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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 8, Slice 7, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 8, Slice 7
+       "Drama" to "Dublin"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: June 11, 2010 [EBook #32783]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 8 SL 7 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subsctipts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Letters topped by Macron are represented as [=x].
+
+(5) Letters with a dot below are represented as [x.].
+
+(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    Article DRAMA: "Incomparably the most important of recent additions
+      to the literary drama is Thomas Hardy's vast panorama of the
+      Napoleonic wars, entitled The Dynasts (1904-1908)." 'Incomparably'
+      amended from 'Imcomparably'.
+
+    Article DRAVIDIAN: "Their languages form an isolated group, and it
+      has not been possible to prove a connexion with any other family of
+      languages." 'form' amended from 'from'.
+
+    Article DRAWING: "The same analogy may be observed between two of
+      the senses in which the French verb tirer is frequently employed."
+      'French' amended from 'Frech'.
+
+    Article DRAWING: "Although the modern Italians have both traire and
+      trarre, they use delineare still in the sense of artistic drawing,
+      and also adombrare." 'in' amended from 'is'.
+
+    Article DREDGE and DREDGING: "... the illustration of the
+      geographical distribution of marine animals, and the more accurate
+      determination of the fossils of the Pliocene period."
+      'illustration' amended from 'illlustration'.
+
+    Article DRENTE: "... and in 1818 the Society of Charity
+      (Maatschappij van Weldadigheid) was formed with Count van den Bosch
+      at its head." 'Weldadigheid' amended from 'Weldadigkeid'.
+
+    Article DRENTE: "In later times forest culture was added, and the
+      Gerard Adriaan van Swieten schools of forestry, agriculture and
+      horticulture were established by Major van Swieten in memory of his
+      son." 'Swieten' amended from 'Sweiten'.
+
+    Article DREW: "From 1861 to 1892 she had the management of the Arch
+      Street theatre in Philadelphia." 'From' amended from 'Fom'.
+
+    Article DRIFT: "Thus it is possible to speak of a snow-drift, an
+      accumulation driven by the wind; of a ship drifting out of its
+      course; of the drift of a speech, i.e. its general tendency."
+      'accumulation' amended from 'accumlation'.
+
+    Article DUBLIN: "But the old jealousy arose in the reign of George
+      I., and in the reign of George III." 'jealousy' amended from
+      'jealously'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+           VOLUME VIII, SLICE VII
+
+              Drama to Dublin
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  DRAMA (part)                DRONFIELD
+  DRAMBURG                    DROPSY
+  DRAMMEN                     DROPWORT
+  DRANE, AUGUSTA THEODOSIA    DROSHKY
+  DRAPER, JOHN WILLIAM        DROSTE-HÜLSHOFF, ANNETTE ELISABETH
+  DRAPER                      DROSTE-VISCHERING, CLEMENS AUGUST
+  DRAUGHT                     DROUAIS, JEAN GERMAIN
+  DRAUGHTS                    DROUET, JEAN BAPTISTE
+  DRAUPADI                    DROWNING AND LIFE SAVING
+  DRAVE                       DROYSEN, JOHANN GUSTAV
+  DRAVIDIAN                   DROZ, ANTOINE GUSTAVE
+  DRAWBACK                    DROZ, FRANÇOIS-XAVIER JOSEPH
+  DRAWING                     DRUG (district of British India)
+  DRAWING AND QUARTERIN       DRUG (medicine)
+  DRAWING-ROOM                DRUIDISM
+  DRAYTON, MICHAEL            DRUIDS, ORDER OF
+  DREAM                       DRUM
+  DREDGE and DREDGING         DRUMMOND, HENRY (1786-1860)
+  DRELINCOURT, CHARLES        DRUMMOND, HENRY (1851-1897)
+  DRENTE                      DRUMMOND, THOMAS
+  DRESDEN                     DRUMMOND, WILLIAM
+  DRESS                       DRUNKENNESS
+  DRESSER                     DRURY, SIR WILLIAM
+  DREUX                       DRUSES
+  DREW                        DRUSIUS JOHANNES
+  DREW, SAMUEL                DRUSUS, MARCUS LIVIUS
+  DREWENZ                     DRUSUS, NERO CLAUDIUS
+  DREXEL, ANTHONY JOSEPH      DRUSUS CAESAR
+  DREYFUS, ALFRED             DRYADES
+  DRIBURG                     DRYANDER, JONAS
+  DRIFFIELD                   DRYBURGH ABBEY
+  DRIFT                       DRYDEN, JOHN
+  DRILL                       DRYOPITHECUS
+  DRINKING VESSELS            DRY ROT
+  DRIPSTONE                   DUALISM
+  DRISLER, HENRY              DUALLA
+  DRIVER, SAMUEL ROLLES       DU BARRY, MARIE JEANNE BÉCU
+  DRIVING                     DU BARTAS, GUILLAUME DE SALUSTE
+  DROGHEDA                    DUBAWNT
+  DROIT                       DUBBO
+  DROITWICH                   DU BELLAY, GUILLAUME
+  DRÔME                       DU BELLAY, JEAN
+  DROMEDARY                   DU BELLAY, JOACHIM
+  DROMORE                     DUBLIN (county of Ireland)
+  DROMOS                      DUBLIN (city of Ireland)
+  DRONE
+
+
+
+
+DRAMA. (Continued from Volume 8 Slice 6.)
+
+
+10. MEDIEVAL DRAMA
+
+  Ecclesiastical and monastic literary drama.
+
+  Hrosvitha.
+
+While the scattered and persecuted strollers thus kept alive something
+of the popularity, if not of the loftier traditions, of their art,
+neither, on the other hand, was there an utter absence of written
+compositions to bridge the gap between ancient and modern dramatic
+literature. In the midst of the condemnation with which the Christian
+Church visited the stage, its professors and votaries, we find
+individual ecclesiastics resorting in their writings to both the tragic
+and the comic form of the ancient drama. These isolated productions,
+which include the [Greek: Christos paschôn] (_Passion of Christ_)
+formerly attributed to St Gregory Nazianzen, and the _Querolus_, long
+fathered upon Plautus himself, were doubtless mostly written for
+educational purposes--whether Euripides and Lycophron, or Menander,
+Plautus and Terence, served as the outward models. The same was probably
+the design of the famous "comedies" of Hrosvitha, the Benedictine nun of
+Gandersheim, in Eastphalian Saxony, which associate themselves in the
+history of Christian literature with the spiritual revival of the 10th
+century in the days of Otto the Great. While avowedly imitated in form
+from the comedies of Terence, these religious exercises derive their
+themes--martyrdoms,[1] and miraculous or otherwise startling
+conversions[2]--from the legends of Christian saints. Thus, from perhaps
+the 9th to the 12th centuries, Germany and France, and through the
+latter, by means of the Norman Conquest, England, became acquainted with
+what may be called the literary monastic drama. It was no doubt
+occasionally performed by the children under the care of monks or nuns,
+or by the religious themselves; an exhibition of the former kind was
+that of the _Play of St Katharine_, acted at Dunstable about the year
+1110 in "copes" by the scholars of the Norman Geoffrey, afterwards abbot
+of St Albans. Nothing is known concerning it except the fact of its
+performance, which was certainly not regarded as a novelty.
+
+
+  The joculatores, jongleurs, minstrels.
+
+These efforts of the cloister came in time to blend themselves with more
+popular forms of the early medieval drama. The natural agents in the
+transmission of these popular forms were those _mimes_, whom, while the
+representatives of more elaborate developments, the "pantomimes" in
+particular, had inevitably succumbed, the Roman drama had left surviving
+it, unextinguished and unextinguishable. Above all, it is necessary to
+point out how in the long interval now in question--the "dark ages,"
+which may, from the present point of view, be reckoned from about the
+6th to the 11th century--the Latin and the Teutonic elements of what may
+be broadly designated as medieval "minstrelsy," more or less
+imperceptibly, coalesced. The traditions of the disestablished and
+disendowed _mimus_ combined with the "occupation" of the Teutonic
+_scôp_, who as a professional personage does not occur in the earliest
+Teutonic poetry, but on the other hand is very distinctly traceable
+under this name or that of the "gleeman," in Anglo-Saxon literature,
+before it fell under the control of the Christian Church. Her influence
+and that of docile rulers, both in England and in the far wider area of
+the Frank empire, gradually prevailed even over the inherited goodwill
+which neither Alfred nor even Charles the Great had denied to the
+composite growth in which _mimus_ and _scôp_ alike had a share.
+
+How far the _joculatores_--which in the early middle ages came to be the
+name most widely given to these irresponsible transmitters of a great
+artistic trust--kept alive the usage of entertainments more essentially
+dramatic than the minor varieties of their performances, we cannot say.
+In different countries these entertainers suited themselves to different
+tastes, and with the rise of native literatures to different literary
+tendencies. The literature of the _troubadours_ of Provence, which
+communicated itself to Spain and Italy, came only into isolated contact
+with the beginnings of the religious drama; in northern France the
+_jongleurs_, as the _joculatores_ were now called, were confounded with
+the _trouvères_, who, to the accompaniment of _vielle_ or harp, sang the
+_chansons de geste_ commemorative of deeds of war. As appointed servants
+of particular households they were here, and afterwards in England,
+called _menestrels_ (from _ministeriales_) or _minstrels_. Such a
+_histrio_ or _mimus_ (as he is called) was Taillefer, who rode first
+into the fight at Hastings, singing his songs of Roland and Charlemagne,
+and tossing his sword in the air and catching it again. In England such
+accomplished minstrels easily outshone the less versatile gleemen of
+pre-Norman times, and one or two of them appeared as landholders in
+Domesday Book, and many enjoyed the favour of the Norman, Angevin and
+Plantagenet kings. But here, as elsewhere, the humbler members of the
+craft spent their lives in strolling from castle to convent, from
+village-green to city-street, and there exhibiting their skill as
+dancers, tumblers, jugglers proper, and as masquers and conductors of
+bears and other dumb contributors to popular wonder and merriment. Their
+only chance of survival finally came to lie in organization under the
+protection of powerful nobles; but when, in the 15th century in England,
+companies of players issued forth from towns and villages, the
+profession, in so far as its members had not secured preference, saw
+itself threatened with ruin.
+
+
+  Survivals and adaptations of pagan festive ceremonies and usages.
+
+In any attempt to explain the transmission of dramatic elements from
+pagan to Christian times, and the influence exercised by this
+transmission upon the beginnings of the medieval drama, account should
+finally be taken of the pertinacious survival of popular festive rites
+and ceremonies. From the days of Gregory the Great, i.e. from the end of
+the 6th century onwards, the Western Church tolerated and even attracted
+to her own festivals popular customs, significant of rejoicing, which
+were in truth relics of heathen ritual. Such were the Mithraic feast of
+the 25th of December, or the egg of Eostre-tide, and a multitude of
+Celtic or Teutonic agricultural ceremonies. These rites, originally
+symbolical of propitiation or of weather-magic, were of a semi-dramatic
+nature--such as the dipping of the neck of corn in water, sprinkling
+holy drops upon persons or animals, processions of beasts or men in
+beast-masks, dressing trees with flowers, and the like, but above all
+ceremonial dances, often in disguise. The sword-dance, recorded by
+Tacitus, of which an important feature was the symbolic threat of death
+to a victim, endured (though it is rarely mentioned) to the later middle
+ages. By this time it had attracted to itself a variety of additional
+features, and of characters familiar as pace-eggers, mummers,
+morris-dancers (probably of distinct origin), who continually enlarged
+the scope of their performances, especially as regarded their comic
+element. The dramatic "expulsion of death," or winter, by the
+destruction of a lay-figure--common through western Europe about the 8th
+century--seems connected with a more elaborate rite, in which a
+disguised performer (who perhaps originally represented summer) was
+slain and afterwards revived (the _Pfingstl_, Jack in the Green, or
+Green Knight). This representation, after acquiring a comic complexion,
+was annexed by the character dancers, who about the 15th century took to
+adding still livelier incidents from songs treating of popular heroes,
+such as St George and Robin Hood; which latter found a place in the
+festivities of May Day with their central figure, the May Queen. The
+earliest ceremonial observances of this sort were clearly connected with
+pastoral and agricultural life; but the inhabitants of the towns also
+came to have a share in them; and so, as will be seen later, did the
+clergy. They were in particular responsible for the buffooneries of the
+feast of fools (or asses), which enjoyed the greatest popularity in
+France (though protests against it are on record from the 11th century
+onwards to the 17th), but was well known from London to Constantinople.
+This riotous New Year's celebration was probably derived from the
+ancient Kalend feasts, which may have bequeathed to it both the
+hobby-horse and the lord, or bishop, of misrule. In the 16th century the
+feast of fools was combined with the elaborate festivities of courts and
+cities during the twelve Christmas feast-days--the season when
+throughout the previous two centuries the "mummers" especially
+flourished, who in their disguisings and "_viseres_" began as dancers
+gesticulating in dumb-show, but ultimately developed into actors proper.
+
+
+  The liturgy the main source of the medieval religious drama.
+
+  Tropes.
+
+Thus the literary and the professional element, as well as that of
+popular festive usages, had survived to become tributaries to the main
+stream of the early Christian drama, which had its direct source in the
+liturgy of the Church itself. The service of the Mass contains in itself
+dramatic elements, and combines with the reading out of portions of
+Scripture by the priest--its "epical" part--a "lyrical" part in the
+anthems and responses of the congregation. At a very early
+period--certainly already in the 5th century--it was usual on special
+occasions to increase the attractions of public worship by living
+pictures, illustrating the Gospel narrative and accompanied by songs;
+and thus a certain amount of action gradually introduced itself into the
+service. The insertion, before or after sung portions of the service, of
+tropes, originally one or more verses of texts, usually serving as
+introits and in connexion with the gospel of the day, and recited by the
+two halves of the choir, naturally led to dialogue chanting; and this
+was frequently accompanied by illustrative fragments of action, such as
+drawing down the veil from before the altar.
+
+
+  The liturgical mystery.
+
+This practice of interpolations in the offices of the church, which is
+attested by texts from the 9th century onwards (the so-called
+"Winchester tropes" belong to the 10th and 11th), progressed, till on
+the great festivals of the church the epical part of the liturgy was
+systematically connected with spectacular and in some measure mimical
+adjuncts, the lyrical accompaniment being of course retained. Thus the
+_liturgical mystery_--the earliest form of the Christian drama--was
+gradually called into existence. This had certainly been accomplished as
+early as the 10th century, when on great ecclesiastical festivals it was
+customary for the priests to perform in the churches these offices (as
+they were called). The whole Easter story, from the burial to Emmaus,
+was thus presented, the Maries and the angel adding their lyrical
+_planctus_; while the surroundings of the Nativity--the Shepherds, the
+Innocents, &c.--were linked with the Shepherds of Epiphany by a
+recitation of "Prophets," including Vergil and the Sibyl. Before long,
+from the 11th century onwards, _mysteries_, as they were called, were
+produced in France on scriptural subjects unconnected with the great
+Church festivals--such as the Wise and Foolish Virgins, Adam (with the
+fall of Lucifer), Daniel, Lazarus, &c. Compositions on the last-named
+two themes remain from the hand of one of the very earliest of medieval
+play-writers, Hilarius, who may have been an Englishman, and who
+certainly studied under Abelard. He also wrote a "miracle" of St
+Nicholas, one of the most widely popular of medieval saints. Into the
+pieces founded on the Scripture narrative outside characters and
+incidents were occasionally introduced, by way of diverting the
+audience.
+
+
+  The collective mystery.
+
+These mysteries and miracles being as yet represented by the clergy
+only, the language in which they were usually written is Latin--in many
+varieties of verse with occasional prose; but already in the 11th
+century the further step was taken of composing these texts in the
+vernacular--the earliest example being the mystery of the Resurrection.
+In time a whole series of mysteries was joined together; a process which
+was at first roughly and then more elaborately pursued in France and
+elsewhere, and finally resulted in the _collective mystery_--merely a
+scholars' term of course, but one to which the principal examples of the
+English mystery-drama correspond.
+
+
+  Mysteries, miracles, and morals distinguished.
+
+The productions of the medieval religious drama it is usual technically
+to divide into three classes. The _mysteries_ proper deal with
+scriptural events only, their purpose being to set forth, with the aid
+of the prophetic or preparatory history of the Old Testament, and more
+especially of the fulfilling events of the New, the central mystery of
+the Redemption of the world, as accomplished by the Nativity, the
+Passion and the Resurrection. But in fact these were not kept
+distinctly apart from the _miracle-plays_, or _miracles_, which are
+strictly speaking concerned with the legends of the saints of the
+church; and in England the name _mysteries_ was not in use. Of these
+species the miracles must more especially have been fed from the
+resources of the monastic literary drama. Thirdly, the _moralities_, or
+_moral-plays_, teach and illustrate the same truths--not, however, by
+direct representation of scriptural or legendary events and personages,
+but allegorically, their characters being personified virtues or
+qualities. Of the moralities the Norman _trouvères_ had been the
+inventors; and doubtless this innovation connects itself with the
+endeavour, which in France had almost proved victorious by the end of
+the 13th century, to emancipate dramatic performances from the control
+of the church.
+
+
+  The clergy and the religious drama.
+
+The attitude of the clergy towards the dramatic performances which had
+arisen out of the elaboration of the services of the church, but soon
+admitted elements from other sources, was not, and could not be,
+uniform. As the plays grew longer, their paraphernalia more extensive,
+and their spectators more numerous, they began to be represented outside
+as well as inside the churches, at first in the churchyards, and the use
+of the vulgar tongue came to be gradually preferred. A Beverley
+Resurrection play (1220 c.) and some others are bilingual. Miracles were
+less dependent on this connexion with the church services than mysteries
+proper; and lay associations, gilds, and schools in particular, soon
+began to act plays in honour of their patron saints in or near their own
+halls. Lastly, as scenes and characters of a more or less trivial
+description were admitted even into the plays acted or superintended by
+the clergy, as some of these characters came to be depended on by the
+audiences for conventional extravagance or fun, every new Herod seeking
+to out-Herod his predecessor, and the devils and their chief asserting
+themselves as indispensable favourites, the comic element in the
+religious drama increased; and that drama itself, even where it remained
+associated with the church, grew more and more profane. The endeavour to
+sanctify the popular tastes to religious uses, which connects itself
+with the institution of the great festival of Corpus Christi (1264,
+confirmed 1311), when the symbol of the mystery of the Incarnation was
+borne in solemn procession, led to the closer union of the dramatic
+exhibitions (hence often called _processus_) with this and other
+religious feasts; but it neither limited their range nor controlled
+their development.
+
+
+  Progress of the medieval drama in Europe.
+
+It is impossible to condense into a few sentences the extremely varied
+history of the processes of transformation undergone by the medieval
+drama in Europe during the two centuries--from about 1200 to about
+1400--in which it ran a course of its own, and during the succeeding
+period, in which it was only partially affected by the influence of the
+Renaissance. A few typical phenomena may, however, be noted in the case
+of the drama of each of the several chief countries of the West; where
+the vernacular successfully supplanted Latin as the ordinary medium of
+dramatic speech, where song was effectually ousted by recitation and
+dialogue, and where finally, though the emancipation was on this head
+nowhere absolute, the religious drama gave place to the secular.
+
+
+  France.
+
+In France, where dramatic performances had never fallen entirely into
+the hands of the clergy, the progress was speediest and most decided
+towards forms approaching those of the modern drama. The earliest play
+in the French tongue, however, the 12th-century _Adam_, supposed to have
+been written by a Norman in England (as is a fragmentary _Résurrection_
+of much the same date), still reveals its connexion with the liturgical
+drama. Jean Bodel of Arras' miracle-play of _St Nicolas_ (before 1205)
+is already the production of a secular author, probably designed for the
+edification of some civic confraternity to which he belonged, and has
+some realistic features. On the other hand, the _Theophilus_ of Rutebeuf
+(d. c. 1280) treats its Faust-like theme, with which we meet again in
+Low-German dramatic literature two centuries later, in a rather lifeless
+form but in a highly religious spirit, and belongs to the cycle of
+miracles of the Virgin of which examples abound throughout this period.
+Easter or Passion plays were fully established in popular acceptance in
+Paris as well as in other towns of France by the end of the 14th
+century; and in 1402 the _Confrérie de la Passion_, who at first devoted
+themselves exclusively to the performance of this species, obtained a
+royal privilege for the purpose. These series of religious plays were
+both extensive and elaborate; perhaps the most notable series (c. 1450)
+is that by Arnoul Greban, who died as a canon of Le Mans, his native
+town. Its revision, by Jean Michel, containing much illustrative detail
+(first performed at Angers in 1486), was very popular. Still more
+elaborate is the Rouen Christmas mystery of 1474, and the celebrated
+_Mystère du vieil testament_, produced at Abbeville in 1458, and
+performed at Paris in 1500. Most of the Provençal Christmas and Passion
+plays date from the 14th century, as well as a miracle of St Agnes. The
+miracles of saints were popular in all parts of France, and the
+diversity of local colouring naturally imparted to these productions
+contributed materially to the growth of the early French drama. The
+miracles of Ste Geneviève and St Denis came directly home to the
+inhabitants of Paris, as that of St Martin to the citizens of Tours;
+while the early victories of St Louis over the English might claim a
+national significance for the dramatic celebration of his deeds. The
+local saints of Provence were in their turn honoured by miracles dating
+from the 15th and 16th centuries.
+
+It is less easy to trace the origins of the comic medieval drama in
+France, connected as they are with an extraordinary variety of
+associations for professional, pious and pleasurable purposes. The _ludi
+inhonesti_ in which the students of a Paris college (Navarre) were in
+1315 debarred from engaging cannot be proved to have been dramatic
+performances; the earliest known secular plays presented by university
+students in France were moralities, performed in 1426 and 1431. These
+plays, depicting conflicts between opposing influences--and at bottom
+the struggle between good and evil in the human soul--become more
+frequent from about this time onwards. Now it is (at Rennes in 1439) the
+contention between _Bien-avisé_ and _Mal-avisé_ (who at the close find
+themselves respectively in charge of _Bonne-fin_ and _Male-fin_); now,
+one between _l'homme juste_ and _l'homme mondain_; now, the contrasted
+story of _Les Enfants de Maintenant_, who, however, is no abstraction,
+but an honest baker with a wife called Mignotte. Political and social
+problems are likewise treated; and the _Mystère du Concile de Bâle_--an
+historical morality--dates back to 1432. But thought is taken even more
+largely of the sufferings of the people than of the controversies of the
+Church; and in 1507 we even meet with a hygienic or abstinence morality
+(by N. de la Chesnaye) in which "Banquet" enters into a conspiracy with
+"Apoplexy," "Epilepsy" and the whole regiment of diseases.
+
+Long before this development of an artificial species had been
+consummated--from the beginning of the 14th century onwards--the famous
+fraternity or professional union of the Basoche (clerks of the Parlement
+and the Châtelet) had been entrusted with the conduct of popular
+festivals at Paris, in which, as of right, they took a prominent
+personal share; and from a date unknown they had performed plays. But
+after the _Confrérie de la Passion_ had been allowed to monopolize the
+religious drama, the _basochiens_ had confined themselves to the
+presentment of moralities and of farces (from Italian _farsa_, Latin
+_farcita_), in which political satire had as a matter of course when
+possible found a place. A third association, calling themselves the
+_Enfans sans souci_, had, apparently also early in the 15th century,
+acquired celebrity by their performances of short comic plays called
+soties--in which, as it would seem, at first allegorical figures
+ironically "played the fool," but which were probably before long not
+very carefully kept distinct from the farces of the Basoche, and were
+like these on occasion made to serve the purposes of State or of Church.
+Other confraternities and associations readily took a leaf out of the
+book of these devil-may-care good-fellows, and interwove their religious
+and moral plays with comic scenes and characters from actual life, thus
+becoming more and more free and secular in their dramatic methods, and
+unconsciously preparing the transition to the regular drama.
+
+The earliest example of a serious secular play known to have been
+written in the French tongue is the _Estoire de Griseldis_ (1393); which
+is in the style of the miracles of the Virgin, but is largely indebted
+to Petrarch. The _Mystère du siege d'Orléans_, on the other hand,
+written about half a century later, in the epic tediousness of its
+manner comes near to a chronicle history, and interests us chiefly as
+the earliest of many efforts to bring Joan of Arc on the stage. Jacques
+Milet's celebrated mystery of the _Destruction de Troye la grant_ (1452)
+seems to have been addressed to readers and not to hearers only. The
+beginnings of the French regular comic drama are again more difficult to
+extract from the copious literature of farces and soties, which, after
+mingling actual types with abstract and allegorical figures, gradually
+came to exclude all but the concrete personages; moreover, the large
+majority of these productions in their extant form belong to a later
+period than that now under consideration. But there is ample evidence
+that the most famous of all medieval farces, the immortal _Maistre
+Pierre Pathelin_ (otherwise _L'Avocat Pathelin_), was written before
+1470 and acted by the _basochiens_; and we may conclude that this
+delightful story of the biter bit, and the profession outwitted,
+typifies a multitude of similar comic episodes of real life, dramatized
+for the delectation of clerks, lawyers and students, and of all lovers
+of laughter.
+
+
+  The Netherlands.
+
+In the neighbouring Netherlands many Easter and Christmas mysteries are
+noted from the middle of the 15th century, attesting the enduring
+popularity of these religious plays; and with them the celebrated series
+of the Seven Joys of Maria--of which the first is the Annunciation and
+the seventh the Ascension. To about the same date belongs the small
+group of the so-called _abele spelen_ (as who should say plays easily
+managed), chiefly on chivalrous themes. Though allegorical figures are
+already to be found in the Netherlands miracles of Mary, the species of
+the moralities was specially cultivated during the great Burgundian
+period of this century by the chambers or lodges of the _Rederijkers_
+(rhetoricians)--the well-known civic associations which devoted
+themselves to the cultivation of learned poetry and took an active share
+in the festivals that formed one of the most characteristic features of
+the life of the Low Countries. Among these moralities was that of
+_Elckerlijk_ (printed 1495 and presumably by Peter Dorlandus), which
+there is good reason for regarding as the original of one of the finest
+of English moralities, _Everyman_.
+
+
+  Italy.
+
+In Italy the liturgical drama must have run its course as elsewhere; but
+the traces of it are few, and confined to the north-east. The collective
+mystery, so common in other Western countries, is in Italian literature
+represented by a single example only--a _Passione di Gesù Cristo_,
+performed at Revello in Saluzzo in the 15th century; though there are
+some traces of other cyclic dramas of the kind. The Italian religious
+plays, called _figure_ when on Old, _vangeli_ when on New, Testament
+subjects, and differing from those of northern Europe chiefly by the
+less degree of coarseness in their comic characters, seem largely to
+have sprung out of the development of the processional element in the
+festivals of the Church. Besides such processions as that of the Three
+Kings at Epiphany in Milan, there were the penitential processions and
+songs (_laude_), which at Assisi, Perugia and elsewhere already
+contained a dramatic element; and at Siena, Florence and other centres
+these again developed into the so-called (_sacre_) _rappresentazioni_,
+which became the most usual name for this kind of entertainment. Such a
+piece was the _San Giovanni e San Paolo_ (1489), by Lorenzo the
+Magnificent--the prince who afterwards sought to reform the Italian
+stage by paganizing it; another was the _Santa Teodora_, by Luigi Pulci
+(d. 1487); _San Giovanni Gualberto_ (of Florence) treats the religious
+experience of a latter-day saint; _Rosana e Ulimento_ is a love-story
+with a Christian moral. Passion plays were performed at Rome in the
+Coliseum by the _Compagnia del Gonfalone_; but there is no evidence on
+this head before the end of the 15th century. In general, the
+spectacular magnificence of Italian theatrical displays accorded with
+the growing pomp of the processions both ecclesiastical and lay--called
+_trionfi_ already in the days of Dante; while the religious drama
+gradually acquired an artificial character and elaboration of form
+assimilating it to the classical attempts, to be noted below, which gave
+rise to the regular Italian drama. The poetry of the Troubadours, which
+had come from Provence into Italy, here frequently took a dramatic form,
+and may have suggested some of his earlier poetic experiments to
+Petrarch.
+
+It was a matter of course that remnants of the ancient popular dramatic
+entertainments should have survived in particular abundance on Italian
+soil. They were to be recognized in the improvised farces performed at
+the courts, in the churches (_farse spirituali_), and among the people;
+the Roman carnival had preserved its wagon-plays, and various links
+remained to connect the modern comic drama of the Italians with the
+_Atellanes_ and _mimes_ of their ancestors. But the more notable later
+comic developments, which belong to the 16th century, will be more
+appropriately noticed below. Moralities proper had not flourished in
+Italy, where the love of the concrete has always been dominant in
+popular taste; more numerous are examples of scenes, largely
+mythological, in which the influence of the Renaissance is already
+perceptible, of eclogues, and of allegorical festival-plays of various
+sorts.
+
+
+  Spain.
+
+In Spain hardly a monument of the medieval religious drama has been
+preserved. There is manuscript evidence of the 11th century attesting
+the early addition of dramatic elements to the Easter office; and a
+Spanish fragment of the Three Kings Epiphany play, dating from the 12th
+century, is, like the French _Adam_, one of the very earliest examples
+of the medieval drama in the vernacular. But that religious plays were
+performed in Spain is clear from the permission granted by Alphonso X.
+of Castile (d. 1284) to the clergy to represent them, while prohibiting
+the performance by them of _juegos de escarnio_ (mocking plays). The
+earliest Spanish plays which we possess belong to the end of the 15th or
+beginning of the 16th century, and already show humanistic influence. In
+1472 the couplets of _Mingo Revulgo_ (i.e. Domingo Vulgus, the common
+people), and about the same time another dialogue by the same author,
+offer examples of a sort resembling the Italian _contrasti_ (see below).
+
+
+  Germany.
+
+The German religious plays in the vernacular, the earliest of which date
+from the 14th and 15th centuries, and were produced at Trier,
+Wolfenbuttel, Innsbruck, Vienna, Berlin, &c., were of a simple kind; but
+in some of them, though they were written by clerks, there are traces of
+the minstrels' hands. The earliest complete Christmas play in German,
+contained in a 14th-century St Gallen MS., has nothing in it to suggest
+a Latin original. On the other hand, the play of _The Wise and the
+Foolish Virgins_, in a Thuringian MS. thought to be as early as 1328, a
+piece of remarkable dignity, was evidently based on a Latin play. Other
+festivals besides Christmas were celebrated by plays; but down to the
+Reformation Easter enjoyed a preference. In the same century
+miracle-plays began to be performed, in honour of St Catherine, St
+Dorothea and other saints. But all these productions seem to belong to a
+period when the drama was still under ecclesiastical control. Gradually,
+as the liturgical drama returned to the simpler forms from which it had
+so surprisingly expanded, and ultimately died out, the religious plays
+performed outside the churches expanded more freely; and the type of
+mystery associated with the name of the Frankfort canon Baldemar von
+Peterweil communicated itself, with other examples, to the receptive
+region of the south-west. The Corpus Christi plays, or (as they were here
+called) _Frohnleichnamsspiele_, are notable, since that of Innsbruck
+(1391) is probably the earliest extant example of its class. The number
+of non-scriptural religious plays in Germany was much smaller than that
+in France; but it may be noted that (in accordance with a long-enduring
+popular notion) the theme of the last judgment was common in Germany in
+the latter part of the middle ages. Of this theme _Antichrist_ may be
+regarded as an episode, though in 1469 an _Antichrist_ appears to have
+occupied at Frankfort four days in its performance. The earlier (12th
+century) _Antichrist_ is a production quite unique of its kind; this
+political protest breathes the Ghibelline spirit of the reign (Frederick
+Barbarossa's) in which it was composed.
+
+Though many of the early German plays contain an element of the
+moralities, there were few representative German examples of the
+species. The academical instinct, or some other influence, kept the more
+elaborate productions on the whole apart from the drolleries of the
+professional strollers (_fahrende Leute_), whose Shrove-Tuesday plays
+(_Fastnachtsspiele_) and cognate productions reproduced the practical
+fun of common life. Occasionally, no doubt, as in the Lübeck
+_Fastnachtsspiel_ of the Five Virtues, the two species may have more or
+less closely approached to one another. When, in the course of the 15th
+century, Hans Rosenplüt, called Schnepperer--or Hans Schnepperer, called
+Rosenplüt--the predecessor of Hans Sachs, first gave a more enduring
+form to the popular Shrove-Tuesday plays, a connexion was already
+establishing itself between the dramatic amusements of the people and
+the literary efforts of the "master-singers" of the towns. But, while
+the main productivity of the writers of moralities and cognate
+productions--a species particularly suited to German latitudes--falls
+into the periods of Renaissance and Reformation, the religious drama
+proper survived far beyond either in Catholic Germany, and, in fact, was
+not suppressed in Bavaria and Tirol till the end of the 18th century.[3]
+
+
+  Sweden, Carpathian lands, &c.
+
+It may be added that the performance of miracle-plays is traceable in
+Sweden in the latter half of the 14th century; and that the German
+clerks and laymen who immigrated into the Carpathian lands, and into
+Galicia in particular, in the later middle ages, brought with them their
+religious plays together with other elements of culture. This fact is
+the more striking, inasmuch as, though Czech Easter plays were performed
+about the end of the 14th century, we hear of none among the Magyars, or
+among their neighbours of the Eastern empire.
+
+
+  Religious drama in England.
+
+  Cornish miracle-plays.
+
+Coming now to the English religious drama, we find that from its extant
+literature a fair general idea may be derived of the character of these
+medieval productions. The _miracle-plays_, _miracles_ or _plays_ (these
+being the terms used in England) of which we hear in London in the 12th
+century were probably written in Latin and acted by ecclesiastics; but
+already in the following century mention is made--in the way of
+prohibition--of plays acted by professional players. (Isolated
+moralities of the 12th century are not to be regarded as popular
+productions.) In England as elsewhere, the clergy either sought to
+retain their control over the religious plays, which continued to be
+occasionally acted in churches even after the Reformation, or else
+reprobated them with or without qualifications. In Cornwall miracles in
+the native Cymric dialect were performed at an early date; but those
+which have been preserved are apparently copies of English (with the
+occasional use of French) originals; they were represented, unlike the
+English plays, in the open country, in extensive amphitheatres
+constructed for the purpose--one of which, at St Just near Penzance, has
+recently been restored.
+
+
+  Localities of the performance of miracle-plays.
+
+  The York, Towneley, Chester and Coventry plays.
+
+The flourishing period of English miracle-plays begins with the practice
+of their performance by trading-companies in the towns, though these
+bodies were by no means possessed of any special privileges for the
+purpose. Of this practice Chester is said to have set the example
+(1268-1276); it was followed in the course of the 13th and 14th
+centuries by many other towns, while in yet others traces of such
+performances are not to be found till the 15th, or even the 16th. These
+towns with their neighbourhoods include, starting from East Anglia,
+where the religious drama was particularly at home, Wymondham, Norwich,
+Sleaford, Lincoln, Leeds, Wakefield, Beverley, York, Newcastle-on-Tyne,
+with a deviation across the border to Edinburgh and Aberdeen. In the
+north-west they are found at Kendal, Lancaster, Preston, Chester;
+whence they may be supposed to have migrated to Dublin. In the west they
+are noticeable at Shrewsbury, Worcester and Tewkesbury; in the Midlands
+at Coventry and Leicester; in the east at Cambridge and Bassingbourne,
+Heybridge and Manningtree; to which places have to be added Reading,
+Winchester, Canterbury, Bethesda and London, in which last the
+performers were the parish-clerks. Four collections, in addition to some
+single examples of such plays, have come down to us, the _York_ plays,
+the so-called _Towneley_ plays, which were probably acted at the fairs
+of Widkirk, near Wakefield, and those bearing the names of _Chester_ and
+of _Coventry_. Their dates, in the forms in which they have come down to
+us, are more or less uncertain; that of the _York_ may on the whole be
+concluded to be earlier than that of the _Towneley_, which were probably
+put together about the middle of the 14th century; the _Chester_ may be
+ascribed to the close of the 14th or the earlier part of the 15th; the
+body of the _Coventry_ probably belongs to the 15th or 16th. Many of the
+individual plays in these collections were doubtless founded on French
+originals; others are taken direct from Scripture, from the apocryphal
+gospels, or from the legends of the saints. Their characteristic feature
+is the combination of a whole series of plays into one _collective_
+whole, exhibiting the entire course of Bible history from the creation
+to the day of judgment. For this combination it is unnecessary to
+suppose that they were generally indebted to foreign examples, though
+there are several remarkable coincidences between the Chester plays and
+the French _Mystère du vieil testament_. Indeed, the oldest of the
+series--the _York_ plays--exhibits a fairly close parallel to the scheme
+of the _Cursor mundi_, an epic poem of Northumbrian origin, which early
+in the 14th century had set an example of treatment that unmistakably
+influenced the collective mysteries as a whole. Among the isolated plays
+of the same type which have come down to us may be mentioned _The
+Harrowing of Hell_ (the Saviour's descent into hell), an East-Midland
+production which professes to tell of "a strif of Jesu and of Satan" and
+is probably the earliest dramatic, or all but dramatic, work in English
+that has been preserved; and several belonging to a series known as the
+_Digby Mysteries_, including _Parfre's Candlemas Day_ (the massacre of
+the Innocents), and the very interesting miracle of _Mary Magdalene_. Of
+the so-called "Paternoster" and "Creed" plays (which exhibit the
+miraculous powers of portions of the Church service) no example remains,
+though of some we have an account; the Croxton _Play of the Sacrament_,
+the MS. of which is preserved at Dublin, and which seems to date from
+the latter half of the 15th century, exhibits the triumph of the holy
+wafer over wicked Jewish wiles.
+
+
+  English collective mysteries.
+
+To return to the collective mysteries, as they present themselves to us
+in the chief extant series. "The manner of these plays," we read in a
+description of those at Chester, dating from the close of the 16th
+century, "were:--Every company had his pageant, which pageants were a
+high scaffold with two rooms, a higher and a lower, upon four wheels. In
+the lower they apparelled themselves, and in the higher room they
+played, being all open at the top, that all beholders might hear and see
+them. The places where they played them was in every street. They began
+first at the abbey gates, and when the first pageant was played, it was
+wheeled to the high cross before the mayor, and so to every street, and
+so every street had a pageant playing before them at one time till all
+the pageants appointed for the day were played; and when one pageant was
+near ended, word was brought from street to street, that so they might
+come in place thereof, exceedingly orderly, and all the streets have
+their pageants afore them all at one time playing together; to see which
+plays was great resort, and also scaffolds and stages made in the
+streets in those places where they determined to play their pageants."
+
+Each play, then, was performed by the representative of a particular
+trade or company, after whom it was called the fishers', glovers', &c.,
+_pageant_; while a general prologue was spoken by a herald. As a rule
+the movable stage sufficed for the action, though we find horsemen
+riding up to the scaffold, and Herod instructed to "rage in the pagond
+and in the strete also." There is no probability that the stage was, as
+in France, divided into three platforms with a dark cavern at the side
+of the lowest, appropriated respectively to the Heavenly Father and his
+angels, to saints and glorified men, to mere men, and to souls in hell.
+But the last-named locality was frequently displayed in the English
+miracles, with or without fire in its mouth. The costumes were in part
+conventional,--divine and saintly personages being distinguished by gilt
+hair and beards, Herod being clad as a Saracen, the demons wearing
+hideous heads, the souls black and white coats according to their kind,
+and the angels gold skins and wings.
+
+
+  Character of the Plays.
+
+Doubtless these performances abounded in what seem to us ludicrous
+features; and, though their main purpose was serious, they were not in
+England at least intended to be devoid of fun. But many of the features
+in question are in truth only homely and _naïf_, and the simplicity of
+feeling which they exhibit is at times pathetic rather than laughable.
+The occasional grossness is due to an absence of refinement of taste
+rather than to an obliquity of moral sentiment. These features the four
+series have more or less in common, still there are certain obvious
+distinctions between them. The _York_ plays (48), which were performed
+at Corpus Christi, are comparatively free from the tendency to
+jocularity and vulgarity observable in the _Towneley_; several of the
+plays concerned with the New Testament and early Christian story are,
+however, in substance common to both series. The _Towneley Plays_ or
+_Wakefield Mysteries_ (32) were undoubtedly composed by the friars of
+Widkirk or Nostel; but they are of a popular character; and, while
+somewhat over-free in tone, are superior in vivacity and humour to both
+the later collections. The _Chester Plays_ (25) were undoubtedly
+indebted both to the _Mystère du vieil testament_ and to earlier French
+mysteries; they are less popular in character than the earlier two
+cycles, and on the whole undistinguished by original power of pathos or
+humour. There is, on the other hand, a notable inner completeness in
+this series, which includes a play of _Antichrist_, devoid of course of
+any modern application. While these plays were performed at Whitsuntide,
+the _Coventry Plays_ (42) were Corpus Christi performances. Though there
+is no proof that the extant series were composed by the Grey Friars,
+they reveal a considerable knowledge of ecclesiastical literature. For
+the rest, they are far more effectively written than the _Chester
+Plays_, and occasionally rise to real dramatic force. In the _Coventry_
+series there is already to be observed an element of abstract figures,
+which connects them with a different species of the medieval drama.
+
+
+  Moralities.
+
+  The Devil and the Vice.
+
+The _moralities_ corresponded to the love for allegory which manifests
+itself in so many periods of English literature, and which, while
+dominating the whole field of medieval literature, was nowhere more
+assiduously and effectively cultivated than in England. It is necessary
+to bear this in mind, in order to understand what to us seems so
+strange, the popularity of the moral-plays, which indeed never equalled
+that of the miracles, but sufficed to maintain the former species till
+it received a fresh impulse from the connexion established between it
+and the "new learning," together with the new political and religious
+ideas and questions, of the Reformation age. Moreover, a specially
+popular element was supplied to these plays, which in manner of
+representation differed in no essential point from the miracles, in a
+character borrowed from the latter, and, in the moralities, usually
+provided with a companion whose task it was to lighten the weight of
+such abstractions as Sapience and Justice. These were the Devil and his
+attendant the _Vice_, of whom the latter seems to have been of native
+origin, and, as he was usually dressed in a fool's habit, was probably
+suggested by the familiar custom of keeping an attendant fool at court
+or in great houses. The Vice had many _aliases_ (_Shift_, _Ambidexter_,
+_Sin_, _Fraud_, _Iniquity_, &c.), but his usual duty is to torment and
+tease the Devil his master for the edification and diversion of the
+audience. He was gradually blended with the domestic fool, who survived
+in the regular drama. There are other concrete elements in the
+moralities; for typical figures are often fitted with concrete names,
+and thus all but converted into concrete human personages.
+
+
+  Groups of English moralities.
+
+The earlier English moralities[4]--from the reign of Henry VI. to that
+of Henry VII.--usually allegorize the conflict between good and evil in
+the mind and life of man, without any side-intention of theological
+controversy. Such also is still essentially the purpose of the extant
+morality by Henry VIII.'s poet, the witty Skelton.[5] _Everyman_ (pr. c.
+1529), perhaps the most perfect example of its class, with which the
+present generation has fortunately become familiar, contains passages
+certainly designed to enforce the specific teaching of Rome. But its
+Dutch original was written at least a generation earlier, and could have
+no controversial intention. On the other hand, R. Wever's _Lusty
+Juventus_ breathes the spirit of the dogmatic reformation of the reign
+of Edward VI. Theological controversy largely occupies the moralities of
+the earlier part of Elizabeth's reign,[6] and connects itself with
+political feeling in a famous morality, Sir David Lyndsay's _Satire of
+the Three Estaitis_, written and acted (at Cupar, in 1539) on the other
+side of the border, where such efforts as the religious drama proper had
+made had been extinguished by the Reformation. Only a single English
+political morality proper remains to us, which belongs to the beginning
+of the reign of Elizabeth.[7] Another series connects itself with the
+ideas of the Renaissance rather than the Reformation, treating of
+intellectual progress rather than of moral conduct;[8] this extends from
+the reign of Henry VIII. to that of his younger daughter. Besides these,
+there remain some Elizabethan moralities which have no special
+theological or scientific purpose, and which are none the less lively in
+consequence.[9]
+
+
+  Transition from the morality to the regular drama.
+
+  Heywood's interludes.
+
+The transition from the morality to the regular drama in England was
+effected, on the one hand, by the intermixture of historical personages
+with abstractions--as in Bishop Bale's _Kyng Johan_ (c. 1548)--which
+easily led over to the _chronicle history_; on the other, by the
+introduction of types of real life by the side of abstract figures. This
+latter tendency, of which instances occur in earlier plays, is
+observable in several of the 16th-century moralities;[10] but before
+most of these were written, a further step in advance had been taken by
+a man of genius, John Heywood (b. c. 1500, d. between 1577 and 1587),
+whose "interludes"[11] were short farces in the French manner. The term
+"interludes" was by no means new, but had been applied by friend and foe
+to religious plays, and plays (including moralities) in general, already
+in the 14th century. But it conveniently serves to designate a species
+which marks a distinct stage in the history of the modern drama.
+Heywood's interludes dealt entirely with real--very real--men and women.
+Orthodox and conservative, he had at the same time a keen eye for the
+vices as well as the follies of his age, and not the least for those of
+the clerical profession. Other writers, such as T. Ingeland,[12] took
+the same direction; and the allegory of abstractions was thus undermined
+on the stage, very much as in didactic literature the ground had been
+cut from under its feet by the _Ship of Fooles_. Thus the interludes
+facilitated the advent of comedy, without having superseded the earlier
+form. Both moralities and miracle-plays survived into the Elizabethan
+age after the regular drama had already begun its course.
+
+
+  Pageants.
+
+Such, in barest outline, was the progress of dramatic entertainments in
+the principal countries of Europe, before the revival of classical
+studies brought about a return to the examples of the classical drama,
+or before this return had distinctly asserted itself. It must not,
+however, be forgotten that from an early period in England as elsewhere
+had flourished a species of entertainments, not properly speaking
+dramatic, but largely contributing to form and foster a taste for
+dramatic spectacles. The _pageants_--as they were called in
+England--were the successors of those _ridings_ from which, when they
+gladdened "Chepe," Chaucer's idle apprentice would not keep away; but
+they had advanced in splendour and ingenuity of device under the
+influence of Flemish and other foreign examples. Costumed figures
+represented before gaping citizens the heroes of mythology and history,
+and the abstractions of moral, patriotic, or municipal allegory; and the
+city of London clung with special fervour to these exhibitions, which
+the Elizabethan drama was neither able nor--as represented by most of
+its poets who composed devices and short texts for these and similar
+shows--willing to oust from popular favour. Some of the greatest and
+some of the least of English dramatists were the ministers of pageantry;
+and perhaps it would have been an advantage for the future of the
+theatre if the legitimate drama and the _Triumphs of Old Drapery_ had
+been more jealously kept apart. With the reign of Henry VIII. there also
+set in a varied succession of entertainments at court and in the houses
+of the great nobles, which may be said to have lasted through the Tudor
+and early Stuart periods; but it would be an endless task to attempt to
+discriminate the dramatic elements contained in these productions. The
+"mask," stated to have been introduced from Italy into England as a new
+diversion in 1512-1513, at first merely added a fresh element of
+"disguising" to those already in use; as a quasi-dramatic species
+("mask" or "masque") capable of a great literary development it hardly
+asserted itself till quite the end of the 16th century.
+
+
+11. THE MODERN NATIONAL DRAMA
+
+  Influence of the Renaissance.
+
+The literary influence which finally transformed the growths noticed
+above into the national dramas of the several countries of Europe, was
+that of the Renaissance. Among the remains of classical antiquity which
+were studied, translated and imitated, those of the drama necessarily
+held a prominent place. Never altogether lost sight of, they now became
+subjects of devoted research and models for more or less exact
+imitation, first in Greek or Latin, then in modern tongues; and these
+essentially literary endeavours came into more or less direct contact
+with, and acquired more or less control over, dramatic performances and
+entertainments already in existence. This process it will be most
+convenient to pursue _seriatim_, in connexion with the rise and progress
+of the several dramatic literatures of the West. For no sooner had the
+stream of the modern drama, whose source and contributories have been
+described, been brought back into the ancient bed, than its flow
+diverged into a number of national currents, unequal in impetus and
+strength, and varying in accordance with their manifold surroundings.
+And even of these it is only possible to survey the most productive or
+important.
+
+
+(a) _Italy._
+
+  The modern Italian drama.
+
+The priority in this as in most of the other aspects of the Renaissance
+belongs to Italy. In ultimate achievement the Italian drama fell short
+of the fulness of the results obtained elsewhere--a surprising fact when
+it is considered, not only that the Italian language had the
+vantage-ground of closest relationship to the Latin, but that the genius
+of the Italian people has at all times led it to love the drama. The
+cause is doubtless to be sought in the lack, noticeable in Italian
+national life during a long period, and more especially during the
+troubled days of division and strife coinciding with the rise and
+earlier promise of Italian dramatic literature, of those loftiest and
+most potent impulses of popular feeling to which a national drama owes
+so much of its strength. This deficiency was due partly to the
+peculiarities of the Italian character, partly to the political and
+ecclesiastical experiences which Italy was fated to undergo. The
+Italians were alike strangers to the enthusiasm of patriotism, which was
+as the breath in the nostrils of the English Elizabethan age, and to the
+religious devotion which identified Spain with the spirit of the
+Catholic revival. The clear-sightedness of the Italians had something to
+do with this, for they were too intelligent to believe in their tyrants,
+and too free from illusions to deliver up their minds to their priests.
+Finally, the chilling and enervating effects of a pressure of foreign
+domination, such as no Western people with a history and a civilization
+like those of Italy has ever experienced, contributed to paralyse for
+many generations the higher efforts of the dramatic art. No basis was
+permanently found for a really national tragedy; while literary comedy,
+after turning from the direct imitation of Latin models to a more
+popular form, lost itself in an abandoned immorality of tone and in
+reckless insolence of invective against particular classes of society.
+Though its productivity long continued, the poetic drama more and more
+concentrated its efforts upon subordinate or subsidiary species,
+artificial in origin and decorative in purpose, and surrendered its
+substance to the overpowering aids of music, dancing and spectacle. Only
+a single form of the Italian drama, improvised comedy, remained truly
+national; and this was of its nature dissociated from higher literary
+effort. The revival of Italian tragedy in later times is due partly to
+the imitation of French models, partly to the endeavour of a brilliant
+genius to infuse into his art the historical and political spirit.
+Comedy likewise attained to new growths of considerable significance,
+when it was sought to accommodate its popular forms to the
+representation of real life in a wider range, and again to render it
+more poetical in accordance with the tendencies of modern romanticism.
+
+The regular Italian drama, in both its tragic and its comic branches,
+began with a reproduction, in the Latin language, of classical
+models--the first step, as it was to prove, towards the transformation
+of the medieval into the modern drama, and the birth of modern dramatic
+literature. But the process was both tentative and tedious, and must
+have died away but for the pomp and circumstance with which some of the
+patrons of the Renaissance at Florence, Rome and elsewhere surrounded
+these manifestations of a fashionable taste, and for the patriotic
+inspiration which from the first induced Italian writers to dramatize
+themes of national historic interest. Greek tragedy had been long
+forgotten, and one or two indications in the earlier part of the 16th
+century of Italian interest in the Greek drama, chiefly due to the
+printing presses, may be passed by.[13] To the later middle ages
+classical tragedy meant Seneca, and even his plays remained unremembered
+till the study of them was revived by the Paduan judge Lovato de' Lovati
+(Lupatus, d. 1309). Of the comedies of Plautus three-fifths were not
+rediscovered till 1429; and though Terence was much read in the schools,
+he found no dramatic imitators, _pour le bon motif_ or otherwise, since
+Hrosvitha.
+
+Thus the first medieval follower of Seneca, Albertino Mussato
+(1261-1330) may in a sense be called the father of modern dramatic
+literature. Born at Padua, to which city all his services were given, he
+in 1315 brought out his _Eccerinis_, a Latin tragedy very near to the
+confines of epic poetry, intended to warn the Paduans against the
+designs of Can Grande della Scala by the example of the tyrant Ezzelino.
+Other tragedies of much the same type followed during the ensuing
+century; such as L. da Fabiano's _De casu Caesenae_ (1377) a sort of
+chronicle history in Latin prose on Cardinal Albornoz' capture of
+Caesena.[14] Purely classical themes were treated in the _Achilleis_ of
+A. de' Loschi of Vicenza (d. 1441), formerly attributed to Mussato,
+several passages of which are taken verbally from Seneca; in the
+celebrated _Progne_ of the Venetian Gregorio Cornaro, which is dated
+1428-1429, and in later Latin productions included among the
+translations and imitations of Greek and Latin tragedies and comedies by
+Bishop Martirano (d. 1557), the friend of Pope Leo X.,[15] and the
+efforts of Pomponius Laetus and his followers, who, with the aid of
+Cardinal Raffaele Riario (1451-1521), sought to revive the ancient
+theatre, with all its classical associations, at Rome.
+
+In this general movement Latin comedy had quickly followed suit, and, as
+just indicated, it is almost impossible, when we reach the height of the
+Italian Renaissance under the Medici at Florence and at Rome in
+particular, to review the progress of either species apart from that of
+the other. If we possessed the lost _Philologia_ of Petrarch, of which,
+as of a juvenile work, he declared himself ashamed, this would be the
+earliest of extant humanistic comedies. As it is, this position is held
+by _Paulus_, a Latin comedy of life on the classic model, by the
+orthodox P. P. Vergerio (1370-1444); which was followed by many
+others.[16]
+
+
+  Italian tragedy in the 16th century.
+
+Early in the 16th century, tragedy began to be written in the native
+tongue; but it retained from the first, and never wholly lost, the
+impress of its origin. Whatever the source of its subjects--which,
+though mostly of classical origin, were occasionally derived from native
+romance, or even due to invention--they were all treated with a
+predilection for the horrible, inspired by the example of Seneca, though
+no doubt encouraged by a perennial national taste. The chorus,
+stationary on the stage as in old Roman tragedy, was not reduced to a
+merely occasional appearance between the acts till the beginning of the
+17th century, or ousted altogether from the tragic drama till the
+earlier half of the 18th. Thus the changes undergone by Italian tragedy
+were for a long series of generations chiefly confined to the form of
+versification and the choice of themes; nor was it, at all events till
+the last century of the course which it has hitherto run, more than the
+aftergrowth of an aftergrowth. The honour of having been the earliest
+tragedy in Italian seems to belong to A. da Pistoia's _Pamfila_ (1499),
+of which the subject was taken from Boccaccio, introduced by the ghost
+of Seneca, and marred in the taking. Carretto's _Sofonisba_, which
+hardly rises above the art of a chronicle history, though provided with
+a chorus, followed in 1502. But the play usually associated with the
+beginning of Italian tragedy--that with which "th' Italian scene first
+learned to glow"--was another _Sofonisba_, acted before Leo X. in 1515,
+and written in blank hendecasyllables instead of the _ottava_ and _terza
+rima_ of the earlier tragedians (retaining, however, the lyric measures
+of the chorus), by G. G. Trissino, who was employed as nuncio by that
+pope. Other tragedies of the former half of the 16th century, largely
+inspired by Trissino's example, were the _Rosmunda_ of Rucellai, a
+nephew of Lorenzo the Magnificent (1516); Martelli's _Tullia_,
+Alamanni's _Antigone_ (1532); the _Canace_ of Sperone Speroni, the
+envious _Mopsus_ of Tasso, who, like Guarini, took Sperone's elaborate
+style for his model; the _Orazia_, the earliest dramatic treatment of
+this famous subject by the notorious Aretino (1549); and the nine
+tragedies of G. B. Giraldi (Cinthio) of Ferrara, among which
+_L'Orbecche_ (1541) is accounted the best and the bloodiest. Cinthio,
+the author of those _Hecatommithi_ to which Shakespeare was indebted for
+so many of his subjects, was (supposing him to have invented these) the
+first Italian who was the author of the fables of his own dramas; he
+introduced some novelties into dramatic construction, separating the
+prologue and probably also the epilogue from the action, and has by some
+been regarded as the inventor of the pastoral drama. But his style was
+arid. In the latter half of the 16th century may be mentioned the
+_Didone_ and the _Marianna_ of L. Dolce, the translator of Euripides and
+Seneca (1565); A. Leonico's _Il Soldato_ (1550); the _Adriana_ (acted
+before 1561 or 1586) of L. Groto, which treats the story of _Romeo and
+Juliet_; Tasso's _Torrismondo_ (1587); the _Tancredi_ of Asinari (1588);
+and the _Merope_ of Torelli (1593), the last who employed the stationary
+chorus (_coro fisso_) on the Italian stage. Leonico's _Soldato_ is
+noticeable as supposed to have given rise to the _tragedia cittadina_,
+or domestic tragedy, of which there are few examples in the Italian
+drama, and De Velo's _Tamar_ (1586) as written in prose. Subjects of
+modern historical interest were in this period treated only in isolated
+instances.[17]
+
+
+  Italian tragedy in the 17th and 18th centuries.
+
+  Maffei.
+
+  Metastasio.
+
+  Alfieri.
+
+The tragedians of the 17th century continued to pursue the beaten track,
+marked out already in the 16th by rigid prescription. In course of time,
+however, they sought by the introduction of musical airs to compromise
+with the danger with which their art was threatened of being (in
+Voltaire's phrase) extinguished by the beautiful monster, the opera, now
+rapidly gaining ground in the country of its origin. (See OPERA.) To
+Count P. Bonarelli (1589-1659), the author of _Solimano_, is on the
+other hand ascribed the first disuse of the chorus in Italian tragedy.
+The innovation of the use of rhyme attempted in the learned
+Pallavicino's _Erminigildo_ (1655), and defended by him in a discourse
+prefixed to the play, was unable to achieve a permanent success in Italy
+any more than in England; its chief representative was afterwards
+Martelli (d. 1727), whose rhymed Alexandrian verse (_Martelliano_),
+though on one occasion used in comedy by Goldoni, failed to commend
+itself to the popular taste. By the end of the 17th century Italian
+tragedy seemed destined to expire, and the great tragic actor Cotta had
+withdrawn in disgust at the apathy of the public towards the higher
+forms of the drama. The 18th century was, however, to witness a change,
+the beginnings of which are attributed to the institution of the Academy
+of the Arcadians at Rome (1690). The principal efforts of the new school
+of writers and critics were directed to the abolition of the chorus, and
+to a general increase of freedom in treatment. Before long the marquis
+S. Maffei with his _Merope_ (first printed 1713) achieved one of the
+most brilliant successes recorded in the history of dramatic literature.
+This play, which is devoid of any love-story, long continued to be
+considered the masterpiece of Italian tragedy; Voltaire, who declared it
+"worthy of the most glorious days of Athens," adapted it for the French
+stage, and it inspired a celebrated production of the English drama.[18]
+It was followed by a tragedy full of horrors,[19] noticeable as having
+given rise to the first Italian dramatic _parody_; and by the highly
+esteemed productions of Granelli (d. 1769) and his contemporary
+Bettinelli. P. T. Metastasio (1698-1782), who had early begun his career
+as a dramatist by a strict adherence to the precepts of Aristotle,
+gained celebrity by his contributions to the operatic drama at Naples,
+Venice and Vienna (where he held office as _poeta cesareo_, whose
+function was to arrange the court entertainments). But his _libretti_
+have a poetic value of their own;[20] and Voltaire pronounced much of
+him worthy of Corneille and of Racine, when at their best. The influence
+of Voltaire had now come to predominate over the Italian drama; and, in
+accordance with the spirit of the times, greater freedom prevailed in
+the choice of tragic themes. Thus the greatest of Italian tragic poets.
+Count V. Alfieri (1749-1803), found his path prepared for him. Alfieri's
+grand and impassioned treatment of his subjects caused his faultiness of
+form, which he never altogether overcame, to be forgotten. His themes
+were partly classical;[21] but the spirit of a love of freedom which his
+creations[22] breathe was the herald of the national ideas of the
+future. Spurning the usages of French tragedy, his plays, which abound
+in soliloquies, owe part of their effect to an impassioned force of
+declamation, part to those "points" by which Italian acting seems
+pre-eminently capable of thrilling an audience. He has much besides the
+subjects of two of his dramas[23] in common with Schiller, but his
+amazon-muse (as Schlegel called her) was not schooled into serenity,
+like the muse of the German poet. Among his numerous plays (21),
+_Merope_ and _Saul_, and perhaps _Mirra_, are accounted his
+masterpieces.
+
+
+  Tragedians since Alfieri.
+
+The political colouring given by Alfieri to Italian tragedy reappears in
+the plays of U. Foscolo and A. Manzoni, both of whom are under the
+influence of the romantic school of modern literature; and to these
+names must be added those of S. Pellico and G. B. Niccolini (1785-1861),
+Paolo Giacometti (b. 1816) and others, whose dramas[24] treat largely
+national themes familiar to all students of modern history and
+literature. In their hands Italian tragedy upon the whole adhered to its
+love of strong situations and passionate declamation. Since the
+successful efforts of G. Modena (1804-1861) renovated the tragic stage
+in Italy, the art of tragic acting long stood at a higher level in this
+than in almost any other European country; in Adelaide Ristori (Marchesa
+del Grillo) the tragic stage lost one of the greatest of modern
+actresses; and Ernesto Rossi (1827-1896) and Tommaso Salvini long
+remained rivals in the noblest forms of tragedy.
+
+
+  Italian comedy; popular forms.
+
+  Commedia dell' arte.
+
+  Masked comedy.
+
+In comedy, the efforts of the scholars of the Italian Renaissance for a
+time went side by side with the progress of the popular entertainments
+noticed above. While the _contrasti_ of the close of the 15th and of the
+16th century were disputations between pairs of abstract or allegorical
+figures, in the _frottola_ human types take the place of abstractions,
+and more than two characters appear. The _farsa_ (a name used of a wide
+variety of entertainments) was still under medieval influences, and in
+this popular form Alione of Asti (soon after 1500) was specially
+productive. To these popular diversions a new literary as well as social
+significance was given by the Neapolitan court-poet Sannazaro (c. 1492);
+about the same time a _capitano valoroso_, Venturino of Pesara, first
+brought on the modern stage the _capitano glorioso_ or _spavente_, the
+military braggart, who owed his origin both to Plautus[25] and to the
+Spanish officers who abounded in the Italy of those days. The popular
+character-comedy, a relic of the ancient _Atellanae_, likewise took a
+new lease of life--and this in a double form. The _improvised_ comedy
+(_commedia a soggetto_) was now as a rule performed by professional
+actors, members of a _craft_, and was thence called the _commedia dell'
+arte_, which is said to have been invented by Francesco (called
+Terenziano) Cherea, the favourite player of Leo X. Its scenes, still
+unwritten except in skeleton (_scenario_), were connected together by
+the ligatures or links (_lazzi_) of the _arlecchino_, the descendant of
+the ancient Roman _sannio_ (whence our _zany_). Harlequin's summit of
+glory was probably reached early in the 17th century, when he was
+ennobled in the person of Cecchino by the emperor Matthias; of
+Cecchino's successors, Zaccagnino and Truffaldino, we read that "they
+shut the door in Italy to good harlequins." Distinct from this growth is
+that of the _masked_ comedy, the action of which was chiefly carried on
+by certain typical figures in masks, speaking in local dialects,[26]
+but which was not improvised, and indeed from the nature of the case
+hardly could have been. Its inventor was A. Beolco of Padua, who called
+himself Ruzzante (joker), and is memorable under that name as the first
+actor-playwright--a combination of extreme significance for the history
+of the modern stage. He published six comedies in various dialects,
+including the Greek of the day (1530). This was the masked comedy to
+which the Italians so tenaciously clung, and in which, as all their own
+and imitable by no other nation, they took so great a pride that even
+Goldoni was unable to overthrow it. Improvisation and burlesque, alike
+abominable to comedy proper, were inseparable from the species.
+
+
+  Early Italian regular comedy.
+
+Meanwhile, the Latin imitations of Roman, varied by occasional
+translations of Greek, comedies early led to the production of Italian
+translations, several of which were performed at Ferrara in the last
+quarter of the 15th century, whence they spread to Milan, Pavia and
+other towns of the north. Contemporaneously, imitations of Latin comedy
+made their appearance, for the most part in rhymed verse; most of them
+applying classical treatment to subjects derived from Boccaccio's and
+other _novelle_, some still mere adaptations of ancient models. In these
+circumstances it is all but idle to assign the honour of having been
+"the first Italian comedy"--and thus the first comedy in modern dramatic
+literature--to any particular play. Boiardo's _Timone_ (before 1494),
+for which this distinction was frequently claimed, is to a large extent
+founded on a dialogue of Lucian's; and, since some of its personages are
+abstractions, and Olympus is domesticated on an upper stage, it cannot
+be regarded as more than a transition from the moralities. A. Ricci's _I
+Tre Tiranni_ (before 1530) seems still to belong to the same
+transitional species. Among the earlier imitators of Latin comedy in the
+vernacular may be noted G. Visconti, one of the poets patronized by
+Ludovico il Moro at Milan;[27] the Florentines G. B. Araldo, J. Nardi,
+the historian,[28] and D. Gianotti.[29] The step--very important had it
+been adopted consistently or with a view to consistency--of substituting
+prose for verse as the diction of comedy, is sometimes attributed to
+Ariosto; but, though his first two comedies were originally written in
+prose, the experiment was not new, nor did he persist in its adoption.
+Caretto's _I Sei Contenti_ dates from the end of the 15th century, and
+Publio Filippo's _Formicone_, taken from Apuleius, followed quite early
+in the 16th. Machiavelli, as will be seen, wrote comedies both in prose
+and in verse.
+
+But, whoever wrote the first Italian comedy, Ludovico Ariosto was the
+first master of the species. All but the first two of his comedies,
+belonging as they do to the field of _commedia erudita_, or scholarly
+comedy, are in blank verse, to which he gave a singular mobility by the
+dactylic ending of the line (_sdrucciolo_). Ariosto's models were the
+masterpieces of the _palliata_, and his morals those of his age, which
+emulated those of the worst days of ancient Rome or Byzantium in
+looseness, and surpassed them in effrontery. He chose his subjects
+accordingly; but his dramatic genius displayed itself in the effective
+drawing of character,[30] and more especially in the skilful management
+of complicated intrigues.[31] Such, with an additional brilliancy of wit
+and lasciviousness of tone, are likewise the characteristics of
+Machiavelli's famous prose comedy, the _Mandragola_ (_The Magic
+Draught_);[32] and at the height of their success, of the plays of P.
+Aretino,[33] especially the prose _Marescalco_ (1526-1527) whose name,
+it has been said, ought to be written in asterisks. It may be added that
+the plays of Ariosto and his followers were represented with magnificent
+scenery and settings. Other dramatists of the 16th century were B.
+Accolti, whose _Virginia_ (prob. before 1513) treats the story from
+Boccaccio which reappears in _All's Well that Ends Well_; G. Cecchi, F.
+d'Ambra, A. F. Grazzini, N. Secco or Secchi and L. Dolce--all writers of
+romantic comedy of intrigue in verse or prose.
+
+
+  The pastoral drama.
+
+During the same century the "pastoral drama" flourished in Italy. The
+origin of this peculiar species--which was the bucolic idyll in a
+dramatic form, and which freely lent itself to the introduction of both
+mythological and allegorical elements--was purely literary, and arose
+directly out of the classical studies and tastes of the Renaissance. It
+was very far removed from the genuine peasant plays which flourished in
+Venetia and Tuscany early in the 16th century. The earliest example of
+the artificial, but in some of its productions exquisite, growth in
+question was the renowned scholar A. Politian's _Orfeo_ (1472), which
+begins like an idyll and ends like a tragedy. Intended to be performed
+with music--for the pastoral drama is the parent of the opera--this
+beautiful work tells its story simply. N. da Correggio's (1450-1508)
+_Cefalo_, or _Aurora_, and others followed, before in 1554 A. Beccari
+produced, as totally new of its kind, his Arcadian pastoral drama _Il
+Sagrifizio_, in which the comic element predominates. But an epoch in
+the history of the species is marked by the _Aminta_ of Tasso (1573), in
+whose Arcadia is allegorically mirrored the Ferrara court. Adorned by
+choral lyrics of great beauty, it presents an allegorical treatment of a
+social and moral problem; and since the conception of the characters,
+all of whom think and speak of nothing but love, is artificial, the
+charm of the poem lies not in the interest of its action, but in the
+passion and sweetness of its sentiment. This work was the model of many
+others, and the pastoral drama reached its height of popularity in the
+famous _Pastor fido_ (written before 1590) of G. B. Guarini, which,
+while founded on a tragic love-story, introduces into its complicated
+plot a comic element, partly with a satirical intention. It is one of
+those exceptional works which, by circumstance as well as by merit, have
+become the property of the world's literature at large. Thus, both in
+Italian and in other literatures, the pastoral drama became a distinct
+species, characterized, like the great body of modern pastoral poetry in
+general, by a tendency either towards the artificial or towards the
+burlesque. Its artificiality affected the entire growth of Italian
+comedy, including the _commedia dell' arte_, and impressed itself in an
+intensified form upon the opera. The foremost Italian masters of the
+last-named species, so far as it can claim to be included in the poetic
+drama, were A. Zeno (1668-1750) and P. Metastasio.
+
+
+  Comedy in the 17th and 18th centuries.
+
+  Goldoni.
+
+  Gozzi.
+
+The comic dramatists of the 17th century are grouped as followers of the
+classical and of the romantic school, G. B. della Porta (q.v.) and G. A.
+Cicognini (whom Goldoni describes as full of whining pathos and
+commonplace drollery, but as still possessing a great power to interest)
+being regarded as the leading representatives of the former. But neither
+of these largely intermixed groups of writers could, with all its
+fertility, prevail against the competition, on the one hand of the
+musical drama, and on the other of the popular farcical entertainments
+and those introduced in imitation of Spanish examples. Italian comedy
+had fallen into decay, when its reform was undertaken by the wonderful
+theatrical genius of C. Goldoni. One of the most fertile and rapid of
+playwrights (of his 150 comedies 16 were written and acted in a single
+year), he at the same time pursued definite aims as a dramatist.
+Disgusted with the conventional buffoonery, and ashamed of the rampant
+immorality of the Italian comic stage, he drew his characters from real
+life, whether of his native city (Venice)[34] or of society at large,
+and sought to enforce virtuous and pathetic sentiments without
+neglecting the essential objects of his art. Happy and various in his
+choice of themes, and dipping deep into a popular life with which he had
+a genuine sympathy, he produced, besides comedies of general human
+character,[35] plays on subjects drawn from literary biography[36] or
+from fiction.[37] Goldoni, whose style was considered defective by the
+purists whom Italy has at no time lacked, met with a severe critic and a
+temporarily successful rival in Count C. Gozzi (1722-1806), who sought
+to rescue the comic drama from its association with the actual life of
+the middle classes, and to infuse a new spirit into the figures of the
+old masked comedy by the invention of a new species. His themes were
+taken from Neapolitan[38] and Oriental[39] fairy tales, to which he
+accommodated some of the standing figures upon which Goldoni had made
+war. This attempt at mingling fancy and humour--occasionally of a
+directly satirical turn[40]--was in harmony with the tendencies of the
+modern romantic school; and Gozzi's efforts, which though successful
+found hardly any imitators in Italy, have a family resemblance to those
+of Tieck and of some more recent writers whose art wings its flight,
+through the windows, "over the hills and far away."
+
+
+  Comedians after Goldoni.
+
+During the latter part of the 18th and the early years of the 19th
+century comedy continued to follow the course marked out by its
+acknowledged master Goldoni, under the influence of the sentimental
+drama of France and other countries. Abati Andrea Villi, the marquis
+Albergati Capacelli, Antonio Simone Sografi (1760-1825), Federici, and
+Pietro Napoli Signorelli (1731-1815), the historian of the drama, are
+mentioned among the writers of this school; to the 19th century belong
+Count Giraud, Marchisio (who took his subjects especially from
+commercial life), and Nota, a fertile writer, among whose plays are
+three treating the lives of poets. Of still more recent date are L. B.
+Bon and A. Brofferio. At the same time, the comedy of dialect to which
+the example of Goldoni had given sanction in Venice, flourished there as
+well as in the mutually remote spheres of Piedmont and Naples. Quite
+modern developments must remain unnoticed here; but the fact cannot be
+ignored that they signally illustrate the perennial vitality of the
+modern drama in the home of its beginnings. A new realistic style set
+fully in about the middle of the 18th century with P. Ferrari and A.
+Torelli; and though an historical reaction towards classical and
+medieval themes is associated with the names of P. Cossa and G. Giacosa,
+modernism reasserted itself through P. Bracco and other dramatists. It
+should be noted that the influence of great actors, more especially
+Ermete Novelli and Eleanora Duse, must be credited with a large share of
+the success with which the Italian stage has held its own even against
+the foreign influences to which it gave room. And it would seem as if
+even the paradoxical endeavour of the poet Gabrielle d' Annunzio to
+lyricize the drama by ignoring action as its essence were a problem for
+the solution of which the stage can furnish unexpected conditions of its
+own. In any event, both Italian tragedy and Italian comedy have survived
+periods of a seemingly hopeless decline; and the fear has vanished that
+either the opera or the ballet might succeed in ousting from the
+national stage the legitimate forms of the national drama.
+
+
+(b) _Greece._
+
+  Modern Greek and Dalmatian drama.
+
+The dramatic literature of the later Hellenes is a creation of the
+literary movement which preceded their noble struggle for independence,
+or which may be said to form part of that struggle. After beginning with
+dramatic dialogues of a patriotic tendency, it took a step in advance
+with the tragedies of J. R. Nerulos[41] (1778-1850), whose name belongs
+to the political as well as to the literary history of his country. His
+comedies--especially one directed against the excesses of
+journalism[42]--largely contributed to open a literary life for the
+modern Greek tongue. Among the earlier patriotic Greek dramatists of the
+19th century are T. Alkaeos, J. Zampelios (whose tragic style was
+influenced by that of Alfieri),[43] S. K. Karydis and A. Valaoritis. A.
+Zoiros[44] is noteworthy as having introduced the use of prose into
+Greek tragedy, while preserving to it that association with sentiments
+and aspirations which will probably long continue to pervade the chief
+productions of modern Greek literature. The love of the theatre is
+ineradicable from Attic as it is from Italian soil; and the tendencies
+of the young dramatic literature of Hellas which is not wholly absorbed
+in the effort to keep abreast of recent modern developments, seem to
+justify the hope that a worthy future awaits it.
+
+Under Italian influence an interesting dramatic growth attained to some
+vitality in the Dalmatian lands about the beginning of the 16th century,
+where the religious drama, whose days were passing away in Italy, found
+favour with a people with a scant popular literature of its own. At
+Ragusa Italian literary influence had been spread by the followers of
+Petrarch from the later years of the 15th century; here several
+Servo-Croatian writers produced religious plays in the manner of the
+Italian _rappresentazioni_; and a gifted poet, Martin Drzic, composed,
+besides religious plays and farces, a species of pastoral which enjoyed
+much favour.
+
+
+(c) _Spain._
+
+Spain is the only country of modern Europe which shares with England the
+honour of having achieved, at a relatively early date, the creation of a
+genuinely national form of the regular drama. So proper to Spain was the
+form of the drama which she produced and perfected, that to it the term
+_romantic_ has been specifically applied, though so restricted a use of
+the epithet is clearly unjustifiable. The influences which from the
+Romance peoples--in whom Christian and Germanic elements mingled with
+the legacy of Roman law, learning and culture--spread to the Germanic
+nations were represented with the most signal force and fulness in the
+institutions of chivalry,--to which, in the words of Scott, "it was
+peculiar to blend military valour with the strongest passions which
+actuate the human mind, the feelings of devotion and those of love."
+These feelings, in their combined operation upon the national character,
+and in their reflection in the national literature, were not confined to
+Spain; but nowhere did they so long or so late continue to animate the
+moral life of a nation.
+
+Outward causes contributed to this result. For centuries after the
+crusades had become a mere memory, Spain was a battle-ground between the
+Cross and the Crescent. And it was just at the time when the Renaissance
+was establishing new starting-points for the literary progress of
+Europe, that Christian Spain rose to the height of Catholic as well as
+national self-consciousness by the expulsion of the Moors and the
+conquest of the New World. From their rulers or rivals of so many
+centuries the Spaniards derived that rich, if not very varied, glow of
+colour which became permanently distinctive of their national life, and
+more especially of its literary and artistic expressions; they also
+perhaps derived from the same source a not less characteristically
+refined treatment of the passion of love. The ideas of Spanish
+chivalry--more especially religious devotion and a punctilious sense of
+personal honour--asserted themselves (according to a process often
+observable in the history of civilization) with peculiar distinctness in
+literature and art, after the period of great achievements to which they
+had contributed in other fields had come to an end. The ripest glories
+of the Spanish drama belong to an age of national decay--mindful, it is
+true, of the ideas of a greater past. The chivalrous enthusiasm
+pervading so many of the masterpieces of its literature is indeed a
+distinctive feature of the Spanish nation in all, even in the least
+hopeful, periods of its later history; and the religious ardour breathed
+by these works, though associating itself with what is called the
+Catholic Reaction, is in truth only a manifestation of the spirit which
+informed the noblest part of the Reformation movement itself. The
+Spanish drama neither sought nor could seek to emancipate itself from
+views and forms of religious life more than ever sacred to the Spanish
+people since the glorious days of Ferdinand and Isabella; and it is not
+so much in the beginnings as in the great age of Spanish dramatic
+literature that it seems most difficult to distinguish between what is
+to be termed a religious and what a secular play. After Spain had thus,
+the first after England among modern European countries, fully unfolded
+that incomparably richest expression of national life and sentiment in
+an artistic form--a truly national dramatic literature,--the terrible
+decay of her greatness and prosperity gradually impaired the strength of
+a brilliant but, of its nature, dependent growth. In the absence of high
+original genius the Spanish dramatists began to turn to foreign models,
+though little supported in such attempts by popular sympathy; and it is
+only in more recent times that the Spanish drama has sought to reproduce
+the ancient forms from whose masterpieces the nation had never become
+estranged, while accommodating them to tastes and tendencies shared by
+later Spanish literature with that of Europe at large.
+
+
+  Early efforts.
+
+  Gil Vicente.
+
+The earlier dramatic efforts of Spanish literature may without
+inconvenience be briefly dismissed. The reputed author of the _Coplas de
+Mingo Revulgo_ (R. Cota the elder) likewise composed the first act of a
+story of intrigue and character, purely dramatic but not intended for
+representation. This tragic comedy of _Calisto and Meliboea_, which was
+completed (in 21 acts) by 1499, afterwards became famous under the name
+of _Celestina_; it was frequently imitated and translated, and was
+adapted for the Spanish stage by R. de Zepeda in 1582. But the father of
+the Spanish drama was J. de la Enzina, whose _representaciones_ under
+the name of "eclogues" were dramatic dialogues of a religious or
+pastoral character. His attempts were imitated more especially by the
+Portuguese Gil Vicente, whose writings for the stage appear to be
+included in the period 1502-1536, and who wrote both in Spanish and in
+his native tongue. A further impulse came, as was natural, from
+Spaniards resident in Italy, and especially from B. de Torres Naharro,
+who in 1517 published, as the chief among the "firstlings of his genius"
+(_Propaladia_), a series of eight _comedias_--a term generally applied
+in Spanish literature to any kind of drama. He claimed some knowledge of
+the theory of the ancient drama, divided his plays into _jornadas_[45]
+(to correspond to acts), and opened them with an _introyto_ (prologue).
+Very various in their subjects, and occasionally odd in form,[46] they
+were gross as well as audacious in tone, and were soon prohibited by the
+Inquisition. The church remained unwilling to renounce her control over
+such dramatic exhibitions as she permitted, and sought to suppress the
+few plays on not strictly religious subjects which appeared in the early
+part of the reign of Charles I. Though the universities produced both
+translations from the classical drama and modern Latin plays, these
+exercised very little general effect. Juan Perez' (Petreius') posthumous
+Latin comedies were mainly versions of Ariosto.[47]
+
+
+  Lope de Rueda and his followers.
+
+  Classical dramas.
+
+Thus the foundation of the Spanish national theatre was reserved for a
+man of the people. Cervantes has vividly sketched the humble resources
+which were at the command of Lope de Rueda, a mechanic of Seville, who
+with his friend the bookseller Timoneda, and two brother authors and
+actors in his strolling company, succeeded in bringing dramatic
+entertainments out of the churches and palaces into the public places of
+the towns, where they were produced on temporary scaffolds. The manager
+carried about his properties in a corn-sack; and the "comedies" were
+still only "dialogues, and a species of eclogues between two or three
+shepherds and a shepherdess," enlivened at times by intermezzos of
+favourite comic figures, such as the negress or the Biscayan, "played
+with inconceivable talent and truthfulness by Lope." One of his plays at
+least,[48] and one of Timoneda's,[49] seem to have been taken from an
+Italian source; others mingled modern themes with classical
+apparitions,[50] one of Timoneda's was (perhaps again through the
+Italian) from Plautus.[51] Others of a slighter description were called
+_pasos_,--a species afterwards termed _entremeses_ and resembling the
+modern French _proverbes_. With these popular efforts of Lope de Rueda
+and his friends a considerable dramatic activity began in the years
+1560-1590 in several Spanish cities, and before the close of this period
+permanent theatres began to be fitted up at Madrid. Yet Spanish dramatic
+literature might still have been led to follow Italian into an imitation
+of classical models. Two plays by G. Bermudez (1577), called by their
+learned author "the first Spanish tragedies," treating the national
+subject of Inez de Castro, but divided into five acts, composed in
+various metres, and introducing a chorus; a _Dido_ (c. 1580) by C. de
+Virues (who claimed to have first divided dramas into three _jornadas_);
+and the tragedies of L. L. de Argensola (acted 1585, and praised in _Don
+Quixote_) alike represent this tendency.
+
+
+  Cervantes.
+
+Such were the alternatives which had opened for the Spanish drama, when
+at last, about the same time as that of the English, its future was
+determined by writers of original genius. The first of these was the
+immortal Cervantes, who, however, failed to anticipate by his earlier
+plays (1584-1588) the great (though to him unproductive) success of his
+famous romance. In his endeavour to give a poetic character to the drama
+he fell upon the expedient of introducing personified abstractions
+speaking a "divine" or elevated language--a device which was for a time
+favourably received. But these plays exhibit a neglect or ignorance of
+the laws of dramatic construction; their action is episodical; and it is
+from the realism of these episodes (especially in the _Numancia_, which
+is crowded with both figures and incidents), and from the power and flow
+of the declamation, that their effect must have been derived. When in
+his later years (1615) Cervantes returned to dramatic composition, the
+style and form of the national drama had been definitively settled by a
+large number of writers, the brilliant success of whose acknowledged
+chief may previously have diverted Cervantes from his labours for the
+theatre. His influence upon the general progress of dramatic literature
+is, however, to be sought, not only in his plays, but also in those
+_novelas exemplares_--incomparable alike in their clearness and their
+terseness of narrative--to which more than one drama is indebted for its
+plot, and for much of its dialogue to boot.
+
+
+  Lope de Vega.
+
+Lope de Vega, one of the most astonishing geniuses the world has known,
+permanently established the national forms of the Spanish drama. Some of
+these were in their beginnings taken over by him from ruder
+predecessors; some were cultivated with equal or even superior success
+by subsequent authors; but in variety, as in fertility of dramatic
+production, he has no rivals. His fertility, which was such that he
+wrote about 1500 plays, besides 300 dramatic works classed as _autos
+sacramentales_ and _entremeses_, and a vast series of other literary
+compositions, has indisputably prejudiced his reputation with those to
+whom he is but a name and a number. Yet as a dramatist Lope more fully
+exemplifies the capabilities of the Spanish theatre than any of his
+successors, though as a poet Calderon may deserve the palm. Nor would it
+be possible to imagine a truer representative of the Spain of his age
+than a poet who, after suffering the hardships of poverty and exile, and
+the pangs of passion, sailed against the foes of the faith in the
+Invincible Armada, subsequently became a member of the Holy Inquisition
+and of the order of St Francis, and after having been decorated by the
+pope with the cross of Malta and a theological doctorate, honoured by
+the nobility, and idolized by the nation, ended with the names of Jesus
+and Mary on his lips. From the plays of such a writer we may best learn
+the manners and the sentiments, the ideas of religion and honour, of the
+Spain of the Philippine age, the age when she was most prominent in the
+eyes of Europe and most glorious in her own. For, with all its
+inventiveness and vigour, the genius of Lope primarily set itself the
+task of pleasing his public,--the very spirit of whose inner as well as
+outer life is accordingly mirrored in his dramatic works. In them we
+have, in the words of Lope's French translator Baret, "the movement, the
+clamour, the conflict of unforeseen intrigues suitable to unreflecting
+spectators; perpetual flatteries addressed to an unextinguishable
+national pride; the painting of passions dear to a people never tired of
+admiring itself; the absolute sway of the point of honour; the
+deification of revenge; the adoration of symbols; buffoonery and
+burlesque, everywhere beloved of the multitude, but here never defiled
+by obscenities, for this people has a sense of delicacy, and the
+foundation of its character is nobility; lastly, the flow of proverbs
+which at times escape from the _gracioso_" (the comic servant
+domesticated in the Spanish drama by Lope)--"the commonplace literature
+of those who possess no other."
+
+
+  Comedias de capa y espada.
+
+  Heróicas.
+
+  Comedias de santos.
+
+  Autos sacramentales.
+
+  Entremeses.
+
+The plays of Lope, and those of the national Spanish drama in general,
+are divided into classes which it is naturally not always easy, and
+which there is no reason to suppose him always to have intended, to keep
+distinct from one another. After in his early youth composing eclogues,
+pastoral plays, and allegorical moralities in the old style, he began
+his theatrical activity at Madrid about 1590, and the plays which he
+thenceforth produced have been distributed under the following heads.
+The _comedias_, all of which are in verse, include (1) the so-called _c.
+de capa y espada_--not comedies proper, but dramas in which the
+principal personages are taken from the class of society that wears
+cloak and sword. Gallantry is their main theme, an interesting and
+complicated, but well-constructed and perspicuous intrigue their chief
+feature; and this is usually accompanied by an underplot in which the
+_gracioso_ plays his part. Their titles are frequently taken from the
+old proverbs or proverbial phrases of the people[52] upon the theme
+suggested, by which the plays often (as G. H. Lewes admirably expresses
+it) constitute a kind of gloss (_glosa_) in action. This is the
+favourite species of the national Spanish theatre; and to the plots of
+the plays belonging to it the drama of other nations owes a debt almost
+incalculable in extent. (2) The _c. heróicas_ are distinguished by some
+of their personages being of royal or very high rank, and by their
+themes being often historical and largely[53] (though not
+invariably[54]) taken from the national annals, or founded on
+contemporary or recent events.[55] Hence they exhibit a greater gravity
+of tone; but in other respects there is no difference between them and
+the cloak-and-sword comedies with which they share the element of comic
+underplots. Occasionally Lope condescended in the opposite direction, to
+(3) plays of which the scene is laid in common life, but for which no
+special name appears to have existed.[56] Meanwhile, both he and his
+successors were too devoted sons of the church not to acknowledge in
+some sort her claim to influence the national drama. This claim she had
+never relinquished, even when she could no longer retain an absolute
+control over the stage. For a time, indeed, she was able to reassert
+even this; for the exhibition of all secular plays was in 1598
+prohibited by the dying Philip II., and remained so for two years; and
+Lope with his usual facility proceeded to supply religious plays of
+various kinds. After a few dramas on scriptural subjects he turned to
+the legends of the saints; and the _comedias de santos_, of which he
+wrote a great number, became an accepted later Spanish variety of the
+miracle-play. True, however, to the popular instincts of his genius, he
+threw himself with special zeal and success into the composition of
+another kind of religious plays--a development of the Corpus Christi
+pageants, in honour of which all the theatres had to close their doors
+for a month. These were the famous _autos sacramentales_ (i.e. solemn
+"acts" or proceedings in honour of the Sacrament), which were performed
+in the open air by actors who had filled the cars of the sacred
+procession. Of these Lope wrote about 400. These entertainments were
+arranged on a fixed scheme, comprising a prologue in dialogue between
+two or more actors in character (_loa_), a farce (_entremes_), and the
+_auto_ proper, an allegorical scene of religious purport, as an example
+of which Ticknor cites the _Bridge of the World_,--in which the Prince
+of Darkness in vain seeks to defend the bridge against the Knight of the
+Cross, who finally leads the Soul of Man in triumph across it. Not all
+the _entremeses_ of Lope and others were, however, composed for
+insertion in these _autos_. This long-lived popular species, together
+with the old kind of dramatic dialogue called _eclogues_, completes the
+list of the varieties of his dramatic works.
+
+
+  The school of Lope.
+
+The example of Lope was followed by a large number of writers, and Spain
+thus rapidly became possessed of a dramatic literature almost
+unparalleled in quantity--for in fertility also Lope was but the first
+among many. Among the writers of Lope's school, his friend G. de Castro
+(1569-1631) must not be passed by, for his _Cid_[57] was the basis of
+Corneille's; nor J. P. de Montalban, "the first-born of Lope's genius,"
+the extravagance of whose imagination, like that of Lee, culminated in
+madness. Soon after him died (1639) Juan Ruiz de Alarcon, in whose
+plays, as contrasted with those of Lope, has been recognized the
+distinctive element of a moral purpose. To G. Tellez, called Tirso de
+Molina (d. 1648), no similar praise seems due; but the frivolous gaiety
+of the inventor of the complete character of Don Juan was accompanied by
+ingenuity in the construction of his excellent[58] though at times
+"sensational"[59] plots. F. de Rojas Zorrilla (b. 1607), who was largely
+plundered by the French dramatists of the latter half of the century,
+survived Molina for about a generation. In vain scholars of strictly
+classical tastes protested in essays in prose and verse against the
+ascendancy of the popular drama; the prohibition of Philip II. had been
+recalled two years after his death and was never renewed; and the
+activity of the theatre spread through the towns and villages of the
+land, everywhere under the controlling influence of the school of
+writers who had established so complete a harmony between the drama and
+the tastes and tendencies of the people.
+
+
+  Calderon.
+
+The glories of Spanish dramatic literature reached their height in P.
+Calderon de la Barca, though in the history of the Spanish theatre he
+holds only the second place. He elaborated some of the forms of the
+national drama, but brought about no changes of moment in any of them.
+Even the brilliancy of his style, glittering with a constant
+reproduction of the same family of tropes, and the variety of his
+melodious versification, are mere intensifications of the poetic
+qualities of Lope, while in their moral and religious sentiments, and
+their general views of history and society, there is no difference
+between the two. Like Lope, Calderon was a soldier in his youth and an
+ecclesiastic in his later years; like his senior, he suited himself to
+the tastes of both court and people, and applied his genius with equal
+facility to the treatment of religious and of secular themes. In
+fertility Calderon was inferior to Lope (for he wrote not many more than
+100 plays); but he surpasses the elder poet in richness of style, and
+more especially in fire of imagination. In his _autos_ (of which he is
+said to have left not less than 73), Calderon probably attained to his
+most distinctive excellence; some of these appear to take a wide range
+of allegorical invention,[60] while they uniformly possess great beauty
+of poetical detail. Other of his most famous or interesting pieces are
+_comedias de santos_.[61] In his secular plays he treats as wide a
+variety of subjects as Lope, but it is not a dissimilar variety; nor
+would it be easy to decide whether a poet so uniformly admirable within
+his limits has achieved greater success in romantic historical
+tragedy,[62] in the comedy of amorous intrigue,[63] or in a dramatic
+work combining fancy and artificiality in such a degree that it has been
+diversely described as a romantic caprice and as a philosophical
+poem.[64]
+
+
+  Contemporaries of Calderon.
