarily submit themselves to ascetic discipline. While the Akils +mingle frankly with the common people, and are remarkably free from +clerical pretension, they are none the less careful to maintain their +privileges. They are distinguished by the wearing of a white turban, +emblematic of the purity of their life. Their food must be purchased +with money lawfully acquired; and lest they should unwittingly partake +of any that is ceremonially unclean, they require those Jahels, whose +hospitality they share, to supply their wants from a store set apart for +their exclusive use. The ideal Akil is grave, calm and dignified, with +an infinite capacity of keeping a secret, and a devotion that knows no +limits to the interests of his creed. On Thursday evening, the +commencement of the weekly day of rest, the members of the order meet +together in the various districts, probably for the reading of their +sacred books and consultation on matters of ecclesiastical or political +importance. Their meeting-houses, _khalwas_, are plain, unornamented +edifices. These have property attached to them, the revenues of which +are consecrated to the relief of the poor and the demands of +hospitality. In the eastern Hauran, there are hill-top shrines +containing each a black stone, on which rugs, &c., are hung, and these +seem to perpetuate features of pre-Islamic Arabian cult, including the +sacrifice of animals, e.g. goats. They are held in reverence by the +Bedouins. The women assemble in the _khalwas_ at the same time as the +men, a part of the space being fenced off for them by a semi-transparent +black veil. Even while the Akils are assembled, strangers are readily +enough admitted to the _khalwas_; but as long as these are present the +ordinary ceremonies are neglected, and the Koran takes the place of the +Druse Scriptures. It has been frequently asserted that the image of a +calf is kept in a niche, and traces of phallic and gynaecocratic worship +have been vaguely suspected; but there is no authentic information in +support of either statement. The calf, if calf there be, is probably a +symbol of the execrable heresy of Darazi, who is frequently styled the +calf by his Orthodox opponents. Ignorance is the mother of suspicion as +well as of superstition; and accordingly the Christian inhabitants of +the Lebanon have long been persuaded that the Druses in their secret +assemblies are guilty of the most nefarious practices. For this +allegation, so frequently repeated by European writers, there seems to +be little evidence; and it is certain that the sacred books of the +religion contain moral teaching of a high order on the whole. + +As a formulated creed, the Druse system is not a thousand years old. In +the year A.D. 996 (386 A.H.) Hakim Biamrillahi (i.e. he who judges by +the command of God), sixth of the Fatimite caliphs (third in Egypt), +began to reign; and during the next twenty-five years he indulged in a +tyranny at once so terrible and so fantastic that little doubt can be +entertained of his insanity. He believed that he held direct intercourse +with the deity, or even that he was an incarnation of the divine +intelligence; and in A.D. 1016 (407 A.H.) his claims were made known in +the mosque at Cairo, and supported by the testimony of Ismael Darazi. +The people showed such bitter hostility to the new gospel that Darazi +was compelled to seek safety in flight; but even in absence he was +faithful to his god, and succeeded in winning over certain ignorant +inhabitants of Lebanon. According to the Druses, this great conversion +took place in A.D. 1019 (410 A.H.). Meanwhile the endeavours of the +caliph to get his divinity acknowledged by the people of Cairo +continued. The advocacy of Hasan ibn Haidara Fergani was without avail; +but in 1017 (408 A.H.) the new religion found a more successful apostle +in the person of Hamza ibn Ali ibn Ahmed, a Persian mystic, felt-maker +by trade, who became Hakim's vizier, gave form and substance to his +creed, and by an ingenious adaptation of its various dogmas to the +prejudices of existing sects, finally enlisted an extensive body of +adherents. In 1020 (411 A.H.) the caliph was assassinated by contrivance +of his sister Sitt ul-Mulk; but it was given out by Hamza that he had +only withdrawn for a season, and his followers were encouraged to look +forward with confidence to his triumphant return. Darazi, who had acted +independently in his apostolate, was branded by Hamza as a heretic, and +thus, by a curious anomaly, he is actually held in detestation by the +very sect which perhaps bears his name. The propagation of the faith in +accordance with Hamza's initiation was undertaken by Ismael ibn Mahommed +Tamimi, Mahommed ibn Wahab, Abul-Khair Selama ibn Abd al-Wahal ibn +Samurri, and Moktana Baha ud-Din, the last of whom became known by his +writings from Constantinople to the borders of India. In two letters +addressed to the emperors Constantine VIII. and Michael the Paphlagonian +he endeavoured to prove that the Christian Messiah reappeared in the +person of Hamza. + +It is possible, even probable, that the segregation of the Druses as a +people dates only from the adoption of Hamza's creed. But when it is +recalled that other inhabitants of the same mountain system, e.g. the +Maronites, the Ansarieh, the Metawali and the "Isma'ilites," also +profess creeds which, like the Druse system, differ from Sunni Islam in +the important feature of admitting incarnations of the Deity, it is +impossible not to suspect that Hamza's emissaries only gave definition +and form to beliefs long established in this part of the world. Many of +the fundamental ideas of Druse theology belong to a common West Asiatic +stock; but the peculiar history of the Mountain is no doubt responsible +for beliefs, held elsewhere by different peoples, being combined there +in a single creed. Some allowance, too, must be made for the probability +that Hamza's system owed something to doctrines Christian and other, +with which the metropolitan position of Cairo brought Fatimite society +into contact. + +_History_--There is good reason to regard the Druses as, racially, a +mixture of refugee stocks, in which the Arab largely predominates, +grafted on to an original mountain population of Aramaic blood and +Incarnationist tendencies. The latter is represented more purely by the +Maronites (q.v.). The native tradition regards an immigration of Hira +Arabs into S. Lebanon, under Khalid ibn Walid in the 9th century, as the +beginning of Druse distinctiveness and power; but it also accepts +Turkoman and Kurdish elements in the original Druse state. About the +same time, or a little later (in the reign of Saladin), it believes that +Hermon was colonized by a population of 15,000 Hira and Yemenite Arabs, +who had sojourned awhile in Hauran. The name Druse is met with first in +Benjamin of Tudela (c. A.D. 1170), and its origin has been much +disputed. Some authorities see in it a descriptive epithet, derived from +Arabic _darasa_ (those who _read_ the Book), or _darisa_ (those in +_possession_ of Truth) or _durs_ (the _clever_ or _initiated_); but more +connect it with the name of the first missionary, Ismael _Darazi_. + +As soon as we begin to know anything of the Druses they were living in a +feudal state of society, as village communities under _sheikhs_, +themselves generally subordinate to one or more amirs. In the time of +the first crusades the main power was in the hands of the Arslan family, +which, however, suffered so severely in wars with the Franks, that it +was superseded by the Tnuhs, who, holding Beirut and nearly all the +Phoenician coast, came into conflict with the sultans of Egypt. One of +these latter, Malik Ashraf, about A.D. 1300, forced outward compliance +with Sunni Islam on the Mountain, after defeating the Druses at Ain +Sofar. Meanwhile, however, the _Maan_ family, lately immigrant from N. +Arabia, was growing in power, and throwing in its lot with the Osmanli +invaders in the reign of Selim I., it was promoted to the supreme +amirate about 1517. Fakr ud-Din Maan II. increased Druse dominion until +it included all the N. Syrian region from the edge of the Antioch plain +to Acre, with part of the eastern desert, dominated by his castle at +Tadmor (Palmyra), and the important towns of Latakia, Tripoli, Beirut +and Saida; and forming further ambitious designs, he intrigued with +Christians and broke with the Turks. In 1614 the pasha of Damascus moved +against him with a large force, and compelled him to fly from Syria. He +sought the courts of Tuscany and Naples and tried to enlist Frank +sympathies, inventing (probably) the curious myth, so often credited +since, that the Druses are of crusading origin and owe their name to the +counts of Dreux.[1] He landed again at Saida in 1619 and recovered his +old position. But in 1633 Kuchuk Ahmed Pasha was sent against him with a +large army, and succeeded in capturing him with his sons. The family was +sent to Constantinople, and two years later strangled. The dynasty +struggled on till the end of the century, amid civil war, in which the +parties seem to have been divided by the earlier Arab factions of +Kaisites (Qaisites) and Yemenites, the Maan belonging to the latter. + +The Shehab family, originally Hira Arabs, which had governed Hauran +under the early caliphs of Damascus, and thereafter held power in +Hermon, intermarried with the Maan; and in the latter's day of weakness +sided with the Kaisi faction and obtained the supreme amirate of the +Mountain. But it appears never to have professed the Druse creed, +remaining Sunnite. Haidar Shehab, third of the line, inflicted a notable +defeat on the pasha of Saida (capital of an Ottoman eyalet since 1688) +and the Yemenite Druses at Ain Dara, near Zahleh, in 1711, and proceeded +to consolidate Shehab power, breaking up the old feudal society and +substituting for the sheikhs _mukatajis_ (tax-contractors), who had +penal jurisdiction. The Yemenite Druses thereupon emigrated in large +numbers to the Hauran, and laid the foundation of Druse power there. The +Turks recognized the _status quo_, and made terms with the Shehab amir +in 1748; but his power was none too well secured against the opposition +of the Kurdish _Jumblat_ family, even though he was supported by the +_Talhuk_, _Abd al-Malik_ and _Yezbeki_ families; and it appears that +some members of the Shehab joined the Maronite faith in the middle of +the 18th century, causing a suspicion of secret apostasy to fall on all +the family. + +It is said that the amir Beshir, who succeeded about 1786, was himself a +crypto-Christian. This remarkable man, who ruled the Mountain for +fifty-four years, maintained his power by taking the side of one rebel +pasha after another, betraying each in turn, and cultivating relations +with European admirals. His earliest ally was Ahmed "Jezzar," who +established himself in Acre in contumacious independence late in the +18th century. Beshir supported Jezzar against Napoleon in 1799 and +earned the friendship of Sir Sidney Smith. Falling out with Jezzar, +Beshir fled to Cairo in 1805, attached himself to Mehemet Ali, and +returned to take up the reins. Once more chased out by the Turks, he was +again in the Mountain in 1823, allied with Abdallah, on whom Jezzar's +mantle had ultimately fallen at Acre, and maintaining friendly relations +with the "English Princess," Lady Hester Stanhope. He now finally +worsted the Jumblat. The invasion of Syria by Mehemet Ali in 1831 caused +Beshir to desert Abdallah and throw in his lot with Ibrahim Pasha; but +he was not cordially followed by the Druses in general, and had good +excuse for revolt in 1839, and intrigue with the British admiral in +1840. Ibrahim, however, by his possession of Druse hostages, restrained +the amir, and after the bombardment of Acre, the Turks called him to +account for his record of rebellion and treachery. He fled to Malta on a +British ship, but was induced to go to Constantinople, where he died in +1851. + +His successor, Beshir al-Kassim, openly joined the Maronites, and +instigating these against the malcontents of his own people, brought +enmities, which had been growing for a century, to a head, and initiated +a devastating internecine warfare which was to continue for twenty +years. The state of the Lebanon went from bad to worse, and at last, in +January 1842, the Turkish government appointed Omar Pasha as +administrator of the Druses and Maronites, with a council of four chiefs +from each party; but the pasha, attempting to effect a disarming, was +besieged in November in the castle of Beit ed-Din by the Druses under +Shibli el-Arrian. At the instigation of the European powers he was +recalled in December, and the Druses and Maronites were placed under +separate _kaimakams_ (governors), who, it was stipulated, were not to be +of the family of Shehab. Disturbances again broke out in 1845, the +native _mukatajis_ refusing to obey the _kaimakams_. The Maronites flew +to arms, but with the assistance of the Turks their opponents carried +the day. A superficial pacification effected by Shekib Effendi, the +Ottoman commissioner, lasted only till his departure; and the Porte was +obliged to despatch a force of 12,000 men to the Lebanon. Forty of the +chiefs were seized, the people was nominally disarmed, and in 1846 a new +constitution was inaugurated, by which the _kaimakam_ was to be assisted +by two Druses, two Maronites, four Greeks, two Turks and one Metawali. +All, however, was in vain: the conflict was continued through 1858, 1859 +and 1860; and the disturbance culminated in the famous Damascus massacre +(see SYRIA). The European powers now determined to interfere; and, by a +protocol of the 3rd of May 1860, it was decided that the Lebanon should +be occupied by a force of 20,000 men, of whom half were to be French. A +body of troops was accordingly landed on the 16th of August under +General Beaufort d'Hautpoul; and Fuad Pasha, who had been appointed +Turkish commissioner with full powers, proceeded to bring the leaders of +the massacres to justice. The French occupation continued till the 5th +of June 1861, and the French and English squadrons cruised on the coast +for several months after. In accordance with the recommendation of the +European powers the Porte determined to appoint a Christian governor not +belonging to the district, and independent of the pasha of Beirut, to +hold office for three years. The choice fell on Daud Pasha, an Armenian +Catholic, who was installed on the 4th of July. In spite of many +difficulties, and especially the ambitious conduct of the Maronite +Jussuf Karam, he succeeded in restoring order; and by the formation of a +military force from the inhabitants of the Lebanon he rendered +unnecessary the presence of the Turkish soldiery. + +The privileged province of Lebanon (q.v.) was finally constituted by the +Organic Statute of the 6th of September 1864, and the subsequent history +of the Lebanon Druses is one of gradual withdrawal from the jurisdiction +of that state, in which they see their ancient independence +irretrievably compromised, and their religion subordinated to Christian +supremacy. Many now emigrate, when occasion offers, to America. + +Meanwhile, the Hauran, the old seat of the Shehab family and Hermon +Druses, had been steadily receiving a Druse influx, since the day of Ain +Dara (see above). Towards the close of the 18th century some 600 +families left Lebanon for the Hauran, in discontent with the rule of the +Shehab dynasty, and their place and property were taken by 1500 families +driven out of Jebel Ansarieh by Topal Ali in 1811. The Hauran Druses +increased by the middle of the 19th century to 7000 souls. They had +successfully resisted Ibrahim, the Egyptian, in 1839 in the Lija, and +asserted complete independence of the Turks, living under a theocratic +government directed by the chief Akil in Suweda. A great effort, made by +Kibrisli Pasha in 1852 to subdue the Hauran, came to nothing. In 1879 +the population numbered 20,000, and by a murderous raid attracted the +attention of Midhat Pasha, then vali of the province of Syria. After +experiencing one disaster he defeated their forces and imposed a +_kaimakam_, at first drawn from the Talhuks, but subsequently chosen +from the Atrash family of Kunawat. But the Druses still refused to pay +taxes, to serve in the Ottoman army, or to recognize the _kaimakam_, and +maintained their contumacy under the lead of the Jumblat, till 1896; +when, as the result of a military expedition under Tahir Pasha and a +great defeat at Ijun, a compromise was arrived at, under which the +Druses agreed to pay taxes, but to serve in their own territory only as +a frontier guard. The government was put into the hands of a mutessarif +resident at Sheikh Saad, under whom are _kaimakams_ at Suweda and +Salkhad. Since that epoch there has been comparative peace between the +Druses and the government, largely because the latter, having learned +wisdom, leaves the people very much to itself, maintaining only a small +garrison of regular troops, and enlisting Druse police for service in +Jebel Druz itself. The Druses are allowed to carry on their feuds with +the Bedouins of the E. Desert as they will, so long as they do not +disturb western districts. With the recent opening out of the W. Hauran +by railway, the Druse sheikhs are beginning to acquire commercial +ambitions, and to desire peace. + +The Hauran Druses are a vigorous, independent folk, with a well-deserved +reputation for courage, very astute, and hospitable to Europeans, +especially the British, with whom they have an old tradition of +friendship. But, like most persecuted but semi-independent peoples, they +are both cruel, and, by our standards, treacherous. They are a handsome +race, the women being often beautiful. The latter no longer carry the +head-horn which used to support the veil dropped over the face out of +doors. But their dress is still black with the exception of red +slippers, and the veil is never abandoned, not even, it is said, during +sleep. An English lady, who has been much among them, states that the +Druse women of the Hauran never unveiled before her. The men wear a +_tarbush_ with white roll, a black under-robe with white girdle, a short +loose jacket, and when necessary an _aba_ or parti-coloured cloak over +all. They go habitually armed with scimitar and half-moon axe, besides +gun or rifle. + +Polygamy is forbidden. Marriage retains certain traces of the original +system of capture; but Druse women enjoy much consideration, and are +comparatively well educated, dignified and free in their bearing in +spite of their close veiling. As has been stated above, they join the +men in religious functions. Divorce is easy and can be initiated by the +woman; but remarriage of the pair can only be effected by the good +offices of a proxy (as in Moslem societies, after a third divorce). +Burial takes place in family mausoleums, walled up after each interment; +but Akils are buried in their own houses. The body is laid on its side, +with its face to the south (Mecca). + +Education is widely spread, and there is a considerable religious +literature, much of which is known in Europe. A copy of the _Book of the +Testimonies to the Mysteries of the Unity_, consisting of seventy +treatises in four folio volumes, was found in the house of the chief +Akil at Bakhlin, and presented in 1700 to Louis XIV. by Nusralla ibn +Gilda, a Syrian doctor. Other manuscripts are to be found at Rome in the +Vatican, at Oxford in the Bodleian, at Vienna, at Leiden, at Upsala and +at Munich; and Dr J. L. Porter got possession of seven standard works of +Druse theology while at Damascus. The Munich collection was presented to +the king of Bavaria by Clot Bey, the chief physician in the Egyptian +army during its occupation of Syria; and for a number of the other +manuscripts we are indebted to the elder Niebuhr. A history of the Druse +nation by the amir Haidar Shehab is quoted by Urquhart. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Adler, "Druze Catechism," in _Museum Cuficum Borgianum_ + (1782); Silvestre de Sacy, _Expose de la religion des Druses_ (1838); + Ph. Wolff, _Reise in das gelobte Land_, and _Die Drusen und ihre + Vorlaufer_ (1842); C. H. Churchill, _Ten Years' Residence in Mount + Lebanon_ (3 vols., 1853); G. W. Chasseaud, _The Druzes of the Lebanon_ + (1855); E. G. Ray, _Voyage dans le Haouran, execute pendant les annees + 1857 et 1858_; C. H. Churchill, _The Druzes and Maronites under the + Turkish Rule from 1840 to 1860_ (London, 1862); H. Guys, _Le Theogonie + des Druses_ (1863), and _La Nation Druse_ (1864); M. von Oppenheim, + _Vom Mittelmeer_, &c. (1899); Gertrude L. Bell, _The Desert and the + Sown_ (1907). (D. G. H.; G. BE.