+
+  Moreto and the comedia de figuron.
+
+During the life of the second great master of the Spanish drama there
+was little apparent abatement in the productivity of its literature;
+while the _autos_ continued to flourish in Madrid and elsewhere, till in
+1765 (shortly before the expulsion of the Jesuits from Spain) their
+public representation was prohibited by royal decree. In the world of
+fashion, the opera had reached Spain already during Calderon's lifetime,
+together with other French influences, and the great dramatist had
+himself written one or two of his plays for performance with music. But
+the regular national drama continued to command popular favour, and with
+A. Moreto may be said to have actually taken a step in advance. While he
+wrote in all the forms established by Lope and cultivated by Calderon,
+his manner seems most nearly to approach the masterpieces of French and
+later English comedy of character; he was the earliest writer of the
+_comedias de figuron_, in which the most prominent personage is (in
+Congreve's phrase) "a character of affectation," in other words, the
+Spanish fop of real life.[65] His masterpiece, a favourite of many
+stages, is one of the most graceful and pleasing of modern
+comedies--simple but interesting in plot, and true to nature, with
+something like Shakespearian truth.[66] Other writers trod more closely
+in the footsteps of the masters without effecting any noticeable changes
+in the form of the Spanish drama; even the _saynete_ (tit-bit), which
+owes its name to Benavente (fl. 1645), was only a kind of _entremes_.
+The Spanish drama in all its forms retained its command over the nation,
+because they were alike popular in origin and character; nor is there
+any other example of so complete an adaptation of a national art to the
+national taste and sentiment in its ethics and aesthetics, in the nature
+of the plots of the plays (whatever their origin), in the motives of
+their actions, in the conduct and tone and in the very costume of their
+characters.
+
+
+  Decay of the national Spanish drama.
+
+  The French school of the 18th century.
+
+  Other later dramatists.
+
+National as it was, and because of this very quality, the Spanish drama
+was fated to share the lot of the people it so fully represented. At the
+end of the 17th century, when the Spanish throne at last became the
+declared apple of discord among the governments of Europe, the Spanish
+people lay, in the words of an historian of its later days, "like a
+corpse, incapable of feeling its own impotence." That national art to
+which it had so faithfully clung had fallen into decline and decay with
+the spirit of Spain itself. By the time of the close of the great war,
+the theatre had sunk into a mere amusement of the populace, which during
+the greater part of the 18th century, while allowing the old masters the
+measure of favour which accords with traditional esteem, continued to
+uphold the representatives of the old drama in its degeneracy--authors on
+the level of their audiences. But the Spanish court was now French, and
+in the drama, even more than in any other form of art, France was the
+arbiter of taste in Europe. With the restoration of peace accordingly
+began isolated attempts to impose the French canons of dramatic theory,
+and to follow the example of French dramatic practice; and in the middle
+of the century these endeavours assumed more definite form. Montiano's
+bloodless tragedy of _Virginia_ (1750), which was never acted, was
+accompanied by a discourse endeavouring to reconcile the doctrines of the
+author with the practice of the old Spanish dramatists; the play itself
+was in blank verse (a metre never used by Calderon, though occasionally
+by Lope), instead of the old national ballad-measures (the
+romance-measure with assonance and the rhymed _redondilla_ quatrain)
+preferred by the old masters among the variety of metres employed by
+them. The earliest Spanish comedy in the French form (a translation only,
+though written in the national metre)[67] (1751), and the first original
+Spanish comedy on the same model, Nicolas Moratin's _Petimetra_
+(_Petite-Maîtresse_), printed in 1726 with a critical dissertation,
+likewise remained unacted. In 1770, however, the same author's
+_Hormesinda_, an historic drama on a national theme and in the national
+metre, but adhering to the French rules, appeared on the stage; and
+similar attempts followed in tragedy by the same writer and others
+(including Ayala, who ventured in 1775 to compete with Cervantes on the
+theme of Numantia), and in comedy by Iriarte and Jovellanos (afterwards
+minister under Godoy), who produced a sentimental comedy in Diderot's
+manner.[68] But these endeavours failed to effect any change in the
+popular theatre, which was with more success raised from its deepest
+degradation by R. de la Cruz, a fertile author of light pieces of genuine
+humour, especially _saynetes_, depicting the manners of the middle and
+lower classes. In literary circles Garcia de la Huerta's voluminous
+collection of the old plays (1785) gave a new impulse to dramatic
+productivity, and the conflict continued between representatives of the
+old school, such as Luciano Francisco Comella (1716-1779) and of the new,
+such as the younger Moratin, whose comedies--of which the last and most
+successful[69] was in prose--raised him to the foremost position among
+the dramatists of his age. In tragedy N. de Cienfuegos likewise showed
+some originality. After, however, the troubles of the French domination
+and the war had come to an end, the precepts and examples of the new
+school failed to reassert themselves.
+
+Already in 1815 an active critical controversy was carried on by Böhl de
+Faber against the efforts of J. Faber and Alcalá Galiano to uphold the
+principles of classicism; and with the aid of the eminent actor Máiquez
+the old romantic masterpieces were easily reinstated in the public
+favour, which as a matter of fact they had never forfeited. The Spanish
+dramatists of the 19th century, after passing, as in the instance of F.
+Martinez de la Rosa and Bréton de los Herreros, from the system of
+French comedy to the manner of the national drama, appear either to have
+stood under the influence of the French romantic school, or to have
+returned once more to the old Spanish models. Among the former class A.
+Gil y Zarate, of the latter J. Zorrilla, are mentioned as specially
+prominent. The most renowned Spanish dramatist at the opening of the
+20th century was the veteran politician and man of letters J. Echegaray.
+
+Meanwhile, the old religious performances are not wholly extinct in
+Spain, and the relics of the solemn pageantry with which they were
+associated may long continue to survive there, as in the case of the
+_pasos_, which claim to have been exhibited in Holy Week at Seville for
+at least three centuries. As to the theatre itself, there can be no fear
+either that the imitation of foreign examples will satisfy Spanish
+dramatists--especially when, like the author of _Doña Perfecta_ (Perez
+Galdos), they have excellent home material of their own for
+adaptation,--or that the Spanish public itself, with fine actors and
+actresses still upholding the lofty traditions of the national drama,
+will remain too fatigued to consume the drama unless bit by bit--in the
+shape of _zarzuelas_ and similar one-act confections. Whatever may be
+the future of one of the noblest of modern dramatic literatures, it may
+confidently be predicted that, so long as Spain is Spain, her theatre
+will not be permanently either denationalized or degraded.
+
+
+(d) _Portugal._
+
+  The Portuguese drama.
+
+The Portuguese drama in its earlier phases, especially before in the
+latter part of the 14th century the nation completely achieved its
+independence, seems to have followed much the same course as the
+Spanish; and the religious drama in all its prevailing forms and direct
+outgrowths retained its popularity even by the side of the products of
+the Renaissance. In the later period of that movement translations of
+classical dramas into the vernacular were stimulated by the cosmopolitan
+example of George Buchanan, who for a time held a post in the university
+of Coimbra; to this class of play Teive's _Johannes_ (1553) may be
+supposed to have belonged. In the next generation Antonio Ferreira[70]
+and others still wrote comedies more or less on the classical model. But
+the rather vague title of "the Plautus of Portugal" is accorded to an
+earlier comic writer, the celebrated Gil Vicente, who died about 1536,
+after, it is stated, producing forty-two plays. He was the founder of
+popular Portuguese comedy, and his plays were called _autos_, or by the
+common name of _praticas_.[71] Among his most gifted successors are
+mentioned A. Ribeiro, called _Chiado_ (the mocking-bird), who died in
+1590;[72] his brother Jeronymo, B. Dias, A. Pires, J. Pinto, H. Lopes
+and others. The dramatic efforts of the illustrious poet Luis de Camões
+(Camoens) are relatively of slight importance; they consist of one of
+the many modern versions of the _Amphitruo_, and of two other comedies,
+of which the earlier (_Filodemo_) was acted at Goa in 1553, the subjects
+having a romantic colour.[73] Of greater importance were the
+contributions to dramatic literature of F. de Sá de Miranda, who, being
+well acquainted with both Spanish and Italian life, sought early in his
+career to domesticate the Italian comedy of intrigue on the Portuguese
+stage;[74] but he failed to carry with him the public taste, which
+preferred the _autos_ of Gil Vicente. The followers of Miranda were,
+however, more successful than he had been himself, among them the
+already-mentioned Antonio Ferreira; the prose plays of Jorge Ferreira de
+Vasconcellos, which bear some resemblance to the Spanish _Celestina_,
+are valuable as pictures of contemporary manners in city and court.[75]
+
+The later Portuguese dramatic literature seems also to have passed
+through phases corresponding to those of the Spanish, though with
+special features of its own. In the 18th century Alcino Mycenio
+(1728-1770), known as Domingos dos Reis Quito in everyday life, in which
+his avocation was that of Allan Ramsay, was remarkably successful with a
+series of plays,[76] including of course an _Inez de Castro_, which in a
+subsequent adaptation by J. B. Gomes long held the national stage.
+Another dramatist, of both merit and higher aspirations, was Lycidas
+Cynthio (_alias_ Manoel de Figueiredo, 1725-1801).[77] But the romantic
+movement was very late in coming to Portugal. Curiously enough, one of
+its chief representatives, the viscount da Almeida Garrett, exhibited
+his sympathy with French, revolutionary and anti-English ideas by a
+tragedy on the subject of Cato;[78] but his later works were mainly on
+national subjects.[79] The expansive tendencies of later Portuguese
+dramatic literature are illustrated by the translations of A. F. de
+Castilho, who even ventured upon Goethe's _Faust_ (1872). Among
+19th-century dramatists are to be noted Pereira da Cunha, R. Cordeiro,
+E. Biester, L. Palmeirin, and Garrett's disciple F. G. de Amorim, by
+whom both political and social themes have been freely treated. The
+reaction against romanticism observable in Portuguese poetic literature
+can hardly fail to affect (or perhaps has already affected) the growth
+of the national drama; for the receptive qualities of both are not less
+striking than the productive.
+
+
+(e) _France._
+
+  The French regular drama.
+
+France was the only country, besides Italy, in which classical tragedy
+was naturalized. In 1531 the Benedictine Barthélemy of Loches printed a
+_Christus Xylonicus_; and a very notable impulse was given both to the
+translation and to the imitation of ancient models by a series of
+efforts made in the university of Paris and other French places of
+learning. The most successful of these attempts was the _Johannes
+Baptistes_ of George Buchanan, who taught in Paris for five years and at
+a rather later date resided at Bordeaux, where in 1540 he composed this
+celebrated tragedy (afterwards translated into four or five modern
+languages), in which it is now ascertained that he had in view the trial
+and condemnation of Sir Thomas More. He also wrote _Jephthah_, and
+translated into Latin the _Medea_ and _Alcestis_ of Euripides. At a
+rather later date the great scholar M. A. Muret (Muretus) produced his
+_Julius Caesar_, a work perhaps superior in correctness to Buchanan's
+tragic masterpiece, but inferior to it in likeness to life. About the
+same time the enthusiasm of the Paris classicists showed itself in
+several translations of Sophoclean and Euripidean tragedies into French
+verse.[80]
+
+
+  Jodelle.
+
+Thus the beginnings of the regular drama in France, which, without
+absolutely determining, potently swayed its entire course, came to
+connect themselves directly with the great literary movement of the
+Renaissance. Du Bellay sounded the note of attack which converted that
+movement in France into an endeavour to transform the national
+literature; and in Ronsard the classical school of poetry put forward
+its conquering hero and sovereign lawgiver. Among the disciples who
+gathered round Ronsard, and with him formed the "Pleiad" of French
+literature, Étienne Jodelle, the reformer of the French theatre, soon
+held a distinguished place. The stage of this period left ample room for
+the enterprise of this youthful writer. The popularity of the old
+entertainments had reached its height when Louis XII., in his conflict
+with Pope Julius II., had not scrupled to call in the aid of Pierre
+Gringoire (Gringon), and when the _Mère sotte_ had mockingly masqueraded
+in the petticoats of Holy Church. In the reign of Francis I. the
+Inquisition, and on occasion the king himself, had to some extent
+succeeded in repressing the audacity of the actors, whose follies were
+at the same time an utter abomination in the eyes of the Huguenots. For
+a time the very mysteries of the Brethren of the Passion had been
+prohibited; while the moralities and farces had sunk to an almost
+contemptible level. Yet to this reign belong the contributions to
+farce-literature of three writers so distinguished as Rabelais
+(non-extant), Clément Marot and Queen Margaret of Navarre. Meanwhile
+isolated translations of Italian[81] as well as classical dramas had in
+literature begun the movement which Jodelle now transferred to the stage
+itself. His tragedy _Cléopatre captive_ was produced there on the same
+day as his comedy _L'Eugène_, in 1552, his _Didon se sacrifiant_
+following in 1558. Thus at a time when a national theatre was perhaps
+impossible in a country distracted by civil and religious conflicts,
+whose monarchy had not yet welded together a number of provinces
+attached each to its own traditions, and whose population, especially in
+the capital, was enervated by frivolity or enslaved by fanaticism, was
+born that long-lived artificial growth, the so-called classical tragedy
+of France. For French comedy, though subjected to the same influences as
+tragedy, had a national basis upon which to proceed, and its history is
+partly that of a modification of old popular forms.
+
+
+  French tragedy in the 16th century.
+
+The history of French tragedy begins with the _Cléopâtre captive_, in
+the representation of which the author, together with other members of
+the "Pleiad," took part. It is a tragedy in the manner of Seneca, devoid
+of action and provided with a ghost and a chorus. Though mainly written
+in the five-foot Iambic couplet, it already contains passages in the
+Alexandrine metre, which soon afterwards J. de La Péruse by his _Médée_
+(pr. 1556) established in French tragedy, and which Jodelle employed in
+his _Didon_. Numerous tragedies followed in the same style by various
+authors, among whom Gabriel Bounyn produced the first French regular
+tragedy on a subject neither Greek nor Roman,[82] and the brothers de la
+Taille,[83] and J. Grévin,[84] distinguished themselves by their style.
+In the reign of Charles IX. a vain attempt was made by Nicolas Filleul
+to introduce the pastoral style of the Italians into French tragedy;[85]
+and the Brotherhood of the Passion was intermingling with pastoral plays
+its still continued reproductions of the old entertainments, and the
+religious drama making its expiring efforts, among which T. Le Coq's
+interesting mystery of _Cain_ (1580) should be noted. Beza's _Abraham
+sacrifiant_ (1550), J. de Coignac's _Goliath_ (dedicated to Edward VI.),
+Rivandeau's _Haman_ (1561), belong to a group of Biblical tragedies,
+inspired by Calvinist influences. But these more and more approached to
+the examples of the classical school, which, in spite of all
+difficulties and rivalries, prevailed. Among its followers Montchrétien
+exhibited unusual vigour of rhetoric,[86] and in R. Garnier French
+tragedy reached the greatest height in nobility and dignity of style, as
+well as in the exhibition of dramatic passion, to which it attained
+before Corneille. In his tragedies[87] choruses are still interspersed
+among the long Alexandrine tirades of the dialogue.
+
+
+  Comedy under Italian influence.
+
+During this period comedy had likewise been influenced by classical
+models; but the distance was less between the national farces and
+Terence, than between the mysteries and moralities, and Seneca and the
+Greeks. _L'Eugène_ differs little in style from the more elaborate of
+the old farces; and while it satirizes the foibles of the clergy without
+any appreciable abatement of the old licence, its theme is the favourite
+burden of the French comic theatre in all times--_le cocuage_. The
+examples, however, which directly facilitated the productivity of the
+French comic dramatists of this period, among whom Jean de la Taille was
+the first to attempt a regular comedy in prose,[88] were those of the
+Italian stage, which in 1576 established a permanent colony in France,
+destined to survive there till the close of the 17th century, by which
+time it had adopted the French language, and was ready to coalesce with
+French actors, without, however, relinquishing all remembrance of its
+origin. R. Belleau, a member of the "Pleiad," produced a comedy in which
+the type (already approached by Jodelle) of the swaggering captain
+appears,[89] J. Grévin copied Italian intrigue, characters and
+manners;[90] O. de Turnèbe (d. 1581) borrowed the title of one Italian
+play[91] and perhaps parts of the plots of others; the Florentine F.
+d'Amboise (d. 1558) produced versions of two Italian comedies;[92] and
+the foremost French comic poet of the century, P. de Larivey, likewise
+an Italian born (of the name of Pietro Giunto), openly professed to
+imitate the poets of his native country. His plays are more or less
+literal translations of L. Dolce,[93] Secchi[94] and other Italian
+dramatists; and this lively and witty author, to whom Molière owes much,
+thus connects two of the most important and successful growths of the
+modern comic drama.
+
+The close conjunction between the history of a living dramatic
+literature and that of the theatre can least of all be ignored in the
+case of France, where the actor's art has gone through so ample an
+evolution, and where the theatre has so long and continuously formed an
+important part of the national life. By the middle of the 16th century
+not only had theatrical representations, now quite emancipated from
+clerical control, here and there already become matters of speculation
+and business, but the acting profession was beginning to organize itself
+as such; strolling companies of actors had become a more or less
+frequent experience; and the attitude of the church and of civic
+respectability were once more coming to be systematically hostile to the
+stage and its representatives.
+
+
+  French tragedy and comedy in the 17th century before Corneille.
+
+Before, however, either tragedy or comedy in France entered into the
+period of their history when genius was to illuminate both of them with
+creations of undying merit, and before the theatre had associated itself
+enduringly with the artistic and literary divisions of court and society
+and the people at large, the country had passed through a new phase of
+the national life. When the troubles and terrors of the great civil and
+religious wars of the 16th century were over at last, they were found to
+have produced a reaction towards culture and refinement which spread
+from certain spheres of society whose influence was for a time
+prevailing. The seal had been set upon the results of the Renaissance by
+Malherbe, the father of French style. The masses meanwhile continued to
+solace or distract their weariness and their sufferings with the help of
+the accredited ministers of that half-cynical gaiety which has always
+lighted up the darkest hours of French popular life. In the troublous
+days preceding Richelieu's definitive accession to power (1624), the
+_tabarinades_--a kind of street dialogue recalling the earliest days of
+the popular drama--had made the Pont-Neuf the favourite theatre of the
+Parisian populace. Meanwhile the influence of Spain, which Henry IV. had
+overcome in politics, had throughout his reign and afterwards been
+predominant in other spheres, and not the least in that of literature.
+The _stilo culto_, of which Gongora was the native Spanish, Marino the
+Italian, and Lyly the English representative, asserted its dominion over
+the favourite authors of French society; the pastoral romance of Honoré
+d'Urfé--the text-book of pseudo-pastoral gallantry--was the parent of
+the romances of the Scudérys, de La Calprenède and Mme de La Fayette;
+the Hôtel de Rambouillet was in its glory; the true (not the false)
+_précieuses_ sat on the heights of intellectual society; and J. L. G. de
+Balzac (ridiculed in the earliest French dramatic parody)[95] and
+Voiture were the dictators of its literature. Much of the French drama
+of this age is of the same kind as its romance-literature, like which it
+fell under the polite castigation of Boileau's satire. Heroic love
+(quite a technical passion), "fertile in tender sentiments," seized hold
+of the theatre as well as of the romances; and La Calprenède, G. de
+Scudéry[96] and his sister and others were equally fashionable in both
+species. The Gascon Cyrano de Bergerac, though not altogether
+insignificant as a dramatist,[97] gained his chief literary reputation
+by a Rabelaisian fiction. Meanwhile, Spanish and Italian models
+continued to influence both branches of the drama. Everybody knew by
+heart Gongora's version of the story of "young Pyramus and his love
+Thisbe," as dramatized by Th. Viaud (1590-1626); and the sentiment of
+Tristan[98] (1601-1655) overpowered Herod on the stage, and drew tears
+from Cardinal Richelieu in the audience. J. Mairet was noted for
+superior vigour.[99] P. Du Ryer's style is described as, while otherwise
+superior to that of his contemporaries, Italian in its defects. A
+mixture of the forms of classical comedy with elements of Spanish and of
+the Italian pastoral was attempted with great temporary success by A.
+Hardy, a playwright who thanked Heaven that he knew the precepts of his
+art while preferring to follow the demands of his trade. The mixture of
+styles begun by him was carried on by the marquis de Racan,[100] J. de
+Rotrou and others; and among these comedies of intrigue in the Spanish
+manner the earliest efforts of Corneille himself[101] are to be classed.
+Rotrou's noteworthier productions[102] are later in date than the event
+which marks an epoch in the history of the French drama, the appearance
+of Corneille's _Cid_ (1636).
+
+
+  Corneille.
+
+P. Corneille is justly revered as the first, and in some respects the
+unequalled, great master of French tragedy, whatever may have been
+unsound in his theories, or defective in his practice. The attempts of
+his predecessors had been without life, because they lacked really
+tragic characters and the play of really tragic passions; while their
+style had been either pedantically imitative or a medley of plagiarisms.
+He conquered tragedy at once for the national theatre and for the
+national literature--and this, not by a long tentative process of
+production, but by a few masterpieces, which may be held to be
+comprehended within the ten years 1636 to 1646; for in his many later
+tragedies he never again proved fully equal to himself. The French
+tragedy, of which the great age begins with the _Cid_, _Horace_,
+_Cinna_, _Polyeucte_ and _Rodogune_, was not, whatever it professed to
+be, a copy of the classical tragedy of Greeks or Romans, or an imitation
+of the Italian imitations of these; nor, though in his later tragedies
+Corneille depended less and less upon characters, and more and more,
+after the fashion of the Spaniards, upon situations, and even upon
+spectacle, were the forms of the Spanish drama able to assert their
+dominion over the French tragic stage. The mould of French tragedy was
+cast by Corneille; but the creative power of his genius was unable to
+fill it with more than a few examples. His range of passions and
+characters was limited; he preferred, he said, the reproach of having
+made his women too heroic to that of having made his men effeminate. His
+actions inclined too much to the exhibition of conflicts political
+rather than broadly ethical in their significance. The defects of his
+style are of less moment; but in this, as in other respects, he was,
+with all his strength and brilliancy, not one of those rarest of artists
+who are at the same time the example and the despair of their
+successors. The _examens_ which he printed of all his plays up to 1660
+show how much self-criticism (though it may not always be as in this
+case conscious) contributes to the true fertility of genius.
+
+In comedy also Corneille begins the first great original epoch of French
+dramatic literature; for it was to him that Molière owed the inspiration
+of the tone and style which he made those of the higher forms of French
+comedy. But _Le Menteur_ (the parent, with its sequel, of a numerous
+dramatic progeny[103]) was itself derived from a Spanish original,[104]
+which it did not (as was the case with the _Cid_) transform into
+something new. French tragi-comedy Corneille can hardly be said to have
+invented;[105] and of the mongrel growths of sentimental comedy and of
+domestic drama or _drame_, he rather suggested than exemplified the
+conditions.
+
+
+  Racine.
+
+The tragic art of Racine supplements rather than surpasses that of his
+older contemporary. His works reflect the serene and settled formality
+of an age in which the sun of monarchy shone with an effulgence no
+clouds seemed capable of obscuring, and in which the life of a nation
+seemed reducible to the surroundings of a court. The tone of the poetic
+literature of such an age is not necessarily unreal, because the range
+of its ideas is limited, and because its forms seem to exist by an
+immutable authority. That Racine should permanently hold the position
+which belongs to him in French dramatic literature is due to the fact
+that to him it was given to present these forms--the forms approved by
+his age--in what may reasonably be called perfection; and, from the
+point of view of workmanship, Sophocles could not have achieved more.
+What his plays contain is another question. They suit themselves so well
+to the successive phases in the life of Louis XIV., that Madame de
+Sévigné described Racine as having in his later years loved God as he
+had formerly loved his mistresses; and this sally at all events
+indicates the range of passions which inspired his tragic muse. His
+heroes are all of one type--that of a gracious gloriousness; his
+heroines vary in their fortunes, but they are all the "trophies of
+love,"[106] with the exception of the scriptural figures, which stand
+apart from the rest.[107] T. Corneille, Campistron, Joseph Duché
+(1668-1704), Antoin de Lafosse (c. 1653-1708) and Quinault were mere
+followers of one or both of the great masters of tragedy, though the
+last named achieved a reputation of his own in the bastard species of
+the opera.
+
+
+  Characteristics of French classical tragedy.
+
+The type of French tragedy thus established, like everything else which
+formed part of the "age of Louis XIV.," proclaimed itself as the
+definitively settled model of its kind, and was accepted as such by a
+submissive world. Proud of its self-imposed fetters, French tragedy
+dictatorially denied the liberty of which it had deprived itself to the
+art of which it claimed to furnish the highest examples. Yet, though
+calling itself classical, it had not caught the essential spirit of the
+tragedy of the Greeks. The elevation of tone which characterizes the
+serious drama of the age of Louis XIV. is a true elevation, but its
+heights do not lose themselves in a sphere peopled by the myths of a
+national religion, still less in the region of great thoughts which ask
+Heaven to stoop to the aspirations and the failures of man. The
+personages of this drama are conventional like its themes, but the
+convention is with itself only; Orestes and Iphigenia have not brought
+with them the cries of the stern goddesses and the flame on the altar of
+Artemis; their passions like their speech are cadenced by a modern
+measure. In construction, the simplicity and regularity of the ancient
+models are stereotyped into a rigid etiquette by the exigencies of the
+court-theatre, which is but an apartment of the palace. The unities of
+time and place, with the Greeks mere rules of convenience, French
+tragedy imposes upon itself as a permanent yoke. The Euripidean prologue
+is judiciously exchanged for the exposition of the first act, and the
+lyrical element essential to Greek tragedy is easily suppressed in its
+would-be copy; lyrical passages still occur in some of Corneille's early
+masterpieces,[108] but the chorus is consistently banished, to reappear
+only in Racine's latest works[109] as a scholastic experiment
+appropriate to a conventual atmosphere. Its uses for explanation and
+comment are served by the expedient, which in its turn becomes
+conventional, of the conversations with _confidants_ and _confidantes_,
+which more than sufficiently supply the foil of general sentiments. The
+epical element is allowed full play in narrative passages, more
+especially in those which relate parts of the catastrophe,[110] and,
+while preserving the stage intact from realisms, suit themselves to the
+generally rhetorical character of this species of the tragic drama. This
+character impressed itself more and more upon the tragic art of a
+rhetorical nation in an age when the loftiest themes were in the pulpit
+receiving the most artistic oratorical treatment, and developed in the
+style of French classical tragedy the qualities which cause it to become
+something between prose and poetry--or to appear (in the phrase of a
+French critic) like prose in full dress. The force of this description
+is borne out by the fact that the distinction between the versification
+of French tragedy and that of French comedy seems at times
+imperceptible.
+
+
+  Voltaire.
+
+The universal genius of Voltaire found it necessary to shine in all
+branches of literature, and in tragedy to surpass predecessors whom his
+own authority declared to have surpassed the efforts of the Attic muse.
+He succeeded in impressing the world with the belief that his
+innovations had imparted a fresh vitality to French tragedy; in truth,
+however, they represent no essential advance in art, but rather
+augmented the rhetorical tendency which paralyses true dramatic life.
+Such life as his plays possess lies in their political and social
+sentiments, their invective against tyranny,[111] and their exposure of
+fanaticism.[112] In other respects his versatility was barren of
+enduring results. He might take his themes from French history,[113] or
+from Chinese,[114] or Egyptian,[115] or Syrian,[116] from the days of
+the Epigoni[117] or from those of the Crusades;[118] he might appreciate
+Shakespeare, with a more or less partial comprehension of his strength,
+and condescendingly borrow from and improve the barbarian.[119] But he
+added nothing to French tragedy where it was weakest--in character; and
+where it was strongest--in diction--he never equalled Corneille in fire
+or Racine in refinement. While the criticism to which French tragedy in
+this age at last began to be subjected has left unimpaired the real
+titles to immortality of its great masters, the French theatre itself
+has all but buried in respectful oblivion the dramatic works bearing the
+name of Voltaire--a name persistently belittled, but second to none in
+the history of modern progress and of modern civilization.
+
+
+  French classical tragedy in its decline.
+
+As it is of relatively little interest to note the ramifications of an
+art in its decline, the contrasts need not be pursued among the
+contemporaries of Voltaire, between his imitator Bernard Joseph Saurin
+(1706-1781), Saurin's royalist rival de Belloy, Racine's imitator
+Lagrange-Chancel and Voltaire's own would-be rival, the "terrible"
+Crébillon the elder, who professed to vindicate to French tragedy,
+already mistress of the heavens through Corneille, and of the earth
+through Racine, Pluto's supplementary realm, but who, though thus
+essaying to carry tragedy lower, failed to carry it farther. In the
+latter part of the 18th century French classical tragedy as a literary
+growth was dying a slow death, however numerous might be the leaves
+which sprouted from the decaying tree. Its form had been permanently
+fixed; and even Shakespeare, as manipulated by Ducis[120]--an author
+whose tastes were better than his times--failed to bring about a change.
+"It is a Moor, not a Frenchman, who has written this play," cried a
+spectator of Ducis' _Othello_ (1791); but Talma's conviction was almost
+as strong as his capacity was great for convincing his public; and he
+certainly did much to prepare the influence which Shakespeare was
+gradually to assert over the French drama, and which was aided by
+translations, more especially that of Pierre Letourneur (1736-1788),
+which had attracted the sympathy of Diderot and the execrations of the
+aged Voltaire.[121] Meanwhile, the command which classical French
+tragedy continued to assert over the stage was due in part, no doubt, to
+the love of Roman drapery--not always abundant, but always in the grand
+style--which characterized the Revolution, and which was by the
+Revolution handed down to the Empire. It was likewise, and more
+signally, due to the great actors who freed the tragic stage from much
+of its artificiality and animated it by their genius. No great artist
+has ever more generously estimated the labours of a predecessor than
+Talma judged those of Le Kain; but it was Talma himself whose genius was
+pre-eminently fitted to reproduce the great figures of antiquity in the
+mimic world, which, like the world outside, both required and possessed
+its Caesar. He, like Rachel after him, reconciled French classical
+tragedy with nature; and it is upon the art of great original actors
+such as these that the theatrical future of this form of the drama in
+France depends. Mere whims of fashion--even when inspired by political
+feeling--will not waft back to it a real popularity; nor will occasional
+literary aftergrowths, however meritorious, such as the admirable
+_Lucrèce_ of F. Ponsard and the attempts of even more recent writers,
+suffice to re-establish a living union between it and the progress of
+the national literature.
+
+
+  Comedy.
+
+  Molière.
+
+The rival influences under which classical tragedy has after a long
+struggle virtually become a thing of the past in French literature are
+also to be traced in the history of French comedy, which under the
+co-operation of other influences produced a wide variety of growths. The
+germs of most of these--though not of all--are to be found in the works
+of the most versatile, the most sure-footed, and, in some respects, the
+most consummate master of the comic drama whom the world has
+known--Molière. What Molière found in existence was a comedy of
+intrigue, derived from Spanish or Italian examples, and the elements of
+a comedy of character, in French and more especially in Italian farce
+and ballet-pantomime. Corneille's _Menteur_ had pointed the way to a
+fuller combination of character with intrigue, and in this direction
+Molière's genius exercised the height of its creative powers. After
+beginning with farces, he produced in the earliest of his plays (from
+1652), of which more than fragments remain, comedies of intrigue which
+are at the same time marvellously lively pictures of manners, and then
+proceeded, with the _École des maris_ (1661), to begin a long series of
+masterpieces of comedy of character. Yet even these, the chief of which
+are altogether unrivalled in dramatic literature, do not exhaust the
+variety of his productions. To define the range of his art is as
+difficult as to express in words the essence of his genius. For though
+he has been copied ever since he wrote, neither his spirit nor his
+manner has descended in full to any of his copyists, whole schools of
+whom have missed elements of both. A Molière can only be judged in his
+relations to the history of comedy at large. He was indeed the inheritor
+of many forms and styles--remaining a stranger to those of Old Attic
+comedy only, rooted as it was in the political life of a free imperial
+city; though even the rich extravagances of Aristophanes' burlesque was
+not left wholly unreproduced by him. Molière is both a satirist and a
+humorist; he displays at times the sentiments of a loyal courtier, at
+others that gay spirit of opposition which is all but indispensable to a
+popular French wit. His comedies offer elaborate and subtle--even
+tender--pictures of human character in its eternal types, lively
+sketches of social follies and literary extravagances, and broad appeals
+to the ordinary sources of vulgar merriment. Light and perspicuous in
+construction, he is master of the delicate play of irony, the
+penetrating force of wit, and the expansive gaiety of frolicsome fun.
+Faithful to the canons of artistic taste, and under the sure guidance of
+true natural humour, his style suits itself to every species attempted
+by him. His morality is the reverse of rigid, but its aberrations are
+not those of prurience, nor its laws those of pretence; and, wholly free
+as he was from the didactic aim which is foreign to all true dramatic
+representation, the services rendered by him to his art are not the less
+services rendered to society, concerning which the laughter of genuine
+comedy tells the truth. He raised the comedy of character out of the
+lower sphere of caricature, and in his greatest creations subordinated
+to the highest ends of all dramatic composition the plots he so
+skilfully built, and the pictures of the manners he so faithfully
+reproduced.
+
+
+  Molière's contemporaries and successors.
+
+Even among the French comic dramatists of this age there must have been
+many who "were not aware" that Molière was its greatest poet. For though
+he had made the true path luminous to them, their efforts were still
+often of a tentative kind, and one was reviving _Pathelin_ while another
+was translating the _Andria_. A more unique attempt was made in one of
+the very few really modern versions of an Aristophanic comedy, which
+deserves to be called an original copy--the _Plaideurs_ of Racine. The
+tragic poets Quinault and Campistron likewise wrote comedies, one[122]
+or more of which furnished materials to contemporary English
+dramatists, as did one of the felicitous plays in which Boursault
+introduced Mercury and Aesop into the theatrical _salon_.[123] Antoine
+Montfleury (1640-1685), Baron and Dancourt, who were actors like
+Molière, likewise wrote comedies. But if the mantle of Molière can be
+said to have fallen upon any of his contemporaries or successors, this
+honour must be ascribed to J. F. Regnard, who imitated the great master
+in both themes and characters,[124] while the skilfulness of his plots,
+and his gaiety of the treatment even of subjects tempting into the
+by-path of sentimental comedy,[125] entitle him to be regarded as a
+comic poet of original genius. With him C. R. Dufresny occasionally
+collaborated.
+
+In the next generation (that of Voltaire) comedy gradually--but only
+gradually--surrendered for a time the very essence of its vitality to
+the seductions of a hybrid species, which disguised its identity under
+more than a single name. A. R. le Sage, who as a comic dramatist at
+first followed successfully in the footsteps of Molière, proved himself
+on the stage as well as in picturesque fiction a keen observer and
+inimitable satirist of human life.[126] The light texture of the playful
+and elegant art of J. B. L. Gresset was shown on the stage in a
+character comedy of merit;[127] and in a comedy which reveals something
+of his pointed wit, A. Piron produced something like a new type of
+enduring ridiculousness.[128] P. C. de Marivaux, the French _Spectator_,
+is usually supposed to have formed the connecting link between the "old"
+French comedy and the "new" and bastard variety. Yet, though his minute
+analysis of the tender passion excited the scorn of Voltaire, it should
+not be overlooked that in _marivaudage_ proper the wit holds the balance
+to the sentiment, and that in some of this frequently misjudged writer's
+earlier and most delightful plays the elegance and gaiety of diction are
+as irresistible as the pathetic sentiment, which is in fact rather an
+ingredient in his comedy than the pervading characteristic of it.[129]
+Some of the comedies of P. H. Destouches no doubt have a serious basis,
+and in his later plays he comes near to a kind of drama in which the
+comic purpose has been virtually submerged.[130] The writer who is
+actually to be credited with the transition to sentimental comedy, and
+who was fully conscious of the change which he was helping to effect,
+was Nivelle de La Chaussée, in whose hands French comedy became a
+champion of the sanctity of marriage, and reproduced the sentiments--in
+one instance even the characters--of Richardson.[131] To his play _La
+Fausse Antipathie_ the author supplied a _critique_, amounting to an
+apology for the new species of which it was designed as an example.
+
+The new species known as _comédie larmoyante_ was now fairly in the
+ascendant; and it would be easy to show how even Voltaire, who had
+deprecated the innovation, had to yield to a power greater than his own,
+and introduced the sentimental element into some of his comedies.[132]
+The further step, by which _comédie larmoyante_ was transformed into
+_tragédie bourgeoise_, from which the comic element was to all intents
+and purposes extruded, was taken by a great French writer, D. Diderot;
+to whose influence it was largely due that the species which had
+attained to this consummation for more than a generation ruled supreme
+in the dramatic literature of Europe. But the final impulse, as Diderot
+himself virtually acknowledged in the _entretiens_ subjoined by him to
+his _Fils naturel_ (1757), had been given by a far humbler citizen of
+the world of letters, the author of _The London Merchant_. Diderot's own
+plays were a literary rather than a theatrical success. _Le Fils naturel
+ou les épreuves de la vertu_ was not publicly performed till 1771, and
+then only in deference to the determination of a single actor of the
+Français (Molé); nor was the performance of it repeated. Diderot's
+second play, _Le Père de famille_, printed in 1758 with a _Discours sur
+la poésie dramatique_, went through a few public performances in 1761;
+and a later revival was unsuccessful. But "at a distance," as was well
+said, the effect of Diderot's endeavours, the earlier in particular, was
+extremely great, and Lessing, though very critical as to particular
+points, greatly helped to spread it. Diderot had for the first time
+consciously sought to proclaim the theatre an agency of social reform,
+and to entrust to it as its task the propagation of the gospel of
+philanthropy. Though the execution of his dramatic works fell far short
+of his aims; though Madame de Staël was not far wrong in denouncing them
+as exhibiting not nature itself, but "the affectation of nature," yet
+they contained, in a measure almost unequalled in the history of the
+modern drama, the fermenting element which never seems to subside. Their
+author announced them as examples of a third dramatic form--the _genre
+sérieux_--which he declared to be the consummation of the dramatic art.
+Making war upon the frigid artificiality of classical tragedy, he
+banished verse from the new species. The effect of these plays was
+intended to spring from their truth to nature--a truth such as no
+spectator could mistake, and which should bring home its moral teachings
+to the business as well as the bosoms of all. The theatre was to become
+a real and realistic school of the principles of society and of the
+conduct of life--it was, in other words, to usurp functions with which
+it has no concern, and to essay the direct reformation of mankind. The
+idea was neither new nor just; but its speciousness will probably
+continue to commend it to many enthusiastic minds, whensoever and in
+whatsoever shape it is revived.
+
+
+  The comedy of the Revolution and the first empire.
+
+  Vaudevilles, etc.
+
+From this point the history of the French drama becomes that of a
+conflict between an enfeebled artistic school and a tendency which is
+hardly to be dignified by the name of a school at all. Among the
+successful dramatists following on Diderot may be mentioned the critical
+and versatile J. F. Marmontel, and more especially M. J. Sedaine, who
+though chiefly working for the opera, produced two comedies of
+acknowledged merit.[133] P. A. C. de Beaumarchais (1732-1799), who for
+his early sentimental plays,[134] in which he imitated Diderot, invented
+the appellation _drame_--so convenient in its vagueness that it became
+the accepted name of the hybrid species to which they belonged--in two
+works of a very different kind, the famous _Barbier de Séville_ and the
+still more famous _Mariage de Figaro_, boldly carried comedy back into
+its old Spanish atmosphere of intrigue; but, while surpassing all his
+predecessors in the skill with which he constructed his frivolous plots,
+he drew his characters with a lightness and sureness of touch peculiar
+to himself, animated his dialogue with an unparalleled brilliancy of
+wit, and seasoned action as well as dialogue with a political and social
+meaning, which caused his epigrams to become proverbs, and which marks
+his _Figaro_ as a herald of the Revolution. Such plays as these were ill
+suited to the rule of the despot whose vigilance could not overlook
+their significance. The comedy of the empire is, in the hands of Collin
+d'Harleville, Louis Picard (1769-1828), A. Duval, Étienne and others,
+mainly a harmless comedy of manners; nor was the attempted innovation of
+N. Lemercier--who was fain to invent a new species, that of historical
+comedy--more than a flattering self-delusion. The theatre had its share
+in all the movements and changes which ensued in France; though the most
+important revolution which the drama itself was to undergo was not one
+of wholly native origin. Those branches of the drama which belong
+specifically to the history of the opera, or which associate themselves
+with it, are here passed by. Among them was the _vaudeville_ (from Val
+de Vire in Calvados), which began as an interspersion of pantomime with
+the airs of popular songs, and which, after the Italian masks had been
+removed from it, was cultivated by Ponsard and Marmontel, while Sedaine
+wrote a didactic poem on the subject (1756). Sedaine was the father of
+the _opéra-comique_ proper;[135] Marmontel,[136] as well as
+Rousseau,[137] likewise composed _opérettes_--a smaller sort of opera,
+at first of the pastoral variety; and these flexible species easily
+entered into combination. The melodrama proper, of which the invention
+is also attributed to Rousseau,[138] in its latter development became
+merely a drama accentuated by music, though usually in little need of
+any accentuation.
+
+
+  The stage.
+
+  Transition to the romantic school.
+
+The chief home of the regular drama, however, demanded efforts of
+another kind. At the Théâtre Français, or Comédie Française, whose
+history as that of a single company of actors had begun in 1680, the
+party-strife of the times made itself audible; and the most prominent
+tragic poet of the Revolution, M. J. de Chénier, a disciple of Voltaire
+in dramatic poetry as well as in political philosophy, wrote for the
+national stage the historical drama--with a political moral[139]--in
+which in the memorable year 1789 the actor Talma achieved his first
+complete triumph. But the victorious Revolution proclaimed among other
+liberties that of the theatres in Paris, of which soon not less than 50
+were open. In 1807 the empire restricted the number to 9, and reinstated
+the Théâtre Français in sole possession (or nearly such) of the right of
+performing the classic drama. No writer of note was, however, tempted or
+inspired by the rewards and other encouragements offered by Napoleon to
+produce such a classic tragedy as the emperor would have willingly
+stamped from out of the earth. The tragedies of C. Delavigne represent
+the transition from the expiring efforts of the classical to the
+ambitious beginnings of the romantic school of the French drama.
+
+
+  The romantic school.
+
+Of modern romantic drama in France it must suffice to say that it
+derives some of its characteristics from the general movement of
+romanticism which in various ways and at various points of time
+transformed nearly every modern European literature, others from the
+rhetorical tendency which is a French national feature. Victor Hugo was
+the founder whom it followed in a spirit of high emprise to success upon
+success, his own being the most conspicuous of all;[140] A. Dumas the
+elder its unshrinking middleman. The marvellous fire and grandeur of
+genius of the former, always in extremes but often most sublime at the
+height of danger, was nowhere more signally such than in the drama;
+Dumas was a Briareus, working, however, with many hands besides his own.
+Together with them may, with more or less precision, be classed in the
+romantic school of dramatists A. de Vigny[141] and George Sand,[142]
+neither of whom, however, attained to the highest rank in the drama, and
+Jules Sandeau;[143] A. de Musset, whose originality pervades all his
+plays, but whose later works, more especially in his prose "proverbs"
+and pieces of a similar kind, have a flavour of a delicacy altogether
+indescribable;[144] perhaps also P. Mérimée (1803-1870), who invented
+not only Spanish dramas but a Spanish dramatist, and who was never more
+audacious than when he seemed most _naïf_.[145]
+
+
+  Modern schools.
+
+The romantic school was not destined to exercise a permanent control
+over French public taste; but it can hardly be said to have been
+overthrown by the brief classical revival begun by F. Ponsard, and
+continued, though in closer contact with modern ideas, both by him[146]
+and by E. Augier, a dramatist who gradually attained to an extraordinary
+effectiveness in the self-restrained treatment of social as well as of
+historical themes.[147] While the theatrical fecundity and the
+remarkable constructive ability of E. Scribe[148] supplied a long series
+of productions attesting the rapid growth of the playwright's mastery
+over the secrets of his craft the name of his competitors is legion.
+Among them may be mentioned, if only as the authors of two of the most
+successful plays of the historical species produced in the century, two
+writers of great eminence--C. Delavigne[149] and E. Legouvé.[150] Later
+developments of the drama bore the impress of a period of social decay,
+prepared to probe its own sufferings, while glad at times to take refuge
+in the gaiety traditional in France in her more light-hearted days, but
+which even then had not yet deserted either French social life or the
+theatre which reflected it. After a fashion which would have startled
+even Diderot, while recalling his efforts in the earnestness of its
+endeavour to arouse moral interests to which the theatre had long been a
+stranger, A. Dumas the younger set himself to reform society by means of
+the stage.[151] But the technical skill which he and contemporary
+dramatists displayed in the execution of their self-imposed task was
+such as had been undreamt of by Diderot. O. Feuillet, more eminent as a
+novelist than on the stage, applied himself, though with the aid of
+fewer prefaces, to the solution of the same or similar problems; while
+the extraordinary versatility of V. Sardou and his unfailing
+constructive skill was applied by him to almost every kind of serious,
+or serio-comic, drama--even the most solid of all.[152] In the same
+period, while E. Pailleron revived some of the most characteristic
+tendencies of the best French satirical comedy in ridiculing the pompous
+pretentiousness of learning for its own sake,[153] the light-hearted
+gaiety of E. Labiche changed into something not altogether similar in
+the productions of the comic muse of L. Halévy and H. Meilhac, ranging
+from the licence of the musical burlesque which was the congenial
+delight of the later days of the Second Empire to a species of comedy in
+which the ingredients of bitterness and even of sadness found a
+place.[154]
+
+
+  Tendencies of the drama and of the theatre in France.
+
+Dramatic criticism in France has had a material share in the maintenance
+of a deep as well as wide national interest in the preservation of a high
+standard of excellence both in the performance of plays and in the plays
+themselves. Among its modern representatives the foremost place would
+probably be by common consent allowed to F. Sarcey, whose Monday
+theatrical _feuilleton_ in the _Temps_ was long awaited week by week as
+an oracle of dramaturgy. But he was only the first among equals, and the
+successor and the predecessor of writers who have at least sought to be
+equal to a function of real public importance. For it seems hardly within
+the range of probability to suppose that the theatre will for many a
+generation to come lose the hold which it has established over the
+intellectual and moral sympathies of nearly the whole of the educated--to
+say nothing of a great part of the half-educated--population of France.
+This does not, of course, imply that the creative activity of French
+dramatic literature is certain to endure. Since the great changes set in
+which were consequent upon the disastrous war of 1870, French dramatic
+literature has reflected more than one phase of national sentiment and
+opinion, and has represented the aspirations, the sympathies and the
+philosophy of life of more than one class in the community. Thus it has
+had its episodes of reaction in the midst of an onward flow of which it
+would be difficult to predict the end. The tendency of what can only
+vaguely be described as the naturalistic school of writers has
+corresponded to that even more prominent in the dramatic literatures of
+certain other European nations; but it must be allowed that a new poetic
+will have to be constructed if the freedom of development which the
+dramatic, like all other arts, is entitled to claim is to be reconciled
+to laws deducible from the whole previous history of the drama. The
+reaction towards earlier forms has asserted itself in various
+ways--through the poetic plays of the later years of F. Coppée; in the
+success (notable for reasons other than artistic) of Vicomte H. de
+Bornier's first tragedy; and of late more especially in the
+dramas--highly original and truly romantic in both form and treatment--of
+E. Rostand.
+
+The art of acting is not altogether dependent upon the measure of
+contemporary literary productivity, even in France, where the connexion
+between dramatic literature and the stage has perhaps been more
+continuously intimate than in many other countries. Talma and Mlle Mars
+flourished in one of the most barren ages of the French literary drama;
+and though this cannot be asserted of the two most brilliant stars of
+the French 19th century tragic stage, Rachel and Sarah Bernhardt, or of
+their comic contemporaries from Frédérick-Lemaître down to types less
+unique than the "Talma of the boulevards," the constantly accumulating
+experience of the successive schools of acting in France may here ensure
+to the art a future not less notable than its past. Moreover, the French
+theatre has long been, and is more than ever likely to continue, an
+affair of the state as well as of the nation; and the judicious policy
+of not leaving the chief theatres at the mercy of shifting fashion and
+the base demands of idleness and sensuality will remain the surest
+guarantee for the maintenance of a high standard both in principle and
+in practice. So long as France continues to maintain her ascendancy over
+other nations in matters of taste, and in much else that adorns,
+brightens and quickens social life, the predominant influence of the
+French theatre over the theatres of other nations is likewise assured.
+But dramatic literature is becoming international to a degree hardly
+dreamt of half a century ago; and the distinctive development of the
+French theatre cannot fail to be affected by the success or failure of
+the national drama in retaining and developing its own most
+characteristic qualities. Its history shows periods of marvellously
+rapid advance, of hardly less swift decline, and of frequent though at
+times fitful recovery. Its future may be equally varied; but it will
+remain not less dependent on the conditions which in every people,
+ancient or modern, have proved to be indispensable to national vigour
+and vitality.     (A. W. W.)
+
+_Recent French Drama._--The last twenty-five years of the 19th century
+witnessed an important change in the constructive methods, as well as in
+the moral tendencies, of the French playwrights. Of the two leading
+dramatists who reigned supreme over the _haute comédie_ in 1875, one,
+Émile Augier, had almost ended his career, but the other, Alexandre
+Dumas, was to maintain his ascendancy for many years longer. Sardou's
+fertility of invention, and extraordinary cleverness at manipulating a
+complicated intrigue, were also greatly admired, and much was expected
+from Edouard Pailleron's brilliant and--as it seemed--inexhaustible wit
+in satirizing the whims and weaknesses of high-born and highly-cultured
+society. Alexandre Dumas had created and still monopolized the problem
+play, of which _Le Demi-monde_, _Le Fils naturel_, _La Question
+d'argent_, _Les Idées de Madame Aubray_, _La Femme de Claude_, _Monsieur
+Alphonse_, _La Visite de noces_, _L'Étrangère_, _Francillon_ and
+_Denise_ may be mentioned as the most characteristic specimens. The
+problem play is the presentation of a particular case, with a view to a
+general conclusion on some important question of human conduct. This
+afforded the author, who was, in his way, a moralist and a reformer,
+excellent opportunities for humorous discussions and the display of that
+familiar eloquence which was his greatest gift and most effective
+faculty. Among other subjects, the social position of women had an
+all-powerful attraction for his mind, and many of his later plays were
+written with the object of placing in strong relief the remarkable
+inequality of the sexes, both as regards freedom of action and
+responsibility, in modern marriage. Like all the dramatists of his time,
+he adhered to Scribe's mode of play-writing--a mixture of the _drame
+bourgeois_, as initiated by Diderot, and the comedy of character and
+manners, long in vogue--from the days of Molière, Regnard, Destouches
+and Marivaux, down to the beginning of the 19th century. In his prefaces
+Dumas often undertook the defence of the system which, in his
+estimation, was best calculated to serve the purpose of the artist, the
+humorist and the moralist--a dramatist being, as he conceived, a
+combination of the three.
+
+Though the majority of French playgoers continued to side with him, and
+to cling to the time-honoured theatrical beliefs, a few young men were
+beginning to murmur against the too elaborate mechanism and artificial
+logic. Scribe and his successors, whose plays were a combination of
+comedy and drama, were wont to devote the first act to a brilliant and
+witty presentation of personages, then to crowd the following scenes
+with incidents, until the action was brought to a climax about the end
+of the fourth act, invariably concluding, in the fifth, with an
+optimistic _dénouement_, just before midnight, the time appointed by
+police regulations for the closing of playhouses. At the same time a
+more serious and far-reaching criticism was levelled at the very
+principles on which the conception of human life was then dependent. A
+new philosophy, based on scientific research, had been gradually gaining
+ground and penetrating the French mind. A host of bold writers had been
+trying, with considerable firmness and continuity of purpose, to start a
+new kind of fiction, writing in perfect accordance with the determinist
+theories of Auguste Comte, Darwin and Taine. The long-disputed success
+of the Naturalistic School carried everything before it during the years
+1875-1885, and its triumphant leaders were tempted to make the best of
+their advantage by annexing a new province and establishing a footing on
+the stage. In this they failed signally, either when they were assisted
+by professional dramatists or when left to their own resources. It
+became evident that Naturalism, to be made acceptable on the stage,
+would have to undergo a special process of transformation and be handled
+in a peculiar way. Henry Becque succeeded in embodying the new theories
+in two plays, which at first met with very indifferent success, but were
+revived at a later period, and finally obtained permanent recognition in
+the French theatre--even with the acquiescence of the most learned
+critics, when they discovered, or fancied they discovered, that Becque's
+comedies agreed, in the main, with Molière's conception of dramatic art.
+In _Les Corbeaux_ and _La Parisienne_ the plot is very simple; the
+episodes are incidents taken from ordinary life. No extraneous character
+is introduced to discuss moral and social theories, or to acquaint us
+with the psychology of the real _dramatis personae_, or to suggest
+humorous observations about the progress of the dramatic action. The
+characters are left to tell their own tale in their own words, which are
+sometimes very comical, sometimes very repulsive, but purport to be
+always true to nature. Human will, which was the soul and mainspring of
+French tragedy in the 17th century, and played such a paramount part in
+the _drame bourgeois_ and the _haute comédie_ of the 19th, appears in M.
+Becque's plays to have fallen from its former exalted position and to
+have ceased to be a free agent. It is a mere passive instrument to our
+inner desires and instincts and appetites, which, in their turn, obey
+natural laws. Thus, in Becque's comedies, as in the old Greek drama,
+destiny, not man, is the chief actor, the real but unseen protagonist.
+
+Becque was not a prolific writer, and when he died, in 1899, it was
+remarked that he had spent the last ten years of his life in comparative
+inactivity. But during these years his young and ardent disciples had
+spared no effort in putting their master's theories to the test. It had
+occurred to a gifted and enterprising actor-manager, named André
+Antoine, that the time had come for trying dramatic experiments in a
+continued and methodical manner. For this purpose he gathered around him
+a number of young authors, and produced their plays before a select
+audience of subscribers, who had paid in advance for their
+season-tickets. The entertainment was a strictly private one. In this
+way Antoine made himself independent of the censors, and at the same
+time was no longer obliged to consider the requirements of the average
+playgoer, as is the case with ordinary managers, anxious, above all
+things, to secure long runs. At the Théâtre Libre the most successful
+play was not to be performed for more than three nights.
+
+The reform attempted was to consist in the elimination of what was
+contrary to nature in Dumas's and Augier's comedies: of the _intrigue
+parallèle_ or underplot, of the over-numerous and improbable incidents
+which followed the first act and taxed the spectator's memory to the
+verge of fatigue; and, lastly, of the conventional _dénouement_ for
+which there was no justification. A true study of character was to take
+the place of Sardou's complicated fabrications and Dumas's problem
+plays. The authors would present the spectator with a fragment of life,
+but would force no conclusion upon him at the termination of the play.
+The reformation in histrionic art was to proceed apace. The actors and
+actresses of the preceding period had striven to give full effect to
+certain witty utterances of the author, or to preserve and to develop
+their own personal peculiarities or oddities. Antoine and his
+fellow-artists did their best to make the public realize, in every word
+and every gesture, the characteristic features and ruling passions of
+the men and women they were supposed to represent.
+
+It was in the early autumn of 1887 that the Théâtre Libre opened its
+doors for the first time. It struggled on for eight years amidst
+unfailing curiosity, but not without encountering some adverse, or even
+derisive, criticism from a considerable portion of the public and the
+press. The Théâtre Libre brought under public notice such men as George
+Courteline and George Ancey, who gave respectively, in _Bonbouroche_ and
+_La Dupe_, specimens of a comic vein called the "_comique cruel_."
+Fabre, in _L'Argent_, approached if not surpassed his master, Henry
+Becque. Brieux, in _Blanchette_, gave promise of talent, which he has
+since in a great measure justified. In _Les Fossiles_ and _L'Envers
+d'une sainte_, by François de Curel, were found evidences of dramatic
+vigour and concentrated energy, allied with a remarkable gift for the
+minute analysis of feeling. Antoine's activity was not exclusively
+confined to the efforts of the French Naturalistic School; he included
+the Norwegian drama in his programme, and successively produced several
+of Ibsen's plays. They received a large amount of attention from the
+critics, the views then expressed ranging from the wildest enthusiasm to
+the bitterest irony. Francisque Sarcey was decidedly hostile, and Jules
+Lemaître, who ranked next to him in authority, ventured to suggest that
+Ibsen's ideas were nothing better than long-discarded social and
+literary paradoxes, borrowed from Pierre Leroux through George Sand, and
+returned to the French market as novelties. Ibsen was not understood by
+the French public at large, though his influence could be clearly traced
+on thoughtful men like Paul Hervieu and François de Curel.
+
+The authors of the Théâtre Libre were sadly wanting in tact and
+patience. They went at once to extremes, and, while trying to free
+themselves from an obsolete form of drama, fell into a state of anarchy.
+If a too elaborate plot is a fault, no plot at all is an absurdity. The
+old school had been severely taken to task for devoting the first act to
+the delineation of character, and the delineation of character was now
+found to have extended over the whole play; and worse still, most of
+these young men seemed to find pleasure in importing a low vocabulary on
+to the stage; they made it their special object to place before the
+spectator revolting pictures of the grossest immorality. In this they
+were supported by a knot of noisy and unwise admirers, whose misplaced
+approval largely contributed towards bringing an otherwise useful and
+interesting undertaking into disrepute. The result was that after the
+lapse of eight years the little group collected round Antoine had lost
+in cohesion and spirit, that it was both less hopeful and less compact
+than it had been at the outset of the campaign. But some authors who had
+kept aloof from the movement were not slow in reaping the moral and
+intellectual profit of these tentative experiments. Among them must be
+cited George de Porto-Riche, Henri Lavedan, Paul Hervieu, Maurice Donnay
+and Jules Lemaître. Alone among the authors of the Théâtre Libre, É.
+Brieux secured an assured position on the regular stage. Instead of
+attacking the vices and follies of his times, he has made a name by
+satirizing the weak points or the wrong application of certain
+fundamental principles by which modern institutions are supported. He
+mocked at universal suffrage in _L'Engrenage_, at art in _Ménages
+d'artistes_, at popular instruction in _Blanchette_, at charity in _Les
+Bienfaiteurs_, at science in _L'Évasion_, and then at law in _La Robe
+rouge_. Of _Les Trois Filles de M. Dupont_, one is an old maid with a
+strong bent towards mysticism, another is a star in the demi-monde, and
+the third is married. Neither religion, nor free love, nor marriage has
+made one of the three happy. The strange fact about Brieux is that he
+propounds his uncomfortable ideas with an incredible amount of dash and
+spirit.
+
+All the plays written by the above-mentioned authors, and by those who
+follow in their steps, have been said to constitute the "new comedy."
+But one may question the advisability of applying the same name to
+literary works which present so little, if any, family likeness. It was
+tacitly agreed to remove the intricacies of the plot and the forced
+_dénouement_. But no one will trace in those plays the uniformity of
+moral purpose which would justify us in comprising them under the same
+head, as products of the same school. Then, before the Naturalistic, or
+half-Naturalistic, School had attained to a practical result or taken a
+definite shape, a wave of Romanticism swept over the French public, and
+in a measure brought back the old artistic and literary dogmas
+propounded by Victor Hugo and the generation of 1830. Signs of a revival
+in French dramatic poetry were not lacking. The success of _La Fille de
+Roland_, by the Vicomte de Bornier, was restricted to the more
+cultivated classes, but the vogue of Jean Richepin's _Chemineau_ was at
+once general and lasting. _Cyrano de Bergerac_, produced in the last
+days of 1897, brought a world-wide reputation to its young author,
+Edmond Rostand. This play combines sparkling wit and brilliancy of
+imagination with delightful touches of pathos and delicate tenderness.
+It was assumed that Rostand was endowed to an extraordinary degree both
+with theatrical genius and the poetic faculty. _L'Aiglon_ fell short of
+this too favourable judgment. It is more a dramatic poem than a real
+drama, and the author handles history with the same childish
+incompetence and inaccuracy as Hugo did in _Cromwell_, in _Ruy Blas_ and
+_Hernani_. The persistent approbation of the public seemed, however, to
+indicate a growing taste for poetry, even when unsupported by dramatic
+interest--a curious symptom among the least poetical of modern European
+races.
+
+To sum up, the French, as regards the present condition of their drama,
+were confronted with two alternative movements. Naturalism, furthered by
+science and philosophy, was contending against traditions three
+centuries old, and seemed unable to crystallize into masterly works;
+while romantic drama, founded on vague and exploded theories, had become
+embodied in productions of real artistic beauty, which have been warmly
+welcomed by the general playgoer. It should nevertheless be noted that
+in _Cyrano_ and _L'Aiglon_ human will, which was the main-spring of
+Corneille's tragedy and Hugo's drama, tried to reassert itself, but was
+baffled by circumstance, and had to submit to inexorable laws. This
+showed that the victorious school would have to reckon with the
+doctrines of the defeated party, and suggested that a determinist
+theatre might be the ultimate outcome of a compromise. (A. FI.)
+
+
+(f) _English Drama._
+
+Among the nations of Germanic descent the English alone succeeded,
+mainly through the influence of the Renaissance movement, in
+transforming the later growths of the medieval drama into the beginnings
+of a great and enduring national dramatic literature, second neither in
+volume nor in splendour to any other in the records of the world. And,
+although in England, as elsewhere, the preparatory process had been
+continuing for some generations, its consummation coincided with one of
+the greatest epochs of English national history, and indeed forms one of
+the chief glories of that epoch itself; so that, in thinking or speaking
+of the Elizabethan age and the Elizabethan drama, the one can scarcely
+be thought or spoken of without the other.
+
+
+  Beginnings of the regular drama.
+
+It is of course conceivable that the regular drama, or drama proper,
+might in England have been called into life without the direct influence
+of classical examples. Already in the reign of Edward VI. the spirit of
+the Reformation had (with the aid of a newly awakened desire for the
+study of history, which was no doubt largely due to Italian examples)
+quickened the relatively inanimate species of the morality into the
+beginning of a new development.[155] But though the _Kyng Johan_ of Bale
+(much as this author abhorred the chronicles as written by
+ecclesiastics) came very near to the chronicle histories, there is no
+proof whatever that the work, long hidden away for very good reasons,
+actually served as a transition to the new species; and Bale's
+production was entirely unknown to the particular chronicle history
+which treated the same subject. Before the earliest example of this
+transitional species was produced, English tragedy had directly
+connected its beginnings with classical models.
+
+
+  Imitation of classical examples.
+
+Much in the same way, nothing could have been more natural and in
+accordance with the previous sluggish evolution of the English drama
+than that a gradual transition, however complete in the end, should have
+been effected from the moralities to comedy. It was not, however, John
+Heywood himself who was to accomplish any such transition; possibly, he
+was himself the author of the morality _Genus humanum_ performed at the
+coronation feast of Queen Mary, whose council speedily forbade the
+performance of interludes without the queen's licence. Nor are we able
+to conjecture the nature of the pieces bearing this name composed by
+Richard Farrant, afterwards the master of the Children of St George's at
+Windsor, or of William Hunnis, master under Queen Elizabeth of the
+Children of the Chapel Royal. But the process of transition is visible
+in productions, also called interludes, but charged with serious
+purpose, such as T. Ingeland's noteworthy _Disobedient Child_ (before
+1560), and plays in which the element of abstractions is perceptibly
+yielding to that of real personages, or in which the characters are for
+the most part historical or the main element in the action belongs to
+the sphere of romantic narrative.[156] The demonstration would, however,
+be alien to the purpose of indicating the main conditions of the growth
+of the English drama. The immediate origin of the earliest extant
+English comedy must, like that of the first English tragedy, be sought,
+not in the development of any popular literary or theatrical
+antecedents, but in the imitation, more or less direct, of classical
+models. This cardinal fact, unmistakable though it is, has frequently
+been ignored or obscured by writers intent upon investigating the
+_origines_ of our drama, and to this day remains without adequate
+acknowledgment in most of the literary histories accessible to the great
+body of students.
+
+It is true that in tracing the entrance of the drama into the national
+literature there is no reason for seeking to distinguish very narrowly
+between the several tributaries to the main stream which fertilized this
+as well as other fields under Renaissance culture. The universities then
+still remained, and for a time became more prominently than ever, the
+leading agents of education in all its existent stages; and it is a
+patent fact that no influence could have been so strong upon the
+Elizabethan dramatists as that to which they had been subjected during
+the university life through which the large majority of them had passed.
+The corporate life of the universities, and the enthusiasms (habitually
+unanimous) of their undergraduates and younger graduates, communicated
+this influence, as it were automatically, to the students, and to the
+learned societies themselves, of the Inns of Court. In the Tudor, as
+afterwards in the early Stuart, times, these Inns were at once the
+seminaries of loyalty, and the obvious resort for the supply of young
+men of spirit desirous of honouring a learned court by contributing to
+its choicer amusements. Thus, whether we trace them in the universities,
+in the "bowers" or halls of the lawyers, or in the palaces of the
+sovereign, the beginnings of the English academical drama, which in
+later Elizabethan and Jacobean literature cannot claim to be more than a
+subordinate species of the national drama, in an earlier period served
+as the actual link between classical tragedy and comedy and the
+surviving native growths, and supplied the actual impulse towards the
+beginnings of English tragedy and comedy.
+
+
+  The earlier academical drama.
+
+The academical drama of the early years of Elizabeth's reign and of the
+preceding part of the Tudor period--including the school-drama in the
+narrower sense of the term and other performances of academical
+origin--consisted, apart from actual reproductions of classical plays in
+original Latin or in Latin versions of the Greek, in adaptations of
+Latin originals, or of Latin or English plays directly modelled on
+classical examples. A notable series of plays of this kind was performed
+in the hall of Christ Church, Oxford, from the first year of Edward VI.
+onward, when N. Grimald's _Archipropheta_, treating in classic form the
+story of St John the Baptist, but introducing the Vice and comic scenes,
+was brought out.[157] Others were J. Calfhill's _Progne_ and R.
+Edwardes' _Palaemon and Arcyte_ (both 1566), and, from about 1580
+onwards, a succession of Latin plays by William Gager, beginning with
+the tragedy _Meleager_, and including, with other tragedies,[158] a
+comedy _Rivales_. Yet another comedy, acted at Christ Church, and
+extolled in 1591 by Harington for "harmless mirth," was the _Bellum
+grammaticale_, or Civil War between Nouns and Verbs, which may have been
+a revision of a comedy written by Bale's friend, R. Radcliff, in 1538,
+but of which in any case the ultimate origin was a celebrated Italian
+allegorical treatise.[159] In Cambridge, as is not surprising, the
+activity of the early academical friends and favourers of the drama was
+even more marked. At St John's College, where Bishop Watson's Latin
+tragedy called _Absolom_ was produced within the years 1534 and 1544,
+plays were, according to Ascham, repeatedly performed about the middle
+of the century; at Christ's a controversial drama in the Lutheran
+interest called _Pammachius_, of which Gardiner complained to the privy
+council, and which seems afterwards to have been translated by Bale, was
+acted in 1544; and at Trinity there was a long series of performances
+which began with Christopherson's _Jephtha_ about 1546, and consisted
+partly of reproductions of classical works,[160] partly of plays and
+"shows" unnamed; while on one occasion at all events, in 1559, "two
+English plays" were produced. In 1560 was acted, doubtless in the
+original Latin, and not in Palsgrave's English translation (1540) for
+schoolboys, the celebrated "comedy" of _Acolastus_, by W. Gnaphaeus, on
+the story of the Prodigal Son. The long series of Trinity plays
+interspersed with occasional plays at King's (where Udall's _Ezechias_
+was produced in English in 1564), at St John's (where T. Legge's
+_Richardus III._ was first acted in 1573), and, as will be seen below,
+at Christ's, continued, with few noticeable breaks, up to the time when
+the Elizabethan drama was in full activity.[161] Among the "academical"
+plays not traceable to any particular university source may be
+mentioned, as acted at court so early as the end of 1565 or the
+beginning of 1566, the Latin _Sapientia Solomonis_, which generally
+follows the biblical narrative, but introduces a comic element in the
+sayings of the popular Marcolph, who here appears as a court fool.
+
+
+  Influence of Seneca.
+
+It was under the direct influence of the Renaissance, viewed primarily,
+in England as elsewhere, as a revival of classical studies, and in
+connexion with the growing taste in university and cognate circles of
+society, and at a court which prided itself on its love and patronage of
+learning, that English tragedy and comedy took their actual beginnings.
+Those of comedy, as it would seem, preceded those of tragedy by a few
+years. Already in Queen Mary's reign, translation was found the readiest
+form of expression offering itself to literary scholarship; and Italian
+examples helped to commend Seneca, the most modern of the ancient
+tragedians, and the imitator of the most human among the masters of
+Attic tragedy, as a favourite subject for such exercises. In the very
+year of Elizabeth's accession--seven years after Jodelle had brought out
+the earliest French tragedy--a group of English university scholars
+began to put forth a series of translations of the ten tragedies of
+Seneca, which one of them, T. Newton, in 1581 collected into a single
+volume. The earliest of these versions was that of the _Troades_ (1559)
+by Jasper Heywood, a son of the author of the _Interludes_. He also
+published the _Thyestes_ (1560) and the _Hercules Furens_ (1561); the
+names of his fellow-translators were A. Neville, T. Nuce, J. Studley and
+the T. Newton aforesaid. These translations, which occasionally include
+original interpolations ("additions," a term which was to become a
+technical one in English dramaturgy), are in no instance in blank verse,
+the favourite metre of the dialogue being the couplets of
+fourteen-syllable lines best known through Chapman's _Homer_.
+
+
+  Earliest English tragedies.
+
+The authority of Seneca, once established in the English literary world,
+maintained itself there long after English drama had emancipated itself
+from the task of imitating this pallid model, and, occasionally,
+Seneca's own prototype, Euripides.[162] Nor can it be doubted that some
+translation of the Latin tragic poet had at one time or another passed
+through Shakespeare's own hands. But what is of present importance is
+that to the direct influence of Seneca is to be ascribed the composition
+of the first English tragedy which we possess. Of _Gorboduc_ (afterwards
+re-named _Ferrex and Porrex_), first acted on the 18th of January 1562
+by the members of the Inner Temple before Queen Elizabeth, the first
+three acts are stated to have been written by T. Norton; the rest of the
+play (if not more) was the work of T. Sackville, afterwards Lord
+Buckhurst and earl of Dorset, whom Jasper Heywood praised for his
+sonnets, but who is better known for his leading share in The _Mirror
+for Magistrates_. Though the subject of _Gorboduc_ is a British legend,
+and though the action is neither copied nor adapted from any treated by
+Seneca, yet the resemblance between this tragedy and the _Thebais_ is
+too strong to be fortuitous. In all formal matters--chorus, messengers,
+&c.--_Gorboduc_ adheres to the usage of classical tragedy; but the
+authors show no respect for the unities of time or place. Strong in
+construction, the tragedy is--like its model, Seneca--weak in
+characterization. The dialogue, it should be noticed, is in blank verse;
+and the device of the _dumb-show_, in which the contents of each act are
+in succession set forth in pantomime only, is employed at once to
+instruct and to stimulate the spectator.
+
+The nearly contemporary _Apius and Virginia_ (c. 1563), though it takes
+its subject--destined to become a perennial one on the modern
+stage--from Roman story; the _Historie of Horestes_ (pr. 1567); and T.
+Preston's _Cambises King of Percia_ (1569-1570), are somewhat rougher in
+form, and, the first and last of them at all events, more violent in
+diction, than _Gorboduc_. They still contain elements of the moralities
+(above all the Vice) and none of the formal features of classical
+tragedy. But a _Julyus Sesyar_ seems to have been performed, in
+precisely the same circumstances as _Gorboduc_, so early as 1562; and,
+four years later, G. Gascoigne, the author of the satire _The Steele
+Glass_, produced with the aid of two associates (F. Kinwelmersh and Sir
+Christopher Yelverton, who wrote an epilogue), _Jocasta_, a virtual
+translation of L. Dolce's _Giocasta_, which was an adaptation, probably,
+of R. Winter's Latin translation of the _Phoenissae_ of Euripides.[163]
+Between the years 1567 and 1580 a large proportion of the plays
+presented at court by choir- or school-boys, and by various companies of
+actors, were taken from Greek legend or Roman history; as was R.
+Edwardes' _Damon and Pithias_ (perhaps as early as 1564-1565), which
+already shades off from tragedy into what soon came to be called
+tragi-comedy.[164] Simultaneously with the influence, exercised directly
+or indirectly, of classical literature, that of Italian, both dramatic
+and narrative, with its marked tendency to treat native themes, asserted
+itself, and, while diversifying the current of early English tragedy,
+infused into it a long-abiding element of passion. There are sufficient
+grounds for concluding that a play on the subject of _Romeo and Juliet_,
+which L. da Porto and M. Bandello had treated in prose narrative--that
+of the latter having through a French version formed itself into an
+English poem--was seen on an English stage in or before 1562. _Gismonde
+of Salerne_, a play founded on Boccaccio, was acted before Queen
+Elizabeth at the Inner Temple in 1568, nearly a generation before it was
+published, rewritten in blank verse by R. Wilmot, one of the performers,
+then in holy orders; G. Whetstone's _Promos and Cassandra_, founded on
+G. Cinthio (from which came the plot of _Measure for Measure_),
+followed, printed in 1578; and there were other "casts of Italian
+devices" belonging to this age, in which the choice of a striking theme
+still seemed the chief preoccupation of English tragic poets.
+
+From the double danger which threatened English tragedy in the days of
+its infancy--that it would congeal on the wintry heights of classical
+themes, or dissolve its vigour in the glowing heat of a passion fiercer
+than that of the Italians--_Ingleso Italianato è un diavolo
+incarnato_--it was preserved more than by any other cause by its happy
+association with the traditions of the national history. An exceptional
+position might seem to be in this respect occupied by T. Hughes'
+interesting tragedy _The Misfortunes of Arthur_ (1587). But the author
+of this play--in certain portions of whose framework there were
+associated with him seven other members of Gray's Inn, including Francis
+Bacon, and which was presented before Queen Elizabeth like
+_Gorboduc_--in truth followed the example of the authors of that work
+both in choice of theme, in details of form, and in a general though far
+from servile imitation of the manner of Seneca; nor does he represent
+any very material advance upon the first English tragedy.
+
+
+  Chronicle histories.
+
+Fortunately, at the very time when from such beginnings as those just
+described the English tragic drama was to set forth upon a course in
+which it was to achieve so much, a new sphere of activity suggested
+itself. And in this, after a few more or less tentative efforts, English
+dramatists very speedily came to feel at home. In their direct
+dramatization of passages or portions of English history (in which the
+doings and sufferings of King Arthur could only by courtesy or poetic
+licence be included) classical models would be of scant service, while
+Italian examples of the treatment of national historical subjects,
+having to deal with material so wholly different, could not be followed
+with advantage. The native species of the _chronicle history_, which
+designedly assumed this name in order to make clear its origin and
+purpose, essayed nothing more or less than a dramatic version of an
+existing chronicle. Obviously, while the transition from half
+historical, half epical narrative often implied carrying over into the
+new form some of the features of the old, it was only when the subject
+matter had been remoulded and recast that a true dramatic action could
+result. But the _histories_ to be found among the plays of Shakespeare
+and one or two other Elizabethans are true dramas, and it would be
+inconvenient to include these in the transitional species of those known
+as _chronicle histories_. Among these ruder compositions, which
+intermixed the blank verse introduced on the Stage by _Gorboduc_ with
+prose, and freely combined or placed side by side tragic and comic
+ingredients, we have but few distinct examples. One of these is _The
+Famous Victories of Henry the Fifth_, known to have been acted before
+1588; in which both the verse and the prose are frequently of a very
+rude sort, while it is neither divided into acts or scenes nor, in
+general, constructed with any measure of dramatic skill. But its vigour
+and freshness are considerable, and in many passages we recognize
+familiar situations and favourite figures in later masterpieces of the
+English historical drama. The second is _The Troublesome Raigne of King
+John_, in two parts (printed in 1591), an epical narrative transferred
+to the stage, neither a didactic effort like Bale's, nor a living drama
+like Shakespeare's, but a far from contemptible treatment of its
+historical theme. _The True Chronicle History of King Leir_ (acted in
+1593) in form resembles the above, though it is not properly on a
+national subject (its story is taken from Geoffrey of Monmouth); but,
+with all its defects, it seems only to await the touch of the master's
+hand to become a tragedy of supreme effectiveness. A yet further step
+was taken in the _Tragedy of Sir Thomas More_ (c. 1590)--in which
+Shakespeare's hand has been thought traceable, and which deserves its
+designation of "tragedy" not so much on account of the relative nearness
+of the historical subject to the date of its dramatic treatment, as
+because of the tragic responsibility of character here already clearly
+worked out.
+
+
+  Earliest comedies.
+
+Such had been the beginnings of tragedy in England up to the time when
+the genius of English dramatists was impelled by the spirit that
+dominates a great creative epoch of literature to seize the form ready
+to their hands. The birth of English comedy, at all times a process of
+less labour and eased by an always ready popular responsiveness to the
+most tentative efforts of art, had slightly preceded that of her serious
+sister. As has been seen from the brief review given above of the early
+history of the English academical drama, isolated Latin comedies had
+been performed in the original or in English versions as early as the
+reign of Henry VIII.--perhaps even earlier; while the morality and its
+direct descendant, the interlude, pointed the way towards popular
+treatment in the vernacular of actions and characters equally well
+suited for the diversion of Roman, Italian and English audiences. Thus
+there was no innovation in the adaptation by N. Udal (q.v.) of the
+_Miles Gloriosus_ of Plautus under the title of _Ralph Roister Doister_,
+which may claim to be the earliest extant English comedy. It has a
+genuinely popular vein of humour, and the names fit the characters after
+a fashion familiar to the moralities. The second English comedy--in the
+opinion of at least one high authority our first--is _Misogonus_, which
+was certainly written as early as 1560. Its scene is laid in Italy; but
+the Vice, commonly called "Cacurgus," is both by himself and others
+frequently designated as "Will Summer," in allusion to Henry VIII.'s
+celebrated jester. _Gammer Gurton's Needle_, long regarded as the
+earliest of all _English_ comedies, was printed in 1575, as acted "not
+long ago in Christ's College, Cambridge." Its authorship was till
+recently attributed to John Still (afterwards bishop of Bath and Wells),
+who was a resident M.A. at Christ's, when a play was performed there in
+1566. But the evidence of his authorship is inconclusive, and the play
+"made by Mr. S., Master of Arts," may be by William Stevenson, or by
+some other contemporary. This comedy is slighter in plot and coarser in
+diction than _Ralph Roister Doister_, but by no means unamusing.
+
+In the main, however, early English comedy, while occasionally
+introducing characters and scenes of thoroughly native origin and
+complexion (e.g. Grim, the Collier of Croydon),[165] was content to
+borrow its themes from classical or Italian sources.[166] G. Gascoigne's
+_Supposes_ (acted at Gray's Inn in 1566) is a translation of _I
+Suppositi_ of Ariosto, remarkable for the flowing facility of its
+prose. While, on the one hand, the mixture of tragic with comic motives,
+which was to become so distinctive a feature of the Elizabethan drama,
+was already leading in the direction of tragi-comedy, the precedent of
+the Italian pastoral drama encouraged the introduction of figures and
+stories derived from classical mythology; and the rapid and diversified
+influence of Italian comedy, in close touch with Italian prose fiction,
+seemed likely to affect and quicken continuously the growth of the
+lighter branch of the English drama.
+
+
+  Conditions of the early Elizabethan drama.
+
+Out of such promises as these the glories of English drama were ripened
+by the warmth and light of the great Elizabethan age--of which the
+beginnings may fairly be reckoned from the third decennium of the reign
+to which it owes its name. The queen's steady love of dramatic
+entertainments could not of itself have led, though it undoubtedly
+contributed, to such a result. Against the attacks which a nascent
+puritanism was already directing against the stage by the hands of J.
+Northbrooke,[167] the repentant playwright S. Gosson,[168] P.
+Stubbes,[169] and others,[170] were to be set not only the frugal favour
+of royalty and the more liberal patronage of great nobles,[171] but the
+fact that literary authorities were already weighing the endeavours of
+the English drama in the balance of respectful criticism, and that in
+the abstract at least the claims of both tragedy and comedy were upheld
+by those who shrank from the desipience of idle pastimes. It is
+noticeable that this period in the history of the English theatre
+coincides with the beginning of the remarkable series of visits made to
+Germany by companies of English comedians, which did not come to an end
+till the period immediately before the Thirty Years' War, and were
+occasionally resumed after its close. As at home the popularity of the
+stage increased, the functions of playwright and actor, whether combined
+or not, began to hold out a reasonable promise of personal gain. Nor,
+above all, was that higher impulse which leads men of talent and genius
+to attempt forms of art in harmony with the tastes and tendencies of
+their times wanting to the group of writers who can be remembered by no
+nobler name than that of Shakespeare's predecessors.
+
+
+  The predecessors of Shakespeare.
+
+The lives of all of these are, of course, in part contemporary with the
+life of Shakespeare himself; nor was there any substantial difference in
+the circumstances under which most of them, and he, led their lives as
+dramatic authors. A distinction was manifestly kept up between poets and
+playwrights. Of the contempt entertained for the actor's profession some
+fell to the share of the dramatist; "even Lodge," says C. M. Ingleby,
+"who had indeed never trod the stage, but had written several plays, and
+had no reason to be ashamed of his antecedents, speaks of the vocation
+of the play-maker as sharing the odium attaching to the actor." Among
+the dramatists themselves good fellowship and literary partnership only
+at times asserted themselves as stronger than the tendency to mutual
+jealousy and abuse; of all chapters of dramatic history, the annals of
+the early Elizabethan stage perhaps least resemble those of Arcadia.
+
+
+  History of the Elizabethan stage.
+
+Moreover, the theatre had hardly found its strength as a powerful
+element in the national life, when it was involved in a bitter
+controversy, with which it had originally no connexion, on behalf of an
+ally whose sympathy with it can only have been of a very limited kind.
+The Marprelate controversy, into which, among leading playwrights, Lyly
+and Nashe were drawn, in 1589 led to a stoppage of stage-plays which
+proved only temporary; but the general result of the attempt to make the
+stage a vehicle of political abuse and invective was beyond a doubt to
+coarsen and degrade both plays and players. Scurrilous attempts and
+rough repression continued during the years 1590-1593; and the true
+remedy was at last applied, when from about 1594, the chief London
+actors became divided into two great rival companies--the lord
+chamberlain's and the lord admiral's--which alone received licences.
+Instead of half a dozen or more companies whose jealousies communicated
+themselves to the playwrights belonging to them, there were now, besides
+the Children of the Chapel, two established bodies of actors, directed
+by steady and, in the full sense of the word, respectable men. To the
+lord chamberlain's company, which, after being settled at "the Theater"
+(opened as early as 1576 or 1577), moved to Blackfriars, purchased by
+James Burbage, in 1596, and to the Globe on the Bankside in 1599,
+Shakespeare and Richard Burbage, the greatest of the Elizabethan actors,
+belonged; the lord admiral's was managed by Philip Henslowe, the author
+of the _Diary_, and Edward Alleyn, the founder of Dulwich College, and
+was ultimately, in 1600, settled at the Fortune. In these and other
+houses were performed the plays of the Elizabethan dramatists, with few
+adventitious aids, the performance being crowded into a brief afternoon,
+when it is obvious that only the idler sections of the population could
+attend. No woman might appear at a playhouse, unless masked; on the
+stage, down to the Restoration, women's parts continued to be acted by
+boys.
+
+It is futile to take no account of such outward circumstances as these
+and many which cannot here be noted in surveying the progress of the
+literature of the Elizabethan drama. Like that of the Restoration--and
+like that of the present day--it was necessarily influenced in its
+method and spirit of treatment by the conditions and restrictions which
+governed the place and circumstances of the performance of plays,
+including the construction of theatre and stage, as well as by the
+social composition of its audiences, which the local accommodation, not
+less than the entertainment, provided for them had to take into account.
+But to these things a mere allusion must suffice. It may safely be said,
+at the same time, that no dramatic literature which has any claim to
+rank beside the Elizabethan--not that of Athens nor those of modern
+Italy and Spain, nor those of France and Germany in their classic
+periods--had to contend against such odds; a mighty inherent strength
+alone ensured to it the vitality which it so triumphantly asserted, and
+which enabled it to run so unequalled a course.
+
+
+  Lyly.
+
+  Kyd.
+
+  Marlowe.
+
+  Peele.
+
+  Greene.
+
+Among Shakespeare's predecessors, John Lyly, whose plays were all
+written for the Children of the Chapel and the Children of St Paul's,
+holds a position apart in English dramatic literature. The euphuism, to
+which his famous romance gave its name, likewise distinguishes his
+mythological,[172] quasi-historical,[173] allegorical,[174] and
+satirical[175] comedies. But his real service to the progress of English
+drama is to be sought neither in his choice of subjects nor in his
+imagery--though to his fondness for fairylore and for the whole
+phantasmagoria of legend, classical as well as romantic, his
+contemporaries, and Shakespeare in particular, were indebted for a
+stimulative precedent, and though in his _Endimion_ at all events he
+excites curiosity by an allegorical treatment of contemporary characters
+and events. It does not even lie in the songs interspersed in his plays,
+though none of his predecessors had in the slightest degree anticipated
+the lyric grace which distinguishes some of these incidental efforts. It
+consists in his adoption of Gascoigne's innovation of writing plays in
+prose; and in his having, though under the fetters of an affected and
+pretentious style, given the first example of brisk and vivacious
+dialogue--an example to which even such successors as Shakespeare and
+Jonson were indebted. Thomas Kyd, the author of the _Spanish Tragedy_
+(preceded or followed by the first part of _Jeronimo_), and probably of
+several plays whose author was unnamed, possesses some of the
+characteristics, but none of the genius, of the greatest tragic
+dramatist who preceded Shakespeare. No slighter tribute than this is
+assuredly the due of Christopher Marlowe, whose violent end prematurely
+closed a poetic career of dazzling brilliancy. His earliest play,
+_Tamburlaine the Great_, in which the use of blank verse was introduced
+upon the English public stage, while full of the "high astounding terms"
+of an extravagant and often bombastic diction, is already marked by the
+passion which was the poet's most characteristic feature, and which was
+to find expression so luxuriantly beautiful in his _Doctor Faustus,_ and
+so surpassingly violent in his _Jew of Malta_. His masterpiece, _Edward
+II._, is a tragedy of singular pathos and of a dramatic power
+unapproached by any of his contemporaries. George Peele was a far more
+versatile writer even as a dramatist; but, though his plays contain
+passages of exquisite beauty, not one of them is worthy to be ranked by
+the side of Marlowe's _Edward II._, compared with which, if indeed not
+absolutely, Peele's _Chronicle of Edward I._ still stands on the level
+of the species to which its title and character alike assign it. His
+finest play is undoubtedly _David and Bethsabe_, which resembles _Edward
+I._ in construction, but far surpasses it in beauty of language and
+versification, besides treating its subject with greatly superior
+dignity. If the difference between Peele and Shakespeare is still, in
+many respects besides that of genius, an immeasurable one, we seem to
+come into something like a Shakespearian atmosphere in more than one
+passage of the plays of the unfortunate Robert Greene--unfortunate
+perhaps in nothing more enduringly than in the proof which he left
+behind him of his supercilious jealousy of Shakespeare. Greene's genius,
+most conspicuous in plays treating English life and scenes, could,
+notwithstanding his academic self-sufficiency, at times free itself from
+the pedantry apt to beset the flight of Peele's and at times even of
+Marlowe's muse; and his most delightful work[176] seems to breathe
+something of the air, sweet and fresh like no other, which blows over an
+English countryside. Thomas Lodge, whose dramatic, and much less of
+course his literary activity, is measured by the only play that we know
+to have been wholly his;[177] Thomas Nashe, the redoubtable pamphleteer
+and the father of the English picaresque novel;[178] Henry Chettle, who
+worked the chords of both pity[179] and terror[180] with equal vigour,
+and Anthony Munday, better remembered for his city pageants than for his
+plays, are among the other more important writers of the early
+Elizabethan drama, though not all of them can strictly speaking be
+called predecessors of Shakespeare. It is not possible here to enumerate
+the more interesting of the anonymous plays which belong to this
+"pre-Shakespearian" period of the Elizabethan drama; but many of them
+are by intrinsic merit as well as for special causes deserving of the
+attention of the student.
+
+
+  Common characteristics of the early Elizabethans.
+
+The common characteristics of nearly all these dramatists and plays were
+in accordance with those of the great age to which they belonged.
+Stirring times called for stirring themes, such as those of "Mahomet,
+Scipio and Tamerlane"; and these again for a corresponding vigour of
+treatment. Neatness and symmetry of construction were neglected for
+fulness and variety of matter. Novelty and grandeur of subject seemed
+well matched by a swelling amplitude and often reckless extravagance of
+diction. As if from an inner necessity, the balance of rhymed couplets
+gave way to the impetuous march of blank verse; "strong lines" were as
+inevitably called for as strong situations and strong characters.
+Although the chief of these poets are marked off from one another by the
+individual genius which impressed itself upon both the form and the
+matter of their works, yet the stamp of the age is upon them all.
+Writing for the stage only, of which some of them possessed a personal
+experience and from which none of them held aloof, they acquired an
+instinctive insight into the laws of dramatic cause and effect, and
+infused a warm vitality into the dramatic literature which they
+produced, so to speak, for immediate consumption. On the other hand, the
+same cause made rapidity of workmanship indispensable to a successful
+playwright. _How_ a play was produced, how many hands had been at work
+upon it, what loans and what spoliations had been made in the process,
+were considerations of less moment than the question _whether_ it was
+produced, and whether it succeeded. His harness--frequently double or
+triple--was inseparable from the lusty Pegasus of the early English
+drama, and its genius toiled, to borrow the phrase of the Attic
+comedian, "like an Arcadian mercenary."
+
+
+  Progress of tragedy and comedy before Shakespeare.
+
+This period of the English drama, though it is far from being one of
+crude effort, could not therefore yet be one of full consummation. In
+tragedy the advance which had been made in the choice of great themes,
+in knitting closer the connection between the theatre and the national
+history, in vindicating to passion its right to adequate expression, was
+already enormous. In comedy the advance had been less decisive and less
+independent; much had been gained in reaching greater freedom of form
+and something in enlarging the range of subjects; but artificiality had
+proved a snare in the one direction, while the licence of the comic
+stage, upheld by favourite "clowns," such as Kemp or Tarlton, had not
+succumbed before less elastic demands. The way of escaping from the
+dilemma had, however, been already recognized to lie in the construction
+of suitable plots, for which a full storehouse was open in the popular
+traditions preserved in national ballads, and in the growing literature
+of translated foreign fiction, or of native imitations of it. Meanwhile,
+the aberration of the comic stage to political and religious
+controversy, which it could never hope to treat with Attic freedom in a
+country provided with a strong monarchy and a dogmatic religion, seemed
+likely to extinguish the promise of the beginnings of English romantic
+comedy.
+
+
+  Shakespeare.
+
+These were the circumstances under which the greatest of dramatists
+began to devote his genius to the theatre. Shakespeare's career as a
+writer of plays can have differed little in its beginnings from those of
+his contemporaries and rivals. Before or while he was proceeding from
+the re-touching and re-writing of the plays of others to original
+dramatic composition, the most gifted of those whom we have termed his
+predecessors had passed away. He had been decried as an actor before he
+was known as an author; and after living through days of darkness for
+the theatre, if not for himself, attained, before the close of the
+century, to the beginnings of his prosperity and the beginnings of his
+fame. But if we call him fortunate, it is not because of such rewards as
+these. As a poet, Shakespeare was no doubt happy in his times, which
+intensified the strength of the national character, expanded the
+activities of the national mind, and were able to add their stimulus
+even to such a creative power as his. He was happy in the antecedents of
+the form of literature which commended itself to his choice, and in the
+opportunities which it offered in so many directions for an advance to
+heights yet undiscovered and unknown. What he actually accomplished was
+due to his genius, whose achievements are immeasurable like itself. His
+influence upon the progress of English drama divides itself in very
+unequal proportions into a direct and an indirect influence. To the
+former alone reference can here be made.
+
+
+  Shakespeare and the national historical drama.
+
+Already the first editors of Shakespeare's works in a collected form
+recognized so marked a distinction between his plays taken from English
+history and those treating other historical subjects (whether ancient or
+modern) that, while they included the latter among the tragedies at
+large, they grouped the former as _histories_ by themselves. These
+_histories_ are in their literary genesis a development of the
+_chronicle histories_ of Shakespeare's predecessors and contemporaries,
+the taste for which had greatly increased towards the beginning of his
+own career as a dramatist, in accordance with the general progress of
+national life and sentiment in this epoch. Though it cannot be assumed
+that Shakespeare composed his several dramas from English history in the
+sequence of the chronology of their themes, his genius gave to the
+entire series an inner harmony, and a continuity corresponding to that
+which is distinctive of the national life, such as not unnaturally
+inspired certain commentators with the wish to prove it a symmetrically
+constructed whole. He thus brought this peculiarly national species to a
+perfection which made it difficult, if not impossible, for his later
+contemporaries and successors to make more than an occasional addition
+to his series. None of them was, however, found able or ready to take up
+the thread where Shakespeare had left it, after perfunctorily attaching
+the present to the past by a work (probably not all his own) which must
+be regarded as the end rather than the crown of the series of his
+_histories_.[181] But to furnish such supplements accorded little with
+the tastes and tendencies of the later Elizabethans; and with the
+exception of an isolated work,[182] the national historical drama in
+Shakespeare reached at once its perfection and its close. The ruder form
+of the old chronicle history for a time survived the advance made upon
+it; but the efforts in this field of T. Heywood,[183] S. Rowley,[184]
+and others are, from a literary point of view, anachronisms.
+
+Of Shakespeare's other plays the several groups exercised a more direct
+influence upon the general progress of our dramatic literature. His
+Roman tragedies, though following their authorities with much the same
+fidelity as that of the English _histories_, even more effectively
+taught the great lesson of free dramatic treatment of historic themes,
+and thus pre-eminently became the perennial models of the modern
+historic drama. His tragedies on other subjects, which necessarily
+admitted of a more absolute freedom of treatment, established themselves
+as the examples for all time of the highest kind of tragedy. Where else
+is exhibited with the same fulness the struggle between will and
+obstacle, character and circumstance? Where is mirrored with equal power
+and variety the working of those passions in the mastery of which over
+man lies his doom? Here, above all, Shakespeare as compared with his
+predecessors, as well as with his successors, "_is_ that nature which
+they paint and draw." He threw open to modern tragedy a range of
+hitherto unknown breadth and depth and height, and emancipated the
+national drama in its noblest forms from limits to which it could never
+again restrict itself without a consciousness of having renounced its
+enfranchisement. Happily for the variety of his creative genius on the
+English stage, no divorce had been proclaimed between the serious and
+the comic, and no division of species had been established such as he
+himself ridicules as pedantic when it professes to be exhaustive. The
+comedies of Shakespeare accordingly refuse to be tabulated in deference
+to any method of classification deserving to be called precise; and
+several of them are comedies only according to a purely technical use of
+the term. In those in which the instinct of reader or spectator
+recognizes the comic interest to be supreme, it is still of its nature
+incidental to the progress of the action; for the criticism seems just,
+as well as in agreement with what we can conclude as to Shakespeare's
+process of construction, that among all his comedies not more than a
+single one[185] is in both design and effect a comedy of character
+proper. Thus in this direction, while the unparalleled wealth of his
+invention renewed or created a whole gallery of types, he left much to
+be done by his successors; while the truest secrets of his comic art,
+which interweaves fancy with observation, draws wisdom from the lips of
+fools, and imbues with character what all other hands would have left
+shadowy, monstrous or trivial, are among the things inimitable belonging
+to the individuality of his poetic genius.
+
+
+  His style and its influence.
+
+The influences of Shakespeare's diction and versification upon those of
+the English drama in general can hardly be overrated, though it would be
+next to impossible to state them definitely. In these points,
+Shakespeare's manner as a writer was progressive; and this progress has
+been deemed sufficiently well traceable in his plays to be used as an
+aid in seeking to determine their chronological sequence. The general
+laws of this progress accord with those of the natural advance of
+creative genius; artificiality gives way to freedom, and freedom in its
+turn submits to a greater degree of regularity and care. In
+versification as in diction the earliest and the latest period of
+Shakespeare's dramatic writing are more easily recognizable than what
+lies between and may be called the _normal_ period, the plays belonging
+to which in form most resemble one another, and are least affected by
+distinguishable peculiarities--such as the rhymes and intentionally
+euphuistic colouring of style which characterize the earliest, or the
+feminine endings of the lines and the more condensed manner of
+expression common to the latest of his plays. But, such distinctions
+apart, there can be no doubt but that in verse and in prose alike,
+Shakespeare's style, so far as it admitted of reproduction, is itself to
+be regarded as the _norm_ of that of the Elizabethan drama; that in it
+the prose form of English comedy possesses its first accepted model; and
+that in it the chosen metre of the English versified drama established
+itself as irremovable unless at the risk of an artificial experiment.
+
+
+  Influence of his method of construction.
+
+The assertion may seem paradoxical, that it is by their construction
+that Shakespeare's plays exerted the most palpable influence upon the
+English drama, as well as upon the modern drama of the Germanic nations
+in general, and upon such forms of the Romance drama as have been in
+more recent times based upon it. For it was not in construction that his
+greatest strength lay, or that the individuality of his genius could
+raise him above the conditions under which he worked in common with his
+immediate predecessors and contemporaries. Yet the fact that he accepted
+these conditions, while producing works of matchless strength and of
+unequalled fidelity to the demands of nature and art, established them
+as inseparable from the Shakespearian drama--to use a term which is
+perhaps unavoidable but has been often misapplied. The great and
+irresistible demand on the part of Shakespeare's public was for
+_incident_--a demand which of itself necessitated a method of
+construction different from that of the Greek drama, or of those
+modelled more or less closely upon it. To no other reason is to be
+ascribed the circumstance that Shakespeare so constantly combined two
+actions in the course of a single play, not merely supplementing the one
+by means of the other as a bye- or under-plot. In no respect is the
+progress of his technical skill as a dramatist more apparent,--a
+proposition which a comparison of plays clearly ascribable to successive
+periods of his life must be left to prove.
+
+
+  His characters.
+
+Should it, however, be sought to express in one word the greatest debt of
+the drama to Shakespeare, this word must be the same as that which
+expresses his supreme gift as a dramatist. It is in _characterization_--in
+the drawing of characters ranging through almost every type of humanity
+which furnishes a fit subject for the tragic or the comic art--that he
+remains absolutely unapproached; and it was in this direction that he
+pointed the way which the English drama could not henceforth desert
+without becoming untrue to itself. It may have been a mere error of
+judgment which afterwards held him to have been surpassed by others in
+particular fields of characterization (setting him down, forsooth, as
+supremely excellent in male, but not in female, characters). But it was a
+sure sign of decay when English writers began to shrink from following him
+in the endeavour to make the drama a mirror of humanity, and when, in
+self-condemned arrogance, they thrust unreality back upon a stage which he
+had animated with the warm breath of life, where Juliet had blossomed like
+a flower of spring, and where Othello's noble nature had suffered and
+sinned.
+
+
+  Forms of the later Elizabethan drama.
+
+  The pastoral drama.
+
+By the numerous body of poets who, contemporary with Shakespeare or in
+the next generation, cultivated the wide field of the national drama,
+every form commending itself to the tastes and sympathies of the
+national genius was essayed. None were neglected except those from which
+the spirit of English literature had been estranged by the Reformation,
+and those which had from the first been artificial importations of the
+Renaissance. The mystery could not in England, as in Spain, produce such
+an aftergrowth as the _auto_, and the confines of the religious drama
+were only now and then tentatively touched.[186] The direct imitations
+of classical examples were, except perhaps in the continued efforts of
+the academical drama, few and feeble. Chapman, while resorting to use of
+narrative in tragedy and perhaps otherwise indebted to ancient models,
+was no follower of them in essentials. S. Daniel (1562-1619) may be
+regarded as a belated disciple of Seneca,[187] while experiments like W.
+Alexander's (afterwards earl of Stirling) _Monarchicke Tragedies_[188]
+(1603-1605) are the mere isolated efforts of a student, and more
+exclusively so than Milton's imposing _Samson Agonistes_, which belongs
+to a later date (1677). At the opposite end of the dramatic scale, the
+light gaiety of the Italian and French farce could not establish itself
+on the English popular stage without more substantial adjuncts; the
+Englishman's festive digestion long continued robust, and he liked his
+amusements solid. In the pastoral drama and the mask, however, many
+English dramatists found special opportunities for the exercise of their
+lyrical gifts and of their inventive powers. The former could never
+become other than an exotic, so long as it retained the artificial
+character of its origin. Shakespeare had accordingly only blended
+elements derived from it into the action of his romantic comedies. In
+more or less isolated works Jonson, Fletcher, Daniel, Randolph, and
+others sought to rival Tasso and Guarini--Jonson[189] coming nearest to
+nationalizing an essentially foreign growth by the fresh simplicity of
+his treatment, Fletcher[190] bearing away the palm for beauty of poetic
+execution; Daniel being distinguished by simpler beauties of style in
+both verse and prose.[191]
+
+
+  The mask.
+
+The mask (or masque) was a more elastic kind of composition, mixing in
+varying proportions its constituent elements of declamation and
+dialogue, music and dancing, decoration and scenery. In its least
+elaborate literary form--which, of course, externally was the most
+elaborate--it closely approached the pageant; in other instances the
+distinctness of its characters or the fulness of the action introduced
+into its scheme, brought it nearer to the regular drama. A frequent
+ornament of Queen Elizabeth's progresses, it was cultivated with
+increased assiduity in the reign of James I., and in that of his
+successor outshone, by the favour it enjoyed with court and nobility,
+the attractions of the regular drama itself. Most of the later
+Elizabethan dramatists contributed to this species, upon which
+Shakespeare expended the resources of his fancy only incidentally in the
+course of his dramas; but by far the most successful writer of masks was
+Ben Jonson, of whose numerous compositions of this kind many hold a
+permanent place in English poetic literature, and "next" whom, in his
+own judgment, "only Fletcher and Chapman could write a mask." From a
+poetic point of view, however, they were at least rivalled by Dekker and
+Ford; in productivity and favour T. Campion, who was equally eminent as
+poet and as musician, seems for a time to have excelled. Inasmuch,
+however, as the history of the mask in England is to a great extent that
+of "painting and carpentry" and of Inigo Jones, and as, moreover, this
+kind of piece, while admitting dramatic elements, is of its nature
+occasional, it need not further be pursued here. The _Microcosmus_ of T.
+Nabbes (printed 1637), which is very like a morality, seems to have been
+the first mask brought upon the public stage. It was the performance of
+a mask by Queen Henrietta Maria and her ladies at Whitehall which had
+some years previously (1632) been thought to have supplied to the
+invective of _Histrio-Mastix_ against the stage the occasion for
+disloyal innuendo; and it was for the performance of a mask in a great
+nobleman's castle that Milton--a Puritan of a very different cast--not
+long afterwards (1634) wrote one of the loftiest and loveliest of
+English poems. _Comus_ has been judged and condemned as a
+drama--unjustly, for the dramatic qualities of a mask are not essential
+to it as a species. Yet its history in England remains inseparably
+connected with that of the Elizabethan drama. In later times the mask
+merged into the opera, or continued a humble life of its own apart from
+contact with higher literary effort. It is strange that later English
+poets should have done so little to restore to its nobler uses, and to
+invest with a new significance, a form so capable of further development
+as the poetic mask.
+
+
+  The later Elizabethan drama.
+
+The annals of English drama proper in the period reaching from the
+closing years of Elizabeth to the outbreak of the great Revolution
+include, together with numerous names relatively insignificant, many
+illustrious in the history of our poetic literature. Among Shakespeare's
+contemporaries and successors there is, however, but one who by the
+energy of his genius, not less than by the circumstances of his literary
+career, reached undisputed primacy among his fellows. Ben Jonson, to
+whom in his latter days a whole generation of younger writers did filial
+homage as to their veteran chief, was alone in full truth the founder of
+a school or family of dramatists. Yet his pre-eminence did not (whatever
+he or his followers may have thought) extend to both branches of the
+regular drama. In tragedy he fell short of the highest success; the
+weight of his learning lay too heavily upon his efforts to draw from
+deeper sources than those which had sufficed for Shakespeare. Such as
+they are, his tragic works[192] stand almost, though not quite, alone in
+this period as examples of sustained effort in historic tragedy proper.
+G. Chapman treated stirring themes, more especially from modern French
+history,[193] always with vigour, and at times with genuine
+effectiveness; but, though rich in beauties of detail, he failed in this
+branch of the drama to follow Shakespeare even at a distance in the
+supreme art of fully developing a character by means of the action.
+Mention has been made above of Ford's isolated effort in the direction
+of historic tragedy, as well as of excursions into the still popular
+domain of the chronicle history by T. Heywood, Dekker and others, which
+cannot be regarded as anything more than retrogressions. With the great
+body of the English dramatists of this and of the next period, tragedy
+had passed into a phase where its interest depended mainly upon plot and
+incident. The romantic tragedies and tragi-comedies which crowd English
+literature in this period constitute together a growth of at first sight
+astonishing exuberance, and in mere externals of theme--ranging as these
+plays do from Byzantium to ancient Britain, and from the Caesars of
+ancient Rome to the tyrants of the Renaissance--of equally astonishing
+variety. The sources from which these subjects were derived had been
+perennially augmenting. Besides Italian, Spanish and French fiction,
+original or translated, besides British legend in its Romance dress, and
+English fiction in its humbler or in its more ambitious and artificial
+forms, the contemporary foreign drama, especially the Spanish, offered
+opportunities for resort. To the English, as to the French and Italian
+drama, of both this and the following century, the prolific dramatists
+clustering round Lope de Vega and Calderon, and the native or
+naturalized fictions from which they drew their materials supplied a
+whole arsenal of plots, incidents and situations--among others to
+Middleton, to Webster, and most signally to Beaumont and Fletcher. And,
+in addition to these resources, a new field of supply was at hand since
+English dramatists had begun to regard events and episodes of domestic
+life as fit subjects for tragic treatment. Domestic tragedy of this
+description was indeed no novelty on the English stage; Shakespeare
+himself may have retouched with his master-hand more than one effort of
+this kind;[194] but T. Heywood may be set down as the first who achieved
+any work of considerable literary value of this class,[195] to which
+some of the plays of T. Dekker, T. Middleton, and others likewise more
+or less belong. Yet, in contrast to this wide variety of sources, and
+consequent apparent variety of themes, the number of _motives_
+employed--at least as a rule--in the tragic drama of this period was
+comparatively small and limited. Hence it is that, notwithstanding the
+diversity of subjects among the tragic dramas of such writers as
+Marston, Webster, Fletcher, Ford and Shirley, an impression of sameness
+is left upon us by a connected perusal of these works. Scheming
+ambition, conjugal jealousy, absolute female devotion, unbridled
+masculine passion--such are the motives which constantly recur in the
+Decameron of our later Elizabethan drama. And this impression is
+heightened by the want of moderation, by the extravagance of passion,
+which these dramatists so habitually exhibit in the treatment of their
+favourite themes. All the tragic poets of this period are not equally
+amenable to this charge; in J. Webster,[196] master as he is of the
+effects of the horrible, and in J. Ford,[197] surpassingly seductive in
+his sweetness, the monotony of exaggerated passion is broken by those
+marvellously sudden and subtle touches through which their tragic genius
+creates its most thrilling effects. Nor will the tendency to excess of
+passion which F. Beaumont and J. Fletcher undoubtedly exhibit be
+confounded with their distinctive power of sustaining tenderly pathetic
+characters and irresistibly moving situations in a degree unequalled by
+any of their contemporaries--a power seconded by a beauty of diction and
+softness of versification which for a time raised them to the highest
+pinnacle of popular esteem, and which entitles them in their
+conjunction, and Fletcher as an independent worker, to an enduring
+pre-eminence among their fellows. In their morals Beaumont and Fletcher
+are not above the level of their age. The manliness of sentiment and
+occasionally greater width of outlook which ennoble the rhetorical
+genius of P. Massinger, and the gift of poetic illustration which
+entitles J. Shirley to be remembered not merely as the latest and the
+most fertile of this group of dramatists, have less direct bearing upon
+the general character of the tragic art of the period. The common
+features of the romantic tragedy of this age are sufficiently marked;
+but they leave unobscured the distinctive features in its individual
+writers of which a discerning criticism has been able to take note.
+
+In comedy, on the other hand, the genius and the insight of Jonson
+pointed the way to a steady and legitimate advance. His theory of
+"humours" (which found the most palpable expression in two of his
+earliest plays[198]), if translated into the ordinary language of
+dramatic art, signifies the paramount importance in the comic drama of
+the presentation of distinctive human types. As such it survived by name
+into the Restoration age[199] and cannot be said to have ever died out.
+In the actual reproduction of humanity in its infinite but never, in his
+hands, alien variety, it was impossible that Shakespeare should be
+excelled by Jonson; but in the consciousness with which he recognized
+and indicated the highest sphere of a comic dramatist's labours, he
+rendered to the drama a direct service which the greater master had left
+unperformed. By the rest of his contemporaries and his successors, some
+of whom, such as R. Brome, were content avowedly to follow in his
+footsteps, Jonson was only occasionally rivalled in individual instances
+of comic creations; in the entirety of its achievements his genius as a
+comic dramatist remained unapproached. The favourite types of Jonsonian
+comedy, to which Dekker, J. Marston and Chapman had, though to no large
+extent, added others of their own, were elaborated with incessant zeal
+and remarkable effect by their contemporaries and successors. It was
+after a very different fashion from that in which the Roman comedians
+reiterated the ordinary types of the New Attic comedy, that the
+inexhaustible _verve_ of T. Middleton, the buoyant productivity of
+Fletcher, the observant humour of N. Field, and the artistic
+versatility of Shirley--not to mention many later and not necessarily
+minor names[200]--mirrored in innumerable pictures of contemporary life
+the undying follies and foibles of mankind. As comedians of manners more
+than one of these surpassed the old master, not indeed in distinctness
+and correctness--the fruits of the most painstaking genius that ever
+fitted a learned sock to the representation of the living realities of
+life--but in a lightness not incompatible with sureness of touch; while
+in the construction of plots the access of abundant new materials, and
+the greater elasticity in treatment resulting from accumulated
+experience, enabled them to advance from success to success. Thus the
+comic dramatic literature from Jonson to Shirley is unsurpassed as a
+comedy of manners, while as a comedy of character it at least defies
+comparison with any other national literary growth preceding or
+contemporaneous with it. Though the younger generation, of which W.
+Cartwright may be taken as an example, was unequal in originality or
+force to its predecessors, yet so little exhausted was the vitality of
+the species, that its traditions survived the _interregnum_ of the
+Revolution, and connected themselves more closely than is sometimes
+assumed with later growths of English comedy.
+
+
+  The later academical drama.
+
+Such was also the case with a special growth which had continued side by
+side, but in growing frequency of contact, with the progress of the
+national drama. The academical drama of the later Elizabethan period and
+of the first two Stuart reigns by no means fell off either in activity
+or in variety from that of the preceding generations. At Oxford, after
+an apparent break of several years--though in the course of these one or
+two new plays, including a _Tancred_ by Sir Henry Wotton at Queen's,
+seem to have been produced--a long succession of English plays, some in
+Latin doubtless from time to time intervening, were performed, from the
+early years of the 17th century onwards to the dark days of the national
+theatre and beyond. The production of these plays was distributed among
+several colleges, among which the most conspicuously active were Christ
+Church and St John's, where a whole series of festal performances took
+place under the collective title of _The Christmas Prince_ (i.e. master
+of the Christmas revels). They included a wide variety of pieces, from
+the treatment by an author unnamed of the story of "Ovid's owne
+Narcissus" (1602) and S. Daniel's _Queen's Arcadia_ (1606) to Barten
+Holiday's _Technogamia_ (1618), a complicated allegory on the relations
+between the arts and sciences quite in the manner of the moralities;
+interspersed by romantic dramas of the ordinary contemporary type by T.
+Goffe (1591-1629), W. Cartwright, J. Maine (1604-1672) and others. At
+Cambridge the list of Latin and English academical plays, performed in
+the latter half of Elizabeth's reign at Trinity, St John's, Queen's and
+a few other colleges, contains several examples in each language which
+for one reason or another possess a special interest. Thus E. Forsett's
+_Pedantius_, probably acted at Trinity in 1581, ridicules a personage
+who lived very near the rose--the redoubtable Gabriel Harvey;[201] a
+_Laelia_, acted at Queen's in 1590 and again in 1598, resembles _Twelfth
+Night_ in part of its plot; while in _Silvanus_, performed in 1596,
+probably at St John's, there are certain striking similarities to _As
+You Like It_. These are in Latin, as are the comedies _Hispanus_
+(containing some curious allusions to the Armada, Drake and Dr Lopez)
+and _Machiavellus_, acted at St John's in 1597.[202] By far the most
+interesting of the English plays of the later Cambridge series, and, it
+may be averred, of the remains of the English academical drama as a
+whole, are the Parnassus Plays (q.v.), successively produced at St
+John's in 1598-1602, which illustrate with much truthfulness as well as
+fancy the relations between university life and the outside world,
+including the world of letters and of the stage. Upon a different, but
+also a very notable, aspect of English university life--the relations
+between town and gown--a partisan light is thrown by _Club-Law_, acted
+at Clare in 1599--and in G. Ruggle's celebrated Latin comedy of
+_Ignoramus_, twice acted by members of Clare at Trinity in 1615 before
+King James I. On one of these occasions were also produced in English T.
+Tomkis' comedy _Albumazar_ (a play absurdly attributed to Shakespeare),
+and Phineas Fletcher's _Sicelides_, a "piscatory" (i.e. a pastoral drama
+in which the place of the shepherds is taken by fishermen). Latin and
+English plays continued to be brought out in Cambridge till the year of
+the outbreak of the Civil War, T. Randolph and A. Cowley[203] being
+among the authors of some of the latest so produced; and with the
+Restoration the usage recommenced, the _Adelphi_ of Terence and other
+Latin comedies being performed as they had been a century earlier. A
+complete survey and classification of the English academical drama, for
+which the materials are at last being collected and compared, will prove
+of an importance which is only beginning to be recognized to the future
+historian of the English drama.
+
+
+  The stage.
+
+To return to the general current of that drama. The rivals against which
+it had to contend in the times with which its greatest epoch came to an
+end have in their turn been noticed. From the masks and triumphs at
+court and at the houses of the nobility, with their Olympuses and
+Parnassuses built by Inigo Jones, and filled with goddesses and nymphs
+clad in the gorgeous costumes designed by his inventive hand, to the
+city pageants and shows by land and water--from the tilts and
+tournaments at Whitehall to the more philosophical devices at the Inns
+of Court and the academical plays at the universities--down even to the
+brief but thrilling theatrical excitements of Bartholomew Fair and the
+"Ninevitical motions" of the puppets--in all these ways the various
+sections of the theatrical public were tempted aside. Foreign
+performers--French and Spanish actors, and even French actresses--paid
+visits to London. But the national drama held its ground. The art of
+acting maintained itself at least on the level to which it had been
+brought by Shakespeare's associates and contemporaries, Burbage and
+Heminge, Alleyn, Lewin, Taylor, and others "of the older sort." The
+profession of actor came to be more generally than of old separated from
+that of playwright, though they were still (as in the case of Field)
+occasionally combined. But this rather led to an increased appreciation
+of the artistic merit of actors who valued the dignity of their own
+profession and whose co-operation the authors learnt to esteem as of
+independent significance. The stage was purged from the barbarism of the
+old school of clowns. Women's parts were still acted by boys, many of
+whom attained to considerable celebrity; and a practice was thus
+continued which must assuredly have placed the English theatre at a
+considerable disadvantage as compared with the Spanish (where it never
+obtained), and which may, while it has been held to have facilitated
+freedom of fancy, more certainly encouraged the extreme licence of
+expression cherished by the dramatists. The arrangement of the stage,
+which facilitated a rapid succession of scenes without any necessity for
+their being organically connected with one another, remained essentially
+what it had been in Shakespeare's days; though the primitive expedients
+for indicating locality had begun to be occasionally exchanged for
+scenery more or less appropriate to the place of action. Costume was
+apparently cultivated with much greater care; and the English stage of
+this period had probably gone a not inconsiderable way in a direction to
+which it is obviously in the interests of the dramatic art to set some
+bounds, if it is to depend for its popular success upon its qualities as
+such, and upon the interpretation of its agents upon the stage. At the
+same time, the drama had begun largely to avail itself of adventitious
+aids to favour. The system of prologues and epilogues, and of
+dedications to published plays, was more uniformly employed than it had
+been by Shakespeare as the conventional method of recommending authors
+and actors to the favour of individual patrons, and to that of their
+chief patron, the public.
+
+
+  The drama and Puritanism.
+
+  Closing of the theatres.
+
+Up to the outbreak of the Civil War the drama in all its forms continued
+to enjoy the favour or good-will of the court, although a close
+supervision was exercised over all attempts to make the stage the
+vehicle of political references or allusions. The regular official agent
+of this supervision was the master of the revels; but under James I. a
+special ordinance, in harmony with the king's ideas concerning the
+dignity of the throne, was passed "against representing any modern
+Christian king in plays on the stage." The theatre could hardly expect
+to be allowed a liberty of speech in reference to matters of state
+denied to the public at large; and occasional attempts to indulge in the
+freedom of criticism dear to the spirit of comedy met with more or less
+decisive repression and punishment.[204] But the sympathies of the
+dramatists were so entirely on the side of the court that the real
+difficulties against which the theatre had to contend came from a
+directly opposite quarter. With the growth of Puritanism the feeling of
+hostility to the stage increased in a large part of the population, well
+represented by the civic authorities of the capital. This hostility
+found many ways of expressing itself. The attempts to suppress the
+Blackfriars theatre (1619, 1631, 1633) proved abortive; but the
+representation of stage-plays continued to be prohibited on Sundays, and
+during the prevalence of the plague in London in 1637 was temporarily
+suspended altogether. The desire of the Puritans of the more pronounced
+type openly aimed at a permanent closing of the theatres. The war
+between them and the dramatists was accordingly of a life-and-death
+kind. On the one hand, the drama heaped its bitterest and often coarsest
+attacks upon whatever savoured of the Puritan spirit; gibes, taunts,
+caricatures in ridicule and aspersion of Puritans and Puritanism make up
+a great part of the comic literature of the later Elizabethan drama and
+of its aftergrowth in the reigns of the first two Stuarts. This feeling
+of hostility, to which Shakespeare was no stranger,[205] though he
+cannot be connected with the authorship of one of its earliest and
+coarsest expressions,[206] rose into a spirit of open defiance in some
+of the masterpieces of Ben Jonson;[207] and the comedies of his
+contemporaries and successors[208] abound in caricatured reproductions
+of the more common or more extravagant types of Puritan life. On the
+other hand, the moral defects, the looseness of tone, the mockery of
+ties sanctioned by law and consecrated by religion, the tendency to
+treat middle-class life as the hunting-ground for the diversions of the
+upper classes, which degraded so much of the dramatic literature of the
+age, intensified the Puritan opposition to all and any stage plays. A
+patient endeavour to reform instead of suppressing the drama was not to
+be looked for from such adversaries, should they ever possess the means
+of carrying out their views; and whenever Puritanism should victoriously
+assert itself in the state, the stage was doomed. Among the attacks
+directed against it in its careless heyday of prosperity Prynne's
+_Histrio-Mastix_ (1632), while it involved its author in shamefully
+cruel persecution, did not remain wholly without effect upon the tone of
+the dramatic literature of the subsequent period; but the quarrel
+between Puritanism and the theatre was too old and too deep to end in
+any but one way, so soon as the latter was deprived of its protectors.
+The Civil War began in August 1642; and early in the following month was
+published the ordinance of the Lords and Commons, which, after a brief
+and solemn preamble, commanded "that while these sad causes and
+set-times of humiliation do continue, public stage plays shall cease and
+be forborne." Many actors and playwrights followed the fortunes of the
+royal cause in the field; some may have gone into a more or less
+voluntary exile; upon those who lingered on in the familiar haunts the
+hand of power lay heavy; and, though there seems reason to believe that
+dramatic entertainments of one kind or another continued to be
+occasionally presented, stringent ordinances gave summary powers to
+magistrates against any players found engaged in such proceedings
+(1647), and bade them treat all stage-players as rogues, and pull down
+all stage galleries, seats and boxes (1648). A few dramatic works were
+published in this period;[209] while at fairs about the country were
+acted farces called "drolls," consisting of the most vulgar scenes to be
+found in popular plays. Thus, the life of the drama was not absolutely
+extinguished; and its darkest day proved briefer than perhaps either its
+friends or its foes could have supposed.
+
+
+  Revival of the drama.
+
+Already "in Oliver's time" private performances took place from time to
+time at noblemen's houses and (though not undisturbed) in the old haunt
+of the drama, the Red Bull. In 1656 the ingenuity of Sir William
+Davenant whose name (though not really so significant in the dramatic as
+in another field of English literature) is memorable as connecting
+together two distinct periods in it, ventured on a bolder step in the
+production of a quasi-dramatic entertainment "of declamation and music";
+and in the following year he brought out with scenery and music a piece
+which was afterwards in an enlarged form acted and printed as the first
+part of his opera, _The Siege of Rhodes_. This entertainment he
+afterwards removed from the private house where it had been produced to
+the Cockpit, where he soon ventured upon the performance of regular
+plays written by himself. Thus, under the cover of two sister arts,
+whose aid was in the sequel to prove by no means altogether beneficial
+to its progress, the English drama had boldly anticipated the
+Restoration, and was no longer hiding its head when that much-desired
+event was actually brought about. Soon after Charles II.'s entry into
+London, two theatrical companies are known to have been acting in the
+capital. For these companies patents were soon granted, under the names
+of "the Duke (of York)'s" and "the King's Servants," to Davenant and one
+of the brothers Killigrew respectively--the former from 1662 acting at
+Lincoln's Inn Fields, then at Dorset Garden in Salisbury Court, the
+latter from 1663 at the Theatre Royal near Drury Lane. These companies
+were united from 1682, a royal licence being granted in 1695 to a rival
+company which performed in Lincoln's Inn Fields, and which migrated to
+Covent Garden in 1733. Meanwhile, Vanbrugh had in 1705 built the theatre
+in the Haymarket; and a theatre in Goodman's Fields--afterwards rendered
+famous by the first appearance of Garrick--led a fitful existence from
+1729 to 1733. The act of 1737 deprived the crown of the power of
+licensing any more theatres; so that the history of the English stage
+for a long period was confined to a restricted area. The rule which
+prevailed after the Restoration, that neither of the rival companies
+should ever attempt a play produced by the other, operated beneficially
+both upon the activity of dramatic authorship and upon the progress of
+the art of acting, which was not exposed to the full effects of that
+deplorable spirit of personal rivalry which too often leads even most
+intelligent actors to attempt parts for which they have no special
+qualification. There can be little doubt that the actor's art has rarely
+flourished more in England than in the days of T. Betterton and his
+contemporaries, among whose names those of Hart, Mohun, Kynaston, Nokes,
+Mrs Barry, Mrs Betterton, Mrs Bracegirdle and Mrs Eleanor Gwyn have,
+together with many others, survived in various connexions among the
+memories of the Restoration age. No higher praise has ever been given to
+an actor than that which Addison bestowed upon Betterton, in describing
+his performance of _Othello_ as a proof that Shakespeare could not have
+written the most striking passages of the character otherwise than he
+has done.
+
+
+  The Irish stage.
+
+It may here be noticed that the fortunes of the Irish theatre in general
+followed those of the English, of which of course it was merely a
+branch. Of native dramatic compositions in earlier times not a trace
+remains in Ireland; and the drama was introduced into that country as an
+English exotic--apparently already in the reign of Henry VIII., and more
+largely in that of Elizabeth. The first theatre in Dublin was built in
+1635; but in 1641 it was closed, and even after the Restoration the
+Irish stage continued in a precarious condition till near the end of the
+century. About that time an extraordinarily strong taste for the theatre
+took possession of Irish society, and during the greater part of the
+18th century the Dublin stage rivalled the English in the brilliancy of
+its stars. Betterton's rival, R. Wilks, Garrick's predecessor in the
+homage paid to Shakespeare, Macklin, and his competitor for favour, the
+"silver-tongued" Barry, were alike products of the Irish stage, as were
+Mrs Woffington and other well-known actresses. Nor should it be
+forgotten that three of the foremost English writers of comedy in its
+later days, Congreve, Farquhar and Sheridan, were Irish, the first by
+education, and the latter two by birth also.
+
+
+  The later Stuart drama.
+
+Already in the period preceding the outbreak of the Civil War the
+English drama had perceptibly sunk from the height to which it had been
+raised by the great Elizabethans. When it had once more recovered
+possession of that arena with which no living drama can dispense, it
+would have been futile to demand that the dramatists should return
+altogether into the ancient paths, unaffected by the influences, native
+or foreign, in operation around them. But there was no reason why the
+new drama should not, like the Elizabethan, have been true in spirit to
+the higher purposes of the dramatic art, to the nobler tendencies of the
+national life, and to the demands of moral law. Because the later Stuart
+drama as a whole proved untrue to these, and, while following its own
+courses, never more than partially returned from the aberrations to
+which it condemned itself, its history is that of a decay which the
+indisputable brilliancy, borrowed or original, of many of its
+productions is incapable of concealing.
+
+
+  Tragedy.
+
+Owing in part to the influence of the French theatre, which by this time
+had taken the place of the Spanish as the ruling drama of Europe, the
+separation between tragedy and comedy is clearly marked in
+post-Restoration plays. Comic scenes are still occasionally introduced
+into tragedies by some dramatists who adhered more closely to the
+Elizabethan models (such as Otway and Crowne), but the practice fell
+into disuse; while the endeavour to elevate comedy by pathetic scenes
+and motives is one of the characteristic marks of the beginning of
+another period in English dramatic literature. The successive phases
+through which English tragedy passed in the later Stuart times cannot be
+always kept distinct from one another; and the guidance offered by the
+theories put forth by some of the dramatists in support of their
+practice is often delusive. Following the example of Corneille, Dryden
+and his contemporaries and successors were fond of proclaiming their
+adherence to this or that principle of dramatic construction or form,
+and of upholding, with much show of dialectical acumen, maxims derived
+by them from French or other sources, or elaborated with modifications
+and variations of their own, but usually amounting to little more than
+what Scott calls "certain romantic whimsical imitations of the dramatic
+art." Students of the drama will find much entertainment and much
+instruction in these prefaces, apologies, dialogues and treatises. They
+will acknowledge that Dryden's incomparable vigour does not desert him
+either in the exposing or in the upholding of fallacies, while _le bon
+sens_, which he hardly ever fails to exhibit, and which is a more
+eclectic gift than common-sense, serves as a sure guide to the best
+intelligence of his age. Even Rymer,[210] usually regarded as having
+touched the nadir of dramatic criticism, will be found to be not wholly
+without grains of salt. But Restoration tragedy itself must not be
+studied by the light of Restoration criticism. So long as any dramatic
+power remained in the tragic poets--and it is absent from none of the
+chief among them from Dryden to Rowe--the struggle between fashion
+(disguised as theory) and instinct (tending in the direction of the
+Elizabethan traditions) could never wholly determine itself in favour of
+the former.
+
+Lord Orrery, in deference, as he declares, to the expressed tastes of
+his sovereign King Charles II. himself, was the first to set up the
+standard of _heroic plays_.[211] This new species of tragedy (for such
+it professed to be) commended itself by its novel choice of themes, to a
+large extent supplied by recent French romance--the _romans de longue
+haleine_ of the Scudérys and their contemporaries--and by French plays
+treating similar themes. It likewise borrowed from France that garb of
+rhyme which the English drama had so long abandoned, and which now
+reappeared in the heroic couplet. But the themes which to readers of
+novels might seem of their nature inexhaustible could not long suffice
+to satisfy the more capricious appetite of theatrical audiences; and the
+form, in the application which it was more or less sought to enforce for
+it, was doomed to remain an exotic. In conjunction with his
+brother-in-law Sir R. Howard,[212] and afterwards more confidently by
+himself,[213] Dryden threw the incomparable vigour and brilliancy of his
+genius into the scale, which soon rose to the full height of fashionable
+popularity. At first he claimed for English tragedy the right to combine
+her native inheritance of freedom with these valuable foreign
+acquisitions.[214] Nor was he dismayed by the ridicule which the
+celebrated burlesque (by the duke of Buckingham and others) of _The
+Rehearsal_ (1671) cast upon heroic plays, without discriminating between
+them and such other materials for ridicule as the contemporary drama
+supplied to its facetious authors, but returned[215] to the defence of a
+species which he was himself in the end to abandon.[216] The desire for
+change proved stronger than the love of consistency--which in Dryden was
+never more than theoretical. After summoning tragedy to rival the
+freedom (without disdaining the machinery) of opera--with whose birth
+its own revival was as a matter of fact simultaneous--he came to
+recognize in characterization the truest secret of the master-spirit of
+the Elizabethan drama,[217] and after audaciously, but in one instance
+not altogether unhappily, essaying to rival Shakespeare on his own
+ground,[218] produced under the influence of the same views at least one
+work of striking merit.[219] But he was already growing weary of the
+stage itself as well as of the rhymed heroic drama; and, though he put
+an end to the species to which he had given temporary vitality, he
+failed effectively to point the way to a more legitimate development of
+English tragedy. Among the other tragic poets of this period, N. Lee, in
+the outward form of his dramas, accommodated his practice to that of
+Dryden, with whom he occasionally co-operated as a dramatist, and like
+whom he allowed political partisanship to intrude upon the stage.[220]
+His rhetorical genius was not devoid of genuine energy, nor is he to be
+regarded as a mere imitator. T. Otway, the most gifted tragic poet of
+the younger generation contemporary with Dryden, inherited something of
+the spirit of the Elizabethan drama; he possessed a real gift of tragic
+pathos and melting tenderness; but his genius had a worse alloy than
+stageyness, and, though he was often happy in his novel choice of
+themes, his most successful efforts fail to satisfy tests supplementary
+to that of the stage.[221] Among dramatists who contributed to the vogue
+of the "heroic" play may be mentioned J. Bankes, J. Weston, C. Hopkins,
+E. Cooke, R. Gould, S. Pordage, T. Rymer and Elkanah Settle. The
+productivity of J. Crowne (d. c. 1703)[222] covers part of the earlier
+period as well as of the later, to which properly belong T. Southerne, a
+writer gifted with much pathetic power, but probably chiefly indebted
+for his long-lived popularity to his skill in the discovery of
+"sensational" plots; and Lord Lansdowne ("Granville the polite") (c.
+1667-1735). Congreve, by virtue of a single long celebrated but not
+really remarkable tragedy,[223] and N. Rowe, may be further singled out
+from the list of the tragic dramatists of this period, many of whom
+were, like their comic contemporaries, mere translators or adapters from
+the French. The tragedies of Rowe, whose direct services to the study of
+Shakespeare deserve remembrance, indicate with singular distinctness the
+transition from the fuller declamatory style of Dryden to the calmer and
+thinner manner of Addison.[224] In tragedy (as to a more marked degree
+in comedy) the excesses (both of style and subject) of the past period
+of the English drama had produced an inevitable reaction; decorum was
+asserting its claims on the stage as in society; and French tragedy had
+set the example of sacrificing what passion--and what vigour--it
+retained in favour of qualities more acceptable to the "reformed" court
+of Louis XIV. Addison, in allowing his _Cato_ to take its chance upon
+the stage, when a moment of political excitement (April 1713) ensured to
+it an extraordinary success, to which no feature in it corresponds,
+except an unusual number of lines predestined to become familiar
+quotations, unconsciously sealed the doom of English national tragedy.
+The "first reasonable English tragedy," as Voltaire called it, had been
+produced, and the oscillations of the tragic drama of the Restoration
+were at an end.
+
+
+  Comedy.
+
+English comedy in this period displayed no similar desire to cut itself
+off from the native soil, though it freely borrowed the materials for
+its plots and many of its figures from Spanish, and afterwards more
+generally from French, originals. The spirit of the old romantic comedy
+had long since fled; the graceful artificialities of the pastoral drama,
+even the light texture of the mask, ill suited the demands of an age
+which made no secret to itself of the grossness of its sensuality. With
+a few unimportant exceptions, such poetic elements as admitted of being
+combined with the poetic drama were absorbed by the opera and the
+ballet. No new species of the comic drama formed itself, though towards
+the close of the period may be noticed the beginnings of modern English
+farce. Political and religious partisanship, generally in accordance
+with the dominant reaction against Puritanism, were allowed to find
+expression in the directest and coarsest forms upon the stage, and to
+hasten the necessity for a more systematic control than even the times
+before the Revolution had found requisite. At the same time the
+unblushing indecency which the Restoration had spread through court and
+capital had established its dominion over the comic stage, corrupting
+the manners, and with them the morals, of its dramatists, and forbidding
+them, at the risk of seeming dull, to be anything but improper. Much of
+this found its way even into the epilogues, which, together with the
+prologues, proved so important an adjunct of the Restoration drama.
+These influences determine the general character of what is with a more
+than chronological meaning termed the comedy of the Restoration. In
+construction, the national love of fulness and solidity of dramatic
+treatment induced its authors to alter what they borrowed from foreign
+sources, adding to complicated Spanish plots characters of native
+English directness, and supplementing single French plots by the
+addition of others.[225] At the same time, the higher efforts of French
+comedy of character, as well as the refinement of expression in the list
+of their models, notably in Molière, were alike seasoned to suit the
+coarser appetites and grosser palates of English patrons. The English
+comic writers often succeeded in strengthening the borrowed texture of
+their plays, but they never added comic humour without at the same time
+adding coarseness of their own. Such were the productions of Sir George
+Etheredge, Sir Charles Sedley, and the "mob of gentlemen who wrote with
+ease"; nor was there any signal difference between their productions and
+those of a playwright-actor such as J. Lacy (d. 1681), and a
+professional dramatist of undoubted ability such as J. Crowne. Such,
+though often displaying the brilliancy of a genius which even where it
+sank could never wholly abandon its prerogative, were, it must be
+confessed, the comedies of Dryden himself. On the other hand, the lowest
+literary deeps of the Restoration drama were sounded by T. D'Urfey,
+while of its moral degradation the "divine Astraea," the "unspeakable"
+Mrs Aphra Behn, has an indefeasible title to be considered the most
+faithful representative. T. Shadwell, fated, like the tragic poet
+Elkanah Settle, to be chiefly remembered as a victim of Dryden's satire,
+deserves more honourable mention. Like J. Wilson, whose plays seem to
+class him with the pre-Restoration dramatists, Shadwell had caught
+something not only of the art, but also of the spirit, of Ben Jonson;
+but in most of his works he was, like the rest of his earlier
+contemporaries, and like the brilliant group which succeeded them,
+content to take his moral tone from the reckless society for which, or
+in deference to the tastes of which, he wrote.[226] The absence of a
+moral sense, which, together with a grossness of expression often
+defying exaggeration, characterizes English comic dramatists from the
+days of Dryden to those of Congreve, is the main cause of their failure
+to satisfy the demands which are legitimately to be made upon their art.
+They essayed to draw character as well as to paint manners, but they
+rarely proved equal to the former and higher task; and, while choosing
+the means which most readily commended their plays to the favour of
+their immediate public, they achieved but little as interpreters of
+those essential distinctions which their art is capable of
+illustrating.[227] Within these limits, though occasionally passing
+beyond them, and always with the same deference to the immoral tone
+which seemed to have become an indispensable adjunct of the comic style,
+even the greatest comic authors of this age moved. W. Wycherley was a
+comic dramatist of real power, who drew his characters with vigour and
+distinctness, and constructed his plots and chose his language with
+natural ease. He lacks gaiety of spirit, and his wit is of a cynical
+turn. But, while he ruthlessly uncloaks the vices of his age, his own
+moral tone is affected by their influence in as marked a degree as that
+of the most light-hearted of his contemporaries.[228] The most brilliant
+of these was indisputably W. Congreve, who is not only one of the very
+wittiest of English writers, but equally excels in the graceful ease of
+his dialogue, and draws his characters and constructs his plots with the
+same masterly skill. His chief fault as a dramatist is one of
+excess--the brilliancy of the dialogue, whoever be the speaker,
+overpowers the distinction between the "humours" of his personages.
+Though he is less brutal in expression than "manly" Wycherley, and less
+coarse than the lively Sir J. Vanbrugh, licentiousness in him as in them
+corrupts the spirit of his comic art; but of his best though not most
+successful play[229] it must be allowed that the issue of the main plot
+is on the side of virtue. G. Farquhar, whose morality is on a par with
+that of the other members of this group, is inferior to them in
+brilliancy; but as pictures of manners in a wider sphere of life than
+that which contemporary comedy usually chose to illustrate, two of his
+plays deserve to be noticed, in which we already seem to be entering the
+atmosphere of the 18th-century novel.[230] His influence upon Lessing is
+a remarkable fact in the international history of dramatic literature.
+
+
+  Sentimental comedy.
+
+The improvement which now begins to manifest itself in the moral tone
+and spirit of English comedy is partly due to the reaction against the
+reaction of the Restoration, partly to the punishment which the excesses
+of the comic stage had brought upon it in the invective of Jeremy
+Collier[231] (1698), of all the assaults the theatre in England has had
+to undergo the best-founded, and that which produced the most
+perceptible results. The comic poets, who had always been more or less
+conscious of their sins, and had at all events not defended them by the
+ingenious sophistries which it has pleased later literary criticism to
+suggest on their behalf, now began with uneasy merriment to allude in
+their prologues to the reformation which had come over the spirit of the
+town. Writers like Mrs Centlivre became anxious to reclaim their
+offenders with much emphasis in the fifth act; and Colley Cibber--whose
+_Apology for his Life_ furnishes a useful view of this and the
+subsequent period of the history of the stage, with which he was
+connected as author, manager and actor (excelling in this capacity as
+representative of those fools with which he peopled the comic
+stage)[232]--may be credited with having first deliberately made the
+pathetic treatment of a moral sentiment the basis of the action of a
+comic drama. But he cannot be said to have consistently pursued the vein
+which in his _Careless Husband_ (1704) he had essayed. His _Non-Juror_
+is a political adaptation of _Tartuffe_; and his almost equally
+celebrated _Provoked Husband_ only supplied a happy ending to Vanbrugh's
+unfinished play. Sir R. Steele, in accordance with his general
+tendencies as a writer, pursued a still more definite moral purpose in
+his comedies; but his genius perhaps lacked the sustained vigour
+necessary for a dramatist, and his humour naturally sought the aid of
+pathos. From partial[233] he passed to more complete[234] experiment;
+and thus these two writers, who transplanted to the comic stage a
+tendency towards the treatment of domestic themes noticeable in such
+writers of Restoration tragedy as Southerne and Rowe, became the
+founders of _sentimental comedy_, a species which exercised a most
+depressing influence upon the progress of English drama, and helped to
+hasten the decline of its comic branch. With _Cato_ English tragedy
+committed suicide, though its pale ghost survived; with _The Conscious
+Lovers_ English comedy sank for long into the tearful embraces of
+artificiality and weakness.
+
+
+  The drama and stage in the period before Garrick.
+
+  Garrick.
+
+During the 18th century the productions of dramatic literature were
+still as a rule legitimately designed to meet the demands of the stage,
+from which its higher efforts afterwards to so large an extent became
+dissociated. The goodwill of most sections of the public continued to be
+steadily accorded to a theatre which had ceased to defy the accepted
+laws and traditions of morality; and the opposition still aroused by it
+was confined to a small minority of thinkers, though these included some
+who were far from being puritans. John Dennis was not thought to have
+the worst of the controversy, when he defended the stage against the
+attack of an opponent far above him in stature--the great mystic William
+Law[235]--and to John Wesley himself it seemed that "a great deal more
+might be said in defence of seeing a serious tragedy" than of taking
+part in the amusements of bear-baiting and cock-fighting. On the other
+hand, the demands of the stage and those of its patrons and of the
+public of the "Augustan" age, and of that which succeeded it, were, in
+general, fast bound by the trammels of a taste with which a revival of
+the poetic drama long remained irreconcilable. There is every reason to
+conclude that the art of acting progressed in the same direction of
+artificiality, and became stereotyped in forms corresponding to the
+"chant" which represented tragic declamation in a series of actors
+ending with Quin and Macklin. In the latter must be recognized features
+of a precursor, but it was reserved to the genius of Garrick, whose
+theatrical career extended from 1741 to 1776, to open a new era in his
+art. His unparalleled success was due in the first instance to his
+incomparable natural gifts; yet these were indisputably enhanced by a
+careful and continued literary training, and ennobled by a purpose
+which prompted him to essay the noblest, as he was capable of performing
+the most various, range of English theatrical characters. By devoting
+himself as actor and manager with special zeal to the production of
+Shakespeare, Garrick permanently popularized on the national stage the
+greatest creations of English drama, and indirectly helped to seal the
+doom of what survived of the tendency to maintain in the most ambitious
+walks of dramatic literature the nerveless traditions of the
+pseudo-classical school. A generation of celebrated actors and
+actresses, many of whom live for us in the drastic epigrams of
+Churchill's _Rosciad_ (1761), were his helpmates or his rivals; but
+their fame has paled, while his is destined to endure as that of one of
+the typical masters of his art.
+
+
+  Decline of tragedy.
+
+The contrast between the tragedy of the 18th century and those plays of
+Shakespeare and one or two other Elizabethans which already before
+Garrick were known to the English stage, was weakened by the mutilated
+form in which the old masterpieces generally, if not always, made their
+appearance there. Even so, however, there are perhaps few instances in
+theatrical history in which so unequal a competition was so long
+sustained. In the hands of the tragic poets of the age of Pope, as well
+as that of Johnson, tragedy had hopelessly stiffened into the forms of
+its accepted French models. Direct reproductions of these continued, as
+in Ambrose Philips's and Charles Johnson's (1679-1748) translations from
+Racine, and Aaron Hill's from Voltaire. Among other tragic dramatists of
+the earlier part of the century may be mentioned J. Hughes, who, after
+assisting Addison in his _Cato_, produced at least one praiseworthy
+tragedy of his own;[236] E. Fenton, a joint translator of "Pope's
+_Homer_" and the author of one extremely successful drama on a theme of
+singularly enduring interest,[237] and L. Theobald the first hero of the
+_Dunciad_, who, besides translations of Greek dramas, produced a few
+more or less original plays, one of which he was daring enough to father
+upon Shakespeare.[238] A more distinguished name is that of J. Thomson,
+whose unlucky _Sophonisba_ and subsequent tragedies are, however, barely
+remembered by the side of his poems (_The Seasons_, &c.). The literary
+genius of E. Young, on the other hand, possessed vigour and variety
+enough to distinguish his tragedies from the ordinary level of Augustan
+plays; in one of them he seems to challenge comparison in the treatment
+of his theme with a very different rival,[239] but by his main
+characteristics as a dramatist he belongs to the school of his
+contemporaries. The endeavour of G. Lillo, in his _London Merchant, or
+George Barnwell_ (1731), to bring the tragic lessons of terror and pity
+directly home to his fellow-citizens exercised an extraordinarily
+widespread as well as enduring effect on the history of the 18th-century
+drama. At home, they gave birth to the new, or, more properly speaking,
+to the revived, species of domestic tragedy, which connects itself more
+or less closely with a notable epoch in the history of English
+prose-fiction as well as of English painting. Abroad, this play--whose
+success was of the kind which nothing can kill--supplied the text to the
+teachings of Diderot, as well as an example to his own dramatic
+attempts; and through Diderot the impulse communicated itself to
+Lessing, and long exercised a great effect upon the literature of the
+German stage. At the same time, it must be allowed that Lillo's
+pedestrian muse failed in the end to satisfy higher artistic demands
+than those met in his most popular play, while in another[240] she was
+less consciously guilty of an aberration towards that "tragedy of
+destiny," which, in the modern drama at least, obscures the ethical
+character of all tragic actions. "Classical" tragedy in the generation
+of Dr Johnson pursued the even tenor of its way, the dictator himself
+treading with solemn footfall in the accustomed path,[241] and W. Mason
+making the futile attempt to produce a close imitation of Greek
+models.[242] The best-remembered tragedy of the century, Home's
+_Douglas_ (1757), was the production of an author whose famous kinsman,
+David Hume (though no friend of the contemporary English stage), had
+advised him "to read Shakespeare, but to get Racine and Voltaire by
+heart." The indisputable merits of the play cannot blind us to the fact
+that _Douglas_ is the offspring of _Merope_.
+
+
+  English opera.
+
+While thus no high creative talent arose to revive the poetic genius of
+English tragedy, comedy, which had to contend against the same rivals,
+naturally met the demands of the conflict with greater buoyancy. The
+history of the most formidable of those rivals, Music, forms no part of
+this sketch; but the points of contact between its progress and the
+history of dramatic literature cannot be altogether left out of sight.
+H. Purcell's endeavours to unite English music to the words of English
+poets were now a thing of the past; analogous attempts in the direction
+of musical dialogue, which have been insufficiently noticed, had
+likewise proved transitory; and the isolated efforts of Addison[243] and
+others to recover the operatic stage for the native tongue had proved
+powerless. Italian texts, which had first made their entrance piecemeal,
+in the end asserted themselves in their entirety; and the marvellously
+assimilative genius of Handel completed the triumphs of a form of art
+which no longer had any connexion with the English drama, and which
+reached the height of its fashionable popularity about the time when
+Garrick began to adorn the national stage. In one form, however, the
+English opera was preserved as a pleasing species of the popular drama.
+The pastoral drama had (in 1725) produced an isolated aftergrowth in
+Allan Ramsay's _Gentle Shepherd_, which, with genuine freshness and
+humour, but without a trace of burlesque, transferred to the scenery of
+the Pentland Hills the lovely tale of Florizel and Perdita. The dramatic
+form of this poem is only an accident, but it doubtless suggested an
+experiment of a different kind to the most playful of London wits. Gay's
+"Newgate Pastoral" of _The Beggar's Opera_ (1728), in which the amusing
+text of a burlesque farce was interspersed with songs set to popular
+airs, caught the fancy of the town by this novel combination, and became
+the ancestor of a series of agreeable productions, none of which,
+however, not even its own continuation, _Polly_ (amazingly successful in
+book form, after its production was forbidden by the lord chamberlain),
+have ever rivalled it in success or celebrity. Among these may be
+mentioned the pieces of I. Bickerstaffe[244] and C. Dibdin.[245] The
+opera in England, as elsewhere, thus absorbed what vitality remained to
+the pastoral drama, while to the ballet and the pantomime (whose glories
+in England began at Covent Garden in 1733, and to whose popularity even
+Garrick was obliged to defer) was left (in the 18th century at all
+events) the inheritance of the external attractions of the mask and the
+pageant.
+
+
+  Comedy. Burlesque.
+
+  The Licensing Act.
+
+In the face of such various rivalries it is not strange that comedy,
+instead of adhering to the narrow path which Steele and others had
+marked out for her, should have permitted herself some vagaries of her
+own. Gay's example pointed the way to a fatally facile form of the comic
+art; and burlesque began to contribute its influence to the decline of
+comedy. In an age when party-government was severely straining the
+capabilities of its system, dramatic satire had not far to look for a
+source of effective seasonings. The audacity of H. Fielding, whose
+regular comedies (original or adapted) have secured no enduring
+remembrance, but whose love of parody was afterwards to suggest to him
+the theme of the first of the novels which have made his name immortal,
+accordingly ventured in two extravaganzas[246] (so we should call them
+in these days) upon a larger admixture of political with literary and
+other satire. A third attempt[247] (which never reached the stage)
+furnished the offended minister, Sir Robert Walpole, with the desired
+occasion for placing a curb upon the licence of the theatre, such as
+had already been advocated by a representative of its old civic
+adversaries. The famous act of 1737 asserted no new principle, but
+converted into legal power the customary authority hither exercised by
+the lord chamberlain (to whom it had descended from the master of the
+revels). The regular censorship which this act established has not
+appreciably affected the literary progress of the English drama, and the
+objections which have been raised against it seem to have addressed
+themselves to practice rather than to principle. The liberty of the
+stage is a question differing in its conditions from that of the liberty
+of speech in general, or even from that of the liberty of the press; and
+occasional lapses of official judgment weigh lightly in the balance
+against the obvious advantages of a system which in a free country needs
+only the vigilance of public opinion to prevent its abuse. The policy of
+the restraint which the act of 1737 put upon the number of playhouses is
+a different, but has long become an obsolete, question.[248]
+
+
+  Comedy in the latter half of the 18th century.
+
+Brought back into its accustomed grooves, English comedy seemed inclined
+to leave to farce the domain of healthy ridicule, and to coalesce with
+domestic tragedy in the attempt to make the stage a vehicle of homespun
+didactic morality. Farce had now become a genuine English species, and
+has as such retained its vitality through all the subsequent fortunes of
+the stage; it was actively cultivated by Garrick as both actor and
+author; and he undoubtedly had more than a hand in the very best farce
+of this age, which is ascribed to clerical authorship.[249] S. Foote,
+whose comedies[250] and farces are distinguished both by wit and by
+variety of characters (though it was an absurd misapplication of a great
+name to call him the English Aristophanes), introduced into comic acting
+the abuse of personal mimicry, for the exhibition of which he
+ingeniously invented a series of entertainments, the parents of a long
+progeny of imitations. Meanwhile, the domestic drama of the sentimental
+kind achieved, though not immediately, a success only inferior to that
+of _The London Merchant_, in _The Gamester_ of E. Moore, to which
+Garrick seems to have directly contributed;[251] and sentimental comedy
+courted sympathetic applause in the works of A. Murphy, the single
+comedy of W. Whitehead,[252] and the earliest of H. Kelly.[153] It
+cannot be said that this species was extinguished, as it is sometimes
+assumed to have been, by O. Goldsmith; but he certainly published a
+direct protest against it between the production of his admirable
+character-comedy of _The Good-Natured Man_, and his delightfully brisk
+and fresh _She Stoops to Conquer_, which, after startling critical
+propriety from its self-conceit, taught comedy no longer to fear being
+true to herself. The most successful efforts of the elder G. Colman[254]
+had in them something of the spirit of genuine comedy, besides a finish
+which, however playwrights may shut their eyes to the fact, is one of
+the qualities which ensure a long life to a play. And in the
+masterpieces of R. B. Sheridan some of the happiest features of the
+comedy of Congreve were revived, together with its too uniform
+brilliancy of dialogue, but without its indecency of tone. The varnish
+of the age is indeed upon the style, and the hollowness of its morality
+in much of the sentiment (even where that sentiment is meant for the
+audience) of _The Rivals_ and _The School for Scandal_; but in tact of
+construction, in distinctness of characters, and in pungency of social
+satire, they are to be ranked among the glories of English comedy.
+Something in Sheridan's style, but quite without his brilliancy, is the
+most successful play[255] of the unfortunate General Burgoyne. R.
+Cumberland, who too consciously endeavoured to excel both in sentimental
+morality and in comic characterization, in which he was devoid of depth,
+closes the list of authors of higher pretensions who wrote for the
+theatre.[256] Like him, Mrs Cowley[257] ("Anna Matilda"), T.
+Holcroft,[258] and G. Colman the younger,[259] all writers of popular
+comedies, as well as the prolific J. O'Keefe (1746-1833), who
+contributed to nearly every species of the comic drama, survived into
+the 19th century. To an earlier date belong the favourite burlesques of
+O'Keefe's countryman K. O'Hara[260] (d. 1782), good examples of a
+species the further history of which may be left aside. In the hands of
+at least one later writer, J. R. Planché, it proved capable of
+satisfying a more refined taste than his successors have habitually
+consulted.
+
+
+  The English drama of the 19th century.
+
+The decline of dramatic composition of the higher class, perceptible in
+the history of the English theatre about the beginning of the 19th
+century, was justly attributed by Sir Walter Scott to the wearing out of
+the French model that had been so long wrought upon; but when he
+asserted that the new impulse which was sought in the dramatic
+literature of Germany was derived from some of its worst, instead of
+from its noblest, productions--from Kotzebue rather than from Lessing,
+Schiller and Goethe--he showed a very imperfect acquaintance with a
+complicated literary movement which was obliquely reflected in the
+stage-plays of Iffland and his contemporaries. The change which was
+coming over English literature was in truth of a wider and deeper nature
+than it was possible for even one of its chief representatives to
+perceive. As that literature freed itself from the fetters so long worn
+by it as indispensable ornaments, and threw aside the veil which had so
+long obscured both the full glory of its past and the lofty capabilities
+of its future, it could not resort except tentatively to a form which
+like the dramatic is bound by a hundred bonds to the life of the age
+itself. Soon, the poems with which Scott and Byron, and the unrivalled
+prose fictions with which Scott, both satisfied and stimulated the
+imaginative demands of the public, diverted the attention of the
+cultivated classes from dramatic literature, which was unable to escape,
+with the light foot of verse or prose fiction, into "the new, the
+romantic land." New themes, new ideas, new forms occupied a new
+generation of writers and readers; nor did the drama readily lend itself
+as a vessel into which to pour so many fermenting elements. In Byron the
+impressions produced upon a mind not less open to impulses from without
+than subjective in its way of recasting them, called forth a series of
+dramatic attempts betraying a more or less wilful ignorance of the
+demands of dramatic compositions; his beautiful _Manfred_, partly
+suggested by Goethe's _Faust_, and his powerful _Cain_, have but the
+form of plays; his tragedies on Italian historical subjects show some
+resemblance in their political rhetoric to the contemporary works of
+Alfieri; his _Sardanapalus_, autobiographically interesting, fails to
+meet the demands of the stage; his _Werner_ (of which the authorship has
+been ascribed to the duchess of Devonshire) is a hastily dramatized
+sensation novel. To Coleridge (1772-1834), who gave to English
+literature a splendidly loose translation of Schiller's _Wallenstein_,
+the same poet's _Robbers_ (to which Wordsworth's only dramatic attempt,
+the _Borderers_, is likewise indebted) had probably suggested the
+subject of his tragedy of _Osorio_, afterwards acted under the title of
+_Remorse_. Far superior to this is his later drama of _Zapolya_, a
+genuine homage to Shakespeare, out of the themes of two of whose plays
+it is gracefully woven. Scott, who in his earlier days had translated
+Goethe's _Götz von Berlichingen_, gained no reputation by his own
+dramatic compositions. W. S. Landor, apart from those _Imaginary
+Conversations_ upon which he best loved to expend powers of observation
+and characterization such as have been given to few playwrights, cast
+in a formally dramatic mould studies of character of which the value is
+far from being confined to their wealth in beauties of detail. Of these
+the magnificent, but in construction altogether undramatic, _Count
+Julian_, is the most noteworthy. Shelley's _The Cenci_, on the other
+hand, is not only a poem of great beauty, but a drama of true power,
+abnormally revolting indeed in theme, but singularly pure and delicate
+in treatment. A humbler niche in the temple of dramatic literature
+belongs to some of the plays of C. R. Maturin,[261] Sir T. N.
+Talfourd,[262] and Dean Milman.[263]
+
+Divorced, except for passing moments, from the stage, English dramatic
+literature could during much the greater part of the 19th century hardly
+be regarded as a connected national growth; though, already in the last
+decades of the Victorian age, the revival of public interest in the
+theatre co-operated with a gradual change in poetic taste to awaken the
+hope of a future living reunion. Among English poets who lived in this
+period, Sir Henry Taylor probably approached nearest to the objective
+treatment and the amplitude of style characteristic of the Elizabethan
+drama.[264] R. H. Horne, long an almost solitary survivor of the
+romantic school, was able in at least one memorable dramatic attempt to
+revive something of the early Elizabethan spirit.[265] Of the chief
+poets of the age, Tennyson only in his later years addressed himself to
+a form of composition little suited to his genius, though the very fact
+of the homage paid by him to the national forms of the historic drama
+and of romantic comedy could not fail to ennoble the contemporary
+stage.[266] Matthew Arnold's stately revival of the traditions of
+classical tragedy proper, on the other hand, deliberately excluded
+itself from any such contact;[267] while Longfellow's refined literary
+culture and graceful facility of form made ready use of a quasi-dramatic
+medieval vesture.[268] William Morris's single "morality," too, cannot
+be regarded as a contribution to dramatic literature proper.[269] Of
+very different importance are the excursions into dramatic composition
+of Robert Browning, whose place in the living inheritance of the English
+drama has in one instance at least been not unsuccessfully vindicated by
+a later age, and some of whose greatest gifts are beyond a doubt
+displayed in his dramatic work;[270] and the sustained endeavours of A.
+C. Swinburne, after adding a flower of exquisite beauty to the wreath
+which the lovers of the Attic muse have laid at her feet, to enrich the
+national historic drama by a trilogy instinct with the ardent eloquence
+of passion.[271] Until a date too near the times in which we live to
+admit of its being fixed with precision, most of the English writers who
+sought to preserve a connexion between their dramatic productions and
+the demands of the stage addressed themselves to the theatrical rather
+than the literary public--for the distinction, in those times at all
+events, was by no means without a difference. The modestly simple and
+judiciously concentrated efforts of Joanna Baillie deserve a respectful
+remembrance in the records of literature as well as of the stage, though
+the day has passed when the theory which suggested her _Plays on the
+Passions_ could find acceptance among critics, or her exemplifications
+of it satisfy the demands of playgoers. Sheridan Knowles, on the other
+hand, composed his conventional semblances of genuine tragedy and comedy
+with a thorough knowledge of stage effect, and some of them can hardly
+yet be said to have vanished from the stage.[272] The first Lord Lytton,
+though his plays were for the most part of a lighter texture, showed
+even more artificiality of sentiment in their conception and execution;
+but the romantic touch which he imparted to at least one of them
+accounts for its long-lived popularity. Among later Victorian
+playwrights T. W. Robertson brought back a breath of naturalness into
+the acted comic drama; Tom Taylor, rivalling Lope in fertility, made
+little pretence to original invention, but adapted with an instinct that
+rarely failed him, and materially helped to keep the theatrical
+diversions of his age sound and pure; an endeavour in which he had the
+co-operation of Charles Reade and that of most of those who competed
+with them for the favour of generations of playgoers more easily
+contented than their successors. The one deplorable aspect of this age
+of the English drama was to be found neither in the sphere of tragedy
+nor in that of comedy--nor even in that of farce. It was presented in
+the low depths of contemporary burlesque, which had degenerated from the
+graceful extravaganza of J. R. Planché into witless and tasteless
+emptiness.
+
+Curiously enough, it was at this point that something like real
+originality--discovering a new sub-species of its own--first began, with
+the aid of a sister-art, to renovate the English popular comic stage. At
+the beginning of the 19th century the greatest tragic actress of the
+English theatre, Mrs Siddons, had passed her prime; and before its
+second decade had closed, not only she (1812) but her brother John
+Kemble (1817), the representative of a grand style of acting which later
+generations might conceivably find overpowering, had withdrawn from the
+boards. Mrs Siddons was soon followed into retirement by her successor
+Miss O'Neill (1819); while Kemble's brilliant later rival, Edmund Kean,
+an actor the intuitions of whose genius seem to have supplied, so far as
+intuition ever can supply, the absence of a consecutive self-culture,
+remained on the stage till his death in 1833. Young, Macready, and
+others handed down some of the traditions of the older school of acting
+to the very few artists who remained to suggest its semblance to a later
+generation. Even these--among them S. Phelps, whose special merit it was
+to present to a later age, accustomed to elaborate theatrical
+environments, dramatic masterpieces as dependent upon themselves and
+adequate interpretation; and the foremost English actress of the earlier
+Victorian age, Helen Faucit (Lady Martin)--were unable to leave a school
+of acting behind them. Still less was this possible to Charles Kean the
+younger, with whom the decorative production of Shakespearian plays
+really had its beginning; or even to Sir Henry Irving, an actor of
+genius, but also an irrepressible and almost eccentric theatrical
+personality, whose great service to the English drama was his faith in
+its masterpieces. The comic stage was fortunate in an ampler
+aftergrowth, from generation to generation, of the successors of the old
+actors who live for us all in the reminiscences of Charles Lamb; nor
+were the links suddenly snapped which bound the humours of the present
+to those of the past. In the first decade of the 20th century a
+generation still survived which could recall, with many other similar
+joys, the brilliant levity of Charles Mathews the younger; the not less
+irresistible stolidity of J. B. Buckstone; the solemn fooling of H.
+Compton (1805-1877); the subtle humours of J. L. Toole, and the frolic
+charm of Marie Wilton (Lady Bancroft), the most original comic actress
+of her time. (A. W. W.)
+
+_Recent English Drama._--In England the whole mechanism of theatrical
+life had undergone a radical change in the middle decades of the 19th
+century. At the root of this change lay the immense growth of population
+and the enormously increased facilities of communication between London
+and the provinces. Similar causes came into operation, of course, in
+France, Germany and Austria, but were much less distinctly felt, because
+the numerous and important subventioned theatres of these countries
+remained more or less unaffected by economic influences. Free trade in
+theatricals (subject only to certain licensing regulations and to a
+court censorship of new plays) was established in England by an act of
+1843, which abolished the long moribund monopoly of the "legitimate
+drama" claimed by the "Patent Theatres" of Drury Lane and Covent Garden.
+The drama was thus formally subjected to the operation of the law of
+supply and demand, like any other article of commerce, and managers were
+left, unaided and unhampered by any subvention or privilege, to cater to
+the tastes of a huge and growing community. Theatres very soon
+multiplied, competition grew ever keener, and the long run, with its
+accompaniments of ostentatious decoration and lavish advertisement,
+became the one object of managerial effort. This process of evolution
+may be said to have begun in the second quarter of the 19th century and
+completed itself in the 3rd. The system which obtains to-day, almost
+unforeseen in 1825, was in full operation in 1875. The repertory
+theatre, with its constant changes of programme, maintained on the
+continent partly by subventions, partly by the mere force of artistic
+tradition, had become in England a faint and far-off memory. There was
+not a single theatre in London at which plays, old and new, were not
+selected and mounted solely with a view to their continuous performance
+for as many nights as possible, anything short of fifty nights
+constituting an ignominious and probably ruinous failure. It was found,
+too, that those theatres were most successful which were devoted
+exclusively to exploiting the talent of an individual actor. Thus when
+the fourth quarter of the century opened, the long "run" and the
+actor-manager were in firm possession of the field.
+
+The outlook was in many ways far from encouraging. It was not quite so
+black, indeed, as it had been in the late 'fifties and early 'sixties,
+when the "legitimate" enterprises of Phelps at Sadler's Wells and
+Charles Kean at the Princess's had failed to hold their ground, and when
+modern comedy and drama were represented almost exclusively by
+adaptations from the French. There had been a slight stirring of
+originality in the series of comedies produced by T. W. Robertson at the
+Prince of Wales's theatre, where, under the management of Bancroft
+(q.v.) a new school of mounting and acting, minutely faithful (in theory
+at any rate) to everyday reality, had come into existence. But the hopes
+of a revival of English comedy seemed to have died with Robertson's
+death. One of his followers, James Albery, possessed both imagination
+and wit, but had not the strength of character to do justice to his
+talent, and sank into a mere adapter. In the plays of another disciple,
+H. J. Byron, the Robertsonian or "cup-and-saucer" school declined upon
+sheer inanity. Of the numerous plays signed by Tom Taylor some were
+original in substance, but all were cast in the machine-made French
+mould. Wilkie Collins, in dramatizing some of his novels, produced
+somewhat crude anticipations of the modern "problem play." The literary
+talent of W. S. Gilbert displayed itself in a group of comedies both in
+verse and prose; but Gilbert saw life from too peculiar an angle to
+represent it otherwise than fantastically. The Robertsonian impulse
+seemed to have died utterly away, leaving behind it only five or six
+very insubstantial comedies and a subdued, unrhetorical method in
+acting. This method the Bancrofts proceeded to apply, during the
+'seventies, to revivals of stage classics, such as _The School for
+Scandal_, _Money_ and _Masks and Faces_, and to adaptations from the
+French of Sardou.
+
+While the modern drama appeared to have relapsed into a comatose
+condition, poetic and romantic drama was giving some signs of life. At
+the Lyceum in 1871 Henry Irving had leapt into fame by means of his
+performance of Mathias in _The Bells_, an adaptation from the French of
+Erckmann-Chatrian. He followed this up by an admirably picturesque
+performance of the title-part in _Charles I._ by W. G. Wills. In the
+autumn of 1874 the great success of Irving's Hamlet was hailed as the
+prelude to a revival of tragic acting. As a matter of fact, it was the
+prelude to a long series of remarkable achievements in romantic drama
+and melodrama. Irving's lack of physical and vocal resources prevented
+him from scaling the heights of tragedy, and his Othello, Macbeth, and
+Lear could not be ranked among his successes; but he was admirable in
+such parts as Richard III., Shylock, Iago and Wolsey, while in
+melodramatic parts, such as Louis XI. and the hero and villain of _The
+Lyons Mail_, he was unsurpassed. Mephistopheles in a version of _Faust_
+(1885), perhaps the greatest popular success of his career, added
+nothing to his reputation for artistic intelligence; but on the other
+hand his Becket in Tennyson's play of that name (1893) was one of his
+most masterly efforts. His management of the Lyceum (1878-1899) did so
+much to raise the status of the actor and to restore the prestige of
+poetic drama, that the knighthood conferred upon him in 1895 was felt to
+be no more than an appropriate recognition of his services. But his
+managerial career had scarcely any significance for the living English
+drama. He seldom experimented with a new play, and, of the few which he
+did produce, only _The Cup_ and _Becket_ by Lord Tennyson have the
+remotest chance of being remembered.
+
+To trace the history of the new English drama, then, we must go back to
+the Prince of Wales's theatre. Even while it seemed that French comedy
+of the school of Scribe was resuming its baneful predominance, the seeds
+of a new order of things were slowly germinating. _Diplomacy_, an
+adaptation of Sardou's _Dora_, produced in 1878, brought together on the
+Prince of Wales's stage Mr and Mrs Bancroft, Mr and Mrs Kendal, John
+Clayton and Arthur Cecil--in other words, the future managers of the
+Haymarket, the St James's and the Court theatres, which were destined to
+see the first real stirrings of a literary revival. Mr and Mrs Kendal,
+who, in conjunction with John Hare, managed the St James's theatre from
+1879 to 1888, produced A. W. Pinero's first play of any consequence,
+_The Money-Spinner_ (1881), and afterwards _The Squire_ (1882) and _The
+Hobby Horse_ (1887). The Bancrofts, who, after entirely rebuilding the
+Haymarket theatre, managed it from 1880 till their retirement in 1885,
+produced in 1883 Pinero's _Lords and Commons_; and Messrs Clayton and
+Cecil produced at the Court theatre between 1885 and 1887 his three
+brilliant farces, _The Magistrate_, _The Schoolmistress_ and _Dandy
+Dick_, which, with the sentimental comedy, _Sweet Lavender_, produced at
+Terry's theatre in 1888, assured his position as an original and fertile
+dramatic humorist of no small literary power. It is to be noted,
+however, that Pinero was almost the only original playwright represented
+under the Bancroft, Hare-Kendal and Clayton-Cecil managements, which
+relied for the rest upon adaptations and revivals. Adaptations of French
+vaudevilles were the staple productions of Charles Wyndham's management
+at the Criterion from its beginning in 1876 until 1893, when he first
+produced an original play of any importance. When Herbert Beerbohm Tree
+went into management at the Haymarket in 1887, he still relied largely
+on plays of foreign origin. George Alexander's first managerial ventures
+(Avenue theatre, 1890) were two adaptations from the French. Until well
+on in the 'eighties, indeed, adaptation from the French was held the
+normal occupation of the British playwright, and original composition a
+mere episode. Robertson, Byron, Albery, Gilbert, Tom Taylor, Charles
+Reade, Herman Merivale, G. W. Godfrey, all produced numerous
+adaptations; Sydney Grundy was for twenty years occupied almost
+exclusively in this class of work; Pinero himself has adapted more than
+one French play. The 'eighties, then, may on the whole be regarded as
+showing a very gradual decline in the predominance of France on the
+English stage, and an equally slow revival of originality, so far as
+comedy and drama were concerned, manifesting itself mainly in the plays
+of Pinero.
+
+The reaction against French influence, however, was no less apparent in
+the domain of melodrama and operetta than in that of comedy and drama.
+Until well on in the 'seventies, D'Ennery and his disciples, adapted and
+imitated by Dion Boucicault and others, ruled the melodramatic stage.
+The reaction asserted itself in two quarters--in the East End at the
+Grecian theatre, and in the West End at the Princess's. In _The World_,
+produced at Drury Lane in 1880, Paul Meritt (d. 1895) and Henry Pettitt
+(d. 1893) brought to the West End the "Grecian" type of popular drama;
+and at Drury Lane it survived in the elaborately spectacular form
+imparted to it by Sir Augustus Harris, who managed that theatre from
+1879 till his death in 1896. The production of G. R. Sims's _Lights o'
+London_ at the Princess's in 1881, under Wilson Barrett's management,
+also marked a new departure. This style of melodrama was chiefly
+cultivated at the Adelphi theatre, from 1882 until the end of the
+century, when it died out there as a regular institution, apparently
+because a host of suburban theatres drew away its audiences. Of all
+these English melodramas, only one, _The Silver King_, by Henry Arthur
+Jones (Princess's, 1882), could for a moment compare in invention or
+technical skill with the French dramas they supplanted. The fact
+remains, however, that even on this lowest level of dramatic art the
+current of the time set decisively towards home-made pictures of English
+life, however crude and puerile.
+
+For twenty-five years, from 1865 to 1890, the English stage was overrun
+with French operettas of the school of Offenbach. Hastily adapted by
+slovenly hacks, their librettos (often witty in the original) became
+incredible farragos of metreless doggrel and punning ineptitude. The
+great majority of them are now so utterly forgotten that it is hard to
+realize how, in their heyday, they swarmed on every hand in London and
+the provinces. The reaction began in 1875 with the performance at the
+Royalty theatre of _Trial by Jury_, by W. S. Gilbert and Arthur
+Sullivan. This was the prelude to that brilliant series of witty and
+melodious extravaganzas which began with _The Sorcerer_ at the Opera
+Comique theatre in 1877, but was mainly associated with the Savoy
+theatre, opened by R. D'Oyly Carte (d. 1901) in 1881. Little by little
+the Gilbert and Sullivan operettas (of which the most famous, perhaps,
+were _H.M.S. Pinafore_, 1878, _Patience_, 1881, and _The Mikado_, 1885)
+undermined the popularity of the French opera-bouffes, and at the same
+time that of the indigenous "burlesques" which, graceful enough in the
+hands of their inventor J. R. Planché, had become mere incoherent
+jumbles of buffoonery, devoid alike of dramatic ingenuity and of
+literary form. When, early in the 'nineties, the collaboration between
+Gilbert and Sullivan became intermittent, and the vogue of the Savoy
+somewhat declined, a new class of extravaganza arose, under the
+designation of "musical comedy" or "musical farce." It first took form
+in a piece called _In Town_, by Messrs "Adrian Ross" and Osmond Carr
+(Prince of Wales's theatre, 1892), and rapidly became very popular. In
+these plays the scene and costumes are almost always modern though
+sometimes exotic, and the prose dialogue, setting forth an attenuated
+and entirely negligible plot, is frequently interrupted by musical
+numbers. The lyrics are often very clever pieces of rhyming, totally
+different from the inane doggrel of the old opera-bouffes and
+burlesques. In other respects there is little to be said for the
+literary or intellectual quality of "musical farce"; but, being an
+entirely English (or Anglo-American) product, it falls into line with
+the other indications we have noted of the general decline--one might
+almost say extinction--of French influence on the English stage.
+
+To what causes are we to trace this gradual disuse of adaptation? In the
+domain of modern comedy and drama, to two causes acting simultaneously:
+the decline in France of the method of Scribe, which produced
+"well-made," exportable plays, more or less suited to any climate and
+environment; and the rise in England of a generation of playwrights more
+original, thoughtful and able than their predecessors. It is not at all
+to be taken for granted that the falling off in the supply of exportable
+plays meant a decline in the absolute merit of French drama. The
+historian of the future may very possibly regard the movement in France,
+no less than the movement in England, as a step in advance, and may even
+see in the two movements co-ordinate manifestations of one tendency. Be
+this as it may, the fact is certain that as the playwrights of the
+Second Empire gradually died off, and were succeeded by the authors of
+the "new comedy," plays which would bear transplantation became ever
+fewer and farther between. Of recent years Henri Bernstein, author of
+_Le Voleur_ and _Samson_, has been almost the only French dramatist
+whose works have found a ready and steady market in England. Attempts to
+acclimatize French poetical drama--_Pour la Couronne_, _Le Chemineau_,
+_Cyrano de Bergerac_--were all more or less unsuccessful.
+
+Having noted the decline of adaptation, we may now trace a stage farther
+the development of the English drama. The first stage, already surveyed,
+ends with the production of _Sweet Lavender_ in 1888. Up to this point
+its author, Pinero (b. 1855), stood practically alone, and had won his
+chief successes as a humorist. Henry Arthur Jones (b. 1851) was known as
+little more than an able melodramatist, though in one play, _Saints and
+Sinners_ (1884), he had made some attempt at a serious study of
+provincial life. R. C. Carton (b. 1856) had written, in collaboration,
+one or two plays of slight account. Sydney Grundy (b. 1848) had produced
+scarcely any original work. The second stage may be taken as extending
+from 1889 to 1893. On the 24th of April 1889 John Hare opened the new
+Garrick theatre with _The Profligate_, by Pinero--an unripe and
+superficial piece of work in many ways, but still a great advance, both
+in ambition and achievement, upon any original work the stage had seen
+for many a year.
+
+With all its faults, it may be said that _The Profligate_ notably
+enlarged at one stroke the domain open to the English dramatist. And it
+did not stand alone. The same year saw the production of two plays by H.
+A. Jones, _Wealth_ and _The Middleman_, in which a distinct effort
+towards a serious criticism of life was observable, and of two plays by
+Sydney Grundy, _A Fool's Paradise_ and _A White Lie_, which, though very
+French in method, were at least original in substance. Jones during the
+next two years made a steady advance with _Judah_ (1890), _The Dancing
+Girl_ and _The Crusaders_ (1891). Pinero in these years was putting
+forth less than his whole strength in _The Cabinet Minister_ (1890),
+_Lady Bountiful_ and _The Times_ (1891), and _The Amazons_ (March 1893).
+But meanwhile new talents were coming forward. The management of George
+Alexander, which opened at the Avenue theatre in 1890, but was
+transferred in the following year to the St James's, brought prominently
+to the front R. C. Carton, Haddon Chambers and Oscar Wilde. Carton's two
+sentimental comedies, _Sunlight and Shadow_ (1890) and _Liberty Hall_
+(1892), showed excellent workmanship, but did not yet reveal his true
+originality as a humorist. Haddon Chambers's work (notably _The Idler_,
+1891) was as yet sufficiently commonplace; but in _Lady Windermere's
+Fan_ (1892) Oscar Wilde showed himself at his first attempt a brilliant
+and accomplished dramatist. Wilde's subsequent plays, _A Woman of No
+Importance_ (1893) and _An Ideal Husband_ and _The Importance of being
+Earnest_ (1895), though marred by mannerism and insincerity, did much to
+promote the movement we are here tracing.
+
+As the production of _The Profligate_ marked the opening of the second
+period in the revival of English drama, so the production of the same
+author's _The Second Mrs Tanqueray_ is very clearly the starting-point
+of the third period. Before attempting to trace its course we may do
+well to glance at certain conditions which probably influenced it.
+
+In the first place, economic conditions. The Bancroft-Robertson movement
+at the old Prince of Wales's, between 1865 and 1870, was of even more
+importance from an economic than from a literary point of view. By
+making their little theatre a luxurious place of resort, and faithfully
+imitating in their productions the accent, costume and furniture of
+upper and upper-middle class life, the Bancrofts had initiated a
+reconciliation between society and the stage. Throughout the middle
+decades of the century it was the constant complaint of the managers
+that the world of wealth and fashion could not be tempted to the
+theatre. The Bancroft management changed all that. It was at the Prince
+of Wales's that half-guinea stalls were first introduced; and these
+stalls were always filled. As other theatres adopted the same policy of
+upholstery, both on and off the stage, fashion extended its complaisance
+to them as well. In yet another way the reconciliation was promoted--by
+the ever-increasing tendency of young men and women of good birth and
+education to seek a career upon the English stage. The theatre, in
+short, became at this period one of the favourite amusements of
+fashionable (though scarcely of intellectual) society in London. It is
+often contended that the influence of the sensual and cynical stall
+audience is a pernicious one. In some ways, no doubt, it is detrimental;
+but there is another side to the case. Even the cynicism of society
+marks an intellectual advance upon the sheer rusticity which prevailed
+during the middle years of the 19th century and accepted without a
+murmur plays (original and adapted) which bore no sort of relation to
+life. In a celebrated essay published in 1879, Matthew Arnold (whose
+occasional dramatic criticisms were very influential in intellectual
+circles) dwelt on the sufficiently obvious fact that the result of
+giving English names and costumes to French characters was to make their
+sayings and doings utterly unreal and "fantastic." During the years of
+French ascendancy, audiences had quite forgotten that it was possible
+for the stage to be other than "fantastic" in this sense. They no
+longer thought of comparing the mimic world with the real world, but
+were content with what may be called abstract humour and pathos, often
+of the crudest quality. The cultivation of external realism, coinciding
+with, and in part occasioning, the return of society to the playhouse,
+gradually led to a demand for some approach to plausibility in character
+and action as well as in costume and decoration. The stage ceased to be
+entirely "fantastic," and began to essay, however imperfectly, the
+representation, the criticism of life. It cannot be denied that the
+influence of society tended to narrow the outlook of English dramatists
+and to trivialize their tone of thought. But this was a passing phase of
+development; and cleverly trivial representations of reality are, after
+all, to be preferred to brainless concoctions of sheer emptiness.
+
+Quite as important, from the economic point of view, as the
+reconciliation of society to the stage, was the reorganization of the
+mechanism of theatrical life in the provinces which took place between
+1865 and 1875. From the Restoration to the middle of the 19th century
+the system of "stock companies" had been universal. Every great town in
+the three kingdoms had its established theatre with a resident company,
+playing the "legitimate" repertory, and competing, often by illegitimate
+means, for the possession of new London successes. The smaller towns,
+and even villages, were grouped into local "circuits," each served by
+one manager with his troupe of strollers. The "circuits" supplied actors
+to the resident stock companies, and the stock companies served as
+nurseries to the patent theatres in London. Metropolitan "stars"
+travelled from one country theatre to another, generally alone,
+sometimes with one or two subordinates in their train, and were
+"supported," as the phrase went, by the stock company of each theatre.
+Under this system, scenery, costumes and appointments were often
+grotesquely inadequate, and performances almost always rough and
+unfinished. On the other hand, the constant practice in a great number
+and variety of characters afforded valuable training for actors, and
+developed many remarkable talents. As a source of revenue to authors,
+the provinces were practically negligible. Stageright was unprotected by
+law; and even if it had been protected, it is doubtful whether authors
+could have got any considerable fees out of country managers, whose
+precarious ventures usually left them a small enough margin of profit.
+
+The spread of railways throughout the country gradually put an end to
+this system. The "circuits" disappeared early in the 'fifties, the stock
+companies survived until about the middle of the 'seventies. As soon as
+it was found easy to transport whole companies, and even great
+quantities of scenery, from theatre to theatre throughout the length and
+breadth of Great Britain, it became apparent that the rough makeshifts
+of the stock company system were doomed. Here again we can trace to the
+old Prince of Wales's theatre the first distinct impulse towards the new
+order of things. Robertson's comedies not only encouraged but absolutely
+required a style of art, in mounting, stage-management and acting, not
+to be found in the country theatres. To entrust them to the stock
+companies was well-nigh impossible. On the other hand, to quote Sir
+Squire Bancroft, "perhaps no play was ever better suited than _Caste_ to
+a travelling company; the parts being few, the scenery and dresses quite
+simple, and consequently the expenses very much reduced." In 1867, then,
+a company was organized and rehearsed in London to carry round the
+provincial theatres as exact a reproduction as possible of the London
+performance of _Caste_ and Robertson's other comedies. The smoothness of
+the representation, the delicacy of the interplay among the characters,
+were new to provincial audiences, and the success was remarkable. About
+the same time the whole Haymarket company, under Buckstone's management,
+began to make frequent rounds of the country theatres; and other
+"touring combinations" were soon organized. It is manifest that the
+"combination" system and the stock company system cannot long coexist,
+for a manager cannot afford to keep a stock company idle while a London
+combination is occupying his theatre. The stock companies, therefore,
+soon dwindled away, and were probably quite extinct before the end of
+the 'seventies. Under the present system, no sooner is a play an
+established success in London than it is reproduced in one, two or three
+exact copies and sent round the provincial theatres (and the numerous
+suburban theatres which have sprung up since 1895), Company A serving
+first-class towns, Company B the second-class towns, and so forth. The
+process is very like that of taking plaster casts of a statue, and the
+provincial companies often stand to their London originals very much in
+the relation of plaster to marble. Even the London scenery is faithfully
+reproduced in material of extra strength, to stand the wear-and-tear of
+constant removal. The result is that, instead of the square pegs in
+round holes of the old stock company system, provincial audiences now
+see pegs carefully adjusted to the particular holes they occupy, and
+often incapable of fitting any other. Instead of the rough performances
+of old, they are now accustomed to performances of a mechanical and
+soulless smoothness.
+
+In some ways the gain in this respect is undeniable, in other ways the
+loss is great. The provinces are no longer, in any effective sense, a
+nursery of fresh talents for the London theatres, for the art acquired
+in touring combinations is that of mimicry rather than of acting.
+Moreover, provincial playgoers have lost all personal interest and pride
+in their local theatres, which have no longer any individuality of their
+own, but serve as a mere frame for the presentation of a series of
+ready-made London pictures. Christmas pantomime is the only theatrical
+product that has any really local flavour in it, and even this is often
+only a second-hand London production, touched up with a few topical
+allusions. Again, the railways which bring London productions to the
+country take country playgoers by the thousand to London. The wealthier
+classes, in the Lancashire, Yorkshire and Midland towns at any rate, do
+almost all their theatre-going in London, or during the autumn months
+when the leading London companies go on tour. Thus the better class of
+comedy and drama has a hard fight to maintain itself in the provinces,
+and the companies devoted to melodrama and musical farce enjoy an
+ominous preponderance of popularity.