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Sophisticated Druses still sometimes claim connexion with + Rosicrucians, and a special relation to Scottish freemasons. + + + + +DRUSIUS (or VAN DEN DRIESCHE), JOHANNES (1550-1616), Protestant divine, +distinguished specially as an Orientalist and exegete, was born at +Oudenarde, in Flanders, on the 28th of June 1550. Being designed for the +church, he studied Greek and Latin at Ghent, and philosophy at Louvain; +but his father having been outlawed for his religion, and deprived of +his estate, retired to England, where the son followed him in 1567. He +found an admirable teacher of Hebrew in Chevalier, the celebrated +Orientalist, with whom he resided for some time at Cambridge. In 1572 he +became professor of Oriental languages at Oxford. Upon the pacification +of Ghent (1576) he returned with his father to their own country, and +was appointed professor of Oriental languages at Leiden in the following +year. In 1585 he removed to Friesland, and was admitted professor of +Hebrew in the university of Franeker, an office which he discharged with +great honour till his death, which happened in February 1616. He +acquired so extended a reputation as a professor that his class was +frequented by students from all the Protestant countries in Europe. His +works prove him to have been well skilled in Hebrew and in Jewish +antiquities; and in 1600 the states-general employed him, at a salary of +400 florins a year, to write notes on the most difficult passages in the +Old Testament; but this work was not published until after his death. As +the friend of Arminius, he was charged by the orthodox and dominant +party with unfairness in the execution of the task, and the last sixteen +years of his life were therefore somewhat embittered by controversy. He +carried on an extensive correspondence with the learned in different +countries; for, besides letters in Hebrew, Greek and other languages, +there were found amongst his papers upwards of 2000 written in Latin. He +had a son, John, who died in England at the age of twenty-one, and was +accounted a prodigy of learning. He had mastered Hebrew at the age of +nine, and Scaliger said that he was a better Hebrew scholar than his +father. He wrote a large number of letters in Hebrew, besides notes on +the Proverbs of Solomon and other works. + + Paquot states the number of the printed works and treatises of the + elder Drusius at forty-eight, and of the unprinted at upwards of + twenty. Of the former more than two-thirds were inserted in the + collection entitled _Critici sacri, sive annolata doctissimorum + virorum in Vetus et Novum Testamentum_ (Amsterdam, 1698, in 9 vols. + folio, or London, 1660, in 10 vols. folio). Amongst the works of + Drusius not to be found in this collection may be mentioned--(1) + _Alphabetum Hebraicum vetus_ (1584, 4to); (2) _Tabulae in grammaticam + Chaldaicam ad usum juventutis_ (1602, 8vo); (3) An edition of + Sulpicius Severus (Franeker, 1807, 12mo); (4) _Opuscula quae ad + grammaticam spectant omnia_ (1609, 4to); (5) _Lacrymae in obitum J. + Scaligeri_ (1609, 4to); and (6) _Grammatica linguae sanctae nova_ + (1612, 4to). + + + + +DRUSUS, MARCUS LIVIUS, Roman statesman, was colleague of Gaius Gracchus +in the tribuneship, 122 B.C. The proposal of Gracchus (q.v.) to confer +the full franchise on the Latins had been opposed not only by the +senate, but also by the mob, who imagined that their own privileges +would thereby be diminished. Drusus threatened to veto the proposal. +Encouraged by this, the senatorial party put up Drusus to outbid +Gracchus. Gracchus had proposed to found colonies outside Italy; Drusus +provided twelve in Italy, to each of which 3000 citizens were to be +sent. Gracchus had proposed to distribute allotments to the poorer +citizens subject to a state rent-charge; Drusus promised them free of +all charge, and further that they should be inalienable. In addition to +the franchise, immunity from corporal punishment (even in the field) was +promised the Latins. The absence of Gracchus, and the inefficiency of +his representative at Rome, led to the acceptance of these proposals, +which were never intended to be carried. Drusus himself declined all +responsibility in connexion with carrying them out. He was rewarded for +his services by the consulship (112), and the title of _patronus +senatus_. He received Macedonia for his province, where he distinguished +himself in a campaign against the Scordisci, whom he drove across the +Danube, being the first Roman general who reached that river. It is +possible that he is the Drusus mentioned by Plutarch as having died in +109, the year of his censorship. + + Appian, _Bell. Civ._ i. 23; Plutarch, _Gaius Gracchus_, 8-11; Florus + iii. 4; A. H. J. Greenidge, _Hist. of Rome_, vol. i. (1904). + +His son, MARCUS LIVIUS DRUSUS, became tribune of the people in 91 B.C. +He was a thoroughgoing conservative, wealthy and generous, and a man of +high integrity. With some of the more intelligent members of his party +(such as Marcus Scaurus and L. Licinius Crassus the orator) he +recognized the need of reform. At that time an agitation was going on +for the transfer of the judicial functions from the equites to the +senate; Drusus proposed as a compromise a measure which restored to the +senate the office of judices, while its numbers were doubled by the +admission of 300 equites. Further, a special commission was to be +appointed to try and sentence all judices guilty of taking bribes. But +the senate was lukewarm, and the equites, whose occupation was +threatened, offered the most violent opposition. In order, therefore, to +catch the popular votes, Drusus proposed the establishment of colonies +in Italy and Sicily, and an increased distribution of corn at a reduced +rate. By help of these riders the bill was carried. Drusus now sought a +closer alliance with the Italians, promising them the long-coveted boon +of the Roman franchise. The senate broke out into open opposition. His +laws were abrogated as informal, and each party armed its adherents for +the civil struggle which was now inevitable. Drusus was stabbed one +evening as he was returning home. His assassin was never discovered. + + See Rome: _History_, ii. "The Republic" (Period C); also Appian, + _Bell. Civ._ i. 35; Florus iii. 17; Diod. Sic. xxxvii. 10; Livy, + _Epit._ 70; Vell. Pat. ii. 13. + + + + +DRUSUS, NERO[1] CLAUDIUS (38-9 B.C.) Roman general, son of Tiberius +Claudius Nero and Livia Drusilla, stepson of Augustus and younger +brother of the emperor Tiberius. Having held the office of quaestor and +acted as praetor for his brother during the latter's absence in Gaul, he +began (in 15 B.C.) the military career which has made his name famous. +In conjunction with Tiberius, he carried on a successful campaign +against the Raeti and Vindelici, who, although repulsed from Italy, +continued to threaten the frontiers of Gaul. The credit of the decisive +victory, however, must be assigned to Tiberius. Two of the _Odes_ of +Horace (iv. 4 and 14) were written to glorify the exploits of the +brothers. In 13 Drusus was sent as governor to the newly organized +province of the three Gauls, where considerable discontent had been +aroused by the exactions of the Roman governor Licinius. Drusus made a +fresh assessment for taxation purposes, and summoned the Gallic +representatives to a meeting at Lugdunum to discuss their grievances. It +was of great importance to pacify the Gauls, in order to have his hands +free to deal with the German tribes, one of which, the Sugambri, on the +right bank of the Rhine, had seized the opportunity, during the absence +of Augustus, to cross the river (12). Drusus drove them back and pursued +them through the island of the Batavi and the land of the Usipetes +(Usipes, Usipii) to their own territory, which he devastated. Sailing +down the Rhine, he subdued the Frisii and, in order to facilitate +operations against the Chauci, dug a canal (Fossa Drusiana) leading from +the Rhenus (Rhine) to the Isala (Yssel)[2] into the lacus Flevus +(Zuidersee) and the German Ocean. Making his way along the Frisian +coast, he conquered the island of Burchanis (_Borkum_), defeated the +Bructeri in a naval engagement on the Amisia (_Ems_), and went on to the +mouth of the Visurgis (_Weser_) to attack the Chauci. On the way back +his vessels grounded on the shallows, and were only got off with the +assistance of the Frisii. Winter being close at hand, the campaign was +abandoned till the following spring, and Drusus returned to Rome with +the honour of having been the first Roman general to reach the German +Ocean. + +In his second campaign (11), Drusus defeated the Usipetes, threw a +bridge over the Luppia (_Lippe_), attacked the Sugambri, and advanced +through their territory and that of the Tencteri and Chatti as far as +the Weser, where he gained a victory over the Cherusci. Lack of +provisions, the approach of winter, and an inauspicious portent +prevented him from crossing the Weser. While making his way back to the +Rhine he fell into an ambuscade, but the carelessness of the enemy +enabled him to inflict a crushing defeat upon them. In view of future +operations, he built two castles, one at the junction of the Luppia and +Aliso (_Alme_), the other in the territory of the Chatti on the Taunus, +near Moguntiacum (_Mainz_). + +The third campaign (10) was of little importance. The Chatti had joined +the Sugambri in revolt; and, after some insignificant successes, Drusus +returned with Augustus and Tiberius to Rome, and was elected consul for +the following year. In spite of unfavourable portents at Rome, he +determined to enter upon his fourth and last campaign (9) without delay. +He attacked and defeated the Chatti, Suebi, Marcomanni and Cherusci, +crossed the Weser and penetrated as far as the Albis (_Elbe_). Here +trophies were set up to mark the farthest point ever reached by a Roman +army. Various measures were taken to secure the possession of the +conquered territory: fortresses were erected along the Elbe, Weser and +Maas (_Meuse_, _Mosa_); a flotilla was placed upon the Rhine and a dam +built upon the right arm of its estuary to increase the flow of water +into the canal mentioned above. Drusus was said to have been deterred +from crossing the Elbe by the sudden appearance of a woman of +supernatural size, who predicted his approaching end. On his return, +probably between the Elbe and the Saale (_Sala_), his horse stumbled and +threw him. His leg was fractured and he died thirty days after the +accident, on the 14th of September. Suetonius mentions an absurd rumour +that he had been poisoned by order of Augustus, because he had refused +to obey the order for his recall. The body was carried to the winter +quarters of the army, whence it was escorted by Tiberius to Rome, the +procession being joined by Augustus at Ticinum (Pavia). Tiberius +delivered an oration over the remains in the Forum, whence they were +conveyed to the Campus Martius and cremated, and ashes being deposited +in the mausoleum of Augustus. + +Drusus was one of the most distinguished men of his time. His agreeable +manners, handsome person and brilliant military talents gained him the +affection of the troops, while his sympathy with republican principles, +endeared him to the people. It is not too much to say that, had he and +his son lived long enough, they might have brought about the abolition +of the monarchy. Although the successes of Drusus, resulting in the +subjection of the German tribes from the Rhine to the Elbe, were too +rapid to be lasting, they brought home the fact of the existence of the +Romans to many who had never heard their name. For his victories he +received the title of Germanicus. He married Antonia, the daughter of +Marcus Antonius the triumvir, by whom he had three children: Germanicus, +adopted by Tiberius; Claudius, afterwards emperor; and a daughter +Livilla. + + The chief ancient authorities for the life of Drusus are Dio Cassius, + the epitomes of Livy, Suetonius (_Claudius_), Tacitus (portions of the + _Annals_), Florus (whose chief source is Livy), Velleius Paterculus, + and the _Consolatio ad Liviam_. The German campaigns were described in + the last books of Livy and the lost _Bella Germaniae_ of the elder + Pliny. As would naturally be expected, they have produced an extensive + literature in Germany, J. Asbach's "Die Feldzuge des Nero Claudius + Drusus" (_Rhein. Jahrb._ lxxxv. 14-30) being especially recommended; + see also Mommsen's _History of the Roman Provinces_, i.; Merivale, + _History of the Romans under the Empire_, ch. 36; A. Stein in + Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_ (1899), where other authorities are + given; J. C. Tarver, _Tiberius the Tyrant_ (1902). + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Originally Decimus. + + [2] The district extending from Westervoort to Doesborgh. + + + + +DRUSUS CAESAR (c. 15 B.C.-A.D. 23), commonly called Drusus junior, to +distinguish him from his uncle Nero Claudius Drusus, was the only son of +the emperor Tiberius by his first wife Vipsania Agrippina. After having +held several curule offices, he was consul elect in A.D. 14, the year of +Augustus's death. His father, on his accession to the throne, +immediately sent him to put down a mutiny of the troops in Pannonia, a +task which he successfully accomplished (Tacitus, _Annals_, i. 24-30). +As governor of Illyricum (17), he set the Germanic tribes against one +another, and encouraged Catualda, chief of the Gothones, to drive out +Marbod (Maroboduus), king of the Marcomanni. On his return Drusus was +consul a second time (21) and in the following year received the +tribunician authority from Tiberius, which practically indicated him as +heir to the throne. Sejanus, who also aspired to the supreme power, +determined to remove Drusus. He endeavoured to poison Tiberius's mind +against him, seduced Drusus's wife and persuaded her to assist him in +murdering her husband. Her physician Eudemus prepared and the eunuch +Lygdus administered a slow poison, from the effects of which Drusus died +after a lingering illness. Although Tiberius is said to have received +the news of his death with indifference, there is no reason to suppose +that he had any hand in it; indeed, he seems to have entertained a +genuine affection for his son. Drusus was a man of violent passions, a +drunkard and a debauchee, but not entirely devoid of better feelings, as +is shown by his undoubtedly sincere grief at the death of Germanicus. +The cunning and reserve which he exhibited on occasion were probably due +to the instructions or influence of Tiberius (_Annals_, iii. 8), since +he was himself naturally frank and open, and for this reason, +notwithstanding his vices, more popular than his father. He revelled in +bloody gladiatorial displays, and the sharpest swords used on such +occasions were called "Drusine." + + See Tacitus, _Annals_, i. 76, iv. 8-11; Dio Cassius lvii. 13, 14; + Suetonius, _Tiberius_, 62; J. C. Tarver, _Tiberius the Tyrant_ (1902). + + + + +DRYADES, or HAMADRYADES, in Greek mythology, nymphs of trees and woods. +Each particular tree ([Greek: drus]) was the home of its own special +Dryad, who was supposed to be born and to die with it ([Greek: hama]). + + + + +DRYANDER, JONAS (1748-1810), Swedish botanist, was born in 1748. By his +uncle, Dr Lars Montin, to whom his education was entrusted, he was sent +to the university of Gothenburg, whence he removed to Lund. After taking +his degree there in 1776, he studied at Upsala under Linnaeus, and then +became for a time tutor to a young Swedish nobleman. He next visited +England, and, on the death of his friend Dr Daniel Charles Solander +(1736-1782), succeeded him as librarian to Sir Joseph Banks. He was +librarian to the Royal Society and also to the Linnean Society. Of the +latter, in 1788, he was one of the founders, and, when it was +incorporated by royal charter in 1802, he took a leading part in drawing +up its laws and regulations. He was vice-president of the society till +his death, which took place in London on the 19th of October 1810. +Besides papers in the Transactions of the Linnean and other societies, +Dryander published _Dissertatio gradualis fungos regno vegetabili +vindicans_ (Lund, 1776), and _Catalogus bibliothecae historico-naturalis +Josephi Banks, Bart._ (London, 1796-1800, 5 vols.). He also edited the +first and part of the second edition of W. Aiton's _Hortus Kewensis_ and +W. Roxburgh's _Plants of the Coast of Coromandel_. + + + + +DRYBURGH ABBEY, a monastic ruin in the extreme south-west of +Berwickshire, Scotland, about 5 m. S.E. of Melrose, and 1-1/4 m. E. of +St Boswells station on the North British railway's Waverley route from +Edinburgh to Carlisle. The name has been derived from the Gaelic _darach +bruach_, "oak bank," in allusion to the fact that the Druids once +practised their rites here. The abbey occupies the spot where, about +522, St Modan, an Irish Culdee, established a sanctuary--a secluded +position on a tongue of land washed on three sides by the Tweed. Founded +in 1150 by David I.--though it has also been ascribed to Hugh de +Morville (d. 1162), lord of Lauderdale and constable of Scotland--it +enjoyed great prosperity until 1322, when it was partially destroyed by +the English under Edward II. It suffered again at the hands of Richard +II. in 1385, and was reduced to ruin during the expedition of the earl +of Hertford in 1545. After the Reformation the estate was erected into a +temporal lordship and given (1604) by James VI. to John Erskine, 2nd +earl of Mar. At a later date it was sold, but reverted to a branch of +the Erskines in 1786, when it was acquired by the 11th earl of Buchan. +In 1700 the abbey lands belonged to Thomas Haliburton, Scott's +great-grandfather, and, but for an extravagant grand-uncle who became +bankrupt and had to part with the property, they would have descended to +Sir Walter by inheritance. "We have nothing left of Dryburgh," he said, +"but the right of stretching our bones there." The style in general is +Early English, but the west door and the restored entrance from the nave +to the cloisters are fine examples of transitional Norman. Though in +various stages of decay, nearly every one of the monastic buildings is +represented by a fragment. Of the cruciform church--190 ft. long by 75 +broad at the transepts--there remain some of the outer walls, a segment +of the choir, the east aisle of the north transept, the stumps of some +of the pillars of the nave, the west gable, the south transept and its +adjacent chapel of St Modan. The most beautiful of these relics is St +Mary's aisle of the north transept, in which were buried Sir Walter +Scott (1832), his wife, son, his son-in-law John Gibson Lockhart, and +his ancestors, the Haliburtons of New Mains. Sir Walter's tomb is a +plain block of polished Peterhead granite, inscribed only with his name +and the dates of his birth and death. The next aisle is the burial-place +of the Erskines of Shielhill and the Haigs of Bemersyde. On the south +side of the church, at a lower level, stand the cloisters, about 100 ft. +square, bounded on the west by the dungeons, on the south-west by the +cellars and refectory, in the west wall of which is an exquisite +ivy-clad rose window, and on the east by the chapter-house, on a still +lower level. The chapter-house, a lofty building with vaulted roof, is +the most complete structure of the group, and adjoining it on the south +are, first the abbot's parlour and then the library, the three +apartments communicating with each other, and constituting the oldest +portion of the abbey. In the grounds are many venerable trees, a yew +near the chapter-house being at least coeval with the abbey. + + + + +DRYDEN, JOHN (1631-1700), English poet, born on or about the 9th of +August 1631, at Aldwinkle, in Northamptonshire, was of Cumberland stock, +though his family had been settled for three generations in +Northamptonshire, had acquired estates and a baronetcy, and intermarried +with landed families in that county. His great-grandfather, who first +carried the name south, and acquired by marriage the estate of Canons +Ashby, is said to have known Erasmus, and to have been so proud of the +great scholar's friendship that he gave the name of Erasmus to his +eldest son. The name Erasmus was borne by the poet's father, the third +son of Sir Erasmus Dryden. The leanings and connexions of the family +were Puritan and anti-monarchical. Sir Erasmus Dryden went to prison +rather than pay loan money to Charles I.; the poet's uncle, Sir John +Dryden, and his father Erasmus, served on government commissions during +the Commonwealth. His mother's family, the Pickerings, were still more +prominent on the Puritan side. Sir Gilbert Pickering, his cousin, was +chamberlain to the Protector, and was summoned to Cromwell's House of +Lords in 1657. A trustworthy tradition asserts that John Dryden was born +at the rectory of Aldwinkle All Saints, of which his maternal +grandfather, Henry Pickering, was rector. + +Dryden's education was such as became a scion of these respectable +families of squires and rectors, among whom the chance contact with +Erasmus had left a certain tradition of scholarship. His father, whose +own fortune, added to his wife's, was not large, procured for the poet, +who was the eldest of fourteen children, admission to Westminster school +as a king's scholar, under the famous Dr Busby. Some elegiac verses +which Dryden wrote there on the death of a schoolfellow, Henry, Lord +Hastings, son of the earl of Huntingdon, in 1649, were published in +_Lacrymae Musarum_, among other elegies by "divers persons of nobility +and