+
+On the whole, however--and this is the main point to be observed with
+regard to the literary development of the drama--the economic movement
+of the five- and twenty years between 1865 and 1890 was enormously to
+the advantage of the dramatic author. A London success meant a long
+series of full houses at high prices, on which he took a handsome
+percentage. The provinces, in which a popular playwright would often
+have three or four plays going the rounds simultaneously, became a
+steady source of income. And, finally, it was found possible, even
+before international copyright came into force, to protect stageright in
+the United States, so that about the beginning of the 'eighties large
+receipts began to pour in from America. Thus successful dramatists,
+instead of living from hand to mouth, like their predecessors of the
+previous generation, found themselves in comfortable and even opulent
+circumstances. They had leisure for reading, thought and careful
+composition, and they could afford to gratify their ambition with an
+occasional artistic experiment. Failure might mean a momentary loss of
+prestige, but it would not spell ruin. A distinctly progressive spirit,
+then, began to animate the leading English dramatists--a spirit which
+found intelligent sympathy in such managers as John Hare, George
+Alexander, Beerbohm Tree and Charles Wyndham. Nor must it be forgotten
+that, though the laws of literary property, internal and international,
+remained far from perfect, it was found possible to print and publish
+plays without incurring loss of stageright either at home or in America.
+The playwrights of the present generation have accordingly a motive for
+giving literary form and polish to their work which was quite
+inoperative with their predecessors, whose productions were either kept
+jealously in manuscript or printed only in miserable and totally
+unreadable stage editions. It is no small stimulus to ambition to know
+that even if a play prove to be in advance of the standards of taste or
+thought among the public to which it is originally presented, it will
+not perish utterly, but will, if it have any inherent vitality, continue
+to live as literature.
+
+
+  Influence of foreign drama.
+
+Having now summed up the economic conditions which made for progress,
+let us glance at certain intellectual influences which tended in the
+same direction. The establishment of the Théâtre Libre in Paris, towards
+the close of 1887, unquestionably marked the beginning of a period of
+restless experiment throughout the theatrical world of Europe. A.
+Antoine and his supporters were in open rebellion against the artificial
+methods of Scribe and the Second Empire playwrights. Their effort was to
+transfer to the stage the realism, the so-called "naturalism," which had
+been dominant in French fiction since 1870 or earlier; and this
+naturalism was doubtless, in its turn, the outcome of the scientific
+movement of the century. New methods (or ideals) of observation, and new
+views as to the history and destiny of the race, could not fail to
+produce a profound effect upon art; and though the modern theatre is a
+cumbrous contrivance, slow to adjust its orientation to the winds of the
+spirit, even it at last began to revolve, like a rusty windmill, so as
+to fill its sails in the main current of the intellectual atmosphere.
+Within three or four years of its inception, Antoine's experiment had
+been imitated in Germany, England and America. The "Freie Bühne" of
+Berlin came into existence in 1889, the Independent Theatre of London in
+1891. Similar enterprises were set on foot in Munich and other cities.
+In America several less formal experiments of a like nature were
+attempted, chiefly in Boston and New York. Nor must it be forgotten that
+in Paris itself the Théâtre Libre did not stand alone. Many other
+_théâtres à côté_ sprang up, under such titles as "Théâtre d'Art,"
+"Théâtre Moderne," "Théâtre de l'Avenir Dramatique." The most important
+and least ephemeral was the "Théâtre de l'OEuvre," founded in 1893 by
+Alex. Lugné-Poë, which represented mainly, though not exclusively, the
+symbolist reaction against naturalism.
+
+The impulse which led to the establishment of the Théâtre Libre was, in
+the first instance, entirely French. If any foreign influence helped to
+shape its course, it was that of the great Russian novelists. Tolstoi's
+_Puissance des ténèbres_ was the only "exotic" play announced in
+Antoine's opening manifesto. But the whole movement was soon to receive
+a potent stimulus from the Norwegian poet Henrik Ibsen.
+
+Ibsen's early romantic plays had been known in Germany since 1875. In
+1878 _Pillars of Society_ and in 1880 _A Doll's House_ achieved wide
+popularity, and held the German stage side by side with _A Bankruptcy_,
+by Björnstjerne Björnson. But these plays had little influence on the
+German drama. Their methods were, indeed, not essentially different from
+those of the French school of the Second Empire, which were then
+dominant in Germany as well as everywhere else. It was _Ghosts_ (acted
+in Augsburg and Meiningen 1886, in Berlin 1887) that gave the impulse
+which, coalescing with the kindred impulse from the French Théâtre
+Libre, was destined in the course of a few years to create a new
+dramatic literature in Germany. During the middle decades of the century
+Germany had produced some dramatists of solid and even remarkable
+talent, such as Friedrich Hebbel, Heinrich Laube, Karl Gutzkow and
+Gustav Freytag. Even the generation which held the stage after 1870, and
+included Paul Heyse, Paul Lindau and Adolf Wilbrandt, with numerous
+writers of light comedy and farce, such as E. Wichert, O. Blumenthal, G.
+von Moser, A. L'Arronge and F. von Schönthan, had produced a good many
+works of some merit. But, in the main, French artificiality and
+frivolity predominated on the German stage. In point of native talent
+and originality, the Austrian popular playwright Ludwig Anzengruber was
+well ahead of his North German contemporaries. It was in 1889, with the
+establishment of the Berlin Freie Bühne, that the reaction definitely
+set in. In Berlin, as afterwards in London, _Ghosts_ was the first play
+produced on the outpost stage, but it was followed in Berlin by a very
+rapid development of native talent. Less than a month after the
+performance of Ibsen's play, Gerhart Hauptmann came to the front with
+_Vor Sonnenaufgang_, an immature piece of almost unrelieved Zolaism,
+which he soon followed up, however, with much more important works. In
+_Das Friedensfest_ (1890) and _Einsame Menschen_ (1891) he transferred
+his allegiance from Zola to Ibsen. His true originality first manifested
+itself in _Die Weber_ (1892); and subsequently he produced plays in
+several different styles, all bearing the stamp of a potent
+individuality. His most popular productions have been the dramatic poems
+_Hannele_ and _Die versunkene Glocke_, the low-life comedy _Der
+Biberpelz_, and the low-life tragedy _Fuhrmann Henschel_. Other
+remarkable playwrights belonging to the Freie Bühne group are Max Halbe
+(b. 1865), author of _Jugend_ and _Mutter Erde_, and Otto Erich
+Hartleben (b. 1864), author of _Hanna Jagert_ and _Rosenmontag_. These
+young men, however, so quickly gained the ear of the general public,
+that the need for a special "free stage" was no longer felt, and the
+Freie Bühne, having done its work, ceased to exist. Unlike the French
+Théâtre Libre and the English Independent theatre, it had been supported
+from the outset by the most influential critics, and had won the day
+almost without a battle. The productions of the new school soon made
+their way even into some of the subventioned theatres; but it was the
+unsubventioned Deutsches Theater of Berlin that most vigorously
+continued the tradition of the Freie Bühne. One or two playwrights of
+the new generation, however, did not actually belong to the Freie Bühne
+group. Hermann Sudermann produced his first play, _Die Ehre_, in 1888,
+and his most famous work, _Heimat_, in 1892. In him the influence of
+Ibsen is very clearly perceptible; while Arthur Schnitzler of Vienna,
+author of _Liebelei_, may rather be said to derive his inspiration from
+the Parisian "new comedy." Originality, verging sometimes on
+abnormality, distinguishes the work of Frank Wedekind (b. 1864), author
+of _Erdgeist_ and _Frühlingserwachen_. Hugo von Hofmannsthal (b. 1874),
+in his _Elektra_ and _Ödipus_, rehandles classic themes in the light of
+modern anthropology and psychology.
+
+The promoters of the Théâtre Libre had probably never heard of Ibsen
+when they established that institution, but three years later his fame
+had reached France, and _Les Revenants_ was produced by the Théâtre
+Libre (29th May 1890). Within the next two or three years almost all his
+modern plays were acted in Paris, most of them either by the Théâtre
+Libre or by L'OEuvre. Close upon the heels of the Ibsen influence
+followed another, less potent, but by no means negligible. The exquisite
+tragic symbolism of Maurice Maeterlinck began to find numerous admirers
+about 1890. In 1891 his one-act play _L'Intruse_ was acted; in 1893,
+_Pelléas et Mélisande_. By this time, too, the reverberation of the
+impulse which the Théâtre Libre had given to the Freie Bühne began to be
+felt in France. In 1893 Hauptmann's _Die Weber_ was acted in Paris, and,
+being frequently repeated, made a deep and lasting impression.
+
+The English analogue to the Théâtre Libre, the Independent theatre,
+opened its first season (March 13, 1891) with a performance of _Ghosts_.
+This was not, however, the first introduction of Ibsen to the English
+stage. On the 7th of June 1889 (six weeks after the production of _The
+Profligate_) _A Doll's House_ was acted at the Novelty theatre, and ran
+for three weeks, amid a storm of critical controversy. In the same year
+_Pillars of Society_ was presented in London. In 1891 and 1892 _A Doll's
+House_ was frequently acted; _Rosmersholm_ was produced in 1891, and
+again in 1893; in May and June 1891 _Hedda Gabler_ had a run of several
+weeks; and early in 1893 _The Master Builder_ enjoyed a similar passing
+vogue. During these years, then, Ibsen was very much "in the air" in
+England, as well as in France and Germany. The Independent theatre, in
+the meantime, under the management of J. T. Grein, found but scanty
+material to deal with. It presented translations of Zola's _Thérèse
+Raquin_, and of _A Visit_, by the Danish dramatist Edward Brandes; but
+it brought to the front only one English author of any note, in the
+person of George Bernard Shaw, whose "didactic realistic play,"
+_Widowers' Houses_, it produced in December 1892.
+
+None the less is it true that the ferment of fresh energy, which between
+1887 and 1893 had created a new dramatic literature both in France and
+in Germany, was distinctly felt in England as well. England did not take
+at all kindly to it. The productions of Ibsen's plays, in particular,
+were received with an outcry of reprobation. A great part of this
+clamour was due to sheer misunderstanding; but some of it, no doubt,
+arose from genuine and deep-seated distaste. As for the dramatists of
+recognized standing, they one and all, both from policy and from
+conviction, adopted a hostile attitude towards Ibsen, expressing at most
+a theoretical respect overborne by practical dislike. Yet his influence
+permeated the atmosphere. He had revealed possibilities of technical
+stagecraft and psychological delineation that, once realized, were not
+to be banished from the mind of the thoughtful playwright. They haunted
+him in spite of himself. Still subtler was the influence exerted over
+the critics and the more intelligent public. Deeply and genuinely as
+many of them disliked Ibsen's works, they found, when they returned to
+the old-fashioned play, the adapted frivolity or the homegrown
+sentimentalism, that they disliked this still more. On every side, then,
+there was an instinctive or deliberate reaching forward towards
+something new; and once again it was Pinero who ventured the decisive
+step.
+
+On the 27th of May 1893 _The Second Mrs Tanqueray_ was produced at the
+St James's theatre. With _The Second Mrs Tanqueray_ the English acted
+drama ceased to be a merely insular product, and took rank in the
+literature of Europe. Here was a play which, whatever its faults, was
+obviously comparable with the plays of Dumas, of Sudermann, of Björnson,
+of Echegaray. It might be better than some of these plays, worse than
+others; but it stood on the same artistic level. The fact that such a
+play could not only be produced, but could brilliantly succeed, on the
+London stage gave a potent stimulus to progress. It encouraged ambition
+in authors, enterprise in managers. What _Hernani_ was to the romantic
+movement of the 'thirties, and _La Dame aux camélias_ to the realistic
+movement of the 'fifties, _The Second Mrs Tanqueray_ was to the movement
+of the 'nineties towards the serious stage-portraiture of English social
+life. All the forces which we have been tracing--Robertsonian realism of
+externals, the leisure for thought and experiment involved in vastly
+improved financial conditions, the substitution in France of a simpler,
+subtler technique for the outworn artifices of the Scribe school, and
+the electric thrill communicated to the whole theatrical life of Europe
+by contact with the genius of Ibsen--all these slowly converging forces
+coalesced to produce, in _The Second Mrs Tanqueray_, an epoch-marking
+play.
+
+Pinero followed up _Mrs Tanqueray_ with a remarkable series of
+plays--_The Notorious Mrs Ebbsmith_, _The Benefit of the Doubt_, _The
+Princess and the Butterfly_, _Trelawny of the "Wells_," _The Gay Lord
+Quex_, _Iris_, _Letty_, _His House in Order_ and _The Thunderbolt_--all
+of which show marked originality of conception and intellectual force.
+In January 1893 Charles Wyndham initiated a new policy at the Criterion
+theatre, and produced an original play, _The Bauble-Shop_, by Henry
+Arthur Jones. It belonged very distinctly to the pre-Tanqueray order of
+things; but the same author's _The Case of Rebellious Susan_, in the
+following year, showed an almost startlingly sudden access of talent,
+which was well maintained in such later works as _Michael and his Lost
+Angel_ (1896), that admirable comedy _The Liars_ (1897), and _Mrs Dane's
+Defence_ (1900). Sydney Grundy produced after 1893 by far his most
+important original works, _The Greatest of These_ (1896) and _The Debt
+of Honour_ (1900). R. C. Carton, breaking away from the somewhat
+laboured sentimentalism of his earlier manner, produced several light
+comedies of thoroughly original humour and of excellent literary
+workmanship--_Lord and Lady Algy_, _Wheels within Wheels_, _Lady
+Huntworth's Experiment_, _Mr Hopkinson_ and _Mr Preedy and the
+Countess_. Haddon Chambers, in _The Tyranny of Tears_ (1899) and _The
+Awakening_ (1901), produced two plays of a merit scarcely foreshadowed
+in his earlier efforts.
+
+What was of more importance, a new generation of playwrights came to the
+front. Its most notable representatives were J. M. Barrie, who displayed
+his inexhaustible gift of humorous observation and invention in _Quality
+Street_ (1902), _The Admirable Crichton_ (1903), _Little Mary_ (1903),
+_Peter Pan_ (1904), _Alice Sit-by-the-Fire_ (1905) and _What Every Woman
+Knows_ (1908); Mrs Craigie ("John Oliver Hobbes"), who produced in _The
+Ambassador_ (1898) a comedy of fine accomplishment; and H. V. Esmond,
+Alfred Sutro, Hubert Henry Davies, W. S. Maugham, Rudolf Besier, Roy
+Horniman and J. B. Fagan.
+
+Meanwhile, the efforts to relieve the drama from the pressure of the
+long-run system had not been confined to the Independent theatre.
+Several other enterprises of a like nature had proved more or less
+short-lived; but the Stage Society, founded in 1900, was conducted with
+more energy and perseverance, and became a real force in the dramatic
+world. After two seasons devoted mainly to Bernard Shaw, Ibsen,
+Maeterlinck and Hauptmann, it produced in its third season _The Marrying
+of Ann Leete_, by Granville Barker (b. 1877), who had developed in its
+service his remarkable gifts as a producer of plays. A year or two
+later, Barker staged for another organization, the New Century theatre,
+Professor Gilbert Murray's rendering of the _Hippolytus_ of Euripides;
+and it was partly the success of this production that suggested the
+Vedrenne-Barker partnership at the Court theatre, which, between 1904
+and 1907, gave an extraordinary impulse to the intellectual life of the
+theatre. Adopting the "short-run" system, as a compromise between the
+long-run and the repertory systems, the Vedrenne-Barker management made
+the plays of Bernard Shaw (both old and new) for the first time really
+popular. Of the plays already published _You Never Can Tell_ and _Man
+and Superman_ were the most successful; of the new plays, _John Bull's
+Other Island_, _Major Barbara_ and _The Doctor's Dilemma_. But though
+Shaw was the mainstay of the enterprise, it gave opportunities to
+several other writers, the most notable being John Galsworthy (b. 1867),
+author of _The Silver Box_ and _Strife_, St John Hankin (1869-1909),
+author of _The Return of the Prodigal_ and _The Charity that began at
+Home_, and Granville Barker himself, whose plays _The Voysey
+Inheritance_ and _Waste_ (1907) were among the most important products
+of this movement. It should also be noted that the production of the
+_Hippolytus_ was followed up by the production of the _Trojan Women_,
+the _Electra_ and the _Medea_ of Euripides, all translated by Gilbert
+Murray.
+
+The impulse to which were due the Independent theatre, the Stage Society
+and the Vedrenne-Barker management, combined with local influences to
+bring about the foundation in Dublin of the Irish National theatre. Its
+moving spirit was the poet W. B. Yeats (b. 1865), who wrote for it
+_Cathleen-ni-Hoolihan_, _The Hour-Glass_, _The King's Threshold_ and one
+or two other plays. Lady Gregory, Padraic Collum, Boyle and other
+authors also contributed to the repertory of this admirable little
+theatre; but its most notable products were the plays of J. M. Synge
+(1871-1909), whose _Riders to the Sea_, _Well of the Saints_ and
+_Playboy of the Western World_ showed a fine and original dramatic
+faculty combined with extraordinary beauty of style.
+
+Both in Manchester and in Glasgow endeavours have been made, with
+considerable success, to counteract the evils of the touring system, by
+the establishment of resident companies acting the better class of
+modern plays on a "short-run" plan, similar to that of the
+Vedrenne-Barker management. The Manchester enterprise was to some extent
+subsidized by Miss E. Horniman, and may therefore claim to be the first
+endowed theatre in England. The need for endowment on a much larger
+scale was, however, strongly advocated in the early years of the 20th
+century by the more progressive supporters of English drama, and in 1908
+found a place in the scheme for a Shakespeare National theatre, which
+was then superimposed on the earlier proposal for a memorial
+commemorating the Shakespeare tercentenary, organized by an influential
+committee under the chairmanship of the Lord Mayor of London. The scheme
+involved the raising of £500,000, half to be devoted to the requisite
+site and building, while the remainder would be invested so as to
+furnish an annual subvention.
+
+It remains to say a few words of the English literary drama, as opposed
+to the acted drama. The two classes are not nearly so distinct as they
+once were; but plays continue to be produced from time to time which are
+wholly unfitted for the theatre, and others which, though they may be
+experimentally placed on the stage, make their appeal rather to the
+reading public. Tennyson had essayed in his old age an art which is
+scarcely to be mastered after the energy of youth has passed. He
+continued to the last to occupy himself more or less with drama, and all
+his plays, except _Harold_, found their way to the stage. _The Cup_ and
+_Becket_, as we have seen, met with a certain success, but _The Promise
+of May_ (1882), an essay in contemporary drama, was a disastrous
+failure, while _The Falcon_ (1879) and _The Foresters_ (acted by an
+American company in 1893) made little impression. Lord Tennyson was
+certainly not lacking in dramatic faculty, but he worked in an outworn
+form which he had no longer the strength to renovate. Swinburne
+continued now and then to cast his creations in the dramatic mould, but
+it cannot be said that his dramas attained either the vitality or the
+popularity of his lyrical poems. _Mary Stuart_ (1881) brought his Marian
+trilogy to a close. In _Locrine_ he produced a tragedy in heroic
+couplets--a thing probably unattempted since the age of Dryden. _The
+Sisters_ is a tragedy of modern date with a medieval drama inserted by
+way of interlude. _Rosamund, Queen of the Lombards_ (1899), perhaps
+approached more nearly than any of his former works to the concentration
+essential to drama. It may be doubted, however, whether his copious and
+ebullient style could ever really subject itself to the trammels of
+dramatic form. Of other dramas on the Elizabethan model, the most
+notable, perhaps, were the works of two ladies who adopt the pseudonym
+of "Michael Field"; _Callirrhoë_ (1884), _Brutus Ultor_ (1887), and many
+other dramas, show considerable power of imagination and expression, but
+are burdened by a deliberate artificiality both of technique and style.
+Alfred Austin put forth several volumes in dramatic form, such as
+_Savonarola_ (1881), _Prince Lucifer_ (1887), _England's Darling_
+(1896), _Flodden Field_ (1905). They are laudable in intention and
+fluent in utterance. Notable additions to the purely literary drama were
+made by Robert Bridges in his _Prometheus_ (1883), _Nero_ (1885), _The
+Feast of Bacchus_ (1889), and other solid plays in verse, full of
+science and skill, but less charming than his lyrical poems. Sir Lewis
+Morris made a dramatic experiment in _Gycia_, but was not encouraged to
+repeat it.
+
+From the outset of his career, John Davidson (1857-1909) was haunted by
+the conviction that he was a born dramatist; but his earlier plays, such
+as _Smith: a Tragedy_ (1886), _Bruce: a Chronicle Play_ (1884) and
+_Scaramouch in Naxos_ (1888), contained more poetry than drama; and his
+later pieces, such as _Self's the Man_ (1901), _The Theatrocrat_ (1905)
+and the _Triumph of Mammon_ (1907), showed a species of turbulent
+imagination, but became more and more fantastic and impracticable.
+Stephen Phillips (b. 1867), on the other hand, having had some
+experience as an actor, wrote always with the stage in view. In his
+first play, _Paolo and Francesca_ (1899; produced in 1902), he succeeded
+in combining great beauty of diction with intense dramatic power and
+vitality. The same may be said of _Herod_ (1900); but in _Ulysses_
+(1902) and _Nero_ (1906) a great falling-off in constructive power was
+only partially redeemed by the fine inspiration of individual passages.
+
+The collaboration of Robert Louis Stevenson with William Ernest Henley
+produced a short series of interesting experiments in drama, two of
+which, _Beau Austin_ (1883) and _Admiral Guinea_ (1884), had more than a
+merely experimental value. The former was an emotional comedy, treating
+with rare distinction of touch a difficult, almost an impossible,
+subject; the latter was a nautical melodrama, raised by force of
+imagination and diction into the region of literature. Incomparably the
+most important of recent additions to the literary drama is Thomas
+Hardy's vast panorama of the Napoleonic wars, entitled _The Dynasts_
+(1904-1908). It is rather an epic in dialogue than a play; but however
+we may classify it we cannot but recognize its extraordinary
+intellectual and imaginative powers.
+
+_United States._--American dramatists have shown on their own account a
+progressive tendency, quite as marked as that which we have been tracing
+in England. Down to about 1890 the influence of France had been even
+more predominant in America than in England. The only American dramatist
+of eminence, Bronson Howard (1842-1908), was a disciple, though a very
+able one, of the French school. A certain stirring of native
+originality manifested itself during the 'eighties, when a series of
+semi-improvised farces, associated with the names of two actor-managers,
+Harrigan and Hart, depicted low life in New York with real observation,
+though in a crude and formless manner. About the same time a native
+style of popular melodrama began to make its appearance--a play of
+conventional and negligible plot, which attracted by reason of one or
+more faithfully observed character-types, generally taken from country
+life. _The Old Homestead_, written by Denman Thompson, who himself acted
+in it, was the most popular play of this class. Rude as it was, it
+distinctly foreshadowed that faithfulness to the external aspects, at
+any rate, of everyday life, in which lies the strength of the native
+American drama. It was at a sort of free theatre in Boston that James A.
+Herne (1840-1901) produced in 1891 his realistic drama of modern life,
+_Margaret Fleming_, which did a great deal to awaken the interest of
+literary America in the theatrical movement. Herne, an actor and a most
+accomplished stage-manager, next produced a drama of rural life in New
+England, _Shore Acres_ (1892), which made an immense popular success. It
+was a play of the _Old Homestead_ type, but very much more coherent and
+artistic. His next play, _Griffith Davenport_ (1898), founded on a
+novel, was a drama of life in Virginia during the Civil War, admirable
+in its strength and quiet sincerity; while in his last work, _Sag
+Harbour_ (1900), Herne returned to the study of rustic character, this
+time in Long Island. Herne showed human nature in its more obvious and
+straightforward aspects, making no attempt at psychological subtlety;
+but within his own limits he was an admirable craftsman. The same
+preoccupation with local colour is manifest in the plays of Augustus M.
+Thomas, a writer of genuine humour and originality. His localism
+announces itself in the very titles of his most popular
+plays--_Alabama_, _In Mizzoura_, _Arizona_. He also made a striking
+success in _The Witching Hour_, a play dealing with the phenomena of
+hypnotism and suggestion. Clyde Fitch (1865-1909), an immensely prolific
+playwright of indubitable ability, after becoming known by some
+experiments in quasi-historic drama (notably _Nathan Hale_, 1898;
+_Barbara Frietchie_, 1899), devoted himself mainly to social drama on
+the French model, in which his most notable efforts have been _The
+Climbers_ (1900), _The Truth_ (1906), and _The Girl with the Green Eyes_
+(1902). In popular drama, with elaborate scenic illustration, William
+Gillette (b. 1856), David Belasco (b. 1859) and Charles Klein (b. 1867)
+have done notable work. William Vaughn Moody (b. 1869) produced in _The
+Great Divide_ (1907) a play of somewhat higher artistic pretensions;
+Eugene Walter in _Paid in Full_ (1908) and _The Easiest Way_ (1909)
+dealt vigorously with characteristic themes of modern life; and Edward
+Sheldon produced in _Salvation Nell_ a slum drama of very striking
+realism. The poetic side of drama was mainly represented by Percy
+Mackaye (b. 1875), whose _Jeanne d'Arc_ (1906) and _Sappho and Phaon_
+showed a high ambition and no small literary power. On the whole it may
+be said that, though the financial conditions of the American stage are
+even more unfortunate than those which prevail in England, they have
+failed to check a very strong movement towards nationalism in drama.
+Season by season, America writes more of her own plays, good or bad, and
+becomes less dependent on imported work, whether French or English. (W.
+A.)
+
+
+(g) _German Drama._
+
+The history of the German drama differs widely from that of the English,
+though a close contact is observable between them at an early point, and
+again at relatively recent points, in their annals. The dramatic
+literature of Germany, though in its beginnings intimately connected
+with the great national movement of the Reformation, soon devoted its
+efforts to a sterile imitation of foreign models; while the popular
+stage, persistently suiting itself to a robust but gross taste, likewise
+largely due to the influence of foreign examples, seemed destined to a
+hopeless decay. The literary and the acted drama were thus estranged
+from one another during a period of extraordinary length; nor was it
+till the middle of the 18th century that, with the opening of a more
+hopeful era for the life and literature of the nation, the reunion of
+dramatic literature and the stage began to accomplish itself. Before the
+end of the same century the progress of the German drama in its turn
+began to influence that of other nations, and by the widely
+comprehensive character of its literature, as well as by the activity of
+its stage, to invite a steadily increasing interest.
+
+
+  The Latin drama in Germany.
+
+  The Jesuit drama.
+
+It should be premised that in its beginnings the modern German drama
+might have seemed likely to be influenced even more largely than the
+English or the French by the copious imitation of classical models which
+marked the periods of the Renaissance and the Reformation; but here the
+impulse of originality was wanting to bring about a speedy and gradually
+a complete emancipation, and imitative reproduction continued in an all
+but endless series. The first German (and indeed the earliest
+transalpine) writer to follow in the footsteps of the modern Latin drama
+of the Italians was the famous Strassburg humanist Jacob Wimpheling
+(1450-1528), whose comedy of _Stylpho_ (1480), an attack upon the
+ignorance of the pluralist beneficed clergy, marks a kind of epoch in
+the history of German dramatic effort. It was succeeded by many other
+Latin plays of various kinds, among which may be mentioned J.
+Kerckmeister's _Codrus_ (1485), satirizing pedantic schoolmasters; a
+series of historical dramas in a moralizing vein, partly on the Turkish
+peril, as well as of comedies, by Jacob Locher (1471-1528); two plays by
+the great Johann Reuchlin, of which the so-called _Henno_ went through
+more than thirty editions; and the _Ludus Dianae_, with another play
+likewise in honour of the emperor Maximilian I., by the celebrated
+Viennese scholar Conrad Celtes (1459-1508). Sebastian Brant's _Hercules
+in Bivio_ (1512) is lost; but Wilibald Pirckheimer's _Eckius dedolatus_
+(1520) survives as a dramatic contribution to Luther's controversy with
+one of his most active opponents. The _Acolastus_ (1525) of W. Gnaphaeus
+(_alias_ Fullonius, his native name was de Volder) should also be
+mentioned in the present connexion, as, though a Dutchman by birth, he
+spent most of his literary life in Germany. This Terentian version of
+the parable of the Prodigal Son was printed in an almost endless number
+of editions, as well as in various versions in modern tongues, among
+which reference has already been made to the English, for the use of
+schools, by J. Palsgrave (1540). Macropedius (Langhveldt) belongs wholly
+to the Low Countries. In Germany the stream of these compositions
+continued to flow almost without abatement throughout the earlier half
+of the 16th century; but in the days of the Reformation it takes a turn
+to scriptural subjects, and during the latter part of the century
+remains on the whole faithful to this preference.[273] These Latin plays
+may be called school-dramas in the most precise sense; for they were
+both performed in the schools and read in class with commentaries
+specially composed for them; nor was it except very reluctantly that in
+this age the vernacular drama was allowed to intrude into scholastic
+circles. It should be noticed that the Jesuit order, which afterwards
+proved so keenly alive to the influence which dramatic performances
+exercise over the youthful mind, only very gradually abandoned the
+principle, formally sanctioned in their _Ratio studiorum_, that the
+acting of plays (these being always in the Latin tongue) should only
+rarely be permitted in their seminaries. The flourishing period of the
+Jesuit drama begins with the spread of the order in the west and
+south-west of the Empire in the last decade of the 16th century, and
+then continues, through the vicissitudes of good and evil, with a
+curious intermixture of Latin and German plays, during the whole of the
+17th and the better part of the 18th. These productions, which ranged in
+their subjects from biblical and classical story to themes of
+contemporary history (such as the relief of Vienna by Sobiesky and the
+peace of Ryswick), seem generally to bear the mark of their
+authorship--that of teachers appointed by their superiors to execute
+this among other tasks allotted to them; but, as it seems unnecessary to
+return to this special growth, it may be added that the extraordinary
+productiveness of the Jesuit dramatists, and the steadiness of
+self-repetition which is equally characteristic of them, should warn us
+against underrating its influence upon a considerable proportion of the
+nation's educational life during a long succession of generations.
+
+
+  Beginnings of the vernacular German drama.
+
+  Hans Sachs.
+
+  The English comedians.
+
+  Separation between the stage and literature.
+
+While the scholars of the German Renaissance, who became so largely the
+agents of the Reformation, eagerly dramatized scriptural subjects in the
+Latin, and sometimes (as in the case of Luther's protégé P. Rebhun[274])
+in the native tongue, the same influence made itself felt in another
+sphere of dramatic activity. Towards the close of the middle ages, as
+has been seen, dramatic performances had in Germany, as in England,
+largely fallen into the hands of the civic gilds, and the composition of
+plays was more especially cultivated by the master-singers of Nuremberg
+and other towns. It was thus that, under the influence of the
+Reformation, and of the impulse given by Luther and others to the use of
+High German as the popular literary tongue, Hans Sachs, the immortal
+shoemaker of Nuremberg, seemed destined to become the father of the
+popular German drama. In his plays, "spiritual," "secular," and
+_Fastnachtsspiele_ alike, the interest indeed lies in the dialogue
+rather than in the action, nor do they display any attempt at
+development of character. In their subjects, whether derived from
+Scripture or from popular legend and fiction,[275] there is no novelty,
+and in their treatment no originality. But the healthy vigour and fresh
+humour of this marvellously fertile author, and his innate sympathy with
+the views and sentiments of the burgher class to which he belonged, were
+elements of genuine promise--a promise which the event was signally to
+disappoint. Though the manner of Hans Sachs found a few followers, and
+is recognizable in the German popular drama even of the beginning of the
+17th century, the literature of the Reformation, of which his works may
+claim to form part, was soon absorbed in labours of a very different
+kind. The stage, after admitting novelties introduced from Italy or
+(under Jesuit supervision) from Spain, was subjected to another and
+enduring influence. Among the foreign actors of various nations who
+flitted through the innumerable courts of the empire, or found a
+temporary home there, special prominence was acquired, towards the close
+of the 16th and in the early years of the 17th century, by the "English
+comedians," who appeared at Cassel, Wolfenbuttel, Berlin, Dresden,
+Cologne, &c. Through these players a number of early English dramas
+found their way into Germany, where they were performed in more or less
+imperfect versions, and called forth imitations by native authors. Duke
+Henry Julius of Brunswick-Luneburg[276] (1564-1613) and Jacob Ayrer (a
+citizen of Nuremberg, where he died, 1605) represent the endeavours of
+the early German drama to suit its still uncouth forms to themes
+suggested by English examples; and in their works, and in those of
+contemporary playwrights, there reappears no small part of what we may
+conclude to have been the "English comedians'" _répertoire_.[277] (The
+converse influence of German themes brought home with them by the
+English actors, or set in motion by their strolling ubiquity, cannot
+have been equal in extent, though Shakespeare himself may have derived
+the idea of one of his plots[278] from such a source). But, though
+welcome to both princes and people, the exertions of these foreign
+comedians, and of the native imitators who soon arose in the earliest
+professional companies of actors known in Germany, instead of bringing
+about a union between the stage and literature, led to a directly
+opposite result. The popularity of these strollers was owing partly to
+the (very real) blood and other horrors with which their plays were
+deluged, partly to the buffoonery with which they seasoned, and the
+various tricks and feats with which they diversified, their
+performances. The representatives of the English clowns had learnt much
+on their way from their brethren in the Netherlands, where in this
+period the art of grotesque acting greatly flourished. Nor were the aids
+of other arts neglected,--to this day in Germany professors of the
+"equestrian drama" are known by the popular appellation of "English
+riders." From these true descendants of the mimes, then, the
+professional actors in Germany inherited a variety of tricks and
+traditions; and soon the favourite figures of the popular comic stage
+became conventional, and were stereotyped by the use of masks. Among
+these an acknowledged supremacy was acquired by the native _Hans Wurst_
+(Jack Pudding)--of whose name Luther disavowed the invention, and who is
+known already to Hans Sachs--the privileged buffoon, and for a long
+series of generations the real lord and master, of the German stage. If
+that stage, with its grossness and ribaldry, seemed likely to become
+permanently estranged from the tastes and sympathies of the educated
+classes, the fault was by no means entirely its own and that of its
+patron the populace. The times were evil times for a national effort of
+any kind; and poetic literature was in all its branches passing into the
+hands of scholars who were often pedants, and whose language was a
+jargon of learned affectations. Thus things continued, till the awful
+visitation of the Thirty Years' War cast a general blight upon the
+national life, and the traditions of the popular theatre were left to
+the guardianship of the marionettes (_Puppenspiele_)!
+
+
+  The literary drama of the 17th century.
+
+When, in the midst of that war, German poets once more began to essay
+the dramatic form, the national drama was left outside their range of
+vision. M. Opitz, who holds an honoured place in the history of the
+German language and literature, in this branch of his labours contented
+himself with translations of classical dramas and of Italian
+pastorals--among the latter one of Rinuccini's _Daphne_, with which the
+history of the opera in Germany begins. A. Gryphius, though as a comic
+dramatist lacking neither vigour nor variety, and acquainted with
+Shakespearian[279] as well as Latin and Italian examples, chiefly
+devoted himself to the imitation of Latin, earlier French, and Dutch
+tragedy, the rhetorical dialogue of which he effectively reproduced in
+the Alexandrine metre.[280] Neither the turgid dramas of D. C. von
+Lohenstein (1665-1684), for whose _Cleopatra_ the honour of having been
+the first German tragedy has been claimed, nor even the much healthier
+comedies of Chr. Weise (1642-1708) were brought upon the stage; while
+the religious plays of J. Klay (1616-1656) are mere recitations
+connected with the Italian growth of the _oratorio_. The frigid
+allegories commemorative of contemporary events, with which the learned
+from time to time supplied the theatre, and the pastoral dramas with
+which the idyllic poets of Nuremberg--"the shepherds of the
+Pegnitz"--after the close of the war gratified the peaceful longings of
+their fellow-citizens, were alike mere scholastic efforts. These indeed
+continued in the universities and _gymnasia_ to keep alive the love of
+both dramatic composition and dramatic representation, and to encourage
+the theatrical taste which led so many students into the professional
+companies. But neither these dramatic exercises nor the _ludi Caesarei_
+in which the Jesuits at Vienna revived the pomp and pageantry, and the
+mixture of classical and Christian symbolism, of the Italian
+Renaissance, had any influence upon the progress of the popular drama.
+
+
+  The stage before its reform.
+
+The history of the German stage remains to about the second decennium of
+the 18th century one of the most melancholy, as it is in its way one of
+the most instructive, chapters of theatrical history. Ignored by the
+world of letters, the actors in return deliberately sought to emancipate
+their art from all dependence upon literary material. Improvisation
+reigned supreme, not only in farce, where _Hans Wurst_, with the aid of
+Italian examples, never ceased to charm his public, but in the serious
+drama likewise (in which, however, he also played his part) in those
+_Haupt- und Staatsactionen_ (high-matter-of-state-dramas), the plots of
+which were taken from the old stores of the English comedians, from the
+religious drama and its sources, and from the profane history of all
+times. The hero of this period is "Magister" J. Velthen (or Veltheim),
+who at the head of a company of players for a time entered the service
+of the Saxon court, and, by reproducing comedies of Molière and other
+writers, sought to restrain the licence which he had himself carried
+beyond all earlier precedent, but who had to fall back into the old ways
+and the old life. His career exhibits the climax of the efforts of the
+art of acting to stand alone; after his death (c. 1693) chaos ensues.
+The strolling companies, which now included actresses, continued to
+foster the popular love of the stage, and even under its most degraded
+form to uphold its national character against the rivalry of the opera,
+and that of the Italian _commedia dell' arte_. From the latter was
+borrowed Harlequin, with whom _Hans Wurst_ was blended, and who became a
+standing figure in every kind of popular play.[281] He established his
+sway more especially at Vienna, where from about 1712 the first
+permanent German theatre was maintained. But for the actors in general
+there was little permanence, and amidst miseries of all sorts, and under
+the growing ban of clerical intolerance, the popular stage seemed
+destined to hopeless decay. A certain vitality of growth seems, under
+clerical guidance, to have characterized the plays of the people in
+Bavaria and parts of Austria.
+
+
+  F. K. Neuber, Gottsched, and the Leipzig school.
+
+  Ekhof
+
+The first endeavours to reform what had thus apparently passed beyond
+all reach of recovery were neither wholly nor generally successful; but
+this does not diminish the honour due to two names which should never be
+mentioned without respect in connexion with the history of the drama.
+Friederike Karoline Neuber's (1697-1760) biography is the story of a
+long-continued effort which, notwithstanding errors and weaknesses, and
+though, so far as her personal fortunes were concerned, it ended in
+failure, may almost be described as heroic. As directress of a company
+of actors which from 1727 had its headquarters at Leipzig (hence the new
+school of acting is called the Leipzig school), she resolved to put an
+end to the formlessness of the existing stage, to separate tragedy and
+comedy, and to extinguish Harlequin. In this endeavour she was supported
+by the Leipzig professor J. Chr. Gottsched, who induced her to establish
+French tragedy and comedy as the sole models of the regular drama.
+Literature and the stage thus for the first time joined hands, and no
+temporary mischance or personal misunderstanding can obscure the
+enduring significance of the union. Not only were the abuses of a
+century swept away from a representative theatre, but a large number of
+literary works, designed for the stage, were produced on it. It is true
+that they were but versions or imitations from the French (or in the
+case of Gottsched's _Dying Cato_ from the French and English),[282] and
+that at the moment of the regeneration of the German drama new fetters
+were thus imposed upon it, and upon the art of acting at the same time.
+But the impulse had been given, and the beginning made. On the one hand,
+men of letters began to subject their dramatic compositions to the test
+of performance; the tragedies and comedies of J. E. Schlegel, the
+artificial and sentimental comedies of Chr. F. Gellert and others,
+together with the vigorous popular comedies of the Danish dramatist
+Holberg, were brought into competition with translations from the
+French. On the other hand, the Leipzig school exercised a continuous
+effect upon the progress of the art of acting, and before long K. Ekhof
+began a career which made his art a fit subject for the critical study
+of scholars, and his profession one to be esteemed by honourable men.
+
+
+  Lessing.
+
+Among the authors contributing to Mme. Neuber's Leipzig enterprise had
+been a young student destined to complete, after a very different
+fashion and with very different aims, the work which she and Gottsched
+had begun. The critical genius of G. E. Lessing is peerless in its
+comprehensiveness, as in its keenness and depth; but if there was any
+branch of literature and art which by study and practice he made
+pre-eminently his own, it was that of the drama. As bearing upon the
+progress of the German theatre, his services to its literature, both
+critical and creative, can only be described as inestimable. The
+_Hamburgische Dramaturgie_, a series of criticisms of plays and (in its
+earlier numbers) of actors, was undertaken in furtherance of the attempt
+to establish at Hamburg the first national German theatre (1767-1769).
+This fact alone would invest these papers with a high significance; for,
+though the theatrical enterprise proved abortive, it established the
+principle upon which the progress of the theatre in all countries
+depends--that for the dramatic art the immediate theatrical public is no
+sufficient court of appeal. But the direct effect of the _Dramaturgie_
+was to complete the task which Lessing had in previous writings begun,
+and to overthrow the dominion of the arbitrary French rules and the
+French models established by Gottsched. Lessing vindicated its real laws
+to the drama, made clear the difference between the Greeks and their
+would-be representatives, and established the claims of Shakespeare as
+the modern master of both tragedy and comedy. His own dramatic
+productivity was cautious, tentative, progressive. His first step was,
+by his _Miss Sara Sampson_ (1755), to oppose the realism of the English
+domestic drama to the artificiality of the accepted French models, in
+the forms of which Chr. F. Weisse (1726-1804) was seeking to treat the
+subjects of Shakespearian plays.[283] Then, in his _Minna von Barnhelm_
+(1767), which owed something to Farquhar, he essayed a national comedy
+drawn from real life, and appealing to patriotic sentiments as well as
+to broad human sympathies. It was written in prose (like _Miss Sara
+Sampson_), but in form held a judicious mean between French and English
+examples.
+
+
+  Efforts of the theatre and of literature.
+
+The note sounded by the criticisms of Lessing met with a ready response,
+and the productivity displayed by the nascent dramatic literature of
+Germany is astonishing, both in the efforts inspired by his teachings
+and in those which continued to controvert or which aspired to transcend
+them. On the stage, Harlequin and his surroundings proved by no means
+easy to suppress, more especially at Vienna, the favourite home of
+frivolous amusement; but even here a reform was gradually effected, and,
+under the intelligent rule of the emperor Joseph II., a national stage
+grew into being. The mantle of Ekhof fell upon the shoulders of his
+eager younger rival, F. L. Schröder, who was the first to domesticate
+Shakespeare upon the German stage. In dramatic literature few of
+Lessing's earlier contemporaries produced any works of permanent value,
+unless the religious dramas of F. G. Klopstock--a species in which he
+had been preceded by J. J. Bodmer--and the patriotic _Bardietten_ of the
+same author be excepted. S. Gessner, J. W. L. Gleim, and G. K. Pfeffel
+(1736-1809) composed pastoral plays. But a far more potent stimulus
+prompted the efforts of the younger generation. The translation of
+Shakespeare, begun in 1762 by C. M. Wieland, whose own plays possess no
+special significance, and completed in 1775 by Eschenburg, which
+furnished the text for many of Lessing's criticisms, helps to mark an
+epoch in German literature. Under the influence of Shakespeare, or of
+their conceptions of his genius, arose a youthful group of writers who,
+while worshipping their idol as the representative of nature, displayed
+but slight anxiety to harmonize their imitations of him with the demands
+of art. The notorious _Ugolino_ of H. W. von Gerstenberg seemed a
+premonitory sign that the coming flood might merely rush back to the
+extravagances and horrors of the old popular stage; and it was with a
+sense of this danger in prospect that Lessing in his third important
+drama, the prose tragedy _Emilia Galotti_ (1772), set the example of a
+work of incomparable nicety in its adaptation of means to end. But
+successful as it proved, it could not stay the excesses of the _Sturm
+und Drang_ period which now set in. Lessing's last drama, _Nathan der
+Weise_ (1779), was not measured to the standard of the contemporary
+stage; but it was to exercise its influence in the progress of time--not
+only by causing a reaction in tragedy from prose to blank verse (first
+essayed in J. W. von Brawe's _Brutus_, 1770), but by ennobling and
+elevating by its moral and intellectual grandeur the branch of
+literature to which in form it belongs.
+
+
+  The Sturm und Drang.
+
+Meanwhile the young geniuses of the _Sturm und Drang_ had gone forth, as
+worshippers rather than followers of Shakespeare, to conquer new worlds.
+The name of this group of writers, more remarkable for their collective
+significance than for their individual achievements, was derived from a
+drama by one of the most prolific of their number, M. F. von
+Klinger;[284] other members of the fraternity were J. A. Leisewitz[285]
+(1752-1806), M. R. Lenz[286] and F. Müller[287] the "painter." The
+youthful genius of the greatest of German poets was itself under the
+influences of this period, when it produced the first of its
+masterpieces. But Goethe's _Götz von Berlichingen_ (1773), both by the
+choice and treatment of its national theme, and by the incomparable
+freshness and originality of its style, holds a position of its own in
+German dramatic literature. Though its defiant irregularity of form
+prevented its complete success upon the stage, yet its influence is far
+from being represented by the series of mostly feeble imitations to
+which it gave rise. The _Ritterdramen_ (plays of chivalry) had their day
+like similar fashions in drama or romance; but the permanent effect of
+_Götz_ was, that it crushed as with an iron hand the last remnants of
+theatrical conventionality (those of costume and scenery included), and
+extinguished with them the lingering respect for rules and traditions of
+dramatic composition which even Lessing had treated with consideration.
+Its highest significance, however, lies in its having been the first
+great dramatic work of a great national poet, and having definitively
+associated the national drama with the poetic glories of the national
+literature.
+
+
+  Goethe.
+
+  Schiller.
+
+Thus, in the classical period of that literature, of which Goethe and
+Schiller were the ruling stars, the drama had a full share of the
+loftiest of its achievements. Of these, the dramatic works of Goethe
+vary so widely in form and character, and connect themselves so
+intimately with the different phases of the development of his own
+self-directed poetic genius, that it was impossible for any of them to
+become the starting-points of any general growths in the history of the
+German drama. His way of composition was, moreover, so peculiar to
+himself--conception often preceding execution by many years, part being
+added to part under the influence of new sentiments and ideas and views
+of art, flexibly followed by changes of form--that the history of his
+dramas cannot be severed from his general poetic and personal biography.
+His _Clavigo_ and _Stella_, which succeeded _Götz_, are domestic dramas
+in prose; but neither by these, nor by the series of charming pastorals
+and operas which he composed for the Weimar court, could any influence
+be exercised upon the progress of the national drama. In the first
+conception of his _Faust_, he had indeed sought the suggestion of his
+theme partly in popular legend, partly in a domestic motive familiar to
+the authors of the _Sturm und Drang_ (the story of Gretchen); the later
+additions to the First Part, and the Second Part generally, are the
+results of metaphysical and critical studies and meditations belonging
+to wholly different spheres of thought and experience. The dramatic
+unity of the whole is thus, at the most, external only; and the standard
+of judgment to be applied to this wondrous poem is not one of dramatic
+criticism. _Egmont_, originally designed as a companion to _Götz_, was
+not completed till many years later; there are few dramas more effective
+in parts, but the idea of a historic play is lost in the elaboration of
+the most graceful of love episodes. In _Iphigenia_ and _Tasso_, Goethe
+exhibited the perfection of form of which his classical period had
+enabled him to acquire the mastery; but the sphere of the action of the
+former (perfect though it is as a dramatic action), and the nature of
+that of the latter, are equally remote from the demands of the popular
+stage. Schiller's genius, unlike Goethe's, was naturally and
+consistently suited to the claims of the theatre. His juvenile works,
+_The Robbers_, _Fiesco_, _Kabale und Liebe_, vibrating under the
+influence of an age of social revolution, combined in their prose form
+the truthful expression of passion with a considerable admixture of
+extravagance. But, with true insight into the demands of his art, and
+with unequalled single-mindedness and self-devotion to it, Schiller
+gradually emancipated himself from his earlier style; and with his
+earliest tragedy in verse, _Don Carlos_, the first period of his
+dramatic authorship ends, and the promise of the second announces
+itself. The works which belong to this--from the _Wallenstein_ trilogy
+to _Tell_--are the acknowledged masterpieces of the German poetic drama,
+treating historic themes reconstructed by conscious dramatic
+workmanship, and clothing their dialogue in a noble vestment of
+rhetorical verse. The plays of Schiller are the living embodiment of the
+theory of tragedy elaborated by Hegel, according to which its proper
+theme is the divine, or, in other words, the moving ethical, element in
+human action. In one of his later plays, _The Bride of Messina_,
+Schiller attempted a new use of the chorus of Greek tragedy; but the
+endeavour was a splendid error, and destined to exercise no lasting
+effect. The reaction against Schiller's ascendancy began with writers
+who could not reconcile themselves with the cosmopolitan and
+non-national elements in his genius, and is still represented by eminent
+critics; but the future must be left to settle the contention.
+
+
+  The popular stage.
+
+Schiller's later dramas had gradually conquered the stage, over which
+his juvenile works had in this time triumphantly passed, but on which
+his _Don Carlos_ had met with a cold welcome. For a long time, however,
+its favourites were authors of a very different order, who suited
+themselves to the demands of a public tolerably indifferent to the
+literary progress of the drama. After popular tastes had oscillated
+between the imitators of _Gotz_ and those of _Emilia Galotti_, they
+entered into a more settled phase, as the establishment of standing
+theatres at the courts and in the large towns increased the demand for
+good "acting" plays. Famous actors, such as Schröder and A. W. Iffland,
+sought by translations or compositions of their own to meet the popular
+likings, which largely took the direction of that irrepressible
+favourite of theatrical audiences, the sentimental domestic drama.[288]
+But the most successful purveyor of such wares was an author who, though
+not himself an actor, understood the theatre with a professional
+instinct--August von Kotzebue. His productivity ranged from the domestic
+drama and comedy of all kinds to attempts to rival Schiller and
+Shakespeare in verse; and though his popularity (which ultimately proved
+his doom) brought upon him the bitterest attacks of the romantic school
+and other literary authorities, his self-conceit is not astonishing, and
+the time has come for saying that there is some exaggeration in the
+contempt which has been lavished upon him by posterity.[289] Nor should
+it be forgotten that German literature had so far failed to furnish the
+comic stage with any successors to _Minna von Barnhelm_; for Goethe's
+efforts to dramatize characteristic events or figures of the
+Revolutionary age[290] must be dismissed as failures, not from a
+theatrical point of view only. The joint efforts of Goethe and Schiller
+for the Weimar stage, important in many respects for the history of the
+German drama, at the same time reveal the want of a national dramatic
+literature sufficient to supply the needs of a theatre endeavouring to
+satisfy the demands of art.
+
+
+  The romantic school.
+
+Meanwhile the so-called romantic school of German literature was
+likewise beginning to extend its labours to original dramatic
+composition. From the universality of sympathies proclaimed by this
+school, to whose leaders Germany owed its classical translation of
+Shakespeare,[291] and an introduction to the dramatic literatures of so
+many ages and nations,[292] a variety of new dramatic impulses might be
+expected; while much might be hoped for the future of the national drama
+(especially in its mixed and comic species) from the alliance between
+poetry and real life which they preached, and which some of them sought
+personally to exemplify. But in practice universality presented itself
+as peculiarity or even as eccentricity; and in the end the divorce
+between poetry and real life was announced as authoritatively as their
+union had been. Outside this school, the youthful talent of Th. Körner,
+whose early promise as a dramatist[293] might perhaps have ripened into
+a fulness enabling him not unworthily to occupy the seat left vacant by
+his father's friend Schiller, was extinguished by a patriotic death. The
+efforts of M. von Collin (1779-1824) in the direction of the historical
+drama remained isolated attempts. But of the leaders of the romantic
+school, A. W.[294] and F. von Schlegel[295] contented themselves with
+frigid classicalities; and L. Tieck, in the strange alembic of his
+_Phantasus_, melted legend and fairy-tale, novel and drama,[296] poetry
+and satire, into a compound, enjoyable indeed, but hardly so in its
+entirety, or in many of its parts, to any but the literary mind.
+
+
+  Later dramatists.
+
+F. de La Motte Fouqué infused a spirit of poetry into the chivalry
+drama. Klemens Brentano was a fantastic dramatist unsuited to the stage.
+Here a feeble outgrowth of the romanticists, the "destiny dramatists" Z.
+Werner[297]--the most original of the group--A. Müllner,[298] and Baron
+C. E. v. Houwald,[299] achieved a temporary _furore_; and it was with an
+attempt in the same direction[300] that the Austrian dramatist F.
+Grillparzer began his long career. He is assuredly, what he pronounced
+himself to be, the foremost of the later dramatic poets of Germany,
+unless that tribute be thought due to the genius of H. von Kleist, who
+in his short life produced, besides other works, a romantic drama[301]
+and a rustic comedy[302] of genuine merit, and an historical tragedy of
+singular originality and power.[303] Grillparzer's long series of plays
+includes poetic dramas on classical themes[304] and historical subjects
+from Austrian history,[305] or treated from an Austrian point of view.
+The romantic school, which through Tieck had satirized the drama of the
+_bourgeoisie_ and its offshoots, was in its turn satirized by Count A.
+von Platen-Hallermund's admirable imitations of Aristophanic
+comedy.[306] Among the objects of his banter were the popular playwright
+E. Raupach, and K. Immermann, a true poet, who is, however, less
+generally remembered as a dramatist. F. Hebbel[307] is justly ranked
+high among the foremost later dramatic poets of his country, few of whom
+equal him in intensity. The eminent lyrical (especially ballad) poet L.
+Uhland left behind him a large number of dramatic fragments, but little
+or nothing really complete. Other names of literary mark are those of C.
+D. Grabbe, J. Mosen, O. Ludwig[308] (1813-1865), a dramatist of great
+power, and "F. Halm" (Baron von Münch-Bellinghausen) (1806-1871), and,
+among writers of a more modern school, K. Gutzkow,[309] G.
+Freytag,[310] and H. Laube.[311] L. Anzengruber, a writer of real genius
+though restricted range, imparted a new significance to the Austrian
+popular drama,[312] formerly so commonplace in the hands of F. Raimund
+and J. Nestroy.
+
+
+  The German stage of the latter half of the 19th century.
+
+During the long period of transition which may be said to have ended
+with the establishment of the new German empire, the German stage in
+some measure anticipated the developments which more spacious times were
+to witness in the German drama. The traditions of the national theatre
+contemporary with the great epoch of the national literature were kept
+alive by a succession of eminent actors--such as the nephews of Ludwig
+Devrient, himself an artist of the greatest originality, whose most
+conspicuous success, though nature had fitted him for Shakespeare, was
+achieved in Schiller's earliest play.[313] Among the younger generation
+of Devrients the most striking personality was that of Emil; his elder
+brother Karl August, husband of Wilhelmine Schröder-Devrient, the
+brilliant star of the operatic stage, and their son Friedrich, were also
+popular actors; yet another brother, Eduard, is more widely remembered
+as the historian of the German stage. Partly by reason of the number and
+variety of its centres of intellectual and artistic life, Germany was
+long enabled both to cherish the few masterpieces of its own drama, and,
+with the aid of a language well adapted for translation, to give
+admittance to the dramatic masterpieces of other nations also, and to
+Shakespeare in particular, without going far in the search for
+theatrical novelty or effect. But a change came over the spirit of
+German theatrical management with the endeavours of H. Laube, from about
+the middle of the century onwards, at Vienna (and Leipzig), which
+avowedly placed the demands of the theatre as such above those of
+literary merit or even of national sentiment. In a less combative
+spirit, F. Dingelstedt, both at Munich, which under King Maximilian he
+had made a kindly nurse of German culture, and, after his efforts there
+had come to an untimely end,[314] at Weimar and at Vienna, raised the
+theatre to a very high level of artistic achievement. The most memorable
+event in the annals of his managements was the production on the Weimar
+stage of the series of Shakespeare's _histories_. At a rather later
+period, of which the height extended from 1874 to 1890, the company of
+actors in the service, and under the personal direction, of Duke George
+of Saxe-Meiningen, created a great effect by their performances both in
+and outside Germany--not so much by their artistic improvements in
+scenery and decoration, as by the extraordinary perfection of their
+_ensemble_. But no dramaturgic achievement in the century could compare
+in grandeur either of conception or of execution with Richard Wagner's
+Bayreuth performances, where, for the first time in the history of the
+modern stage, the artistic instinct ruled supreme in all the conditions
+of the work and its presentment. Though the _Ring of the Nibelungs_ and
+its successors belong to opera rather than drama proper, the importance
+of their production (1876) should be overlooked by no student of the
+dramatic art. Potent as has been the influence of foreign dramatic
+literatures--whether French or Scandinavian--and that of a movement
+which has been common to them all, and from which the German was perhaps
+the least likely to exclude itself, the most notable feature in the
+recent history of the German drama has been its quick response to wholly
+new demands, which, though the attempt was made with some persistence,
+could no longer be met without an effort to span the widths and sound
+the depths of a more spacious and more self-conscious era.[315]
+
+
+h. _Dutch Drama._
+
+Among other modern European dramas the Dutch is interesting both in its
+beginnings, which to all intents and purposes form part of those of the
+German, and because of the special influence of the so-called chambers
+of the _rederykers_ (rhetoricians), from the early years of the 15th
+century onwards, which bear some resemblance to the associations of the
+master-singers in contemporary higher Germany. The earliest of their
+efforts, which so effectively tempered the despotism of both church and
+state, seem to have been of a dramatic kind; and a manifold variety of
+allegories, moralities and comic entertainments (_esbatementen_ or
+comedies, _kluiten_ and _factien_ or farces) enhanced the attractions of
+those popular pageants in which the Netherlands surpassed all other
+countries of the North. The Low Countries responded more largely to the
+impulse of the Renaissance than, with some local exceptions, any other
+of the Germanic lands. They necessarily had a considerable share in the
+cultivation of the modern Latin drama; and, while the author of
+_Acolastus_ may be claimed as its own by the country of his adoption as
+well as by that of his birth, G. M. Macropedius (Langhveldt) (c.
+1475-1508), who may be regarded as the foremost Latin dramatist of his
+age, was born and died at Hertogenbosch or in its immediate vicinity.
+Macropedius, who belonged to the fraternity of the Common Life, was a
+writer of great realistic power as well as of remarkable literary
+versatility.[316] The art of acting flourished in the Low Countries even
+during the troubles of the great revolt; but the birth of the regular
+drama was delayed till the advent of quieter times. Dutch dramatic
+literature begins, under the influence of the classical studies
+cherished in the seats of learning founded before and after the close of
+the war, with the classical tragedies of S. Koster (c. 1585-c. 1650).
+The romantic dramas and farces of Gerbrand Bredero (1585-1618) and the
+tragedies of P. Hooft (1581-1647) belong to the same period; but its
+foremost dramatic poet was J. van den Vondel, who from an imitation of
+classical models passed to more original forms of dramatic composition,
+including a patriotic play and a dramatic treatment of part of what was
+to form the theme of _Paradise Lost_.[317] But Vondel had no successor
+of equal mark. The older form of Dutch tragedy--in which the chorus
+still appeared--was, especially under the influence of the critic A.
+Pels, exchanged for a close imitation of the French models, Corneille
+and Racine; nor was the attempt to create a national comedy successful.
+Thus no national Dutch drama was permanently called into life.
+
+
+i. _Scandinavian Drama._
+
+  Denmark.
+
+  The modern Norwegian drama.
+
+Still more distinctly, the dramatic literature of the Scandinavian
+peoples springs from foreign growths. In Denmark, where the beginnings
+of the drama in the plays of the schoolmaster Chr. Hansen recall the
+mixture of religious and farcical elements in contemporary German
+efforts, the drama in the latter half of the 16th century remained
+essentially scholastic, and treated scriptural or classical subjects,
+chiefly in the Latin tongue. J. Ranch (1539-1607) and H. S. Sthen were
+authors of this type. But often in the course of the 17th century,
+German and French had become the tongues of Danish literature and of the
+Danish theatre; in the 18th Denmark could boast a comic dramatist of
+thorough originality and of a wholly national cast. L. Holberg, one of
+the most noteworthy comic poets of modern literature, not only marks an
+epoch in the dramatic literature of his native land, but he contributed
+to overthrow the trivialities of the German stage in its worst period,
+which he satirized with merciless humour,[318] and set an example, never
+surpassed, of a series of comedies[319] deriving their types from
+popular life and ridiculing with healthy directness those vices and
+follies which are the proper theme of the most widely effective species
+of the comic drama. Among his followers, P. A. Heiberg is specially
+noted. Under the influence of the Romantic school, whose influence has
+nowhere proved so long-lived as in the Scandinavian north, A.
+Ohlenschläger began a new era of Danish literature. His productivity,
+which belongs partly to his native and partly to German literary
+history, turned from foreign[320] to native themes; and other writers
+followed him in his endeavours to revive the figures of Northern heroic
+legend. But these themes have in their turn given way in the
+Scandinavian theatre to subjects coming nearer home to the popular
+consciousness, and treated with a direct appeal to the common experience
+of human life, and with a searching insight into the actual motives of
+human action. The most remarkable movement to be noted in the history of
+the Scandinavian drama, and one of the most widely effective of those
+which mark the more recent history of the Western drama in general, had
+its origin in Norway. Two Norwegian dramatists, H. Ibsen and Björnsterne
+Björnson, standing as it were side by side, though by no means always
+judging eye to eye, have vitally influenced the whole course of modern
+dramatic literature in the direction of a fearlessly candid and close
+delineation of human nature. The lesser of the pair in inventive genius,
+and in the power of exhibiting with scornful defiance the conflict
+between soul and circumstance, but the stronger by virtue of the
+conviction of hope which lies at the root of achievement, is
+Björnson.[321] Ibsen's long career as a dramatist exhibits a succession
+of many changes, but at no point any failure in the self-trust of his
+genius. His early masterpieces were dramatic only in form.[322] His
+world-drama of _Emperor and Galilean_ was still unsuited to a stage
+rarely trodden to much purpose by idealists of Julian's type. The
+beginnings of his real and revolutionary significance as a dramatist
+date from the production of his first plays of contemporary life, the
+admirable satirical comedy _The Pillars of Society_ (1877), the subtle
+domestic drama _A Doll's House_ (1879), and the powerful but repellent
+_Ghosts_ (1881),[323] which last, with the effects of its appearance,
+modern dramatic literature may even to this day be said to have failed
+altogether to assimilate. Ibsen's later prose comedies--(verse, he
+writes, has immensely damaged the art of acting, and a tragedy in
+iambics belongs to the species Dodo)--for the most part written during
+an exile which accounts for the note of isolation so audible in many of
+them, succeeded one another at regular biennial intervals, growing more
+and more abrupt in form, cruel in method, and intense in elemental
+dramatic force. The prophet at last spoke to a listening world, but
+without the amplitude, the grace and the wholeheartedness which are
+necessary for subduing it. But it may be long before the art which he
+had chosen as the vehicle of his comments on human life and society
+altogether ceases to show the impress of his genius.
+
+
+j. _Drama of the Slav Peoples._
+
+  Polish.
+
+As to the history of the Slav drama, only a few hints can be here given.
+Its origins have not yet--at least in works accessible to Western
+students--been authoritatively traced. The Russian drama in its earliest
+or religious beginnings is stated to have been introduced from Poland
+early in the 12th century; and, again, it would seem that, when the
+influence of the Renaissance touched the east of Europe, the religious
+drama was cultivated in Poland in the 16th, but did not find its way
+into Russia till the 17th century. It is probable that the species was,
+like so many other elements of culture, imported into the Carpathian
+lands in the 15th or 16th century from Germany. How far indigenous
+growths, such as the Russian popular puppet-show called _vertep_, which
+about the middle of the 17th century began to treat secular and popular
+themes, helped to foster dramatic tendencies and tastes, cannot here be
+estimated. The regular drama of eastern Europe is to all intents and
+purposes of Western origin. Thus, the history of the Polish drama may be
+fairly dated as beginning with the reign of the last king of Poland,
+Stanislaus II. Augustus, who in 1765 solemnly opened a national theatre
+at Warsaw. This institution was carried on till the fatal year 1794, and
+saw the production of a considerable number of Polish plays, mostly
+translated or adapted, but in part original--as in the case of one or
+two of those from the active pen of the secretary to the educational
+commission, Zablonski. But it was not till after the last partition
+that, paradoxically though not wholly out of accordance with the history
+of the relations between political and literary history, the attempts of
+W. Bogulawski and J. N. Kaminski to establish and carry on a Polish
+national theatre were crowned with success. Its literary mainstay was a
+gifted Franco-Pole, Count Alexander Fredro (1793-1876), who in the
+period between the Napoleonic revival and the long exodus fathered a
+long-lived species of modern Polish comedy, French in origin (for Fredro
+was a true disciple of Molière), and wholly out of contact with the
+sentiment that survived in the ashes of a doomed nation.[324] His
+complaint as to the exiguity of the Polish literary public--a brace of
+theatres and a bookseller's handcart--may have been premature; but a
+national drama was most certainly impossible in a denationalised and
+dismembered land, in whose historic capital the theatre in which Polish
+plays continued to be produced seemed garrisoned by Cossack officers.
+
+
+  Russian.
+
+Much in the same way, though with a characteristic difference, the
+Russian regular drama had its origin in the cadet corps at St
+Petersburg, a pupil of which, A. Sumarokov (1718-1777), has been
+regarded as the founder of the modern Russian theatre. As a tragic poet
+he seems to have imitated Racine and Voltaire, though treating themes
+from the national history, among others the famous dramatic subject of
+the False Demetrius. He also translated _Hamlet_. As a comic dramatist
+he is stated to have been less popular than as a tragedian; yet it is in
+comedy that he would seem to have had the most noteworthy successors.
+Among these it is impossible to pass by the empress Catherine II., whose
+comedies seem to have been satirical sketches of the follies and foibles
+of her subjects, and who in one comedy as well as in a tragedy had the
+courage to imitate Shakespeare. Comedy aiming at social satire long
+continued to temper the conditions of Russian society, and had
+representatives of mark in such writers as A. N. Ostrovsky of Moscow and
+Griboyedov, the author of _Gore et uma_.
+
+In any survey of the Slav drama that of the Czech peoples, whose
+national consciousness has so fully reawakened, must not be overlooked.
+A Czech theatre was called into life at Prague as early as the 18th
+century; and in the 19th its demands, centring in a sense of
+nationality, were met by J. N. Stepinek (1783-1844), W. C. Klicpera
+(1792-1859) and J. C. Tyl (1808-1856); and later writers continued to
+make use of the stage for a propaganda of historical as well as
+political significance.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The following works treat the general theory of the
+  drama and the dramatic art, together with the principles of dramaturgy
+  and of the art of acting. Works which have reference to the drama of a
+  particular period or of a particular nation only are mentioned
+  separately. Works which deal with special authors only have been
+  intentionally omitted in this bibliography, as being mentioned in the
+  articles in the several authors.
+
+  Aristotle's _Poetics_ (text and transl. by S. H. Butcher, London,
+  1895; transl. by T. Twining, London, 1812; see also Donaldson's
+  _Theatre of the Greeks_); H. Baumgart, _Aristoteles, Lessing, u.
+  Goethe. Über das ethische u. ästhetische Princip der Tragödie_
+  (Leipzig, 1877); H. A. Bulthaupt, _Dramaturgie des Schauspiels_ (4
+  vols., Oldenburg u. Leipzig, 1893-1902); L. Campbell, _Tragic Drama in
+  Aeschylus, Sophocles and Shakespeare_ (London, 1904); P. Corneille,
+  _Discours du poëme dramatique--de la tragédie--des trois unités,
+  OEuvres_, vol. i. (Paris, 1862); W. L. Courtney, _The Idea of Tragedy
+  in Ancient and Modern Drama_ (Westminster, 1900); Diderot, _De la
+  poésie dramatique_. _Entretiens sur le Fils Naturel, OEuvres
+  complètes_, vii. (Paris, 1875); J. Dryden, _Essay of Dramatic Poesy_
+  and other critical essays (_Essays of J. Dryden_, ed. W. P. Ker, 2
+  vols., Oxford, 1900); G. Freytag, _Die Technik des Dramas_ (5th ed.,
+  Leipzig, 1886); G. W. F. Hegel, _Vorlesungen über Ästhetik_, ed. H. G.
+  Hotho, bd. 3, chap. iii. c. _Die dramatische Poesie_ (Werke, x. 3;
+  Berlin, 1838); G. Larroumet, _Études d'histoire et de critique
+  dramatiques_, 2 sér. (Paris, 1892-1899); G. E. Lessing, _Hamburgische
+  Dramaturgie_. _Erlautert von F. Schroter u. R. Thiele_ (Halle, 1877);
+  _Materialien zu Lessing's Hamburgische Dramaturgie, von W. Cosack_
+  (Paderborn, 1876); G. H. Lewes, _On Actors and the Art of Acting_
+  (London, 1875); Sir T. Martin, _Essays on the Drama_ (London, 1874);
+  K. Mantzius, _History of Theatrical Art in Ancient and Modern Times_,
+  transl. by L. von Cossel (London, 1903, &c.); G. Meredith, _Essay on
+  Comedy_ (Westminster, 1897); R. Prolss, _Katechismus der Dramaturgie_
+  (Leipzig, 1877); H. T. Rotscher, _Die Kunst der dramatischen
+  Darstellung_ (3 vols., Berlin, 1841-1846); _Jahrbucher fur dramatische
+  Kunst u. Literatur_ (Berlin and Frankfort, 1848-1849); P. de
+  Saint-Victor, _Les Deux Masques, tragédie--comédie_ (3rd ed., 3 vols.,
+  Paris, 1881, &c.); Saint-Marc Girardin, _Cours de littérature
+  dramatique_ (7th ed., 5 vols., Paris, 1868); A. W. von Schlegel,
+  _Lectures on Dramatic Art and Literature_ (Eng. transl., London,
+  1846); Sir W. Scott, _Essays on Chivalry, Romance and the Drama_
+  (including his article "Drama" written for the Supplement to the 4th
+  edition of the _Ency. Brit._, and reprinted in the 5th, 6th, 7th and
+  8th editions); F. T. Vischer, _Ästhetik_, vol. iv. (Stuttgart, 1857).
+
+  The fullest general history of the drama extant is J. L. Klein's
+  _Geschichte des Dramas_, 13 vols. and index (Leipzig, 1865-1886). See
+  also, for encyclopaedic information, W. Davenport Adams, _A Dictionary
+  of the Drama_, vol. i. (London, 1904); C. M. E. Béquet, _Encyclopédie
+  de l'art dramatique_ (Paris, 1886); A. Pougin, _Dictionnaire
+  historique et pittoresque du théâtre et des arts qui s'y rattachent_
+  (Paris, 1885).
+
+  The drama of the Eastern nations is generally treated in:--A. P.
+  Brozzi, _Teatri e spettacoli dei popoli orientali Ebrei, Arabi,
+  Persani, Indiani, Cinesi, Giapponesi e Giavanesi_ (Milan, 1887); Comte
+  J. A. de Gobineau, _Les Religions et les philosophies dans l'Asie
+  centrale_ (2nd ed., Paris, 1866).
+
+  The following works deal with the Indian drama:--M. Schuyler,
+  _Bibliography of the Sanskrit Drama_ (Columbia Univ., Indo-Iranian,
+  ser. iii., New York, 1906); H. H. Wilson, _Select Specimens of the
+  Theatre of the Hindus_, transl. from the original Sanskrit (with
+  introduction on the dramatic system of the Hindus), 3rd ed., 2 vols.
+  (London, 1871); S. Levi, _Le Théâtre indien_ (supplements Wilson)
+  (Paris, 1891).
+
+  For Chinese:--Tscheng-Ki-Tong, _Le Théâtre des Chinois_ (Paris, 1886);
+  see also H. A. Giles, _History of Chinese Literature_ (London, 1901).
+
+  For Japanese:--C. Florenz, _Gesch. d. japan. Litteratur_, vol. i. 1
+  (Leipzig, 1905); see also F. Brinkley, _Japan, its History, Arts and
+  Literature_, vol. iii. (Boston and Tokyo, 1901).
+
+  For Persian:--A. Chodzko, _Théâtre persan. Choix de téaziés ou drames,
+  traduits pour la première fois du persan par A. Chodzko_ (Paris,
+  1878); E. Montet, _Le Théâtre en Perse_ (Geneva, 1888); Sir L. Pelly,
+  _The Miracle Play of Hasan and Husain, collected from oral tradition;
+  revised with explanatory notes by A. N. Wollaston_ (2 vols., London,
+  1879).
+
+  Of works treating of the ancient Greek and Roman drama only a small
+  selection can be given here. In the case of the Greek drama, the chief
+  histories of literature--such as G. Bernhardy's, K. O. Muller's (Eng.
+  tr. by Sir G. C. Lewis, with continuation by J. W. Donaldson) and G.
+  Murray's--and general histories--such as Grote's, Thirlwall's,
+  Curtius's, &c.--should also be consulted; and for the administration
+  and finance of the Attic theatre, Boeckh's _Public Economy of Athens_,
+  Eng. tr. (London, 1842). Much useful information will be found in _A
+  Companion to Greek Studies_, ed. by L. Whibley (Cambridge, 1905). The
+  standard collective edition of the ancient Greek dramatic poets is the
+  _Poetae scenici Graeci_, ed. C. W. Dindorf (5th ed., Leipzig, 1869),
+  and that of the Comic poets A. Meineke's _Historia critica comicorum
+  Graecorum. Cum fragmentis_ (5 vols., Berlin, 1839-1857). Aristotle's
+  _Poetics_, cited above, will of course be consulted for the theory of
+  the Greek drama in particular; and much valuable critical matter will
+  be found in passages of Bentley's _Phalaris_ (1699), which are
+  reprinted in Donaldson's _Theatre of the Greeks_. The following later
+  works, some of which treat of the ancient classical drama in general,
+  may be noted:--E. A. Chaignet, _La Tragédie grecque_ (Paris, 1877); J.
+  Denys, _Histoire de la comédie grecque_ (2 vols., Paris, 1886); J. W.
+  Donaldson, _The Theatre of the Greeks_ (7th ed., London, 1860); Du
+  Méril, _Histoire de la comédie. Période primitive_ (Paris, 1864);
+  _Histoire de la comédie ancienne_ (Paris, 1869); A. E. Haigh, _The
+  Tragic Drama of the Greeks_ (Oxford, 1896); _The Attic Theatre_
+  (Oxford, 1898); G. Korting, _Gesch. des Theaters in seinen Beziehungen
+  zur Kunstentwickelung der dramatischen Dichtkunst_, Bd. i. _Gesch. des
+  griechischen u. romischen Theaters_ (Paderborn, 1897); R. G. Moulton,
+  _The Ancient Classical Drama_ (Oxford, 1898); M. Patin, _Étude sur les
+  tragiques grecs_ (3 vols., Paris, 1861); C. M. Rapp, _Gesch. des
+  griechischen Schauspiels vom Standpunkt der dramatischen Kunst_
+  (Tubingen, 1862); H. Weil, _Études sur le drame antique_ (Paris,
+  1897); F. G. Welcker, "Die griechischen Tragodien, mit Rucksicht auf
+  den epischen Cyklus" (_Rhein. Mus._ Suppl. ii.) 3 pts. (Bonn,
+  1839-1841).
+
+  In addition to the works of individual Roman dramatists, and critical
+  writings concerning them, see _Scaenicae Romanorum poesis fragmenta_,
+  2 vols. (I. Tragic, II. Comic) ed. by O. Ribbeck (3rd ed. Leipzig,
+  1897-1898). W. S. Teuffel's _History of Roman Literature_, Eng. tr. (2
+  vols., London, 1891-1892), and M. Schanz' _Gesch. der romischen
+  Litteratur bis Justinian_ (2 vols., Munich, 1890-1892), may be
+  consulted for a complete view of the course of the Roman drama. For
+  its later developments consult Dean Merivale's _History of the Romans
+  under the Empire_, and S. Dill's _Roman Society in the Last Days of
+  the Western Empire_ (London, 1898). See also L. Friedländer,
+  _Darstellungen aus der Sittengeschichte Roms_, 6th ed., vol. ii.
+  (Leipzig, 1889); M. Meyer, _Étude sur le théâtre latin_ (Paris, 1847);
+  O. Ribbeck, _Die römische Tragödie im Zeitalter der Republik_
+  (Leipzig, 1875).
+
+  The following works treat of the medieval drama, religious or secular,
+  of its origins and of usages connected with it:--H. Anz, _Die
+  lateinischen Magierspiele_ (Leipzig, 1905); E. K. Chambers, _The
+  Medieval Stage_ (2 vols., Oxford, 1903), with full bibliography; E. de
+  Coussemaker, _Drames liturgiques du moyen âge_ (Paris, 1861); du
+  Méril, _Theatri liturgici quae Latina supersunt monumenta_ (Caen and
+  Paris, 1849); C. A. Hase, _Miracle Plays and Sacred Dramas_ (Eng.
+  tr.), (London, 1880); Hilarius, _Versus et ludi_, ed.
+  Champollion-Figeac (Paris, 1838); R. Froning, _Das Drama des
+  Mittelalters_ (3 vols., Stuttgart, 1891, &c.); Edwin Norris, _Ancient
+  Cornish Drama_ (ed. and tr. 2 vols., 1859); W. Hone, _Ancient
+  Mysteries Described_ (London, 1823); A. von Keller, _Fastnachtsspiele
+  aus dem 15. Jahrhundert_ (Stuttgart, 1858); C. Magnin, _Les Origines
+  du théâtre moderne_, vol. i. only (Paris, 1838); F. J. Mone,
+  _Schauspiele des Mittelalters_ (2 vols., Karlsruhe, 1846); A. Reiners,
+  _Die Tropen-, Prosen-, u. Präfations-Gesänge_ (Luxemburg, 1884); J. de
+  Rothschild, _Le Mistère du Viel Testament_, ed. J. de Rothschild (6
+  vols., Paris, 1878-1891); M. Sepet, _Le Drame chrétien au moyen âge_
+  (Paris, 1878); _Origines catholiques du théâtre moderne_. _Les drames
+  liturgiques_ (Paris, 1901); T. Wright, _Early Mysteries and other
+  Latin Poems of the 12th and 13th Centuries_ (London, 1838); C. A. G.
+  von Zezschwitz, _Das mittelalterliche Drama_ (Leipzig, 1881).
+
+  For French medieval drama in particular:--L. Clédat, _Le Théâtre en
+  France au moyen âge_ (Paris, 1896); E. Fournier, _Le Théâtre français
+  avant la Renaissance_ (Paris, 1872); _Miracles de Notre Dame par
+  personnages_, ed. G. Paris and U. Robert (8 vols., Paris, 1876-1893);
+  L. J. N. Monmerqué and F. Michel, _Théâtre français au moyen âge_
+  (Paris, 1839); L. Petit de Julleville, _Histoire du théâtre en France
+  au moyen âge_ (5 vols., Paris, 1880-1886); E. L. N. Viollet-le-Duc,
+  _Ancien Théâtre français_ (10 vols., Paris, 1854-1857).
+
+  For the medieval Italian in particular:--A. d'Ancona, _Sacre
+  rappresentazioni dei secoli XIV., XV. e XVI._ (Florence, 1872).
+
+  For medieval English in particular:--Ahn, _English Mysteries and
+  Miracle Plays_ (Trèves, 1867); S. W. Clarke, _The Miracle Play in
+  England_ (London, 1897); F. W. Fairholt, _Lord Mayors' Pageants_, 2
+  vols. (Percy Soc.) (London, 1843-1844); A. W. Pollard, _English
+  Miracle Plays, Moralities and Interludes_ (3rd ed., Oxford 1898);
+  _Chester Plays_ ed. T. Wright, 2 vols. (Shakespeare Soc.) (London,
+  1843), re-ed. by H. Deimling (part only) (E.E.T.S.) (London, 1893);
+  _Coventry Plays, Ludus Coventriae_, ed. J. O. Halliwell (-Phillipps)
+  (Shakespeare Soc.) (London, 1841); _Coventry Plays_. _Dissertation on
+  the pageants or mysteries at Coventry_, by T. Sharp (Coventry, 1825);
+  _Digby Plays_, ed. F. J. Furnivall (E.E.T.S.) (London, 1896);
+  _Towneley Mysteries_, ed. G. England and A. W. Pollard (E.E.T.S.)
+  (London, 1897); _York Plays_, ed. L. T. Smith (Oxford, 1885).
+
+  For the German in particular:--F. J. Mone, _Altteutsche Schauspiele_
+  (Quedlinburg, 1841); H. Reidt, _Das geistliche Schauspiel des
+  Mittelalters in Deutschland_ (Frankfort, 1868); E. Wilken, _Gesch. der
+  geistlichen Spiele in Deutschland_ (Göttingen, 1872).
+
+  The revival of the classical drama in the Renaissance age is treated
+  in P. Bahlmann's _Die Erneuerer des antiken Dramas und ihre ersten
+  dramatischen Versuche_, 1314-1478 (Münster, 1896); A. Chassang's _Des
+  essais dramatiques imités de l'antiquité au XIV^e et XV^e siècle_
+  (Paris, 1852); and in V. de Amitis' _L'Imitazione latina nella
+  commedia del XVI. secolo_ (Pisa, 1871).
+
+  Both the medieval and portions of the later drama are treated in W.
+  Cloetta, _Beiträge zur Litteraturgeschichte des Mittelalters und der
+  Renaissance_ (2 vols., Halle, 1890-1892); W. Creizenach, _Geschichte
+  des neueren Dramas_, vols. i.-iii. (Halle, 1893-1903); R. Prölss,
+  _Geschichte des neueren Dramas_ (3 vols., Leipzig, 1881-1883). See
+  also L.-V. Gofflot, _Le Théâtre au collège, du moyen âge à nos jours_,
+  Préface par Jules Claretie (Paris, 1907).
+
+  The history of the modern Italian drama, in its various stages, is
+  treated by A. d'Ancona, _Origini del teatro italiano_ (2nd ed., 2
+  vols., Turin, 1891); J. Dornis, _Le Théâtre italien contemporain_
+  (Paris, 1904); H. Lyonnet, _Le Théâtre en Italie_ (Paris, 1900); L.
+  Riccoboni, _Histoire du théâtre italien_ (2 vols., Rome, 1728-1731);
+  J. C. Walker, _Historical Memoir on Italian Tragedy_ (London, 1799).
+  See also A. Gaspary, _History of Early Italian Literature_, transl. by
+  H. Oelsner (London, 1901).
+
+  Some information as to the modern Greek drama is given in R. Nicolai,
+  _Geschichte der neugriechischen Literatur_ (Leipzig, 1876).
+
+  Modern Spanish drama:--M. A. Fée, _Études sur l'ancien théâtre
+  espagnol_ (Paris 1873); A. Gassier, _Le Théâtre espagnol_ (Paris,
+  1898); G. H. Lewes, _The Spanish Drama_ (London, 1846); H. Lyonnet,
+  _Le Théâtre en Espagne_ (Paris, 1897); A. Schäffer, _Gesch. des
+  spanischen Nationaldramas_ (2 vols., Leipzig, 1890); L. de
+  Viel-Castel, _Essai sur le théâtre espagnol_ (2 vols., Paris, 1882).
+  See also G. Ticknor, _History of Spanish Literature_ (3 vols., London,
+  1863).
+
+  Modern Portuguese:--H. Lyonnet, _Le Théâtre au Portugal_ (Paris,
+  1898); see also K. von Reinhardstoettner's _Portugiesische
+  Literaturgeschichte_ (Sammlung Göschen) (Leipzig, 1904), which
+  contains a useful bibliography.
+
+  Regular French drama (tragedy and comedy):--F. Brunetière, _Les
+  Epoques du théâtre français_, 1636-1850 (Paris, 1892); E. Chasles,
+  _La Comédie en France au XVI^e siècle_ (Paris, 1862); E. Faguet, _La
+  Tragédie française au XVI^e siècle_ (Paris, 1883); A. Filon, _The
+  Modern French Drama_ (London, 1898); V. Fournel, _Le Théâtre au XVII^e
+  siècle_ (Paris, 1892); E. Fournier, _Le Théâtre français au XVI^e et
+  au XVII^e siècle_ (2 vols., Paris, s.d.); F. Hawkins, _Annals of the
+  French Stage_ (London, 1884); H. Lucas, _Hist. philosophique et
+  littéraire du théâtre français depuis son origine_ (3 vols., Paris);
+  Parfait, _Hist. du théâtre français_ (15 vols., Paris, 1745-1749); L.
+  Petit de Julleville, _Le théâtre en France depuis ses origines jusqu'à
+  nos jours_ (Paris, 1899); E. Rigal, _Le théâtre français avant la
+  période classique_ (Paris, 1901); E. Roy, _Études sur le théâtre
+  français du XV^e et du XVI^e siècle_ (Dijon, 1901).
+
+  The connexion between the Italian and French theatre in the 17th
+  century is traced in L. Moland, _Molière et la comédie italienne_ (2nd
+  ed., Paris, 1867). See also J. C. Démogeot's, H. von Laun's and
+  Saintsbury's histories of French Literature.
+
+  Of the ample literature concerned with the modern English drama the
+  following works may be specially mentioned, as dealing with the entire
+  range of the English drama, or with more than one of its periods:--D.
+  E. Baker, _Biographia dramatica_ (continued to 1811 by J. Reed and S.
+  Jones) (3 vols., London, 1812); J. P. Collier, _History of English
+  Dramatic Poetry_, new ed. (3 vols., London, 1879); C. Dibdin, _A
+  complete History of the English Stage_ (5 vols., London, 1800); J. J.
+  Jusserand, _Le Théâtre en Angleterre_ (2nd ed., Paris, 1881); G.
+  Langbaine, _Lives and Characters of the English Dramatic Poets_
+  (London, 1699); _The Poetical Register: or lives and characters of the
+  English dramatick poets_ (London, 1719); C. M. Rapp, _Studien über das
+  englische Theater_, 2 parts (Tübingen, 1862); "G. S. B.", _Study of
+  the Prologue and Epilogue in English Literature_ (London, 1884); _The
+  Thespian Dictionary: or dramatic biography of the 18th century_
+  (London, 1802); A. W. Ward, _History of English Dramatic Literature to
+  the Death of Queen Anne_ (2nd ed., 3 vols., London, 1899); see also
+  the histories of English Literature or Poetry, by Warton, Taine, ten
+  Brinck, Courthope, Saintsbury, &c.
+
+  The following works contain the most complete lists of English
+  plays:--W. W. Greg, _A List of English Plays written before 1643 and
+  published before 1700_ (Bibliogr. Soc.) (London, 1900); J. O.
+  Halliwell (-Phillipps), _Dictionary of Old English Plays_ (London,
+  1860); W. C. Hazlitt, _A Manual for the Collector and Amateur of Old
+  English Plays_ (London, 1892); R. W. Lowe, _Bibliographical Account of
+  English Dramatic Literature_ (London, 1888) is a valuable handbook for
+  the whole of English theatrical literature and matters connected with
+  it. The unique work of Genest, _Some Account of the English Stage from
+  1660-1830_ (10 vols., Bath, 1832), includes, with a chronological
+  series of plays acted on the English stage, notices of unacted plays,
+  and critical remarks on plays and actors. "A Compleat List" of English
+  dramatic poets and plays to 1747 was published with T. Whincop's
+  _Scanderbeg_ in that year.
+
+  The following are the principal collections of English plays--_Ancient
+  British Drama_, ed. Sir W. Scott (3 vols., London, 1810); _Modern
+  British Drama_, ed. Sir W. Scott (5 vols., London, 1811); W. Bang,
+  _Materialien zur Kunde des älteren englischen Dramas_ (Louvain, 1902,
+  &c.); A. H. Bullen, _Collection of Old English Plays_ (4 vols.,
+  London, 1882); R. Dodsley, _A Select Collection of Old Plays_, 4th ed.
+  by W. C. Hazlitt (15 vols., London, 1874-1876); _Dramatists of the
+  Restoration_ (14 vols., Edinburgh, 1872-1879); _Early English
+  Dramatists_, ed. J. S. Farmer (London, 1905, &c.); C. M. Gayley,
+  _Representative English Comedies_ (vol. i., New York, 1903); T.
+  Hawkins, _Origin of the English Drama_ (3 vols., Oxford, 1773); Mrs
+  Inchbald, _British Theatre_, new ed. (20 vols., London, 1824), _Modern
+  Theatre_ (10 vols., London, 1811), _Collection of Farces and
+  Afterpieces_ (7 vols., London, 1815); Malone Society publications
+  (London, 1907, &c.); J. M. Manly, _Specimens of the Pre-Shakespearean
+  Drama_ (3 vols., London, 1897); _Mermaid Series of Old Dramatists_,
+  ed. Havelock Ellis (London, 1887. &c.); _Old English Drama_ (2 vols.,
+  London, 1825); _Pearson's Reprints of Elizabethan and Jacobean Plays_
+  (London, 1871, &c.).
+
+  The following deal with the Elizabethan and Jacobean drama in
+  especial:--W. Creizenach, _Die Schauspiele der englischen Komödianten_
+  (Berlin, 1895); J. W. Cunliffe, _The Influence of Seneca on
+  Elizabethan Tragedy_ (London, 1893); F. G. Fleay, _A Chronicle History
+  of the London Stage, 1559-1642_ (London, 1890), _A Biographical
+  Chronicle of the English Drama, 1559-1642_ (London, 1891); W. C.
+  Hazlitt, _The English Drama and Stage under the Tudor and Stuart
+  Princes, 1543-1664_ (London, 1869); W. Hazlitt, _Dramatic Literature
+  of the Age of Elizabeth_ (Works, ed. A. R. Waller, vol. v.) (London,
+  1902); A. F. von Schack, _Die englischen Dramatiker vor, neben, und
+  nach Shakespeare_ (Stuttgart, 1893); J. A. Symonds, _Shakspere's
+  Predecessors in the English Drama_ (London, 1884).
+
+  As to the Latin academical drama of the Elizabethan age see G. B.
+  Churchill and W. Keller, "Die latein. Universitäts-Dramen Englands in
+  der Zeit d. Königin Elizabeth" in _Jahrbuch der deutschen
+  Shakespeare-Gesellschaft_. For a short bibliography of the Oxford
+  academical drama, 1547-1663, see the introduction to Miss M. L. Lee's
+  edition of _Narcissus_ (London, 1893). A list of Oxford plays will
+  also be found in _Notes and Queries_, ser. vii., vol. ii. For a list
+  of Cambridge plays from 1534 to 1671, the writer of this article is
+  indebted to Prof. G. C. Moore-Smith of the university of Sheffield.
+
+  For an account of the Mask see R. Brotanek, _Die englischen
+  Maskenspiele_ (Vienna and Leipzig, 1902); H. A. Evans, _English
+  Masques_ (London, 1897); W. W. Greg, _A List of Masques, Pageants,
+  &c._ (Bibliogr. Soc.) (London, 1902).
+
+  As to early London theatres see T. F. Ordish, _Early London Theatres_
+  (London, 1894).
+
+  Some information as to puppet-plays, &c., will be found in Henry
+  Morley's _Memoirs of Bartholomew Fair_ (London, 1859).
+
+  Among earlier critical essays on the Elizabethan and Stuart drama
+  should be mentioned those of Sir Philip Sidney, G. Puttenham and W.
+  Webbe, T. Rymer and Dryden. For recent essays and notes on the
+  Elizabethan drama in general, see, besides the essays of Coleridge,
+  Lamb (including the introductory remarks in the _Specimens_), Hazlitt,
+  &c., and the remarkable series of articles in the _Retrospective
+  Review_ (1820-1828), the Publications and Transactions of the Old and
+  New Shakespeare Societies (1841, &c.; 1874, &c.), which also contain
+  reprints of early works of great importance for the history of the
+  Elizabethan drama and stage, such as Henslowe's _Diary_, &c., the
+  _Jahrbuch der deutschen Shakespeare-Gesellschaft_ (1865, &c.), as well
+  as the German journals _Anglia_, _Englische Studien_, &c., and the
+  _Modern Language Review_ (Cambridge).
+
+  The later English drama from the reopening of the theatres (1660) is
+  treated in L. N. Chase, _The English Heroic Play_ (New York, 1903); C.
+  Cibber, _Apology for the Life of C. Cibber_, written by himself, new
+  ed. by R. W. Lowe (2 vols., London, 1889), who has also edited
+  Churchill's _Rosciad_ and _Apology_ (London, 1891); J. Doran, _Their
+  Majesties' Servants: annals of the English Stage_ (3 vols., London,
+  1888); A. Filon, _Le Théâtre anglais: hier, aujourd'hui, demain_
+  (Paris, 1896); W. Hazlitt, _A View of the English Stage_ (_Works_, ed.
+  A. R. Waller, vol. viii.) (London, 1903); W. Nicholson, _The Struggle
+  for a Free Stage in London_ (Westminster, 1907).
+
+  The following treat of the modern German drama in particular
+  periods:--R. Prölss, _Gesch. der deutschen Schauspielkunst von den
+  Anfangen bis 1850_ (Leipzig, 1900); R. E. Prutz, _Vorlesungen über die
+  Geschichte des deutschen Theaters_ (Berlin, 1847); R. Froning, _Das
+  Drama der Reformationszeit_ (Stuttgart, 1900); C. Heine, _Das
+  Schauspiel der deutschen Wanderbuhne vor Gottsched_ (Halle, 1889); J.
+  Minor, _Die Schicksalstragodie in ihren Hauptvertretern_ (Frankfort,
+  1883); M. Martersteig, _Das deutsche Theater im XIX^ten Jahrh._
+  (Leipzig, 1904). See also G. G. Gervinus, _Geschichte der deutschen
+  Dichtung_ (5th ed., 5 vols., Leipzig, 1871-1874); and the literary
+  histories of K. Goedeke (_Grundriss_), A. Koberstein, &c. A special
+  aspect of the drama in modern Germany is dealt with in P. Bahlmann,
+  _Die lateinischen Dramen von Wimpheling's Stylpho bis zur Mitte des
+  XVI^ten Jahrhunderts, 1480-1550_ (Münster, 1893), and the same
+  author's _Jesuiten-Dramen der niederrheinischen Ordensprovinz_
+  (Leipzig, 1896).
+
+  The standard history of the modern German stage is Eduard Devrient,
+  _Gesch. der deutschen Schauspielkunst_ (2 vols., Leipzig, 1848-1861);
+  see also R. Prölss, _Gesch. der deutschen Schauspielkunst von den
+  Anfangen bis 1850_ (Leipzig, 1900); O. G. Flüggen, _Biographisches
+  Buhnen-Lexikon der deutschen Theater_ (Munich, 1892).
+
+  A good account of the history of the Dutch drama is F. von Hellwald's
+  _Geschichte des hollandischen Theaters_ (Rotterdam, 1874). See also
+  the authorities under J. van den Vondel.
+
+  Information concerning the Danish drama will be found in the
+  autobiographies of Holberg, Öhlenschläger and Andersen; see also vol.
+  i. of G. Brandes's _Main Currents in Nineteenth Century Literature_
+  (Eng. tr., London, 1901). As to the modern Norwegian drama see the
+  same writer's _Ibsen-Bjornson Studies_ (Eng. tr., London, 1899); also
+  E. Tissot, _Le Drame norvégien_ (Paris, 1893).
+
+  The Russian drama is treated in P. O. Morozov's _Istoria Russkago
+  Teatra_ (_History of the Russian Theatre_), vol. i. (St Petersburg,
+  1889); see also P. de Corvin, _Le Théâtre en Russie_ (Paris, 1890). A.
+  Brückner, _Geschichte der russischen Literatur_ (Leipzig, 1905), may
+  be consulted with advantage. Information as to the dramatic portions
+  of other Slav literatures will be found in A. Pipin and V. Spasovich's
+  _Istoria Slavianskikh Literatur_ (_History of Slavonic Literatures_),
+  German translation by T. Pech (2 vols., Leipzig, 1880-1884).
+       (A. W. W.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _Gallicanus_, part ii.; _Sapientia_.
+
+  [2] _Gallicanus_, part i.; _Callimachus_; _Abraham_; _Paphnutius_.
+
+  [3] The passion-play of Oberammergau, familiar in its present
+    artistic form to so many visitors, was instituted under special
+    circumstances in the days of the Thirty Years' War (1634). Various
+    reasons account for its having been allowed to survive.
+
+  [4] To the earliest group belong _The Castle of Perseverance_;
+    _Wisdom who is Christ_; _Mankind_; to the second, or early Tudor
+    group, Medwell, _Nature_; _The World and the Child_; _Hycke-Scorner_,
+    &c.
+
+  [5] _Magnyfycence_.
+
+  [6] _New Custome_; N. Woodes, _The Conflict of Conscience_, &c.
+
+  [7] _Albyon Knight_.
+
+  [8] Rastell, _Nature of the Four Elements_; Redford, _Wit and
+    Science_; _The Trial of Treasure_; _The Marriage of Wit and Science_.
+
+  [9] _The Marriage of Wit and Wisdom_; _The Contention between
+    Liberality and Prodigality_.
+
+  [10] _Jack Juggler_; _Tom Tiler and his Wife_, &c.
+
+  [11] _The Four P's_, &c.
+
+  [12] _The Disobedient Child_ (c. 1560).
+
+  [13] The [Greek: Christos paschôn], an artificial Byzantine product,
+    probably of the 11th century, glorifying the Virgin in Euripidean
+    verse, was not known to the Western world till 1542.
+
+  [14] Of G. Manzini della Motta's Latin tragedy on the fall of Antonio
+    della Scala only a chorus remains. He died after 1389. Probably to
+    the earlier half of the century belongs the Latin prose drama
+    _Columpnarium_, the story of which, though it ends happily, resembles
+    that of _The Cenci_. Later plays in Latin of the historic type are
+    the extant Landivio de' Nobili's _De captivitate Ducis Jacobi_ (the
+    _condottiere_ Jacopo Piccinino, d. 1464); C. Verardi's _Historia
+    Baetica_ (the expulsion of the Moors from Granada) (1492), and the
+    game author's _Ferdinandus_ (of Aragon) _Servatus_, which is called a
+    tragi-comedy because it is neither tragic nor comic. The Florentine L.
+    Dali's _Hiempsal_ (1441-1442) remains in MS. A few tragedies on
+    sacred subjects were produced in Italy during the last quarter of the
+    15th century, and a little later. Such were the religious dramas
+    written for his pupils by P. Domizio, on which Politian cast
+    contempt; and the tragedies, following ancient models, of T. da Prato
+    of Treviso, B. Campagna of Verona, _De passione Redemptoris_; and G.
+    F. Conti, author of _Theandrothanatos_ and numerous vanished plays.
+
+  [15] _Imber aureus_ (Danae), &c.
+
+  [16] L. Bruni's _Poliscena_ (c. 1395); Sicco Polentone's (1370-1463)
+    jovial _Lusus ebriorum_ s. _De lege bibia_; the papal secretary P.
+    Candido Decembrio's (1399-1477) non-extant _Aphrodisia_; L. B.
+    Alberti's _Philodoxios_ (1424); Ugolino Pisani of Parma's (d. before
+    1462) _Philogenia_ and _Confutatio coquinaria_ (a merry students'
+    play); the _Fraudiphila_ of A. Tridentino, also of Parma, who died
+    after 1470 and perhaps served Pius II.; Eneo Silvio de' Piccolomini's
+    own verse comedy, _Chrisis_, likewise in MS., written in 1444; P.
+    Domizio's _Lucinia_, acted in the palace of Lorenzo de' Medici in
+    1478, &c.
+
+  [17] Mondella, _Isifile_ (1582); Fuligni, _Bragadino_ (1589).
+
+  [18] Home, _Douglas_.
+
+  [19] Lazzaroni, _Ulisse il giovane_ (1719).
+
+  [20] _Didone abbandonata_, _Siroe_, _Semiramide_, _Artaserse_,
+    _Demetris_, &c.
+
+  [21] _Cleopatra_, _Antigone_, _Octavia_, _Mirope_, &c.
+
+  [22] e.g. _Bruto I._ and _II._
+
+  [23] _Filippo_; _Maria Stuarda_.
+
+  [24] Pellico, _Francesca da Rimini_; Niccolini, _Giovanni da
+    Procida_; _Beatrice Cenci_; Giacometti, _Cola di Rienzi_
+    (Giacometti's masterpiece was _La Marte civile_).
+
+  [25] Pyrogopolinices in the _Miles Gloriosus_.
+
+  [26] The masked characters, each of which spoke the dialect of the
+    place he represented, were (according to Baretti) _Pantalone_, a
+    Venetian merchant; _Dottore_, a Bolognese physician; _Spaviento_, a
+    Neapolitan braggadocio; _Pullicinella_, a wag of Apulia;
+    _Giangurgulo_ and _Coviello_, clowns of Calabria; _Gelfomino_, a
+    Roman beau; _Brighella_, a Ferrarese pimp; and _Arlecchino_, a
+    blundering servant of Bergamo. Besides these and a few other such
+    personages (of whom four at least appeared in each play), there were
+    the _Amorosos_ or _Innamoratos_, men or women (the latter not before
+    1560, up to which time actresses were unknown in Italy) with serious
+    parts, and _Smeraldina_, _Colombina_, _Spilletta_, and other
+    _servettas_ or waiting-maids. All these spoke Tuscan or Roman, and
+    wore no masks.
+
+  [27] _Pasitea_.
+
+  [28] _Amicizia_.
+
+  [29] _Milesia_.
+
+  [30] _La Lena_; _Il Negromante_.
+
+  [31] _La Cassaria_; _I Suppositi_.
+
+  [32] Of Machiavelli's other comedies, two are prose adaptations from
+    Plautus and Terence, _La Clizia_ (Casina) and _Andria_; of the two
+    others, simply called _Commedie_, and in verse, his authorship seems
+    doubtful.
+
+  [33] _La Cortigiana_, _La Talanta_, _Il Ipocrito_, _Il Filosofo_.
+
+  [34] _Momolo Cortesan_ (_Jerome the Accomplished Man_); _La Bottega
+    del caffé_, &c.
+
+  [35] _La Vedova scaltra_ (_The Cunning Widow_); _La Putta onorata_
+    (_The Respectable Girl_); _La Buona Figlia_; _La B. Sposa_; _La B.
+    Famiglia_; _La B. Madre_ (the last of which was unsuccessful;
+    "goodness," says Goldoni, "never displeases, but the public weary of
+    every thing"), &c.; and _Il Burbero benefico_, called in its original
+    French version _Le Bourru bienfaisant_.
+
+  [36] _Molière_; _Terenzio_; _Tasso_.
+
+  [37] _Pamela_; _Pamela Maritata_; _Il Filosofo Inglese_ (_Mr
+    Spectator_).
+
+  [38] _L' Amore delle tre melarancie_ (_The Three Lemons_); _Il
+    Corvo_.
+
+  [39] _Turandot_; _Zobeïde_.
+
+  [40] _L' Amore delle tre m._ (against Goldoni); _L' Angellino
+    Belverde_ (_The Small Green Bird_), (against Helvetius, Rousseau and
+    Voltaire).
+
+  [41] _Aspasia_; _Polyxena_.
+
+  [42] _Ephemeridophobos_.
+
+  [43] _Timoleon_; _Konstantinos Palaeologos_; _Rhigas of Pherae_.
+
+  [44] _The Three Hundred_, or _The Character of the Ancient Hellene_
+    (Leonidas); _The Death of the Orator_ (Demosthenes); _A Scion of
+    Timoleon_, &c.
+
+  [45] The term is the same as that used in the old French collective
+    mysteries (_journées_).
+
+  [46] In some of his plays (_Comedia Serafina_; _C. Tinelaria_) there
+    is a mixture of languages even stranger than that of dialects in the
+    Italian masked comedy.
+
+  [47] _Necromanticus_, _Lena_, _Decepti_, _Suppositi_.
+
+  [48] _Los Engaños_ (_Gli Ingannati_).
+
+  [49] _Cornelia_ (_Il Negromante_).
+
+  [50] Lope, _Armelina_ (Medea and Neptune as _deus ex machina_--si
+    modo machina adfuisset).
+
+  [51] _Menennos_.
+
+  [52] _El Azero de Madrid_ (_The Steel Water of Madrid_); _Dineros son
+    Calidad_ (= _The Dog in the Manger_), &c.
+
+  [53] _La Estrella de Sevilla_ (_The Star of Seville_, i.e. Sancho the
+    Brave); _El Nuevo Mundo_ (Columbus), &c.
+
+  [54] _Roma Abrasada_ (_R. in Ashes_--Nero).
+
+  [55] _Arauco domado_ (_The Conquest of Arauco_, 1560).
+
+  [56] _La Moza de cantaro_ (_The Water-maid_).
+
+  [57] _Las Mocedades_ (_The Youthful Adventures_) _del Cid_.
+
+  [58] _Don Gil de las calzas verdes_ (_D. G. in the Green Breeches_).
+
+  [59] _El Burlador de Sevilla y Convivado de piedra_ (_The Deceiver of
+    Seville_, i.e. Don Juan, _and the Stone Guest_).
+
+  [60] _El Divino Orfeo_, &c.
+
+  [61] _El Magico prodigioso_; _El Purgatorio de San Patricio_; _La
+    Devocion de la Cruz_.
+
+  [62] _El Principe constante_ (Don Ferdinand of Portugal).
+
+  [63] _La Dama duende_ (_The Fairy Lady_).
+
+  [64] _Vida es sueño_ (_Life is a Dream_).
+
+  [65] _El Lindo Don Diego_ (_Pretty Don Diego_).
+
+  [66] _Desden con el desden_ (_Disdain against Disdain_).
+
+  [67] Luzan, _La Razon contra la mode_ (La Chaussée, _Le Préjugé à la
+    mode_).
+
+  [68] _El Delinquente honrado (The Honoured Culprit)._
+
+  [69] _El Sí de las niñas (The Young Maidens' Consent)._
+
+  [70] _O cioso_ (_The Jealous Man_), &c. His _Inez de Castro_ is a
+    tragedy with choruses, partly founded on the Spanish play of J.
+    Bermudez.
+
+  [71] _Don Duardos_, _Amadis_, &c.
+
+  [72] _Auto das Regateiras_ (_The Market-women_), _Pratica de
+    compadres_ (_The Gossips_), &c.
+
+  [73] _Emphatri[)o]es_, _Filodemo_, _Seleuco_.
+
+  [74] _Os Estrangeiros_, _Os Vilhalpandos_ (_The Impostors_).
+
+  [75] _Eufrosina_, _Ulyssipo_ (Lisbon), _Aulegrafia_.
+
+  [76] _Astarte_, _Hermione_, _Megara_.
+
+  [77] These assumptions of names remind us that we are in the period
+    of the "_Arcadias_."
+
+  [78] _Cat[=a]o_.
+
+  [79] _Manoel de Sousa_, &c.
+
+  [80] _Antigone_ and _Electra_; _Hecuba_; and _Iphigenia in Aulis_.
+    The _Andria_ was also translated, and in 1540 Ronsard translated the
+    _Plutus_ of Aristophanes.
+
+  [81] Trissino, _Sofonisba_, by de Saint-Gelais.
+
+  [82] _La Soltane_ (1561).
+
+  [83] _Daïre (Darius)._
+
+  [84] _La Mort de César._
+
+  [85] _Achille_ (1563).
+
+  [86] _Les Lacènes_; _Marie Stuart or L'Écossaise_.
+
+  [87] _La Juive_, &c.
+
+  [88] _Les Corivaux_ (1573).
+
+  [89] _La Reconnue_ (Le Capitaine Rodomont).
+
+  [90] _Les Esbahis._
+
+  [91] _Les Contens_ (S. Parabosco, _I Contenti_).
+
+  [92] _Les Néapolitaines_; _Les Désespérades de l'amour_.
+
+  [93] _Le Laquais (Il Ragazzo)._
+
+  [94] _Les Tromperies (Gli Inganni)._
+
+  [95] "L. du Peschier" (de Barry), _La Comédie des comédies_.
+
+  [96] _L'Amour tyrannique._
+
+  [97] _Agrippine_, _Le Pédant joué_.
+
+  [98] _Marianne._
+
+  [99] _Sophonisbe._
+
+  [100] _Les Bergeries._
+
+  [101] _Mélite_; _Clitandre_, &c.
+
+  [102] _Le Véritable Saint Genest_; _Venceslas_.
+
+  [103] Steele, _The Lying Lover_; Foote, _The Liar_; Goldoni, _Il
+    Bugiardo_.
+
+  [104] Ruiz de Alarcon, _La Verdad sospechosa._
+
+  [105] _L'Illusion comique_ is antithetically mixed.
+
+  [106] _Andromaque_; _Phèdre_; _Bérénice_, &c.
+
+  [107] _Esther_; _Athalie_.
+
+  [108] _Le Cid_; _Polyeucte_.
+
+  [109] _Esther_; _Athalie_.
+
+  [110] Corneille, _Rodogune_; Racine, _Phèdre_.
+
+  [111] _Brutus_; _La Mort de César_; _Sémiramis_.
+
+  [112] _OEdipe_; _Le Fanatisme_ (_Mahomet_).
+
+  [113] _Adélaïde du Guesclin_.
+
+  [114] _L'Orphelin de la Chine_.
+
+  [115] _Tanis et Zélide_.
+
+  [116] _Les Guèbres_.
+
+  [117] _Olimpie_.
+
+  [118] _Tancrède_.
+
+  [119] _La Mort de César_; _Zaïre_ (_Othello_).
+
+  [120] _Hamlet_; _Le Roi Léar_, &c.
+
+  [121] The lectures delivered by the late Professor A. Beljame at
+    Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1905-1906 may be mentioned as valuable
+    contributions to our knowledge of the growth of Shakespeare's
+    influence in France.
+
+  [122] Quinault, _L'Amour indiscret_ (Newcastle and Dryden's _Sir
+    Martin Mar-all_).
+
+  [123] _Le Mercure galant_; _Ésope à la ville_; _Ésope à la cour_
+    (Vanbrugh, _Aesop_).
+
+  [124] _Le Bal_ (_M. de Pourceaugnac_); Geronte in _Le Légataire
+    universel_ (Argan in _Le Malade imaginaire_); _La Critique du L._
+    (_La C. de l'école des femmes_).
+
+  [125] _Le Joueur_; _Le Légataire universel_.
+
+  [126] _Crispin rival de son maître_; _Turcaret_.
+
+  [127] _Le Méchant_.
+
+  [128] _La Métromanie_.
+
+  [129] _Le Jeu de l'amour et du hasard_; _Le Legs_; _La Surprise de
+    l'amour_; _Les Fausses Confidences_; _L'Épreuve_.
+
+  [130] _Le Philosophe marié_; _Le Glorieux_; _Le Dissipateur_.
+
+  [131] _La Fausse Antipathie_; _Le Préjugé à la mode_; _L'École des
+    amis_; _Méluside_; _Paméla_. _L'École des mères_ was the play which
+    Frederick the Great described as turning the stage into a _bureau
+    général de la fadeur_.
+
+  [132] See especially _Nanine_, founded on the original _Paméla_.
+
+  [133] _Le Philosophe sans le savoir_; _La Gageure imprévue_.
+
+  [134] e.g. _Eugénie_ (the original of Goethe's _Clavigo_) and _Les
+    Deux Amis_, or _Le Négociant de Lyon_.
+
+  [135] _Richard Coeur de Lion_, &c.
+
+  [136] _Zémire et Azor_; _Jeannot et Jeannette_.
+
+  [137] _Les Muses galantes_; _Le Devin du village_.
+
+  [138] _Pygmalion_.
+
+  [139] _Charles IX, ou l'école des rois_.
+
+  [140] _Hernani_ (1839); _Le Roi s'amuse_; _Ruy Blas_; _Les
+    Burgraves_, &c. Even in _Torquemada_, the fruit of its author's old
+    age, and full of bombast, the original power has not altogether gone
+    out.
+
+  [141] _Chatterton_.
+
+  [142] _François le champi_; _Claudie_.
+
+  [143] _Le Gendre de M. Poirier_.
+
+  [144] _On ne badine pas avec l'amour_, as interpreted by Delaunay,
+    must always remain the most exquisite type of this inimitable
+    _genre_.
+
+  [145] _Théâtre de Clara Gazul_. _La Famille Carvajal_, one of these
+    pieces, treats the same story as that of _The Cenci_.
+
+  [146] _Lucrèce_ (1843); _L'Honneur et l'argent_; _Charlotte Corday_.
+
+  [147] _La Ciguë_; _L'Aventurière_; _Gabrielle_; _Le Fils de Giboyer_,
+    &c.
+
+  [148] _Valérie_; _Bertrand et Raton_; _Le Verre d'eau_, &c.
+
+  [149] _Louis XI._
+
+  [150] _Adrienne Lecouvreur_.
+
+  [151] _La Dame aux camélias_; _Le Demi-monde_; _Le Supplice d'une
+    femme_; _Les Idées de Mme Aubray_; _L'Étrangère_; _Francillon_.
+
+  [152] _Les Pattes de mouche_; _Nos bons villageois_; _Patrie_.
+
+  [153] _Le Monde où l'on s'ennuie_.
+
+  [154] _Frou-frou_.
+
+  [155] As has been already seen, Sir David Lyndsay's celebrated
+    _Satyre of the Three Estaits_, a dramatic manifesto in favour of the
+    Reformation, is in form a morality pure and simple.
+
+  [156] _Tom Tiler and his Wife_ (1578); _A Knack to know a Knave_ (c.
+    1594); _Sir Clyomon and Sir Clamydes_ (misattributed to G. Peele),
+    (printed 1599).
+
+  [157] An earlier drama by him, _Christus redivivus_, is said to have
+    been printed at Cologne.
+
+  [158] _Oedipus_; _Dido_; _Ulysses redux_.
+
+  [159] By A. Guarna.
+
+  [160] _Pax_; _Troas_; _Menaechmi_; _Oedipus_; _Mostellaria_;
+    _Hecuba_; _Amphytruo_; _Medea_. These fall between 1546 and 1560. The
+    date and place of the production of William Goldingham of Trinity
+    Hall's _Herodes_, some time after 1567, are unknown.
+
+  [161] The date and place of performance of the Latin _Fatum
+    Vortigerni_ are unknown; but it was not improbably produced at a
+    later time than Shakespeare's _Richard II._, which it seems in
+    certain points to resemble.
+
+  [162] Latin "academical" plays directly imitated from Seneca, but of
+    unknown date, are _Solymannidae_ (or the story of Solyman II. and his
+    son Mustapha), and _Tomumbeius_ (Tuman Bey, sultan of Egypt, 1516);
+    yet others exhibit his influence.
+
+  [163] _"Supposes" and "Jocasta,"_ ed. J. W. Cunliffe.
+
+  [164] His _Palamon and Arcyte_ (produced in Christ Church hall,
+    Oxford, in 1566) is not preserved; or we should be able to compare
+    with _The Two Noble Kinsmen_ this early dramatic treatment of a
+    singularly fine theme.
+
+  [165] _The History of the Collier._
+
+  [166] _A Historie of Error_ (1577), one of the many imitations of the
+    _Menaechmi_, may have been the foundation of the _Comedy of Errors_.
+    In the previous year was printed the old _Taming of a Shrew_, founded
+    on a novel of G. F. Straparola. Part of the plot of Shakespeare's
+    _Taming of the Shrew_ may have been suggested by _The Supposes_.
+
+  [167] _Treatise wherein Dicing, Dauncing, Vaine Playes or Enterluds
+    ... are reproved_, &c. (1577).
+
+  [168] _The School of Abuse._
+
+  [169] _The Anatomy of Abuses._
+
+  [170] H. Denham, G. Whetstone (the author of _Promos and Cassandra_),
+    W. Rankine.
+
+  [171] It may be mentioned that the practice of companies of players,
+    of one kind or another, being taken into the service of members of
+    the royal family, or of great nobles, dates from much earlier times
+    than the reign of Elizabeth. So far back as 1400/1 the corporation of
+    Shrewsbury paid rewards to the _histriones_ of Prince Henry and of
+    the earl of Stafford, and in 1408/9 reference is made to the players
+    of the earl and countess of Arundel, of Lord Powys, of Lord Talbot
+    and of Lord Furnival.
+
+  [172] _The Woman in the Moone_; _Sapho and Phao_.
+
+  [173] _Alexander and Campaspe._
+
+  [174] _Endimion_; _Mydas_.
+
+  [175] _Gallathea._
+
+  [176] _Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay._
+
+  [177] _The Wounds of Civil War._ With Greene he wrote _A
+    Looking-Glass for London_.
+
+  [178] _Summer's Last Will and Testament_ is his sole entire extant
+    play. _Dido, Queen of Carthage_, is by him and Marlowe.
+
+  [179] _Patient Grissil_ (with Dekker and Haughton).
+
+  [180] _Hoffman, or A Revenge for a Father._
+
+  [181] _Henry VIII._
+
+  [182] Ford, _Perkin Warbeck_.
+
+  [183] _Edward IV._; _If You Know Not Me_, &c.
+
+  [184] _Henry VIII._
+
+  [185] _The Merry Wives of Windsor._
+
+  [186] Massinger, _The Virgin Martyr_; Shirley, _St Patrick for
+    Ireland_.
+
+  [187] _Cleopatra_; _Philotas_.
+
+  [188] _Darius_; _Croesus_; _Julius Caesar_; _The Alexandraean
+    Tragedy_.
+
+  [189] _The Sad Shepherd_.
+
+  [190] _The Faithful Shepherdess._
+
+  [191] _The Queen's Arcadia._
+
+  [192] _Sejanus his Fall_; _Catiline his Conspiracy_.
+
+  [193] _Bussy d'Ambois_; _The Revenge of B. d'A._; _The Conspiracy of
+    Byron_; _The Tragedy of B._; _Chabot, Admiral of France_ (with
+    Shirley).
+
+  [194] _Arden of Faversham_; _A Yorkshire Tragedy_.
+
+  [195] _A Woman killed with Kindness_; _The English Traveller_.
+
+  [196] _Vittoria Coromboni_; _The Duchess of Malfi_.
+
+  [197] _'Tis Pity She's a Whore_; _The Broken Heart_.
+
+  [198] _Every Man in his Humour_; _Every Man out of his Humour_.
+
+  [199] Shadwell, _The Humorists_.
+
+  [200] It is impossible in a summary survey to seek to discriminate by
+    any kind of evidence the respective shares in many Elizabethan plays,
+    and the respective credit due to them, of the joint writers. Yet some
+    such inquiry is necessary before judging the claims to remembrance of
+    highly-gifted dramatists such as William Rowley, his namesake Samuel,
+    John Day, and not a few others.
+
+  [201] The Latin comedy _Victoria_ by Abraham Fraunce of St John's was
+    written some time before 1583, and dedicated to Sir Philip Sidney;
+    but there is no evidence to show that it was ever acted.
+
+  [202] (Bishop) Hacket's _Loyola_ was acted at Trinity in 1623.
+
+  [203] _Naufragium joculare--The Guardian_ (rewritten later as _The
+    Cutter of Coleman Street_).
+
+  [204] Chapman, Marston (and Jonson), _Eastward Hoe_ (1605);
+    Middleton, _A Game at Chess_ (1624); Shirley and Chapman, _The Ball_
+    (1632); Massinger(?), _The Spanish Viceroy_ (1634).
+
+  [205] _Twelfth Night._
+
+  [206] _The Puritan, or the Widow of Watling Street_, by "W. S."
+    (Wentworth Smith?).
+
+  [207] _The Alchemist_; _Bartholomew Fair_.
+
+  [208] Chapman, _An Humorous Day's Mirth_; Marston, _The Dutch
+    Courtesan_; Middleton, _The Family of Love_.
+
+  [209] Among these was Sir Richard Fanshawe's English version of the
+    _Pastor fido_ (1646); after his death were published his translations
+    of two plays by A. de Mendoza.
+
+  [210] _A Short View of Tragedy_ (1693).
+
+  [211] _The Black Prince_; _Tryphon_; _Herod the Great_; _Altemira._
+
+  [212] _The Indian Queen._
+
+  [213] _The Indian Emperor_; _Tyrannic Love_; _The Conquest of
+    Granada._
+
+  [214] _Essay of Dramatic Poesy._
+
+  [215] _Essay of Heroic Plays._
+
+  [216] A direct satirical invective against rhymed tragedy of the
+    "heroic" type is to be found in Arrowsmith's comedy _Reformation_
+    (1673).
+
+  [217] _The Grounds of Criticism in Tragedy._
+
+  [218] _All for Love (Antony and Cleopatra)._
+
+  [219] _Don Sebastian._
+
+  [220] _The Rival Queens_; _Lucius Junius Brutus_; _The Massacre of
+    Paris._
+
+  [221] _Don Carlos_; _The Orphan_; _Venice Preserved._
+
+  [222] _Oroonoko_; _The Fatal Marriage._
+
+  [223] _The Mourning Bride._
+
+  [224] _The Fair Penitent_; _Jane Shore._
+
+  [225] A notable influence was exercised upon English comedy as well
+    as upon other branches of literature by C. de Saint-Evremond, a
+    soldier and man of fashion who was possessed of great intellectual
+    ability and of a charming style. Though during his long exile in
+    England--from 1670 to his death--he never learned English, his
+    critical works included _Remarks on English Comedy_ (1677), and one
+    of his own comedies, the celebrated _Sir Politick Would-be_,
+    professed to be composed "_à la manière angloise_."
+
+  [226] _Epsom Wells_; _The Squire of Alsatia_; _The Volunteers._
+
+  [227] A dramatic curiosity of a rare kind would be _The Female
+    Rebellion_ (1682), which has been, on evidence rather striking at
+    first sight, attributed to Sir Thomas Browne. It is more likely to
+    have been by his son.
+
+  [228] _The Country Wife_; _The Plain-Dealer._
+
+  [229] _The Double Dealer._
+
+  [230] _The Recruiting Officer_; _The Beaux' Stratagem._
+
+  [231] _A Short View of the Immorality and Profaneness of the English
+    Stage._
+
+  [232] Sir Novelty Fashion (Lord Foppington), &c.
+
+  [233] _The Lying Lover_; _The Tender Husband._
+
+  [234] _The Conscious Lovers._
+
+  [235] _The Absolute Unlawfulness of Stage Entertainments fully
+    Demonstrated_; _The Stage defended_, &c. (1726).
+
+  [236] _The Siege of Damascus._
+
+  [237] _Mariamne._
+
+  [238] _The Double Falsehood._
+
+  [239] _The Revenge (Othello)._
+
+  [240] _Fatal Curiosity._
+
+  [241] _Irene_ (1749); _The Patriot_ attributed to Johnson, is by
+    Joseph Simpson.
+
+  [242] _Elfrida_; _Caractacus_.
+
+  [243] _Rosamunda._
+
+  [244] _Love in a Village_, &c.
+
+  [245] _The Waterman_, &c.
+
+  [246] _Pasquin_; _The Historical Register for 1736._
+
+  [247] _The Golden Rump._
+
+  [248] The first dramatic performance licensed by the lord chamberlain
+    after the passing of the act was appropriately entitled _The Nest of
+    Plays_, and consisted of three comedies named respectively _The
+    Prodigal Reformed_, _In Happy Constancy_ and _The Trial of Conjugal
+    Love_. It is a curious fact that in the first decade of the reign of
+    George III. a severe control of the theatre was very actively exerted
+    after a positive as well as a negative fashion--objectionable
+    passages being ruthlessly suppressed and plays actually written and
+    licensed for the purpose of upholding the existing régime.
+
+  [249] J. Townley, _High Life Below Stairs_ (1759).
+
+  [250] _The Minor_; _Taste_; _The Author_, &c.
+
+  [251] This celebrated play was at first persistently attributed to
+    Miss Elizabeth Carter.
+
+  [252] _The School for Lovers._
+
+  [253] _False Delicacy._
+
+  [254] _The Jealous Wife_; _The Clandestine Marriage._
+
+  [255] _The Heiress._
+
+  [256] _The West Indian_; _The Jew._
+
+  [257] _The Belle's Stratagem_; _A Bold Stroke for a Husband_, &c.
+
+  [258] _The Road to Ruin_, &c.
+
+  [259] _John Bull_; _The Heir at Law_, &c.
+
+  [260] _Midas_; _The Golden Pippin._
+
+  [261] _Bertram._
+
+  [262] _Ion._
+
+  [263] _Fazio._
+
+  [264] _Philip van Artevelde._
+
+  [265] _The Death of Marlowe._
+
+  [266] _Becket_; _The Cup._
+
+  [267] _Merope._
+
+  [268] _The Golden Legend._
+
+  [269] _Love is Enough._
+
+  [270] _Strafford_; _The Blot on the Scutcheon._
+
+  [271] _Atalanta in Calydon_; _Bothwell_; _Chastelard_; _Mary Stuart._
+
+  [272] _Virginius_; _The Hunchback._
+
+  [273] A drama entitled _Speculum vitae humanae_ is mentioned as
+    produced by Archduke Ferdinand of the Tirol in 1584.
+
+  [274] _Susanna_ (_Geistliches Spiel_) (1536), &c. Sixt Birk also
+    brought out a play on the story of _Susanna_, which he had previously
+    treated in a Latin form, in the vernacular (1552).
+
+  [275] _Siegfried_; _Eulenspiegel_, &c.
+
+  [276] _Susanna_; _Vincentius Ladislaus_, &c.
+
+  [277] _Mahomet_; _Edward III._; _Hamlet_; _Romeo and Juliet_, &c.
+
+  [278] _The Tempest_ (Ayrer, _Comedia v. d. schonen Sidea_).
+
+  [279] _Herr Peter Squenz_ (_Pyramus and Thisbe_);
+    _Horribilicribrifax_ (Pistol?).
+
+  [280] His son, Christian Gryphius, was author of a curious dramatic
+    summary (or _revue_) of German history, both literary and political;
+    but the title of this school-drama is far too long for quotation.
+
+  [281] One of his _aliases_ was _Pickelharnig_. In 1702 the electress
+    Sophia is found requesting Leibniz to see whether a more satisfactory
+    specimen of this class cannot be procured from Berlin than is at
+    present to be found at Hanover.
+
+  [282] Deschamps and Addison.
+
+  [283] _Richard III._; _Romeo and Juliet_.
+
+  [284] _Die Zwillinge_ (_The Twins_); _Die Soldaten_, &c.
+
+  [285] _Julius von Tarent._
+
+  [286] _Der Hofmeister_ (_The Governor_), &c.
+
+  [287] _Genoveva_, &c.
+
+  [288] Iffland's best play is _Die Jager_ (1785), which recently still
+    held the stage. From Mannheim he in 1796 passed to Berlin by desire
+    of King Frederick William II., who thus atoned for the hardships
+    which he had allowed the pietistic tyranny of his minister Wollner to
+    inflict upon the Prussian stage as a whole.
+
+  [289] _Die deutschen Kleinstadter_ is his most celebrated comedy and
+    _Menschenhass und Reue_ one of the most successful of his sentimental
+    dramas. According to one classification he wrote 163 plays with a
+    moral tendency, 5 with an immoral, and 48 doubtful.
+
+  [290] _Der Groosskophta_ (Cagliostro); _Der Burgergeneral_.
+
+  [291] A. W. von Schlegel and Tieck's (1797-1833).
+
+  [292] A. W. von Schlegel, _Lectures on Dramatic Art and Literature_,
+    &c.
+
+  [293] _Zriny_, &c.
+
+  [294] _Ion._
+
+  [295] _Alarcos._
+
+  [296] _Kaiser Octavianus_; _Der gestiefelte Kater_ (_Puss in Boots_),
+    &c.
+
+  [297] _Der 24. Februar_ (produced on the Weimar stage with Goethe's
+   sanction).
+
+  [298] _Der 29. Februar_; _Die Schuld_ (_Guilt_).
+
+  [299] _Das Bild_ (_The Picture_); _Der Leuchtthurm_ (_The
+    Lighthouse_).
+
+  [300] _Die Ahnfrau_ (_The Ancestress_).
+
+  [301] _Das Kathchen_ (_Kate_) _von Heilbronn_.
+
+  [302] _Der zerbrochene Krug_ (_The Broken Pitcher_).
+
+  [303] _Prinz Friedrich von Homburg._
+
+  [304] _Sappho_, _Medea_, &c.
+
+  [305] _Konig Ottokar's Glück und Ende_ (_Fortune and Fall_); _Der
+    Bruderzwist_ (_Fraternal Feud_) _in Habsburg_.
+
+  [306] _Die verhangnissvolle Gabel_ (_The Fatal Fork_); _Der
+    romantische Oedipus_.
+
+  [307] _Die Nibelungen_; _Judith_, &c.
+
+  [308] _Der Erbforster._
+
+  [309] _Uriel Acosta_; _Der Königslieutenant._
+
+  [310] _Die Valentine._
+
+  [311] _Die Karlsschüler._
+
+  [312] _Der Pfarrer von Kirchfeld_; _Der Meineidbauer_; _Die
+    Kreuzelschreiber_; _Das vierte Gebot_.
+
+  [313] _The Robbers_ (Franz Moor). His next most famous part was Lear.
+
+  [314] In connexion with the production in 1855 of "F. Halm's"
+    _Fechter von Ravenna_, of which the authorship was claimed by a
+    half-demented schoolmaster.
+
+  [315] As to more recent developments of German theatrical literature
+    see the article GERMAN LITERATURE, and the remarks on the influence
+    of foreign works in the section on _Recent English Drama_ above.
+
+  [316] _Aluta_; _Asotus_; _Hecastus_, &c.
+
+  [317] _Gysbrecht van Aemstel_; _Lucifer_.
+
+  [318] _Ulysses of Ithaca._
+
+  [319] _The Politician-Tinman_; _Jean de France or Hans Franzen; The
+    Lying-In_, &c.
+
+  [320] _Aladdin_; _Corregio._
+
+  [321] _Maria Stuart_; _A Bankruptcy_; _Leonarda._
+
+  [322] _Brand_; _Peer Gynt._
+
+  [323] _Samfundets Stöttere_; _Et Dukkehjem_; _Gengangere._
+
+  [324] _Pan Jowialski_; _Oludki i Poeta_ (_The Misanthrope and the
+    Poet_).
+
+
+
+
+DRAMBURG, a town of Germany in the kingdom of Prussia, on the Drage, a
+tributary of the Oder, 50 m. E. of Stettin, on the railway
+Ruhnow-Neustettin. Pop. 5800. It contains an Evangelical church, a
+gymnasium, a hospital and various administrative offices, and carries on
+cotton and woollen weaving, tanning, brewing and distilling.
+
+
+
+
+DRAMMEN, a seaport of Norway, in Buskerud and Jarlsberg-Laurvik _amter_
+(counties), at the head of Drammen Fjord, a western arm of Christiania
+Fjord, 33 m. by rail S. W. from Christiania. Pop. (1900) 23,093. Its
+situation, at the mouth of the broad Drammen river, between lofty hills,
+is very beautiful. It is the junction of railways from Christiania to
+Haugsund, Kongsberg and Hönefos, and to Laurvik and Skien. The town is
+modern, having suffered from fires in 1866, 1870 and 1880. It consists
+of three parts: Bragernaes on the north, divided by the river from
+Strömsö and the port, Tangen, on the south. The prosperity of Drammen
+depends mainly on the timber trade; and saw-milling is an active
+industry, the logs being floated down the river from the upland
+forests. Timber and wood-pulp are exported (over half of each to Great
+Britain), with paper, ice and some cobalt and nickel ore. The chief
+imports are British coal and German machinery. Salmon are taken in the
+upper reaches of the Drammen.
+
+
+
+
+DRANE, AUGUSTA THEODOSIA (1823-1894), English writer, was born at
+Bromley, near Bow, on the 29th of December 1823. Brought up in the
+Anglican creed, she fell under the influence of Tractarian teaching at
+Torquay, and joined the Roman Catholic Church in 1850. She wrote, and
+published anonymously, an essay questioning the _Morality of
+Tractarianism_, which was attributed to John Henry Newman. In 1852,
+after a prolonged stay in Rome, she joined the third order of St
+Dominic, to which she belonged for over forty years. She was prioress
+(1872-1881) of the Stone convent in Staffordshire, where she died on the
+29th of April 1894. Her chief works in prose and verse are: _The History
+of Saint Dominic_ (1857; enlarged edition, 1891); _The Life of St
+Catherine of Siena_ (1880; 2nd ed., 1899); _Christian Schools and
+Scholars_ (1867); _The Knights of St John_ (1858); _Songs in the Night_
+(1876); and the _Three Chancellors_ (1859), a sketch of the lives of
+William of Wykeham, William of Waynflete and Sir Thomas More.
+
+  A complete list of her writings is given in the _Memoir of Mother
+  Francis Raphael, O.S.D., Augusta Theodosia Drane_, edited by B.
+  Wilberforce, O.P. (London, 1895).
+
+
+
+
+DRAPER, JOHN WILLIAM (1811-1882), American scientist, was born at St
+Helen's, near Liverpool, on the 5th of May 1811. He studied at Woodhouse
+Grove, at the University of London, and, after removing to America in
+1832, at the medical school of the University of Pennsylvania in
+1835-1836. In 1837 he was elected professor of chemistry in the
+University of the City of New York, and was a professor in its school of
+medicine in 1840-1850, president of that school in 1850-1873, and
+professor of chemistry until 1881. He died at Hastings, New York, on the
+4th of January 1882. He made important researches in photo-chemistry,
+made portrait photography possible by his improvements (1839) on
+Daguerre's process, and published a _Text-book on Chemistry_ (1846),
+_Text-book on Natural Philosophy_ (1847), _Text-book on Physiology_
+(1866), and _Scientific Memoirs_ (1878) on radiant energy. He is well
+known also as the author of _The History of the Intellectual Development
+of Europe_ (1862), applying the methods of physical science to history,
+a _History of the American Civil War_ (3 vols., 1867-1870), and a
+_History of the Conflict between Religion and Science_ (1874).
+
+His son, HENRY DRAPER (1837-1882), graduated at the University of New
+York in 1858, became professor of natural science there in 1860, and was
+professor of physiology (in the medical school) and dean of the faculty
+in 1866-1873. He succeeded his father as professor of chemistry, but
+only for a year, dying in New York on the 20th of November 1882. Henry
+Draper's most important contributions to science were made in
+spectroscopy; he ruled metal gratings in 1869-1870, made valuable
+spectrum photographs after 1871, and proved the presence of oxygen in
+the sun in a monograph of 1877. Edward C. Pickering carried on his study
+of stellar spectra with the funds of the Henry Draper Memorial at
+Harvard, endowed by his widow (_née_ Mary Anna Palmer).
+
+  See accounts by George F. Barker in _Biographical Memoirs of the
+  National Academy of Science_, vols. 2 and 3 (Washington, 1886, 1888).
+
+
+
+
+DRAPER, one who deals in cloth or textiles generally. The Fr. _drap_,
+cloth, from which _drapier_ and Eng. "draper" are derived, is of obscure
+origin. It is possible that the Low Lat. _drappus_ or _trappus_ (the
+last form giving the Eng. "trappings") may be connected with words such
+as "drub," Ger. _treffen_, beat; the original sense would be fulled
+cloth. "Drab," dull, pale, brown, is also connected, its first meaning
+being a cloth of a natural undyed colour. The Drapers' Company is one of
+the great livery companies of the city of London. The fraternity is of
+very early origin. Henry Fitz-Alwyn (d. 1212?), the first mayor of
+London, is said to have been a draper. The first charter was granted in
+1364. The Drapers' Gild was one of the numerous subdivisions of the
+clothing trade, and appeared to have been confined to the retailing of
+woollen cloths, the linen-drapers forming in the 15th century a separate
+fraternity, which disappeared or was merged in the greater company. It
+is usual for drapers to combine the sale of "drapery," i.e. of textiles
+generally, with that of millinery, hosiery, &c. In _Wills_ v. _Adams_
+(reported in _The Times_, London, Nov. 20, 1908), the term "drapery" in
+a restrictive covenant was held not to include all goods that a draper
+might sell, such as furs or fur-lined goods.
+
+
+
+
+DRAUGHT (from the common Teutonic word "to draw"; cf. Ger. _Tracht_,
+load; the pronunciation led to the variant form "draft," now confined to
+certain specific meanings), the act or action of drawing, extending,
+pulling, &c. It is thus applied to animals used for drawing vehicles or
+loads, "draught oxen," &c., to the quantity of fish taken by one "drag"
+of a net, to a quantity of liquid taken or "drawn in" to the mouth, and
+to a current of air in a chimney, a room or other confined space. In
+furnaces the "draught" is "natural" when not increased artificially, or
+"forced" when increased by mechanical methods (see BOILER). The water a
+ship "draws," or her "draught," is the depth to which she sinks in the
+water as measured from her keel. The word was formerly used of a "move"
+in chess or similar games, and is thus, in the plural, the general
+English name of the game known also as "checkers" (see DRAUGHTS). The
+spelling "draft" is generally employed in the following usages. It is a
+common term for a written order "drawn on" a banker or other holder of
+funds for the payment of money to a third person; thus a cheque (q.v.)
+is a draft. A special form of draft is a "banker's draft," an
+instruction by one bank to another bank, or to a branch of the bank
+making the instruction, to pay a sum of money to the order of a certain
+specified person. Other meanings of "draft" are an outline, plan or
+sketch, or a preliminary drawing up of an instrument, measure, document,
+&c., which, after alteration and amendment, will be embodied in a final
+or formal shape; an allowance made by merchants or importers to those
+who sell by retail, to make up a loss incurred in weighing or measuring;
+and a detachment or body of troops "drawn off" for a specific purpose,
+usually a reinforcement from the depot or reserve units to those abroad
+or in the field. For the use of the term "draft" or "draught" in masonry
+and architecture see DRAFTED MASONRY.
+
+
+
+
+DRAUGHTS (from A.S. _dragan_, to draw), a game played with pieces (or
+"men") called draughtsmen on a board marked in squares of two alternate
+colours. The game is called Checkers in America, and is known to the
+French as _Les Dames_ and to the Germans as _Damenspiel_. Though the
+game is not mentioned in the _Complete Gamester_, nor the _Académie de
+jeux_, and is styled a "modern invention" by Strutt, yet a somewhat
+similar game was known to the Egyptians, some of the pieces used having
+been found in tombs at least as old as 1600 B.C., and part of Anect
+Hat-Shepsa's board and some of her men are to be seen in the Egyptian
+gallery of the British Museum. An Egyptian vase also shows a lion and an
+antelope playing at draughts, with five men each, the lion making the
+winning move and seizing the bag or purse that contains the stakes.
+Plato ascribes the invention of the game of [Greek: pessoi], or
+draughts, to Thoth, the Egyptian Hermes Trismegistus, and Homer
+represents Penelope's suitors as playing it (_Odyss._ i. 107). In one
+form of the game as played by the Greeks there were 25 squares, and each
+player had 5 men which were probably moved along the lines. In another
+there were 4 men and 16 squares with a "sacred enclosure," a square of
+the same size as the others, marked in the exact centre and bisected by
+one of the horizontal lines, which was known as the "sacred line." From
+the incident in the game of a piece hemmed in on this line by a rival
+piece having to be pushed forward as a last resort, arose the phrase "to
+move the man from the sacred line" as synonymous with being hard
+pressed. This and other phrases based on incidents in the game testify
+to the vogue the game enjoyed in ancient Greece. The Roman game of
+_Latrunculi_ was similar, but there were officers (kings in modern
+draughts) as well as men. When a player's pieces were all hemmed in he
+was stale-mated, to use a chess phrase (_ad incitas redactus est_), and
+lost the game. Other explanations of this phrase are, however, given
+(see _Les Jeux des anciens_, by Becq de Fouquières). The fullest account
+of the Roman game is to be found in the _De laude Pisonis_, written by
+an anonymous contemporary of Nero (see CALPURNIUS, TITUS). Unfortunately
+the texts are full of obscurities, so that it is difficult to make any
+definite statements as to how the game was played.
+
+As early as the 11th century some form of the game was practised by the
+Norsemen, for in the Icelandic saga of Grettir the Strong the board and
+men are mentioned more than once.
+
+The history of the modern forms of the game starts with _El Ingenio o
+juego de marro, de punto o damas_, published by Torquemada at Valencia
+in 1547. Another Spaniard, Juan Garcia Canalejas, is said to have
+published in 1610 the first edition of his work, a better-known edition
+of which appeared in 1650. The third Spanish classic, that of Joseph
+Carlos Garcez, was printed in Madrid in 1684. It is noteworthy that in
+an illustration in Garcez's book the pieces depicted resemble somewhat
+some of those used by the Egyptians, and are not unlike the pawns used
+in chess.
+
+In 1668 Pierre Mallet had published the first French work on the game,
+and elementary though his knowledge of the game seems to have been, even
+in comparison with that of Canalejas or Garcez, the historical notes,
+rules and instructions which he gave, served as a basis for many later
+works. Mallet wrote on _Le Jeu de dames à la française_, which was
+almost identical with the modern English game. The old French game is,
+however, no longer practised in France, having been superseded by _Le
+Jeu de dames à la polonaise_. Manoury gives reasons for believing that
+the latter game originated in Paris about 1727.
+
+About 1736 a famous player named Laclef published the first book on
+Polish draughts, but the first important book on the game is Manoury's
+_Jeu de dames à la polonaise_, in the production of which it is said
+that the author had the assistance of Diderot and other
+_encyclopédistes_. This book, which appeared in 1787, was to the new
+game all that Mallet's was to the old French game, and until the
+appearance of Poirson Prugneaux's _Encyclopédie du jeu de dames_ in 1855
+it remained the standard authority on so-called Polish draughts. The
+Polish game early attained popularity in Holland, and in 1785 the
+standard Dutch work, Ephraim van Embden's _Verhandeling over het
+Damspel_, was produced. In German-speaking countries the progress of the
+new game was slower, and the works produced in the first half of the
+19th century generally treat of the older game as well as the Polish
+game. This is also the case with Petroff's book published in St
+Petersburg in 1827; and similarly Zongono's, which dates from 1832,
+deals with the new game and with the older Italian game.
+
+In 1694 Hyde wrote _Historia dami ludi seu latrinculorum_, in which he
+tried to prove the identity of draughts with _ludus latrinculorum_. This
+work is historical and descriptive, but contains nothing concerning the
+game as played in Great Britain. The authentic history of draughts in
+England commences with William Payne's _Introduction to the Game of
+Draughts_, the dedication of which was written by Samuel Johnson.
+Payne's games and problems were incorporated in a much more important
+work, namely Sturges's _Guide to the Game of Draughts_, which appeared
+in 1800 and has gone through a score of editions. About this time the
+game was much practised in both England and Scotland, but the first
+important production of the Scottish school was Drummond's _Scottish
+Draught Player_, the first part of which dates from 1838, additional
+volumes appearing in 1851-1853 and 1861. In 1852 Andrew Anderson
+published his _Game of Draughts Simplified_. A first edition had
+appeared in 1848, but the later print is the important one, as it
+standardized the laws of the game, fixed the nomenclature of the
+openings, introduced a better arrangement of the play, and, since
+Anderson was one of the finest players of the game, excelled in
+accuracy. In Anderson's time little was known about the openings
+commencing with any move other than 11-15, and it was not until more
+than thirty years later that the other openings received more adequate
+recognition. This was done in Robertson's _Guide to the Game of
+Draughts_, and perhaps better in Lees' _Guide_ (1892).
+
+Andrew Anderson was the first recognized British champion player of the
+game. He and Wyllie, better known as "the herd laddie," contested five
+matches for the honour, Anderson winning four to Wyllie's one. After his
+victory in 1847 Anderson retired from match play and the title fell to
+Wyllie, who made the game his profession and travelled all over the
+English-speaking world to play it. In 1872 he successfully defended his
+position against Martins, the English champion, and in 1874 against W.
+R. Barker, the American champion, but two years later he was beaten by
+Yates, a young American. On the latter's retirement from the game, the
+championship lapsed to Wyllie, who held it successfully until his defeat
+by Ferrie, the Scottish champion, in 1894. Two years later Ferrie was
+beaten in his turn by Richard Jordan of Edinburgh, who had just gained
+the Scottish championship; and the new holder defeated Stewart, who
+challenged him in 1897, and successfully defended his title against C.
+F. Barker, the American champion, to meet whom he visited Boston in 1900
+and played a drawn match.
+
+In 1884 the first international match between England and Scotland took
+place, and resulted in so decisive a victory for the northerners that
+the contest was not renewed for ten years. The matches played in 1894
+and 1899 also went strongly in favour of the Scots, but in 1903 the
+Englishmen gained their first victory.
+
+In 1905 a British team visited America and defeated a side representing
+the United States.
+
+The tournament for the Scottish championship has been held annually in
+Glasgow since 1893. The number and skill of the Scottish players have
+given this tournament its pre-eminence; but if the levelling up of the
+standards of play in Scotland and England continues, the competition
+which is held biennially by the English Draughts Association is likely
+to rank as a serious rival to the Glasgow tourney.
+
+_The English Game._--Draughts as played now in English-speaking
+countries is a game for two persons with a board and twenty-four
+men--twelve white and twelve black--which at starting are placed as
+follows: the black men on the squares numbered 1 to 12, and the white
+men on the squares numbered 21 to 32 on the diagram below. In printed
+diagrams the men are usually shown on the white squares for the sake of
+clearness, but in actual play the black squares are generally used now.
+In playing on the black squares the board must be placed with a black
+square in the left-hand corner. The game is played by moving a man
+forward, one square at a time except when making a capture, along the
+diagonals to the right or left. Thus a white man placed on square 18 in
+the diagram can move to 15 or 14. Each player moves alternately, black
+always moving first. If a player touch a piece he must move that piece
+and no other. If the piece cannot be moved, or if it is not the player's
+turn to move, he forfeits the game. As soon as a man reaches one of the
+squares farthest from his side of the board, he is "crowned" by having
+one of the unused or captured men of his own colour placed on him, and
+becomes a "king." A king has the power of moving and taking backwards as
+well as forwards.
+
+               BLACK.
+  +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+  |   | 1 |   | 2 |   | 3 |   | 4 |
+  +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+  | 5 |   | 6 |   | 7 |   | 8 |   |
+  +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+  |   | 9 |   |10 |   |11 |   |12 |
+  +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+  |13 |   |14 |   |15 |   |16 |   |
+  +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+  |   |17 |   |18 |   |19 |   |20 |
+  +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+  |21 |   |22 |   |23 |   |24 |   |
+  +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+  |   |25 |   |26 |   |27 |   |28 |
+  +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+  |29 |   |30 |   |31 |   |32 |   |
+  +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+               WHITE.
+
+If a man is on the square adjacent to an opponent's man, and there is an
+unoccupied square beyond, the unprotected man must be captured and
+removed from the board. Thus, if there is a white man on square 18, and
+a black man on square 14, square 9 being vacant, and white having to
+move, he jumps over 14 and remains on square 9, and the man on 14 is
+taken up.
+
+If two or more men are so placed that one square intervenes between
+each they may all be taken at one move. Thus if white having to move has
+a man on 28, and black men on 24, 16 and 8, the intermediate squares and
+square 3 being vacant, white could move from 28 to 3, touching 19 and 12
+en route, and take the men on 24, 16, and 8; but if there is a piece on
+7 and square 10 is vacant, the piece on 7 cannot be captured, for
+becoming a king ends the move.
+
+It is compulsory to take if possible. If a player can take a man (or a
+series of men) but makes a move that does not capture (or does not
+capture all that is possible), his adversary may allow the move to
+stand, or he may have the move retracted and compel the player to take,
+or he may allow the move to stand and remove the piece, that neglected
+to capture from the board (called "huffing"). "Huff and move" go
+together, i.e. the player who huffs then makes his move. When one player
+has lost all his pieces, or has all those left on the board blocked, he
+loses the game.
+
+The game is drawn when neither of the players has sufficient advantage
+in force or position to enable him to win.
+
+The losing game, or "first off the board," is a form of draughts not
+much practised now by expert draught players. The player wins who gets
+all his pieces taken first. There is no "huffing"; a player who can take
+must do so.
+
+  _Draughts Openings._--As there are seven possible first moves, with
+  seven possible replies to each, or forty-nine in all, there is an
+  abundant variety of openings; but as two of these (9-14, 21-17 and
+  10-14, 21-17) are obviously unsound, the number is really reduced to
+  forty-seven. Much difference of opinion exists regarding the relative
+  strength of the various openings. It was at one time generally held
+  that for the black side 11-15 was the best opening move.
+
+  Towards the end of the 19th century this view became much modified,
+  and though 11-15 still remained the favourite, it was recognized that
+  10-15, 9-14 and 11-16 were little, if at all, inferior; 10-14 and
+  12-16 were rightly rated as weaker than the four moves named above,
+  whilst 9-13, the favourite of the "unscientific" player, was found to
+  be weakest of all.
+
+  The white replies to 11-15 have gone through many vicissitudes. The
+  seven possible moves have each at different times figured as the
+  general favourite. Thus 24-19, which analysis proved to be the weakest
+  of the seven, was at one period described by the title of "Wyllie's
+  Invincible." In course of time it came to be regarded as decidedly
+  weak, and its name was altered to the less pretentious title of
+  "Second Double Corner." In the Scottish Tournament of 1894 this
+  opening was played between Ferrie and Stewart, and the latter won the
+  game with white, introducing new play which has stood the test of
+  analysis, and so rehabilitating the opening in public favour. The
+  21-17 reply to 11-15 was introduced by Wyllie, who was so successful
+  with it that it became known as the "Switcher." This opening perhaps
+  lacks the solid strength of some of the others, but it so abounds in
+  traps as to be well worthy of its name. The other five replies to
+  11-15, namely 24-20, 23-19, 23-18, 22-18 and 22-17, are productive of
+  games which give equal chances to both sides.
+
+  The favourite replies to 10-15 are 23-18, 22-18 and 21-17, but they do
+  not appear to be appreciably stronger than the others, with the
+  possible exception of 24-20.
+
+  In response to 11-16, 23-18 is held to give white a trifling
+  advantage, but it is more apparent than real. With the exception of
+  23-19, which is weak, the other replies are of equal strength, and are
+  only slightly, if at all, inferior to the more popular 23-18. 9-14 is
+  most frequently encountered by 22-18, but all white's replies are
+  good, except of course 21-17 which loses a man, and 23-18 which
+  weakens the centre of white's position.
+
+  Against 10-14 the most popular move is 22-17, which gives white an
+  advantage. Next in strength come 22-18 and 24-19. 23-18 is weak.
+
+  The strongest reply to 12-16 is 24-20. The others, except 23-19, which
+  is weak, give no initial advantage to either side.
+
+  As already mentioned, 9-13 is black's weakest opening move, both 22-18
+  and 24-19 giving white a distinct advantage. Nevertheless 9-13 is a
+  favourite début with certain expert players, especially when playing
+  with inferior opponents.
+
+  The term "opening" is frequently applied in a more restricted sense
+  than that used above. When practically all games started with 11-15 it
+  was convenient to assign names to the more popular lines of play. Thus
+  11-15, 23-19, 8-11, 22-17, if followed by 11-16, was called the
+  "Glasgow"; if followed by 9-13, 17-14, the "Laird and Lady"; if by
+  3-8, the "Alma."
+
+  The variety possible in the opening is a fair reply to the objection
+  sometimes heard that the game does not afford sufficient scope for
+  variation. As a matter of fact a practically unlimited number of
+  different games might be played on any one opening.
+
+  The three following games are typical examples of the play arising
+  from three of the most frequently played openings:--
+
+        Game No. 1.--"Ayrshire Lassie" Opening.
+
+    a 11-15  25-18    10-15  22-17  b 15-18  24-6
+    a 24-20   3-8     23-19  13-22    24-20   2-9
+       8-11  26-22     6-10  26-17    18-27  17-10
+                   c}
+      28-24   5-9  d} 27-23  11-16    31-24   8-11
+
+       9-13  30-26     9-14  20-11    16-23   Drawn.
+      22-18   1-5     18-9    7-16    20-16  R. Jordan.
+      15-22  32-28     5-14  29-25    12-19
+
+  a. 11-15, 24-20 forms the "Ayrshire Lassie" opening, so named by
+  Wyllie. It is generally held to admit of unusual scope for the display
+  of critical and brilliant combinations.
+
+  b. 16-20, 25-22, 20-27, 31-24, 8-11, 17-13, 2-6, 21-17, 14-21, 22-17,
+  21-25, 17-14, 10-17, 19-1. Drawn. R. Jordan.
+
+                         (c)
+
+      26-23  28-19  20-16   7-11  14-10  15-10
+       9-14   2-6    6-10  19-24  26-23  23-18
+      18-9   20-11  16-11  11-18  10-7   10-15
+       5-14   8-24  10-15  24-27   4-8   20-16
+      29-25  27-20  11-7   18-15   7-3   15-22
+      11-16  10-15  14-18  27-31   8-12  16-7
+      20-11  31-26   7-3   22-18   3-7   Drawn.
+       7-16  15-19  18-23  31-27  27-24 A. B. Scott.
+      24-20  23-16   3-7   18-14   7-11     v.
+      15-24  12-19  23-30  30-26  24-20 R. Jordan.
+
+                         (d)
+
+      19-16   7-10  23-19  11-15  16-11  25-30
+      12-19   6-1   15-24  27-24  18-25  20-16
+      22-17   9-14  28-19  22-25  17-14  Drawn.
+      15-22  26-23   8-11  29-22  10-17 R. Jordan.
+      24-6   11-15  19-16  14-18  21-14
+
+            Game No. 2.--"Kelso-Cross" Opening.
+
+    a 10-15    8-12  13-22   5-9   14-18  22-25
+    a 23-18   25-21  26-17  20-16  17-14  29-22
+      12-16    1-6 d 19-26   2-7   10-17  17-26
+      21-17   32-27  30-23  24-19  21-14   5-1
+       9-13   12-16  15-22  15-24   6-10  26-30
+      17-14   27-23  24-19  23-19  14-9    1-5
+      16-19    7-10   9-14  24-27  10-14  30-26
+      24-20   14-7   19-12  31-24  19-15   5-9
+       6-9     3-10  11-15   9-13  14-17  26-23
+    b 27-24 c 22-17  28-24  24-20   9-5    Drawn.
+                                        R. Jordan.
+
+  a. These two moves form the "Kelso-Cross" opening.
+
+  b. 27-23 is also a strong line for white to adopt.
+
+  c. 30-25, 4-8, 18-14, 9-27, 22-18, 15-22, 24-15, 11-18, 20-4, 27-32,
+  26-17, 13-22, 4-8, 22-26, and black appears to have a winning
+  advantage. R. Jordan.
+
+  d. Taking the piece on 18 first seems to lose, thus:--
+
+    15-22  e 9-13  13-17   6-9    5-14
+    24-8    17-14  23-18  14-10  10-7   White
+     4-11   10-17  17-21   9-14   2-6   wins.
+    31-27   21-14  28-24  18-9    7-2   Dallas.
+
+  e. 2-7, 27-24, 22-26, 23-18, 26-31, 18-15, 11-18, 20-2, 9-13, 2-9,
+  5-14, 24-19, 13-22, 30-26. White wins.
+
+            Game No. 3.--"Dundee" Opening.
+
+      12-16    11-15  c 8-12   4-8    9-14   1-26
+      24-20    20-11   17-13  18-15  26-22  31-22
+       8-12     7-16    5-9    2-7   14-17  19-23
+      28-24    24-20   22-18  30-26  21-14  13-9
+       9-14  b 16-19   15-22  10-14  18-23  12-19
+      22-17    23-16   25-18  29-25  27-18   9-6
+       3-8     12-19   14-23  14-18   6-10   7-11
+    a 26-22    20-16   27-18  32-27  15-6   Drawn.
+                                         R. Jordan.
+
+  a. This move is the favourite at this point on account of its
+  "trappiness," but 25-22 is probably stronger, thus: 25-22, 16-19,
+  24-15, 11-25, 29-22, 8-11, 17-13, 11-16, 20-11, 7-16, and white can
+  with advantage continue by 27-24, 22-17, 23-19 or 22-18.
+
+  b. 15-19, 20-11, 8-15, 23-16, 12-19, 17-13, 5-9, 30-26, 4-8, 27-23,
+  8-12, 23-16, 12-19, 31-27, 1-5, 27-23, 19-24, 32-27, 24-31, 22-17.
+  White wins. C. F. Barker.
+
+    c 8-11  27-18  15-18  14-10  24-27   7-10
+     16-7   15-22  14-10  19-24  31-24  27-31
+      2-11  25-18   6-15  10-7   16-20  10-26
+     22-18  10-15  17-14  18-23   3-7   31-22
+     14-23  18-14  11-16   7-3   20-27  30-25
+               Drawn. R. Stewart v. R. Jordan.
+
+  Problem No. 1 is the simplest form of that known to draughts-players
+  as the "First Position." It is of more frequent occurrence in actual
+  play than any other end-game, and is, besides, typical of a class of
+  draughts problems which may be described as analytical, in
+  contradistinction to "strokes."
+
+       Problem No. 1, by Wm. Payne.
+                  BLACK.
+    +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+    |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
+    +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+    |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
+    +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+    |   |   |   |   |   |   |   | B |
+    +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+    |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
+    +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+    |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
+    +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+    |   |   |   |   |WW |   |   |   |
+    +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+    |   |   |   |   |   |WW |   |BB |
+    +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+    |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
+    +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+                  WHITE.
+
+         White to move and win.
+
+  Solution:--
+
+        27-32   18-15 15-11 11-15 28-32 19-24
+        28-24 2-28-24 12-16 19-24 27-31 White
+        23-18   32-28 28-32 32-28 15-19 wins.
+    3-a-24-28 1-24-20 16-19 24-27 31-26
+
+  a. 12-16 same as Var. I. at 5th move.
+
+  Var. I.
+
+    24-27   18-15 19-16 28-32  8-12  15-11
+    15-18 b 16-20 18-23  8-12 23-18 White
+    12-16   15-18 16-11 32-27 12-8  wins.
+    28-32   24-19 23-19 12-8  18-15
+    27-24   32-28 11-8  27-23  8-12
+
+  b. 24-28 same as Var. II. at 1st move.
+
+  Var. II. 12-16, 15-11, 16-19, 32-27, 28-32, 27-31, 32-28, 11-16,
+  19-23, 16-19. White wins.
+
+  Var. III. 24-19, 32-28, c 19-16, 28-24, 16-11, 24-20, 11-8, 18-15.
+  White wins.
+
+  c. 12-16, 28-32, 19-24 or 16-20, same as Var. II. at 5th and 9th moves
+  respectively. White wins.
+
+              Problem No. 2.
+                  BLACK.
+    +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+    |   | B |   |   |   | B |   |   |
+    +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+    | B |   |   |   | B |   | B |   |
+    +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+    |   |   |   | W |   | B |   |   |
+    +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+    | B |   | W |   |   |   | B |   |
+    +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+    |   | B |   | W |   |   |   | B |
+    +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+    | W |   | W |   |   |   | W |   |
+    +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+    |   |   |   | W |   | W |   |   |
+    +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+    |   |   | W |   |   |   | W |   |
+    +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+                  WHITE.
+
+          White to move and win.
+
+  Problem No. 2 is a fine example of another class of problems, namely,
+  "strokes." It is formed from the "Paisley" opening, thus:--
+
+    11-16  22-17  11-16  26-19   9-13   15-10
+    24-19   9-13  25-21   4-8   25-22  a 2-7
+     8-11  17-14   6-9   29-25   7-11
+    28-24  10-17  23-18  13-17  19-15
+    16-20  21-14  16-23  31-26  12-16
+
+  a. This forms the position on the diagram. The solution is as
+  follows:--
+
+    27-23  7-14  18-9   14-23  26-3
+    20-27  9-6    5-14  21-7   27-31
+    14-9   1-10  23-18   3-10   3-7
+
+  White wins. Jacques and Campbell.
+
+  _Other Varieties._--The forms of draughts practised on the European
+  continent differ in some respects from the English variety, chiefly in
+  respect of the power assigned to a man after "crowning." The game of
+  _Polish Draughts_ is played in France, Holland, Belgium and Poland,
+  where it has entirely superseded _Le Jeu de dames à la française_. It
+  is played on a board of 100 squares with 20 men a side. The men move
+  and capture as in English draughts, except that in capturing they move
+  either forward or backward. A crowned man becomes a queen, and can
+  move any number of squares along the diagonal. In her capture she
+  takes any unguarded man or queen in any diagonal she commands, leaping
+  over the captured man or queen and remaining on any unoccupied square
+  she chooses of the same diagonal, beyond the piece taken. But if there
+  is another unguarded man she is bound to choose the diagonal on which
+  it can be taken. For example (using an English draught-board) place a
+  queen on square 29 and adverse men at squares 22, 16, 24, 14. The
+  queen is bound to move from 29 to 11, 20, 27, and having made the
+  captures to remain at 9 or 5, whichever she prefers. The capturing
+  queen or man must take all the adverse pieces that are _en prise_, or
+  that become so by the uncovering of any square from which a piece has
+  been removed during the capture, e.g. white queen at square 7, black
+  at squares 10, 18, 19, 22 and 27, the queen captures at 10, 22, 27 and
+  19, and the piece at 22 being now removed, she must go to 15, take the
+  man at 18, and stay at 22, 25 or 29. In consequence of the intricacy
+  of some of these moves, it is customary to remove every captured piece
+  as it is taken. If a man arrives at a crowning square when taking, and
+  he can still continue to take, he must do so, and not stay on the
+  crowning square as at draughts. Passing a crowning square in taking
+  does not entitle him to be made a queen. In capturing, the player must
+  choose the direction by which he can take the greatest number of men
+  or queens, or he may be huffed. Numerical power is the criterion, e.g.
+  three men must be taken in preference to two queens. If the numbers
+  are equal and one force comprises more queens than the other, the
+  player may take whichever lot he chooses. This form of draughts,
+  played on a board of 144 squares with 30 men a side, is extensively
+  practised by British soldiers in India.
+
+  The German _Damenspiel_ is Polish draughts played on a board of the
+  same size and with the same number of men as in the English game. It
+  is sometimes called Minor Polish draughts, and is practised in Germany
+  and Russia.
+
+  The _Italian game_ differs from the English in two important
+  particulars--a man may not take a king, and when a player has the
+  option of capturing pieces in more than one way he must take in the
+  manner which captures most pieces. There is a difference too in the
+  placing of the board, the black square in the corner of the board
+  being at the player's right hand, but until a king is obtained the
+  differences from the English system are unimportant in practice.
+
+  In _Spanish draughts_ the board is set as for the Italian game. The
+  men move as in English draughts, but, in capturing, the largest
+  possible number of pieces must be taken, and the king has the same
+  powers as in the Polish game. The game does not differ essentially
+  from the English game until a king is obtained, and many games from
+  Spanish works will be found incorporated in English books. Sometimes
+  the game is played with 11 men and a king, or 10 men and 2 kings a
+  side, instead of the regulation 12 men.
+
+  _Turkish draughts_ differs widely from all other modern varieties of
+  the game. It is played on a board of 64 squares, all of which are used
+  in play. Each player has 16 pieces, which are not placed on the two
+  back rows of squares, as in chess, but on the second and third back
+  rows. The pieces do not move diagonally as in other forms of the game,
+  but straight forward or to the right or left horizontally. The king
+  has the same command of a horizontal or vertical row of squares that
+  the queen in Polish draughts has over a diagonal. Capturing is
+  compulsory, and the greatest possible number of pieces must be taken,
+  captured pieces being removed one at a time as taken.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Falkener's _Games Ancient and Oriental_; Lees' _Guide to
+  the Game of Draughts_; Drummond's _Scottish Draught Players_ (Kear's
+  reprint); Gould's _Memorable Matches_ and _Book of Problems_, &c. The
+  _Draughts World_ is the principal magazine devoted to the game. In
+  Dunne's _Draught Players' Guide and Companion_ a section is devoted to
+  the non-English varieties.     (J. M. M. D.; R. J.)
+
+
+
+
+DRAUPADI, in Hindu legend, the daughter of Drupada, king of Panchala,
+and wife of the five Pandava princes. She is an important character in
+the _Mahabharata_.
+
+
+
+
+DRAVE, or DRAVA (Ger. _Drau_, Hung. _Dráva_, Lat. _Dravus_), one of the
+principal right-bank affluents of the Danube, flowing through Austria
+and Hungary. It rises below the Innichner Eck, near the Toblacher Feld
+in Tirol, at an altitude of a little over 4000 ft., runs eastward, and
+forms the longest longitudinal valley of the Alps. The Drave has a total
+length of 450 m., while the length of its Alpine valley to Marburg is
+150 m., and to its junction with the Mur 250 m. Owing to its great
+extent and easy accessibility the valley of the Drave was the principal
+road through which the invading peoples of the East, as the Huns, the
+Slavs and the Turks, penetrated the Alpine countries. The Drave flows
+through Carinthia and Styria, and enters Hungary near Friedau, where up
+to its confluence with the Danube, at Almas, 14 m. E. of Esseg, it forms
+the boundary between that country and Croatia-Slavonia. At its mouth the
+Drave attains a breadth of 1055 ft. and a depth of 20 ft. The Drave is
+navigable for rafts only from Villach, and for steamers from Bárcs, a
+distance of 95 m. The principal affluents of the Drave are: on the left
+the Isel, the Gurk, the Lavant, and the largest of all, the Mur; and on
+the right the Gail and the Drann.
+
+
+
+
+DRAVIDIAN (Sanskrit _Dravida_), the name given to a collection of Indian
+peoples, and their family of languages[1] comprising all the principal
+forms of speech of Southern India. Their territory, which also includes
+the northern half of Ceylon, extends northwards up to an irregular line
+drawn from a point on the Arabian Sea about 100 m. below Goa along the
+Western Ghats as far as Kolhapur, thence north-east through Hyderabad,
+and farther eastwards to the Bay of Bengal. Farther to the north we find
+Dravidian dialects spoken by small tribes in the Central Provinces and
+Chota Nagpur, and even up to the banks of the Ganges in the Rajmahal
+hills. A Dravidian dialect is, finally, spoken by the Br[=a]h[=u][=i]s
+of Baluchistan in the far north-west. The various Dravidian languages,
+with the number of speakers returned at the census of 1901, are as
+follows:--
+
+  Tamil             17,494,901
+  Malay[=a]lam       6,022,131
+  Kanarese          10,368,515
+  Tulu                 535,210
+  Kodagu                39,191
+  Toda                     805
+  K[=o]ta                1,300
+  Kuru[chi]            609,721
+  Malto                 60,777
+  G[=o]nd[=i]        1,125,479
+  Kui                  494,099
+  Telugu            20,697,264
+  Br[=a]h[=u][=i]       48,589
+                    ----------
+  Total             57,497,982
+
+Of these Tamil and Malay[=a]lam can be considered as two dialects of one
+and the same language, which is, in its turn, closely related to
+Kanarese. Tulu, Kodagu, Toda and K[=o]ta can be described as lying
+between Tamil-Malay[=a]lam and Kanarese, though they are more nearly
+related to the latter than to the former. The same is the case with
+Kuru[chi] and Malto, while Kui and G[=o]nd[=i] gradually approach
+Telugu, which latter language seems to have branched off from the common
+stock at an early date. Finally, the Br[=a]h[=u][=i] dialect of
+Baluchistan has been so much influenced by other languages that it is no
+longer a pure Dravidian form of speech.
+
+The Dravidian languages have for ages been restricted to the territory
+they occupy at the present day. Moreover, they are gradually losing
+ground in the north, where they meet with Aryan forms of speech. If we
+compare the caste tables and the language tables in the Indian census of
+1901 we find that only 1,125,479 out of the 2,286,913 G[=o]nds returned
+were stated to speak the Dravidian G[=o]nd[=i]. Similarly only 1505 out
+of 17,187 K[=o]l[=a]ms entered their language as K[=o]l[=a]m[=i]. Such
+tribes are gradually becoming Hinduized. Their language adopts an
+ever-increasing Aryan element till it is quite superseded by Aryan
+speech. In the north-eastern part of the Dravidian territory, to the
+east of Chanda and Bhandara, the usual state of affairs is that
+Dravidian dialects are spoken in the hills while Aryan forms of speech
+prevail in the plains. The Dravidian Kui thus stands out as an isolated
+island in the sea of Aryan speech.
+
+This process has been going on from time immemorial. The Dravidians were
+already settled in India when the Aryans arrived from the north-west.
+The fair Aryans were at once struck by their dark hue, and named them
+accordingly _krisna tvac_, the black skin. In the course of time,
+however, the two races began to mix, and it is still possible to trace a
+Dravidian element in the Aryan languages of North India.
+
+The teaching of anthropology is to the same effect. Most speakers of
+Dravidian languages belong to a distinct anthropological type which is
+known as the Dravidian. "The Dravidian race," says Sir H. Risley, "the
+most primitive of the Indian types, occupies the oldest geological
+formation in India, the medley of forest-clad ranges, terraced plateaus,
+and undulating plains which stretches, roughly speaking, from the
+Vindhyas to Cape Comorin. On the east and west of the peninsular area
+the domain of the Dravidian is conterminous with the Ghats, while
+farther north it reaches on one side to the Aravallis and on the other
+to the Rajmahal hills."
+
+This territory is the proper home of the race. A strong Dravidian
+element can, however, also be traced in the population of northern
+India. In Kashmir and Punjab, where the Aryans had already settled in
+those prehistoric times when the Vedic hymns were composed, the
+prevailing type is the Aryan one. The same is the case in Rajputana.
+From the eastern frontier of the Punjab, on the other hand, and
+eastwards, a Dravidian element can be traced. This is the case in the
+valleys of the Ganges and the Jumna, where the Aryans only settled at a
+later period. Anthropologists also state that there is a Dravidian
+element in the population of western India, from Gujarat to Coorg.
+
+It is thus probable that Dravidian languages have once been spoken in
+many tracts which are now occupied by Aryan forms of speech. The
+existence of a Dravidian dialect in Baluchistan seems to show that
+Dravidian settlers have once lived in those parts. The tribe in
+question, the Br[=a]h[=u][=i]s, are, however, now Eranians and not
+Dravidians by race, and it is not probable that there has ever been a
+numerous Dravidian population in Baluchistan. The Br[=a]h[=u][=i]s are
+most likely the descendants of settlers from the south.
+
+There is no indication that the Dravidians have entered India from
+outside or superseded an older population. For all practical purposes
+they can accordingly be considered as the aborigines of the Deccan,
+whence they appear to have spread over part of northern India. Their
+languages form an isolated group, and it has not been possible to prove
+a connexion with any other family of languages. Such attempts have been
+made with reference to the Munda family, the Tibeto-Burman languages,
+and the dialects spoken by the aborigines of the Australian continent.
+The arguments adduced have not, however, proved to be sufficient, and
+only the Australian hypothesis can still lay claim to some probability.
+Till it has been more closely tested we must therefore consider the
+Dravidian family as an isolated group of languages, with several
+characteristic features of its own.
+
+  The pronunciation is described as soft and mellifluous. Abruptness and
+  hard combinations of sounds are avoided. There is, for example, a
+  distinct tendency to avoid pronouncing a short consonant at the end of
+  a word, a very short vowel being often added after it. Thus the
+  pronoun of the third person singular, which is _avan_, "he," in Tamil,
+  is pronounced _avanu_ in Kanarese; the Sanskrit word _v[=a]k_,
+  "speech," is borrowed in the form _v[=a]ku_ in Tamil; the word
+  _gurram_, "horse," is commonly pronounced _gurramu_ in Telugu, and so
+  on. Combinations of consonants are further avoided in many cases where
+  speakers of other languages do not experience any difficulty in
+  pronouncing them. This tendency is well illustrated by the changes
+  undergone by some borrowed words. Thus the Sanskrit word
+  _br[=a]hmana_, "a Brahmin," becomes _bar[=a]mana_ in Kanarese and
+  _pir[=a]mana_ in Tamil; the Sanskrit _Dramida_, "Dravidian," is
+  borrowed by Tamil under the form _Tir[=a]mida_. _Dramida_, which also
+  occurs as _Dravida_, is in its turn developed from an older _Damila_,
+  which is identical with the word _Tamir_, Tamil.
+
+  The forms _pir[=a]mana_ and _Tir[=a]mida_ in Tamil illustrate another
+  feature of Dravidian enunciation. There is a tendency in all of them,
+  and in Tamil and Malay[=a]lam it has become a law, against any word
+  being permitted to begin with a stopped voiced consonant (g, j, [d.],
+  d, b), the corresponding voiceless sounds (k, c, t, [t.], p,
+  respectively) being substituted. In the middle of a word or compound,
+  on the other hand, every consonant must be voiced. Thus the Sanskrit
+  word _danta_, "tooth," has been borrowed by Tamil in the form
+  _tandam_, and the Telugu _anna_, "elder brother," _tammulu_, "younger
+  brother," become when compounded _annadammulu_, "elder and younger
+  brothers."
+
+  There is no strongly marked accent on any one syllable, though there
+  is a slight stress upon the first one. In some dialects this
+  equilibrium between the different parts of a word is accompanied by a
+  tendency to approach to each other the sound of vowels in consecutive
+  syllables. This tendency, which has been called the "law of harmonic
+  sequence," is most apparent in Telugu, where the short _u_ of certain
+  suffixes is replaced by _i_ when the preceding syllable contains one
+  of the vowels _i_ (short and long) and _ei_. Compare the dative suffix
+  _ku_, _ki_, in _gurramu-ku_, "to a horse"; but _tammuni-ki_, "to a
+  younger brother." This tendency does not, however, play a prominent
+  rôle in the Dravidian languages.
+
+  Words are formed from roots and bases by means of suffixed formative
+  additions. The root itself generally remains unchanged throughout.
+  Thus from the Tamil base _per_, "great," we can form adjectives such
+  as _per-iya_ and _per-um_, "great"; verbs such as _per-u-gu_, "to
+  become increased"; _per-u-kku_, "to cause to increase," and so on.
+
+  Many bases can be used at will as nouns, as adjectives, and as verbs.
+  Thus the Tamil _kadu_ can mean "sharpness," "sharp," and "to be
+  sharp." Other bases are of course more restricted in their respective
+  spheres.
+
+  The inflection of words is effected by agglutination, i.e. various
+  additions are suffixed to the base in order to form what we would call
+  cases and tenses. Such additions have probably once been separate
+  words. Most of them are, however, now only used as suffixes. Thus from
+  the Tamil base _k[=o]n_, "king," we can form an accusative
+  _k[=o]n-ei_, a verb _k[=o]n-en_, "I am king," and so on.
+
+  Dravidian nouns are divided into two classes, which Tamil grammarians
+  called high-caste and casteless respectively. The former includes
+  those nouns which denote beings endowed with reason, the latter all
+  others. Gender is only distinguished in the former class, while all
+  casteless nouns are neuter. The gender of animals (which are
+  irrational) must accordingly be distinguished by using different words
+  for the male and the female, or else by adding words meaning male,
+  female, respectively, to the name of the animal--processes which do
+  not, strictly speaking, fall under the head of grammar.
+
+  There are two numbers, the singular and the plural. The latter is
+  formed by adding suffixes. It, however, often remains unmarked in the
+  case of casteless nouns.
+
+  Cases are formed by adding postpositions and suffixes, usually to a
+  modified form of the noun which is commonly called the oblique base.
+  Thus we have the Tamil _maram_, "tree"; _maratt-[=a]l_, "from a tree";
+  _maratt-u-kku_, "to a tree"; _v[=i]du_, "a house"; _v[=i]t[t.]-[=a]l_,
+  "from a house." The case terminations are the same in the singular and
+  in the plural. The genitive, which precedes the governing noun, is
+  often identical with the oblique base, or else it is formed by adding
+  suffixes.
+
+  The numeral system is decimal and higher numbers are counted in tens;
+  thus Tamil _pattu_, "ten"; _iru-badu_, "two tens," "twenty."
+
+  The personal pronoun of the first person in most dialects has a double
+  form in the plural, one including and the other excluding the person
+  addressed. Thus, Tamil _n[=a]m_, "we," i.e. I and you; _n[=a]ngal_,
+  "we," i.e. I and they.
+
+  There is no relative pronoun. Relative clauses are effected by using
+  relative participles. Thus in Telugu the sentence "the book which you
+  gave to me" must be translated _m[=i]ru n[=a]ku iccina pus-takamu_,
+  i.e. "you me-to given book." There are several such participles in
+  use. Thus from the Telugu verb _kot[t.]a_, "to strike," are formed
+  _kot[t.]-ut-unna_, "that strikes," _kot[t.]-i-na_, "that struck,"
+  _kot[t.][=e]_, "that would strike," "that usually strikes." By adding
+  pronouns, or the terminations of pronouns, to such forms, nouns are
+  derived which denote the person who performs the action. Thus from
+  Telugu _kot[t.][=e]_ and _v[=a]du_, "he," is formed
+  _kot[t.][=e]-v[=a]du_, "one who usually strikes." Such forms are used
+  as ordinary verbs, and the usual verbal forms of Dravidian languages
+  can broadly be described as such nouns of agency. Thus, the Telugu,
+  _kot[t.]in[=a]du_, "he struck," can be translated literally "a striker
+  in the past."
+
+  Verbal tenses distinguish the person and number of the subject by
+  adding abbreviated forms of the personal pronouns. Thus in Kanarese we
+  have _m[=a]did-enu_, "I did"; _m[=a]did-i_, "thou didst";
+  _m[=a]did-evu_, "we did"; _m[=a]did-aru_, "they did."
+
+  One of the most characteristic features of the Dravidian verb is the
+  existence of a separate negative conjugation. It usually has only one
+  tense and is formed by adding the personal terminations to a negative
+  base. Thus, Kanarese _m[=a]d-enu_, "I did not"; _m[=a]d-evu_, "we did
+  not"; _m[=a]d-aru_, "they did not."
+
+  The vocabulary has adopted numerous Aryan loan-words. This was a
+  necessary consequence of the early connexion with the superior Aryan
+  civilization.
+
+  The oldest Dravidian literature is largely indebted to the Aryans
+  though it goes back to a very early date. Tamil, Malay[=a]lam,
+  Kanarese and Telugu are the principal literary languages. The language
+  of literature in all of them differs considerably from the colloquial.
+  The oldest known specimen of a Dravidian language occurs in a Greek
+  play which is preserved in a papyrus of the 2nd century A.D. The exact
+  period to which the indigenous literature can be traced back, on the
+  other hand, has not been fixed with certainty.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Bishop R. Caldwell, _A Comparative Grammar of the
+  Dravidian or South-Indian Family of Languages_ (London, 1856; 2nd
+  edition, 1875); Dr Friedrich Müller, _Reise der österreichischen
+  Fregatte Novara um die Erde in den Jahren 1857, 1858, 1859, unter den
+  Befehlen des Commodore B. von Wüllerstorff-Urbair: Linguistischer
+  Theil._ (Wien, 1867, pp. 73 and ff.); Dr Friedrich Müller, _Grundriss
+  der Sprachwissenschaft_, vol. iii. (Wien, 1884), pp. 106 and ff.; G.
+  A. Grierson, _Linguistic Survey of India_, vol. iv. "Munda and
+  Dravidian Languages" (Calcutta, 1906), pp. 277 and ff. by Sten Konow.
+       (S. K.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] In Dravidian words a line above a vowel shows that it is long.
+    The dotted consonants t, d, and n are pronounced by striking the tip
+    of the tongue against the centre of the hard palate. The dotted l is
+    distinguished from l in a similar way. Its sound, however, differs in
+    the different districts. A Greek [chi] marks the sound of _ch_ in
+    "loch"; _s_ is the English _sh_; _c_ the _ch_ in "church"; and _ri_
+    is an _r_ which is used as a vowel. In the list of Dravidian
+    languages the names are spelt fully, with all the necessary
+    diacritical marks. In the rest of the article dots under consonants
+    have been omitted in these words.
+
+
+
+
+DRAWBACK, in commerce, the paying back of a duty previously paid upon
+the exportation of excisable articles or upon the re-exportation of
+foreign goods. The object of a drawback is to enable commodities which
+are subject to taxation to be exported and sold in a foreign country on
+the same terms as goods from countries where they are untaxed. It
+differs from a bounty in that the latter enables commodities to be sold
+abroad at less than their cost price; it may occur, however, under
+certain conditions that the giving of a drawback has an effect
+equivalent to that of a bounty, as in the case of the so-called sugar
+bounties in Germany (see SUGAR). The earlier tariffs contained elaborate
+tables of the drawbacks allowed on the exportation or re-exportation of
+commodities, but so far as the United Kingdom is concerned the system of
+"bonded warehouses" practically abolished drawbacks, as commodities can
+be warehoused (placed "in bond") until required for subsequent
+exportation.
+
+
+
+
+DRAWING, in art. Although the verb "to draw" has various meanings, the
+substantive _drawing_ is confined by usage to its artistic sense,
+delineation or design. The word "draw," from a root common to the
+Teutonic languages (Goth, _dragan_, O.H.G. _drahan_, Mod. Ger. _tragen_,
+which all have the sense of "carry," O. Norse _draga_, A.S. _drazan_,
+_drazen_, "draw," cf. Lat. _trahere_), means to pull or "drag" (a word
+of the same origin) as distinct from the action of pushing. It is thus
+used of traction generally, whether by men, animals or machines. The
+same idea is preserved in "drawing" as applied to the fine arts. We do
+not usually say, or think, that a sculptor is drawing when he is using
+his chisel, although he may be expressing or defining forms, nor that an
+engraver is drawing when he is pushing the burin with the palm of the
+hand, although the result may be the rendering of a design. But we do
+say that an artist is drawing when he uses the lead pencil, and here we
+have a motion bearing some resemblance to that of traction generally.
+The action of the artist in drawing the pencil point with his fingers
+along the paper is analogous, e.g., to that of a horse or man drawing a
+pole over soft ground and leaving a mark behind. The same analogy may be
+observed between two of the senses in which the French verb _tirer_ is
+frequently employed. This word, the origin of which is quite uncertain,
+was formerly used by good writers in the two senses of the verb to draw.