worth" in commemoration of the same event. He appeared soon after +again in print, among writers of commendatory verses to a friend of his, +John Hoddesdon, who published a volume of _Epigrams_ in 1650. Dryden's +contribution is signed "John Dryden of Trinity C.," as he had gone up +from Westminster to Cambridge in May 1650. He was elected a scholar of +Trinity on the Westminster foundation in October of the same year, and +took his degree of B.A. in 1654. The only recorded incident of his +college residence is some unexplained act of disobedience to the +vice-master, for which he was "put out of commons" and "gated" for a +fortnight. His father died in 1654, leaving him master of two-thirds of +a small estate near Blakesley, worth about L60 a year. The next three +years he is said to have spent at Cambridge. In any case they were spent +somewhere in study; for his first considerable poem bears indisputable +marks of scholarly habits, as well as of a command of verse that could +not have been acquired without practice. + +The middle of 1657 is given as the date of his leaving the university to +take up his residence in London. In one of his many subsequent literary +quarrels, it was said by Shadwell that he had been clerk to Sir Gilbert +Pickering, his cousin, who was chamberlain to Cromwell; and nothing is +more likely than that he obtained some employment under his powerful +cousin when he came to London. He is said to have lived at first in the +house of his first publisher, Herringman, with whom he was connected +till 1679, when Jacob Tonson began to publish his books. He first +emerged from obscurity with his _Heroic Stanzas_ (1659) to the memory of +the Protector. That these stanzas should have made him a name as a poet +does not appear surprising when we compare them with Waller's verses on +the same occasion. Dryden took some time to consider them, and it was +impossible that they should not give an impression of his intellectual +strength. Donne was his model; it is obvious that both his ear and his +imagination were saturated with Donne's elegiac strains when he wrote; +yet when we look beneath the surface we find unmistakable traces that +the pupil was not without decided theories that ran counter to the +practice of the master. It is plainly not by accident that each stanza +contains one clear-cut brilliant point. The poem is an academic +exercise, and it seems to be animated by an under-current of strong +contumacious protest against the irregularities tolerated by the +authorities. Dryden had studied the ancient classics for himself, and +their method of uniformity and elaborate finish commended itself to his +robust and orderly mind. In itself the poem is a magnificent tribute to +the memory of Cromwell. + +To those who regard the poet as a seer with a sacred mission, and refuse +the name altogether to a literary manufacturer to order, it comes with a +certain shock to find Dryden, the hereditary Puritan, the panegyrist of +Cromwell, hailing the return of King Charles in _Astraea Redux_ (1660), +deploring his long absence, and proclaiming the despair with which he +had seen "the rebel thrive, the loyal crost." _A Panegyric on the +Coronation_ followed in 1661. From a literary point of view also, +_Astraea Redux_ is inferior to the _Heroic Stanzas_. + +Dryden was compelled to supplement his slender income by his writings. +He naturally first thought of tragedy,--his own genius, as he has +informed us, inclining him rather to that species of composition; and in +the first year of the Restoration he wrote a tragedy on the fate of +Henry, duke of Guise. But some friends advised him that its construction +was not suited to the requirements of the stage, so he put it aside, and +used only one scene of the original play later on, when he again +attempted the subject with a more practised hand. Having failed to write +a suitable tragedy, he next turned his attention to comedy, although, as +he admitted, he had little natural turn for it. "I confess," he said, in +a short essay in his own defence, printed before _The Indian Emperor_, +"my chief endeavours are to delight the age in which I live. If the +humour of this be for low comedy, small accidents and raillery, I will +force my genius to obey it, though with more reputation I could write in +verse. I know I am not so fitted by nature to write comedy; I want that +gaiety of humour which is required to it. My conversation is slow and +dull; my humour saturnine and reserved; in short, I am none of those who +endeavour to break jests in company or make repartees. So that those who +decry my comedies do me no injury, except it be in point of profit; +reputation in them is the last thing to which I shall pretend." He was +really as well as ostentatiously a playwright; the age demanded +comedies, and he endeavoured to supply the kind of comedy that the age +demanded. His first attempt was unsuccessful. Bustle, intrigue and +coarsely humorous dialogue seemed to him to be part of the popular +demand; and, looking about for a plot, he found something to suit him in +a Spanish source, and wrote _The Wild Gallant_. The play was acted in +February 1663, by Thomas Killigrew's company in Vere Street. It was not +a success, and Pepys showed good judgment in pronouncing the play "so +poor a thing as ever I saw in my life." Dryden never learned moderation +in his humour; there is a student's clumsiness and extravagance in his +indecency; the plays of Etheredge, a man of the world, have not the +uncouth riotousness of Dryden's. Of this he seems to have been +conscious, for when the play was revived, in 1667, he complained in the +epilogue of the difficulty of comic wit, and admitted the right of a +common audience to judge of the wit's success. Dryden, indeed, took a +lesson from the failure of _The Wild Gallant_; his next comedy, _The +Rival Ladies_, also founded on a Spanish plot, produced before the end +of 1663, and printed in the next year, was correctly described by Pepys +as "a very innocent and most pretty witty play," though there was much +in it which the taste of our time would consider indelicate. But he +never quite conquered his tendency to extravagance. _The Wild Gallant_ +was not the only victim. _The Assignation, or Love in a Nunnery_, +produced in 1673, shared the same fate; and even as late as 1680, when +he had had twenty years' experience to guide him, _The Kind Keeper, or +Mr Limberham_ was prohibited, after three representations, as being too +indecent for the stage. Dislike to indecency we are apt to think a +somewhat ludicrous pretext to be made by Restoration playgoers, and +probably there was some other reason for the sacrifice of _Limberham_; +still there is a certain savageness in the spirit of Dryden's indecency +which we do not find in his most licentious contemporaries. The +undisciplined force of the man carried him to an excess from which more +dexterous writers held back. + +After the production of _The Rival Ladies_ in 1663, Dryden assisted Sir +Robert Howard in the composition of a tragedy in heroic verse, _The +Indian Queen_, produced with great splendour in January 1664. He married +Lady Elizabeth Howard, Sir Robert's sister and daughter of the 1st earl +of Berkshire, on the 1st of December 1663. Lady Elizabeth's reputation +was somewhat compromised before this union, which was not a happy one, +and there is some evidence for the scandal in a letter written by her +before her marriage to Philip, 2nd earl of Chesterfield. _The Indian +Queen_ was a great success, one of the greatest since the reopening of +the theatres. This was in all likelihood due much less to the heroic +verse and the exclusion of comic scenes from the tragedy than to the +magnificent scenic accessories--the battles and sacrifices on the stage, +the spirits singing in the air, and the god of dreams ascending through +a trap. The novelty of these Indian spectacles, as well as of the Indian +characters, with the splendid Queen Zempoalla, acted by Mrs Marshall in +a real Indian dress of feathers presented to her by Mrs Aphra Behn, as +the centre of the play, was the chief secret of the success of _The +Indian Queen_. These melodramatic properties were so marked a novelty +that they could not fail to draw the town. Dryden was tempted to return +to tragedy; he followed up _The Indian Queen_ with _The Indian Emperor, +or the Conquest of Mexico by the Spaniards_, which was acted in 1665, +and also proved a success. + +But Dryden was not content with writing tragedies in rhymed verse. He +took up the question of the propriety of rhyme in serious plays +immediately after the success of _The Indian Queen_, in the preface to +an edition (1664) of _The Rival Ladies_. In that first statement of his +case, he considered the chief objection to the use of rhyme, and urged +his chief argument in its favour. Rhyme was not natural, some people had +said; to which he answers that it is as natural as blank verse, and that +much of its unnaturalness is not the fault of the rhyme but of the +writer, who has not sufficient command of language to rhyme easily. In +favour of rhyme he has to say that it at once stimulates the +imagination, and prevents it from being too discursive in its flights. + +During the Great Plague, when the theatres were closed, and Dryden was +living at Charlton, Wiltshire, at the seat of his father-in-law, the +earl of Berkshire, he occupied a considerable part of his time in +thinking over the principles of dramatic composition, and threw his +conclusions into the form of a dialogue, which he called an _Essay of +Dramatick Poesie_ and published in 1668. The essay takes the form of a +dialogue between Neander (Dryden), Eugenius (Charles, Lord Buckhurst, +afterwards earl of Dorset), Crites (Sir R. Howard), and Lisideius (Sir +C. Sedley), who is made responsible for the famous definition of a play +as a "just and lively image of human nature, representing its passions +and humours, and the changes of fortune to which it is subject, for the +delight and instruction of mankind." Dryden's form is of course borrowed +from the ancients, and his main source is the critical work of Corneille +in the prefaces and discourses contained in the edition of 1660, but he +was well acquainted with the whole body of contemporary French and +Spanish criticism. Crites maintains the superiority of the classical +drama; Lisideius supports the exacting rules of French dramatic writing; +Neander defends the English drama of the preceding generations, +including, in a long speech, an examination of Ben Jonson's _Silent +Woman_. Neander argues, however, that English drama has much to gain by +the observance of exact methods of construction without abandoning +entirely the liberty which English writers had always claimed. He then +goes on to defend the use of rhyme in serious drama. Howard had argued +against the use of rhyme in a "preface" to _Four New Plays_ (1665), +which had furnished the excuse for Dryden's essay. Howard replied to +Dryden's essay in a preface to _The Duke of Lerma_ (1668). Dryden at +once replied in a masterpiece of sarcastic retort and vigorous +reasoning, _A Defence of an Essay of Dramatique Poesie_, prefixed to the +second edition (1668) of _The Indian Emperor_. It is the ablest and most +complete statement of his views about the employment of rhymed couplets +in tragedy. + +Before his return to town at the end of 1666, when the theatres (which +had been closed during the disasters of 1665 and 1666) were reopened, +Dryden wrote a poem on the Dutch war and the Great Fire entitled _Annus +Mirabilis_. The poem is in quatrains, the metre of his _Heroic Stanzas_ +in praise of Cromwell, which Dryden chose, he tells us, "because he had +ever judged it more noble and of greater dignity both for the sound and +number than any other verse in use amongst us." The preface to the poem +contains an interesting discussion of what he calls "wit-writing," +introduced by the remark that "the composition of all poems is or ought +to be of wit." His description of the Great Fire is a famous specimen of +this wit-writing, much more careless and daring, and much more difficult +to sympathize with, than the graver conceits in his panegyric of the +Protector. In _Annus Mirabilis_ the poet apostrophizes the newly founded +Royal Society, of which he had been elected a member in 1662. + +From the reopening of the theatres in 1666 till November 1681, the date +of his _Absalom and Achitophel_, Dryden produced nothing but plays. The +stage was his chief source of income. _Secret Love, or the Maiden +Queen_, a tragi-comedy, produced in March 1667, was based on an episode +in the _Artamene, ou le Grand Cyrus_ of Mlle de Scudery, the historical +original of the "Maiden Queen" being Christina, queen of Sweden. The +prologue claims that the piece is written with pains and thought, by the +exactest rules, with strict observance of the unities, and "a mingled +chime of Jonson's humour and of Corneille's rhyme"; but it owed its +success chiefly to the charm of Nell Gwyn's acting in the part of +Florimel. It is noticeable that only the more passionate parts of the +dialogue are rhymed, Dryden's theory apparently being that rhyme is then +demanded for the elevation of the style. His next play, _Sir Martin +Mar-all, or the Feigned Innocence_, an adaptation in prose of the duke +of Newcastle's translation of Moliere's _L'Etourdi_, was produced at the +Duke's theatre, without the author's name, in 1667. It was about this +time that Dryden became a retained writer under contract for the King's +theatre, receiving from it L300 or L400 a year, till it was burnt down +in 1672, and about L200 for six years more till the beginning of 1678. +His co-operation with Davenant in a new version (1667) of Shakespeare's +_Tempest_--for his share in which Dryden can hardly be pardoned on the +ground that the chief alterations were happy thoughts of Davenant's, +seeing that he affirms he never worked at anything with more +delight--must also be supposed to be anterior to the completion of his +contract with the Theatre Royal. He was engaged to write three plays a +year, and he contributed only ten plays during the ten years of his +engagement, finally exhausting the patience of his partners by joining +in the composition of a play for the rival house. In adapting +_L'Etourdi_, Dryden did not catch Moliere's lightness of touch; his +alterations go towards making the comedy into a farce. Perhaps all the +more on this account _Sir Martin Mar-all_ had a great run at the theatre +in Lincoln's Inn Fields. There is always a certain coarseness in +Dryden's humour, apart from the coarseness of his age,--a certain +forcible roughness of touch which belongs to the character of the man. +His _An Evening's Love, or the Mock Astrologer_, an adaptation from _Le +Feint Astrologue_ of the younger Corneille, produced at the King's +theatre in 1668, seemed to Pepys "very smutty, and nothing so good as +_The Maiden Queen_ or _The Indian Emperor_ of Dryden's making." Evelyn +thought it foolish and profane, and was grieved "to see how the stage +was degenerated and polluted by the licentious times." _Ladies a la +Mode_, another of Dryden's contract comedies, produced in 1668, was "so +mean a thing," Pepys says, that it was only once acted, and Dryden never +published it. Of his other comedies, _Marriage a la Mode_ (produced +1672), _The Assignation, or Love in a Nunnery_ (1673), _The Kind Keeper, +or Mr Limberham_ (1678), only the first was moderately successful. + +While Dryden met with such indifferent success in his willing efforts to +supply the demand of the age for low comedy, he struck upon a really +popular and profitable vein in heroic tragedy. _Tyrannic Love, or the +Royal Martyr_, a Roman play dealing with the persecution of the +Christians by Maximin, in which St Catherine is introduced, and with her +some supernatural machinery, was produced in 1669. It is in rhymed +couplets, but the author again did not trust solely for success to them; +for, besides the magic incantations, the singing angels, and the view of +Paradise, he made Nell Gwyn, who had stabbed herself as Valeria, start +to life again as she was being carried off the stage, and speak a +riotous epilogue, in violent contrast to the serious character of the +play. _Almanzor and Almahide, or the Conquest of Granada_, a tragedy in +two parts, was written in 1669 to 1670. The historical background is +taken chiefly from Mlle de Scudery's romance of _Almahide_, but Dryden +borrows freely from other books of hers and her contemporaries. This +piece seems to have given the crowning touch of provocation to the wits, +who had never ceased to ridicule the popular taste for these extravagant +heroic plays. Dryden almost invited burlesque in his epilogue to the +second part of _The Conquest of Granada_, in which he charged the comedy +of the Elizabethan age with coarseness and mechanical humour, and its +conceptions of love and honour with meanness, and claimed for his own +time and his own plays an advance in these respects. _The Rehearsal_, +written by the duke of Buckingham, with the assistance, it was said, of +Samuel Butler, Martin Clifford, Thomas Sprat and others, and produced in +1671, was a severe and just punishment for this boast. Davenant was +originally the hero, but on his death in 1668 the satire was turned upon +Dryden, who is here unmercifully ridiculed under the name of Bayes, the +name being justified by his appointment in 1670 as poet laureate and +historiographer to the king (with a pension of L300 a year and a butt of +canary wine). It is said that _The Rehearsal_ was begun in 1663 and +ready for representation before the plague. But this probably only means +that Buckingham and his friends had resolved to burlesque the +absurdities of Davenant's operatic heroes in _The Siege of Rhodes_, and +the extravagant heroics of _The Indian Queen_. Materials accumulated +upon them as the fashion continued, and by the time Dryden had produced +his _Tyrannic Love_, and his _Conquest of Granada_, he had so +established himself as the chief offender as to become naturally the +central figure of the burlesque. Later Dryden fully avenged himself on +Buckingham by his portrait of Zimri in _Absalom and Achitophel_. His +immediate reply is contained in the preface "Of Heroic Plays" and the +"Defence of the Epilogue," printed in the first edition (1672) of his +_Conquest of Granada_. In these, so far from laughing with his censors, +he addresses them from the eminence of success. "But I have already +swept the stakes; and, with the common good fortune of prosperous +gamesters, can be content to sit quietly; to hear my fortune cursed by +some, and my faults arraigned by others, and to suffer both without +reply." Heroic verse, he assures them, is so established that few +tragedies are likely henceforward to be written in any other metre. In +the course of a year or two _The Conquest of Granada_ was attacked also +by Elkanah Settle, on whom Dryden revenged himself later, making him the +"Doeg" of the second part of _Absalom and Achitophel_. + +His next tragedy, _Amboyna_ (1673), an exhibition of certain atrocities +committed by the Dutch on English merchants in the East Indies, put on +the stage to inflame the public mind in view of the Dutch war, was +written, with the exception of a few passages, in prose, and those +passages in blank verse. An opera which he wrote in rhymed couplets, +called _The State of Innocence, and Fall of Man_, an attempt to turn +part of _Paradise Lost_ into rhyme, as a proof of its superiority to +blank verse, was prefaced by an "Apology for Heroique Poetry and +Poetique Licence," and entered at Stationers' Hall in 1674, but it was +never acted. The redeeming circumstance about the performance is the +admiration professed by the adapter for his original, which he +pronounces "undoubtedly one of the greatest, most noble and most sublime +poems which either this age or nation has produced." Dryden is said to +have had the elder poet's leave "to tag his verses." In _Aurengzebe_, +which was Dryden's last, and also his best, rhymed tragedy, he borrowed +from contemporary history, for the Great Mogul was still living. In the +prologue he confessed that he had grown weary of his long-loved +mistress rhyme and retracted, with characteristic frankness, his +disparaging contrast of the Elizabethan with his own age. But the stings +of _The Rehearsal_ had stimulated him to do his utmost to justify his +devotion to his mistress, and he claims that _Aurengzebe_ is "the most +correct" of his plays. It was entered at Stationers' Hall and probably +acted in 1675, and published in the following year. + +After the production of _Aurengzebe_ he seems to have rested for an +interval from writing, enabled to do so, probably by an additional +pension of L100 granted to him by the king. During this interval he +would seem to have reconsidered the principles of dramatic composition, +and to have made a particular study of the works of Shakespeare. The +fruits of this appeared in _All for Love, or the World Well Lost_, a +version of the story of Antony and Cleopatra, produced in 1678, which +must be regarded as a very remarkable departure for a man of his age, +and a wonderful proof