+Thus Lafontaine says, "Six forts chevaux _tiraient_ un coche"; and
+Caillières wrote, "Il n'y a pas longtemps que je me suis fait _tirer_
+par Rigaud," meaning that Rigaud had drawn or painted his portrait. At
+the present day the verb _tirer_ has fallen into disuse amongst
+cultivated Frenchmen with regard to drawing and painting, but it is
+still universally used for all kinds of design and even for photography
+by the common people. The cultivated use it still for printing, as for
+example "cette gravure sera tirée à cent exemplaires," in the sense of
+pulling. A verb much more nearly related to the English verb _to draw_
+is the French _traire_ (Lat. _trahere_), which has _trait_ for its past
+participle. _Traire_ is now used exclusively for milking cows and other
+animals, and though the analogy between this and artistic drawing is not
+obvious at first, nevertheless there is a certain analogy of motion,
+since the hand passing down the teat draws the milk downwards. The word
+_trait_ is much more familiar in connexion with art as "les traits du
+visage," the natural markings of the face, and it is very often used in
+a figurative sense, as we say "traits of character." It is familiar in
+the English _portrait_, derived from _protrahere_. The ancient Romans
+used words which expressed more clearly the conception that drawing was
+done in line (_delineare_) or in shade (_adumbrare_), though there are
+reasons for believing that the words were often indiscriminately
+applied. Although the modern Italians have both _traire_ and _trarre_,
+they use _delineare_ still in the sense of artistic drawing, and also
+_adombrare_. The Greek verb [Greek: graphein] appears in English in
+"graphic" and in many compounds, such as photograph, &c. It is worth
+observing that the Greeks seem to have considered drawing and writing
+(q.v.) as essentially the same process, since they used the same word
+for both. This points to the early identity of the two arts when drawing
+was a kind of writing, and when such writing as men had learned to
+practise was essentially what we should call drawing, though of a rude
+and simple kind. Even in the present day picture writing is not
+unfrequently resorted to by travellers as a means of making themselves
+intelligible. There is also a kind of art which is writing in the modern
+sense and drawing at the same time, such as the work of the medieval
+illuminators in their manuscripts.     (X.)
+
+_The Art of Drawing._--Rather than attempt here a historical survey of
+the various so-called "styles" of drawing, or write a personal
+appreciation of them, it seems of greater use to give a logical account
+of drawing as an art, applicable to all times and countries. Reference
+to the teaching of drawing will be occasionally given rather to
+illustrate the argument than with a view to its being of practical use.
+
+At the outset a distinction must be made between drawing as a means of
+symbolic or literary expression and drawing as the direct and only means
+of expressing the beauty of form. If Pharaoh wants to have it known that
+a hundred ducks were consumed at one meal in his court, he employs a
+draughtsman to register the fact on a frieze by picturing a row of cooks
+occupied in preparing the hundred ducks. The artist in this case does
+not represent the scene as he must have known it in the kitchen, with
+all its variety of movement and composition (as an early Greek vase
+painter conceived the interior of a vase factory), but all he does and
+is required to do is to give the sufficient number of figures and ducks.
+The more uniform the figures the greater will be the effect of number.
+Drawing has been employed here to tell a story, and it succeeds in so
+far as it tells the spectator plainly what could be told, perhaps less
+conveniently, in words. It matters not whether the figures and objects
+be feelingly rendered and harmoniously composed. So, to-day, a child, or
+any one who has a simple trick of symbolizing figures and objects in
+nature, can describe any event or moral by this process, provided the
+plot be not too elaborate to be expressed by a scene, or series of
+scenes, enacted by dumb symbolic figures. It is plain that the amusing
+pictures in _Punch_ or _Fliegende Blätter_ would be none the more
+amusing if they were done by the hand of Michelangelo, nor would the
+mystic designs of Blake be more full of meaning if drawn by Rembrandt,
+for in neither case do these works depend upon any subtle rendering of
+the forms of nature for their success, but upon the dramatic or
+intellectual imagination of the man who conceived them. When the witty
+or ethical man is at the same time a master draughtsman his work has two
+values, the "literary" content and the beauty of his drawing of natural
+objects. But it must be borne in mind that these values are
+fundamentally distinct; so much so that the spectator who has no
+appreciation of the forms of nature enjoys the story told and remains
+blind to the qualities of draughtsmanship, whilst the lover of nature's
+forms may or may not trouble to unravel the literary plot but finds
+perfect satisfaction in the drawing. By far the greater part of
+illustration, and of artistic production generally, must be classed as
+symbolic art. Magazine stories to-day are sometimes illustrated even by
+photography, for the hand of the artist is not required. Symbolic art
+describes indirectly and in a necessarily limited scope what literature
+can do directly and with unlimited powers. The only content of symbolic
+drawing is its literary meaning; as drawing it may be quite worthless.
+
+Pure drawing, however, whether it represent a dramatic event or a
+knee-joint, has a content that cannot be expressed by words, and is not
+necessarily directed towards literary expression. Just as a fragment of
+good sculpture pleases the connoisseur without any reference either to
+the whole original or to its spiritual significance, fine drawing can
+appeal to the lover of nature independently of indirect considerations.
+
+What is the content of pure drawing? It is held by some that drawing or
+monochrome can suggest colour, and many people, some consciously, others
+unconsciously, attempt to represent in drawings the colours of figures
+and landscape. It seems a strange aberration to argue that by different
+intensities of the one colour various other colours can be suggested: it
+would not be more unreasonable to maintain that E flat and F could be
+suggested by striking the note G with varying strength. Now the
+draughtsman employs various intensities of his monochrome as light and
+shade by which to give roundness to his forms. But if on the same
+drawing he uses the same means in his attempt to express colour, a
+conflict would be at once set up between that which makes for form and
+that which would make for colour, and the result would generally be a
+confusion. Again, let one attempt to give red hair to a monochrome
+drawing of a man, and if the red be plain and unmistakable to all who
+are not the artist's accomplices, then the artist has succeeded;
+otherwise it is bootless to treat of colour and colour values (which of
+course must depend upon the existence of colour) in monochrome. Apart
+from theory, if we examine the drawings, etchings and monochromes of
+great artists, where do we find them attempting to give colour or colour
+values? The hundreds of costume studies by Rembrandt might have been
+done from white plaster models, and there are only a few exceptions
+where a man has, for instance, a black hat or cloak. But in these few
+instances the "colour" tone is applied with such discretion that the
+true representation of the form is scarcely, perhaps only theoretically,
+impaired: they certainly have gained nothing in colour value because no
+specific colour is manifest in them. In Rembrandt's, Claude's or
+Turner's drawings of landscapes the formation of the country, the
+architecture, &c., is expressed by line, light and shade, and enhanced
+by shadows cast from clouds and trees. If, in the drawings of masters,
+we should find objects darker or lighter than their position in the
+light would warrant, they have value (perhaps not quite a legitimate
+one) for balancing the composition as a flat pattern. They were never
+intended to suggest colour, nor do they. Yet, in spite of the failure to
+succeed, and contrary to logical argument and the practice of great
+draughtsmen, the student of most of the schools of Europe and America
+still persists in doing the hair dark, and, by attempting to give colour
+values to the clothes, breaks up the consistency of the whole. For the
+same reason that the sculptor uses uniformly coloured material in order
+that the natural light and shade may have full opportunity of making his
+forms manifest to the spectator, the draughtsman confines himself to
+giving light and shade only. If a monochrome has "colour tones," the
+effect is similar to that produced by a draped statue made out of
+variously coloured marbles--an inartistic jumble.
+
+As the immediate purpose and content of drawing there remains the
+representation of form only. Drawing is, therefore, essentially the same
+activity as sculpture, and has no additional scope. "Pupils," says
+Donatello, "I give you the whole art of sculpture when I tell you to
+draw" (cited by Holroyd, _Michel Angelo_, p. 2 95), and the only
+practical teaching of drawing might be summed up by the inversion of the
+above.
+
+Now if everything in nature--men, mountains or clouds--were as flat
+targets, i.e. two-dimensional, drawing could be legitimately reduced to
+a mechanical process,--to trace their contours upon a glass screen or
+even photograph them would be all that would be required. Indeed,
+provided the size of the drawing, the local colour and the texture be
+the same as those of the original, a complete illusion would be the
+result, in fact the proper end of one's labours. But the presence of the
+third dimension in all objects causes light and shade, which in their
+turn bring about radical changes of the local colour, even in uniformly
+coloured objects. Now since drawing cannot suggest colour, local or
+atmospherical, any attempt to effect an illusion by a monochrome is at
+once defeated. If the end of drawing were to approach imitation or
+illusion as nearly as possible, how is it that a mere "sketch" by a
+master draughtsman can be for itself as valuable as his highly finished
+drawing? And surely a masterly outline drawing of a figure or landscape
+does not pretend to be an illusion. If then the draughtsman does not,
+and cannot hope to imitate nature, he is compelled to state only his
+ideas of it, ideas of three-dimensional form. For this reason only
+drawing must be treated as an art, and not as a mechanical act of
+getting an illusion.
+
+[Illustration: (From a Greek vase in the British Museum (E. 46).
+
+FIG. 1.]
+
+[Illustration: (From _Bulletino arch. Napol_. (1843, tom. 1, tav. 7).
+
+FIG. 2.]
+
+[Illustration: (From a drawing by Michelangelo (1854, 5, 13, i.), Print
+Room, British Museum).
+
+FIG. 3.]
+
+It is interesting to trace in the history of an indigenous art the
+development of drawing that shall ultimately express ideas of
+three-dimensional form. Prof. Emanuel Loewy, in his _Rendering of Nature
+in Early Greek Art_, demonstrates how the early Greek sculpture (and
+that of all primitive peoples, children and ungifted artists) shows an
+aversion from depth. Their reliefs are of the flattest description,
+almost raised contours, and their figures in the round have at first
+only one aspect, or flat façade, so to speak, then three and four
+aspects, and finally at the date of Lysippus the figures are fully
+rounded out, and the members project at liberty in all directions. Then
+for the first time Greek sculpture showed a complete conception of the
+body's corporeity (_Körperlichkeit_). The primitive artist, however well
+he may be _intellectually_ aware of the three dimensions of an object,
+does not fully apprehend its true aspect as offered to the eye from one
+point of view. Following this conclusion, it is easy to see also in the
+drawing of the early Greeks, children and so on, the same lack of idea
+of the third dimension. The figures on the vases of the "finest period"
+(about 475 B.C.), despite occasional foreshortenings, have, when
+considered as representations of solid forms, a papery appearance. They
+have not half the draughtsmanship shown by the latter period of the vase
+industry, where the figures, though careless, stereotyped and
+ill-composed, come forwards (to use Prof. Loewy's description of later
+sculpture), go backwards, twist and turn in space in a manner which
+cannot be excelled. The reproductions in figs. 1, 2, 3 will illustrate
+the development. The primitive draughtsman is at first bound by the
+silhouette. Later, he desires to fill out the interior, but this cannot
+be done without in great part modifying his contour lines, because they
+are generally merely indications of the disappearing and reappearing
+inner modelling, i.e. of the figure's third dimension. Finally, the
+draughtsman in full possession of a feeling for the corporeity of the
+object will determine his contour entirely from within, a procedure
+which is the exact opposite to that of his first beginnings. He
+conceives the length, breadth and depth of an object and all its parts
+as solid wholes. To him a body in violent foreshortening is as easy as a
+simple profile, and, though it may not be as attractive, it is perhaps
+more interesting because its contours are more bound up with, and
+dependent upon, the inner modelling; in other words, it has more depth.
+The draughtsman's idea of a form in nature is not a "flat idea," but one
+containing three dimensions. This idea he seeks to express either by
+line alone or by light and shade. If an artist has not a
+three-dimensional "grasp" of forms, and, like a child, confines himself
+to the primitive tracing of the silhouette, his compositions may be of
+excellent flat pattern, and equal to any of the designs of ancient
+carpets or early Greek vases; but in the light of the above argument,
+and when compared with the productions of mature draughtsmen of all ages
+and countries, they cannot be said to be complete drawings, any more
+than the early unifacial statues of the Greeks can be called true
+plastic, simply because in neither case has the artist yet reached the
+highest possible development of corporeous conception, by which truly to
+interpret the solid objects of nature as we know them, and as master
+draughtsmen see them.
+
+An attempt should be made to explain the psycho-physiological process
+that must take place in the mind of the real draughtsman. When we look
+at an object in nature we know its length and breadth by the flat image
+on the retina; we see also the light and shade, which at once gives us a
+correct idea of the object's depth or relief. But we do not, nor could
+we, have this idea from the flat image on the retina alone, i.e. from
+the mere perception of the light and shade: our knowledge of its depth
+is the result of experience, i.e. of our having from infancy remarked a
+certain dispensation of light and shade on, and peculiar to, every form
+we have touched or traversed, and so, by association and inference,
+being early enabled to have ideas of the depth of things by their
+various arrangements of lights and darks without having to touch or
+traverse them. Nevertheless the act (generally, but by no means always,
+an unconscious one) of visually touching a form must necessarily take
+place before we can apprehend the third dimension of a form. It is,
+then, by the combination of the ideas derived from pure vision and the
+ideas derived from touch that we know the length, breadth and depth of a
+solid form. We have shown that the art of drawing is not an imitation,
+but an expression of the artist's ideas of form; therefore all drawing
+of forms that merely reproduces the image on the retina, and leaves
+unconsulted the ideas of touch, is incomplete and primitive, because it
+does not express a conception of form which is the result of an
+association of the two senses; in other words, it does not contain an
+idea of the object's relief or solidity. And all teaching of drawing
+that does not impress upon the student the necessity of combining the
+sense of vision with that of touch is erroneous, for it is thereby
+limiting him to a mechanical task, viz. the tracing of the flat image on
+the retina, which could be equally well done by mechanical means, or by
+photography alone.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.]
+
+In most of the schools of Europe and America it is true that great
+stress is laid upon the importance of giving life-like relief to
+drawings, but the method by which the students are allowed to get the
+relief is by employing the sense of vision only. Tracing the silhouette
+of the figure as minutely as possible, they then fill it out with
+inner-modelling, which also is done by vision alone, for the lights and
+darks of the original are copied down as so many flat patterns fitted
+together and gradated like a child's puzzle, and are not used merely as
+indication by which to "feel" the depth of the object. Such a procedure
+is as if in drawing a brick of which three sides were visible, one were
+first to draw the entire contour (fig. 4, a), the subtle perspective of
+which he might get correct with some mechanical apparatus or by infinite
+mechanical pains, and then fill up the interior with its "shading" (fig.
+4, b). The method would be plainly laborious, unintelligent and
+unedifying, and in drawing the most complicated foreshortened forms of
+the human body it would seem still more illogical. That this principle
+of instruction does not help the student to grasp the three-dimensional
+character properly can be proved by the twenty-minute studies of the
+average student who in his fourth year has won a gold medal for an
+astounding piece of life-like stippling. They are still unintelligent
+contour tracings, as if of cardboard figures, with a few irrelevant
+patches of dark here and there within the silhouette.
+
+But high modelling that would make for illusion of reality is not the
+first aim of draughtsmanship, nor have the best draughtsmen employed it
+save by exception. Michelangelo, Ingres, Holbein and Rembrandt have
+shown us that it is possible to give sufficient relief with a mere
+outline drawing. Again, the desire for salience often blunts the
+student's sense of the real character of the forms he is rounding out.
+So his elaborately modelled portrait may look very "life-like," but when
+compared with the original it will generally be seen that the whole and
+each of the individual forms of the drawing lack the peculiar character
+of those of the original. It is by carefully watching for the character
+of each fresh variety in figure and feature that great draughtsmen have
+excelled, and not by "life-like" relief, or even a sophisticated
+exposition of anatomical details at the expense of character. Can it be
+seriously maintained that a masterly sudden grasp of true formal
+character can be developed in a student by a system in which he
+patiently spends many days and weeks in stippling into plastic
+appearance one drawing which has originally been "laid in" by a
+mechanical process?
+
+It has been shown that to attempt to make an illusion of nature is
+neither within the power of monochrome nor has been the chief aim of
+draughtsmen, but that the art of drawing consists in giving a plain
+statement of one's ideas, be they slight or studied, of the solid forms
+of nature. But the question may still be asked: Why is it that a
+rigorously accurate and finished drawing by a student or artist with
+_no_ such ideas or conception is not good drawing, containing as it must
+do all that can be seen in the original, missing only its complete
+illusion? Why, in a word, is not a photograph a work of art?
+
+The common explanation of the above important question is that the
+artist "selects and eliminates from the forms of nature." But surely
+this is the principle of the caricaturist and virtuoso? A beautiful
+drawing, however slight, is but the precipitate of the whole in the
+artist's mind. And a highly finished drawing by a master does not show
+even any apparent selection or elimination. The adoption of the
+principle of selection to differentiate art from mechanical reproduction
+is fundamentally vicious, and could be shown to be wholly inapplicable
+to the so-called formative arts. Nor could the theory of "selection" be
+used as a principle of teaching, for if to the first question the pupil
+would make, "What am I to select?" it were answered, "Only the important
+things," then the next question, "What are the important things?" could
+be answered only by saying, "That alone the real artist knows, but
+cannot teach." Certainly there are important things that can be taught
+the student in the initial stage of "laying-in" a figure, but _when_ to
+begin selecting or eliminating no teacher could tell him, simply because
+he must be aware that a true draughtsman can afford to eliminate nothing
+when the truth of the whole is at stake. The artist's conception and its
+expression may be slight or elaborate, but in neither case can selection
+or elimination take place, for a true conception must be founded upon
+the character of the whole, which is determined by the entire complex of
+all the parts.
+
+To explain the essential difference between art and mechanical drawing
+or mechanical reproduction, a more applicable theory must be found.
+Compare the art of telling a story. If, to describe an incident in the
+street you had the entire affair reenacted on the same spot, you would
+have but made a mechanical reproduction of it, leaving the spectator to
+simplify the affair, and construct his _own_ conception of it. You have
+not given _your_ ideas of the event, and so you have not made a work of
+art. So, if a man draws an object detail for detail by any mechanical
+process, or traces over its photograph, he has but reduplicated the
+real aspect of the object, and has failed to give the spectator a simple
+and intelligible idea of it. Starting out with the generous notion of
+giving all, that there may be "something for everyone," he has given
+nothing. He did not originally form an intelligible and simplified idea
+of the figure, so how can his drawing be expected to give one to others?
+
+But how can forms be made _more_ simple and intelligible than by
+reproducing their aspect with absolute accuracy? Our combined sense of
+vision and touch comprehends very easily certain elementary solid forms,
+the sphere, the cube, the pyramid and the cylinder. No forms but these,
+and their modifications, can be apprehended by the mind in one and the
+same act of vision. Every complex form, even so simple as that of a
+kidney, for instance, must be first broken up into its component parts
+before it can be fully apprehended or remembered. Analogously with the
+above, Prof. Wundt has shown how the mind can apprehend _as separate
+units_ any number, of marbles for instance, up to five, after which
+every number must be split up into lots of twos, threes, fours and
+fives, or twenties, thirties and so on, before it can realize the full
+content of that number in one and the same mental picture. So the only
+way to receive an intelligible idea of a complex form, such as a human
+figure, is first to discover in the figure itself, and then in all its
+parts, only modifications of the above elementary solid forms, and the
+drawing of a conception thus informed must needs be a very clear and
+intelligible one. The more the artist is capable and practised, the more
+clearly will he conceive and distinguish in nature each subtle
+modification of these elementary forms, their direction, their relation
+to, and their dependence upon one another. The only difference between a
+good draughtsman and a bad one is the degree of subtlety of his
+apprehension. Unless the draughtsman has seen some such clear forms in
+his original, his labour to produce a work of art will be grievous and
+fruitless. All good drawing is stamped with this kind of structural
+insight. The more the artist adheres to nature, and the more finished
+his drawing, the more will the lines and forms that he makes be, so to
+speak, _in excess_ of those of nature, or dull imitation or photography.
+It is not to be supposed that able draughtsmen work, or need ever have
+worked, consciously in this manner. It is, indeed, the virtue peculiar
+to the artist, as interpreter of form, that he instinctively comprehends
+the real elemental character of complex forms, whilst the majority of
+people (on the showing of their own drawings) entertain but confused or
+_no_ ideas of them. It is because a good drawing reduces the chaos of
+ideas supplied by the raw material of nature, to one intelligible manner
+of seeing it, that all lovers of nature welcome it with joy. It is this
+process of discovery and interpretation that marks the essential
+difference between art and mechanical drawing or reproduction. Art gives
+intelligible ideas of the forms of nature, mechanism attempts to
+reduplicate their aspects.
+
+There are some who hold that drawing is not exclusively a matter of
+interpreting form, but that great artists have their own "personalities"
+which they infuse into their work. They will ask, How is it otherwise to
+be explained that two equally good draughtsmen will invariably make
+different drawings of the same figure? Is it not for the same reason
+that one man will divide up a row of eight marbles into groups of four,
+and another into five and three? The subjectivity of experience governs
+the different conceptions that good draughtsmen will form of the same
+object. Accordingly as a draughtsman feels form so will he draw it, and
+it is only because our sense apparatuses are more or less similarly
+constituted that we can understand and appreciate one another's
+conceptions.
+
+But if the master draughtsman gives the true character of his model's
+form, why is it that his drawings are not pleasing to all alike? Whence
+the doubts and criticism that have been called forth by all original
+artists? If we first examine the attitude of the average man, artist or
+layman, towards nature, we can better explain his attitude towards works
+of art. The average man or artist has not a highly developed
+appreciation of form _per se_, whether it be the form of natural or
+manufactured objects. And it would seem that he is still less a
+disinterested spectator of the forms and features of his fellow beings
+and animals, their movements, their colour, their value in a room or
+landscape. He has sentimental, moral or intellectual preferences. In
+other words, he likes or dislikes only those faces or figures which
+hundreds of personal associations have taught him to like or dislike.
+The riding man's admiration for the look of a particular horse is based
+upon the fact that it looks like "a horse to go," and hence it is what
+he calls beautiful, while the artist, in the capacity of artist and not
+of sportsman, is not particular in his choice of horse-flesh, but finds
+each animal equally interesting for itself alone. Consequently in art
+any face, figure or object that does not come into the category of what
+the average man cares for is condemned by him even as it would be in
+real life, since he is no lover of form for form's sake, but provided
+the subject or moral be pleasing the quality of the draughtsmanship is
+of small account. The picture of a dwarf, or of an anatomy lesson, or of
+a group of ordinary bourgeois folk would not really please him, even
+though he were told that the work was by Velazquez, Rembrandt or Manet.
+We have only to listen to the common criticism of works of art to know
+that it is founded upon personal predilection only. We do not hear such
+personal criticism upon drawings of landscape, not because artists do
+them better, but because natural landscape has no interest for any one
+other than for its form, or, at least, people do not hold such definite
+personal likes or dislikes with regard to its various manifestations.
+But the artist, though his own personal predilections may, and generally
+do, lead him to work within that agreeable _milieu_, has, in the
+capacity of artist, no subjective prejudices; indeed, if he had them, he
+could not represent them by line, light and shade. He seeks always new
+varieties of form; hence his subjects, and his manner of posing them,
+are often unpleasing to the man who is busy with other affairs, and has
+no great experience of nature's forms. Let a good draughtsman make a
+successful likeness of the mother of some average man, and the latter
+will be delighted, but it by no means follows that he will delight in a
+drawing of the wife of the artist, though done by the same hand and with
+equal skill.
+
+If drawing is the art of giving one's ideas of the forms of nature, then
+all criticism of drawing must be based upon the question, "How far does
+such and such a work show an intimate knowledge of or intelligent
+visualization of the forms we know in nature?" and no other principle of
+judgment can be applicable to all drawing alike. Hence only those who
+have by natural endowment a clear sense of the forms of things, and who
+have made more than ordinary study of them, are in a position to apply
+to drawings the above criterion with any approach to infallibility. It
+is a fact that there are, and always have been, a certain number of
+people who agree perfectly in their appreciation of the works of certain
+draughtsmen of different times and countries, and who can state reasons
+for their appreciation in definite and almost identical terms, for it is
+based upon knowledge and experience. To such people all fine
+draughtsmanship owes its public fame, and its immortality lies in their
+safe keeping.
+
+It may be argued that each has a right to his own opinion about form and
+its representation, on the supposed ground that we all see form in
+different ways. But there is a fallacy in this argument. If we take the
+average man's drawing of any form more complex than a loaf of bread as a
+fair and only testimony of his power of visualization of forms, we must
+conclude that most of us see not differently, but _wrongly_, or rather
+confusedly and disconnectedly, and that some can visualize form scarcely
+at all. If this be true, the average person's sight and ability to judge
+drawing is seriously diminished. If, then, drawing can be judged and
+appreciated only by knowledge and experience of the forms of nature, no
+critical formula could be made out so as to enable a child or savage or
+ordinary civilized adult to estimate or enjoy it. If it be argued that
+drawings are to be judged from some abstract or symbolic point of view,
+independently of its subtle representation of form, then incompetent
+drawing might be as beautiful as the competent, which would be absurd.
+However, if the competent characterization of form were admitted as at
+least the first condition of beautiful drawing, it would follow that
+any abstract value it might have must be wholly dependent upon the
+manner in which form is represented, and so it would be superfluous to
+judge it by any standard other than the direct, definite and concrete
+one of form. Abstract beauty, since no one has yet defined it agreeably
+to all, is, apparently, with those who affect a feeling for it, a matter
+of individual taste, and therefore cannot be questioned. But the clear
+visualization of the forms of nature is based upon a special endowment
+and knowledge, and can be criticized by demonstration. People may differ
+in their tastes, but they may not, nor do they, differ upon questions of
+real knowledge. Drawing, as the activity of giving one's ideas of form,
+must therefore be judged not by taste but by knowledge.
+
+In view of the purpose and content of drawing as here demonstrated,
+there is no other principle of judgment that is relevant. Yet we often
+hear drawing judged by criteria which are founded upon no such concrete
+base but upon certain vague abstractions; or, again, upon a literary or
+moral base which could be applicable only to symbolic art.
+
+It is said that this or that draughtsman excels in "beauty of line." Now
+in spite of the labours of many painters and theorists, it cannot
+reasonably be held that one purely abstract line or curve is more
+beautiful than another, for the simple reason that people have no common
+ground upon which to establish the nature of abstract beauty. It may be,
+however, that even as certain simple forms are more easily apprehended
+than complex ones, there is the same distinction with regard to lines.
+If then an artist of clean vision sees in an object of reality such
+clear characteristic lines, he draws them not for their abstract beauty,
+but merely because by them alone can he express his idea of the form
+before him. The early Greek vase painters, and all great artists of
+primitive periods, being attracted only by the silhouette, became very
+subtle to observe nature's outlines in their most intelligible
+character, and to this capacity is due their "beauty of line," and not
+to any preconceived notion of an abstract line of perfect beauty, and
+nowhere will "beauty of line" be found on Greek vases, or elsewhere,
+that is not informed by, and does not express, a fine conception of
+nature's contours. So too in later three-dimensional drawing there is no
+beauty of line which does not intelligibly express not only the
+directions and angles of the main contour, but the inner modelling, i.e.
+the relief of the figure. It is only a superficial judgment that would
+prefer one drawing to another, even if both may be equally good, because
+the line of one is neat and the other "tormented." Contour being _in
+nature_ an ideal line between one form and another, it is illogical to
+treat it or criticize it in a _drawing_ as an actual and specific thing,
+apart from the forms that make it and are made by it. If an artist drew
+a dragon with deliberate disregard for animal construction, his drawing
+would be silly, and only by a profound knowledge of the forms of nature
+could it be made to have beautiful lines. Truth to nature is always
+originality, and it is the only originality worth the name.
+
+Again, some people judge one drawing as better than another in that it
+shows more "individuality" or "temperament." Now a man's individuality
+is, presumably, a vague feeling in our minds produced by the net result
+of the ways in which he sees, hears, loves, thinks and so on, so that we
+could not tell a man's individuality from any single one of his
+manifestations. With his entire work as an artist before us, i.e. his
+manner of seeing, we could do no more than infer, with the help of
+outside data, from the subjects he chooses, and the neatness or boldness
+of his line, something about his general character, and that with small
+degree of certainty. To regard a man's works of art, or indeed any of
+his manifestations, from this point of view, is, after all, nothing but
+a kind of inquisitive cheiromancy. Those who pretend to like the
+drawings of Watteau or Michelangelo "because they show more
+individuality" than the incompetent work of a beginner or poor artist
+cannot be skilled in their own business, because the lady who tells your
+character by your handwriting finds as much individuality in bad writing
+as in good,--sometimes even more. It may be entertaining to some to
+guess at the artist's character from his works by this process of
+inference and comparison, but it is unreasonable to imagine that
+"individuality," as such, can be made a serious criterion of aesthetic
+judgment. The only individuality a draughtsman can show directly by his
+drawing is his individual way of conceiving the forms of nature, and
+even this is immaterial provided the conception and drawing be good.
+
+A word or two are necessary upon "style," which unfortunate word has
+made much mystery in criticism. The great draughtsmen of every time and
+country are known by their own words, as well as their works, to have
+been infinitely respectful to the form of every detail in nature. Their
+drawings always recall to our minds reality as we ourselves have seen it
+(provided we have studied from nature and not from pictures). The
+drawing of a hand, for instance, by Hokusai, Ingres or Dürer, revives in
+us our own impressions of the forms and aspects of real hands. In short
+there is manifest in all good drawings, whatever their difference of
+medium or superficial appearance, an entire dependence upon the forms of
+nature. Hence we cannot imagine that they were conceived and executed
+with the conscious effort to obtain some abstract style independent of
+the material treated. The style they plainly have can spring from this
+common quality, their truthful and well understood representation of
+forms. Style, then, is the expression of a clear understanding of the
+material from which the artist works. Unless a drawing shows this
+understanding it would be as impossible as it would be gratuitous to
+argue that it could have style. But it would seem that some people mean
+by style nothing more than the mere superficial appearance of the work.
+They would have a draughtsman draw "in the style of Holbein," but not
+"in the style" of Rembrandt. This kind of preference, as remarked above,
+is superficial, for it overlooks the main issue and purpose of drawing,
+viz. the representation, by any means whatever, of the artist's ideas of
+form. It is as though one should prefer a letter from Holbein to one
+from Rembrandt, though both were equally expressive, simply because
+Holbein's handwriting was prettier than Rembrandt's. Each draughtsman
+manifests a kind of handwriting peculiar to himself even in his most
+faithful rendering of form; and by this we can immediately recognize the
+artist; many, for instance Hogarth and some Japanese, seem to have let
+their quirks, full stops and so on, get the upper hand at the expense of
+serious, sensitive draughtsmanship.
+
+It is fair to suppose that all abstract principles of aesthetic
+judgment, such as beauty of line, personality, style, nobility of
+thought, romanticism, are merely pretexts set up by people who would
+still affect to admire the drawings of recognized masters when they have
+neither the knowledge of, nor the care for, the forms of nature by
+virtue of which alone these drawings are what they are, and by which
+alone they can be immediately appreciated.     (J. R. FO.)
+
+_Drawing-Office Work._--In modern engineering, few pieces of mechanism
+are ever produced in the shops until their design has been settled in
+the "drawing office," and embodied in suitable drawings showing general
+and detailed views. This is a broad statement to which there are
+exceptions, to be noted presently.
+
+Drawing-office work is divisible into four principal groups. First,
+there is the actual designing, by far the most difficult work, which is
+confined to relatively few well-paid men. The qualifications necessary
+for it are a good scientific, mathematical and engineering training, and
+a specialized experience gathered in the particular class of mechanism
+to which the designing relates. Second, there is the work of the rank
+and file who take instructions from the chiefs, and elaborate the
+smaller details and complete the drawings. Third, there are the tracers,
+either youths or girls, who copy drawings on tracing paper without
+necessarily understanding them. Fourth, there is a printing department
+in which phototypes are produced on sensitized paper from tracings.
+
+The character of the drawings used includes the general drawings, or
+those which show a mechanism complete; and the detailed drawings, which
+illustrate portions isolated from their connexions and relationships.
+The first are retained in the office for reference, and copies are only
+sent out to the men who have to assemble or erect and complete
+mechanisms. The second are distributed to the several shops and
+departments where sectional portions are being prepared, as pattern
+shop, smithy, turnery, machine shop, &c. General drawings are, as a
+rule, drawn to a small scale, ranging say from 1/8 in. to 1 in. to the
+foot; but details are either to actual size, or to a large scale, as
+from 1½ in. to the foot or 3 in. or 6 in. to the foot.
+
+A large number of minutiae are omitted from general drawings, but in the
+detailed ones that are sent into the shops nothing is apparently too
+trivial for insertion. In this respect, however, there is much
+difference observable in the practice of different firms, and in the
+best practice of the present compared with that of former years. In the
+detailed drawings issued by many firms now, every tiny element and
+section is not only drawn to actual size, but also fully dimensioned,
+and the material to be used is specified in every case. This practice
+largely adds to the work of the drawing-office staff, but it pays.
+
+The present tendency therefore is to throw more responsibility than of
+old on the drawing-office staff, in harmony with the tendency towards
+greater centralization of authority. Much of detail that was formerly
+left to the decision of foremen and skilled hands is now determined by
+the drawing-office staff. Heterogeneity in details is thus avoided, and
+the drawings reflect accurately and fully the past as well as the
+present practice of the firm. To so great an extent is this the case
+that the preparation of the tools, appliances, templets, jigs and
+fixtures used in the shops is often now not permitted to be undertaken
+until proper drawings have been prepared for them, though formerly the
+foreman's own hand sketches generally sufficed. The practice of turret
+work has been contributory to this result. In many establishments now
+the designing of shop tools and fixtures is done in a department of the
+office specially set apart for that kind of work.
+
+The growing specialization of the engineer's work is reflected in the
+drawing office. Specialists are sought after, and receive the highest
+rates of pay. A man is required to be an expert in some one branch, as
+electric cranes or hydraulic machines, steel works plant, lathes, or
+heavy or light machine tools. The days are past in which all-round men
+were in request. In those firms which manufacture a large range of
+machinery, the drawing-office staff is separated into departments, each
+under its own chief, and there is seldom any transference of men from
+one to another.
+
+Although in the majority of instances designs and drawings are completed
+before the manufacture is undertaken, exceptions to this rule occur in
+connexion with the work of standardizing machines and motors, for
+repetitive and interchangeable manufacture on a large scale. Here it is
+so essential to secure the most minute economies in manufacture that the
+first articles made are of a more or less experimental character. Only
+after no further improvement seems for the time being possible are the
+drawings made or completed for standard use and reference. In some
+modern shops even standardized drawings are scarcely used, but their
+place is taken by the templets, jigs and fixtures which are employed by
+the workmen as their sole guides in machining and assembling parts. By
+the employment of these aids locations and dimensions are embodied and
+fixed absolutely for any number of similar parts; reference to drawings
+thus becomes unnecessary, and they therefore fall into disuse.
+
+The mechanical work of the drawing office is confined strictly to
+orthographic projections and sections of objects. Perspective views are
+of no value, though occasionally an object is sketched roughly in
+perspective as an aid to the rapid grasp of an idea. Drawings involve
+plans, elevations, and sectional views, in vertical and angular
+relations.
+
+There are a good many conventionalities adopted which have no
+correspondences in fact, with the object of saving the draughtsman's
+time; or else, as in the case of superposition of plans and sections, to
+show in one view what would otherwise require two drawings. Among the
+convenient conventionalities are the indications of toothed wheels by
+their pitch lines only, of screws by parallel lines and by diagonal
+shade lines; and of rivets, bolts and studs by their centres only. The
+adoption of this practice never leads to error.
+
+In the preliminary preparation of drawings in pencil no distinction is
+made between full or unbroken lines, and dotted or centre lines, and the
+actual outlines of the objects. These differences are made when the
+inking-in is being done. Indian or Chinese ink is used, because it does
+not run when colours are applied. There are conventional colours used to
+indicate different materials. But colouring is not adopted so much as
+formerly, because of the practice of making sun prints instead of the
+more expensive tracings for the multiplication of drawings. When
+tracings are coloured the colour is applied on the back instead of on
+the side where the ink lines are drawn.
+
+The economical importance of the printing department of the drawing
+office cannot be overestimated. Before its introduction drawings could
+only be reproduced by laborious tracing on paper or cloth, the first
+being flimsy, the second especially liable to absorb grease from the
+hands of the workmen. By the sun copying processes (see SUN COPYING) any
+number of prints can be taken from a single tracing. But even the fickle
+sun is being displaced by electricity, so that prints can be made by
+night as well as day, on cloudy days as well as on bright ones. Twenty
+minutes of bright sunshine is required for a print, but the electric
+light produces the same result within five minutes. Prints are blue,
+white or brown. The advantage of white is that they can be coloured. But
+the majority are blue (white lines on blue ground). All can be had on
+stout, thin or medium paper.
+
+An innovation in drawing-office equipment is that of vertical boards,
+displacing horizontal or sloping ones. They have the advantage that the
+draughtsman is able to avoid a bending posture at his work. The
+objection on the ground that the tee-square must be held up constantly
+with one hand is overcome by supporting and balancing it with cords and
+weights.     (J. G. H.)
+
+
+
+
+DRAWING AND QUARTERING, part of the penalty anciently ordained in
+England for treason. Until 1870 the full punishment for the crime was
+that the culprit be dragged on a hurdle to the place of execution; that
+he be hanged by the neck but not till he was dead; that he should be
+disembowelled or drawn and his entrails burned before his eyes; that his
+head be cut off and his body divided into four parts or quartered. This
+brutal penalty was first inflicted in 1284 on the Welsh prince David,
+and on Sir William Wallace a few years later. In Richard III.'s reign
+one Collingbourne, for writing the famous couplet "The Cat, the Rat and
+Lovel the Dog, Rule all England under the Hog," was executed on Tower
+Hill. Stow says, "After having been hanged, he was cut down immediately
+and his entrails were then extracted and thrown into the fire, and all
+this was so speedily done that when the executioners pulled out his
+heart he spoke and said 'Jesus, Jesus.'" Edward Marcus Despard and his
+six accomplices were in 1803 hanged, drawn and quartered for conspiring
+to assassinate George III. The sentence was last passed (though not
+carried out) upon the Fenians Burke and O'Brien in 1867. There is a
+tradition that Harrison the regicide, after being disembowelled, rose
+and boxed the ears of the executioner.
+
+
+
+
+DRAWING-ROOM (a shortened form of "with-drawing room," the longer form
+being usual in the 16th and 17th centuries), the English name generally
+employed for a room used in a dwelling-house for the reception of
+company. It originated in the setting apart of such a room, as the more
+private and exclusive preserve of the ladies of the household, to which
+they withdrew from the dining-room. The term "drawing-room" is also used
+in a special sense of the formal receptions or "courts" held by the
+British sovereign or his representative, at which ladies are presented,
+as distinguished from a "levee," at which men are presented.
+
+
+
+
+DRAYTON, MICHAEL (1563-1631), English poet, was born at Hartshill, near
+Atherstone, in Warwickshire in 1563. Even in childhood it was his great
+ambition to excel in writing verses. At the age of ten he was sent as
+page into some great family, and a little later he is supposed to have
+studied for some time at Oxford. Sir Henry Goodere of Powlesworth became
+his patron, and introduced him to the countess of Bedford, and for
+several years he was esquire to Sir Walter Aston. How the early part of
+his life was spent, however, we possess no means of ascertaining. It has
+been surmised that he served in the army abroad. In 1590 he seems to
+have come up to London, and to have settled there.
+
+In 1591 he produced his first book, _The Harmony of the Church_, a
+volume of spiritual poems, dedicated to Lady Devereux. The best piece in
+this is a version of the Song of Solomon, executed with considerable
+richness of expression. A singular and now incomprehensible fate befell
+the book; with the exception of forty copies, seized by the archbishop
+of Canterbury, the whole edition was destroyed by public order. It is
+probable that he had come up to town laden with poetic writings, for he
+published a vast amount within the next few years. In 1593 appeared
+_Idea: The Shepherd's Garland_, a collection of nine pastorals, in which
+he celebrated his own love-sorrows under the poetic name of Rowland. The
+circumstances of this passion appear more distinctly in the cycle of 64
+sonnets, published in 1594, under the title of _Idea's Mirror_, by which
+we learn that the lady lived by the river Ankor in Warwickshire. It
+appears that he failed to win his "Idea," and lived and died a bachelor.
+In 1593 appeared the first of Drayton's historical poems, _The Legend of
+Piers Gaveston_, and the next year saw the publication of _Matilda_, an
+epical poem in rhyme royal. It was about this time, too, that he brought
+out _Endimion and Phoebe_, a volume which he never republished, but
+which contains some interesting autobiographical matter, and
+acknowledgments of literary help from Lodge, if not from Spenser and
+Daniel also. In his _Fig for Momus_, Lodge has reciprocated these
+friendly courtesies. In 1596 Drayton published his long and important
+poem of _Mortimerades_, which deals with the Wars of the Roses, and is a
+very serious production in _ottava rima_. He afterwards enlarged and
+modified this poem, and republished it in 1603 under the title of _The
+Barons' Wars_. In 1596 also appeared another historical poem, _The
+Legend of Robert, Duke of Normandy_, with which _Piers Gaveston_ was
+reprinted. In 1597 appeared _England's Heroical Epistles_, a series of
+historical studies, in imitation of those of Ovid. These last poems,
+written in the heroic couplet, contain some of the finest passages in
+Drayton's writings.
+
+With the year 1597 the first half of the poet's literary life closes. He
+had become famous by this rapid production of volumes, and he rested on
+his oars. It would seem that he was much favoured at the court of
+Elizabeth, and he hoped that it would be the same with her successor.
+But when, in 1603, he addressed a poem of compliment to James I., on his
+accession, it was ridiculed, and his services rudely rejected. His
+bitterness of spirit found expression in a satire, _The Owl_, which he
+printed in 1604, although he had no talent in this kind of composition.
+Not much more entertaining was his scriptural narrative of _Moses in a
+Map of his Miracles_, a sort of epic in heroics printed the same year.
+In 1605 Drayton reprinted his most important works, that is to say, his
+historical poems and the _Idea_, in a single volume which ran through
+eight editions during his lifetime. He also collected his smaller
+pieces, hitherto unedited, in a volume undated, but probably published
+in 1605, under the title of _Poems Lyric and Pastoral_; these consisted
+of odes, eclogues, and a fantastic satire called _The Man in the Moon_.
+Some of the odes are extremely spirited. In this volume he printed for
+the first time the famous _Ballad of Agincourt_.
+
+He had adopted as early as 1598 the extraordinary resolution of
+celebrating all the points of topographical or antiquarian interest in
+the island of Great Britain, and on this laborious work he was engaged
+for many years. At last, in 1613, the first part of this vast work was
+published under the title of _Poly-Olbion_, eighteen books being
+produced, to which the learned Selden supplied notes. The success of
+this great work, which has since become so famous, was very small at
+first, and not until 1622 did Drayton succeed in finding a publisher
+willing to undertake the risk of bringing out twelve more books in a
+second part. This completed the survey of England, and the poet, who had
+hoped "to crown Scotland with flowers," and arrive at last at the
+Orcades, never crossed the Tweed. In 1627 he published another of his
+miscellaneous volumes, and this contains some of his most characteristic
+and exquisite writing. It consists of the following pieces: _The Battle
+of Agincourt_, an historical poem in _ottava rima_ (not to be confused
+with his ballad on the same subject), and _The Miseries of Queen
+Margaret_, written in the same verse and manner; _Nimphidia, the Court
+of Faery_, a most joyous and graceful little epic of fairyland; _The
+Quest of Cinthia_ and _The Shepherd's Sirena_, two lyrical pastorals;
+and finally _The Moon Calf_, a sort of satire. Of these _Nimphidia_ is
+perhaps the best thing Drayton ever wrote, except his famous ballad on
+the battle of Agincourt; it is quite unique of its kind and full of rare
+fantastic fancy.
+
+The last of Drayton's voluminous publications was _The Muses' Elizium_
+in 1630. He died in London on the 23rd of December 1631, was buried in
+Westminster Abbey, and had a monument placed over him by the countess of
+Dorset, with memorial lines attributed to Ben Jonson. Of the particulars
+of Drayton's life we know almost nothing but what he himself tells us;
+he enjoyed the friendship of some of the best men of the age. He
+corresponded familiarly with Drummond; Ben Jonson, William Browne,
+George Wither and others were among his friends. There is a tradition
+that he was a friend of Shakespeare, supported by a statement of John
+Ward, once vicar of Stratford-on-Avon, that "Shakespear, Drayton and Ben
+Jonson had a merry meeting, and it seems, drank too hard, for Shakespear
+died of a feavour there contracted." In one of his poems, an "elegy" or
+epistle to Mr Henry Reynolds, he has left some valuable criticisms on
+poets whom he had known. He was even engaged in the labour of the
+dramatists; at least he had a share, with Munday, Chettle and Wilson, in
+writing _Sir John Oldcastle_, which was printed in 1600. That he was a
+restless and discontented, as well as a worthy, man may be gathered from
+his own admissions.
+
+The works of Drayton are bulky, and, in spite of the high place that he
+holds in critical esteem, it cannot be pretended that he is much read.
+For this his ponderous style is much to blame. The _Poly-Olbion_, the
+most famous but far from the most successful of his writings, is tedious
+and barren in the extreme. It was, he tells us, a "Herculean toil" to
+him to compose it, and we are conscious of the effort. The metre in
+which it is composed, a couplet of alexandrines, like the French
+classical measure, is wholly unsuited to the English language, and
+becomes excessively wearisome to the reader, who forgets the learning
+and ingenuity of the poet in labouring through the harsh and overgrown
+lines. His historical poems, which he was constantly rewriting and
+improving, are much more interesting, and often rise to a true poetic
+eloquence. His pastorals are brilliant, but overladen with colour and
+sweet to insipidity. He is, with the one magnificent exception of "Since
+there's no help, come let us kiss and part," which was first printed in
+1619, an indifferent sonneteer. The poet with whom it is most natural to
+compare him is Daniel; he is more rough and vigorous, more varied and
+more daring than the latter, but Daniel surpasses him in grace, delicacy
+and judgment. In their elegies and epistles, however, the two writers
+frequently resemble each other. Drayton, however, approaches the very
+first poets of the Elizabethan era in his charming _Nimphidia_, a poem
+which inspired Herrick with his sweet fairy fancies and stands alone of
+its kind in English literature; while some of his odes and lyrics are
+inspired by noble feeling and virile imagination.
+
+  In 1748 a folio edition of Drayton's complete works was published
+  under the editorial supervision of William Oldys, and again in 1753
+  there appeared an issue in four volumes. But these were very
+  unintelligently and inaccurately prepared. A complete edition of
+  Drayton's works with variant readings was projected by Richard Hooper
+  in 1876, but was never carried to a conclusion; a volume of
+  selections, edited by A. H. Bullen, appeared in 1883. See especially
+  Oliver Elton, _Michael Drayton_ (1906). (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+DREAM (from a root _dreug_, connected with Germ. _trügen_, to deceive),
+the state of consciousness during sleep; it may also be defined as a
+hallucination or illusion peculiarly associated with the condition of
+sleep, but not necessarily confined to that state. In sleep the
+withdrawal of the mind from the external world is more complete and the
+objectivity of the dream images is usually unquestioned, whereas in the
+waking state the hallucination is usually recognized as such; we may,
+however, be conscious that we are dreaming, and thus in a measure be
+aware of the hallucinatory character of our percepts. The physiological
+nature of sleep (q.v.; see also MUSCLE AND NERVE) and of dreaming is
+obscure. As a rule the control over the voluntary muscles in dreams is
+slight; the sleep-walker is the exception and not the rule, and the
+motor activity represented in the dream is seldom realized in practice,
+largely, no doubt, because we are ignorant, under these circumstances,
+of the spatial relations of our bodies. Among the psychological problems
+raised by dreams are the condition of attention, which is variously
+regarded as altogether absent or as fixed, the extent of mental control,
+and the relation of ideas and motor impulses. There is present in all
+dreams a certain amount of dissociation of consciousness, or of
+obstructed association, which may manifest itself in the preliminary
+stage of drowsiness by such phenomena as the apparent transformation or
+inversion of the words of a book. We may distinguish two types of
+dreams, (a) representative or centrally initiated, (b) presentative or
+due to the stimulation of the end organs of sense. In both cases, the
+dream having once been initiated, we are concerned with a process of
+reasoning, i.e. the combination of ideas suggested by resemblances or
+other associative elements. The false reasoning of dreams is due in the
+first place to the absence, to a large extent, of the memory elements on
+which our ordinary reasoning depends, and, secondly, to the absence of
+sensory elements.
+
+_Objectivity of Dreams._--In waking life we distinguish ideas or mental
+images from real objects by the fact that we are able under normal
+circumstances to dismiss the former at will. In sleep, on the other
+hand, we have, in the first place, no real objects with which to compare
+the images, which therefore take on a character of reality comparable to
+the hallucination of waking life; moreover, powers of visualization and
+other faculties are enhanced in sleep, so that the strength of dream
+images considerably exceeds those of the mental images of the ordinary
+man; changes in powers of attention, volition and memory help to
+increase the hallucinatory force of the dream. In the second place, the
+ideas of our dreams are presented in the form of images, which we are
+unable to dismiss; we therefore mistake them for realities, exactly as
+the sufferer from delirium tremens in waking life is apt to regard his
+phantoms as real.
+
+_Relations of Dreaming and Sleep._--It has been maintained by Hamilton
+and others (see below, Modern Views) that dreams invariably accompany
+sleep, and that we always find ourselves dreaming when we are awakened.
+But even if it were true that dreams were invariably experienced at the
+moment of waking, this would not by any means establish the invariable
+concomitance of dreams and sleep of all sorts; at most it would show
+that imperfect sleep is a condition of dreaming; in the same way, dreams
+before wakening, known to have taken place either from the recollection
+of the dreamer or from the observation of another person, may clearly be
+due to imperfect wakening, followed by a deepening of sleep. It is,
+however, by no means true that awakening from sleep is invariably
+accompanied by a dream; in considering the question it must be
+recollected that it is complicated by the common experience of very
+rapid forgetfulness of even a vivid and complicated dream, only the fact
+of having dreamt remaining in the memory; it is clear that amnesia may
+go so far that even the fact of dreaming may be forgotten. On the whole,
+however, there appear to be no good grounds for the assertion that we
+always dream when we are asleep. On the other hand, there is no proof
+that partial awakening is a necessary condition of dreaming.
+
+_Representative Dreams._--Centrally initiated dreams may be due to a
+kind of automatic excitation of the cerebral regions, especially in the
+case of those clearly arising from the occupations or sensations of the
+day or the hours immediately preceding the dream. To the same cause we
+may attribute the recalling of images apparently long since forgotten.
+Some of these revivals of memory may be due to the fact that links of
+association which are insufficient to restore an idea to consciousness
+in the waking state may suffice to do so in sleep. Just as a good
+visualizer in his waking moments may call up an object never clearly
+seen and yet distinguish the parts, so in sleep, as L. F. A. Maury
+(1817-1892) and others have shown, an image may be more distinct in a
+dream than it was when originally presented (see also below, Memory).
+
+_Presentative Dreams._--The dreams due to real sensations, more or less
+metamorphosed, may arise (a) from the states of the internal organs, (b)
+from muscular states, (c) from subjective sensations due to the
+circulation, &c., or (d) from the ordinary cause of the action of
+external stimuli on the organs of sense.
+
+(a) The state of the stomach, heart, &c., has long been recognized as
+important in the causation of dreams (see below, Classical Views). The
+common sensation of flying seems to be due in many cases to the
+disturbance of these organs setting up sensations resembling those felt
+in rapidly ascending or descending, as in a swing or a lift. Indigestion
+is a frequent cause of nightmare--the term given to oppressive and
+horrible dreams--and bodily discomfort is sometimes translated into the
+moral region, giving rise to the dream that a murder has been committed.
+(b) Dreams of flying, &c., have also been attributed to the condition of
+the muscles during sleep; W. Wundt remarks that the movements of the
+body, such as breathing, extensions of the limbs and so on, must give
+rise to dream fancies; the awkward position of the limbs may also excite
+images. (c) Especially important, probably, for the dreams of the early
+part of the night are the retinal conditions to which are due the
+_illusions hypnagogiques_ of the preliminary drowsy stage; but probably
+Ladd goes too far in maintaining that entoptic stimuli, either intra- or
+extra-organic in origin, condition all dreams. _Illusions
+hypnagogiques_, termed popularly "faces in the dark," of which Maury has
+given a full account, are the not uncommon sensations experienced,
+usually visual and seen with both open and closed eyes, in the interval
+between retiring to rest and actually falling asleep; they are
+comparable to the crystal-gazing visions of waking moments; though
+mainly visual they may also affect other senses. Besides the eye the ear
+may supply material for dreams, when the circulation of the blood
+suggests rushing waters or similar ideas. (d) It is a matter of common
+observation that the temperature of the surface of the body determines
+in many cases the character of the dreams, the real circumstances, as
+might be expected from the general character of the dream state, being
+exaggerated. In the same way the pressure of bed-clothes, obstruction of
+the supply of air, &c., may serve as the starting-point of dreams. The
+common dream of being unclothed may perhaps be due to this cause, the
+sensations associated with clothing being absent or so far modified as
+to be unrecognizable. In the same way the absence of foot-gear may
+account for some dreams of flying. It is possible to test the influence
+of external stimuli by direct experiment; Maury made a number of trials
+with the aid of an assistant.
+
+_Rapidity of Dreams._--It has often been asserted that we dream with
+extreme rapidity; but this statement is by no means borne out by
+experiment. In a trial recorded by J. Clavière the beginning of the
+dream was accurately fixed by the sounding of an alarm clock, which
+rang, then was silent for 22 seconds, and then began to ring
+continuously; the dream scene was in a theatre, and he found by actual
+trial that the time required in ordinary life for the performance of the
+scenes during the interval of silence was about the same as in ordinary
+life. Spontaneous dreams seem to show a different state of things; it
+must be remembered that (1) dreams are commonly a succession of images,
+the number of which cannot be legitimately compared with the number of
+extra-organic stimuli which would correspond to them in ordinary life;
+the real comparison is with mental images; and (2) the rapidity of
+association varies enormously in ordinary waking life. No proof,
+therefore, that some dreams are slow can show that this mentation in
+others is not extremely rapid. The most commonly quoted case is one of
+Maury's; a bed-pole fell on his neck, and (so it is stated) he dreamt
+of the French Revolution, the scenes culminating in the fall of the
+guillotine on his neck; this has been held to show that (1) dreams are
+extremely rapid; and (2) we construct a dream story leading up to the
+external stimulus which is assumed to have originated the dream. But
+Maury's dream was not recorded till many years after it had occurred;
+there is nothing to show that the dream, in this as in other similar
+cases, was not in progress when the bed-pole fell, which thus by mere
+coincidence would have intervened at the psychological moment; Maury's
+memory on waking may have been to some extent hallucinatory. But there
+are records of waking states, not necessarily abnormal, in which
+time-perception is disturbed and brief incidents seem interminably long;
+on the other hand, it appears from the experiences of persons recovered
+from drowning that there is great rapidity of ideation before the
+extinction of consciousness; the same rapidity of thought has been
+observed in a fall from a bicycle.
+
+_Reason in Dreams._--Studies of dreams of normal individuals based on
+large collections of instances are singularly few in number; such as
+there are indicate great variations in the source of dream thoughts and
+images, in the coherence of the dream, and in the powers of memory. In
+ordinary life attention dominates the images presented; in dreams
+heterogeneous and disconnected elements are often combined; a
+resemblance need not even have been consciously recognized for the mind
+to combine two impressions in a dream; for example, an aching tooth may
+(according to the dream) be extracted, and found to resemble rocks on
+the sea-shore, which had not struck the waking mind as in any way like
+teeth. Incongruence and incoherence are not, however, a necessary
+characteristic of dreams, and individuals are found whose dream ideas
+and scenes show a power of reasoning and orderliness equal to that of a
+scene imagined or experienced in ordinary life. In some cases the
+reasoning power may attain a higher level than that of the ordinary
+conscious life. In a well-authenticated case Professor Hilprecht was
+able in a dream to solve a difficulty connected with two Babylonian
+inscriptions, which had not previously been recognized as complementary
+to each other; a point of peculiar interest is the dramatic form in
+which the information came to him--an old Babylonian priest appeared in
+his dream and gave him the clue to the problem (see also below,
+Personality).
+
+_Memory in Dreams._--Although prima facie the dream memory is
+fragmentary and far less complete than the waking memory, it is by no
+means uncommon to find a revival in sleep of early, apparently quite
+forgotten, experiences: more striking is the recollection in dreams of
+matters never supraliminally (see SUBLIMINAL SELF) apperceived at all.
+
+The relation between the memory in dreams and in the hypnotic trance is
+curious: suggestions given in the trance may be accepted and then
+forgotten or never remembered in ordinary life; this does not prevent
+them from reappearing occasionally in dreams; conversely dreams
+forgotten in ordinary life may be remembered in the hypnotic trance.
+These dream memories of other states of consciousness suggest that
+dreams are sometimes the product of a deeper stratum of the personality
+than comes into play in ordinary waking life. It must be remembered in
+this connexion that we judge of our dream consciousness by our waking
+recollections, not directly, and our recollection of our dreams is
+extraordinarily fragmentary; we do not know how far our dream memory
+really extends. Connected with memory of other states is the question of
+memory in dreams of previous dream states; occasionally a separate chain
+of memory, analogous to a secondary personality, seems to be formed. We
+may be also conscious that we have been dreaming, and subsequently,
+without intermediate waking, relate as a dream the dream previously
+experienced. In spite of the irrationality of dreams in general, it by
+no means follows that the earlier and later portions of a dream do not
+cohere; we may interpolate an episode and again take up the first
+motive, exactly as happens in real life. The strength of the dream
+memory is shown by the recurrence of images in dreams; a picture, the
+page of a book, or other image may be reproduced before our eyes several
+times in the course of a dream without the slightest alteration,
+although the waking consciousness would be quite incapable of such a
+feat of visualizing. In this connexion may be mentioned the phenomenon
+of redreaming; the same dream may recur either on the same or on
+different nights; this seems to be in many cases pathological or due to
+drugs, but may also occur under normal conditions.
+
+_Personality._--As a rule the personality of the dreamer is unchanged;
+but it also happens that the confusion of identity observed with regard
+to other objects embraces the dreamer himself; he imagines himself to be
+some one else; he is alternately actor and observer; he may see himself
+playing a part or may divest himself of his body and wander
+incorporeally. Ordinary dreams, however, do not go beyond a splitting of
+personality; we hold conversations, and are intensely surprised at the
+utterances of a dream figure, which, however, is merely an _alter ego_.
+As in the case of Hilprecht (see above) the information given by another
+part of the personality may not only appear but actually be novel.
+
+_Supernormal Dreams._--In addition to dreams in which there is a revival
+of memory or a rise into consciousness of facts previously only
+subliminally cognized, a certain number of dreams are on record in which
+telepathy (q.v.) seems to play a part; much of the evidence is, however,
+discounted by the possibility of hallucinatory memory. Another class of
+dreams (prodromic) is that in which the abnormal bodily states of the
+dreamer are brought to his knowledge in sleep, sometimes in a symbolical
+form; thus a dream of battle or sanguinary conflict may presage a
+haemorrhage. The increased power of suggestion which is the normal
+accompaniment of the hypnotic trance may make its appearance in dreams,
+and exercise either a curative influence or act capriciously in
+producing hysteria and the tropic changes known as "stigmata." We may
+meet with various forms of hyperaesthesia in dreams; quite apart from
+the recovery of sight by those who have lost it wholly or in part (see
+below, Dreams of the Blind), we find that the powers of the senses may
+undergo an intensification, and, e.g., the power of appreciating music
+be enormously enhanced in persons usually indifferent to it. Mention
+must also be made of the experience of R. L. Stevenson, who tells in
+_Across the Plains_ how by self-suggestion he was able to secure from
+his dreams the motives of some of his best romances.
+
+_Voluntary Action in Dreams._--Connected with dreams voluntarily
+influenced is the question of how far dreams once initiated are
+modifiable at the will of the dreamer. Some few observers, like F. W. H.
+Myers and Dr F. van Eeden, record that they can at longer or shorter
+intervals control their actions in their dreams, though usually to a
+less extent than their imagined actions in waking life. Dr van Eeden,
+for example, tells us that he has what he calls a "clear dream" once a
+month and is able to predetermine what he will do when he becomes aware
+that he is dreaming.
+
+_Dreams of Children._--Opinions differ widely as to the age at which
+children begin to dream; G. Compayré maintains that dreaming has been
+observed in the fourth month, but reflex action is always a possible
+explanation of the observed facts. S. de Sanctis found that in boys of
+eleven only one out of eight said that he dreamt seldom, as against four
+out of seven at the age of six; but we cannot exclude the possibility
+that dreams were frequent but forgotten. If correct, the observation
+suggests that dreams appear comparatively late. Individual cases of
+dreaming, or possibly of waking hallucination, are known as early as the
+age of two and a half years; according to de Sanctis dreams occur before
+the fifth year, but are seldom remembered; as a rule the conscious dream
+age begins with the fourth year; speech or movement, however, in earlier
+years, though they may be attributed to reflex action, are more probably
+due to dreams.
+
+_Dreams of the Old._--In normal individuals above the age of sixty-five
+de Sanctis found dreams were rare; atmospheric influences seem to be
+important elements in causing them; memory of them is weak; they are
+emotionally poor, and deal with long past scenes.
+
+_Dreams of Adults._--Any attempt to record or influence our dreams may
+be complicated by (a) direct suggestion, leading to the production of
+the phenomena for which we are looking, and (b) indirect suggestion
+leading to the more lively recollection of dreams in general and of
+certain dreams in particular. Consequently it cannot be assumed that the
+facts thus ascertained represent the normal conditions. According to F.
+Heerwagen's statistics women sleep more lightly and dream more than men;
+the frequency of dreams is proportional to their vividness; women who
+dream sleep longer than those who do not; dreams tend to become less
+frequent with advancing age. The total number of remembered dreams
+varies considerably with different observers, some attaining an average
+of ten per night. The senses mainly active in dreams are, according to
+one set of experiments, vision in 60%, hearing in 5%, taste in 3%, and
+smell in 1.5%, where the dreamers had looked at coloured papers before
+falling asleep; when taste or smell had been stimulated, the visual
+dreams fell to about 50%, and the sense stimulated was active twice as
+often as it would otherwise be; dreams in which motion was a prominent
+feature were 10% of the former class, 14% and 18% of the two latter.
+Experiments by J. Mourly Vold show even more distinctly the influence of
+suggestion both as to the form, visual or otherwise, and the content
+(colours and forms of objects) of dreams. According to most observers
+dreams are most vivid and frequent between the ages of 20 and 25, but H.
+Maudsley puts the maximum between 30 and 35. De Sanctis got replies from
+165 men and 55 women: the proportion between the sexes closely agrees
+with the results attained by Heerwagen and M. W. Calkins; 13% of men and
+33% of women said they always dreamt, 27% and 45% often, 50% and 13%
+rarely, and the remainder (precisely the same percentage for men and
+women--9.09) either did not dream or did not remember that they dreamt.
+Nearly twice as many women as men had vivid dreams; in the matter of
+complication of the dream experiences the sexes are about equal; daily
+life supplies more material in the dreams of men; nearly twice as many
+women as men remember their dreams clearly, a fact which hangs together
+to some extent with the vividness of the dreams, though it by no means
+follows that a vivid dream is well remembered. There are great
+variations in the emotional character of dreams; some observers report
+twice as many unpleasant dreams as the reverse; in other cases the
+emotions seem to be absent; others again have none but pleasing dreams.
+Individual experience also varies very largely as to the time when most
+dreams are experienced; in some cases the great majority are subsequent
+to 6.30 A.M.; others find that quite half occur before 4.0 A.M.
+
+_Dreams of the Neuropathic, Insane, Idiots, &c._--Much attention has
+been given to the dreams of hysterical subjects. It appears that their
+dreams are specially liable to exercise an influence over their waking
+life, perhaps because they do not distinguish them, any more than their
+waking hallucinations, from reality. P. Janet maintains that the cause
+of hysteria may be sought in a dream. The dreams of the hysterical have
+a tendency to recur. Epileptic subjects dream less than the hysterical,
+and their dreams are seldom of a terrifying nature; certain dreams seem
+to take the place of an epileptic attack. Dreaming seems to be rare in
+idiots. De Sanctis divides paranoiacs into three classes: (a) those with
+systematized delusions, (b) those with frequent hallucinations, and (c)
+degenerates;--the dreams of the first class resemble their delusions;
+the second class is distinguished by the complexity of its dreams; the
+third by their vividness, by their delusions of megalomania, and by
+their influence on daily life. Alcoholic subjects have vivid and
+terrifying dreams, characterized by the frequent appearance of animals
+in them, and delirium tremens may originate during sleep.
+
+_Dreams of the Blind, Deaf, &c._--As regards visual dreams the blind
+fall into three classes--(1) those who are blind from birth or become
+blind before the age of five; (2) those who become blind at the
+"critical age" from five to seven; (3) those who become blind after the
+age of seven. The dreams of the first class are non-visual; but in the
+dreams of Helen Keller there are traces of a visual content; the second
+class sometimes has visual dreams; the third class does not differ from
+normal persons, though visual dreams may fade away after many years of
+blindness. In the case of the partially blind the clearness of vision in
+a dream exceeds that of normal life when the partial loss of sight
+occurred in the sixth or later years. The education of Helen Keller is
+interesting from another point of view; after losing the senses of sight
+and hearing in infancy she began her education at seven years and was
+able to articulate at eleven; it is recorded that she "talked" in her
+dreams soon after. This accords with the experience of normal
+individuals who acquire a foreign language. Her extraordinary memory
+enables her to recall faintly some traces of the sunlit period of her
+life, but they hardly affect her dreams, so far as can be judged. The
+dreams of the blind, according to the records of F. Hitschmann, present
+some peculiarities; animals as well as man speak; toothache and bodily
+pains are perceived as such; impersonal dreaming, taking the form of a
+drama or reading aloud, is found; and he had a strong tendency to
+reproduce or create verse.
+
+_Dreams of Animals._--We are naturally reduced to inference in dealing
+with animals as with very young children; but various observations seem
+to show that dreams are common in older dogs, especially after hunting
+expeditions; in young dogs sleep seems to be quieter; dogs accustomed to
+the chase seem to dream more than other kinds.
+
+_Dreams among the Non-European Peoples._--In the lower stages of culture
+the dream is regarded as no less real and its personages as no less
+objective than those of the ordinary waking life; this is due in the
+main to the habit of mind of such peoples (see ANIMISM), but possibly in
+some measure also to the occurrence of veridical dreams (see TELEPATHY).
+In either case the savage explanation is animistic, and animism is
+commonly assumed to have been developed very largely as a result of
+theorising dreams. Two explanations of a dream are found among the lower
+races: (1) that the soul of the dreamer goes out, and visits his
+friends, living or dead, his old haunts or unfamiliar scenes and so on;
+or (2) that the souls of the dead and others come to visit him, either
+of their own motion or at divine command. In either of the latter cases
+or at a higher stage of culture when the dream is regarded as god-sent,
+though no longer explained in terms of animism, it is often regarded as
+oracular (see ORACLE), the explanation being sometimes symbolical,
+sometimes simple.
+
+There are two classes of dreams which have a special importance in the
+lower cultures: (1) the dream or vision of the initiation fast; and (2)
+the dream caused by the process known as incubation, which is often
+analogous to the initiation fast. In many parts of North America the
+individual Indian acquires a tutelary spirit, known as _manito_ or
+_nagual_, by his initiation dream or vision; the idea being perhaps that
+the spirit by the act of appearing shows its subjection to the will of
+the man. Similarly, the magician acquires his familiar in North America,
+Australia and elsewhere by dreaming of an animal. Incubation consists in
+retiring to sleep in a temple, sometimes on the top of a mountain or
+other unusual spot, in order to obtain a revelation through a dream.
+Fasting, continence and other observances are frequently prescribed as
+preliminaries. Certain classes of dreams have, especially in the middle
+ages, been attributed to the influence of evil spirits (see DEMONOLOGY).
+
+_Classical and Medieval Views of Dreams._--Side by side with the
+prevalent animistic view of dreams we find in antiquity and among the
+semi-civilized attempts at philosophical or physiological explanations
+of dreams. Democritus, from whom the Epicureans derived their theory,
+held the cause of them to be the simulacra or phantasms of corporeal
+objects which are constantly floating about the atmosphere and attack
+the soul in sleep--a view hardly distinguishable from animism.
+Aristotle, however, refers them to the impressions left by objects seen
+with the eyes of the body; he further remarks on the exaggeration of
+slight stimuli when they are incorporated into a dream; a small sound
+becomes a noise like thunder. Plato, too, connects dreaming with the
+normal waking operations of the mind; Pliny, on the other hand, admits
+this only for dreams which take place after meals, the remainder being
+supernatural. Cicero, however, takes the view that they are simply
+natural occurrences no more and no less than the mental operations and
+sensations of the waking state. The pathological side of dreams
+attracted the notice of physicians. Hippocrates was disposed to admit
+that some dreams might be divine, but held that others were premonitory
+of diseased states of the body. Galen took the same view in some of his
+speculations.
+
+Symbolical interpretations are combined with pathological no less than
+animistic interpretations of dreams; they are also extremely common
+among the lower classes in Europe at the present day, but in this case
+no consistent explanation of their importance for the divination of
+future events is usually discoverable. Among the Greeks Plato in the
+_Timaeus_ (ch. xlvi, xlvii) explains dreams as prophetic visions
+received by the lower appetitive soul through the liver; their
+interpretation requires intelligence. The Stoics seem to have held that
+dreams may be a divine revelation and more than one volume on the
+interpretation of dreams has come down to us, the most important being
+perhaps the [Greek: Oneirokritika] of Daldianus Artemidorus. We find
+parallels to this in a Mussulman work by Gabdorrachaman, translated by
+Pierre Vattier under the name of _Onirocrite mussulman_, and in the
+numerous books on the interpretation of dreams which circulate at the
+present day. In Siam dream books are found (_Intern. Archiv für Anthr._
+viii 150); one of the functions of the Australian medicine man is to
+decide how a dream is to be interpreted.
+
+_Modern Views._--The doctrine of Descartes that existence depended upon
+thought naturally led his followers to maintain that the mind is always
+thinking and consequently that dreaming is continuous. Locke replied to
+this that men are not always conscious of dreaming, and it is hard to be
+conceived that the soul of the sleeping man should this moment be
+thinking, while the soul of the waking man cannot recollect in the next
+moment a jot of all those thoughts. That we always dream was maintained
+by Leibnitz, Kant, Sir W. Hamilton and others; the latter refutes the
+argument of Locke by the just observation that the somnambulist has
+certainly been conscious, but fails to recall the fact when he returns
+to the normal state.
+
+It has been commonly held by metaphysicians that the nature of dreams is
+explained by the suspension of volition during sleep; Dugald Stewart
+asserts that it is not wholly dormant but loses its hold on the
+faculties, and he thus accounts for the incoherence of dreams and the
+apparent reality of dream images.
+
+Cudworth, from the orderly sequence of dream combinations and their
+novelty, argues that the state arises, not from any "fortuitous dancings
+of the spirits," but from the "phantastical power of the soul."
+According to K. A. Scherner, dreaming is a decentralization of the
+movement of life; the ego becomes purely receptive and is merely the
+point around which the peripheral life plays in perfect freedom. Hobbes
+held that dreams all proceed from the agitation of the inward parts of a
+man's body, which, owing to their connexion with the brain, serve to
+keep the latter in motion. For Schopenhauer the cause of dreams is the
+stimulation of the brain by the internal regions of the organism through
+the sympathetic nervous system. These impressions the mind afterwards
+works up into quasi-realities by means of its forms of space, time,
+causality, &c.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For full lists of books and articles see J. M. Baldwin's
+_Dictionary of Philosophy_, bibliography volume (1906), and S. de
+Sanctis, _I Sogni_, also translated in German with additions as _Die
+Träume_. Important works are--Binz, _Über den Traum_, Giessler _Aus den
+Tiefen des Traumlebens_, Maury, _Le Sommeil et les rêves_, Radestock,
+_Schlaf und Traum_, Tessié, _Les Rêves_, Spitta, _Schlaf und
+Traumzustande_. For super-normal dreams see F. W. H. Myers, _Human
+Personality_, vol i, and _Proc S P R_ viii 362. For voluntary dreams see
+_Proc. S P R_ iv 241, xvii. 112. On prophetic dreams see _Monist_, xi
+161, _Bull. Soc. Anth._ (Paris, 1901), 196, (1902), 228, _Rev. de
+synthèse historique_ (1901), 151, &c. On incubation see Deubner, _De
+incubatione_, Maury, La Magie. On the dreams of American Indians see
+_Handbook of American Indians_ (Washington, 1907), s v "Dreams" and
+"Manito." On the interpretation of dreams see Freud, _Die Traumdeutung_.
+Other works are F. Greenwood, _Imagination in Dreams_, Hutchinson,
+_Dreams and their Meanings_.     (N. W. T.)
+
+
+
+
+DREDGE AND DREDGING. The word "dredge" is used in two senses. (1) From
+Mid. Eng. _dragie_, through Fr. _dragée_, from Gr. [Greek: tragêmata],
+sweetmeats, it means a confection of sugar formed with seeds, bits of
+spice or medicinal agents. The word in this sense is obsolete, but
+survives in "dredger," a box with a perforated top used for sprinkling
+such a sugar-mixture, flour or other powdered substance. "Dredge" is
+also a local term for a mixed crop of oats and barley sown together
+("maslin" or "meslin," cf. Fr. _dragée_), and in mining is applied to
+ore of a mixed value. (2) Connected with "drag," or at least derived
+from the same root, dredge or dredger is a mechanical appliance for
+collecting together and drawing to the surface ("dredging") objects and
+material from the beds of rivers or the bottom of the sea. In the
+following account the operations of dredging in this sense are discussed
+(1) as involved in hydraulic engineering, (2) in connexion with the work
+of the naturalist in marine biology.
+
+
+1. HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING
+
+Dredging is the name given by engineers to the process of excavating
+materials under water, raising them to the surface and depositing them
+in barges, or delivering them through a shoot, a longitudinal conveyor,
+or pipes, to the place where it is desired to deposit them. It has long
+been useful in works of marine and hydraulic engineering, and has been
+brought in modern times to a state of high perfection.
+
+The employment of dredging plant and the selection of special appliances
+to be used in different localities and in varying circumstances require
+the exercise of sound judgment on the part of the engineer. In rivers
+and estuaries where the bottom is composed of light soils, and where the
+scour of the tide can be governed by training walls and other works
+constructed at reasonable expense, so as to keep the channel clear
+without dredging, it is manifest that dredging machinery with its large
+cost for working expenses and for annual upkeep should be as far as
+possible avoided. On the other hand, where the bottom consists of clay,
+rock or other hard substances, dredging must, in the first instance at
+any rate, be employed to deepen and widen the channel which it is sought
+to improve. In some instances, such as the river Mississippi, a deep
+channel has for many years been maintained by jetties, with occasional
+resort to dredging to preserve the required channel section and to
+hasten its enlargement. The bar of the river Mersey is 11 m. from land,
+and the cost of training works would be so great as to forbid their
+construction; but, by a capital expenditure of £120,000 and an annual
+expense of £20,000 for three years, the depth of water over the bar at
+low tide has been increased by dredging from 11 ft. to 27 ft., the
+channel being 1500 ft. wide.
+
+_"Bag and Spoon" Dredger._--The first employment of machinery for
+dredging is, like the discovery of the canal lock, claimed by Holland
+and Italy, in both of which countries it is believed to have been in use
+before it was introduced into Britain. The Dutch, at an early period,
+used what is termed the "bag and spoon" dredger for cleansing their
+canals. The "spoon" consisted of a ring of iron about 2 ft. in diameter
+flattened and steeled for about a third of its circumference and having
+a bag of strong leather attached to it by leathern thongs. The ring and
+bag were fixed to a pole which was lowered to the bottom from the side
+of a barge moored in the canal or river. The "spoon" was then dragged
+along the bottom by a rope made fast to the iron ring actuated by a
+windlass placed at the other end of the barge, the pole being prevented
+from rising by a hitched rope which caused the "spoon" to penetrate the
+bottom and fill the bag. When the "spoon" reached the end of the barge
+where the windlass was placed, the winding was still continued, and the
+suspended rope being nearly perpendicular the "bag" was raised to the
+gunwale of the barge and the excavated material emptied into the barge.
+The "bag" was then hauled back to the opposite end to be lowered for
+another supply. This system is still in use, but is only adaptable to a
+limited depth of water and a soft bottom; it has been largely used in
+canals and frequently in the Thames. At the Fosdyke Canal in
+Lincolnshire 135,000 tons were raised in the manner described. According
+to J. J. Webster (_Proc. Inst. C. E._ vol. 89), the first application
+of steam power for dredging operations was to a "spoon & bag" dredger
+for cleansing Sunderland harbour, the engine being made by Messrs
+Boulton & Watt of Soho, Birmingham.
+
+_Dredging by Bucket between Two Lighters._--Another plan of dredging,
+practised at an early period in rivers of considerable breadth, was to
+moor two barges, one on each side of the river. Between them was slung
+an iron dredging bucket, which was attached to both barges by chains
+wound on the barrels of a crab winch worked by six men in one barge and
+round a simple windlass worked by two men in the other barge. The
+bucket, being lowered at the side of the barge carrying the windlass,
+was drawn across the bottom of the river by the crab winch on the other
+barge; and having been raised and emptied, it was hauled across by the
+opposite windlass for repetition of the process. This process was in use
+in the River Tay until 1833.
+
+_Bucket Ladder Dredgers._--The earliest record of a bucket ladder
+dredger is contained in the first paper of the first volume (1836) of
+the _Transactions_ of the Institution of Civil Engineers. This machine
+was brought into use at the Hull Docks about 1782. The bucket chain was
+driven by two horses working a horse-gear on the deck of the vessel. The
+buckets were constructed of 5/8 in. bars of iron spaced 1/8 in. apart,
+and were 4 ft. long, 13 in. deep, 12 in. wide at the mouth and about 6
+in. wide at the bottom. This dredger raised about 30 tons per hour at
+the cost of 2½d. per ton, which covered the wages of three men working
+the dredger, eight men working the lighters and the keep of three
+horses. A dredger of this kind and power would only work in ballast, mud
+or other soft material, but the machine was gradually improved and
+increased in capacity and power by different manufacturers until it
+became a very efficient machine in skilful hands, excavating and raising
+material from depths of 5 ft. to 60 ft. of water at a cost not very
+different from, and in many cases less than, that at which the same work
+could be performed on land. With the powerful dredgers now constructed,
+almost all materials, except solid rock or very large boulders, can be
+dredged with ease. Loose gravel is perhaps the most favourable material
+to work in, but a powerful dredger will readily break up and raise
+indurated beds of gravel, clay and boulders, and has even found its way
+through the surface of soft rock, though it will not penetrate very far
+into it. In some cases steel diggers alternating with the buckets on the
+bucket frame have been successfully employed. The construction of large
+steam dredgers is now carried on by many engineering firms. The main
+feature of the machine is the bucket ladder which is hung at the top end
+by eye straps to the frame of the vessel, and at the lower end by a
+chain reived in purchase blocks and connected to the hoisting gear, so
+that the ladder may be raised and lowered to suit the varying depths of
+water in which the dredger works. The upper tumbler for working the
+bucket chain is generally square or pentagonal in form and made of steel
+with loose steel wearing pieces securely bolted to it. The tumbler is
+securely keyed to the steel shaft which is connected by gearing and
+shafting to the steam engine, a friction block being inserted at a
+convenient point to prevent breakage should any hidden obstacle causing
+unusual strain be met with in the path of the buckets. The lower tumbler
+is similar in construction to the upper tumbler, but is usually
+pentagonal or hexagonal in shape. The buckets are generally made with
+steel backs to which the plating of the buckets is riveted; the cutting
+edge of the buckets consists of a strong steel bar suitably shaped and
+riveted to the body. The intermediate links are made of hammered iron or
+steel with removable steel bushes to take the wear of the connecting
+pins, which are also of steel. The hoisting gear may be driven either
+from the main engine by frictional gearing or by an independent set of
+engines. Six anchors and chains worked by powerful steam crabs are
+provided for regulating the position of the dredger in regard to its
+work.
+
+_Barge-loading Dredgers_ used formerly to be provided with two ladders,
+one on each side of the vessel, or contained in wells formed in the
+vessel near each side. Two ladders were adopted, partly to permit the
+dredger to excavate the material close to a quay or wall, and partly to
+enable one ladder to work while the other was being repaired. Bucket
+ladder dredgers are now, however, generally constructed with one central
+ladder working in a well; frequently the bucket ladder projects at
+either the head or stern of the vessel, to enable it to cut its own way
+through a shoal or bank, a construction which has been found very
+useful. In one modification of this method the bucket ladder is
+supported upon a traversing frame which slides along the fixed framing
+of the dredger and moves the bucket ladder forward as soon as it has
+been sufficiently lowered to clear the end of the well. In places where
+a large quantity of dredging has to be done, a stationary dredger with
+three or four large hopper barges proves generally to be the most
+economical kind of plant. It has, however, the disadvantage of requiring
+large capital expenditure, while the dredger and its attendant barges
+take up an amount of space which is sometimes inconvenient where traffic
+is large and the navigable width narrow. The principal improvements made
+in barge-loading dredgers have been the increase in the size of the
+buckets and the strength of the dredging gear, the application of more
+economical engines for working the machinery, and the use of frictional
+gearing for driving the ladder-hoisting gear. It is very important that
+the main drive be fitted with the friction blocks or clutches before
+alluded to.
+
+  Up to the year 1877 dredgers were seldom made with buckets of a
+  capacity exceeding 9 cub. ft., but since that time they have been
+  gradually increased in capacity. In the dredger "Melbourne,"
+  constructed by Messrs William Simons & Co. to the design and
+  specification of Messrs Coode, Son & Matthews, about the year 1886,
+  the buckets had a capacity of 22 cub. ft., the dredger being capable
+  of making 37 ft. of water. The driving power consists of two pairs of
+  surface-condensing engines, each of 250 i.h.p., having cylinders 20
+  in. and 40 in. in diameter respectively, with a 30 in. stroke, the
+  boiler pressure being 90 lb. per sq. in. The vessel is 200 ft. long
+  by 36 ft. wide and 11 ft. 6 in. deep, and is driven by twin screw
+  propellers. The gearing is arranged so that either pair of engines can
+  be employed for dredging. The speed under steam is 7 knots, and in
+  free-getting material 800 tons per hour can be dredged with ease. On
+  one occasion the dredger loaded 400 tons in 20 minutes. The speed of
+  the bucket chain is 83 lineal ft. per minute. The draught of the
+  dredger in working trim is 7 ft. forward and 9 ft. aft. The efficiency
+  of the machine, or the net work in raising materials compared with the
+  power exerted in the cylinders, is about 25%. The dredged material is
+  delivered into barges moored alongside. Contrasting favourably with
+  former experience, the "Melbourne" worked for the first six months
+  without a single breakage. She is fitted with very powerful mooring
+  winches, a detail which is of great importance to ensure efficiency in
+  working.
+
+  The "St Austell" (Plate I. fig. 3), a powerful barge-loading dredger
+  195 ft. long by 35 ft. 6 in. beam by 13 ft. deep, fitted with
+  twin-screw compound surface-condensing propelling engines of 1000
+  i.h.p., either set of engines being available for dredging, was
+  constructed for H.M. Dockyard, Devonport, by Messrs Wm. Simons & Co.
+  in 1896. This dredger loaded thirty-five 500-ton hopper barges in the
+  week ending April 2, 1898, dredging 17,500 tons of material in the
+  working time of 29 hours 5 minutes.
+
+  An instance of a still larger and more powerful dredger is the
+  "Develant," constructed by Messrs Wm. Simons & Co., for Nicolaiev,
+  South Russia. She is a bow-well, barge-loading, bucket ladder dredger,
+  with a length of 186 ft., a breadth, moulded, of 36 ft., and a depth,
+  moulded, of 13 ft. The bucket ladder is of sufficient length to dredge
+  36 ft. below the water level. The buckets are exceptionally large,
+  each having a capacity of 36 cub. ft., or fully two tons weight of
+  material, giving a lifting capacity of 1890 tons per hour. At the
+  dredging trials 2000 tons of spoil were lifted in one hour with an
+  expenditure of 250 i.h.p. The propelling power is supplied by one pair
+  of compound surface-condensing marine engines of 850 i.h.p., having
+  two cylindrical boilers constructed for a working pressure of 120 lb.
+  per sq. in. Each boiler is capable of supplying steam to either the
+  propelling or dredging machinery, thus allowing the vessel to always
+  have a boiler in reserve. On the trials a speed of 8½ knots was
+  obtained. The bucket ladder, which weighs over 100 tons, exclusive of
+  dredgings, is raised and lowered by a set of independent engines. For
+  manoeuvring, powerful winches driven by independent engines are placed
+  at the bow and stern. The vessel is fitted throughout with electric
+  light, arc lamps being provided above the deck to enable dredging to
+  be carried on at night. Steam steering gear, a repairing shop, a
+  three-ton crane, and all the latest appliances are installed on board.
+
+  The "Dérocheuse" (Plate II. fig. 12), constructed by Messrs Lobnitz &
+  Co., is a good example of the dredger fitted with their patent rock
+  cutters, as used on the Suez Canal. These rock cutters consist of
+  stamps passing down through the bottom of the dredger, slightly in
+  advance of the bucket chain, and are employed for breaking up rock in
+  front of the bucket ladder so that it may be raised by buckets
+  afterwards. This system of subaqueous rock cutting plant, on Messrs
+  Lobnitz's patent system, was effectively employed in deepening the
+  Manchester Ship Canal, and removed a considerable length of rock,
+  increasing the depth of water from 26 ft. to 28 ft. at a cost of about
+  9d. per cub. yd. A full and illustrated description of this plant, and
+  of a similar plant supplied to the Argentine Government, was published
+  in _Engineering_ of August 17, 1906. An illustration of a bucket of 54
+  cub. ft. capacity constructed by Messrs Lobnitz & Co. is given (Plate
+  II fig. 11), from which some idea of the size of dredging machinery as
+  developed in recent practice may be obtained. In regard to the depth
+  of water that can be obtained by dredging, it is interesting to note
+  that the dredger "Diver," constructed by Messrs. Hunter & English for
+  Mr Samuel Williams of London, is capable of working in 60 ft. of
+  water. In this vessel an ingenious arrangement was devised by Mr
+  Williams, by which part of the weight of the dredger was balanced
+  while the ladder itself could be drawn up through the bucket well and
+  placed upon the deck, enabling a long ladder to be used for a
+  comparatively short vessel. The "Tilbury" dredger, also constructed by
+  Messrs Hunter & English, was able to dredge to a depth of 45 ft. below
+  the surface of the water.
+
+_Hopper Barges._--To receive the materials excavated by barge-loading
+dredgers, steam hopper barges are now generally employed, capable of
+carrying 500 tons or more of excavation and of steaming loaded at a
+speed of about 9 m. per hour. These hopper barges are made with hinged
+flaps in their bottoms, which can be opened when the place of deposit is
+reached and the dredgings easily and quickly discharged.
+
+Good examples of these vessels are the two steam hopper barges built for
+the Conservators of the river Thames in 1898. The dimensions are: length
+190 ft., breadth 30 ft., depth 13 ft. 3 in., hopper capacity 900 tons.
+They are propelled by a set of triple expansion engines of 1200 i.h.p.,
+with two return-tube boilers having a working pressure of 160 lb.
+Special appliances are provided to work the hopper doors by steam power
+from independent engines placed at the forward end of the hopper. A
+steam windlass is fixed forward and a steam capstan aft. The vessels are
+fitted with cabins for the officers and crew. On their trial trip, the
+hoppers having their full load, a speed of 11 knots was obtained, the
+coal consumption being 1.44 lb. per i.h.p.
+
+_Methods of Dredging._--In river dredging two systems are pursued. One
+plan consists in excavating a series of longitudinal furrows parallel to
+the axis of the stream; the other in dredging cross furrows from side to
+side of the river. It is found that inequalities are left between the
+longitudinal furrows when that system is practised, which do not occur,
+to the same extent, in side or cross dredging; and cross dredging leaves
+a more uniform bottom. In either case the dredger is moored from the
+head and stern by chains about 250 fathoms in length. These chains in
+improved dredgers are wound round windlasses worked by the engine, so
+that the vessel can be moved ahead or astern by simply throwing them
+into or out of gear. In longitudinal dredging the vessel is worked
+forward by the head chain, while the buckets are at the same time
+performing the excavation, so that a longitudinal trench is made in the
+bottom of the river. After proceeding a certain length, the dredger is
+stopped and permitted to drop down and commence a new longitudinal
+furrow, parallel to the first one. In cross dredging, on the other hand,
+the vessel is supplied with four additional moorings, two on each side,
+and these chains are, like the head and stern chains, wound round
+barrels worked by steam power. In cross dredging we may suppose the
+vessel to be moored at one side of the channel to be excavated. The
+bucket frame is set in motion, but instead of the dredger being drawn
+forward by the head chain, she is drawn across the river by the
+starboard chains, and, having reached the extent of her work in that
+direction, she is then drawn a few feet forward by the head chain, and
+the bucket frame being still in motion the vessel is hauled across by
+the port chains to the side whence she started. By means of this
+transverse motion of the dredger a series of cross cuts is made; the
+dredger takes out the whole excavation from side to side to a uniform
+depth and leaves no protuberances such as are found to exist between the
+furrows in longitudinal dredging, even when it is executed with great
+care. The two systems will be understood by reference to fig. 1, where A
+and B are the head and stern moorings, and C, D, E and F the side
+moorings. The arc e f represents the course of the vessel in cross
+dredging; while in longitudinal dredging, as already explained, she is
+drawn forward towards A, and again dropped down to commence a new
+longitudinal furrow.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Diagram showing Moorings for Transverse
+Dredging.]
+
+_Hopper Dredgers._--In places where barge-loading dredgers are
+inconvenient, owing to confined space and interference with navigation,
+and where it is necessary to curtail capital expenditure, hopper
+dredgers are convenient and economical. These dredgers were first
+constructed by Messrs. Wm. Simons & Co. of Renfrew, who patented and
+constructed what they call the "Hopper Dredger," combining in itself the
+advantages of a dredger for raising material and a scow hopper vessel
+for conveying it to the place of discharge, both of which services are
+performed by the same engines and the same crew.
+
+The vessel for this type of dredger is made of sufficient length and
+floating capacity to contain its own dredgings, which it carries out to
+the depositing ground as soon as its hopper is full. Considerable time
+is of course occupied in slipping and recovering moorings, and conveying
+material to the depositing ground, but these disadvantages are in many
+instances counterbalanced by the fact that less capital is required for
+plant and that less room is taken up by the dredger. If the depositing
+ground is far away, the time available for dredging is much curtailed,
+but the four-screw hopper dredger constructed by Messrs Wm. Simons & Co.
+for Bristol has done good work at the cost of 5d. per ton, including
+wages, repairs, coals, grease, sundries and interest on the first cost
+of the plant, notwithstanding that the material has to be taken 10 m.
+from the Bristol Dock. She can lift 400 tons of stiff clay per hour from
+a depth of 36 ft. below the water line, and the power required varies
+from 120 i.h.p. to 150 i.h.p., according to the nature of the material.
+The speed is 9 knots, and 4 propellers are provided, two at the head and
+two at the stern, to enable the vessel to steam equally well either way,
+as the river Avon is too narrow to permit her to be turned round.
+
+  The hopper dredger "La Puissante" (Plate I. fig. 4), constructed by
+  Messrs Wm. Simons & Co. for the Suez Canal Co. for the improvement of
+  Port Said Roads, is a fine example of this class of dredger. She is
+  275 ft. long by 47 ft. beam by 19 ft. deep. The hopper capacity is
+  2000 tons, and the draught loaded 16 ft. 5 in. The maximum dredging
+  depth is 40 ft., and the minimum dredging depth is only limited by the
+  vessel's draught, she being able to cut her own way. The bucket ladder
+  works through the well in the stern and weighs with buckets 120 tons.
+  The buckets have each a capacity of 30 cub. ft. and raised on trial
+  1600 tons per hour. The dredger is propelled by two sets of
+  independent triple expansion surface-condensing engines of 1800 i.h.p.
+  combined, working with steam at 160 lb. pressure, supplied by two
+  mild steel multitubular boilers. Each set of engines is capable of
+  driving the buckets independently at speeds of 16 and 20 buckets per
+  minute. The bucket ladder is fitted with buffer springs at its upper
+  end to lessen the shock when working in a seaway. The dredger can
+  deliver the dredged material either into its own hopper or into barges
+  lying on either side. The vessel obtained a speed of 9¾ knots per hour
+  on trial. The coal consumption during 6 hours' steaming trial was 1.66
+  lb. per i.h.p. hour. Fig. 9 (Plate I.) shows a still larger hopper
+  dredger by the same constructors.
+
+_Dredgers fitted with Long Shoot or Shore Delivering Apparatus._--The
+first instance of dredgers being fitted with long shoots was in the Suez
+Canal. The soil in the lakes was very variable, the surface being
+generally loose mud which lay in some places in the sand, but frequently
+more or less on hard clay. Resort was had to shoots 230 ft. long,
+supported on pontoons connected with the hull of the dredger. The sand
+flowed away with a moderate supply of water to the shoots when they were
+fixed at an inclination of about 1 in 20, but when the sand was mixed
+with shells these formed a coating which prevented the stream of water
+from washing out the shoot, and even with an inclination of 1 in 10
+material could not be delivered. A pair of endless chains working down
+the long shoot overcame the difficulty, and also enabled hard clay in
+lumps to be dealt with. One dredger turned out about 2000 cub. yds. of
+thick clay in 15 hours, and when the clay was not hard it could deliver
+150,000 cub. yds. in a month for several consecutive months.
+
+Shore delivery has been successfully effected by raising the material by
+buckets in the ordinary way and delivering it into a vertical cylinder
+connected with floating jointed pipes through which the dredgings pass
+to the shore. This, of course, can only be done where the place of
+deposit is near the spot where the material is dredged. Two plans have
+been satisfactorily employed for this operation. At the Amsterdam Canal
+the stuff was discharged from the buckets into a vertical cylinder, and
+after being mingled with water by a revolving Woodford pump was sent off
+under a head of pressure of 4 or 5 ft. to the place of deposit in a
+semi-fluid state through pipes made of timber, hooped with iron. These
+wooden pipes were made in lengths of about 15 ft., connected with
+leather joints, and floated on the surface of the water. A somewhat
+similar process was also employed on the Suez Canal.
+
+  A dredger (Plate I. fig. 5), constructed by Messrs Hunter & English
+  for reclamation works on Lake Copais in Greece was fitted with
+  delivery belts running on rollers in steel lattice frames on each side
+  of the vessel supported by masts and ropes. It could deliver 100 cub.
+  metres per hour at 85 ft. from the centre of the dredger, at a cost of
+  1.82d. per cub. metre for working expenses, with coal at 45s. per ton,
+  including 0.66d. per cub. metre for renewal of belts, upon which the
+  wear and tear was heavy.
+
+  Another instance of the successful application of shore delivery
+  apparatus is that of a dredger for Lake Titicaca, Peru, constructed by
+  Messrs Hunter & English, which was fitted with long shoots on both
+  sides, conveying the dredged material about 100 ft. from the centre of
+  the dredger upon either side. The shoots were supported by shear-legs
+  and ropes, and were supplied with water from a centrifugal pump in the
+  engine room. This dredger could excavate and deliver 120 cub. yds. per
+  hour at a cost of 1.725d. per cub. yd. with coal costing 40s. per ton.
+  If coal had been available at the ordinary rate in England of 20s. per
+  ton, the cost of the dredging and delivery would have been 0.82d. per
+  cub. yd. for wages, coal, oil, &c., but not including the salary of
+  the superintendent.
+
+  An interesting example of a shore delivering dredger is a light
+  draught dredger constructed by Messrs Hunter & English for the Lakes
+  of Albufera at the mouth of the river Ebro in Spain (Plate I. fig. 6).
+  The conditions laid down for this dredger were that it should float in
+  18 in. of water and deliver the dredged material at 90 ft. from the
+  centre of its own hull. In order to meet these requirements the vessel
+  was made of steel plates 1/8 in. thick, and longitudinal girders from
+  end to end of the vessel, the upward strain of flotation being
+  conveyed to them from the skin plating by transverse bulkheads at
+  short intervals. The dredger was 94 ft. long, 25 ft. wide, and 3 ft.
+  deep, and the height of the top tumbler above the water was 25 ft.
+  When completed the dredger drew 17 in. of water. The dredgings were
+  delivered by the buckets upon an endless belt, driven from the main
+  compound surface-condensing engine, which ran over pulleys supported
+  upon a steel lattice girder, the outer end of which rested upon an
+  independent pontoon. This belt delivered the dredgings at 90 ft. from
+  the centre of the dredger round an arc of 180°. The dredger delivered
+  125 cub. yds. per hour of compact clay at a cost of 1.16d. per cub.
+  yd. or 0.86d. per ton for wages, coal and stores. Another method of
+  delivering dredgings is that of pneumatic delivery, introduced by Mr
+  F. E. Duckham, of the Millwall Dock Co., by which the dredgings are
+  delivered into cylindrical tanks in the dredger, closed by air-tight
+  doors, and are expelled by compressed air either into the sea or
+  through long pipes to the land. The Millwall Dock dredger is 113 ft.
+  long, with a beam of 17 ft. and a depth of 12 ft. The draught loaded
+  is 8 ft. It contains two cylindrical tanks, having a combined capacity
+  of 240 cub. yds., and is fitted with compound engines of about 200
+  i.h.p., with a 20 in. air-compressing cylinder. The discharge pipe is
+  15 in. diameter by 150 yds. long. The nozzles of the air-injection
+  pipes must not be too small, otherwise the compressed air, instead of
+  driving out the material, simply pierces holes through it and escapes
+  through the discharging pipe, carrying with it all the liquid and thin
+  material in the tanks. The cost of working the Millwall Dock dredger
+  is given by Mr Duckham at 1.75d. per cub. yd. of mud lifted, conveyed
+  and deposited on land 450 ft. from the water-side, for working
+  expenses only. This dredger is believed to be the first machine
+  constructed with a traversing ladder, as suggested by Captain Gibson
+  when dock-master of the Millwall Docks.
+
+_Blasting combined with Dredging._--In some cases it has been found that
+the bottom is too hard to be dredged until it has been to some extent
+loosened and broken up. Thus at Newry, John Rennie, after blasting the
+bottom in a depth of from 6 to 8 ft. at low water, removed the material
+by dredging at an expense of from 4s. to 5s. per cub. yd. The same
+process was adopted by Messrs Stevenson at the bar of the Erne at
+Ballyshannon, where, in a situation exposed to a heavy sea, large
+quantities of boulder stones were blasted, and afterwards raised by a
+dredger worked by hand at a cost of 10s. 6d. per cub. yd. Sir William
+Cubitt also largely employed blasting in connexion with dredging on the
+Severn (see _Proc. Inst. C.E._ vol. iv. p. 362). The cost of blasting
+and dredging the marl beds is given as being 4s. per cub. yd. A
+combination of blasting and dredging was employed in 1875 by John Fowler
+of Stockton at the river Tees. The chief novelty was in the barge upon
+which the machinery was fixed. It was 58 ft. by 28 ft. by 4 ft., and had
+eight legs which were let down when the barge was in position. The legs
+were then fixed to the barge, so that on the tide falling it became a
+fixed platform from which the drilling was done. Holes were bored and
+charged, and when the tide rose the legs were heaved up and the barge
+removed, after which the shots were discharged. There were 24 boring
+tubes on the barge, and that was the limit which could at any time be
+done in one tide. The area over which the blasting was done measured 500
+yds. in length by 200 in breadth, a small part being uncovered at low
+water. The depth obtained in mid-channel was 14 ft. at low water, the
+average depth of rock blasted being about 4 ft. 6 in. The holes, which
+were bored with the diamond drill, varied in depth from 7 to 9 ft., the
+distance between them being 10 ft. Dynamite in tin canisters fired by
+patent fuse was used as the explosive, the charges being 2 lb. and
+under. The rock is oolite shale of variable hardness, and the average
+time occupied in drilling holes 5 ft. deep was 12 minutes. The dredger
+raised the blasted rock. The cost for blasting, lifting and discharging
+at sea was about 4s. per cub. yd., including interest on dredging and
+other plant employed. The dredger sometimes worked a face of blasted
+material of from 7 to 8 ft. The quantity blasted was 110,000 cub. yds.,
+and the contract for blasting so as to be lifted by the dredger was 3s.
+1d. per cub. yd. A similar plan was adopted at Blyth Harbour (see _Proc.
+Inst. C.E._ vol. 81, p. 302). The cost of the explosives per cub. yd.
+was 1s. 4d., of boring 1s. 9d. per cub. yd., and of dredging 3s. per
+cub. yd., including repairs, but nothing for the use of plant. The whole
+cost worked out at 6s. 1d. per cub. yd. on the average.
+
+_Sand-pump Dredgers._--Perhaps the most important development which has
+taken place in dredging during recent years has been the employment of
+sand-pump dredgers, which are very useful for removing sandy bars where
+the particular object is to remove quickly a large quantity of sand or
+other soft material. They are, however, apt to make large holes, and are
+therefore not fitted for positions where it is necessary to finish off
+the dredging work to a uniform flat bottom, for which purpose bucket
+dredgers are better adapted. Pump dredgers are, however, admirable and
+economical machines for carrying out the work for which they are
+specially suited.
+
+  In the discussion upon Mr J. J. Webster's paper upon
+  "Dredging-Appliances" (_Proc. Inst. C.E._ vol. 89) at the Institution
+  of Civil Engineers in 1886, Sir John Coode stated that he had first
+  seen sand-pump dredgers at the mouth of the Maas in Holland. The
+  centrifugal pump was placed against the bulkheads in the after part of
+  the vessel, and the sand and water were delivered into a horizontal
+  breeches-piece leading into two pipes running along the full length of
+  the hopper. The difficulty of preventing the sand from running
+  overboard was entirely obviated by its being propelled by the pump
+  through these pipes, the bottoms of which were perforated by a series
+  of holes. In addition, there were a few small flap-doors fixed at
+  intervals, by means of which the men were able to regulate the
+  discharge. On being tested, the craft pumped into its hopper 400 tons
+  of sand in 22 minutes. The coamings round the well of the hoppers were
+  constructed with a dip, and when the hopper was full the water ran
+  over in a steady stream on either side. The proportion of sand
+  delivered into the hopper was about 20% of the total capacity of the
+  pump. The dredger was constructed by Messrs Smit of Kinderdijk, near
+  Rotterdam. In the same discussion Mr A. A. Langley, then engineer to
+  the Great Eastern railway, gave particulars of a sand pump upon the
+  Bazin system, which had been used successfully at Lowestoft. The boat
+  was 60 ft. long by 20 ft. wide, and the pump was 2 ft. in diameter,
+  with a two-bladed disk. The discharge pipe was 12 in. in diameter. The
+  pump raised 400 tons of sand, gravel and stones per hour as a maximum
+  quantity, the average quantity being about 200 tons per hour. The
+  depth dredged was from 7 ft. to 25 ft. The pump was driven by a
+  double-cylinder engine, having cylinders of 9 in. diameter by 10 in.
+  stroke, and making 120 revolutions per minute. An important
+  improvement was made by fitting the working faces of the pump with
+  india-rubber, which was very successful and largely reduced the wear
+  and tear. The cost of the dredging at Lowestoft was given by Mr
+  Langley at 2d. per ton, including delivery 2 m. out at sea. The
+  quantity dredged was about 200,000 tons per annum.
+
+  One of the earliest pumps to be applied to dredging purposes was the
+  Woodford, which consisted of a horizontal disk with two or more arms
+  working in a case somewhat similar to the ordinary centrifugal pump.
+  The disk was keyed to a vertical shaft which was driven from above by
+  means of belts or other gear coupled to an ordinary portable engine.
+  The pump within rested on the ground; the suction pipe was so arranged
+  that water was drawn in with the sand or mud, the proportions being
+  regulated to suit the quality of the material. The discharge pipe was
+  rectangular and carried a vertical shaft, the whole apparatus being
+  adjustable to suit different depths of water. This arrangement was
+  very effective, and has been used on many works. Burt & Freeman's sand
+  pump, a modification of the Woodford pump, was used in the
+  construction of the Amsterdam Ship Canal, for which it was designed.
+  The excavations from the canal had to be deposited on the banks some
+  distance away from the dredgers, and after being raised by the
+  ordinary bucket dredger, instead of being discharged into the barges,
+  they were led into a vertical chamber on the top side of the pump,
+  suitable arrangements being made for regulating the delivery. The pump
+  was 3½ ft. in diameter, and made about 230 revolutions per minute. The
+  water was drawn up on the bottom side and mixed with the descending
+  mud on the top side, and the two were discharged into a pipe 15 in. in
+  diameter. The discharge pipe was a special feature, and consisted of a
+  series of wooden pipes jointed together with leather hinges and
+  floated on buoys from the dredger to the bank. In some cases this pipe
+  was 300 yds. long, and discharged the material 8 ft. above the water
+  level. Each dredger and pump was capable of discharging an average of
+  1500 cub. yds. per day of 12 hours. Schmidt's sand pump is claimed to
+  be an improvement on the Burt & Freeman pump. It consists of a
+  revolving wheel 6 ft. in diameter, with cutters revolving under a hood
+  which just allows the water to pass underneath. To the top side of the
+  hood a 20 in. suction pipe from an ordinary centrifugal pump is
+  attached. The pump is driven by two 16 in. by 20 in. cylinders, at 134
+  revolutions per minute, the boiler pressure being 95 lb. per sq. in.
+  This apparatus is capable of excavating sticky blue clayey mud, and
+  will deliver the material at 500 to 650 yds. distance. The best
+  results are obtained when the mixture of mud and water is as 1 to 6.5.
+  The average quantity excavated per diem by the apparatus is 1300 cub.
+  yds., the maximum quantity being 2500 cub. yds.
+
+  Kennard's sand pump is entirely different from the pumps already
+  described, and is a direct application of the ordinary lift pump. A
+  wrought iron box has a suction pipe fitted at the bottom, rising about
+  half way up the inside of the box; on the top of the box is fitted the
+  actual pump and the flap valves. The apparatus is lowered by chains,
+  and the pump lowered from above. As soon as the box is filled with
+  sand it is raised, the catches holding up the bottom released, and the
+  contents discharged into a punt.
+
+  Sand-pump dredgers, designed and arranged by Mr Darnton Hutton, were
+  extensively used on the Amsterdam Ship Canal. A centrifugal pump with
+  a fan 4 ft. in diameter was employed, the suction and delivery pipes,
+  each 18 in. in diameter, being attached to an open wrought-iron
+  framework. The machine was suspended between guides fixed to the end
+  of the vessel, which was fitted with tackle for raising, lowering and
+  adjusting the machine. The vessel was fitted with a steam engine and
+  boiler for working and manipulating the pumps and the heavy side
+  chains for the guidance of the dredger. The engine was 70 h.p., and
+  the total cost of one dredger was £8000. The number of hands required
+  for working this sand-pump dredger was one captain, one engineer, one
+  stoker and four sailors. Each machine was capable of raising about
+  1300 tons of material per day, the engines working at 60 and the pump
+  at 180 revolutions per minute. The sand was delivered into barges
+  alongside the dredger. The cost of raising the material and depositing
+  it in barges was about 1d. per ton when the sand pumps were working,
+  but upon the year's work the cost was 2.4d. per cub. yd. for working
+  expenses and repairs, and 1.24d. per cub. yd. for interest and
+  depreciation at 10% upon the cost of the plant, making a total cost
+  for dredging of 3.64d. per cub. yd. The cost for transport was 3.588d.
+  per cub. yd., making a total cost for dredging and transport of
+  7.234d. per cub. yd. Dredging and transport on the same works by an
+  ordinary bucket dredger and barges cost 8.328d. per cub. yd.
+
+  Two of the largest and most successful instances of sand-pump dredgers
+  are the "Brancker" and the "G. B. Crow," belonging to the Mersey
+  Docks and Harbour Board. Mr A. G. Lyster gave particulars of the work
+  done by these dredgers in a paper read before the Engineering Congress
+  in 1899. They are each 320 ft. long, 47 ft. wide and 20.5 ft. deep,
+  the draught loaded being 16 ft. They are fitted with two centrifugal
+  pumps, each 6 ft. in diameter, with 36 in. suction and delivery pipes,
+  united into a 45 in. diameter pipe, hung by a ball and socket joint in
+  a trunnion, so as to work safely in a seaway when the waves are 10 ft.
+  high. The suction pipe is 76 ft. long and will dredge in 53 ft. of
+  water. The eight hoppers hold 3000 tons, equivalent when solid to 2000
+  cub. yds.; they can be filled in three-quarters of an hour and
+  discharged in five minutes. Mr Lyster stated that up to May 1899, the
+  quantity removed from bar and main-channel shoals amounted to
+  41,240,360 tons, giving a width of channel of 1500 ft. through the
+  bar, with a minimum depth of 27 ft. The cost of dredging on the bar by
+  the "G. B. Crow" during 1898, when 4,309,350 tons of material were
+  removed, was 0.61d. per ton for wages, supplies and repairs. These
+  figures include all direct working costs and a proportion of the
+  charge for actual superintendence, but no allowance for interest on
+  capital cost or depreciation. On an average, 20% of the sand and mud
+  that are raised escapes over the side of the vessel. Mr Lyster has,
+  however, to a considerable extent overcome this difficulty by a
+  special arrangement added to the hoppers (see _Proc. Inst. C.E._ vol.
+  188).
+
+  At the Engineering Conference, 1907, Mr Lyster read a note in which he
+  stated that the total quantity of material removed from the bar of the
+  Mersey, from the Crosby channel, and from other points of the main
+  channel by the "G. B. Crow" and "Brancker" suction dredgers amounted
+  to 108,675,570 tons up to the 1st of May 1907. "In the note of 1899
+  (he added) it was pointed out that the Mersey was a striking instance
+  of the improvement of a river by dredging rather than by permanent
+  works, and the economy of the system as well as the advantage which
+  its elasticity and adaptability to varying circumstances permit, was
+  pointed out.... The most recent experience, which has resulted in the
+  adoption of the proposal to revet the Taylor's bank, indicates that
+  the dredging method has its limitations and cannot provide for every
+  contingency which is likely to arise; at the same time, the utility
+  and economy of the dredging system is in no way diminished.... Having
+  regard to the ever-increasing size of vessels, a scheme for new docks
+  and entrances on a very large scale received the authority of
+  parliament during the session of 1905-1906 In this scheme it was
+  considered necessary to make provision for vessels of 1000 ft. in
+  length and 40 ft. in draught, and having regard to this prospective
+  growth of vessels it has been determined still further to deepen and
+  improve the outer channel of the Mersey. No fixed measure of
+  improvement has been decided on, but after careful survey of existing
+  conditions and a comparison with probable requirements, it has been
+  determined to construct a dredger of 10,000 tons capacity, provided
+  with pumping power equivalent to about three times that of any
+  existing dredgers. By the use of this vessel it is anticipated that it
+  will be possible to deal with very much larger quantities of sand at a
+  cheaper rate, and to 10 ft. greater depth than the existing plant
+  permits."
+
+  The vessel in question was launched on the Mersey from the yard of
+  Messrs Cammell, Laird & Co. in October 1908, and was named the
+  "Leviathan." Her length is 487 ft., beam 69 ft., and depth 30 ft. 7
+  in. Her dredging machinery consists of four centrifugal pumps driven
+  by four sets of inverted triple expansion engines, and connected to
+  four suction tubes 90 ft. long and 42 in. in internal diameter. Her
+  propelling machinery, consisting of two sets of triple expansion
+  engines, is capable of driving her at a speed of 10 knots.
+
+  Another powerful and successful sand-pump dredger, "Kate" (Plate I.
+  fig. 7), was built in 1897 by Messrs Wm. Simons & Co. Ltd. for the
+  East London Harbour Board, South Africa. Its dimensions are: length
+  200 ft., breadth 39 ft., depth 14 ft. 6 in., hopper capacity 1000
+  tons. The pumping arrangements for filling the hopper with sand or
+  discharging overboard consist of two centrifugal pumps, each driven
+  from one of the propelling engines. The suction pipes are each 27 in.
+  in diameter, and are so arranged that they may be used for pumping
+  either forward or aft, as the state of the weather may require. Four
+  steam cranes are provided for manipulating the suction pipes. Owing to
+  the exceptional weather with which the vessel had to contend, special
+  precautions were taken in designing the attachments of the suction
+  pipes to the vessel. The attachment is above deck and consists of a
+  series of joints, which give a perfectly free and universal movement
+  to the upper ends of the pipes. The joints, on each side of the
+  vessel, are attached to a carriage, which is traversed laterally by
+  hydraulic gear. By this means the pipes are pushed out well clear of
+  the vessel's sides when pumping, and brought inboard when not in work.
+  Hydraulic cushioning cylinders are provided to give any required
+  resistance to the fore and aft movements of the pipes. When the vessel
+  arrived at East London on the 18th of July 1897, there was a depth of
+  14 ft. on the bar at high tide. On the 10th of October, scarcely three
+  months afterwards, there was a depth of 20 ft. on the bar at low
+  water. Working 22 days in rough weather during the month of November
+  1898, the "Kate" raised and deposited 2½ m. at sea 60,000 tons of
+  dredgings. Her best day's work (12 hours) was on the 7th of November,
+  when she dredged and deposited 6440 tons.
+
+  A large quantity of sand-pump dredging has been carried out at
+  Boulogne and Calais by steam hopper pump dredgers, workable when the
+  head waves are not more than 3 ft. high and the cross waves not more
+  than 1½ ft. high. The dredgings are taken 2 m. to sea, and the price
+  for dredging and depositing from 800,000 to 900,000 cub. metres in 5
+  or 6 years was 7.25d. per cub. yd. The contractor offered to do the
+  work at 4.625d. per cub. yd. on condition of being allowed to work
+  either at Calais or Boulogne, as the weather might permit. Sand-pump
+  dredging has also been extensively carried out at the mouth of the
+  ports of Amsterdam, Rotterdam and on the north coast of France by sand
+  dredgers constructed by Messrs L. Smit & Son and G. & K. Smit. The
+  largest dredger, the "Amsterdam," is 141 ft. by 27 ft. by 10 ft. 8
+  in., and has engines of 190 i.h.p. The hopper capacity is 10,600 cub.
+  ft., and the vessel can carry 600 tons of dredgings. The pump fan is 6
+  ft. 3 in. in diameter by 10 in. wide, the plates being of wrought
+  iron, and makes 130 revolutions a minute. The pump can raise 230 cub.
+  ft. a minute from a depth of 33 ft., which, taking the proportion of 1
+  of sand to 7 of water, gives a delivery of 29 cub. ft. of sand per
+  minute. The hopper containing 10,600 cub. ft. was under favourable
+  circumstances filled in 40 minutes. The vessels are excellent sea
+  boats.
+
+_Combined Bucket-Ladder and Sand-Pump Dredgers._--Bucket ladders and
+sand pumps have also been fitted to the same dredger. A successful
+example of this practice is furnished by the hopper dredger "Percy
+Sanderson" (Plate I. fig. 8), constructed under the direction of Sir C.
+A. Hartley, engineer of the Danube Commission for the deepening of the
+river Danube and the Sulina bar. This dredger is 220 ft. by 40 ft. by 17
+ft. 2 in., and has a hopper capacity for 1250 tons of dredgings. The
+buckets have each a capacity of 25 cub. ft., and are able to raise 1000
+tons of ordinary material per hour. The suction pump, which is driven by
+an independent set of triple expansion engines, is capable of raising
+700 tons of sand per hour, and of dredging to a depth of 35 ft. below
+the water-line. The lower end of the suction pipe is controlled by
+special steam appliances by which the pipe can be brought entirely
+inboard. The "Percy Sanderson" raises and deposits on an average 5000
+tons of material per day.
+
+_Grab Dredgers._--The grab dredger was stated by Sir Benjamin Baker
+(_Proc. Inst. C.E._ vol. 113, p. 38) to have been invented by Gouffé in
+1703, and was worked by two ropes and a bar. Various kinds of apparatus
+have been designed in the shape of grabs or buckets for dredging
+purposes. These are usually worked by a steam crane, which lets the open
+grab down to the surface of the ground to be excavated and then closes
+it by a chain which forces the tines into the ground; the grab is then
+raised by the crane, which deposits the contents either into the hopper
+of the vessel upon which the crane is fixed or into another barge.
+
+  The Priestman grab has perhaps been more extensively used than any
+  other apparatus of this sort. It is very useful for excavating mud,
+  gravel and soft sand, but is less effective with hard sand or stiff
+  clay--a general defect in this class of dredger. It is also capable of
+  lifting large loose pieces of rock weighing from 1 to 2 tons. A
+  dredger of this type, with grab holding 1 ton of mud, dredged during
+  six days, in 19 ft. of water, an average of 52½ tons and a maximum of
+  68½ tons per hour, and during 12 days, in 16 ft. of water, an average
+  of 48 tons and a maximum of 58 tons per hour, at a cost of 1.63d. per
+  ton, excluding interest on the capital and depreciation. The largest
+  dredger to which this apparatus has been applied is the grab bucket
+  hopper dredger "Miles K. Burton" (Plate I. fig. 9), belonging to the
+  Mersey Docks and Harbour Board. It is equipped with 5 grabs on
+  Morgan's patent system, which is a modification of Priestman's, the
+  grabs being worked by 5 hydraulic cranes. It raised and deposited, 12
+  to 15 m. at sea, 11 loads of about 1450 tons each with a double shift
+  of hands, at a cost of about 1s. 5d. per cub. yd. of spoil, including
+  the working expenses for wages of crew, fuel and stores. Mr R. A.
+  Marillier of Hull has stated that "the efficiency of these grabs is
+  not at all dependent upon the force of the blow in falling for the
+  penetration and grip in the material, as they do their work very
+  satisfactorily even when lowered quite gently on to the material to be
+  cut out, the jaws being so framed as to draw down and penetrate the
+  material as soon as the upward strain is put on the lifting chain.
+  Even in hard material the jaws penetrate so thoroughly as to cause the
+  bucket to be well filled. The grab is found to work successfully in
+  excavating hard clay from its natural bed on dry land." It is claimed
+  on behalf of grabs that they lift a smaller proportion of water than
+  any other class of dredger.
+
+  Since the beginning of the 20th century considerable advance has been
+  made in the use of Priestman grabs, not only for dredging and
+  excavating (for which work they were originally designed), but also in
+  discharging bulk cargo. The first quadruple dredger used by the
+  Liverpool Docks Board had grabs of a capacity of 30 cub. ft., but
+  subsequently second and third quadruple dredgers were put to work in
+  the Liverpool Docks, with grabs having a capacity of 70 and 100 cub.
+  ft. respectively. In discharging coal at Southampton, Havre, Erith,
+  as well as at the coaling station at Purfleet on the Thames, grabs
+  having a capacity of about 80 cub. ft. are in constant use. Perhaps
+  the most difficult kind of bulk cargo to lift is "Narvick" iron ore,
+  which sets into a semi-solid body in the holds of the vessels, and for
+  this purpose one of the largest grabs, having about 150 cub. ft.
+  capacity and weighing about 8 tons, has been adopted. This grab was
+  designed as a result of experiments extending over a long period in
+  lifting iron ore. It is fitted with long, forged, interlocked steel
+  teeth for penetrating the compact material, which is very costly to
+  remove by hand labour. The Priestman grab is made to work with either
+  one or two chains or wire ropes. Grabs worked with two chains or ropes
+  have many advantages, and are therefore adopted for large
+  undertakings.
+
+  Wild's single chain half-tine grab works entirely with a single chain,
+  and has been found very useful in excavating the cylinders in Castries
+  harbour. Upon experimenting with an ordinary grab a rather curious
+  condition of things was observed with respect to sinking. On
+  penetrating the soil to a certain depth the ground was found as it
+  were nested, and nothing would induce the grab to sink lower. Sir W.
+  Matthews suggested that a further set of external tines might possibly
+  get over this difficulty. A new grab having been made with this
+  modification, and also with a large increase of weight--all the parts
+  being of steel--it descended to any required depth with ease, the
+  outside tines loosening the ground effectually whilst the inside
+  bucket or tines picked up the material.
+
+_Miscellaneous Appliances._--There are several machines or appliances
+which perhaps can hardly be called dredgers, although they are used for
+cleansing and deepening rivers and harbours.
+
+  Kingfoot's dredger, used for cleansing the river Stour, consisted of a
+  boat with a broad rake fitted to the bow, capable of adjustment to
+  different depths. At the sides of the boat were hinged two wings of
+  the same depth as the rake and in a line with it. When the rake was
+  dropped to the bottom of the river and the wings extended to the side,
+  they formed a sort of temporary dam, and the water began to rise
+  gradually. As soon as a sufficient head was raised, varying from 6 to
+  12 in., the whole machine was driven forward by the pressure, and the
+  rake carried the mud with it. Progress at the rate of about 3 m. an
+  hour was made in this manner, and to prevent the accumulation of the
+  dredgings, operations were begun at the mouth of the river and carried
+  on backwards. The apparatus was very effective and the river was
+  cleansed thoroughly, but the distance travelled by the dredger must
+  have been great.
+
+  In 1876 J. J. Rietschoten designed a "propeller dredger" for removing
+  the shoals of the river Maas. It consisted of an old gunboat fitted
+  with a pair of trussed beams, one at each side, each of which carried
+  a steel shaft and was capable of being lowered or raised by means of a
+  crab. An ordinary propeller 3 ft. 6 in. in diameter was fixed to the
+  lower end of the shaft, and driven by bevel gear from a cross shaft
+  which derived its motion by belting from the fly-wheel of a 12 h.p.
+  portable engine. The propellers were lowered until they nearly reached
+  the shoals, and were then worked at 150 revolutions per minute. This
+  operation scoured away the shoal effectively, for in about 40 minutes
+  it had been lowered about 3 ft. for a space of 150 yds. long by 8 yds.
+  wide.
+
+  A. Lavalley in 1877 designed an arrangement for the harbour of Dunkirk
+  to overcome the difficulty of working an ordinary bucket-ladder
+  dredger when there is even a small swell. A pump injects water into
+  the sand down a pipe terminating in three nozzles to stir up the sand,
+  and another centrifugal pump draws up the mixed sand and water and
+  discharges it into a hopper, the pumps and all machinery being on
+  board the hopper. To allow for the rising and falling of the
+  vessel--either by the action of the tide or by the swell--the ends of
+  the pipes are made flexible. The hopper has a capacity of 190 cub.
+  yds., and is propelled and the pumps worked by an engine of 150 i.h.p.
+  From 50 to 80 cub. yds. per hour can be raised by this dredger.
+
+  The "Aquamotrice," designed by Popie, and used on the Garonne at Agen,
+  appears to be a modification of the old bag and spoon arrangement. A
+  flat-bottomed boat 51½ ft. long by 6½ ft. wide was fitted at the bow
+  with paddles, which were actuated by the tide. Connected with the
+  paddles was a long chain, passing over a pulley on uprights and under
+  a roller, and a beam was attached to the chain 14 ft. 8 in. long,
+  passing through a hole in the deck. At the end of the beam was an iron
+  scoop 2 ft. wide and 2 ft. 6 in. deep. When the tide was strong enough
+  it drew the scoop along by means of the paddles and chains, and the
+  scoop when filled was opened by a lever and discharged. About 65 cub.
+  yds. of gravel could be raised by the apparatus in 12 hours. When the
+  tide failed the apparatus was worked by men.
+
+  The Danube Steam Navigation Co. removed the shingle in the shallow
+  parts of the river by means of a triangular rake with wrought-iron
+  sides 18 ft. long, and fitted with 34 teeth of chilled cast iron 12
+  in. deep. This rake was hung from the bow of a steamer 180 ft. long by
+  21 ft. beam, and dragged across the shallows, increasing the depth of
+  water in one instance from 5 ft. 6 in. to 9 ft., after passing over
+  the bank 355 times.
+
+  A combination of a harrow and high pressure water jets, arranged by B.
+  Tydeman, was found very efficacious in removing a large quantity of
+  mud which accumulated in the Tilbury Dock basin, which has an area of
+  about 17 acres, with a depth of 26 ft. at low-water spring tides. In
+  the first instance chain harrows merely were used, but the addition of
+  the water jets added materially to the success of the operation. The
+  system accomplished in six tides more than was done in twelve tides
+  without the water jets which worked at about 80 lb pressure per sq.
+  in. at the bottom of the dock.
+
+  Ive's excavator consists of a long weighted spear, with a sort of
+  spade at the end of it. The spade is hinged at the top, and is capable
+  of being turned at right angles to the spear by a chain attached to
+  the end of the spear. The spade is driven into the ground, and after
+  releasing the catch which holds it in position during its descent, it
+  is drawn up at right angles to the spear by the chain, carrying the
+  material with it. Milroy's excavator is similar, but instead of having
+  only one spade it generally has eight, united to the periphery of an
+  octagonal iron frame fixed to a central vertical rod. When these eight
+  spades are drawn up by means of chains, they form one flat table or
+  tray at right angles to the central rod. In operation the spades hang
+  vertically, and are dropped into the material to be excavated; the
+  chains are then drawn up, and the table thus formed holds the material
+  on the top, which is lifted and discharged by releasing the spade.
+  This apparatus has been extensively used both in Great Britain and in
+  India for excavating in bridge cylinders.
+
+  The clam shell dredger consists of two hinged buckets, which when
+  closed form one semi-cylindrical bucket. The buckets are held open by
+  chains attached to the top of a cross-head, and the machine is dropped
+  on to the top of the material to be dredged. The chains holding the
+  bucket open are then released, while the spears are held firmly in
+  position, the buckets being closed by another chain. Bull's dredger,
+  Gatmell's excavator, and Fouracre's dredger are modifications with
+  improvements of the clam shell dredger, and have all been used
+  successfully upon various works.
+
+  Bruce & Batho's dredger, when closed, is of hemispherical form, the
+  bucket being composed of three or four blades. It can be worked by
+  either a single chain or by means of a spear, the latter being
+  generally used for stiff material. The advantage of this form of
+  dredger bucket is that the steel points of the blades are well adapted
+  for penetrating hard material. Messrs Bruce & Batho also designed a
+  dredger consisting of one of these buckets, but worked entirely by
+  hydraulic power. This was made for working on the Tyne. The excavator
+  or dredger is fixed to the end of a beam which is actuated by two
+  hydraulic cylinders, one being used for raising the bucket and the
+  other for lowering it; the hydraulic power is supplied by the pumps in
+  the engine-room. The novelty in the design is the ingenious way in
+  which the lever in ascending draws the shoot under the bucket to
+  receive its contents, and draws away again as the bucket descends. The
+  hydraulic cylinder at the end of the beam is carried on gimbals to
+  allow for irregularities on the surface being dredged. The hydraulic
+  pressure is 700 lb. per sq. in., and the pumps are used in connexion
+  with a steam accumulator.
+
+  An unloading apparatus was designed by Mr A. Manning for the East &
+  West India Dock Co. for unloading the dredged materials out of barges
+  and delivering it on the marsh at the back of the bank of the river
+  Thames at Crossness, Kent. A stage constructed of wooden piles
+  commanded a series of barge beds, and the unloading dredger running
+  from end to end of the stage, lifted and delivered the materials on
+  the marsh behind the river wall at the cost of 1 d. per cub. yd.
+
+_Dredging on the River Scheldt below Antwerp._--This dredging took place
+at Krankeloon and the Belgian Sluis under the direction of L. Van
+Gansberghe. At Melsele there is a pronounced bend in the river, causing
+a bar at the Pass of Port Philip, and just below the pass of Lillo there
+is a cross-over in the current, making a neutral point and forming a
+shoal. After dredging to 8 metres (26.24 ft.) below low tide, in clay
+containing stone and ferruginous matter, a sandstone formation was
+encountered, which was very compact and difficult to raise. A suction
+dredger being unsuited to the work, a bucket-ladder dredger was
+employed. The dredging was commenced at Krankeloon in September 1894 and
+continued to the end of 1897. A depth of 6 metres (19.68 ft.) was
+excavated at first, but was afterwards increased to 8 metres (26.24
+ft.). The place of deposit was at first on lands acquired by the State,
+2.17 m. above Krankeloon, and placed at the disposal of the contractor.
+The dredgings excavated by the bucket-ladder dredger were deposited in
+scows, which were towed to the front of the deposit ground and
+discharged by a suction pump fixed in a special boat, moored close to
+the bank of the river. The material brought by the suction dredger in
+its own hull was discharged by a plant fixed upon the dredger itself. In
+both instances the material was deposited at a distance of 1640 ft. from
+the river, the spoil bank varying in depth from 2 to 7 metres. The water
+thrown out behind the dyke with the excavated material returned to the
+river, after settlement, by a special discharge lock built under the
+dyke. After 1896 the material was delivered into an abandoned pass by
+means of barges with bottom hopper doors or by the suction dredger. One
+suction dredger and three bucket-ladder dredgers were employed upon the
+work, and a vessel called "Scheldt I." used for discharging the material
+from the scows. Four tugboats and twenty scows were also employed.
+
+  The largest dredger, "Scheldt III.," was 147.63 ft. long by 22.96 ft.
+  wide by 10.98 ft. deep, and had buckets of 21.18 cub. ft. capacity.
+  The output per hour was 10,594 cub. ft. This dredger had also a
+  complete installation as a suction dredger, the suction pipe being 2
+  ft. diameter. The fan of the centrifugal pump was 5.25 ft. diameter,
+  and was driven by the motor of the bucket ladder. The three bucket
+  dredgers worked with head to the ebb tide. They could also work with
+  head to the flood tide, but it took so long a time to turn them about
+  that it was impracticable. The work was for from 13 to 14 hours a day
+  on the ebb tide. The effective daily excavation averaged 4839 cub.
+  yds. Each dredger was fitted with six anchors. The excavated cut was
+  164 ft. wide by 6.56 ft. deep. "Scheldt III." was capable of lifting a
+  mass 9.84 ft. thick. The suction dredger "Scheldt II." was of the
+  multiple type, and is stated to be unique in construction. It can
+  discharge material from a scow alongside, fill its own hopper with
+  excavations, discharge its own load upon the bank or into a scow by
+  different pipes provided for the purpose, and discharge its own load
+  through hopper doors. The machinery is driven by a triple expansion
+  engine of 300 i.h.p. working the propeller by a clutch. Owing to the
+  rise and fall in the tide of 23 ft. the suction pipe is fitted with
+  spherical joints and a telescopic arrangement. The vessel is 157.5 ft.
+  by 28.2 ft. by 12.8 ft. The diameter of the pump is 5.25 ft. The wings
+  of the pump are curved, the surface being in the form of a cylinder
+  parallel to the axis of rotation, the directrix of which is an arc of
+  a circle of 2.62 ft. radius with the straight part beyond. The suction
+  and discharge pipes are 2 ft. diameter. A centrifugal pump is provided
+  for throwing water into the scows to liquefy the material during
+  discharge. The dredger, which is fitted with electric lights for work
+  at night, is held by two anchors, to prevent lurching backwards and
+  forwards; it can work on the flood as well as on the ebb tide, and can
+  excavate to a depth of 42.65 ft., the output depending upon the nature
+  of the material. With good material it can fill its tanks in thirty
+  minutes. To empty the tanks by suction and discharge upon the bank
+  over the dyke takes about fifty minutes, depending upon the height and
+  distance to which the material requires to be delivered. The daily
+  work has averaged eighteen hours, ten trips being made when the
+  distance from the dredging ground to the point of delivery is about 1
+  m. When the dredged material is discharged into the Scheldt, a
+  quantity of 5886 cub. yds. has been raised and deposited in a day, the
+  mean quantity being 4700 cub. yds. When the distance of transportation
+  is increased to 2½ m., six voyages were made in a day, and the day's
+  work amounted to 3530 cub. yds.
+
+_Gold Dredgers._--Dredgers for excavating from river beds soil
+containing gold are generally fitted with a screen and elevator.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Diagram showing Action of Lobnitz Gold Dredger.]
+
+They have been extensively designed and built by Messrs Lobnitz & Co.
+(fig. 2) and also by Messrs Hunter & English.
+
+  The writer is indebted to the _Proceedings_ of the Institution of
+  Civil Engineers, and especially to the paper of Mr J. J. Webster
+  (_Proc. Inst. C.E._ vol. 89), for much valuable information upon the
+  subject treated. He is also indebted to many manufacturers who have
+  furnished him with particulars and photographs of dredging plant.
+       (W. H.*)
+
+
+Plate I.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Barge-loading dredger, "St Austell," constructed
+for the British Government by Wm. Simons & Co.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Stern-well hopper-dredger "La Puissante," by Wm.
+Simons & Co. Length 275 ft., breadth 47 ft., depth 19 ft.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Dredger constructed for the Lake Copais Co. by
+Hunter & English.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Light-draught dredger, with delivery apparatus
+working round an arc of 210°, by Hunter & English.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Twin-screw sand-pump dredger, "Kate," built for
+the East London Harbour Board by Wm. Simons & Co.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Twin-screw hopper-dredger, "Percy Sanderson,"
+built for the European Danube Commission by Wm. Simons & Co.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Twin-screw grab-dredger, "Miles K. Burton,"
+built for the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board by Wm. Simons & Co.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Hopper-dredger, "David Dale," with buckets of
+54 cub. ft. capacity (see fig. 11) built for the North Eastern Railway
+Company by Lobnitz & Co.]
+
+
+Plate II.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--BUCKETS OF 5 AND 54 CUBIC FEET CAPACITY
+COMPARED.
+
+The latter, the largest ever made, were for the hopper-dredger "David
+Dale" (Plate I. fig. 10), built by Lobnitz & Co.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--MODEL OF ROCK-CUTTING DREDGER, "DEROCHEUSE."
+
+Built for special work on the Suez Canal by Lobnitz & Co. Length 180
+ft., breadth 40 ft., depth 12 ft.]
+
+
+2. MARINE BIOLOGY
+
+The naturalist's dredge is an instrument consisting essentially of a net
+or bag attached to a framework of iron which forms the mouth of the net.
+When in use as the apparatus is drawn over the sea-bottom mouth
+forwards, some part of the framework passes beneath objects which it
+meets and so causes them to enter the net. It is intended for the
+collection of animals and plants living on or near the sea-bottom, or
+sometimes of specimens of the sea-bottom itself, for scientific
+purposes.
+
+Until the middle of the 18th century, naturalists who studied the marine
+fauna and flora relied for their materials on shore collection and the
+examination of the catches of fishing boats. Their knowledge of
+creatures living below the level of low spring tides was thus gained
+only from specimens cast up in storms, or caught by fishing gear
+designed for the capture of certain edible species only. The first
+effort made to free marine biology from these limitations was the use of
+the dredge, which was built much on the plan of the oyster dredge.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Otho Frederick Müller's Dredge (1770).]
+
+  _The Oyster Dredge._--At first naturalists made use of the ordinary
+  oyster dredge, which is constructed as follows. The frame is an iron
+  triangle, the sides being the round iron "arms" of the dredge, the
+  base a flat bar called the shere or lip, which is sloped a little, not
+  perpendicular to the plane of the triangle; an iron bar parallel to
+  the base joins the arms. The net is fastened to the parallel bars and
+  the portion of the arms between them, and consists of two parts: that
+  attached to the shere is of round iron rings linked together by
+  smaller ones of wire lashings, that attached to the upper bar is of
+  ordinary network. Where these two portions of the bag meet a wooden
+  beam is fastened. In use the frame is towed forward by its apex: the
+  shere passes below oysters, &c., which pass back on to the iron
+  netting. The length of each side of the triangular frame is about 6
+  ft., the width of the shere 3 in. and the height of the mouth just
+  under a foot. The rings vary in size, but are usually some 2½ in. in
+  diameter. The weight is about 60 lb. This dredge was soon abandoned:
+  its weight was prohibitive for small boats, from which the naturalist
+  usually worked, its wide rings allowed precious specimens to fall
+  through, and its shallow net favoured the washing out of light objects
+  on hauling through the moving water of the surface. Moreover, it
+  sometimes fell on its back and was then useless, although when the
+  apex or towing point was weighted no great skill is needed to avoid
+  this.
+
+  Otho Müller used a dredge (fig. 13) consisting of a net with a square
+  iron mouth, each of whose sides was furnished with a thin edge turned
+  slightly away from the dredge's centre. As any one of these everted
+  lips could act as a scraper it was a matter of indifference which
+  struck the bottom when the dredge was lowered. The chief defect of the
+  instrument was the ease with which light objects could be washed out
+  on hauling, owing to the size of the mouth. However, with this
+  instrument Müller obtained from the often stormy Scandinavian seas all
+  the material for his celebrated _Zoologia Danica_, a description of
+  the marine fauna of Denmark and Norway which was published with
+  excellent coloured plates in 1778; and historical interest attaches to
+  the dredge as the first made specially for scientific work.
+
+  _Ball's Dredge._--About 1838 a dredge devised by Dr Ball of Dublin was
+  introduced. It has been used all over the world, and is so apt for its
+  purpose that it has suffered very little modification during its 70
+  years of life. It is known as Ball's dredge or more generally simply
+  "the dredge."
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 14.--Ball's Naturalist's Dredge.]
+
+  Ball's dredge (fig. 14) consists of a rectangular net attached to a
+  rectangular frame much longer than high, and furnished with rods
+  stretching from the four corners to meet at a point where they are
+  attached to the dredge rope. It differs from Müller's dredge in the
+  slit-like shape of the opening, which prevents much of the "washing
+  out" suffered by the earlier pattern, and in the edges. The long edges
+  only are fashioned as scrapers, being wider and heavier than Müller's,
+  especially in later dredges. The short edges are of round iron bar.
+
+  Like Müller's form, Ball's dredge will act whichever side touches the
+  bottom first, as its frame will not remain on its short edge, and
+  either of the long edges acts as a scraper. The scraping lips thicken
+  gradually from free edge to net; they are set at 110° to the plane of
+  the mouth, and in some later patterns curve outwards instead of merely
+  sloping. All dredge frames are of wrought iron.
+
+  The thick inner edges of the scrapers are perforated by round holes at
+  distances of about an inch, and through these strong iron rings about
+  an inch in diameter are passed, and two or three similar rings run on
+  the short rods which form the ends of the dredge-frame. A light iron
+  rod, bent to the form of the dredge opening, usually runs through
+  these rings, and to this rod and to the rings the mouth of the
+  dredge-bag is securely attached by stout cord or strong copper wire.
+  Various materials have been used for the bag, the chief of which are
+  hide, canvas and netting. The hide was recommended by its strength,
+  but it is now abandoned. Canvas bags fill quickly with mud or sand and
+  then cease to operate: on the other hand wide mesh net fails to retain
+  small specimens. Probably the most suitable material is hand-made
+  netting of very strong twine, the meshes half an inch to the side, the
+  inter-spaces contracting to a third of an inch across when the twine
+  is thoroughly soaked, with an open canvas or "bread-bag" lining to the
+  last 6 in. of the net. A return to canvas covering has latterly
+  occurred in the small dredge called the mud-bag, trailed behind the
+  trawl of the "Albatross" for obtaining a sample of the bottom, and in
+  the conical dredge.
+
+  The dimensions of the first dredges were as follows: Frame about 12
+  in. by about 4 in.; scraping lips about 2 in. wide; all other iron
+  parts of round iron bar 5/8 in. diameter; bag rather more than 1 ft.
+  long. These small dredges were used from rowing boats. Larger dredges
+  were subsequently made for use from yawls or cutters. The mouth of
+  these was 18 by 5 in., the scraping lips about 2 in. wide and bag 2
+  ft. deep; such a dredge weighs about 20 lb. The dredge of the
+  "Challenger" had a frame 4 ft. 6 in. by 1 ft. 3 in. and the bag had a
+  length of 4 ft. 6 in.; the "Porcupine" used a dredge of the same size
+  weighing 225 lb. Doubtless the size of Ball's dredge would have
+  grown still more had it not been proved by the "Challenger" expedition
+  that for many purposes trawls could be used advantageously instead of
+  dredges.
+
+_Operation of the Dredge from Small Vessels._ For work round the coasts
+of Europe, at depths attainable from a row-boat or yawl, probably the
+best kind of line is bolt-rope of the best Russian hemp, not less than
+1½ in. in circumference, containing 18 to 20 yarns in 3 strands. Each
+yarn should be nearly a hundredweight, so that the breaking strain of
+such a rope ought to be about a ton. Of course it is never voluntarily
+exposed to such a strain, but in shallow water the dredge is often
+caught among rocks or coral, and the rope should be strong enough in
+such a case to bring up the boat, even if there were some little way on.
+It is always well, when dredging, to ascertain the approximate depth
+with the lead before casting the dredge; and the lead ought always to be
+accompanied by a registering thermometer, for the subsequent haul of the
+dredge will gain greatly in value as an observation in geographical
+distribution, if it be accompanied by an accurate note of the bottom
+temperature. For depths under 100 fathoms the amount of rope paid out
+should be at least double the depth; under 30 fathoms, where one usually
+works more rapidly, it should be more nearly three times; this gives a
+good deal of slack before the dredge if the boat be moving very slowly,
+and keeps the lip of the dredge well down. When there is anything of a
+current, from whatever cause, it is usually convenient to attach a
+weight, varying from 14 lb. to half a hundredweight, to the rope 3 or 4
+fathoms in front of the dredge. This prevents in some degree the lifting
+of the mouth of the dredge; if the weight be attached nearer the dredge
+it is apt to injure delicate objects passing in.
+
+In dredging in sand or mud, the dredge-rope may simply be passed through
+the double eye formed by the ends of the two arms of the dredge-frame;
+but in rocky or unknown ground it is better to fasten the rope to the
+eye of one of the arms only, and to tie the two eyes together with three
+or four turns of rope-yarn. This stop breaks much more readily than the
+dredge-rope, so that if the dredge get caught it is the first thing to
+give way under the strain, and in doing so it often alters the position
+of the dredge so as to allow of its extrication.
+
+The dredge is slipped gently over the side, either from the bow or from
+the stern--in a small boat more usually the latter--while there is a
+little way on, and the direction which the rope takes indicates roughly
+whether the dredge is going down properly. When it reaches the ground
+and begins to scrape, an experienced hand upon the rope can usually
+detect at once a tremor given to the dredge by the scraper passing over
+the irregularities of the bottom. The due amount of rope is then paid
+out, and the rope hitched to a bench or rowlock-pin. The boat should
+move very slowly, probably not faster than a mile an hour. In still
+water or with a very slight current the dredge of course anchors the
+boat, and oars or sails are necessary; but if the boat be moving at all
+it is all that is required. It is perhaps most pleasant to dredge with
+a close-reefed sail before a light wind, with weights, against a very
+slight tide or current; but these are conditions which cannot be
+commanded. The dredge may remain down from a quarter of an hour to
+twenty minutes, by which time, if things go well, it ought to be fairly
+filled. In dredging from a small boat the simplest plan is for two or
+three men to haul in, hand over hand, and coil in the bottom of the
+boat. For a large yawl or yacht, and for depths over 50 fathoms, a winch
+is a great assistance. The rope takes a couple of turns round the winch,
+which is worked by two men, while a third hand takes it from the winch
+and coils it down.
+
+It is easier to operate a dredge from a steam vessel than a sailing
+boat, but if the steamer is of any size great care should be taken that
+the dredge does not move too rapidly.
+
+Two ingenious cases of dredging under unusual conditions are worthy of
+mention, one case from shore, one from ice. In the Trondligem Fjord,
+Canon A. M. Norman in 1890 worked by hauling the dredge up the
+precipitous shores of the fjord. The dredge was shot from a boat close
+to the shore, to which after paying out some hundreds of fathoms of line
+it returned. The dredge was then hauled from the top of the cliffs up
+whose side it scraped. Hitches against projecting rocks were frequent
+and were overcome by suddenly paying out line for a time. The dredge was
+lifted into a boat when it reached the surface of the sea. The other
+case occurred during the Antarctic expedition of the "Discovery."
+Hodgson dropped loops of line along cracks which occasionally formed in
+the ice. The ice always joined up again, but with the line below it; and
+a hole being cleared at each place at which the end of the line emerged,
+the dredge could be worked between them.
+
+The dredge comes up variously freighted according to the locality, and
+the next step is to examine its contents and to store the objects of
+search for future use. In a regularly organized dredging expedition a
+frame or platform is often erected with a ledge round it to receive the
+contents of the dredge, but it does well enough to capsize it on an old
+piece of tarpaulin. There are two ways of emptying the dredge; we may
+either turn it up and pour out its contents by the mouth, or we may have
+a contrivance by which the bottom of the bag is made to unlace. The
+first plan is the simpler and the one more usually adopted; the second
+has the advantage of letting the mass slide out more smoothly and
+easily, but the lacing introduces rather a damaging complication, as it
+is apt to loosen or give way. Any objects visible on the surface of the
+heap are now carefully removed, and placed for identification in jars or
+tubs of sea-water, of which there should be a number secured in some
+form of bottle basket, standing ready. The heap should not be much
+disturbed, for the delicate objects contained in it have already been
+unavoidably subjected to a good deal of rough usage, and the less
+friction among the stones the better.
+
+_Examination of the Catch. Sifting._--The sorting of the catch is
+facilitated by sifting. The sieves used in early English expeditions
+were of various sizes and meshes, each sieve having a finer mesh than
+the sieve smaller than itself. In use the whole were put together in the
+form of a nest, the smallest one with the coarsest mesh being on top. A
+little of the dredge's contents were then put in the top sieve, and the
+whole set moved gently up and down in a tub of sea water by handles
+attached to the bottom one. Objects of different sizes are thus left in
+different sieves. A simple but effective plan is to let the sieves of
+various sized mesh fit accurately on each other like lids, the coarsest
+on top, and to pour water upon material placed on the top one. In the
+United States Bureau of Fisheries ship "Albatross" these sieves are
+raised to form a table and the water is led on them from a hose: the
+very finest objects or sediments are retained by the waste water
+escaping from a catchment tub by muslin bags let into its sides. Any of
+these methods are preferable to sifting by the agitation of a sieve hung
+over the side, as in the last anything passing through the sieve is gone
+past recall.
+
+_Preservation of Specimens._--The preservation of specimens will of
+course depend on the purpose for which they are intended. For
+microscopic observation formaldehyde has some advantages. It can be
+stored in 40% solution and used in 2%, thus saving space, and it
+preserves many animals in their colours for a time: formalin
+preparations do not, however, last as well as do those in spirit. The
+suitable fluids for various histological inquiries are beyond the scope
+of the present article; but for general marine histology Bles' fluid is
+useful, being simple to prepare and not necessitating the removal of the
+specimen to another fluid. It is composed of 70% alcohol 90 parts,
+glacial acetic acid 7 parts, 4% formaldehyde 7 parts.
+
+The scientific value of a dredging depends mainly upon two things, the
+care with which the objects procured are preserved and labelled for
+future identification and reference, and the accuracy with which all the
+circumstances of the dredging--the position, the depth, the nature of
+the ground, the date, the bottom-temperature, &c.--are recorded. In the
+British Marine Biological Association's work in the North Sea, a
+separate sheet of a printed book with carbon paper and duplicate sheets
+(which remain always on the ship) is used for the record of the
+particulars of each haul; depth, gear, &c., being filled into spaces
+indicated in the form. This use of previously prepared forms has been
+found to be a great saving of time and avoids risk of omission. Whether
+labelled externally or not, all bottles should contain parchment or good
+paper labels written with a soft pencil. These cannot be lost. The more
+fully details of reference number of station, gear, date, &c., are given
+the better, as should a mistake be made in one particular it can
+frequently be traced and rectified by means of the rest.
+
+_Growth of Scope of Operations._--At the Birmingham meeting of the
+British Association in 1839 an important committee was appointed "for
+researches with the dredge with a view to the investigation of the
+marine zoology of Great Britain, the illustration of the geographical
+distribution of marine animals, and the more accurate determination of
+the fossils of the Pliocene period." Of this committee Edward Forbes was
+the ruling spirit, and under the genial influence of his contagious
+enthusiasm great progress was made during the next decade in the
+knowledge of the fauna of the British seas, and many wonderfully
+pleasant days were spent by the original committee and by many others
+who from year to year were "added to their number." Every annual report
+of the British Association contains communications from the English, the
+Scottish, or the Irish branches of the committee; and in 1850 Edward
+Forbes submitted its first general report on British marine zoology.
+This report, as might have been anticipated from the eminent
+qualifications of the reporter, was of the highest value; and, taken
+along with his remarkable memoirs previously published, "On the
+Distribution of the Mollusca and Radiata of the Aegean Sea," and "On the
+Zoological Relations of the existing Fauna and Flora of the British
+Isles," may be said to mark an era in the progress of human thought.
+
+The dredging operations of the British Association committee were
+carried on generally under the idea that at the 100-fathom line, by
+which amateur work in small boats was practically limited, the zero of
+animal life was approached--a notion which was destined to be gradually
+undermined, and finally overthrown. From time to time, however, there
+were not wanting men of great skill and experience to maintain, with Sir
+James Clark Ross, that "from however great a depth we may be enabled to
+bring up mud and stones of the bed of the ocean we shall find them
+teeming with animal life." Samples of the sea-bottom procured with great
+difficulty and in small quantity from the first deep soundings in the
+Atlantic, chiefly by the use of Brooke's sounding machine, an instrument
+which by a neat contrivance disengaged its weights when it reached the
+bottom, and thus allowed a tube, so arranged as to get filled with a
+sample of the bottom, to be recovered by the sounding line, were eagerly
+examined by microscopists; and the singular fact was established that
+these samples consisted over a large part of the bed of the Atlantic of
+the entire or broken shells of certain foraminifera. Dr Wallich, the
+naturalist to the "Bulldog" sounding expedition under Sir Leopold
+M'Clintock, reported that star-fishes, with their stomachs full of the
+deep-sea foraminifera, had come up from a depth of 1200 fathoms on a
+sounding line; and doubts began to be entertained whether the bottom of
+the sea was in truth a desert, or whether it might not present a new
+zoological region open to investigation and discovery, and peopled by a
+peculiar fauna suited to its special conditions.
+
+In the year 1867, while the question was still undecided, two testing
+investigations were undertaken independently. In America Count L. F. de
+Pourtales (1824-1880), an officer employed in the United States Coast
+Survey under Benjamin Peirce, commenced a series of deep dredgings
+across the Gulf Stream off the coast of Florida, which were continued in
+the following year, and were productive of most valuable results; and in
+Great Britain the Admiralty, on the representation of the Royal Society,
+placed the "Lightning," a small gun-vessel, at the disposal of a small
+committee to sound and dredge in the North Atlantic between Shetland and
+the Faröe Islands.
+
+In the "Lightning," with the help of a donkey-engine for winding in,
+dredging was carried on with comparative ease at a depth of 600 fathoms,
+and at that depth animal life was found to be still abundant. The
+results of the "Lightning's" dredgings were regarded of so great
+importance to science that the Royal Society pressed upon the Admiralty
+the advantage of continuing the researches, and accordingly, during the
+years 1869 and 1870, the gun-boat "Porcupine" was put under the orders
+of a committee consisting of Dr W. B. Carpenter, Dr Gwyn Jeffreys, and
+Professor (afterwards Sir Charles) Wyville Thomson, one or other of whom
+superintended the scientific work of a series of dredging trips in the
+North Atlantic to the north and west of the British Islands, which
+occupied two summers.
+
+In the "Porcupine," in the summer of 1869, dredging was carried down
+successfully to a depth of 2435 fathoms, upwards of two miles and a
+half, in the Bay of Biscay, and the dredge brought up well-developed
+representatives of all the classes of marine invertebrates. During the
+cruises of the "Porcupine" the fauna of the deep water off the western
+coasts of Great Britain and of Spain and Portugal was tolerably well
+ascertained, and it was found to differ greatly from the fauna of
+shallow water in the same region, to possess very special characters,
+and to show a very marked relation to the faunae of the earlier Tertiary
+and the later Cretaceous periods.
+
+In the winter of 1872, as a sequel to the preliminary cruises of the
+"Lightning" and "Porcupine," by far the most considerable expedition in
+which systematic dredging had ever been made a special object left Great
+Britain. H.M.S. "Challenger," a corvette of 2306 tons, with auxiliary
+steam working to 1234 h.p., was despatched to investigate the physical
+and biological conditions of the great ocean basins.
+
+The "Challenger" was provided with a most complete and liberal
+organization for the purpose; she had powerful deck engines for hauling
+in the dredge, workrooms, laboratories and libraries for investigating
+the results on the spot, and a staff of competent naturalists to
+undertake such investigations and to superintend the packing and
+preservation of the specimens reserved for future study. Since the
+"Challenger" expedition the use of wire rope has enabled far smaller
+vessels to undertake deep sea work. The "Challenger," however, may be
+said to have established the practicability of dredging at any known
+depth.
+
+_Operating Dredges and Trawls in deep Seas._--Dredging operations from
+large vessels in deep seas present numerous difficulties. The great
+weight of the ship makes her motion, whether of progress or rolling,
+irresistible to the dredge. The latter tends to jump, therefore, which
+both lowers its efficiency and causes it to exert a sudden strain on the
+dredge rope.
+
+The efficiency or evenness of dredging was secured, therefore, by the
+special device of fastening a heavy weight some 200 or 300 fathoms from
+the dredge end of the dredge rope. This was either lowered with the
+dredge or sent down after by means of a "messenger," a ring of rope
+fixed round, but running freely on, the dredge rope. The latter plan was
+used on the "Challenger"; the weights were six 28 lb. leads in canvas
+covers: their descent was arrested by a toggle or wooden cross-bar
+previously attached to the rope at the desired point. When, however, the
+rope used is of wire this front weight is unnecessary.
+
+  The possibility of sudden strain necessitates a constant watching of
+  the dredge rope, as the ship's engines may at any moment be needed to
+  ease the tension by stopping the vessel's way, and the hauling engines
+  by paying out more rope. The use of accumulators both renders the
+  strain more gradual and gives warning of an increase or decrease;
+  indeed they can be calibrated and used as dynamometers to measure the
+  strain. One of the best forms of accumulator consists of a pile of
+  perforated rubber disks, which receive the strain and become
+  compressed in doing so. The arrangement is in essence as follows. The
+  disks form a column resting on a cross-bar or base, from which two
+  rods pass up one on each side of the column. Another cross-bar rests
+  on the top disk, and from it a rod passes freely down the centre
+  perforation of disks and base. Eyes are attached to the lower end of
+  this rod and to a yoke connecting the side rods at the top: a pull
+  exerted on these eyes is thus modified by the elasticity of the
+  dredge. In the "Porcupine" and other early expeditions the accumulator
+  was hung from the main yard arm, and the block through which the
+  dredge rope ran suspended from it. In more recent ships a special
+  derrick boom is rigged for this block, and a second accumulator is
+  sometimes inserted between the topping lift by which this is raised
+  and the end of the boom.
+
+  The margin of safety of steel wire rope is much larger than is that of
+  hempen rope, a fact of importance both in towing in a rough sea and in
+  hauling. Galvanized steel wire with a hempen core was first used by
+  Agassiz on the "Blake." He states that his wire weighed one pound per
+  fathom, against two pounds per fathom of hempen rope, and had a
+  breaking strain nearly twice that of hempen rope, which bore two tons.
+  Thus in hauling the wire rope has both greater capability and less
+  actual strain. It has also the advantages of occupying a mere fraction
+  (1/9) of the storage space needed for rope, of lasting much longer,
+  and its vibrations transmit much more rapid and minute indications of
+  the conduct of the dredge.
+
+  Wire rope is kept wound on reels supplied with efficient brakes to
+  check or stop its progress, and an engine is often fitted for winding
+  it in and veering it out. From the reel it passes to the drum of the
+  hauling engine, round which it takes some few turns; care is taken by
+  watching or by the use of an automatic regulator (Tanner) that it is
+  taken at a rate equal to that at which it is moving over the side.
+  From the hauling engine it passes over leading wheels (one of which
+  should preferably be a registering wheel and indicate the amount of
+  rope which has passed it), and so it reaches the end of the derrick
+  boom.
+
+The dredge is lowered from the derrick boom, which has been previously
+trained over to windward so that its end is well clear of the ship,
+while the ship is slowly moving forward. The rope is checked until the
+net is seen to be towing clear, and then lowered rapidly. Where a weight
+is used in front of the trawl Captain Calver successfully adopted the
+plan of backing after sufficient line had been paid out: the part of the
+rope from weight to surface thus became more vertical, while the shorter
+remainder, previously in line with it, sank to the bottom without change
+of relative position of weight and dredge. The ship was then ready for
+towing. When no front weight is used the manoeuvre is unnecessary.
+
+There should be a relation maintained between speed of vessel onward and
+of rope downward, or a foul haul may result owing to the gear capsizing
+(in the case of a trawl), or getting the net over the mouth (in a
+dredge). The most satisfactory method of ensuring this relation seems to
+be so to manage the two speeds that the angle made by the dredge rope is
+fairly constant. This angle can be observed with a simple clinometer.
+The following table abridged from Tanner most usefully brings together
+the requisite angles with other useful quantities.
+
+  +----------+----------------+---------+---------------+---------------+
+  | Depth of | Speed of ship  |Length of|Angle of dredge|Angle of dredge|
+  |  water.  | while shooting |  rope   |  rope while   |  rope while   |
+  |          |dredge or trawl.|required.|lowering trawl.|dragging trawl.|
+  +----------+----------------+---------+---------------+---------------+
+  | Fathoms. |     Knots.     | Fathoms.|               |               |
+  |    100   |       3        |   200   |       60      |      55       |
+  |    200   |       3        |   400   |       60      |      55       |
+  |    400   |       3        |   700   |       60      |      52       |
+  |    600   |       2¾       |  1000   |       55      |      50       |
+  |    800   |       2½       |  1200   |       50      |      44       |
+  |   1000   |       2½       |  1500   |       50      |      40       |
+  |   1500   |       2¼       |  2166   |       50      |      40       |
+  |   2000   |       2        |  2670   |       45      |      35       |
+  |   3000   |       2        |  4000   |       40      |      35       |
+  +----------+----------------+---------+---------------+---------------+
+
+The speed of towing, always slow, may be assumed to be approximately
+correct if the appropriate angle is maintained. Hauling should at first
+be slow from great depths, but may increase in speed as the gear rises.
+
+  For further details of deep-sea dredging, especially of the hauling
+  machinery and management of the gear, the special reports of the
+  various expeditions must be consulted. Commander Tanner, U.S.N., has
+  given in _Deep Sea Exploration_ (1897) a very full and good account of
+  the equipment of an exploring ship; and to this book the present
+  article is much indebted.
+
+_Modifications and Additions to the Dredge._--From 1818, when Sir John
+Ross brought up a fine Astrophyton from over 800 fathoms on a sounding
+line in Baffin's Bay, instances gradually accumulated of specimens being
+obtained from great depths without nets or traps. The naturalists of the
+"Porcupine" and other expeditions found that echinoderms, corals and
+sponges were often carried up adhering to the outer surface of the
+dredge and the last few fathoms of dredge rope. In order to increase the
+effectiveness of this method of capture a bar was fastened to the bottom
+of the dredge, to which bunches of teased-out hemp were tied. In this
+way specimens of the greatest interest, and frequently of equal
+importance with those in the dredge bag, were obtained. The tangle bar
+was at first attached to the back of the net. From the "Challenger"
+expedition onward it has been fixed behind the net by iron bars
+stretching back from the short sides of the dredge frame which pass
+through eyes in their first ends (fig. 15). The swabs are thus unable to
+fold over the mouth of the dredge. Rope lashings to the lips of the
+dredge are sometimes added, and a weight is tied to the larger bar to
+keep it down.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Deep-sea Dredge, with Tangle Bar.]
+
+Occasionally the tangle bar is used alone (Agassiz), and one form
+(Tanner) has two bars, stretching back like the side strokes of the
+letter A from a strong steel spring in the form of an almost complete
+circle. The whole is pulled forward from a spherical sinker fastened in
+front of the spring apex; and should the apex enter a crevice between
+rock masses, the side bars are closed by the pressure instead of
+catching and bringing up. This is said to be a very useful instrument
+among corals.
+
+  _The Blake Dredge._--In the soft ooze which forms the bottom of deep
+  seas the common dredge sinks and digs much too deeply for its ordinary
+  purpose, owing partly to its chief weight bearing on the frame only,
+  partly to its everted lips. To obviate these defects Lieutenant
+  Commander Sigsbee of the "Blake" devised the Blake dredge. Its novel
+  features were the frame and lips. The former was in the form of a
+  skeleton box; that is, a rectangle of iron bars was placed at the back
+  as well as the front or mouth of the net and four more iron bars
+  connected the two rectangles. The lips instead of being everted were
+  in parallel planes--those, namely, of the top and bottom of the net.
+  The effect of this was to minimize digging and somewhat spread the
+  incidences of the weight. Another advantage was that the net being
+  constantly distended by its frame, and, moreover, protected top and
+  bottom by an external shield of canvas, quite delicate specimens
+  reached the surface uninjured. The dredge weighed 80 lb. and was 4
+  ft. square and 9 in. deep.
+
+  _Rake Dredges._--These are devices for collecting burrowing creatures
+  without filling the dredge with the soil in which they live. Holt
+  used, at Plymouth, a dredge whose side bars and lower lip were of
+  iron, the latter armed with forward and downward pointing teeth which
+  stirred up the sand and its denizens in front of the dredge mouth. The
+  upper lip of the dredge was replaced by a bar of wood. The bag was of
+  cheese-cloth or light open canvas, and the whole was of light
+  construction. The apparatus was very useful in capturing small
+  burrowing crustacea. The Chester rake dredge is a Blake dredge in
+  front of which is secured a heavy iron rectangle with teeth placed
+  almost at right angles to its long sides and in the plane of the
+  rectangle. Each of these instruments has a width along the scraping
+  edge of about 3 ft.
+
+  _Triangular and Conical Dredges._--Two other dredges are worthy of
+  mention. The triangular dredge, much resembling Müller's but with a
+  triangular mouth, and hung by chains from its angles, is an old
+  fashion now not in general use. It is, however, very useful for rocky
+  ground. At the Plymouth marine laboratory was also devised the conical
+  dredge (1901), the circular form being the suggestion of Garstang.
+  This dredge (fig. 16) was intended for digging deeply. It is of
+  wrought iron, and of the following dimensions: diameter of mouth 16
+  in., length 33 in., depth of ring at mouth 9 in. Its weight is 67
+  lb. As at first used the spaces between the bars are closed by wire
+  netting; if used for collecting bottom samples it is furnished with a
+  lining of strong sail-cloth.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Conical Dredge being hoisted in.]
+
+  Its weight and the small length of edge in contact with the ground
+  cause this dredge to dig well, and enable the user to obtain many
+  objects which though quite common are of rare occurrence in an
+  ordinary dredge. Thus on the Brown Ridges, a fishing-ground west of
+  Holland, although _Donax vittalus_ is known from examination of fish
+  stomachs to be abundant, it is rarely taken except in the conical
+  dredge: the same is true of _Echinocyamus pusillus_, which is in many
+  parts of the North Sea abundant in bottom samples and in no ordinary
+  dredgings. With the sail-cloth lining the conical dredge fills in
+  about 10 minutes on most ground, and no material washing out of fine
+  sediment occurs on hauling. In shallow seas such as the North Sea
+  commercial beam and other trawls are now used as quantitative
+  instruments in the estimation of the fish population, especially of
+  the _Pleuronectidae_.
+
+  _Use of Small Trawls for Dredging._--Although these trawls do not here
+  concern us, certain adaptations of small beam trawls for biological
+  exploration are of such identical use with the dredge, and differ from
+  it so little in structure and size, that they may be here described.
+
+  A small beam trawl was first used from the "Challenger" (fig. 17). It
+  was sent down in 600 fathoms off Cape St Vincent, the reason for its
+  use being the frequency with which the dredge sank into the sea-bottom
+  and there remained until hauling. The experiment was entirely
+  successful. The sinking of the net was avoided, the net had a much
+  greater spread than the dredge, and in addition to invertebrates it
+  captured several fish. After this the trawl was frequently used
+  instead of the dredge. Indeed tangle bar, dredge and trawl form a
+  series which are fitted for use on the roughest, moderately rough and
+  fairly firm, and the softest ground respectively, although the dredge
+  can be used almost anywhere.
+
+  [Illustration: From Sir Charles Wyville Thomson's _Voyage of the
+  "Challenger."_ By permission of Macmillan & Co., Ltd
+
+  FIG. 17.--Trawl of the "Challenger."]
+
+  The frame of the "Challenger" trawl consisted of a 15 ft. wooden beam
+  which in use was drawn over the sea-bed on two runners resembling
+  those of a sledge, by means of two ropes or bridles attached to eyes
+  in the front of the runners or "trawl heads." A net 30 ft. long was
+  suspended by one side to the beam by half-a-dozen stops. The remainder
+  of the net's mouth was of much greater length than the beam, and was
+  weighted with close-set rolls of sheet lead; it thus dragged along the
+  bottom in a curve approximately to a semicircle, behind the beam. The
+  net tapers towards the hinder end, and contains a second net with open
+  bottom, which, reaching about three-quarters of the way down the main
+  net, acts as a valve or pocket. Both heels (or hinder ends) of the
+  trawl heads and the tail of the net were weighted to assist the net in
+  digging sufficiently and to maintain its balance--an important point,
+  since if the trawl lands on its beam the net's mouth remains closed,
+  and nothing is caught.
+
+  The main differences of this trawl from the dredge are the replacement
+  of scraping lip by ground rope, the position of this ground rope and
+  the greater size of the mouth. The absence of a lip makes it less
+  effective for burrowing and sessile creatures, but the weighted ground
+  rope nevertheless secures them to a very surprising extent. The
+  position of the ground rope is an important feature, as any free
+  swimming creature not disturbed until the arrival of the ground rope
+  cannot escape by simply rising or "striking" up. This and the greater
+  spread make the trawl especially suitable for the collection of fishes
+  and other swiftly moving animals. The first haul of the "Challenger"
+  trawl brought up fishes, and most of our knowledge of fish of the
+  greatest depths is due to it.
+
+  A tendency to return to the use of the small beam trawl for deep-sea
+  work has lately shown itself. That used by Tanner on the "Albatross"
+  has runners more heart-shaped than the "Challenger's" instrument; the
+  net is fastened to the downward and backward sloping edge of the
+  runner as well as to the beam, being thus fixed on three sides instead
+  of one; and a Norwegian glass float is fastened in a network cover to
+  that part of the net which is above and in front of the ground rope in
+  use, to assist in keeping the opening clear. These floats can stand
+  the pressure at great depths, and do not become waterlogged as do cork
+  floats. The largest "Albatross" trawl has a beam 11 ft. long, runners
+  2 ft. 5 in. high, and its frame weighs 275 lb.
+
+  _Agassiz or Blake Trawl._--This is generally considered to possess
+  advantages over the preceding, and is decidedly better for those not
+  experts in trawling. Its frame (fig. 18) consists of two iron runners
+  each the shape of a capital letter D, joined by iron rods or pipes
+  which connect the middle of each stroke with the corresponding point
+  on the other letter. The net is a tapering one, its mouth being a
+  strong rope bound with finer rope for protection till the whole
+  reaches a thickness of some 2 in. It is fastened to the frame at four
+  points only, the ends of the curved rods, and thus has a rectangular
+  opening.
+
+  [Illustration: From Alexander E. Agassiz's _Three Cruises of the
+  "Blake."_ By permission of Houghton, Mifflin & Co.
+
+  FIG. 18.--Agassiz or Blake Trawl.]
+
+  The chief advantage of this frame is that it does not matter in the
+  least which side lands first on the bottom; it is to the other trawls
+  what Ball's dredge is to an oyster dredge. The course can also be
+  altered during shooting or towing the Blake trawl with far greater
+  ease than is the case with others. An Agassiz trawl very successful in
+  the North Sea has the following dimensions: length of the connecting
+  rods and therefore of the mouth 8 ft., height of runners and of mouth
+  1 ft. 9 in., extreme length of runners 2 ft., length of net 11 ft. 3
+  in., weight of whole trawl 94 lb., 63 of which are due to the frame.
+
+It is instructive to note how closely our knowledge of bottom-living
+forms has been associated with the instruments of capture in use. As
+long as small vessels were used in dredging, the belief that life was
+limited to the regions accessible to them was widely spread. The first
+known denizens of great depths were the foraminifera and few echinoderms
+brought up by various sounding apparatus. Next with the dredge and
+tangles the number of groups obtained was much greater. As soon as
+trawls were adopted fish began to make their appearance. The greatest
+gaps in our knowledge still probably occur in the large and swiftly
+moving forms, such as fish and cephalopods. As we can hardly hope to
+move apparatus swiftly over the bottom in great depths, the way in which
+improvement is possible probably is that of increasing the spread of the
+nets; and a start in this direction appears to have been made by Dr
+Petersen, who has devised a modified otter sieve which catches fish at
+all events very well, and has been operated already at considerable
+depths.
+
+Of the economy of quite shallow seas, however, we are still largely
+ignorant. Much as has been learnt of the bionomics of the sea, it is but
+a commencement; and this is of course especially true of deep seas. The
+dredge and its kindred have, however, in less than a century enabled
+naturalists to compile an immense mass of knowledge of the structure,
+development, affinities and distribution of the animals of the sea-bed,
+and in the most accessible seas to produce enumerations and
+morphological accounts of them of some approach to completeness.
+     (J. O. B.)
+
+
+
+
+DRELINCOURT, CHARLES (1595-1669), French Protestant divine, was born at
+Sedan on the 10th of July 1595. In 1618 he undertook the charge of the
+French Protestant church at Langres, but failed to receive the necessary
+royal sanction, and early in 1620 he removed to Paris, where he was
+nominated minister of the Reformed Church at Charenton. He was the
+author of a large number of works in devotional and polemical theology,
+several of which had great influence. His _Catechism_ (_Catéchisme ou
+instruction familière_, 1652) and his _Christian's Defense against the
+Fears of Death_ (_Consolations de l'âme fidèle contre les frayeurs de la
+mort, 1651_) became well known in England by means of translations,
+which were very frequently reprinted. It has been said that Daniel Defoe
+wrote his fiction of Mrs Veal (_A True Relation of the Apparition of Mrs
+Veal_), who came from the other world to recommend the perusal of
+_Drelincourt on Death_, for the express purpose of promoting the sale of
+an English translation of the _Consolations_; Defoe's contribution is
+added to the fourth edition of the translation (1706). Another popular
+work of his was _Les Visites charitables pour toutes sortes de personnes
+affligées_ (1669). Drelincourt's controversial works were numerous.
+Directed entirely against Roman Catholicism, they did much to strengthen
+and consolidate the Protestant party in France. He died on the 3rd of
+November 1669.
+
+Several of his sons were distinguished as theologians or physicians.
+Laurent (1626-1681) became a pastor, and was the author of _Sonnets
+chrétiens sur divers sujets_ (1677); Charles (1633-1697) was professor
+of physic at the university of Leiden, and physician to the prince of
+Orange; Peter (1644-1722) was ordained a priest in the Church of
+England, and became dean of Armagh.
+
+
+
+
+DRENTE, a province of Holland, bounded N. and N.E. by Groningen, S.E. by
+the Prussian province of Hanover, S. and S.W. by Overysel, and N.W. by
+Friesland; area, 1128 sq. m.; pop. (1900) 149,551. The province of
+Drente is a sandy plateau forming the kernel of the surrounding
+provinces. The soil consists almost entirely of sand and gravel, and is
+covered with bleak moorland, patches of wood, and fen. This is only
+varied by the strip of fertile clay and grass-land which is found along
+the banks of the rivers, and by the areas of high fen in the
+south-eastern corner and on the western borders near Assen. The surface
+of the province is a gentle slope from the south-west towards the
+north-east, where it terminates in the long ridge of hills known as the
+Hondsrug (Dog's Back) extending along the eastern border into Groningen.
+The watershed of the province runs from east to west across the middle
+of the province, along the line of the Orange canal. The southern
+streams are all collected at two points on the southern borders, namely,
+at Meppel and Koevorden, whence they communicate with the Zwarte Water
+and the Vecht respectively by means of the Meppeler Diep and the
+Koevorden canal. The Steenwyker Aa, however, enters the Zuider Zee
+independently. The northern rivers all flow into Groningen. The piles of
+granite rocks somewhat in the shape of cromlechs which are found
+scattered about this province, and especially along the western edge of
+the Hondsrug, have long been named _Hunebedden_, from a popular
+superstition that they were "Huns' beds." Possibly the word originally
+meant "beds of the dead," or tombs.
+
+Two industries have for centuries been associated with the barren heaths
+and sodden fens so usually found together on the sand-grounds, namely,
+the cultivation of buckwheat and peat-digging. The work is conducted on
+a regular system of fen colonization, the first operation being directed
+towards the drainage of the country. This is effected by means of
+drainage canals cut at regular intervals and connected by means of cross
+ditches. These draining ditches all have their issue in a main drainage
+canal, along which the transport of the peat and peat-litter takes place
+and the houses of the colonists are built. The heathlands when
+sufficiently drained are prepared for cultivation by being cut into sods
+and burnt. This system appears to have been practised already at the end
+of the 17th century. After eight years, however, the soil becomes
+exhausted, and twenty to thirty years are required for its
+refertilization. The cultivation of buckwheat on these grounds has
+decreased, and large areas which were formerly thus treated now lie
+waste. Potatoes, rye, oats, beans and peas are also largely cultivated.
+In connexion with the cultivation of potatoes, factories are established
+for making spirits, treacle, potato-meal, and straw-paper. Furthermore,
+agriculture is everywhere accompanied on the sand-grounds by the rearing
+of sheep and cattle, which assist in fertilizing the soil. Owing to the
+meagreness of their food these animals are usually thin and small, but
+are quickly restored when placed on richer grounds. The breeding of pigs
+is also widely practised on the sand-grounds, as well as forest culture.
+Of the fen-colonies in Drente the best known are those of Frederiksoord
+and Veenhuizen.
+
+Owing to the general condition of poverty which prevailed after the
+French evacuation in the second decade of the 19th century, attention
+was turned to the means of industry offered by the unreclaimed
+heath-lands in the eastern provinces, and in 1818 the Society of Charity
+(_Maatschappij van Weldadigheid_) was formed with Count van den Bosch at
+its head. This society began by establishing the free agricultural
+colony of Frederiksoord, about 10 m. N. of Meppel, named after Prince
+Frederick, son of William I., king of the Netherlands. An industrious
+colonist could purchase a small farm on the estate and make himself
+independent in two years. In addition to this, various industries were
+set on foot for the benefit of those who were not capable of field work,
+such as mat and rope making, and jute and cotton weaving. In later times
+forest culture was added, and the Gerard Adriaan van Swieten schools of
+forestry, agriculture and horticulture were established by Major van
+Swieten in memory of his son. A Reformed and a Roman Catholic church are
+also attached to the colony. To this colony the Society of Charity later
+added the adjoining colonies of Willemsoord and Kolonie VII. in
+Overysel, and Wilhelminasoord partly in Friesland. The colony of
+Veenhuizen lies about 7 m. N.W. of Assen, and was founded by the same
+society in 1823. In 1859, however, the Veenhuizen estates were sold to
+the government for the purpose of a penal establishment for drunkards
+and beggars.
+
+Owing to its geographical isolation, the development of Drente has
+remained behind that of every other province in the Netherlands, and
+there are few centres of any importance, either agricultural or
+industrial. Hence the character and customs of the people have remained
+peculiarly conservative. Assen is the chief town. In the south Meppel
+and Koevorden absorb the largest amount of trade. Hoogeveen, situated
+between these two, owes its origin to the fen reclamation which was
+begun here in 1625 by Baron van Echten. In the following year it was
+erected into a barony which lasted till 1795. The original industry has
+long since moved onwards to other parts, but the town remains a
+prosperous market centre, and has a considerable industrial activity.
+Extensive fir woods have been laid out in the neighbourhood. Zuidlaren
+is a picturesque village at the northern end of the Hondsrug, with an
+important market. The railway from Amsterdam to Groningen traverses
+Drente; branch lines connect Meppel with Leeuwarden and Assen with
+Delfzÿl.
+
+_History._--The early history of Drente is obscure. That it was
+inhabited at a remote date is proved by the prehistoric sepulchral
+mounds, the _Hunebedden_ already mentioned. In the 5th and 6th centuries
+the country was overrun by Saxon tribes, and later on was governed by
+counts under the Frankish and German kings. Of these only three are
+recorded, Eberhard (943-944), Balderic (1006) and Temmo (1025). In 1046
+the emperor Henry III. gave the countship to the bishop and chapter of
+Utrecht, who governed it through the burgrave, or châtelain, of
+Koevorden, a dignity which became hereditary after 1143 in the family of
+Ludolf or Roelof, brother of Heribert of Bierum, bishop of Utrecht
+(1138-1150). This family became extinct in the male line about 1232, and
+was succeeded by Henry I. of Borculo (1232-1261), who had married the
+heiress of Roelof III. of Koevorden. In 1395 Reinald IV. (d. 1410) of
+Borculo-Koevorden was deposed by Bishop Frederick of Utrecht, and the
+country was henceforth administered by an episcopal official
+(_amptman_), who was, however, generally a native. With its popularly
+elected assembly of twenty-four Etten (_jurati_) Drente remained
+practically independent. This state of things continued till 1522, when
+it was conquered by Duke Charles of Gelderland, from whom it was taken
+by the emperor Charles V. in 1536, and became part of the Habsburg
+dominions.
+
+Drente took part in the revolt of the Netherlands, and being a district
+covered by waste heath and moor was, on account of its poverty and
+sparse population, not admitted into the union as a separate province,
+and it had no voice in the assembly of the states-general. It was
+subdued by the Spaniards in 1580, but reconquered by Maurice of Nassau
+in 1594. During the years that followed, Drente, though unrepresented in
+the states-general, retained its local independence and had its own
+stadtholder. William Louis of Nassau-Siegen (d. 1620) held that office,
+and it was held later by Maurice, Frederick Henry, William II. and
+William III., princes of Orange. At the general assembly of 1651 Drente
+put forward its claim to admission as a province, but was not admitted.
+After the deaths of William II. (1650) and of William III. (1702) Drente
+remained for a term of years without a stadtholder, but in 1722 William
+Charles Henry of the house of Nassau-Siegen, who, through the extinction
+of the elder line, had become prince of Orange, was elected stadtholder.
+His descendants held that office, which was declared hereditary, until
+the French conquest in 1795. In the following year Drente at length
+obtained the privilege, which it had long sought, of being reckoned as
+an eighth province with representation in the states-general. Between
+1806 and 1813 Drente, with the rest of the Netherlands, was incorporated
+in the French empire, and, with part of Groningen, formed the department
+of Ems Occidental. With the accession of William I. as king of the
+Netherlands it was restored to its old position as a province of the new
+kingdom.
+
+
+
+
+DRESDEN, a city of Germany, capital of the kingdom of Saxony, 71 m.
+E.S.E. from Leipzig and 111 m. S. from Berlin by railway. It lies at an
+altitude of 402 ft. above the Baltic, in a broad and pleasant valley on
+both banks of the Elbe. The prospect of the city with its cupolas,
+towers, spires and the copper green roofs of its palaces, as seen from
+the distance, is one of striking beauty. On the left bank of the river
+are the Altstadt (old town) with four old suburbs and numerous new
+suburbs, and the Friedrichstadt (separated from the Altstadt by a long
+railway viaduct); on the right, the Neustadt (new town), Antonstadt, and
+the modern military suburb Alberstadt. Five fine bridges connect the
+Altstadt and Neustadt. The beautiful central bridge--the Alte or
+Augustusbrücke--with 16 arches, built in 1727-1731, and 1420 ft. long,
+has been demolished (1906) and replaced by a wider structure. Up-stream
+are the two modern Albert and Königin Carola bridges, and, down-stream,
+the Marien and the Eisenbahn (railway) bridges. The streets of the
+Alstadt are mostly narrow and somewhat gloomy, those of the Neustadt
+more spacious and regular.
+
+On account of its delightful situation and the many objects of interest
+it contains, Dresden is often called "German Florence," a name first
+applied to it by the poet Herder. The richness of its art treasures, the
+educational advantages it offers, and its attractive surroundings render
+it a favourite resort of people with private means. There are a large
+number of foreign residents, notably Austro-Hungarians and Russians, and
+also a considerable colony of English and Americans, the latter
+amounting to about 1500. The population of the city on the 1st of
+December 1905 was 516,996, of whom 358,776 lived on the left bank
+(Altstadt) and 158,220 on the right (Neustadt). The royal house belongs
+to the Roman Catholic confession, but the bulk of the inhabitants are
+Lutheran Protestants.
+
+Dresden is the residence of the king, the seat of government for the
+kingdom of Saxony, and the headquarters of the XII. (Saxon) Army Corps.
+Within two decades (1880-1900) the capital almost at a single bound
+advanced into the front rank of German commercial and industrial towns;
+but while gaining in prosperity it has lost much of its medieval aspect.
+Old buildings in the heart of the Altstadt have been swept away, and
+their place occupied by modern business houses and new streets. Among
+the public squares in the Altstadt must be mentioned the magnificent
+Theaterplatz, with a fine equestrian statue of King John, by Schilling;
+the Altmarkt, with a monument commemorative of the war of 1870-71; the
+Neumarkt, with a bronze statue of King Frederick Augustus II., by E. J.
+Hähnel; the Postplatz, adorned by a Gothic fountain, by Semper; and the
+Bismarckplatz in the Anglo-American quarter. In the Neustadt are the
+market square, with a bronze equestrian statue of Augustus the Strong;
+the Kaiser Wilhelmplatz; and the Albertplatz. The continuous Schloss-,
+See- and Prager-Strasse, and the Wilsdruffer- and König Johann-Strasse
+are the main streets in the Altstadt, and the Hauptstrasse in the
+Neustadt.
+
+The most imposing churches include the Roman Catholic Hofkirche, built
+(1739-1751) by C. Chiaveri, in rococo style, with a tower 300 ft. high.
+It contains a fine organ by Silbermann and pictures by Raphael Mengs and
+other artists, the outside being adorned with 59 statues by Mattielli.
+On the Neumarkt is the Frauenkirche, with a stone cupola rising to the
+height of 311 ft.; close to the Altmarkt, the Kreuzkirche, rebuilt after
+destruction by fire in 1897, also with a lofty tower surmounted by a
+cupola; and near the Postplatz the Sophienkirche, with twin spires. In
+the Neustadt is the Dreikönigskirche (dating from the 18th century) with
+a high pinnacled tower. Among more modern churches may be mentioned: in
+the Altstadt, the Johanneskirche, with a richly decorated interior; the
+Lukaskirche; and the Trinitatiskirche; and in the Neustadt, the Martin
+Luther-Kirche and the new garrison church. Apart from the chapels in the
+royal palaces, Dresden contains in all 32 churches, viz. 21 Evangelical,
+6 Roman Catholic, a Reformed, a Russian, an English (erected by Gilbert
+Scott) with a graceful spire, a Scottish (Presbyterian), and an American
+(Episcopal) church, the last a handsome building, with a pretty
+parsonage attached.
+
+Of secular buildings, the most noteworthy are grouped in the Altstadt
+near the river. The royal palace, built in 1530-1535 by Duke George (and
+thus called Georgenschloss), was thoroughly restored, and in some
+measure rebuilt between 1890 and 1902, in German Renaissance style, and
+is now an exceedingly handsome structure. The Georgentor has been
+widened, and through it, and beneath the royal apartments, vehicular
+traffic from the centre of the town is directed to the Augustusbrücke.