of undiminished openness and plasticity of mind. +In his previous writings on dramatic theory, Dryden, while admiring the +rhyme of the French dramatists as an advance in art, did not give +unqualified praise to the regularity of their plots; he was disposed to +allow the irregular structure of the Elizabethan dramatists, as being +more favourable to variety both of action and of character. But now, in +frank imitation of Shakespeare, he abandoned rhyme, and, if we might +judge from _All for Love_, and the precepts laid down in his "Grounds of +Criticism in Tragedy," prefixed to _Troilus and Cressida_ (1679), the +chief point in which he aimed at excelling the Elizabethans was in +giving greater unity to his plot. He upheld still the superiority of +Shakespeare to the French dramatists in the delineation of character, +but he thought that the scope of the action might be restricted, and the +parts bound more closely together with advantage. _All for Love_ and +_Antony and Cleopatra_ are two excellent plays for the comparison of the +two methods. Dryden gave all his strength to _All for Love_, writing the +play for himself, as he said, and not for the public. Carrying out the +idea expressed in the title, he represents the two lovers as being more +entirely under the dominion of love than Shakespeare's Antony and +Cleopatra. Shakespeare's Antony is moved by other impulses than the +passion for Cleopatra; it is his master motive, but it has to maintain a +struggle for supremacy; "Roman thoughts" strike in upon him even in the +very height of the enjoyment of his mistress's love, he chafes under the +yoke, and breaks away from her of his own impulse at the call of +spontaneously reawakened ambition. Dryden's Antony is so deeply sunk in +love that no other impulse has power to stir him; it takes much +persuasion and skilful artifice to detach him from Cleopatra even in +thought, and his soul returns to her violently before the rupture has +been completed. On the other hand, Dryden's Cleopatra is so completely +enslaved by love for Antony that she is incapable of using the +calculated caprices and meretricious coquetries which Shakespeare's +Cleopatra deliberately practises as the highest art of love, the surest +way of maintaining her empire over her great captain's heart. It is with +difficulty that Dryden's Cleopatra will agree, on the earnest +solicitation of a wily counsellor, to feign a liking for Dolabella to +excite Antony's jealousy, and she cannot keep up the pretence through a +few sentences. The characters of the two lovers are thus very much +contracted, indeed almost overwhelmed, beneath the pressure of the one +ruling motive. And as Dryden thus introduces a greater regularity of +character into the drama, so he also very much contracts the action, in +order to give probability to this temporary subjugation of individual +character. The action of Dryden's play takes place wholly in Alexandria, +within the compass of a few days; it does not, like Shakespeare's, +extend over several years, and present incessant changes of scene. +Dryden chooses, as it were, a fragment of a historical action, a single +moment during which motives play within a narrow circle, the culminating +point in the relations between his two personages. He devotes his whole +play, also, to those relations; only what bears upon them is admitted. +In Shakespeare's play we get a certain historical perspective, in which +the love of Antony and Cleopatra appears in its true proportions +beneath the firmament that overhangs human affairs. In Dryden's play +this love is our universe; all the other concerns of the world retire +into a shadowy, indistinct background. If we rise from a comparison of +the plays with an impression that the Elizabethan drama is a higher type +of drama, taking Dryden's own definition of the word as "a just and +lively image of human nature," we rise also with an impression of +Dryden's power such as we get from nothing else that he had written +since his _Heroic Stanzas_, twenty years before. + +It was twelve years before Dryden produced another tragedy worthy of the +power shown in _All for Love_. _Don Sebastian_ was acted and published +in 1690. In the interval, to sum up briefly Dryden's work as a +dramatist, he wrote _Oedipus_ (pr. 1679) and _The Duke of Guise_ (pr. +1683) in conjunction with Nathaniel Lee; _Troilus and Cressida_ (1679); +_The Spanish Friar_ (1681); _Albion and Albanius_, an opera (1685); +_Amphitryon_ (1690). In _Troilus and Cressida_ he follows Shakespeare +closely in the plot, but the dialogue is rewritten throughout, and not +for the better. The versification and the language of the first and the +third acts of _Oedipus_, which with the general plan of the play were +Dryden's contribution to the joint work, bear marked evidence of his +recent study of Shakespeare. The _Duke of Guise_ provided an obvious +parallel with contemporary English politics. Henry III. was identified +with Charles II., and Monmouth with the duke. The lord chamberlain +refused to license it until the political situation was less disturbed. +The plot of _Don Sebastian_ is more intricate than that of _All for +Love_. It has also more of the characteristics of his heroic dramas; the +extravagance of sentiment and the suddenness of impulse remind us +occasionally of _The Indian Emperor_; but the characters are much more +elaborately studied than in Dryden's earlier plays, and the verse is +sinewy and powerful. It would be difficult to say whether _Don +Sebastian_ or _All for Love_ is his best play; they share the palm +between them. Dryden's subsequent plays are not remarkable. Their titles +and dates are--_King Arthur_, an opera (1691), for which Purcell wrote +the music; _Cleomenes_ (1692); _Love Triumphant_ (1694). + +Soon after Dryden's abandonment of heroic couplets in tragedy, he found +new and more congenial work for his favourite instrument in satire. As +usual the idea was not original to Dryden, though he struck in with his +majestic step and energy divine, and immediately took the lead. The +pioneer was Mulgrave in his _Essay on Satire_, an attack on Rochester +and the court, which was circulated in MS. in 1679. Dryden himself was +suspected of the authorship, and it is not impossible that he gave some +help in revising it; but it is not likely that he attacked the king on +whom he was dependent for the greater part of his income, and Mulgrave +in a note to his _Art of Poetry_ in 1717 expressly asserts Dryden's +ignorance. Dryden, however, was attacked in Rose Street, Covent Garden, +and severely cudgelled by a company of ruffians who were generally +supposed to have been hired by Rochester. In the same year Oldham's +satire on the Jesuits had immense popularity, chiefly owing to the +excitement about the Popish plot. Dryden took the field as a satirist +towards the close of 1681, on the side of the court, at the moment when +Shaftesbury, baffled in his efforts to exclude the duke of York from the +throne as a papist, and secure the succession of the duke of Monmouth, +was waiting his trial for high treason. _Absalom and Achitophel_ +produced a great stir. Nine editions were sold in rapid succession in +the course of a year. There was no compunction in Dryden's ridicule and +invective. Delicate wit was not one of Dryden's gifts; the motions of +his weapon were sweeping, and the blows hard and trenchant. The +advantage he had gained by his recent studies of character was fully +used in his portraits of Shaftesbury and Buckingham, Achitophel and +Zimri. In these portraits he shows considerable art in the introduction +of redeeming traits to the general outline of malignity and depravity. +It is not impossible that the fact that his pension had not been paid +since the beginning of 1680 weighed with him in writing this satire to +gain the favour of the court. In a play produced in 1681, _The Spanish +Friar_, he had written on the other side, gratifying the popular +feeling by attacking the Roman Catholic priesthood. + +Three other satires followed _Absalom and Achitophel_, one of them +hardly inferior in point of literary power. _The Medall_; a _Satyre +against Sedition_ (March 1682) was written in ridicule of the medal +struck to commemorate Shaftesbury's acquittal. Then Dryden had to take +vengeance on the literary champions of the Whig party who had opened +upon him with all their artillery. Their leader, Shadwell, had attacked +him in _The Medal of John Bayes_, which Dryden answered in October 1682 +by _Mac Flecknoe, or a Satyr upon the True-Blew Protestant Poet, T.S._ +This satire, in which Shadwell filled the title-role, served as the +model of the _Dunciad_. To the second part of _Absalom and Achitophel_ +(November 1682), written chiefly by Nahum Tate, he contributed a long +passage of invective against Robert Ferguson, one of Monmouth's chief +advisers, Elkanah Settle, Shadwell and others. _Religio Laici_, which +appeared in the same month, though nominally an exposition of a layman's +creed, and deservedly admired as such, was not without a political +purpose. It attacked the Papists, but declared the "fanatics" to be +still more dangerous. + +Dryden's next poem in heroic couplets was in a different strain. On the +accession of James, in 1685, he became a Roman Catholic. There has been +much discussion as to whether this conversion was or was not sincere. It +can only be said that the coincidence between his change of faith and +his change of patron was suspicious, and that Dryden's character for +consistency is certainly not of a kind to quench suspicion. The force of +the coincidence cannot be removed by such pleas as that his wife had +been a Roman Catholic for several years, or that he was converted by his +son, who was converted at Cambridge, even if there were any evidence for +these statements. Scott defended Dryden's conversion,--as Macaulay +denounced it, from party motives. It is worth while, however, to notice +that in his earlier defence of the English Church he exhibits a desire +for the definite guidance of a presumably infallible creed, and the case +for the Roman Church brought forward at the time may have appeared +convincing to a mind singularly open to new impressions. At the same +time nothing can be clearer than that Dryden always regarded his +literary powers as a means of subsistence, and had little scruple about +accepting a brief on any side. _The Hind and the Panther_, published in +1687, is an ingenious argument for Roman Catholicism, put into the mouth +of "a milk-white hind, immortal and unchanged." There is considerable +beauty in the picture of this tender creature, and its enemies in the +forest are not spared. One can understand the admiration that the poem +received when such allegories were in fashion. It was the chief cause of +the veneration with which Dryden was regarded by Pope, who, himself +educated in the Roman Catholic faith, was taken as a boy of twelve to +see the veteran poet in his chair of honour and authority at Wills's +coffee-house. It was also very open to ridicule, and was treated in this +spirit by Prior and Montagu, the future earl of Halifax, in _The Hind +and the Panther transversed to the story of the Country Mouse and the +City Mouse_. Dryden's other literary services to James were a savage +reply to Stillingfleet--who had attacked two papers published by the +king immediately after his accession, one said to have been written by +his late brother in advocacy of the Church of Rome, the other by his +late wife explaining the reasons for her conversion--and a translation +of a life of Xavier in prose. He had written also a panegyric of +Charles, _Threnodia Augustalis_, and a poem in honour of the birth of +James II.'s heir, under the title of _Britannia rediviva_ (1688). + +Dryden did not abjure his new faith on the Revolution, and so lost his +office and pension as laureate and historiographer royal. For this act +of constancy he deserves credit, if the new powers would have considered +his services worth having after his frequent apostasies. His rival +Shadwell reigned in his stead. Dryden was once more thrown mainly upon +his pen for support. He turned again to the stage and wrote the plays +already enumerated. A great feature in the last decade of his life was +his translations from the classics. _Ovid's Epistles translated_ +appeared in 1680; and numerous translations from Virgil, Horace, Ovid, +Lucretius and Theocritus appeared in the four volumes of _Miscellany +Poems_--_Miscellany Poems_ (1684), _Sylvae_ (1685), _Examen poeticum_ +(1693), _The Annual Miscellany_ (1694 by the "most eminent hands"); in +1693 was published the verse translation of the _Satires_ of Juvenal and +of Persius by "Mr Dryden and several other eminent hands," which +contained his "Discourse concerning the Original and Progress of +Satire"; and in 1697 Jacob Tonson published his most important +translation, _The Works of Virgil_. The book, which was the result of +three years' labour, was a vigorous, rather than a close, rendering of +Virgil into the style of Dryden. Among other notable poems of this +period are the two "Songs for St Cecilia's Day," written for a London +musical society for 1687 and 1697, and published separately. The second +of these is the famous ode on "Alexander's Feast." The well-known +paraphrase of _Veni, Creator Spiritus_ was posthumously printed, and his +"Ode to the memory of Anne Killigrew," called by Dr Johnson the noblest +ode in the language, was written in 1686. + +His next work was to render some of Chaucer's and Boccaccio's tales and +Ovid's _Metamorphoses_ into his own verse. These translations appeared +in November 1699, a few months before his death, and are known by the +title of _Fables, Ancient and Modern_. The preface, which is an +admirable example of Dryden's prose, contains an excellent appreciation +of Chaucer, and, incidentally, an answer to Jeremy Collier's attack on +the stage. Thus a large portion of the closing years of Dryden's life +was spent in translating for bread. He had a windfall of 500 guineas +from Lord Abingdon for a poem on the death of his wife in 1691, and he +received liberal presents from his cousin John Driden and from the duke +of Ormonde, but generally he was in considerable pecuniary straits. +Besides, his three sons held various posts in the service of the pope at +Rome, and he could not well be on good terms with both courts. However, +he was not molested in London by the government, and in private he was +treated with the respect due to his old age and his admitted position as +the greatest of living English poets. He held a small court at Wills's +coffee-house, where he spent his evenings; here he had a chair by the +fire in winter and by the window in summer; Congreve, Vanbrugh and +Addison were among his admirers, and here Pope saw the old poet of whom +he was to be the most brilliant disciple. He died at his house in +Gerrard Street, London, on the 1st of May 1700 and was buried on the +13th of the month in Westminster Abbey. Dryden's portrait, by Sir G. +Kneller, is in the National Portrait Gallery. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_The Comedies, Tragedies and Operas written by John + Dryden, Esq._ (2 vols., 1701) was published by Tonson, who also issued + the poet's _Dramatick Works_ (6 vols., 1717), edited by Congreve. + _Poems on Various Occasions and Translations from Several Authors_ + (1701), also published by Tonson, was very incomplete, and although + other editions followed there was no satisfactory collection until the + edition of the _Works_ (18 vols., 1808, 2nd ed. 1821) by Sir Walter + Scott, who supplied historical and critical notes with a life of the + author. This, as revised and corrected by G. Saintsbury (18 vols., + Edinburgh, 1882-1893), remains the standard edition. _His Critical and + Miscellaneous Prose Works_ (4 vols., 1800) were edited by Edmund + Malone, who collected industriously the materials for a life of + Dryden. Convenient partial modern editions are the _Poetical Works_ + (Globe edition, 1870) edited by W. D. Christie with an excellent + "life"; _The Best Plays of John Dryden_ (Mermaid series, 2 vols.), + edited by G. Saintsbury; and _Essays of John Dryden_ (2 vols., 1900, + Oxford), edited by W. P. Ker. Besides the critical and biographical + matter in these editions see Dr Johnson's _Lives of the Poets; Dryden_ + (English Men of Letters series, 1881), by G. Saintsbury; A. Beljame, + _Le Public et les hommes de lettres en Angleterre 1660-1744_ (2nd ed. + Paris, 1897); A. W. Ward, _History of English Dramatic Literature_ + (new ed. 1899), vol. iii. pp. 346-392; J. Churton Collins, _Essays and + Studies_; W. J. Courthope, _History of English Poetry_, vol. iv. + (1903), chap, xiv., and L. N. Chase, _The English Heroic Play_ (New + York, 1903). See also ENGLISH LITERATURE. (W. M.; M. BR.) + + + + +DRYOPITHECUS (Gr. [Greek: drys], oak, [Greek: pithekos], ape, "the ape +of the oak-woods"), the name of an extinct ape or monkey from Miocene +deposits of France, believed to be allied to the baboons, but perhaps +with some affinity to the higher apes. + + + + +DRY ROT, a fungoid disease in timber which occasions the destruction of +its fibres, and reduces it eventually to a mass of dry dust. It is +produced most readily in a warm, moist, stagnant atmosphere, while +common or wet rot is the result of the exposure of wood to repeated +changes of climatic conditions. The most formidable of the dry rot fungi +is the species _Merulius lacrymans_, which is particularly destructive +of coniferous wood; other species are _Polyporus hybridus_, which +thrives in oak-built ships, and _P. destructor_ and _Thelephora +puteana_, found in a variety of wooden structures. + +The felling of trees when void of fresh sap, as a means of obviating the +rotting of timber, is a practice of very ancient origin. Vitruvius +directs (ii. cap. 9) that, to secure good timber, trees should be cut to +the pith, so as to allow of the escape of their sap, which by dying in +the wood would injure its quality; also that felling should take place +only from early autumn until the end of winter. The supposed superior +quality of wood cut in winter, and the early practice in England of +felling oak timber at that season, may be inferred from a statute of +James I., which enacted "that no person or persons shall fell, or cause +to be felled, any oaken trees meet to be barked, when bark is worth 2s. +a cart-load (timber for the needful building and reparation of houses, +ships or mills only excepted), but between the first day of April and +last day of June, not even for the king's use, out of barking time, +except for building or repairing his Majesty's houses or ships." In +giving testimony before a committee of the House of Commons in March +1771, Mr Barnard of Deptford expressed it as his opinion that to secure +durable timber for shipbuilding, trees should be barked in spring and +not felled till the succeeding winter. In France, so long ago as 1669, a +royal decree limited the felling of timber from the 1st of October to +the 15th of April; and, in an order issued to the commissioners of +forests, Napoleon I. directed that the felling of naval timber should +take place only from November 1 to March 15, and during the decrease of +the moon, on account of the rapid decay of timber, through the +fermentation of its sap, if cut at other seasons. The burying of wood in +water, which dissolves out or alters its putrescible constituents, has +long been practised as a means of seasoning. The old "Resistance" +frigate, which went down in Malta harbour, remained under water for some +months, and on being raised was found to be entirely freed from the dry +rot fungus that had previously covered her; similarly, in the ship +"Eden," the progress of rot was completely arrested by 18 months' +submergence in Plymouth Sound, so that after remaining a year at home in +excellent condition she was sent out to the East Indies. It was an +ancient practice in England to place timber for thrashing-floors and oak +planks for wainscotting in running water to season them. Whale and other +oils have been recommended for the preservation of wood; and in 1737 a +patent for the employment of hot oil was taken out by a Mr Emerson. + + For the modern processes of preserving timber see TIMBER. + + + + +DUALISM (from rare Lat. _dualis_, containing two, from _duo_), a +philosophical term applied to all theories which attempt to explain +facts by reference to two coexistent principles. The term plays an +important part in metaphysical, ethical and theological speculation. + +_In Metaphysics._--Metaphysical dualism postulates the eternal +coexistence of mind and matter, as opposed to monism both idealistic and +materialistic. Two forms of this dualism are held. On the one hand it is +said that mind and matter are absolutely heterogeneous, and, therefore, +that any causal relation between them is _ex hypothesi_ impossible. On +the other hand is a hypothetical dualism, according to which it is held +that mind cannot bridge over the chasm so far as to _know_ matter _in +itself_, though it is compelled by its own laws of cause and effect to +postulate matter as the origin, if not the motive cause, of its +sensations. It follows that, for the thinking mind, matter is a +necessary hypothesis. Hence the theory is a kind of monism, inasmuch as +it confessedly does not assert the existence of matter save as an +intellectual postulate for the thinking mind. Matter, in other words, +must be assumed to exist, though mind cannot know it _in itself_. From +this question there emerges a second and more difficult problem. +Consciousness, it is held, is of two main kinds, sensation and reason. +Sensation alone is insufficient to explain all our intellectual +phenomena; all sensation is momentary and individual (cf. Empiricism). +How then are we to account for memory and the principles of necessity, +similarity, universality? It is argued that there must be in the mind an +enduring, primary faculty whereby we retain, compare and group the +presentations of sense. This faculty is _a priori_, transcendental, and +entirely separate from all the data of experience and sense-perception. +Here then we have a dualism within experience. The mind is not to be +regarded as a sensitized film which automatically records the +impressions of the senses. It contains within itself this modifying +critical faculty which reacts upon and arranges the sense-given +presentations. + +_In Ethics and Theology._--In the domain of morals, dualism postulates +the separate existence of Good and Evil, as principles of existence. In +theology the appearance of dualism is sporadic and has not the +fundamental, determining importance which it has in metaphysics. It is a +result rather than a starting-point. The old Zoroastrianism, and those +Christian sects (e.g. Manichaeism) which were influenced by it, +postulate two contending deities Ormuzd and Ahriman (Good and Evil), +which war against one another in influencing the conduct of men. So, in +Christianity, the existence of Satan as an evil influence, antagonistic +to God, involves a kind of dualism. But generally speaking this dualism +is permissive, inasmuch as it is always held that God will triumph over +Satan in His own time. So in Zoroastrianism the dualism is not ultimate, +for Ahriman and Ormuzd are represented as the twin sons of Zervana +Akarana, i.e. limitless time, wherein both will be finally absorbed. The +postulate of an Evil Being arises from the difficulty, at all times +acutely felt by a certain type of mind, of reconciling the existence of +evil with the divine attributes of perfect goodness, full knowledge and +infinite power. John Stuart Mill (_Essay on Religion_) preferred to +disbelieve in the omnipotence of God rather than forgo the belief in His +goodness. It follows from such a view that Satan is not the creation of +God, but rather a power coeval in origin, over whose activity God has no +absolute control. + +_In Theology._--Dualism is also used in a special theological sense to +describe a doctrine of the Nestorian heresy. According to this doctrine +the personality of Christ is twofold; the divine Logos dwells as a +distinct personality in the man Jesus Christ, the union of the two +natures being analogous to the relation between the believer and the +indwelling Holy Spirit. + +_History of the Doctrine._--The earliest European thinkers (see IONIAN +SCHOOL OF PHILOSOPHY) endeavoured to reduce all the facts of the +universe to a single material origin, such as Fire, Water, Air. It is +only gradually that there appears any recognition of a spiritual +principle exercising a modifying or causal influence over inert matter. +Anaxagoras was the first to postulate the existence of Reason ([Greek: +nous]) as the source of change and progress. Yet even he did not +conceive this Reason as incorporeal; it was in reality only the most +highly rarefied form of matter in existence. In Plato for the first time +we find a truly dualistic conception of the universe. Asserting that +Ideas alone really exist, he yet found it necessary to postulate a +second principle of not-being, the groundwork of sensuous existence and +of imperfection and evil. Herein he identified metaphysics and ethics, +combining the good with the truly existent and evil with the +non-existent. Aristotle rebels against this conception and substitutes +the idea of [Greek: prote hyle] and development. Nevertheless he does +not escape from the dualism of Form and Matter, [Greek: nous] and +[Greek: hyle]. The scholastic philosophers naturally held dualistic +views resulting from their extreme devotion to formalism. This blind +dualism found its natural consequence in the revolt of the Renaissance +thinkers, Bruno and Paracelsus, who asserted the unity of mind and +matter in all existence and were the precursors of the more intelligent +monism of Leibnitz and the scientific metaphysics of his successors. The +birth of modern physical science on the other hand in the investigations +of Bacon and Descartes obscured the metaphysical issue by the +predominance of the mechanical principles of natural philosophy. They +attempted to explain the fundamental problems of existence by the +unaided evidence of the new natural science. Thus Descartes maintained +the absolute dualism of the _res cogitans_ and the _res extensa_. +Spinoza realized the flaw in the division and preferred to postulate +behind mind and matter a single substance (_unica substantia_) while +Leibnitz explained the universe as a harmony of spiritual or +semispiritual principles. Kant practically abandons the problem. He +never really establishes a relation between pure reason and +things-in-themselves (_Dinge an sich_), but rather seeks refuge in a +dualism within consciousness, the transcendental and the empirical. +Since Kant there are, therefore, two streams of dualism, dealing, one +with the radical problem of the relation between mind and matter, the +other with the relation between the pure rational and the empirical +elements within consciousness. To the first problem there is one obvious +and conclusive answer, namely that matter in itself is inherently +unthinkable and comes within the vision of the mind only as an +intellectual presentation. It follows that philosophy is in a sense both +dualist and monist; it is a cosmic dualism inasmuch as it admits the +possible existence of matter as a hypothesis, though it denies the +possibility of any true knowledge of it, and is hence in regard of the +only possible knowledge an idealistic monism. It is a self-destructive +dualism, a confessedly one-sided monism, agnostic as to the fundamental +problem. To the second problem there are two main answers, that of +Associationism which denies to the mind any _a priori_ existence and +asserts that sensation is the only source of knowledge, and that which +admits the existence of both transcendental and empirical knowledge. + + + + +DUALLA, one of the principal negro peoples of Cameroon estuary, West +Africa. When the Germans established themselves in that region, the +Dualla were under many petty chiefs, whose domains were usually +restricted to one village. Over these were two greater chiefs, Bell +(Mbeli) and Akwa, representing the principal families of the tribe. The +Dualla are physically a fine race. They are proud of their racial +purity, and it was formerly usual for all half-caste children to be +strangled at birth. The Dualla tattoo themselves, the women the whole +body, the men the face only. They also pull out their eyelashes, which +they believe prevent sharp sight. The monarchical system is more +developed among the Dualla than any other of the peoples of Cameroon. +The kings, many of whom have grown rich through trade, retain part of +their former power, subject to the German government. The Dualla, who +are laborious, industrious and capable of great physical endurance, are +great traders and are proportionately prosperous. The average price for +a wife among the Dualla is from L90 to L120; but sometimes a great deal +more is paid. Girls are usually betrothed young and may be divorced if +sterile. The penalty for adultery is a fine imposed on the seducer; if +he cannot pay he becomes the husband's slave. Cannibalism as a religious +rite was formerly common among the Dualla. All accessions to power were +preceded by a sacrifice, a king having no authority till his hands were +stained with blood. The religion is fetish blended with +ancestor-worship, and certain secret societies exist among them which +seem to have a religious connexion. The dead are buried within the hut, +which is abandoned shortly afterwards; slaves were formerly buried with +men of importance. Missionary efforts have yielded many converts, and +some churches have been built. Many of the natives can read. The Dualla +are in possession of an interesting code, in accordance with which +messages can be sent and even conversations maintained by means of +drums, or rather gongs, giving two notes. (See CAMEROON.) + + + + +DU BARRY, MARIE JEANNE BECU, Comtesse (1746-1793), French adventuress, +mistress of Louis XV., was the natural daughter of a poor woman of +Vaucouleurs, and was born there on the 19th of August 1746. Placed in a +convent in Paris at an early age, she received a very slight education, +learning little but the catechism and drawing; and at the age of sixteen +entered a milliner's shop in the rue St Honore. Subsequently she lived +as a courtesan under the name of Mdlle Lange. Her great personal charms +led the adventurer Jean, comte du Barry, to take her into his house in +order to make it more attractive to the dupes whose money he won by +gambling. Her success surpassing his expectations, his hopes took a +higher flight, and through Lebel, valet de chambre of Louis XV., and the +duc de Richelieu, he succeeded in installing her as mistress of the +king. In order to present her at court it was necessary to find a title +for her, and as Count Jean du Barry was married himself his brother +Guillaume offered himself as nominal husband. The comtesse du Barry was +presented at court on the 22nd of April 1769, and became official +mistress of the king. Her influence over the monarch was absolute until +his death, and courtiers and ministers were in favour or disgrace with +him in exact accordance with her wishes. The duc de Choiseul, who +refused to acknowledge her, was disgraced in 1771; and the duc +d'Aiguillon, who had the reputation of being her lover, took his place, +and in concert with her governed the monarch. Louis XV. built for her +the magnificent mansion of Luciennes. At his death in 1774 an order of +his successor banished her to the abbey of Pont-aux-Dames, near Meaux, +but, the queen interceding for her, the king in the following year gave +her permission to reside at Luciennes with a pension. Here she led a +retired life with the comte de Cosse-Brissac, and was visited there by +Benjamin Franklin and the emperor Joseph II., among many other +distinguished men. Having gone to England in 1792 to endeavour to raise +money on her jewels, she was on her return accused before the +Revolutionary Tribunal of having dissipated the treasures of the state, +conspired against the republic, and worn, in London, "mourning for the +tyrant." She was condemned to death on the 7th of December 1793, and +beheaded the same evening. Her contemporaries, scorning her low birth +rather than her vices, attributed to her a malicious political role of +which she was at heart incapable, and have done scant justice to her +quick wit, her frank but gracious manners, and her seductive beauty. The +volume of _Lettres et Anecdotes_ (1779) which bears her name was not +written by her. + + See E. and J. de Goncourt, _La du Barry_ (Paris, 1880); C. Vatel, + _Histoire de Madame du Barry_ (1882-1883), based on sources; R. + Douglas, _The Life and Times of Madame du Barry_ (London, 1896). + + + + +DU BARTAS, GUILLAUME DE SALUSTE, SEIGNEUR (1544-1590), French poet, was +born near Auch in 1544. He was employed by Henry IV. of France in +England, Denmark and Scotland; and he commanded a troop of horse in +Gascony, under the marshal de Martingan. He was a convinced Huguenot, +and cherished the idea of writing a great religious epic in which +biblical characters and Christian sentiment were to supplant the pagan +_mise en scene_ then in fashion. His first epic, _Judith_, appeared in a +volume entitled _La Muse chretienne_ (Bordeaux, 1573). This was followed +five years later by his principal work, _La Sepmaine_, a poem on the +creation of the world. This work was held by admirers of du Bartas to +put him on a level with Ronsard, and thirty editions of it were printed +within six years after its appearance. Its religious tone and fanciful +style made it a great favourite in England, where the author was called +the "divine" du Bartas, and placed on an equality with Ariosto. Spenser, +Hall and Ben Jonson, all speak in the highest terms of what seems to us +a most uninteresting poem. King James VI. of Scotland tried his +"prentice hand" at the translation of du Bartas's poem _L'Uranie_, and +the compliment was returned by the French writer, who translated, as _La +Lepanthe_, James's poem on the battle of Lepanto. Du Bartas began the +publication of the _Seconde Semaine_ in 1584. He aimed at a great epic +which should stretch from the story of the creation to the coming of the +Messiah. Of this great scheme he only executed a part, marked by a +certain elevation of style, but he did not succeed in acclimatizing the +religious epic in France. The work is spoiled by a constant tendency to +moralize, and is filled with the indiscriminate information that passed +under the name of science in the 16th century. Du Bartas, perhaps more +than any other writer, brought the Ronsardist tradition into dispute. He +introduced many unwieldy compounds foreign to the genius of the French +language, and in his borrowings from old French, from provincial +dialects and from Latin, he failed to show the sure instinct and +prudence of Ronsard and du Bellay. He was also guilty of reduplicating +the first syllables of words, producing such expressions as +_pepetiller_, _sousouflantes_. Du Bartas died in July 1590 in Paris from +wounds received at the battle of Ivry. + + Joshua Sylvester translated the _Sepmaine_ in 1598; other English + translations from du Bartas are _The Historie of Judith ..._ (1584), + by Thomas Hudson; of portions of the "Weeks" (1625) by William Lisle + (1569-1637), the Anglo-Saxon scholar; _Urania_ (1589), by Robert + Ashley (1565-1641); and Sir Philip Sidney (see Florio's dedication of + the second book of his translation of Montaigne to Lady Rich) wrote a + translation of the first "Week," which is lost. The _OEuvres + completes_ of du Bartas were printed at Paris (1579), Paris and + Bordeaux (1611). See also G. Pellissier, _La Vie et les oeuvres de du + Bartas_ (1883). + + + + +DUBAWNT, or DOOBAUNT (Indian _Toobaung_, i.e. turbid), a river of +Mackenzie and Keewatin districts, Canada. It rises in Wholdaia (or Daly) +Lake, in 104 deg. 20' W. and 60 deg. 15' N., and flows northward to its +confluence with the Thelon river, and thence eastward to Chesterfield +Inlet, an arm of Hudson Bay. It passes through numerous lake-expansions, +including Dubawnt Lake, with an area of 1700 sq. m. and an altitude of +500 ft. above the sea; Aberdeen, altitude 130 ft.; and Baker, 30 ft. +From the head of Wholdaia Lake to the head of Chesterfield Inlet is 750 +m. and thence to the west coast of Hudson Bay 125 m. The river is +shallow, and banks and bed are chiefly composed of boulders; grassy +slopes, however, occur at intervals along its banks, especially on the +shores of Dubawnt Lake, and are the feeding grounds of large bands of +cariboo. Discovered in 1770 by Samuel Hearne, the Dubawnt was explored +by J. B. Tyrrell in 1893, and the Thelon by David Hanbury in 1899. + + See Annual Report of the Geological Survey of Canada for 1896 (printed + 1898). + + + + +DUBBO, a municipal town of Lincoln county, New South Wales, Australia, +on the Macquarie river, 278 m. by rail N.W. of Sydney. Pop. (1901) 3409. +It is a flourishing manufacturing town in a pastoral district, in part +also cultivated. Coal and copper are found in the neighbourhood. + + + + +DU BELLAY, GUILLAUME, SIEUR DE LANGEY (1491-1543), French soldier and +diplomat, was born at the chateau of Glatigny, near Montmirail, in 1491. +His father, Louis du Bellay-Langey was a younger son of the Angevin +family of du Bellay, which from the 14th century was distinguished in +the service of the dukes of Anjou and afterwards of the kings of France; +and Louis had six sons, who were among the best servants of Francis I. +Guillaume, the eldest, is one of the most remarkable figures of the +time; a brave soldier, a humanist and a historian, he was above all the +most able diplomat at the command of Francis I., prodigiously active, +and excelling in secret negotiations. He entered the military service at +an early age, was taken prisoner at Pavia (1525) and shared the +captivity of Francis I. His skill and devotion attached him to the king. +His missions to Spain, Italy, England and Germany were innumerable; sent +three times to England in 1529-1530, he was occupied with the execution +of the treaty of Cambrai and also with the question of Henry VIII.'s +divorce, and with the help of his brother Jean, then bishop of Paris, he +obtained a decision favourable to Henry VIII. from the Sorbonne (July 2, +1530). From 1532 to 1536, though he went three times to England, he was +principally employed in uniting the German princes against Charles V.; +in May 1532 he signed the treaty of Scheyern with the dukes of Bavaria, +the landgrave of Hesse, and the elector of Saxony, and in January 1534 +the treaty of Augsburg. During the war of 1537 Francis I. sent him on +missions to Piedmont; he was governor of Turin from December 1537 till +the end of 1539, and subsequently replacing Marshal d'Annebaut as +governor of the whole of Piedmont, he displayed great capacity in +organization. But at the end of 1542, overwhelmed by work, he was +compelled to return to France, and died near Lyons on the 9th of January +1543. Rabelais, an eye-witness, has left a moving story of his death +(_Pantagruel_, iii. ch. 21, and iv. ch. 27). He was buried in the +cathedral of Le Mans, where a monument was erected to his memory, with +the inscription, "Ci git Langey, dont la plume et l'epee Ont surmonte +Ciceron et Pompee"; Charles V. is said to have remarked that Langey, by +his own unaided efforts, did more mischief and thwarted more schemes +than all the French together. + +Guillaume du Bellay was the devoted protector of freedom of thought; +without actually joining the reformers, he defended the innovators +against their fanatical opponents. In 1534-1535 he even tried, +unsuccessfully, to bring about a meeting between Francis I. and +Melanchthon; and in 1541 he intervened in favour of the Vaudois. +Rabelais was the most famous of his clients, and followed him to +Piedmont from 1540 to 1542. Guillaume was himself a valuable historian, +and a clear and precise writer. He imitated Livy in his _Ogdoades_, a +history of the rivalry between Francis I. and the emperor from 1521, of +which, though he had no time to finish it, important fragments remain, +inserted by his brother Martin du Bellay (d. 1559) in his _Memoires_ +(1569). The celebrated _Instructions_, reprinted as _Traite de la +discipline militaire_ in 1554 and 1592, was formerly attributed to him, +but it has been proved that he could not have written it (see Bayle, +_Dict. Hist._ i. 502, and Jahns, _Geschichte der Kriegswissenschaften_, +i. 498 seq.); this work, however, is of the highest value for the study +of the military art of the 16th century; in 1550 an Italian, in 1567 a +Spanish, and in 1594 and 1619 German translations were published. + + See also the edition of Martin du Bellay's _Memoires_ by Michaud and + Poujoulat (1838), and Bourrilly's _Fragments de la premiere Ogdoade_ + (Paris, 1905). There is an excellent study of Guillaume du Bellay by + V. L. Bourrilly (Paris, 1905). (J. I.) + + + + +DU BELLAY, JEAN (c. 1493-1560), French cardinal and diplomat, younger +brother of Guillaume du Bellay, appears as bishop of Bayonne in 1526, +member of the privy council in 1530, and bishop of Paris in 1532. Supple +and clever, he was well fitted for a diplomatic career, and carried out +several missions in England (1527-1534) and Rome (1534-1536). In 1535 he +received his cardinal's hat; in 1536-1537 he was nominated +"lieutenant-general" to the king at Paris and in the Ile de France, and +was entrusted with the organization of the defence against the +imperialists. When Guillaume du Bellay went to Piedmont, Jean was put in +charge of the negotiations with the German Protestants, principally +through the humanist Johann Sturm and the historian Johann Sleidan. In +the last years of the reign of Francis I., cardinal du Bellay was in +favour with the duchesse d'Etampes, and received a number of +benefices--the bishopric of Limoges (1541), archbishopric of Bordeaux +(1544), bishopric of Le Mans (1546); but his influence in the council +was supplanted by that of Cardinal de Tournon. Under Henry II., being +involved in the disgrace of all the servants of Francis I., he was sent +to Rome (1547), and he obtained eight votes in the conclave which +followed the death of Pope Paul III. After three quiet years passed in +retirement in France (1550-1553), he was charged with a new mission to +Pope Julius III. and took with him to Rome his young cousin the poet +Joachim du Bellay (q.v.). He lived in Rome thenceforth in great state. +In 1555 he was nominated bishop of Ostia and dean of the Sacred College, +an appointment which was disapproved of by Henry II. and brought him +into fresh disgrace, lasting till his death in Rome on the 16th of +February 1560. Less resolute and reliable than his brother Guillaume, +the cardinal had brilliant qualities, and an open and free mind. He was +on the side of toleration and protected the reformers. Budaeus was his +friend, Rabelais his faithful secretary and doctor; men of letters, like +Etienne Dolet, and the poet Salmon Macrin, were indebted to him for +assistance. An orator and writer of Latin verse, he left three books of +graceful Latin poems (printed with Salmon Macrin's _Odes_, 1546, by R. +Estienne), and some other compositions, including _Francisci Francorum +regis epistola apologetica_ (1542). His voluminous correspondence, +mostly in MS., is remarkable for its _verve_ and picturesque quality. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The Bibliotheque Nationale at Paris has numerous + unpublished letters of Jean du Bellay. See also Ribier, _Lettres et + memoires d'estat_ (Paris, 1666); V. L. Bourrilly and P. de Vaissiere, + _Ambassade de Jean du Bellay en Angleterre_, vol. i. (Paris, 1905); + marquis de la Jonquiere, _Le Cardinal du Bellay_ (Alencon, 1887); + Heulhard, _Rabelais, ses voyages en Italie_ (Paris, 1891); Chamard, + _Joachim du Bellay_ (Lille, 1900); V. L. Bourrilly, _Guillaume du + Bellay_ (Paris, 1905); "Jean du Bellay, les protestants et la + Sorbonne" in the _Bulletin du Protestantisme francais_ (1903, 1904); + and "Jean Sleidan et le Cardinal du Bellay," in the _Bulletin, &c._ + (1901, 1906). (J. I.) + + + + +DU BELLAY, JOACHIM (c. 1522-1560), French poet and critic, member of the +Pleiade, was born[1] at the chateau of La Turmeliere, not far from Lire, +near Angers, being the son of Jean du Bellay, seigneur de Gonnor, +cousin-german of the cardinal Jean du Bellay and of Guillaume du Bellay. +Both his parents died while he was still a child, and he was left to the +guardianship of his elder brother, Rene du Bellay, who neglected his +education, leaving him to run wild at La Turmeliere. When he was +twenty-three, however, he received permission to go to Poitiers to study +law, no doubt with a view to his obtaining perferment through his +kinsman the Cardinal Jean du Bellay. At Poitiers he came in contact with +the humanist Marc Antoine Muret, and with Jean Salmon Macrin +(1490-1557), a Latin poet famous in his day. There too he probably met +Jacques Peletier du Mans, who had published a translation of the _Ars +poetica_ of Horace, with a preface in which much of the programme +advocated later by the Pleiade is to be found in outline. + +It was probably in 1547 that du Bellay met Ronsard in an inn on the way +to Poitiers, an event which may justly be regarded as the starting-point +of the French school of Renaissance poetry. The two had much in common, +and immediately became fast friends. Du Bellay returned with Ronsard to +Paris to join the circle of students of the humanities attached to Jean +Daurat (q.v.) at the College de Coqueret. While Ronsard and Antoine de +Baif were most influenced by Greek models, du Bellay was more especially +a Latinist, and perhaps his preference for a language so nearly +connected with his own had some part in determining the more national +and familiar note of his poetry. In 1548 appeared the _Art poetique_ of +Thomas Sibilet, who enunciated many of the ideas that Ronsard and his +followers had at heart, though with essential differences in the point +of view, since he held up as models Clement Marot and his disciples. +Ronsard and his friends dissented violently from Sibilet on this and +other points, and they doubtless felt a natural resentment at finding +their ideas forestalled and, moreover, inadequately presented. The +famous manifesto of the Pleiade, the _Deffence et illustration de la +langue francoyse_ (1549), was at once a complement and a refutation of +Sibilet's treatise. This book was the expression of the literary +principles of the Pleiade as a whole, but although Ronsard was the +chosen leader, its redaction was entrusted to du Bellay. To obtain a +clear view of the reforms aimed at by the Pleiade, the _Deffence_ should +be further considered in connexion with Ronsard's _Abrege d'art +poetique_ and his preface to the _Franciade_. Du Bellay maintained that +the French language as it was then constituted was too poor to serve as +a medium for the higher forms of poetry, but he contended that by proper +cultivation it might be brought on a level with the classical tongues. +He condemned those who despaired of their mother tongue, and used Latin +for their more serious and ambitious work. For translations from the +ancients he would substitute imitations. Not only were the forms of +classical poetry to be imitated, but a separate poetic language and +style, distinct from those employed in prose, were to be used. The +French language was to be enriched by a development of its internal +resources and by discreet borrowing from the Latin and Greek. Both du +Bellay and Ronsard laid stress on the necessity of prudence in these +borrowings, and both repudiated the charge of wishing to latinize their +mother tongue. The book was a spirited defence of poetry and of the +possibilities of the French language; it was also a declaration of war +on those writers who held less heroic views. + +The violent attacks made by du Bellay on Marot and his followers, and on +Sibilet, did not go unanswered. Sibilet replied in the preface to his +translation (1549) of the _Iphigenia_ of Euripides; Guillaume des +Autels, a Lyonnese poet, reproached du Bellay with ingratitude to his +predecessors, and showed the weakness of his argument for imitation as +opposed to translation in a digression in his _Replique aux furieuses +defenses de Louis Meigret_ (Lyons, 1550); Barthelemy Aneau, regent of +the College de la Trinite at Lyons, attacked him in his _Quintil +Horatian_ (Lyons, 1551), the authorship of which was commonly attributed +to Charles Fontaine. Aneau pointed out the obvious inconsistency of +inculcating imitation of the ancients and depreciating native poets in a +work professing to be a defence of the French language. Du Bellay +replied to his various assailants in a preface to the second edition +(1550) of his sonnet sequence _Olive_, with which he also published two +polemical poems, the _Musagnaeomachie_, and an ode addressed to Ronsard, +_Contre les envieux poetes_. _Olive_, a collection of love-sonnets +written in close imitation of Petrarch, first appeared in 1549. With it +were printed thirteen odes entitled _Vers lyriques_. Olive has been +supposed to be an anagram for the name of a Mlle Viole, but there is +little evidence of real passion in the poems, and they may perhaps be +regarded as a Petrarcan exercise, especially as, in the second edition, +the dedication to his lady is exchanged for one to Marguerite de Valois, +sister of Henry II. Du Bellay did not actually introduce the sonnet into +French poetry, but he acclimatized it; and when the fashion of +sonneteering became a mania he was one of the first to ridicule its +excesses. + +About this time du Bellay had a serious illness of two years' duration, +from which dates the beginning of his deafness. He had further anxieties +in the guardianship of his nephew. The boy died in 1553, and Joachim, +who had up to this time borne the title of sieur de Lire, became +seigneur of Gonnor. In 1549 he had published a _Recueil de poesies_ +dedicated to the Princess Marguerite. This was followed in 1552 by a +version of the fourth book of the _Aeneid_, with other translations and +some occasional poems. In the next year he went to Rome as one of the +secretaries of Cardinal du Bellay. To the beginning of his four and a +half years' residence in Italy belong the forty-seven sonnets of his +_Antiquites de Rome_, which were rendered into English by Edmund Spenser +(_The Ruins of Rome_, 1591). These sonnets were more personal and less +imitative than the _Olive_ sequence, and struck a note which was revived +in later French literature by Volney and Chateaubriand. His stay in Rome +was, however, a real exile. His duties were those of an intendant. He +had to meet the cardinal's creditors and to find money for the expenses +of the household. Nevertheless he found many friends among Italian +scholars, and formed a close friendship with another exiled poet whose +circumstances were similar to his own, Olivier de Magny. Towards the end +of his sojourn in Rome he fell violently in love with a Roman lady +called Faustine, who appears in his poetry as Columba and Columbelle. +This passion finds its clearest expression in the Latin poems. Faustine +was guarded by an old and jealous husband, and du Bellay's eventual +conquest may have had something to do with his departure for Paris at +the end of August 1557. In the next year he published the poems he had +brought back with him from Rome, the Latin _Poemata_, the _Antiquites de +Rome_, the _Jeux rustiques_, and the 191 sonnets of the _Regrets_, the +greater number of which were written in Italy. The _Regrets_ show that +he had advanced far beyond the theories of the _Deffence_. The +simplicity and tenderness specially characteristic of du Bellay appear +in the sonnets telling of his unlucky passion for Faustine, and of his +nostalgia for the banks of the Loire. Among them are some satirical +sonnets describing Roman manners, and the later ones written after his +return to Paris are often appeals for patronage. His intimate relations +with Ronsard were not renewed; but he formed a close friendship with the +scholar Jean de Morel, whose house was the centre of a learned society. +In 1559 du Bellay published at Poitiers _La Nouvelle Maniere de faire +son profit des lettres_, a satirical epistle translated from the Latin +of Adrien Turnebe, and with it _Le Poete courtisan_, which introduced +the formal satire into French poetry. These were published under the +pseudonym of J. Quintil du Troussay, and the courtier-poet was generally +supposed to be Melin de Saint-Gelais, with whom du Bellay had always, +however, been on friendly terms. + +A long and eloquent _Discours au roi_ (detailing the duties of a prince, +and translated from a Latin original written by Michel de l'Hopital, now +lost) was dedicated to Francis II. in 1559, and is said to have secured +for the poet a tardy pension. In Paris he was still in the employ of +the cardinal, who delegated to him the lay patronage which he still +retained in the diocese. In the exercise of these functions Joachim +quarrelled with Eustache du Bellay, bishop of Paris, who prejudiced his +relations with the cardinal, less cordial since the publication of the +outspoken _Regrets_. His chief patron, Marguerite de Valois, to whom he +was sincerely attached, had gone to Savoy. Du Bellay's health was weak; +his deafness seriously hindered his official duties; and on the 1st of +January 1560 he died. There is no evidence that he was in priest's +orders, but he was a clerk, and as such held various preferments. He had +at one time been a canon of Notre Dame of Paris, and was accordingly +buried in the cathedral. The statement that he was nominated archbishop +of Bordeaux during the last year of life is unauthenticated by +documentary evidence and is in itself extremely improbable. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The best edition of the works of J. du Bellay is + _OEuvres francaises_ (2 vols., 1866-1867), edited with introduction + and notes by C. Marty-Laveaux in his _Pleiade francaise_. His _OEuvres + choisies_ were published by L. Becq de Fouquieres in 1876. The chief + source of his biography is his own poetry, especially the Latin elegy + addressed to Jean de Morel, "_Elegia ad Janum Morellum Ebredunensem, + Pyladem suum_," printed with a volume of _Xenia_ (Paris, 1569). A + study of his life and writings by H. Chamard, forming vol. viii. of + the _Travaux et memoires de l'universite de Lille_ (Lille, 1900), + contains all the available information and corrects many common + errors. See also Sainte-Beuve, _Tableau de la poesie francaise au + XVI^e siecle_ (1828); _La Defense et illust. de la langue francaise_ + (1905), with biographical and critical introduction by Leon Seche, who + also wrote _Joachim du Bellay, documents nouveaux et inedits_ (1880), + and published in 1903 the first volume of a new edition of the + _OEuvres; Lettres de Joachim du Bellay_ (1884), edited by P. de + Nolhac; G. Wyndham, _Ronsard and La Pleiade_ (1906); H. Belloc, + _Avril_ (1905); A. Tilley, _The Literature of the French Renaissance_ + (2 vols., 1904). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] For the date of his birth, commonly given as 1525, see H. + Chamard, _Joachim du Bellay_ (Lille, 1900). + + + + +DUBLIN, a county of Ireland in the province of Leinster, bounded N. by +Co. Meath, E. by the Irish Sea, S. by Wicklow, and W. by Kildare and +Meath. With the exception of Louth and Carlow, Dublin is the smallest +county in Ireland, having an area of 218,873 acres, or about 342 sq. m. +The northern portion is flat, and the soil good, particularly on the +borders of Meath; but on the southern side the land rises into +elevations of considerable height. The mountains are chiefly covered +with heath, except where a subsidence in the ground affords a nucleus +for the formation of bog, with which about 2000 acres are covered. There +are also a few small tracts of bog in the northern part of the county. +The mountain district is well adapted for timber. The northern coast of +the county from Balbriggan to Howth has generally a sandy shore, and +affords only the small harbours of Balbriggan and Skerries. In the +promontory of Howth, the coast suddenly assumes a bolder aspect; and +between the town of Howth and the rocky islet of Ireland's Eye an +unsuccessful artificial harbour was constructed. Kingstown harbour on +the south side of Dublin Bay superseded this, and is by far the best in +the county. Dalkey Island, about 22 acres in extent, lies about midway +between Kingstown harbour and the beautiful bay of Killiney. North of +Howth lies Lambay Island, about 600 acres in area. Shell fish, +especially lobsters, are taken here in abundance. Small islets lie +farther north off Skerries; the most interesting of which is that known +as Inispatrick, reputed as the first landing-place of St Patrick, and +having the ruins of a church said to be the saint's first foundation, +though it shares this reputation with other sites. Ireland's Eye, off +Howth, is a very picturesque rock with about 54 acres of grass land. It +has afforded great room for geological disquisition. The chief river in +the county is the Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow mountains about 12 +m. S.W. of Dublin, and, after running about 50 m., empties itself into +Dublin Bay. The course of the river is so tortuous that 40 m. may be +traversed and only 10 gained in direction. The scenery along the banks +of the Liffey is remarkably beautiful. The mountains which occupy the +southern border of the county are the extremities of the great group +belonging to the adjacent county Wicklow. The principal summits are the +group containing Glendoo (1919 ft.) and Two Rock (1699 ft.) within the +county, and the border group of Kippure, reaching in that summit a +height of 2475 ft. The grandest features of these hills are the great +natural ravines which open in them, the most extraordinary being the +Scalp through which the traveller passes from Dublin to Wicklow. + + _Geology._--On the north a Silurian upland stretches, falling to the + sea at Balbriggan, where fossiliferous strata contain contemporaneous + volcanic rocks. A limestone of Bala age comes out under shales and + andesites in the promontory of Portrane, and rocks of the same series + occur in the bold island of Lambay, associated with a large mass of + dark green porphyritic andesite (the "Lambay porphyry"). Silurian + rocks reappear at Tallaght in the south-west, where the granite of + Leinster rises through them, forming a moorland 2000 ft. in height + only a few miles south of Dublin. Old Red Sandstone, seen at Donabate + and Newcastle, leads up into Carboniferous Limestone, which is often + darkened by mud and even shaly ("calpy" type). This rock produces a + fairly level country, both north and south of the valley of the + Liffey, although the beds are greatly folded. Beds of a higher + Carboniferous zone are retained in synclinals near Rush. The rugged + peninsula of Howth, connected by a raised bench with the mainland, is + formed of old quartzites and shales, crushed and folded, and probably + of Cambrian age. The rocks of the county show many signs of + ice-action, and boulder-clays and drift-gravels cover the lowland, the + latter being banked up on the mountain-slopes to heights of 1200 ft. + or more. Much of this glacial material has been imported from the area + of the Irish Sea. Lead-ore has been mined at the granite-contact at + Ballycorus. + + _Industries._--The extension of Dublin city and its suburbs has no + doubt had its influence on the decrease of acreage under both tillage + and pasture. Oats and potatoes are the principal crops, but live + stock, especially cattle, receives greater attention. A large + proportion of holdings are of the smallest, nearly one-half of those + beneath fifteen acres being also beneath one acre. The manufactures of + the county are mainly confined to the city and suburbs, but there is + manufacture of cotton hosiery at Balbriggan. The haddock, herring and + other fisheries, both deep-sea and coastal, are important, and + Kingstown is the headquarters of the fishery district. The salmon + fishery district of Dublin also affords considerable employment. As + containing the metropolis of Ireland, the communications of the county + are naturally good, several important railways and two canals + converging upon the city of Dublin, under the head of which they are + considered. + +_Population and Administration._--The population (148,210 in 1891; +157,568 in 1901) shows a regular increase, which, however, is not +consistent from year to year. About 70% are Roman Catholics, the +Protestant Episcopalians (24%) standing next. The chief towns, apart +from the capital, are Balbriggan (pop. 2236), Blackrock (8719), Dalkey +(3398), Killiney and Ballybrack (2744), Pembroke (25,799), Rathmines and +Rathgar (32,602), and the important port of Kingstown (17,377). These +are urban districts. Skerries, Howth and Rush are small maritime towns. +There are nine baronies in the county, which, including the city of +Dublin, are divided into 100 parishes, all within the Protestant and +Roman Catholic dioceses of Dublin. Assizes are held in Dublin, and +quarter sessions also in the capital, and at Balbriggan, Kilmainham, +Kingstown and Swords. Previous to the union with Great Britain, this +county returned ten representatives to the Irish Parliament,--two for +the county, two for the city, two for the university, and two for each +of the boroughs of Swords and Newcastle. The county parliamentary +divisions are now two, north and south, each returning one member. The +city of Dublin constitutes a separate county. + +_History._--Dublin is among the counties generally considered to have +been formed by King John, and comprised the chief portion of country +within the English pale. The limits of the county, however, were +uncertain, and underwent many changes before they were fixed. As late as +the 17th century the mountainous country south of Dublin offered a +retreat to the lawless, and it was not until 1606 that the boundaries of +the county received definition in this direction, along with the +formation of the county Wicklow. Although so near the seat of government +67,142 acres of profitable land were forfeited in the Rebellion of 1641 +and 34,536 acres in the Revolution of 1688. In 1867 the most formidable +of the Fenian risings took place near the village of Tallaght, about 7 +m. from the city. The rebels, who numbered from 500 to 700, were found +wandering at dawn, some by a small force of constabulary who, having in +vain called upon them to yield, fired and wounded five of them; but the +great bulk of them were overtaken by the troops under Lord Strathnairn, +who captured them with ease and marched them into the city. There are +numerous antiquities in the county. Raths or encampments are frequent, +and those at Raheny, Coolock, Lucan, with the large specimen at +Shankill or Rathmichael near the Scalp pass may be mentioned. Cromlechs +occur in Phoenix Park, Dublin, at Howth, and elsewhere. There are fine +round towers at Swords, Lusk and Clondalkin, and there is the stump of +one at Rathmichael. + + + + +DUBLIN, a city, county of a city, parliamentary borough and seaport, and +the metropolis of Ireland, in the province of Leinster. It lies at the +head of a bay of the Irish Sea, to which it gives name, about midway on +the eastern coast of the island, 334 m. W.N.W. of London by the Holyhead +route, and 70 m. W. of Holyhead on the coast of Anglesey, Wales. (For +map, see IRELAND.) Its population in 1901 was 290,638. + +_Site, Streets and Buildings._--Dublin lies on the great central +limestone district which stretches across the island from the Irish Sea +to the Atlantic Ocean, and occupies both banks of the river Liffey. Its +situation is justly admired. The populous shores of the bay are +exceedingly picturesque. To the north and west the country is +comparatively level, the central plain of Ireland here reaching to the +coast, but to the south the foothills of the Wicklow Mountains +practically touch the confines of Greater Dublin, affording +comprehensive views of the physical position of the city, and forming a +background to some of the finest streets. The municipal boundary lies +generally a little outside the so-called Circular Road, which may be +taken as encircling the city proper, with a few breaks. It bears this +name on both the north and south sides of the river. As the city is +approached from the bay, the river Liffey, which divides the city from +west to east roughly into two equal parts, is seen to be lined with a +fine series of quays. At its mouth, on the north side, is the North Wall +quay, where the principal steamers lie, and in this vicinity are the +docks. At the opposite (western) end of the city, the Phoenix Park may +be taken as a convenient landmark. Between this and North Wall the river +is crossed by twelve bridges, which, in order from west to east, are +these:--Sarah Bridge, the bridge of the North Wall extension railway; +King's, commemorating a visit of George IV.; Victoria or Barrack; +Queen's; Whitworth, of interest as occupying the site where a bridge has +stood since the 12th century; Richmond, Grattan and Wellington; +O'Connell, Butt and a swivel bridge carrying a loop railway. Of these +O'Connell bridge (formerly known as Carlisle) is the principal, as it +connects the chief thoroughfare on the north side, namely Sackville (or +O'Connell) Street, with Great Brunswick Street and others on the south. +Sackville Street, which gains in appearance from its remarkable breadth, +contains the principal hotels, and the post office, with a fine Ionic +portico, founded in 1815. At the crossing of Henry Street and Earl +Street is the Nelson pillar, a beautiful monument 134 ft. in height, +consisting of a fluted Doric column, raised on a massive pedestal, and +crowned by a statue of the admiral. At the southern end of the street is +Daniel O'Connell's monument, almost completed by John Henry Foley before +his death, and erected in 1882. In Rutland Square, at the northern end, +is the Rotunda, containing public rooms for meetings, and adjoining it, +the Rotunda hospital with its Doric facade. + +From the north end of Sackville Street, several large thoroughfares +radiate through the northern part of the city, ultimately joining the +Circular Road at various points. To the west there are the Broadstone +station, Dominion Street, and beyond this the large workhouse, prison, +asylum and other district buildings, while the Royal barracks front the +river behind Albert Quay. Two other notable buildings face the river on +the north bank. Between Whitworth and Richmond bridges stands the "Four +Courts" (law courts), on the site of the ancient Dominican monastery of +St Saviour. It was erected between 1786 and 1796, and is adjoined by +other court buildings, the public record office, containing a vast +collection, and the police offices. Below the lowest bridge on the +river, and therefore in the neighbourhood of the shipping quarter, is +the customs house (1781-1791), considered one of the chief ornaments of +the city. It presents four fronts, that facing the river being of +Portland stone, in the Doric order, while the rest are of granite. The +centre is crowned by a dome, surmounted by a statue of Hope. This +building provides offices for the Local Government Board, Boards of +Trade and of Public Works and other bodies. + +It is, however, to the south of the river that the most interesting +buildings are found. Crossing O'Connell bridge, the short Westmoreland +Street strikes into a thoroughfare which traverses the entire city +parallel with the river, and is known successively (from west to east) +as James, Thomas, High, Castle, Dame, College and Great Brunswick +streets. At the end of Westmoreland Street a fine group of buildings is +seen--Trinity College on the left and the Bank of Ireland on the right. +Barely half a mile westward down Dame Street, rises the Castle, and 300 +yds. beyond this again is the cathedral of Christ Church. These, with +the second cathedral of St Patrick, are more conveniently described in +the inverse order. + + + Christ Church. + +The cathedral of Christ Church, or Holy Trinity, the older of the two +Protestant cathedrals in the possession of which Dublin is remarkable, +was founded by Sigtryg, a Christianized king of the Danes of Dublin, in +1038, but dates its elevation to a deanery and chapter from 1541. It was +restored in 1870-1877 by G. E. Street at the charge of Mr Henry Roe, a +merchant of Dublin, who also presented the Synod House. The restoration +involved the complete rebuilding of the choir and the south side of the +nave, but the model of the ancient building was followed with great +care. The crypt embodies remains of the founder's work; the rest is +Transitional Norman and Early English in style. Among the monuments is +that of Strongbow, the invader of Ireland, to whom the earlier part of +the superstructure (1170) is due. Here the tenants of the church lands +were accustomed to pay their rents. The monument was injured by the fall +of one of the cathedral walls, but was repaired. By its side is a +smaller tomb, ascribed to Strongbow's son, whom his father killed for +showing cowardice in battle. Synods were occasionally held in this +church, and parliaments also, before the Commons' Hall was destroyed in +1566 by an accidental explosion of gunpowder. Here also the pretender +Lambert Simnel was crowned. + + + St Patrick's. + +A short distance south from Christ Church, through the squalid quarter +of Nicholas and Patrick streets, stands the other Protestant cathedral +dedicated to St Patrick, the foundation of which was an attempt to +supersede the older foundation of Christ Church, owing to jealousies, +both ecclesiastical and political, arising out of the Anglo-Norman +invasion. It was founded about 1190 by John Comyn, archbishop of Dublin; +but there was a church dedicated to the same saint before. It was burnt +about two hundred years later, but was raised from its ruins with +increased splendour. At the Reformation it was deprived of its status as +a cathedral, and the building was used for some of the purposes of the +courts of justice. Edward VI. contemplated its change into a university, +but the project was defeated. In the succeeding reign of Mary, St +Patrick's was restored to its primary destination. The installations of +the knights of St Patrick, the first of which took place in 1783, were +originally held here, and some of their insignia are preserved in the +choir. This cathedral contains the monuments of several illustrious +persons, amongst which the most celebrated are those of Swift (dean of +this cathedral), of Mrs Hester Johnson, immortalized under the name of +"Stella"; of Archbishop Marsh; of the first earl of Cork; and of Duke +Schomberg, who fell at the battle of the Boyne. The tablet over +Schomberg's grave contains what Macaulay called a "furious libel," +though it only states that the duke's relatives refused the expense of +the tablet. In the cathedral may be seen the chain ball which killed +General St Ruth at the battle of Aughrim, and the spurs which he wore. +The cathedral was restored by Sir Benjamin Lee Guinness (1864), whom a +fine statue by John Henry Foley commemorates, and the work was resumed +by his son Lord Iveagh in 1900. Attached to the cathedral is Marsh's +library, incorporated in 1707, by a request of Primate Marsh, archbishop +of Armagh. It contains a good number of theological works and of +manuscripts, and is open to the public; but is deficient in modern +publications. + + + The Castle. + +Dublin Castle stands high, and occupies about ten acres of ground, but +excepting St Patrick's Hall, the apartments are small, and the building +is of a motley and unimposing appearance, with the exception of the +chapel (a Gothic building of the early 19th century) and great tower. +The castle was originally built in the first two decades of the 13th +century; and there are portions of this period, but nearly the whole is +of the 16th century and later. In St Patrick's hall where the knights of +St Patrick are invested, are the banners of that order. Opposite the +castle is the city hall (1779), in the possession of the corporation, +with statues in the central hall of George III., of Grattan (a superb +work by Sir Francis Chantry), of Daniel O'Connell, and of Thomas +Drummond by John Hogan and several others. + + + Bank of Ireland. + +The Bank of Ireland (see ARCHITECTURE, fig. 85) occupies five acres, and +was formerly the House of Parliament. There are three fronts; the +principal, towards College Green, is a colonnade of the Ionic order, +with facade and two projecting wings; it connects with the western +portico by a colonnade of the same order, forming the quadrant of a +circle. The eastern front, which was the entrance of the House of Lords, +is, by their special wish, of the Corinthian order, made conformable +with the rest of the building not without difficulty to the architect. +The House of Lords contains tapestry dating from 1733, and remains in +its original condition, but the octagonal House of Commons was +demolished by the bank directors, and replaced with a cash-office. The +building was begun in 1729, but the fronts date from the end of the +century; the remodelling took place in 1803. + + + Trinity College. + +Trinity College, or Dublin University, fronts the street with a +Palladian facade (1759), with two good statues by Foley, of Goldsmith +and Burke. Above the gateway is a hall called the Regent House. The +first quadrangle, Parliament Square, contains the chapel (1798), with a +Corinthian portico, the public theatre or examination hall (1787), +containing portraits of Queen Elizabeth, Molyneux, Burke, Bishop +Berkeley and other celebrities, and the wain-scotted dining hall, also +containing portraits. A beautiful modern campanile (1853), erected by +Lord John George Beresford, archbishop of Armagh and chancellor of the +university, occupies the centre of the square. Library Square takes its +name from the library, which is one of the four scheduled in the +Copyright Act as entitled to receive a copy of every volume published in +the United Kingdom. There is a notable collection of early Irish +manuscripts, including the magnificently ornamented Book of Kells, +containing the gospels. The building was begun in 1712. In this square +are the oldest buildings of the foundation, dating in part from the +close of the 17th century, and the modern Graduates' Memorial buildings +(1904). These contain a theatre, library and reading-room, the rooms of +the college societies and others. The schools form a fine modern pile +(1856), and other buildings are the provost's house (1760), printing +house (1760), museum (1857) and the medical school buildings, in three +blocks, one of the best schools in the kingdom. Other buildings of the +20th century include chemical laboratories. The College Park and +Fellows' Garden are of considerable beauty. In the former most of the +recreations of the students take place; but the college also supports a +well-known rowing-club. The college observatory is at Dunsink, about 5 +m. north-west of Dublin; it is amply furnished with astronomical +instruments. It was endowed by Dr Francis Andrews, provost of Trinity +College, was erected in 1785, and in 1791 was placed by statute under +the management of the royal astronomer of Ireland, whose official +residence is here. The magnetic observatory of Dublin was erected in the +years 1837-1838 in the gardens attached to Trinity College, at the +expense of the university. A normal climatological station was +established in the Fellows' Garden in 1904. The botanic garden is at +Ball's Bridge, 1 m. S.E. of the college. + + The alternative title of Dublin University or Trinity College, Dublin + (commonly abbreviated T.C.D.), is explained by the fact that the + university consists of only one college, that of "the Holy and + Undivided Trinity." This was founded under charter from Queen + Elizabeth in 1591, and is the greatest foundation of its kind in the + country. The corporation consists of a provost, 7 senior fellows, 25 + junior fellows and 70 scholars. A vacancy among the fellows is filled + up by the provost and a select number of the fellows, after + examination comprised in five principal courses, mathematics, + experimental science, classics, mental and moral science and Hebrew. + Fellowships are held for life. Until the year 1840 the fellows were + bound to celibacy, but that restriction was then removed. All except + five (medical and law fellows) were bound to take Holy Orders until + 1872. The scholars on the foundation (or "of the House") are chosen + from among the undergraduates, for merit in classics, mathematics or + experimental science. The pecuniary advantages attaching to + scholarship (L20 Irish, free commons, and rooms at half the charge + made to other students) last for four years. Students after an + examination are admitted as fellow-commoners, pensioners or sizars. + Fellow-commoners, who have decreased in numbers in modern times, pay + higher fees than the ordinary undergraduates or pensioners, and have + certain advantages of precedence, including the right of dining at the + fellows' table. Sizarships are awarded on examination to students of + limited means, and carry certain relaxations of fees. They were + formerly given on the nomination of fellows. Noblemen, noblemen's sons + and baronets (_nobilis, filius nobilis, eques_) have the privilege of + forming a separate order with peculiar advantages, on the payment of + additional charges. The mode of admission to the university is in all + cases by examination. Various exhibitions and prizes are awarded both + in connexion with the entrance of students and at subsequent stages of + the course of instruction, which normally lasts four years. There are + three terms in each year--Michaelmas (beginning the Academic year), + Hilary and Trinity. The undergraduate is called in his first year a + junior freshman, in his second a senior freshman, in his third a + junior sophister, and in his fourth a senior sophister. The usual arts + and scientific courses are provided, and there are four professional + schools--divinity, law, physic and engineering. The undergraduate has + certain examinations in each year, and four "commencements" are held + every year for the purpose of conferring degrees. Freedom is offered + to students who wish to be transferred from Oxford, Cambridge, or + certain colonial universities to Trinity College, by the recognition + of terms kept in the former institutions as part of the necessary + course at Trinity College. In 1903 it was decided to bestow degrees on + women, and in 1904 to establish women's scholarships. The funds of the + college, arising from lands and the fees of students, are managed + solely by the provost and seven senior fellows, who form a board, to + which and to the academic council the whole government of the + university, both in its executive and its legislative branches, is + committed. The council consists of the provost and sixteen members of + the senate elected by the fellows, professors, &c; the senate consists + of the chancellor or his deputy and doctors and masters who keep their + names on the books. The average number of students on the books is + about 1300. By an act passed in 1873, known as Fawcett's Act, all + tests were abolished, and the prizes and honours of all grades + hitherto reserved for Protestants of the Established Church were + thrown open to all. The university returns two members to parliament. + (See _Dublin University Calendar_, annual.) + +There remain to be mentioned the following buildings in Dublin. The +permanent building of the International Exhibition of 1865 adjoins the +pleasure ground of St Stephen's Green. This building was occupied by the +Royal University of Ireland until its dissolution under the Irish +Universities Act 1908, which provided for a new university at Dublin, to +which the building was transferred under the act (see IRELAND: +_Education_). The new university is called the National University of +Ireland. At the same time a new college was founded under the name of +University College. The Royal University replaced the Queen's University +under the University Act (Ireland) in 1879. No teaching was carried on, +but examinations were held and degrees conferred, both on men and on +women. On the west side of St Stephen's Green is the Catholic University +(1854), which is under the Jesuit Fathers and affiliated to the Royal +University. Between Trinity College and St Stephen's Green, a large +group of buildings includes the Royal Dublin Society, founded in 1683 to +develop agriculture and the useful arts, with a library and gallery of +statuary; the Science and Arts Museum, and the National Library, the +former with a noteworthy collection of Irish antiquities; the Museum of +Natural History, with a splendid collection of Irish fauna; and the +National Gallery of Ireland, founded in 1853. Here was once a residence +of the duke of Leinster, and the buildings surround the open space of +Leinster Lawn. Educational foundations include the Royal College of +Physicians, of Surgeons and of Science; the Royal Irish Academy, with an +unequalled collection of national antiquities, including manuscripts and +a library; and the Royal Hibernian Academy of painting, sculpture and +architecture. In 1904 the formation of a municipally supported gallery +of modern art (mainly due to the initiative and generosity of Mr Hugh +Lane) was signalized by an exhibition including the pictures intended to +constitute the nucleus of the gallery. In 1905 King Edward VII. laid the +foundation stone of a college of science on a site in the vicinity of +Leinster Lawn. The full scheme for the occupation of the site included, +not only the college, but also offices for the Board of Works and the +Department of Agriculture. The famous Dublin Horse and Agricultural +Shows are held at Ball's Bridge in April, August and December. + +The most notable churches apart from the cathedrals are Roman Catholic +and principally modern. The lofty church of the Augustinians in Thomas +Street; St Mary's, the pro-cathedral, in Marlborough Street, with +Grecian ornamentation within, and a Doric portico; St Paul's on Arran +Quay, in the Ionic style; and the striking St Francis Xavier in Gardiner +Street, also Ionic, are all noteworthy, and the last is one of the +finest modern churches in Ireland. Among theatres Dublin has, in the +Royal, a handsome building which replaced the old Theatre Royal, burnt +down in 1880. Clubs, which are numerous, are chiefly found in the +neighbourhood of Sackville Street; and there should further be mentioned +the Rotunda, at the corner of Great Britain Street and Sackville Street, +a beautiful building of its kind, belonging to the adjacent hospital, +and used for concerts and other entertainments, while its gardens are +used for agricultural shows. + +_Suburbs._--To the west of the city lies the Phoenix Park. Here, besides +the viceregal demesne and lodge and the magazine, are a zoological +garden, a people's garden, the Wellington monument, two barracks, the +Hibernian military school, the "Fifteen Acres," a natural amphitheatre +(of much greater extent than its name implies) used as a review ground, +and a racecourse. The amenities of Phoenix Park were enhanced in 1905 by +the purchase for the crown of land extending along the Liffey from +Island bridge to Chapelizod, which might otherwise have been built over. +To the south lies Kilmainham. Here is the royal hospital for pensioners +and maimed soldiers. Close by is Kilmainham prison. To the west the +valley of the Liffey affords pleasant scenery, with the well-known +grounds called the "Strawberry Beds" on the north bank. In this +direction lies Chapelizod, said to take its name from that Iseult whom +Tennyson, Matthew Arnold and Wagner made a heroine; beyond which is +Lucan connected with the city by tramway. Northward lies Clondalkin, +with its round tower, marking the site of the important early see of +Cluain Dolcain; Glasnevin, with famous botanical gardens; Finglas, with +a ruined church of early foundation, and an Irish cross; and Clontarf, a +favoured resort on the bay, with its modern castle and many residences +of the wealthy classes in the vicinity. South of the city are Rathmines, +a populous suburb, near which, at the "Bloody Fields," English colonists +were murdered by the natives in 1209; and Donnybrook, celebrated for its +former fair. Rathmines, Monkstown, Clontarf, Dalkey and Killiney, with +the neighbourhood of Kingstown and Pembroke, are the most favoured +residential districts. Howth, Malahide and Sutton to the north, and Bray +to the south, are favoured seaside watering-places outside the radius of +actual suburbs. + +_Communications._--The direct route to Dublin from London and other +parts of England is by the Holyhead route, controlled by the London & +North Western railway with steamers to the port of Dublin itself, while +the company also works in conjunction with the mail steamers of the City +of Dublin Steam Packet Company to the outlying port of Kingstown, 7 m. +S.E. Passenger steamers, however, also serve Liverpool, Heysham, +Bristol, the south coast ports of England and London; Edinburgh and +Glasgow, and other ports of Great Britain. The railways leaving Dublin +are the following: the Great Northern, with its terminus in Amiens +Street, with suburban lines, and a main line running north to Drogheda, +Dundalk and Belfast, with ramifications through the northern countries; +the Great Southern & Western (Kingsbridge terminus) to Kilkenny, Athlone +and Cork; the Midland Great Western (Broadstone terminus), to Cavan, +Sligo and Galway; the Dublin & South-Eastern (Harcourt Street and +Westland Row for Kingstown); and there is the North Wall station of the +London & North-Western, with the line known as the North Wall extension, +connecting with the other main lines. The internal communications of the +city are excellent, electric tramways traversing the principal streets, +and connecting all the principal suburbs. + +_Trade._--Dublin was for long stigmatized as lacking, for so large a +city, in the proper signs of commercial enterprise. A certain spirit of +foolish pride was said to exist which sought to disown trade; and the +tendency to be poor and genteel in the civil service, at the bar, in the +constabulary, in the army, in professional life, rather than prosperous +in business, was one of the most unfortunate and strongly marked +characteristics of Dublin society. This was attributable to the +lingering yet potent influence of an unhappy past was held by some; +while others attributed the weakness to the viceregal office and the +effects of a sham court. About the time of the Revolution, the woollen +trade flourished in Dublin, and the produce attained great celebrity. +The cheapness of labour attracted capitalists, who started extensive +factories in that quarter of the town known even now as the Liberties. +This quarter was inhabited altogether by workers in wool, and as the +city was small, the aristocracy lived close by in noble mansions which +are now miserable memorials of past prosperity. About 1700 the English +legislature prevailed on William III. to assent to laws which directly +crushed the Irish trade. All exportation except to England was +peremptorily forbidden, and the woollen manufacture soon decayed. But at +the close of the 18th century there were 5000 persons at work in the +looms of the Liberties. About 1715 parliament favoured the manufacture +of linen, and the Linen Hall was built. The cotton trade was soon +afterwards introduced; and silk manufacture was begun by the Huguenots, +who had settled in Dublin in considerable numbers after the revocation +of the edict of Nantes. Acts favourable to these enterprises were +passed, and they flourished apace. But the old jealousy arose in the +reign of George I., and in the reign of George III. an act was passed +which tended directly to the ruin of the manufacture. The linen shared +the same fate. Dublin poplins, however, keep their reputation. However +adverse influences may have been combated, Dublin yet produces little +for export save whisky and porter, the latter from the famous Guinness +brewery and others; but a considerable export trade, principally in +agricultural produce, passes through Dublin from the country. The total +annual export trade may be valued at about L120,000, while imports +exceed in value L3,000,000. To the manufacturing industries of the city +there should be added mineral water works, foundries and shipbuilding. + + + Harbour. + +By continual dredging a great depth of water is kept available in the +harbour. The Dublin Port and Docks Board, which was created in 1898 and +consists of the mayor and six members of the corporation, with other +members representing the trading and shipping interests, undertook +considerable works of improvement at the beginning of the 20th century. +These improvements, _inter alia_, enabled vessels drawing up to 23 ft. +to lie alongside the extensive quays which border the Liffey, at low +tide. The extensive Alexandra tidal basin, on the north side of the +Liffey, admits vessels of similar capacity. The Custom House Works on +the north side have about 17 ft. of water. With docks named after them +are connected the Royal and Grand Canals, passing respectively to north +and south of the city, the one penetrating the great central plain of +Ireland on the north, the other following the course of the Liffey, +doing the same on the south, and both joining the river Shannon. The +docks attached to the canals, and certain other smaller docks, are owned +by companies, and tolls are levied on vessels entering these, but not +those entering the docks under the Board. + +_Government._--Dublin was formerly represented by two members in the +imperial parliament, but in 1885 the parliamentary borough was divided +into the four divisions of College Green, Harbour, St Stephen's Green +and St Patrick's, each returning one member. The lord-lieutenant of +Ireland occupies Dublin Castle and the Viceregal Lodge in Phoenix Park. +Dublin is thus the seat of the viceregal court. It is also the seat of +the Irish courts of law and equity. In connexion with these it may be +noted that in 1904 a special court was established for children. On the +constitution of Dublin as a county borough in 1898, the positions and +duties of its corporation were left practically unaltered. The +corporation consists of a lord mayor, 20 aldermen and 60 councillors, +representing 20 wards. The income of the body arises from rents on +property, customs and taxes. Under an act passed in 1875 the corporation +has the right to forward every year three names of persons suitable for +the office of high sheriff to the viceroy, one of which shall be +selected by him. The corporation has neither control over the police nor +any judicial duties, excepting as regards a court of conscience dealing +with debts under 40s. (Irish); while the lord mayor holds a court for +debts over 40s., and for the settlement of cases between masters and +servants. The lord mayor is clerk of the markets and supervises weights +and measures and deals with cases of adulteration. Besides the usual +duties of local government, and the connexion with the port and docks +boards already explained, there should be noticed the connexion of the +corporation with such bodies as those controlling the city technical +schools, the Royal Irish Academy of Music, and the gallery of modern +art. The corporation has shown some concern for the housing of the poor, +and an extensive scheme taken up in 1904 included the provision of +cottage dwellings in the suburbs, as at Clontarf, besides improvements +within the city itself. In 1905 a home on the model of the Rowton Houses +in London, provided by Lord Iveagh, was opened in Bride Road. A +competent fire-brigade is maintained by the corporation. The city +coroner is a corporate officer. The city hall, used as municipal +offices, has already been mentioned; the official residence of the lord +mayor is the Mansion House, Dawson Street. The Dublin metropolitan +police is a force peculiar to the city, the remainder of Ireland being +protected civilly by the Royal Irish Constabulary. A large military +force is usually maintained in the city of Dublin, which is the +headquarters of the military district of Dublin and of the staff of +Ireland (q.v.). The troops are accommodated in several large barracks in +various parts of the city. + +_Charities._--The number of charitable institutions is large. The +hospital and Free School of King Charles I., commonly called the Blue +Coat hospital, was founded in 1670. It is devoted to the education and +maintenance of the sons of citizens in poor circumstances. Before the +Irish Parliament Houses were erected the parliament met in the school +building. Among hospitals those of special general interest are the +Steevens, the oldest in the city, founded under the will of Dr Richard +Steevens in 1720; the Mater Misericordiae (1861), which includes a +laboratory and museum, and is managed by the Sisters of Mercy, but +relieves sufferers independently of their creed; the Rotunda lying-in +hospital (1756); the Royal hospital for incurables, Donnybrook, which +was founded in 1744 by the Dublin Musical Society; and the Royal +Victoria Eye and Ear hospital, Adelaide Road, which amalgamated (1904) +two similar institutions. Lunatics are maintained in St Patrick's +hospital, founded in 1745, pursuant to the will of Dean Swift, and +conducted by governors appointed under the charter of incorporation. The +Richmond lunatic asylum, erected near the House of Industry, and placed +under the care of officers appointed by government, receives patients +from a district consisting of the counties of Dublin, Louth, Meath and +Wicklow, each of these contributing towards its expenses in proportion +to the number of patients sent in. Besides these public establishments +for the custody of lunatics, there are in the vicinity of Dublin various +private asylums. The principal institution for blind men (and also those +afflicted by gout) is Simpson's hospital (1780), founded by a merchant +of Dublin; while blind women are maintained at the Molyneux asylum +(1815). An institution for the maintenance and education of children +born deaf and dumb is maintained at Claremont, near Glasnevin (1816). +The plan of the Royal hospital, for old and maimed soldiers, was first +suggested by the earl of Essex, when lord-lieutenant, and carried into +effect through the repeated applications of the duke of Ormond to +Charles II. The site chosen for it was that of the ancient priory of +Kilmainham, founded by Strongbow for Knights Templars. The building, +completed in 1684, according to a plan of Sir Christopher Wren, is an +oblong, three sides of which are dwelling-rooms, connected by covered +corridors. The fourth contains the chapel, the dining-hall, and the +apartments of the master, who is always the commander of the forces for +the time being. The Royal Hibernian military school in Phoenix Park +(1765) provides for soldiers' orphan sons. The Drummond Institution, +Chapelizod, for the orphan daughters of soldiers, was established in +1864 by John Drummond, alderman, who left L20,000 to found the asylum. +The Hibernian Marine Society for the maintenance of seamen's sons was +established in the city in 1766, but now has buildings at Clontarf. The +Roman Catholic Church has charge of a number of special charities, some +of them educational and some for the relief of suffering. + +_History._--The name of Dublin signifies the "Black pool." The early +history is mainly legendary. It is recorded that the inhabitants of +Leinster were defeated by the people of Dublin in the year 291. +Christianity was introduced by St Patrick about 450. In the 9th century +the Danes attacked Dublin and took it. The first Norseman who may be +reckoned as king was Thorkel I. (832), though the Danes had appeared in +the country as early as the close of the previous century. Thorkel +established himself strongly at Armagh. In 1014 Brian Boroihme, king of +Munster, attacked the enemy and fought the battle of Clontarf, in which +he and his son and 11,000 of his followers fell. The Irish, however, won +the battle, but the Danes reoccupied the city. Constant struggles with +the Irish resulted in intermissions of the Danish supremacy from 1052 to +1072, at various intervals between 1075 and 1118 and from 1124 to 1136. +The Danes were finally ousted by the Anglo-Normans in 1171. In 1172 +Henry II. landed at Waterford, and came to Dublin and held his court +there in a pavilion of wickerwork where the Irish chiefs were +entertained with great pomp, and alliances entered into with them. +Previous to his departure for England, Henry bestowed the government on +Hugh de Lacy, having granted by charter "to his subjects of Bristol his +city of Dublin to inhabit, and to hold of him and his heirs for ever, +with all the liberties and free customs which his subjects of Bristol +then enjoyed at Bristol and through all England." In 1176 Strongbow, +earl of Pembroke, and chief leader of the Anglo-Norman forces, died in +Dublin of a mortification in one of his feet, and was buried in Christ +Church Cathedral, where his monument remains well preserved. A fresh +charter was granted in 1207 by King John to the inhabitants of Dublin, +who had not yet made their peace with the neighbourhood, but, like the +settlers in other towns, were at constant feud with the native Irish; so +that two years after the date of this charter, whilst the citizens of +Dublin were celebrating Easter at Cullenswood, they were set upon by the +Irish of the neighbouring mountains, and 500 of them killed. The scene +of slaughter is still called the Bloody Fields, and Easter Monday +denominated Black Monday. On each succeeding anniversary of that day, +with the prevalent desire of perpetuating a feud, the citizens marched +out to Cullenswood with banners displayed--"a terror to the native +Irish." In 1216 Magna Carta, a copy of which is to be found in the Red +Book of the Exchequer, was granted to the Irish by Henry III. In 1217 +the fee farm of the city was granted to the citizens at a rent of 200 +marks per annum; and about this period many monastic buildings were +founded. In 1227 the same monarch confirmed the charter of John fixing +the city boundaries and the jurisdiction of its magistrates. + +During the invasion of Ireland by Edward Bruce in 1315 some of the +suburbs of Dublin were burnt to prevent them from falling into his hand. +The inroad of Bruce had been countenanced by the native Irish +ecclesiastics, whose sentiments were recorded in a statement addressed +to Pope John XXII. Some notion of the defence made against Bruce's +invasion may be gained from the fact that the churches were torn down to +supply stones for the building of the city walls. Bruce had seized +Greencastle on his march; but the natives re-took the town, and brought +to Dublin the governor who had yielded to Bruce. He was starved to +death. + +Richard II. erected Dublin into a marquisate in favour of Robert de +Vere, whom he also created duke of Ireland. The same monarch entered +Dublin in 1394 with 30,000 bowmen and 4000 cavalry, bringing with him +the crown jewels; but after holding a parliament and making much courtly +display before the native chieftains, on several of whom he conferred +knighthood, he returned to England. Five years later, enriched with the +spoils of his uncle, John of Gaunt, Richard returned to Ireland, landing +at Waterford, whence he marched through the counties of Kilkenny and +Wicklow, and subsequently arrived in Dublin, where he remained a +fortnight, sumptuously entertained by the provost, as the chief +magistrate of the city was then called, till intelligence of the +invasion of his kingdom by Bolingbroke recalled him to England. + +In 1534 Lord Thomas Fitzgerald, better known as Silken Thomas (so called +because of a fantastic fringe worn in the helmet of his followers), a +young man of rash courage and good abilities, son of the Lord Deputy +Kildare, believing his father, who was imprisoned in the Tower of +London, to have been beheaded, organized a rebellion against the English +Government, and marched with his followers from the mansion of the earls +of Kildare in Thomas Court, through Dame's Gate to St Mary's Abbey, +where, in the council chamber, he proclaimed himself a rebel. On his +appearing before the wall with a powerful force, the citizens were +induced through fear to give admission to a detachment of his troops to +besiege the castle; but, on hearing that he had met with a reverse in +another quarter, they suddenly closed their gates and detained his men +as prisoners. He then attacked the city itself; but, finding it too +strong to be seized by a _coup de main_, he raised the siege on +condition of having his captured soldiers exchanged for the children of +some of the principal citizens who had fallen into his hands. After much +vicissitude of fortune, Lord Thomas and others concerned in this +rebellion were executed at Tyburn in 1536. + +At the outbreak of civil war in 1641, a conspiracy of the Irish septs, +under the direction of Roger Moore, to seize Dublin Castle, was +disclosed by one Owen Connolly on the eve of the day on which the +attempt was to have been made, and the city was thus preserved for the +king's party; but the Irish outside began an indiscriminate +extermination of the Protestant population. In 1646 Dublin was besieged, +but without success, by the Irish army of 16,000 foot and 1600 horse, +under the guidance of the Pope's nuncio Rinuccini and others, banded +together "to restore and establish in Ireland the exercise of the Roman +Catholic religion." The city had been put in an efficient state of +defence by the marquess of Ormonde, then lord-lieutenant; but in the +following year, to prevent it falling into the hands of the Irish, he +surrendered it on conditions to Colonel Jones, commander of the +Parliamentary forces. In 1649 Ormonde was totally defeated at the battle +of Baggotrath, near Old Rathmines, in an attempt to recover possession. +The same year Cromwell landed in Dublin, as commander-in-chief under the +parliament, with 9000 foot and 4000 horse, and proceeded thence on his +career of conquest. + +When James II. landed in Ireland in 1689 to assert his right to the +British throne, he held a parliament in Dublin, which passed acts of +attainder against upwards of 3000 Protestants. The governor of the city, +Colonel Luttrell, at the same time issued a proclamation ordering all +Protestants not housekeepers, excepting those following some trade, to +depart from the city within 24 hours, under pain of death or +imprisonment, and in various ways restricting those who were allowed to +remain. In the hope of relieving his financial difficulties, the king +erected a mint, where money was coined of the "worst kind of old brass, +guns and the refuse of metals, melted down together," of the nominal +value of L1,568,800, with which his troops were paid, and tradesmen were +compelled to receive it under penalty of being hanged in case of +refusal. Under these regulations the entire coinage was put into +circulation. After his defeat at the battle of the Boyne, James returned +to Dublin, but left it again before daybreak the next day; and William +III. advancing by slow marches, on his arrival encamped at Finglas, with +upwards of 30,000 men, and the following day proceeded in state to St +Patrick's cathedral to return thanks for his victory. + +In 1783 a convention of delegates from all the volunteer corps in +Ireland assembled in Dublin for the purpose of procuring a reform in +parliament; but the House of Commons refused to entertain the +proposition, and the convention separated without coming to any +practical result. In May 1798 the breaking out of a conspiracy planned +by the United Irishmen to seize the city was prevented by the capture of +Lord Edward Fitzgerald, son of the duke of Leinster and husband of the +celebrated "Pamela." Lord Edward died in prison of the wounds received +in the encounter which preceded his capture. In 1803 an insurrection +headed by Robert Emmett, a young barrister of much promise, broke out, +but was immediately quelled, with the loss of some lives in the tumult, +and the death of its leaders on the scaffold. In 1848 William Smith +O'Brien, M.P. for Limerick, raised a rebellion in Tipperary, and the +lower classes in Dublin were greatly agitated. Owing, however, to timely +and judicious disposition of the military and police forces the city was +saved from much bloodshed. In 1867 the most serious of modern +conspiracies, that known as the Fenian organization, came to light. The +reality of it was proved by a ship being found laden with gunpowder in +the Liverpool docks, and another with L5000 and 2000 pike-heads in +Dublin. The Habeas Corpus Act was suspended at one sitting by both +Houses of Parliament and about 960 arrests were made in Dublin in a few +hours. Dublin castle was fortified; and the citizens lived in a state of +terror for several weeks together. For later history, see IRELAND. + + See W. Harris, _History and Antiquities of the City of Dublin_ + (Dublin, 1766); Sir J. T. Gilbert, _History of the City of Dublin_ + (Dublin, 1859). The history of the Norsemen in Dublin has been dealt + with by a Norwegian writer, L. J. Vogt, _Dublin som Norsk By_ + (Christiania, 1896). + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 8, Slice 7, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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