+The whole is surmounted by a lofty tower--387 ft.--the highest in
+Dresden. The interior is splendidly decorated. In the palace chapel are
+pictures by Rembrandt, Nicolas Poussin, Guido Reni and Annibale Caracci.
+The adjoining Prinzen-Palais on the Taschenberg, built in 1715, has a
+fine chapel, in which are various works of S. Torelli; it has also a
+library of 20,000 volumes. The Zwinger, begun in 1711, and built in the
+rococo style, forms an enclosure, within which is a statue of King
+Frederick Augustus I. It was intended to be the vestibule to a palace,
+but now contains a number of collections of great value. Until 1846 it
+was open at the north side; but this space has since been occupied by
+the museum, a beautiful Renaissance building, the exterior of which is
+adorned by statues of Michelangelo, Raphael, Giotto, Dante, Goethe and
+other artists and poets by Rietschel and Hähnel, and it contains the
+famous picture gallery. The Brühl palace, built in 1737 by Count Brühl,
+the minister of Augustus II., has been in some measure demolished to
+make room for the new Ständehaus (diet house), with its main façade
+facing the Hofkirche; before the main entrance there is an equestrian
+statue (1906) of King Albert. Close by is the Brühl Terrace, approached
+by a fine flight of steps, on which are groups, by Schilling,
+representing Morning, Evening, Day and Night. The terrace commands a
+view of the Elbe and the distant heights of Loschwitz and the Weisser
+Hirsch, but the prospect has of late years become somewhat marred, owing
+to the extension of the town up the river and to the two new up-stream
+bridges. The Japanese palace in the Neustadt, built in 1715 as a summer
+residence for Augustus II., receives its name from certain oriental
+figures with which it is decorated; it is sometimes called the Augusteum
+and contains the royal library. Among other buildings of note is the
+Hoftheatre, a magnificent edifice in the Renaissance style, built after
+the designs of Semper, to replace the theatre burnt in 1869, and
+completed in 1878. A new town hall of huge dimensions, also in German
+Renaissance, with an octagon tower 400 ft. in height, stands on the
+former southern ramparts of the inner town, close to the Kreuzkirche. In
+the Altstadt the most striking of the newer edifices is the
+Kunstakademie, constructed from designs by K. Lipsius in the Italian
+Renaissance style, 1890-1894. The Albertinum, formerly the arsenal,
+built in 1559-1563, was rebuilt 1884-1889, and fitted up as a museum of
+oriental and classical antiquities, and as the depository of the state
+archives. On the right bank of the Elbe in Neustadt stand the fine
+buildings of the ministries of war, of finance, justice, the interior
+and education. The public monuments of Dresden also include the Moritz
+Monument, a relief dedicated by the elector Augustus to his brother
+Maurice, a statue of Weber the composer by Rietschel, a bronze statue of
+Theodor Körner by Hähnel, the Rietschel monument on the Brühl Terrace by
+Schilling, a bust of Gutzkow, and a statue of Bismarck on the promenade.
+In the suburbs which encircle the old town are to be noted the vast
+central Hauptbahnhof (1893-1898) occupying the site of the old
+Böhmischer railway station, the new premises of the municipal hospital
+and the Ausstellungs-Halle (exhibition buildings).
+
+The chief pleasure-ground of Dresden is the Grosser Garten, in which
+there are a summer theatre, the Reitschel museum, and a château
+containing a museum of antiquities. The latter is composed chiefly of
+objects removed from the churches in consequence of the Reformation.
+Near the château is the zoological garden, formed in 1860, and
+excellently arranged. A little to the south of Dresden, on the left bank
+of the Elbe, is the village Räcknitz, in which is Moreau's monument,
+erected on the spot where he was mortally wounded in 1813. The mountains
+of Saxon Switzerland are seen from this neighbourhood.
+
+_Art._--Dresden owes a large part of its fame to its extensive artistic,
+literary and scientific collections. Of these the most valuable is its
+splendid picture gallery, founded by Augustus I. and increased by his
+successors at great cost. It is in the museum, and contains about 2500
+pictures, being especially rich in specimens of the Italian, Dutch and
+Flemish schools. The gem of the collection is Raphael's "Madonna di San
+Sisto," for which a room is set apart. There is also a special room for
+the "Madonna" of the younger Holbein. Other paintings with which the
+name of the gallery is generally associated are Correggio's "La Notte"
+and "Mary Magdalene"; Titian's "Tribute Money" and "Venus"; "The
+Adoration" and "The Marriage in Cana," by Paul Veronese; Andrea del
+Sarto's "Abraham's Sacrifice"; Rembrandt's "Portrait of Himself with his
+Wife sitting on his Knee"; "The Judgment of Paris" and "The Boar Hunt,"
+by Rubens; Van Dyck's "Charles I., his Queen, and their Children."
+
+Of modern painters, this magnificent collection contains masterpieces by
+Defregger, Vautier, Makart, Munkacsy, Fritz von Uhde, Böcklin, Hans
+Thoma; portraits by Leon Pohle, Delaroche and Sargent; landscapes by
+Andreas and Oswald Achenbach and allegorical works by Sascha Schneider.
+In separate compartments there are a number of crayon portraits, most of
+them by Rosalba Carriera, and views of Dresden by Canaletto and other
+artists. Besides the picture gallery the museum includes a magnificent
+collection of engravings and drawings. There are upwards of 400,000
+specimens, arranged in twelve classes, so as to mark the great epochs in
+the history of art. A collection of casts, likewise in the museum, is
+designed to display the progress of plastic art from the time of the
+Egyptians and Assyrians to modern ages. This collection was begun by
+Raphael Mengs, who secured casts of the most valuable antiques in Italy,
+some of which no longer exist.
+
+The Japanese palace contains a public library of more than 400,000
+volumes, with about 3000 MSS. and 20,000 maps. It is especially rich in
+the ancient classics, and in works bearing on literary history and the
+history of Germany, Poland and France. There are also a valuable cabinet
+of coins and a collection of ancient works of art. A collection of
+porcelain in the "Museum Johanneum" (which once contained the picture
+gallery) is made up of specimens of Chinese, Japanese, East Indian,
+Sèvres and Meissen manufacture, carefully arranged in chronological
+order. There is in the same building an excellent Historical Museum. In
+the Grüne Gewölbe (Green Vault) of the Royal Palace, so called from the
+character of its original decorations, there is an unequalled collection
+of precious stones, pearls and works of art in gold, silver, amber and
+ivory. The objects, which are about 3000 in number, are arranged in
+eight rooms. They include the regalia of Augustus II. as king of Poland;
+the electoral sword of Saxony; a group by Dinglinger, in gold and
+enamel, representing the court of the grand mogul Aurungzebe, and
+consisting of 132 figures upon a plate of silver 4 ft. 4 in. square; the
+largest onyx known, 6-2/3 in. by 2¼ in.; a pearl representing the dwarf
+of Charles II. of Spain; and a green brilliant weighing 40 carats. The
+royal palace also has a gallery of arms consisting of more than 2000
+weapons of artistic or historical value. In the Zwinger are the
+zoological and mineralogical museums and a collection of instruments
+used in mathematical and physical science. Among other collections is
+that of the Körner museum with numerous reminiscences of the
+Goethe-Schiller epoch, and of the wars of liberation (1813-15), and
+containing valuable manuscripts and relics. Founded by Hofrath Dr Emil
+Peschel, it has passed into the possession of the city.
+
+_Education._--Dresden is the seat of a number of well-known scientific
+associations. The educational institutions are numerous and of a high
+order, including a technical high school (with about 1100 students),
+which enjoys the privilege of conferring the degrees of doctor of
+engineering, doctor of technical sciences, &c., a veterinary college, a
+political-economic institution (Gehestiftung), with library, a school of
+architects, a royal and four municipal gymnasia, numerous lower grade
+and popular schools, the royal conservatorium for music and drama, and a
+celebrated academy of painting. Dresden has several important hospitals,
+asylums and other charitable institutions.
+
+_Music and the Theatres._--Besides the two royal theatres, Dresden
+possesses several minor theatres and music halls. The pride of place in
+the world of music is held by the orchestra attached to the court
+theatre. Founded by Augustus II., it has become famous throughout the
+world, owing to the masters who have from time to time been associated
+with it--such as Paër, Weber, Reissiger and Wagner. Symphony and popular
+concerts are held throughout the year in various public halls, and,
+during the winter, concerts of church music are frequently given in the
+Protestant Kreuz- and Frauen-Kirchen, and on Sundays in the Roman
+Catholic church.
+
+_Communications and Industries._--Dresden lies at the centre of an
+extensive railway system, which places it in communication with the
+chief cities of northern and central Germany as well as with Austria and
+the East. Here cross the grand trunk lines Berlin-Vienna,
+Chemnitz-Görlitz-Breslau. It is connected by two lines of railway with
+Leipzig and by local lines with neighbouring smaller towns. The
+navigation on the Elbe has of recent years largely developed, and, in
+addition to trade by river with Bohemia and Magdeburg-Hamburg, there is
+a considerable pleasure-boat traffic during the summer months. The
+communications within the city are maintained by an excellent system of
+electric trams, which bring the more distant suburbs into easy connexion
+with the business centre. A considerable business is done on the
+exchange, chiefly in local industrial shares, and the financial
+institutions number some fifty banks, among them branches of the Reichs
+Bank and of the Deutsche Bank. Among the more notable industries may be
+mentioned the manufacture of china (see CERAMICS), of gold and silver
+ornaments, cigarettes, chocolate, coloured postcards, perfumery,
+straw-plaiting, artificial flowers, agricultural machinery, paper,
+photographic and other scientific instruments. There are several great
+breweries; corn trade is carried on, and an extensive business is done
+in books and objects of art.
+
+_Surroundings._--The environs of the city are delightful. To the north
+are the vine-clad hills of the Lössnitz commanding views of the valley
+of the Elbe from Dresden to Meissen; behind them, on an island in a
+lake, is the castle of Moritzburg, the hunting box of the king of
+Saxony. On the right bank of the Elbe, 3 m. above the city, lies the
+village of Loschwitz, where Schiller, in the summer of 1786, wrote the
+greater part of his _Don Carlos_: above it on the fringe of the Dresdner
+Heide, the climatic health resort Weisser-Hirsch; farther up the river
+towards Pirna the royal summer palace Pillnitz; to the south the
+Plauensche Grund, and still farther the Rabenauer Grund.
+
+_History._--Dresden (Old Slav _Drezga_, forest, _Drezgajan_,
+forest-dwellers), which is known to have existed in 1206, is of Slavonic
+origin, and was originally founded on the right bank of the Elbe, on the
+site of the present Neustadt, which is thus actually the _old_ town. It
+became the capital of Henry the Illustrious, margrave of Meissen, in
+1270, but belonged for some time after his death, first to Wenceslaus of
+Bohemia, and next to the margrave of Brandenburg. Early in the 14th
+century it was restored to the margrave of Meissen. On the division of
+Saxony in 1485 it fell to the Albertine line, which has since held it.
+Having been burned almost to the ground in 1491, it was rebuilt; and in
+the 16th century the fortifications were begun and gradually extended.
+John George II., in the 17th century, formed the Grosser Garten, and
+otherwise greatly improved the town; but it was in the first half of the
+18th century, under Augustus I. and Augustus II., who were kings of
+Poland as well as electors of Saxony, that Dresden assumed something
+like its present appearance. The Neustadt, which had been burned down in
+the 17th century, was founded anew by Augustus I.; he also founded
+Friedrichstadt. The town suffered severely during the Seven Years' War,
+being bombarded in 1760. Some damage was also inflicted on it in 1813,
+when Napoleon made it the centre of his operations; one of the
+buttresses and two arches of the old bridge were then blown up. The
+dismantling of the fortifications had been begun by the French in 1810,
+and was gradually completed after 1817, the space occupied by them being
+appropriated to gardens and promenades. Many buildings were completed or
+founded by King Anthony, from whom Antonstadt derives its name. Dresden
+again suffered severely during the revolution of 1849, but all traces of
+the disturbances which then took place were soon effaced. In 1866 it was
+occupied by the Prussians, who did not finally evacuate it until the
+spring of the following year. Since that time numerous improvements have
+been carried out.
+
+  See Lindau, _Geschichte der Haupt- und Residenzstadt Dresden_ (2
+  vols., Dresden, 1884-1885); Prölss, _Geschichte des Hoftheaters in
+  Dresden_ (Dresden, 1877); Schumann, _Führer durch die königl.
+  Sammlungen zu Dresden_ (1903); Woerl, _Führer durch Dresden_; Daniel,
+  _Deutschland_ (1894).
+
+
+BATTLE OF DRESDEN. The battle of Dresden, the last of the great
+victories of Napoleon, was fought on the 26th and 27th of August 1813.
+The intervention of Austria in the War of Liberation, and the consequent
+advance of the Allies under the Austrian field-marshal Prince
+Schwarzenberg from Prague upon Dresden, recalled Napoleon from Silesia,
+where he was engaged against the Prussians and Russians under Blücher.
+Only by a narrow margin of time, indeed, was he able to bring back
+sufficient troops for the first day's battle. He detached a column under
+Vandamme to the mountains to interpose between Schwarzenberg and Prague
+(see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS); the rest of the army pressed on by forced
+marches for Dresden, around which a position for the whole army had been
+chosen and fortified, though at the moment this was held by less than
+20,000 men under Gouvion St Cyr, who retired thither from the mountains,
+leaving a garrison in Königstein, and had repeatedly sent reports to the
+emperor as to the allied masses gathering to the southward. The battle
+of the first day began late in the afternoon, for Schwarzenberg waited
+as long as possible for the corps of Klenau, which formed his extreme
+left wing on the Freiberg road. At last, about 6 p.m. he decided to wait
+no longer, and six heavy columns of attack advanced against the suburbs
+defended by St Cyr and now also by the leading troops of the main army.
+Three hundred guns covered the assault, and Dresden was set on fire in
+places by the cannonade, while the French columns marched unceasingly
+over the bridges and through the Altstadt. On the right the Russians
+under Wittgenstein advanced from Striesen, the Prussians under Kleist
+through the Grosser Garten, whilst Prussians under Prince Augustus and
+Austrians under Colloredo moved upon the Moczinski redoubt, which was
+the scene of the most desperate fighting, and was repeatedly taken and
+retaken. The attack to the westward was carried out by the other
+Austrian corps; Klenau, however, was still far distant. In the end, the
+French defences remained unshaken. Ney led a counter-attack against the
+Allies' left, the Moczinski redoubt was definitely recaptured from
+Colloredo, and the Prussians were driven out of the Grosser Garten. The
+_coup_ of the Allies had failed, for every hour saw the arrival of fresh
+forces on the side of Napoleon, and at length the Austrian leader drew
+off his men to the heights again. He was prepared to fight another
+battle on the morrow--indeed he could scarcely have avoided it had he
+wished to do so, for behind him lay the mountain defiles, towards which
+Vandamme was marching with all speed.
+
+[Illustration: Emery Walker sc.]
+
+Napoleon's plan for the 27th was, as usual, simple in its outline. As at
+Friedland, a ravine separated a part of the hostile line of battle from
+the rest. The villages west of the Plauen ravine and even Löbda were
+occupied in the early morning by General Metzko with the leading
+division of Klenau's corps from Freiberg, and upon Metzko Napoleon
+intended first to throw the weight of his attack, giving to Victor's
+infantry and the cavalry of Murat, king of Naples, the task of
+overwhelming the isolated Austrians. The centre, aided by the defences
+of the Dresden suburbs, could hold its own, as the events of the 26th
+had shown, the left, now under Ney, with whom served Kellermann's
+cavalry and the Young Guard, was to attack Wittgenstein's Russians on
+the Pirna road. Thus, for once, Napoleon decided to attack both flanks
+of the enemy. His motives in so doing have been much discussed by the
+critics; Vandamme's movements, it may be suggested, contributed to the
+French emperor's plan, which if carried out would open the Pirna road.
+Still, the left attack may have had a purely tactical object, for in
+that quarter was the main body of the Prussians and Russians, and
+Napoleon's method was always to concentrate the fury of the attack on
+the heaviest masses of the enemy, i.e. the best target for his own
+artillery. A very heavy rainstorm during the night seriously affected
+the movements of troops on the following day, but all to Napoleon's
+advantage, for his more mobile artillery, reinforced by every horse
+available in and about Dresden, was still able to move where the Allied
+guns sank in mud. Further, if the cavalry had to walk, or at most trot,
+through the fields the opposing infantry was almost always unable to
+fire their muskets. "You cannot fire; surrender," said Murat to an
+Austrian battalion in the battle. "Never," they replied; "you cannot
+charge us." On the appearance of Murat's horse artillery, however, they
+had to surrender at once. Under such conditions, Metzko, unsupported
+either by Klenau or the main army beyond the ravine, was an easy victim.
+Victor from Löbda drove in the advanced posts and assaulted the line of
+villages Wolfnitz-Töltschen; Metzko had to retire to the higher ground
+S.W. of the first line, and Murat, with an overwhelming cavalry force
+from Cotta and Burgstädl, outflanked his left, broke up whole
+battalions, and finally, with the assistance of the renewed frontal
+attack of Victor's infantry, annihilated the division. The Austrian
+corps of Gyulai arrived too late to save it. A few formed bodies escaped
+across the ravine, but Metzko and three-fourths of his men were killed
+or taken prisoners.
+
+Meanwhile Ney on the other flank, with his left on the Pillnitz road and
+his right on the Grosser Garten, had opened his attack. The Russians
+offered a strenuous resistance, defending Seidnitz, Gross Döbritz and
+Reick with their usual steadiness, and Ney was so far advanced that
+several generals at the Allied headquarters suggested a counter-attack
+of the centre by way of Strehlen, so as to cut off the French left from
+Dresden. This plan was adopted, but, owing to various misunderstandings,
+failed of execution. Thus the Allied centre remained inactive all day,
+cannonaded by the Dresden redoubts. One incident only, but that of great
+importance, took place here. The tsar, the king of Prussia,
+Schwarzenberg and a very large headquarter staff watched the fighting
+from a hill near Räcknitz and offered an easy mark to the French guns.
+In default of formed bodies to fire at, the latter had for a moment
+ceased fire; Napoleon, riding by, half carelessly told them to reopen,
+and one of their first shots, directed at 2000 yards range against the
+mass of officers on the sky-line, mortally wounded General Moreau, who
+was standing by the emperor Alexander. A council of war followed. The
+Allied sovereigns were for continuing the fight; Schwarzenberg, however,
+knowing the exhaustion of his troops decided to retreat. As at Bautzen,
+the French cavalry was unable to make any effective pursuit.
+
+The forces engaged were 96,000 French, Saxons, &c., and 200,000
+Austrians, Russians and Prussians. The French losses were about 10,000,
+or a little over 10%, those of the Allies 38,000 killed, wounded and
+prisoners (the latter 23,000) or 19%. They lost also 15 colours and 26
+guns.
+
+
+
+
+DRESS (from the Fr. _dresser_, to set out, arrange, formed from Lat.
+_directus_, arranged, _dirigere_, to direct, arrange), a substantive of
+which the current meaning is that of clothing or costume in general, or,
+specifically, the principal outer garment worn by a woman (see COSTUME).
+The verb "to dress" has various applications which can be deduced from
+its original meaning. It is thus used not only of the putting on of
+clothing, but of the preparing and finishing of leather, the preparation
+of food for eating, the application of cleansing and healing substances
+or of bandages, &c., to a wound, the drawing up in a correct line of a
+body of troops, and, generally, adorning or decking out, as of a ship
+with flags. In the language of the theatre the "dresser" is the person
+who looks after the actor's wardrobe and assists him in the changing of
+his costumes. For the printer's use of "dresser" see TYPOGRAPHY.
+
+
+
+
+DRESSER, in furniture, a form of sideboard. The name is derived from the
+Fr. _dressoir_, a piece of furniture used to range or _dresser_ the more
+costly appointments of the table. The appliance is the direct descendant
+of the credence and the buffet, and is, indeed, a much more legitimate
+inheritor of their functions than the modern sideboard, which, as we
+know it, is practically an 18th-century invention. It developed into its
+present shape about the second quarter of the 17th century, and has
+since then changed but little. As a piece of movable furniture it was
+made rarely, if at all, after the beginning of the 19th century until
+the revival of interest in what is called "farmhouse furniture" at the
+very beginning of the 20th century led in the first place to the
+construction of many imitation antique dressers from derelict pieces of
+old oak, and especially from panels of chests, and in the second to the
+making of avowed imitations. The dresser conformed to a model which
+varied only in detail and in ornament. Its simple and agreeable form
+consisted of a long and rather narrow table or slab, with drawers or
+cupboards beneath and a tall upright closed-in back arranged with a
+varying number of shallow shelves for the reception of plates; hooks for
+mugs were often fixed upon the face of these shelves. Towards the end of
+the 17th century small cupboards were often added to the superstructure.
+The majority of these dressers were made of oak, but when, early in the
+Georgian period mahogany came into general use, they were frequently
+inlaid with that wood; holly and box were also used for inlaying, most
+frequently in the shape of plain bands or lines. A peculiarly effective
+combination of oak and mahogany is found in the dressers, as in other
+"farmhouse furniture," made on the borders of Staffordshire and
+Shropshire. The excellence of the work of this kind in that district and
+in the country lying west of it may perhaps explain the expression
+"Welsh dresser," which is now no more than a trade term, not necessarily
+suggestive of the place of origin, and applied to all dressers of this
+type. They are most frequently found in the houses of small yeomen and
+substantial farmers, into which fashion penetrated slowly. The dresser
+is now most familiar as necessary plenishing of the kitchen, in which it
+is invariably a fixture. In form it is essentially identical with the
+movable variety, but it is usually much larger, is made of deal or other
+soft wood, and the superstructure has no back.
+
+
+
+
+DREUX, a town of north-western France, capital of an arrondissement in
+the department of Eure-et-Loir, 27 m. N.N.W. of Chartres by rail. Pop.
+(1906) 8209. It is situated on the Blaise, which at this point divides
+into several arms. It is overlooked from the north by an eminence on
+which stands a ruined medieval castle; within the enclosure of this
+building is a gorgeous chapel, begun in 1816 by the dowager duchess of
+Orleans, and completed and adorned at great cost by Louis Philippe. It
+contains the tombs of the Orleans family, chief among them that of Louis
+Philippe, whose remains were removed from England to Dreux in 1876. The
+sculptures on the tombs and the stained glass of the chapel windows are
+masterpieces of modern art. The older of the two hôtels-de-ville of
+Dreux was built in the early 16th century, chiefly by Clément Métezau,
+the founder of a famous family of architects, natives of the town. It is
+notable both for the graceful carvings of the façade and for the fine
+staircase and architectural details of the interior. The church of St
+Pierre, which is Gothic in style, contains good stained glass and other
+works of art. The town has a statue of the poet Jean de Rotrou, born
+there in 1609. Dreux is the seat of a subprefect. Among the public
+institutions are tribunals of first instance and of commerce, and a
+communal college. The manufacture of boots and shoes, metal-founding and
+tanning, are carried on, and there is trade in wheat and other
+agricultural products and poultry.
+
+Dreux was the capital of the Gallic tribe of the _Durocasses_. In 1188
+it was taken and burnt by the English; and in 1562 Gaspard de Coligny,
+and Louis I., prince of Condé, were defeated in its vicinity by Anne de
+Montmorency and Francis, duke of Guise. In 1593 Henry IV. captured the
+town after a fortnight's siege. It was occupied by the Germans on the
+9th of October 1870, was subsequently evacuated, and was again taken, on
+the 17th of November, by General Von Tresckow. In the 10th century Dreux
+was the chief town of a countship, which Odo, count of Chartres, ceded
+to king Robert, and Louis VI. gave to his son Robert, whose grandson
+Peter of Dreux, younger brother of Count Robert III., became duke of
+Brittany by his marriage with Alix, daughter of Constance of Brittany by
+her second husband Guy of Thouars. By the marriage of the countess
+Jeanne II. with Louis, viscount of Thouars (d. 1370), the Capetian
+countship of Dreux passed into the Thouars family. In 1377 and 1378,
+however, two of the three co-heiresses of Jeanne, Perronelle and
+Marguerite, sold their shares of the countship to King Charles V.
+Charles VI. gave it to Arnaud Amanien d'Albret, but took it back in
+order to give it to his brother Louis of Orleans (1407); later he gave
+it back to the lords of Albret. Francis of Cleves laid claim to it in
+the 16th century as heir of the d'Albrets of Orval, but the parlement of
+Paris declared the countship to be crown property. It was given to
+Catherine de' Medici (1539), then to Francis, duke of Alençon (1569); it
+was pledged to Charles de Bourbon, count of Soissons, and through him
+passed to the houses of Orleans, Vendôme and Condé.
+
+
+
+
+DREW, the name of a family of American actors. JOHN DREW (1827-1862) was
+born in Dublin and made his first New York appearance in 1846. He played
+Irish and light comedy parts with success in all the American cities,
+and was manager of the Arch Street theatre in Philadelphia. He visited
+England in 1855, and Australia in 1859, and died in Philadelphia. His
+wife, LOUISE LANE DREW (1820-1897), was the daughter of a London actor,
+and in 1827 went to America, appearing as the Duke of York to the elder
+Booth's Richard III., and as Albert to Edwin Forrest's William Tell.
+After this she starred as a child actress, and then as leading lady. She
+had been twice married before she became Mrs Drew in 1850. From 1861 to
+1892 she had the management of the Arch Street theatre in Philadelphia.
+In 1880 she toured with Joseph Jefferson in his elaborate revival of
+_The Rivals_, playing Mrs Malaprop to perfection. She had three
+children, John, Sidney and Georgiana, wife of Maurice Barrymore
+(1847-1905), and mother of Lionel and Ethel Barrymore, all actors. The
+eldest son, JOHN DREW (b. 1853), began his stage career under his
+mother's management in Philadelphia as Plumper in _Cool as a Cucumber_,
+on the 22nd of March 1873; and after playing with Edwin Booth and
+others, became leading man in Augustin Daly's company in 1879. His
+association with this company, and with Ada Rehan as the leading lady,
+constituted a brilliant period in recent stage history, his Petruchio
+being only one, though perhaps the most striking, of a series of famous
+impersonations. In 1892 he left Daly's company, and began a career as a
+"star."
+
+
+
+
+DREW, SAMUEL (1765-1833), English theologian, was born in the parish of
+St Austell, in Cornwall, on the 6th of March 1765. His father was a poor
+farm labourer, and could not afford to send him to school long enough
+even to learn to read and write. At ten he was apprenticed to a
+shoemaker, and at twenty he settled in the town of St Austell, first as
+manager for a shoemaker, and in 1787 began business on his own account.
+He had already gained a reputation in his narrow circle as a keen
+debater and a jovial companion, and it is said that he had several
+smuggling adventures. He was first aroused to serious thought in 1785 by
+a funeral sermon preached over his elder brother by Adam Clarke. He
+joined the Methodists, was soon employed as a class leader and local
+preacher, and continued to preach till a few months before his death.
+His opportunities of gaining knowledge were very scanty, but he
+strenuously set himself to make the most of them. It is stated that an
+accidental introduction to Locke's great essay determined the ultimate
+direction of his studies. In 1798 the first part of Thomas Paine's _Age
+of Reason_ was put into his hands; and in the following year he made his
+first appearance as an author by publishing his _Remarks_ on that work.
+The book was favourably received, and was republished in 1820. Drew had
+begun to meditate a greater attempt before he wrote his _Remarks on
+Paine_; and, encouraged by the antiquary John Whitaker, he published his
+_Essay on the Immateriality and Immortality of the Soul_ in 1802. This
+work made the "Cornish metaphysician," as he was called, widely known,
+and for some time it held a high place in the judgment of the religious
+world as a conclusive argument on its subject. A fifth edition appeared
+in 1831. Drew continued to work at his trade till 1805, when he entered
+into an engagement with Dr Thomas Coke, a prominent Wesleyan official,
+which enabled him to devote himself entirely to literature. In 1809 he
+published his _Essay on the Identity and General Resurrection of the
+Human Body_, perhaps the most original of his works, which reached a
+second edition in 1822. In 1814 he completed a history of Cornwall begun
+by F. Hitchins. In 1819 he removed to Liverpool, being appointed editor
+of the _Imperial Magazine_, then newly established, and in 1821 to
+London, the business being then transferred to the capital. Here he
+filled the post of editor till his death, and had also the supervision
+of all works issued from the Caxton Press. He was an unsuccessful
+competitor for the Burnett prize offered in 1811 for an essay on the
+existence and attributes of God. The work which he then wrote, and which
+in his own judgment was his best, was published in 1820, under the title
+of _An Attempt to demonstrate from Reason and Revelation the Necessary
+Existence, Essential Perfections, and Superintending Providence of an
+Eternal Being, who is the Creator, the Supporter, and the Governor of
+all Things_ (2 vols. 8 vo). This procured him the degree of M.A. from
+the university of Aberdeen. Among Drew's lesser writings are a _Life of
+Dr Thomas Coke_ (1817), and a work on the deity of Christ (1813). He
+died at Helston in Cornwall on the 29th of March 1833. He was a man of
+strong mind, honourable spirit and affectionate disposition, energetic
+both in speech and in writing.
+
+  A memoir of his life by his eldest son appeared in 1834.
+
+
+
+
+DREWENZ, a river of Germany, a right-bank tributary of the Vistula. It
+rises on the plateau of Hohenstein in East Prussia, 5 m. S.W. of the
+town of Hohenstein. After passing through the lake of Drewenz (7 m.
+long), it flows S.W. through flat marshy country, and forms, from just
+below the town of Strassburg to that of Leibitsch, a distance of 30 m.,
+the frontier between Prussia and Russian Poland. After a course of 148
+m. it enters the Vistula from the right, a little above the fortress of
+Thorn. It is navigable only for rafts. Lake Drewenz is connected with
+Elbing (and so with the Baltic) by the navigable Elbing-Oberland Canal.
+
+
+
+
+DREXEL, ANTHONY JOSEPH (1826-1893), American banker, was born in
+Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 13th of September 1826. He was the
+son of Francis M. Drexel (1792-1863), a native of Austrian Tirol, who
+emigrated to America in 1817, and, after some years spent as a
+portrait-painter, became a banker and the founder of the house of Drexel
+& Company. Anthony, who entered his father's counting-house in 1839,
+eventually, with his brothers Francis and Joseph, succeeded to the
+control of the business, and organized the banking houses of Drexel,
+Morgan & Company, New York, of which his brother Joseph W. (1833-1888)
+was long the resident head, and of Drexel, Harjes & Company, Paris. In
+1864 he joined his friend George W. Childs in the purchase of the
+Philadelphia _Public Ledger_, and with him in 1892 founded the Printers'
+Home for union men at Colorado Springs. In 1891 he founded, and endowed
+with $2,000,000, the Drexel Institute of Art, Science and Industry in
+Philadelphia, the buildings for which he constructed at a cost of
+$750,000. This institution provides technical instruction for both night
+and day classes and public lecture courses, and has a good museum and a
+library of 35,000 volumes. Drexel died at Carlsbad, Germany, on the 30th
+of June 1893.
+
+
+
+
+DREYFUS, ALFRED (1859-   ), French soldier, of Jewish parentage, the
+scandal of whose condemnation for treason and subsequent rehabilitation
+convulsed French political life between 1894 and 1899, and only ended in
+1906, was born in Mülhausen, Upper Alsace, removing to Paris in 1874.
+After going through the usual course of military instruction with
+credit, he became a sous-lieutenant in the artillery in 1882, and was
+promoted captain in 1889; and, after passing through the _École de
+Guerre_ with distinction, he was appointed to the general staff. His
+name was, however, unknown to the general public till he was arrested on
+the 15th of October 1894 on a charge of selling military secrets to
+Germany, condemned, publicly degraded (January 4, 1895), and transported
+(March 10) to the Ile du Diable, French Guiana. The story of the
+subsequent proceedings in this celebrated case is told in the article
+ANTI-SEMITISM, and need not here be repeated. It was not till 1899 that
+the unfortunate prisoner was brought back to France for retrial by
+court-martial, and even then, so strong was the anti-Semitic and
+military prejudice, he was again found guilty "with extenuating
+circumstances" at Rennes (September 9), though ten days later he was
+"pardoned" by President Loubet. It was not till the Cour de Cassation
+ordered a further investigation, and on the 12th of July 1906 decided
+that his conviction had been based on a forgery and that Dreyfus was
+innocent, that the agitation came to a final conclusion. He was then
+restored to his rank in the army and promoted major. But the
+anti-Semitic and anti-Dreyfusard spirit in certain French circles could
+not easily be quelled even then; and on the occasion of the translation
+of the remains of Emile Zola (Dreyfus's determined champion) to the
+Pantheon on the 4th of June 1908, Major Dreyfus was shot at and wounded
+by a fanatical journalist named Gregori, who was subsequently acquitted
+by a Paris jury of the charge of attempted murder, his own plea being
+that he had merely intended a "demonstration."
+
+  See Dreyfus's own _Five Years of my Life_ (1901), and literature cited
+  under ANTI-SEMITISM.
+
+
+
+
+DRIBURG, a town and spa of Germany, in Prussian Westphalia, pleasantly
+situated on the Aa and the railway Soest-Höxter-Berlin. Pop. 2600. It
+has an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church and some glass
+manufactures. It is celebrated for its saline-ferruginous springs,
+discovered in 766, and since 1779 largely frequented in summer. In the
+vicinity are the ruins of Iburg, a castle destroyed by Charlemagne in
+775, and bestowed by him upon the bishopric of Paderborn.
+
+
+
+
+DRIFFIELD (officially Great Driffield), a market town in the Buckrose
+parliamentary division of the East Riding of Yorkshire, England, 19½ m.
+N. by W. from Hull, the junction of several branch lines of the North
+Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 5766. It is pleasantly
+situated at the foot of the Wolds, and is connected with Hull by a
+navigable canal. The church of All Saints is of various dates from
+Norman onwards. The town is the centre of a rich agricultural district,
+and large markets and fairs are held. There are works for the
+manufacture of oil-cake. Driffield is of high antiquity, and numerous
+tumuli are seen in the vicinity, while there is an excellent private
+antiquarian museum in the town.
+
+
+
+
+DRIFT (from "drive"), a verb or noun used in various connexions with the
+sense of propelled motion, especially (but not necessarily) of an
+aimless sort, undirected. Thus it is possible to speak of a snow-drift,
+an accumulation driven by the wind; of a ship drifting out of its
+course; of the drift of a speech, i.e. its general tendency. The word is
+also used in some technical senses, more immediately resulting from the
+action of driving something in. But the most important technical use of
+the word is in geology, as introduced by C. Lyell in 1840 in place of
+"Diluvium." The earlier geologists had been in the habit of dividing the
+Quaternary deposits into an older Diluvium and a younger Alluvium; the
+latter is still employed in England, but the former has dropped out of
+use, though it is still retained by some continental writers. The
+Alluvium was distinguished from Diluvium by the fact that its mammalian
+fossils were representatives of still living forms, but it is a matter
+of great difficulty to separate these two divisions in practice. "The
+term drift is now applied generally to the Quaternary deposits, which
+consist for the most part of gravel, sand, loam or brickearth and clay;
+it naturally refers to strata laid down at some distance from the rocks
+to whose destruction they are largely due; but, although applied to
+river deposits, the word drift is more appropriately used in reference
+to the accumulations of the Glacial period.
+
+"The occurrence of stones and boulders far removed from their parent
+source early attracted the attention of geologists, but for a long
+period the phenomena, now known as of glacial origin, were unexplained,
+and the drifts were looked upon as little more than 'extraneous
+rubbish,' the product of geological agents, quite distinct from those
+which helped to form the more 'solid' rocks that underlie them." (See H.
+B. Woodward, _The Geology of England and Wales_, 2nd ed., 1887.) The
+conception of an underlying "solid" geological structure covered by a
+superficial mantle of "drift" is still retained for certain practical
+purposes; thus, the Geological Survey of Great Britain issues many of
+the maps in two forms, the "Solid Edition," showing the "solid geology,"
+which embraces all igneous rocks and the stratified rocks older than
+Pleistocene, and the "Drift Edition," which shows only such older strata
+as are unobscured by drift.
+
+In writing and in conversation the geological expression "drift" is now
+usually understood to mean Glacial drift, including boulder clay and all
+the varieties of sand, gravel and clay deposits formed by the agency of
+ice sheets, glaciers and icebergs. But in the "Drift" maps many other
+types of deposit are indicated, such, for instance, as the ordinary
+modern alluvium of rivers, and the older river terraces (River-drift of
+various ages), including gravels, brickearth and loam; old raised sea
+beaches and blown-sand (Aeolian-drift); the "Head" of Cornwall and
+Devon, an angular detritus consisting of stones with clay or loam;
+clay-with-flints, rainwash (landwash), scree and talus; the "Warp," a
+marine and estuarine silt and clay of the Humber; and also beds of peat
+and diatomite.
+
+  See GLACIAL PERIOD; PLEISTOCENE; BOULDER CLAY. (J. A. H.)
+
+
+
+
+DRILL. (1) A tool for boring or making holes in hard substances, such as
+stone, metal, &c. (an adaptation in the 17th century from the Dutch
+_dril_ or _drille_, from _drillen_, to turn, bore a hole; according to
+the New English Dictionary the word is not to be connected with the
+English "thrill"). The word _drillen_ was used in Dutch, German and
+Danish, from the 17th century for training in military exercises and was
+adopted into English in the same sense. The origin of the application
+seems to be in the primary sense of "to turn round," from the turning of
+the troops in their evolutions and from the turning of the weapons in
+the soldiers' hands. Drill is, formally, the preparation of soldiers for
+their duties in war by the practice or rehearsal of movements in
+military order and the handling of arms, and, psychologically, the
+method of producing in the individual soldier habits of self-control and
+of mechanically precise actions under disturbing conditions, and of
+rendering the common instinctive will of a body of men, large or small,
+amenable to the control of, and susceptible to a stimulus imparted by
+its commander's will.
+
+(2) A furrow made in the soil in which seed may be sown, and a machine
+used for sowing seed in such furrows (see SOWING). The word is somewhat
+doubtful in origin. It may be the same as an obsolete word "drill," to
+trickle, flow in drops, also a small stream or flow of water, a rill,
+and is possibly an altered form of "trill."
+
+(3) In zoology, the native name of a large short-tailed west African
+baboon, _Papio leucophaeus_, closely allied to the mandrill (q.v.), but
+distinguished by the absence of brilliant blue and scarlet on the jaws
+of the fully adult males.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+(4) The name of a fabric made in both linen and cotton, and commonly
+bleached and finished stiff. The word is a shortened form of "drilling,"
+from the German _drillich_, or "three-threaded," and is so named because
+the weave originally used in its construction is what is termed the
+three-leaf twill, nine repeats of which appear in the accompanying
+figure, while immediately below the design is an intersection of all the
+nine threads with the first pick. It is essentially a warp-faced fabric;
+that is, the upper surface is composed mostly of warp threads. In the
+figure it will be seen that two out of every three threads appear on the
+surface, and, by introducing a greater number of threads per inch than
+picks per inch, the weft is made to occupy a still more subordinate
+position so far as the upper surface of the cloth is concerned. Although
+the weave shown is still extensively used in this branch, there are
+others, e.g. the 4-thread and the 5-thread weaves, which are employed
+for the production of this cloth. Large quantities of drill are shipped
+to the Eastern markets and to other sub-tropical centres, from which it
+is sold for clothing. In temperate climates it forms a satisfactory
+material for ladies' and children's summer clothing, and it is used by
+chefs, hairdressers, provision merchants, grocers, buttermen, painters
+and decorators, &c., while many of the long jackets or overalls, such as
+those worn by many mill and factory managers, are made from the same
+material.
+
+
+
+
+DRINKING VESSELS.[1] The use of special vessels for drinking purposes
+may fairly be assumed to have had a natural origin and development. From
+a practical point of view it would soon be found desirable to provide
+vessels for liquids in addition to those serving to hold food. As in
+many other commonplace details of modern life, we must turn to the
+primitive races to understand how our present conditions were reached.
+In almost all parts of the world many of the products of nature are
+capable of serving such purposes, with little or no change at the hands
+of man; in tropical and sub-tropical climates the coco-nut and the gourd
+or calabash require but little change to adapt them as the most
+convenient of drinking utensils; the eggs of the larger birds, such as
+the ostrich or the emu, shells, like the nautilus and other univalves,
+as well as the deeper bivalves, are equally convenient. Such natural
+objects are in fact used by the uncivilized tribes of Africa, America
+and Polynesia, as well as, in some cases, by the white races who have
+intruded into those parts of the world, and adopted some of the native
+habits. In Paraguay, for example, the so-called "Paraguay tea," an
+infusion of the _yerba maté_ (_Ilex paraguayensis_), is drunk through a
+tube from a small gourd held in the hand, and often handsomely mounted
+in silver or even gold. In the same way, as we shall see, civilized man
+has adopted nearly all the natural forms that were found convenient by
+the savage, altering and adorning them in accordance with the taste of
+the time or country where they were used.
+
+Another line of development, however, has been found to be the natural
+outcome of the human mind. Nothing could form a more practical drinking
+cup than the half of a coco-nut shell or part of a gourd. Such cups,
+however, in the countries where the plants producing them are common,
+would be easily obtained, and every one, rich or poor, could possess one
+or more. In order, therefore, to distinguish the chief's possessions
+from those of his inferiors, his cup is often made with great labour,
+from some more intractable material, wood or stone, though in
+practically the same form as that of the natural object.
+
+
+  Early drinking cups.
+
+Among European races in medieval times the same lines have been
+followed, though for different reasons. Human ingenuity, though perhaps
+originally inspired by natural forms, is apt to turn aside into more
+artificial channels. The invention of the potter's art (see CERAMICS),
+where the plastic nature of the raw material renders it capable of
+infinite changes of form, gave rise to types of vessels having no
+obvious or necessary relation to the productions of nature. In Britain
+and in northern Europe generally, the interments of the races of the
+Neolithic and Bronze Ages have furnished vessels of pottery of a
+beaker-like form, to which the name of "drinking-cups" has been given.
+It must be confessed that the evidence for attributing such a use to
+them is slender, and mainly consists of the fact that their thin lips
+would render them better adapted for the purpose than the other pottery
+vessels found with them, some of which, on equally slight grounds, have
+been called food vessels. The general use and acceptance of the term by
+two generations of archaeologists is, however, an adequate reason for a
+passing mention in this place. In the later prehistoric times of Europe
+vessels of gold, bronze and other materials, including amber, were made,
+sometimes of elegant forms, and would seem to have been used as drinking
+vessels; still, this is again an assumption, though a fairly probable
+one. A small gold cup with handle was found in a barrow at Rillaton,
+Cornwall; one of amber of a similar form was found at Hove, and a third
+of shale near Honiton. All of these doubtless may be referred to the
+Bronze Age.
+
+
+  New forms found by Schliemann.
+
+Schliemann found many drinking vessels in his exploration of the
+superimposed cities of Troy. A pretty form is that found in the first
+city. It is of clay, and closely resembles an early Victorian tea cup on
+a high foot. This form is of interest, as Schliemann discovered the same
+both at Tiryns and Mycenae, five from the latter site being of gold,
+while the type also occurs from Ialysus in Rhodes in association with
+bronze swords. This Trojan cup was found at a depth of 50 ft. below the
+present surface and about 18 ft. below the stratum of what Schliemann
+claimed to be the Homeric Troy. In his second city appears a different
+type of ware, somewhat fantastic in form, one vessel being in the form
+of a sow, while others foreshadow the _crater_ and _amphora_ of later
+and more familiar Greek wares.
+
+But the drinking vessel to which Schliemann draws most attention is the
+tall cup of a trumpet form furnished with two earlike loop handles. This
+curious and original type occurs also in the Third (or Homeric), Fourth
+and Sixth Cities, with little if any change. Schliemann devotes some
+pages to the discussion of the form, in which he sees the [Greek: depas
+amphikypellon][2] of Homer, which has been more usually understood to
+mean an hour-glass shaped cup, in which the distinguishing feature was
+two cups, not two handles. He applies the same term to a drinking vessel
+of a very different form, found with several others in the Third City.
+This is a sauce-boat shaped vessel[3] of gold, made with a lip for
+pouring or drinking at either end, and with two loop handles. This
+equals those previously mentioned in originality of form; with it were
+found others of gold, silver and electrum (i.e. 4 parts of gold to 1 of
+silver). Of these three were shaped like 18th-century coffee cups but
+wanting handles. In the Sixth City appear forms more nearly approaching
+those of later times, particularly prototypes of the _cantharus_ and
+_scyphus_.
+
+These discoveries in the various strata of Troy may be taken as the
+analogues in the Mediterranean and hither Asia of the later Stone and
+Bronze Ages of northern Europe, with an allowance of some centuries of
+greater antiquity for the former.
+
+It is not proposed in this article to deal with the ceramic and metallic
+drinking vessels of the Greeks and Romans, of what is generally known as
+the classical period (see CERAMICS and PLATE). It may be mentioned,
+however, that both on the Rhine and in various places in Britain,
+notably at Castor in Northamptonshire and in the New Forest, were
+factories where large numbers of _pocula_ or drinking cups were made;
+those made on the Rhine and at Castor bearing legends to indicate their
+use. Many of these are to be seen in the British Museum and in the
+Wallraf-Richartz Museum in Cologne.
+
+
+  Gothic and Scandinavian types.
+
+After the decline of Roman power, the Gothic and Scandinavian races who
+replaced the Romans in central and northern Europe brought with them
+their own forms and types of drinking vessels. These, from about the 4th
+century, replaced the well-known Roman vessels. The northern barbarians
+were as great drinkers as fighters, and their literature recites with
+equal zest the richness of their drinking cups as the power and deadly
+qualities of their arms. Fortunately the practice of burying with the
+dead warrior all his property, or at least as much of it as he would be
+supposed to need, has preserved to our day the actual vessels in use by
+the pagan northmen who pervaded northern Europe from the 4th century
+onward. Saxon graves in Britain have furnished great numbers of drinking
+cups and horns, in many cases quite unbroken. From the remains, of which
+the chief series are in the British and Liverpool Museums, we can learn
+a great deal to amplify the references in literature. The richest single
+interment that has yet been found was within the present churchyard at
+Taplow. Here under a huge mound lay buried a Saxon chieftain surrounded
+by his belongings; arms defensive and offensive, his drinking cups, and
+even his game of draughts. The drinking vessels consisted of five cows'
+horns and four glass cups. The former were of great size, 2 ft. long,
+richly mounted at the mouth and at the point with silver bands embossed
+and gilt. The glasses also were of great size and of a type familiar in
+Saxon interments. Each was of a trumpet shape, with a small foot, while
+the sides were ornamented with hollow pointed tubes bent downwards, and
+open on the inner side, so that the liquid would fill them. Such a plan
+is most unpractical, and it must have been very difficult to keep the
+vessels clean. Glasses of this uncommon form have not been found
+elsewhere than in Saxon graves, either in England or in the north of the
+continent. Other types are perhaps nearly as characteristic, though of
+simpler construction. One of these is a simple cone of glass, sometimes
+quite plain, at others ornamented with an applied spiral glass thread,
+or more rarely with festoons of white glass embedded in the body of the
+vessel. A third form is a plain cup or bowl widely expanded at the mouth
+and with a rounded base, so that it could only be set down when empty,
+in fact a true "tumbler." This feature is in fact a very common one in
+the drinking vessels of the Saxon race. There are many other varieties,
+plain cylindrical goblets, generally with ornamental glass threads on
+the outside, and a more usual type has a rounded body somewhat of the
+shape of an orange with a wide plain mouth. Many of all these classes
+were found in the famous cemetery known as the King's Field at Faversham
+in Kent (the relics from which are now in the British Museum), at
+Chessel Down in the Isle of Wight, and in the cemetery within the
+ancient camp on High Down, near Worthing. In Belgium, France and Germany
+the same types occur, and even as far north as Scandinavia, where they
+are found in association with Roman coins of the 4th century. On the
+continent, however, additional types are found that do not occur in
+Britain--one of these is a drinking glass in the form of a hunting horn
+with glass threads forming an ornamental design on the outside. From the
+wide distribution of these types, it seems certain that they sprang
+originally from a common centre, and the slender evidence available on
+the subject seems to point to that centre having been somewhere on the
+lower Rhine. Although glass seems to have been popular and by no means
+rare as a material for drinking vessels, other materials also were used.
+A large number of the smaller pottery vessels would serve such a
+purpose, and in one grave at Broomfield in Essex two small wooden cups
+were found which, from their small size and thinness, were no doubt used
+for liquid.
+
+Of the later Saxon domestic utensils nothing remains, the habit of
+burying such objects with the dead having ceased on the gradual
+introduction of Christianity through the country. Manuscripts are our
+only resource, and they are not only of great rarity, but in the main
+rudely and conventionally drawn in their details. In those of the 9th to
+the 11th century various simple forms are seen, some resembling our
+modern tumbler in shape, others like a dice box. Horns as drinking
+vessels certainly retained their popularity at all times, surviving
+especially among the northern nations, and many of the vessels of this
+form were no doubt actual horns, though horn-shaped vessels were often
+made of other materials. Until we come to the 13th and 14th centuries
+there is an absolute dearth of the actual objects used in domestic life.
+And here we begin with plate used in the service of the church.
+
+
+  Church vessels.
+
+The drinking vessel possessing the most unbroken history is doubtless
+the chalice of the Christian Church.[4] Like other ceremonial objects it
+was no doubt differentiated from the drinking cups in ordinary use by a
+gradual transition, and in the early centuries it is unlikely that it
+differed either in form or material from the ordinary domestic vessel of
+the time. Figures of such vessels, apparently with a symbolic intention,
+are found upon early Christian tombstones, and it has been contended
+that the vessel indicated the grave of a priest. While this may be the
+case, the similarity of the vessel represented to the ordinary
+non-liturgical form renders the conclusion somewhat weak. Among objects
+found under conditions which lend colour to their specific use as
+chalices are the bottoms of glass vessels found inserted in plaster in
+the Catacombs at Rome; but here again the Jesuit Padre Garrucci was
+unable to find any evidence to support such a conclusion. It is not in
+fact until the 6th century that the sacred vessel would appear to have
+assumed a definite form. From about that time date the lost golden
+chalices of Monza, representations of which still exist in that city;
+and the famous chalice of Gourdon in the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris
+is probably of about the same time. All of these are two-handled with a
+vase-shaped body and supported on a high foot; and thus quite unlike the
+more recent medieval types. Two glass vases of exactly this two-handled
+form are in the Slade collection at the British Museum, and may well
+have been chalices. Another chalice, in the same collection, of the 6th
+or 7th century, was found with a silver treasure at Lampsacus on the
+Hellespont. It is of silver, with a cylindrical body and small expanding
+foot; with it were found a number of silver spoons and dishes, the
+former inscribed with the names of Apostles, Greek hexameters and lines
+from Virgil's Eclogues. No doubt the whole was the treasure of a
+monastery, buried and never reclaimed. So far as evidence exists for the
+form of the chalice, the vase-shape with two handles seems to have been
+mainly succeeded by a goblet with straight sides and without handles;
+these latter in great part disappeared. Then came the rounded cup-shaped
+bowl as seen in the well-known Kremsmünster chalice. An interesting
+silver vessel, probably a chalice, found at Trewhiddle in Cornwall, is
+in the British Museum. It is of plain semi-oviform shape, and dates from
+the 9th century. The 13th century chalice was usually a broad somewhat
+shallow cup, on a conical base, and squat in its general lines as
+compared with those of later date. These gradually became taller, and
+with a bowl smaller in proportion, following the tendency of the civil
+vessels towards more elegant lines. Both civil and religious vessels
+eventually carried this tendency to an extreme point, so that in the
+17th century the continental chalices and standing cups had lost all
+sense of true artistic proportions; the bowl of the chalice had greatly
+shrunk in size while the foot had become huge and highly elaborate, both
+in general form and in ornamental details. In Britain chalices ceased to
+be used in the English church in the reign of Edward VI., and were
+replaced by communion cups. These were much plainer in make, recalling
+in their outlines the goblet form of about a thousand years earlier, the
+sides of the bowl being concave, or nearly straight, as opposed to the
+convexity of the chalice, while the paten was reversed over the mouth
+and so arranged as to form a closely fitting cover. With the beginning
+of the 17th century English communion cups again followed the civil
+fashion in adapting the outline of the Venetian drinking glass, a shape
+which has survived to our own days.
+
+The materials of which chalices were made in the early centuries seem to
+have been as various as those of ordinary vessels. Glass was undoubtedly
+a favourite substance, perhaps from its lending itself readily to
+scrupulous cleanliness; but wood, horn, ivory and similar materials were
+undoubtedly in use, and were from time to time condemned as improper by
+the Fathers of the Church. Pewter was in common use, and it was not an
+unusual practice in the 12th and 13th centuries to place sacramental
+vessels, of this or more precious metal, in the grave of an
+ecclesiastic. Bronze was also used, and the Kremsmünster chalice is of
+that metal, which was a favourite one in the Celtic church. But gold or
+silver chalices were no doubt always preferred when they could be
+obtained.
+
+It may be mentioned here that it was a common practice in the 16th
+century and later in England for laymen to make gifts to the church of
+vessels of an entirely domestic character for use in the service. Many
+of these from their associations, and in the character of the designs
+upon them, were entirely unsuited for such purposes, and in our own
+time, when a healthy desire has sprung up for the proper investigation
+of such matters, many such unsuitable vessels have been withdrawn from
+use. Domestic plate, however, being much more highly appreciated by
+collectors, there has been a regrettable tendency on the part of the
+holders of such pieces to sell them to the highest bidders; the tendency
+is to be deplored, for while they remain the property of the church,
+they are a national asset; if sold by auction, there is a great
+probability of their going abroad.
+
+
+  Medieval vessels for common uses.
+
+  Mazers.
+
+It would seem fairly certain that the ordinary drinking vessel of
+medieval times was, like the trenchers of wood, turned on the lathe. Of
+these the commoner varieties have entirely disappeared, having become
+useless from distortion or other damage. Such as have come down to our
+own time owe their preservation to the added refinement of a silver
+mount. Vessels of this kind are known as _mazer_ bowls, a word of
+uncertain origin, but undoubtedly, in the medieval sense, indicating
+wood of some more or less valuable kind, and not improbably, in the 16th
+century, maple or a wood of that appearance. Spenser in the "Shepherd's
+Kalendar" speaks of "a mazer ywrought of the maple warre." Although such
+vessels are mentioned in the inventories and other contemporary records
+as far back as the 12th century, no example is known to exist of an
+earlier date than the 14th century, of which date there are two in the
+possession of Harbledown hospital. This type of drinking vessel was in
+common use in well-to-do households until the 16th century, when a
+change of fashion and the greater luxury and refinement dictated the
+adoption of more elegant and complex forms. The ordinary mazer was a
+shallow bowl (see PLATE, Plate II.) about 6 in. in diameter, with a
+broad expanding rim of silver gilt often engraved with a motto in black
+letter or Lombardic capitals, at times referring to the function of the
+cup, such as:--
+
+  "In the name of the Trinity
+   Fille the Kup and drinke to me."
+
+or,
+
+  "Potum et nos benedicat Agios."
+
+Within the bowl, in the centre is often found a circular medallion
+called a "print" with some device upon it, engraved and filled with
+enamel. The reason of this addition may conceivably be found in the fact
+that such bowls were sometimes made from the lower half of a gourd or
+calabash, in the centre of which would be a rough projection whence the
+fibres of the fruit had diverged. A rarer form of mazer has the
+characters just mentioned and in addition is mounted upon a high foot,
+bringing it nearer to the category of standing cups or "hanaps." The
+famous Scrope mazer belonging to York Minster (early 15th century)
+stands upon three small feet. Of the hanap type examples are in the
+possession of Pembroke College, Cambridge (the Foundress' Cup), and All
+Souls' College, Oxford, the former an exceedingly fine specimen, of the
+third quarter of the 15th century. The form dictated originally by the
+simple wooden cup was at times carried out entirely in silver, or even
+in stone, mazer-like cups being found either entirely in metal or with
+the main portion made of serpentine or some other ornamental stone. An
+example of the former from the Hamilton Palace collection, as well as
+several ordinary mazers, are to be seen in the British Museum. The types
+above described are of English origin, with the exception of that made
+entirely of silver, which is thought to be French. Most of the
+continental forms differed from the English, and were more elaborately
+finished. One of the finest is that which belonged to Louis de Male,
+last count of Flanders. It is an exceedingly thin, shallow bowl of
+fine-grained wood, with a cover of the same make. The latter is
+surmounted by a silver figure of a falcon holding a shield in its mouth
+with the arms of the count. The foot is of silver with lozenge-shaped
+panels inserted, bearing in enamel the arms of the count. A German form
+of the 16th century consisted of a depressed sphere of wood for the
+bowl, with a silver rim, and a cover formed of a similarly shaped
+sphere, called in France a "creusequin." Such mazers were furnished in
+addition with a short metal handle turned up at the end, a feature
+unknown in the English types. All of these again are to be seen in the
+British Museum series.
+
+
+  Hanaps.
+
+Although the use of wooden vessels more or less elaborately mounted was
+continued well into the 16th century as a fashion, many other materials
+of far greater value were in use among the wealthy long before that
+time. Crystal, agate and other hard stones, ivory, Chinese porcelain, as
+well as more ordinary wares, were all in use, as well as the precious
+metals. The inventories of the 14th and 15th centuries are full of
+entries showing that such precious cups were fairly common. Of gold cups
+of any antiquity naturally but few remain; the intrinsic value of the
+metal probably is a sufficient explanation. One of the most important in
+existence is however preserved in the British Museum, viz. the royal
+gold cup of the kings of England and France. It is of nearly pure gold
+with a broad bowl and a high foot, the cover pyramidal. The whole is
+ornamented with translucent enamels of the most perfect quality, and
+with a little damage in one part, absolutely well preserved. The
+subjects represented on it are scenes from the life of St Agnes, in two
+rows, one on the cover and one outside the bowl; on the foot are the
+symbols of the four Evangelists, and around the base a coronal of leaves
+alternating with pearls; the cover originally had a similar adjunct, but
+it has unfortunately been cut away. This is the only piece of royal
+plate of the treasures of the kings of England and France that now
+remains, and its history has been traced from the time it was made,
+about the year 1380, to the present time. It was made by one of the
+goldsmiths of the luxurious Duc de Berri, the brother of Charles V. of
+France, no doubt to offer as a gift to the king, whose  birthday was
+St Agnes' day. It was, however, never presented, probably owing to the
+death of Charles V. in 1380. The duc de Berri was not on friendly terms
+with his nephew Charles VI., but on their being reconciled he presented
+the young king with this cup. The troubles of his reign led to the
+invasion of France by Henry V. of England, and the ultimate appointment
+of his brother, John, duke of Bedford, as regent. The necessities of the
+half-insane Charles doubtless caused this cup and other valuables to
+pass into the possession of the regent in exchange for ready money, for
+it appears in the duke of Bedford's will, under which it passed into the
+treasury of Henry VI. There it remained and appears in all subsequent
+royal inventories up to the time of James I. This monarch, whose motto
+was "Beati pacifici," received with joy the embassy sent from Spain in
+the year 1610 to conclude the first treaty of peace with England since
+the Armada, and showered upon the envoy, Don Juan de Velasco, constable
+of Castile, the most lavish and extravagant gifts. The constable, in
+fact, was so impressed by the warmth of his reception that he printed an
+account of his embassy, and from this work the main story of the cup has
+eventually been traced. On his return to Spain the constable, a piously
+disposed man, presented this cup, with many other valuable gifts, to the
+convent of Santa Clara Medina de Pomar at Burgos, of which his sister
+was Superior. Although it was a domestic vessel, a "hanap" in fact, the
+constable elected that it should be consecrated and made use of as a
+chalice at great festivals. And so it continued to be used from the
+early years of the 17th century until about the year 1882, when the
+convent having fallen upon evil times, it was decided to sell this
+precious relic. A priest from the Argentine being at the time in Burgos,
+it was confided to him to sell in Paris, and he deposited the sum of
+£100 by way of security. This was all that the unfortunate nuns at
+Burgos ever received in return for their chalice, for they never saw the
+priest again. He took the cup to Paris, arriving in the month of
+September, when the majority of the well-to-do are away from town. After
+many failures to dispose of it, he ultimately succeeded in selling it to
+Baron Jerome Pichon for the sum of about £400, practically its weight in
+gold. The baron, after vainly trying to resell it at various sums from
+£20,000 downwards, eventually parted with it to Messrs Wertheimer of
+Bond Street for £8000, and that firm very liberally ceded it to Sir
+Wollaston Franks for the same sum, and it was finally secured by a
+subscription for the British Museum.
+
+
+Plate I.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--ROMAN GLASS CUP. With representation of a
+chariot race. Found at Colchester.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--TEUTONIC GLASS CUP. From a grave at Selzen,
+Rhenish Hesse.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--SAXON GLASS "TUMBLER."]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--FRANKISH GLASS DRINKING HORN. Bingerbrück.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--SAXON COW'S HORN. Mounted in silver. Taplow.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--SAXON TRUMPET-SHAPED DRINKING VESSEL. With
+hollow tubular ornamentation.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--THE ROYAL GOLD ENAMELLED HANAP. Made about
+1380.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--SARACENIC ENAMELLED GOBLET. With French silver
+mountings. Fourteenth century.]
+
+
+Plate II.
+
+All the objects represented on these two plates are in the British
+Museum.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--VENETIAN GLASS GOBLET. With enamelled
+decoration. Fifteenth century.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--ENGLISH "BLACKJACK." With initials of Charles I.
+and date 1646.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--THE ROCHESTER MAZER. Presented by Brother Robert
+Peacham. Sixteenth century.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--CHINESE CUP. Carved from rhinoceros horn.
+Eighteenth century.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--ENGLISH GLASS TANKARD. Bearing the Arms of Lord
+Burleigh.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--COCO-NUT CUP. German, about 1600.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--SWISS "TANZENMANN." Seventeenth century.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--A GLASS "YARD OF ALE" (English). Eighteenth
+century.]
+
+Such is the story of one of the most remarkable "hanaps" in existence.
+The word "hanap" is translated by Cotgrave in his French dictionary of
+1660 as "a drinking cup or goblet," and probably was intended to mean
+what would be called a standing cup, that is, raised on a foot, to
+distinguish it from a bowl of the mazer class. Such vessels were chiefly
+used to ornament the dinner table or sideboard, in the way that
+loving-cups are now used at civic banquets, where, almost alone in fact,
+the ancient ceremonial of the table is still observed to some extent;
+and the loving-cup is the direct descendant of the hanap of the middle
+ages.
+
+
+  Nefs.
+
+Of all the ornaments of the table in medieval times the most conspicuous
+was probably the "nef." This was in the form of a ship (_navis_), as its
+name implies, and originally was designed to hold the table utensils of
+the host--knives, napkins, and at times even the wine. Some of the later
+examples which alone survive are carried out with the greatest
+elaboration, the sails and rigging being carefully finished and with a
+number of figures on the deck. The reason for the existence of such an
+article of table furniture was doubtless the fear of poison. As in
+course of time this became less, the nef changed its character, and
+became either a mere ornament, or sometimes was capable of being used as
+a drinking vessel. The former, however, was much more common, and the
+number of nefs that can be practically used as drinking cups is small.
+
+
+  16th-century types.
+
+In the 15th and 16th centuries the shapes, decoration and materials of
+drinking vessels were almost endless. A favourite object to be so
+adapted was an ostrich egg, and many can be seen in museums in elaborate
+silver mounts; coco-nuts were also used in the same way, and Chinese
+and other Oriental wares then of great variety, were often turned into
+cups and vases by ingeniously devised silver mounting. The use of
+drinking vessels either formed of actual horns or of other materials was
+common in the 15th and 16th centuries, especially in the north. They
+were usually provided with feet so as to serve as standing cups, and
+some of them were mounted with great richness. An excellent example is
+the famous drinking-horn in the possession of Queen's College, Oxford,
+dating from the 14th century. The medieval beliefs about "griffins'
+claws" still survived to this late date, and a horn cup in the British
+Museum bears the inscription "Ein Greifen Klau bin ich genannt, In Asia,
+Africa wohl bekannt." Another horn, probably that of an ibex, is in the
+same institution, and has a silver mount inscribed "Gryphi unguis divo
+Cuthberto dunelmensi sacer." The elegant natural curve of the horn adds
+greatly to the charm of the vessel. In Germany the ingenuity of the
+silversmith was turned in the direction of making vessels in the forms
+of animals, at times in allusion to the coat of arms of the patron.
+Stags, lions, bears and various birds are often found; the head
+generally removable so as to form a small cup Switzerland and south
+Germany had a special type, in the form of the figure of a peasant,
+generally in wood, carrying on his back a large basket, which edged with
+silver formed the drinking cup. This type is only found in wine-growing
+districts, the basket being used for carrying grapes. In Germany such
+cups are called "Buttenmann," in Switzerland "Tanzenmann." The royal and
+princely museums of Germany contain great numbers of such vessels, the
+Green Vault in Dresden in particular, while a good number are to be seen
+in our own great museums. A curious fancy, combining instruction with
+conviviality, was to make cups in the form of a globe, terrestrial or
+celestial, which are still useful as showing the state of geographical
+or astronomical knowledge at the time. Several of those made in the 16th
+century are still in existence, one in the British Museum, a second at
+Nancy, and others are in Copenhagen and Zurich and in private
+collections. The upper half of the globe is removable, leaving the lower
+as the drinking cup. Ivory both from the beauty of its colour and the
+evenness of its structure has been a favourite material for drinking
+vessels at all times, and would seem to have been continuously used from
+the earliest period, whether derived from Asia or Africa, while the
+semi-fossil mammoth ivory of Siberia has not been neglected. In general,
+however, the vessels made from this material presented no essential
+differences of form from those in wood, until the art of lathe-turning
+attained great perfection, when a wide field was opened for ingenuity
+and even extravagance of form. The most remarkable examples of the
+possibilities of this kind of mechanical skill are seen in the
+productions of the Nuremberg turners of the 17th century, whose
+elaborate and entirely useless _tours de force_ comprise among many
+other things standing cups of ivory sometimes 2 ft. high, exemplifying
+every eccentricity of which the lathe is capable. Peter Zick (d. 1632)
+and his three sons were celebrated for such work. Several pieces,
+doubtless from their hands, are in the British Museum.
+
+
+  Glass cups.
+
+The use of glass cups was not common in England until the 16th century,
+Venice having practically the monopoly of the supply. A silver-mounted
+glass goblet which belonged to the great Lord Burghley is, however, in
+the British Museum, where there is also a very large series of Venetian
+drinking glasses of various kinds, clear and lace glass as well as some
+of the 15th-century goblets with enamelled designs, now of the greatest
+rarity. The relations of Venice with the East were of so intimate a
+character that the earlier forms of Venetian glasses were nearly
+identical with those of the Mahommedan East.
+
+A common type of Arab drinking glass resembled our modern tumbler (a
+beaker), but gradually expanding in a curve towards the mouth, and often
+enamelled. The enamelled designs were at times related to the purpose of
+the vessel, figures drinking and the like, but more commonly bore either
+a mark of ownership, such as the armorial device of an emir, or some
+simple decorative design. This simple form probably has its origin in
+the horn cup made from the base of a cow's horn and closed at the
+smaller end. The later forms in the late 15th century and after,
+followed the fashion in other materials, and were raised on a tall foot,
+so that from the 16th century onwards the type of wine glass has hardly
+changed, except in details. An interesting variety in one detail is seen
+in the German fashion of providing an elaborate silver stand into which
+the foot of such an ordinary-shaped glass was made to fit. Frequently,
+as might be expected, such stands are found without glasses, and their
+use then seems difficult to explain.
+
+Another characteristic German type is the "wiederkom," a vessel more
+conspicuous for capacity than for its artistic qualities. It is usually
+a cylindrical vessel of green glass often holding as much as a quart,
+elaborately enamelled with coats of arms and views of well-known places;
+and at times when the cup was a wedding gift the figures of the bride
+and bridegroom are seen upon it.
+
+A very fanciful kind of cup was known in England as a "yard of ale," a
+long tube of glass generally shaped like a coach horn, but ending
+sometimes in three prongs as a trident, the opening in the latter being
+at the end of the handle, which was about a yard in length.
+
+Small silver cups were often made in dozens with various devices,
+differing in each, such as the signs of the zodiac, the occupations of
+the months, or figures of the classical gods and goddesses, engraved
+upon them.
+
+The tankard came into fashion in the 16th century, a practical, but
+seldom graceful object. At first some attempt was made, by shaping the
+sides, to attain to some artistic quality, but usually the tankard from
+the late 16th century to the present time is found with straight sides,
+either vertical or contracting towards the top, which is of course
+always furnished with a hinged lid.
+
+
+  17th and 18th century types.
+
+A material that has one obvious merit, that of being practically
+unbreakable, is leather, and drinking cups were often made of it. The
+flagon called a "black jack" is the best-known, and examples are very
+common, mostly of the 17th and 18th centuries. A quaint fashion was to
+have a leather cup made in the form of a lady's shoe; this, however, was
+confined to Germany and might be thought in somewhat questionable taste.
+
+In the 17th and 18th centuries a great impetus was given to the
+production of curious drinking vessels in pottery. In England at various
+potting centres a great number of cups called "tygs" were made:
+capacious mugs with several handles, three or four, round the sides, so
+that the cup could be readily passed from one to the other. Many of
+these have quaint devices and inscriptions upon them. Another favourite
+plan is to make a jug with open-work round the neck and a variety of
+spouts, one only communicating with the liquid. These "puzzle jugs" no
+doubt caused a good deal of amusement when attempted by a novice, who
+would inevitably spill some of the contents.
+
+The horn of the rhinoceros is much favoured by the Chinese as a material
+for drinking cups often of a somewhat archaic form. The dense structure
+of the horn is well adapted for the purpose, and its beautiful amber hue
+makes the vessel a very agreeable object to the eye. The usual form is
+of a boat shape on a square foot, and the carved decoration is often
+copied from that of the bronze vessels of the earlier dynasties. Others
+are treated in a freer and more naturalistic manner, the bowl being
+formed as the flower of the magnolia, and the entire horn, at times more
+than 2 ft. in length, is utilized in carrying out the design. One of
+this kind is in the Victoria and Albert Museum. Cups of the former type
+are commonly found imitated in ivory-white porcelain, and are known as
+"libation cups." Rhinoceros horn is held by the Chinese to be an
+antidote against poison, a belief shared by other nations.
+
+
+  Tea and coffee cups.
+
+There is but little to be said about the vessels used in the drinking of
+tea and coffee. In Europe the type has practically remained unchanged
+since the introduction of tea and coffee drinking, except that in the
+18th century the tea-cups imported from China had no handles, and were
+generally thinner than the coffee cups. In Japan there is a ceremonious
+way of drinking tea, known as _Cha no yu_. Here powdered green tea is
+used; the party assembles in a small pavilion in a garden, and the tea
+is made in accordance with a rigid etiquette. The infusion is stirred
+with a whisk in a rudely fashioned bowl, holding about a pint, and
+passed from one guest to another. The bowls are of very thick pottery,
+never of porcelain, and the most valued kind is that made in Korea. In
+the drinking of rice spirit (saké) in Japan small wide shallow cups are
+used, made generally of porcelain, but sometimes of finely lacquered
+wood. Both kinds are usually ornamented with elaborate and sometimes
+allusive designs.
+
+
+  Savage utensils.
+
+Among savage races the most peculiar drinking ceremony is that of kava
+drinking in Polynesia, principally in the Fijian, Tongan and Samoan
+groups. The best description of the process is given in Mariner's
+_Tonga_. The principal vessel is usually a large bowl, sometimes
+measuring 2 or 3 ft. in diameter, cut from a solid block of wood. It has
+four short legs and an ear at one side to which a rope of coco-nut fibre
+is generally attached. The liquid is prepared in this bowl and ladled
+out in small cups often made of coco-nut shells, and these are handed
+round with great ceremony. Both the bowl and the cups become coated in
+the inside with a highly polished layer, pale blue in colour; but this
+beautiful tint fades when the vessel is out of use, and it is therefore
+very rarely seen in specimens in Europe. The kava itself is prepared
+from the root of a tree of the pepper family (_Piper methysticum_); the
+root is cut into pieces of a convenient size, and these are given to
+young men and women of the company, who masticate them, and the lumps
+thus shredded are placed in the large bowl, water is poured over them,
+and the mass is strained with great care by wringing it in strips of the
+inner bark of the _hibiscus_. The liquor is slightly intoxicating.
+
+If the Polynesian method of preparing kava as a drink is distasteful to
+our ideas, the favourite drinking bowl of the old Tibetans is even more
+so. Friar Odoric (14th century), quoted by Yule, describes how the
+Tibetan youth "takes his father's head and straightway cooks and eats
+it, and of the skull he makes a goblet from which he and all his family
+always drink devoutly to the memory of the deceased father." This
+recalls Livy's account of the Boii in Upper Italy, who made a drinking
+vessel of the head of the Roman consul Postumus. Among the Tibetans
+skulls are still used, but generally for libations only; for this
+purpose great care is exercised in the selection of the skull, and the
+"points" of a good skull are well understood by the Lamas.
+     (C. H. RD.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The verb "to drink" is Common Teut.; cf. Ger. _trinken_, &c.
+
+  [2] See PLATE, Plate I.
+
+  [3] See PLATE, Plate I.
+
+  [4] For two illustrations see PLATE, Plate II.
+
+
+
+
+DRIPSTONE, in architecture, a projecting moulding weathered on the upper
+surface and throated underneath so as to form a drip. The term is more
+correctly applied to a string course. When carried round an arch its
+more correct description would be a hood (q.v.). When employed inside a
+building it serves a decorative purpose only.
+
+
+
+
+DRISLER, HENRY (1818-1897), American classical scholar, was born on the
+27th of December 1818, on Staten Island, New York. He graduated at
+Columbia College in 1839, taught classics in the Columbia grammar school
+for four years, and was then appointed tutor in classics in the college.
+In 1845 he became adjunct professor of Latin and Greek there, in 1857
+was appointed to the new separate chair of Latin language and
+literature, and ten years later succeeded Dr Charles Anthon as Jay
+professor of Greek language and literature. He was acting president in
+1867 and in 1888-1889, and from 1890 to his retirement as professor
+emeritus in 1894 was dean of the school of arts. He died in New York
+City on the 30th of November 1897. Dr Drisler completed and supplemented
+Dr Anthon's labours as an editor of classical texts. His criticisms and
+corrections of Liddell and Scott's _Greek-English Lexicon_, of which he
+brought out a revised American edition in 1846, won his name a place on
+the title-page of the British edition in 1879, and in 1870 he published
+a revised and enlarged edition of Yonge's _English-Greek Lexicon_. He
+was ardently opposed to slavery, and brilliantly refuted _The Bible View
+of Slavery_, written by Bishop J. H. Hopkins of Vermont, in a _Reply_
+(1863), which meets the bishop on purely Biblical ground and displays
+the wide range of Dr Drisler's scholarship.
+
+
+
+
+DRIVER, SAMUEL ROLLES (1846-   ), English divine and Hebrew scholar, was
+born at Southampton on the 2nd of October 1846. He was educated at
+Winchester and New College, Oxford, where he had a distinguished career,
+taking a first class in Literae Humaniores in 1869. He was awarded the
+Pusey and Ellerton scholarship in 1866, the Kennicott scholarship in
+1870 (both Hebrew), and the Houghton Syriac prize in 1872. From 1870 he
+was a fellow, and from 1875 also a tutor, of New College, and in 1883
+succeeded Pusey as regius professor of Hebrew and canon of Christ
+Church. He was a member of the Old Testament Revision Committee
+(1876-1884) and examining chaplain to the bishop of Southwell
+(1884-1904); received the honorary degrees of doctor of literature of
+Dublin (1892), doctor of divinity of Glasgow (1901), doctor of
+literature of Cambridge (1905); and was elected a fellow of the British
+Academy in 1902. Dr Driver devoted his life to the study, both textual
+and critical, of the Old Testament. Among his numerous works are
+commentaries on Joel and Amos (1897); Deuteronomy (1902); Daniel (1901);
+Genesis (1909); the Minor Prophets, Nahum to Malachi (1905); Job (1905);
+Jeremiah (1906); Leviticus (1894 Hebrew text, 1898 trans. and notes);
+Samuel (Hebrew text, 1890). Among his more general works are: _Treatise
+on the Use of the Tenses in Hebrew_ (1892); _Isaiah, his Life and Times_
+(1893); _Introd. to the Literature of the Old Test._ (1897, ed. 1909);
+_Sermons on Subjects connected with the Old Testament_ (1892); _The
+Parallel Psalter_ (1904); _Heb. and Eng. Lexicon of the O.T._ (in
+collaboration, 1906); _Modern Research as illustrating the Bible_
+(1909); articles in the _Ency. Brit._, _Ency. Bibl._ and Hastings'
+_Dict. of the Bible_.
+
+
+
+
+DRIVING (from "to drive," i.e. generally to propel, force along or in, a
+word common in various forms to the Teutonic languages), a word used in
+a restricted sense for the art of controlling and directing draught
+animals from a coach or other conveyance or movable machine to which
+they are harnessed for the purpose of traction. This has been an
+occupation practised since domesticated animals were first put to this
+use. In various parts of the world a number of different animals have
+been, and still are, so employed; of these the horse, ox, mule and ass
+are the most common, though their place is taken by the reindeer in
+northern latitudes, and by the Eskimo dog in arctic and antarctic
+regions. The driving of each of these requires special skill, only to be
+acquired by practice combined with knowledge of the characteristics
+peculiar to the several animals employed. The most accomplished driver
+of spirited horses would probably be in difficulties if called upon to
+drive sixteen or twenty dogs in an arctic sledge, or a team of oxen or
+mules drawing the guns of a mountain battery; and the adept in either of
+these branches of the art might provoke the compassion of a farmer from
+Lincolnshire or Texas by his attempts to manage a pair of Clydesdale
+horses in the plough or the reaping machine.
+
+Under all these different conditions driving is a work of utility, of
+economic value to civilized society. But from very early times driving,
+especially of horses, has also been regarded as a sport or pastime. This
+probably arose in the first instance from its association with battle.
+In the earliest historical records, such as the Old Testament and the
+Homeric poems, the driver of the chariot fills a place of importance in
+the economy of war; and on his skill and efficiency the fate of kings,
+and even of kingdoms, must often have depended. The statement in the
+Book of Kings that Jehu the son of Nimshi was recognized from a distance
+by his style of driving appears to indicate that the warrior himself on
+occasion took the place of the professional charioteer; and although it
+would be unsafe to infer from the story that the pleasure derived from
+the occupation was his motive for doing so, the name of this king of
+Israel has become the eponym of drivers. Among the Greeks at an equally
+early period driving was a recognized form of sport, to the popularity
+of which Horace afterwards made allusion. Racing between teams of horses
+harnessed to war-chariots took the place occupied by saddle-horse
+racing and American trotting races (see HORSE-RACING) in the sport of
+modern times. The element of danger doubtless gave pleasurable
+excitement to chariot racing and kept alive its association with
+incidents familiar in war; just as at a later period, when the
+institution of chivalry had given the armed knight on horseback a
+conspicuous place in medieval warfare, the tournament became the most
+popular sport of the aristocracy throughout Europe.
+
+This element of danger cannot be said to enter usually into the
+enjoyment of driving at the present day. Though accidents occasionally
+happen, the pastime is practically unattended by serious risk; and the
+source of the pleasure it affords the driver must be sought in the skill
+it requires, combined with the love of the horse which is common to
+sportsmen, and of exercise of power. The art of driving as practised
+to-day for pleasure without profit, and without the excitement of
+racing, is of quite modern development. Oliver Cromwell, indeed, met
+with a mishap in Hyde Park while driving a team of four horses presented
+to him by the count of Oldenburg, which was the subject of more than one
+satirical allusion by contemporary royalist writers; but two things were
+needed before much enjoyment could be found in driving apart from
+utility. These were the invention of carriages on springs, and the
+construction of roads with smooth and solid surface. The former did not
+come into general use till near the end of the 18th century, and it was
+about the same period that the engineering skill of Thomas Telford and
+the invention of John London Macadam combined to provide the latter. The
+influence on driving of these two developments was soon apparent.
+Throughout the 18th century stage-coaches, ponderous unwieldy vehicles
+without springs, had toiled slowly over rough and deeply rutted tracks
+as a means of communication between different parts of Great Britain;
+but those who made use of them did so as a matter of necessity and not
+for enjoyment. But by the beginning of the 19th century the improvement
+in carriage-building and road-construction alike had greatly diminished
+the discomfort of travel; and interest in driving for its own sake grew
+so rapidly that in 1807 the first association of amateur coachmen was
+formed. This was the Bensington Driving Club, the forerunner of many
+aristocratic clubs for gentlemen interested in driving as a pastime.
+
+In modern driving one, two or four horses are usually employed. When a
+greater number than four is put in harness, as in the case of the state
+equipages of royal personages on occasions of ceremony, the horses are
+not driven but are controlled by "postillions" mounted on the near-side
+horse of each pair. When two horses are used they may either be placed
+side by side, in "double harness," which is the commoner mode of driving
+a pair of horses, or one following the other, in a "tandem." Four
+horses, or "four-in-hand," are harnessed in two pairs, one following the
+other, and called respectively the "leaders" and the "wheelers"--the
+same terms being used for the two horses of a tandem.
+
+Though it is a less difficult accomplishment to drive a single horse
+than a tandem or four-in-hand, or even a pair, it nevertheless requires
+both knowledge and the skill that practice alone confers. The driver
+should have some knowledge of equine character, and complete familiarity
+with every part of the harness he uses, and with the purpose which each
+buckle or strap is intended to serve. The indefinable quality known in
+horsemanship as "good hands" is scarcely less desirable on the box-seat
+than in the saddle. It is often said to be unattainable by those who do
+not possess it by nature; but though this may be true to some extent,
+"good hands" are partly at least the result of learning the correct
+position for the arm and hand that holds the reins. The reins are held
+in the left hand, which should be kept at about the level of the lowest
+button of the driver's waistcoat, and near the body though not pressed
+against it. The driving hand should never be reached forward more than a
+few inches, nor raised as high as the breast. The upper arm should lie
+loosely against the side, the forearm horizontal across the front of the
+body, forming a right angle or thereabouts at the elbow-joint, the
+wrist very slightly bent inwards, and the back of the hand and knuckles
+facing outwards towards the horses. In this position the three joints of
+the arm form a kind of automatic spring that secures the "give" to the
+movement of the horse's mouth which, in conjunction with firmness, is a
+large part of what is meant by "good hands." But this result is only
+obtained if the reins be also held with the proper degree of bearing on
+the bit. What the proper degree may be depends greatly on the character
+of the horses and the severity of the bit. Pulling horses must be
+restrained by a strong draw on their bits, such as would bring other
+animals to a standstill. But under no circumstances, no matter how
+sluggish the horses may be, should the reins be allowed to lie slack;
+for if this is done the horse receives no support in the event of a
+sudden stumble, and no control if he shies unexpectedly. The driver
+should therefore always just "feel his horse's mouth" as lightly as
+possible; he then has the animal well under control in readiness for
+every emergency, while avoiding such a pull on the mouth as would cause
+a high-spirited horse to chafe and fret. Well-broken carriage horses
+should always be willing to run into their bits, and those that draw
+back when lightly held in hand should be kept up to the bit with the
+whip.
+
+These principles are common to all branches of the art of driving,
+whether of one, two or four horses. When they are observed no great
+difficulty confronts the coachman who is content with single or double
+harness, provided he has acquired the eye for pace and distance, and the
+instinctive realization of the length of the carriage behind him,
+without which he may suffer collision with other vehicles, or allow
+insufficient room in turning a corner or entering a gateway. For before
+he can have had the practice by which alone this knowledge is to be
+gained, the beginner will have learnt such elementary facts as that his
+horses must be held well in hand going down hill and given their heads
+on an ascent, and that on no account should the horse's mouth be
+"jobbed" by the driver jerking the reins; he will also have learnt a
+good deal about the character and temperament of the horse, on which so
+much of the art of driving depends, and which can best be studied on the
+box-seat and not at all in the library. If he has pursued this study
+with any degree of insight, he will have learnt further to be sparing in
+the use of the hand-brake with which most modern carriages are provided.
+This apparatus is most useful in case of emergency, or for taking weight
+off the carriage on a really steep descent; but the habit which too many
+coachmen fall into of using the brake on every trifling decline should
+be avoided. Its effect is that the horses are continually doing
+collar-work, and are thus deprived of the relief which ought to be given
+them by occasional light pole or shaft work instead.
+
+
+  Tandem and four-in-hand.
+
+When the ambition of the amateur coachman leads him to attempt a tandem
+or four-in-hand he enters on a much more complex department of the art
+of driving. In the first place he has now four reins instead of two to
+manipulate, and the increase of weight on his hand, especially when four
+horses are being driven, requires considerable strength of wrist to
+support it without tiring. It is of the first importance, moreover, that
+he should know instinctively the position in his hand of each of the
+reins, and be able automatically and instantaneously to lay a finger on
+any one of them. The driver who has to look at his reins to find the
+off-side leader's rein, or who touches the near-side wheeler's in
+mistake for it, is in peril of a catastrophe. It is therefore essential
+that the reins should be correctly disposed between the fingers of the
+left hand, and that the driver should as quickly as possible accustom
+himself to handle them automatically. This is somewhat more difficult in
+driving tandem than in driving four-in-hand, because in the latter case
+there is greater spread of the reins in front of the hand than with
+tandem, where the reins lie much more nearly parallel one above the
+other. The actual holding of the reins is the same in both cases. The
+coachman should be careful to take the reins in his hand before mounting
+to the box-seat, as otherwise his team may make a start without his
+having the means to control them. It is customary to hitch the reins,
+ready for him to take them, on the outside terret (the ring on the pad
+through which the rein runs) of the wheeler--the off-side wheeler in
+four-in-hand. Standing on the ground beside the off-side wheel of his
+carriage, ready to mount to the box-seat, the coachman, after drawing up
+his reins till he almost feels the horses' mouths, must then let out
+about a foot of slack in his off-side reins, in order that when on his
+seat he may find all the reins as nearly as possible equal in length in
+his hand. He mounts with them disposed in his right hand precisely as
+they will be in his left when ready to start. The leaders' reins should
+be separated by the forefinger, and the wheelers' by the middle finger.
+The near-leader's rein will then be uppermost of the four, between the
+forefinger and thumb; then between the forefinger and middle finger are
+two reins together--the off-leader's and the near-wheeler's in the order
+named; while at the bottom, between the middle and third fingers, is the
+off-wheeler's rein. It will be found that held thus the reins spread
+immediately in front of the hand in such a way that each several rein,
+and each pair of reins--two near-side, two off-side, two wheelers' or
+two leaders'--can be conveniently manipulated; and the proficient driver
+can instinctively and instantaneously grasp any of them he chooses with
+his right hand without having to turn his eyes from the road before him
+to the reins in his hand. Having seated himself on the box and
+transferred the reins, thus disposed, from the right to the left hand,
+the coachman should shorten them till he just feels his wheelers' mouths
+and holds back his leaders sufficiently to prevent them quite tightening
+their traces; then, when he has taken the whip from its socket in his
+right hand, he is ready to start. This is an operation requiring careful
+management, to secure that leaders and wheelers start simultaneously;
+for if the leaders start first they will be drawn up sharp by their
+bits, or, what is worse, if their reins have not been sufficiently
+shortened they will jump into their collars and possibly break a
+swinging bar, and in either case they will be fretted and disconcerted
+and will possibly in consequence either kick or rear; if the wheelers
+start before the leaders they will ram the swinging bars under the tails
+of the latter, with results equally unfortunate. The worst possible
+method of starting is suddenly to give the horses their heads and use
+the whip. But no positive rule can be laid down, for it is just one of
+those points which depend largely on familiarity with the horses forming
+the team. Horses even moderately accustomed to the work will generally
+start best in obedience to the voice, and their attention may
+simultaneously be aroused by gently feeling their mouths. When once
+started the driver should at once see that his team is going straight.
+If the leaders and wheelers are not exactly on the same line, this or
+that rein must be shortened or lengthened as the case may require; and
+it is to be noticed that as the near-wheeler's and off-leader's reins
+lie together between the same fingers, a simultaneous shortening or
+lengthening of these two reins will usually produce the desired result.
+With rare exceptions, reins should be shortened or lengthened by pushing
+them back or drawing them forward with the right hand from in front of
+the driving hand, and not from behind it. As soon as the team is in
+motion the leaders may be let out till they draw their traces taut; but
+draught should be taken off them on falling ground or while rounding a
+corner. Good drivers touch the reins as little as possible with the
+whip-hand, and nothing is less workmanlike than for a coachman to act as
+if he were an angler continually letting out or reeling in his line. In
+rounding a corner a loop of an inch or two of the leaders' rein on the
+side to which the turn is to be made is taken up by the right hand and
+placed under the left thumb. This "points the leaders," who accordingly
+make the required turn, while at the same time the right hand bears
+lightly on the wheelers' rein of the opposite side, to prevent them
+making the turn too sharply for safety to the coach behind them. As soon
+as the turn is made--and all this applies equally to the passing of
+other vehicles or obstacles on the road--the driver's left thumb
+releases the loop, which runs out of itself, and the team returns to the
+straight formation. A circumstance useful to bear in mind is that the
+swinging bars are wider than the maximum width of the coach;
+consequently the driver knows that wherever the swinging bars can pass
+through with safety--and as they are before his eyes the calculation is
+easy--the coach will safely follow.
+
+
+  The use of the whip.
+
+A necessary part of driving four horses or tandem is the proper use of
+the whip. The novice, before beginning to drive, should acquire the
+knack--which can only be learnt by practical instruction and
+experiment--of catching up the thong of the whip on to the stick by a
+flick of the wrist. With practice this is done almost automatically and
+without looking at the whip. It is not merely an ornamental
+accomplishment, but a necessary one; for in no other way can the whip be
+kept in constant readiness for use either on wheelers or leaders as the
+need of the moment may dictate. The point of the thong is confined in
+the whip-hand when striking the wheelers (which should be done in front
+of the pad), and is released for reaching the leaders. Considerable
+dexterity is required in using the whip on the leaders without at the
+same time touching, or at all events alarming or fretting, the wheelers.
+The thong of the whip should reach the leaders from beneath the swinging
+bar; and proficient "whips" can unerringly strike even the near leader
+from under the off-side bar without disturbing the equanimity of any
+other member of the team. This demands great skill and accuracy; but no
+coachman is competent to drive four horses until he is able to touch
+with the whip any particular horse that may require it, and no other.
+
+Essential as is proficiency in the use of the whip when driving four
+horses, it is even more imperative for the driver of tandem. For in
+four-in-hand the leaders act in some measure as a restraint upon each
+other's freedom of action, whereas the leader in tandem is entirely
+independent and therefore more difficult to control. If he takes it into
+his head to turn completely round and face the driver, there is no
+effectual means of preventing him. It is here that a prompt and accurate
+use of the whip is important. A sharp cut with the thong of the whip on
+the side to which he is turning will often drive the leader back into
+his place. But it must be done instantaneously, and the driver who has
+got his thong coiled round the stick of his whip, or who cannot make
+certain of striking the horse on precisely the desired spot, will miss
+the opportunity and may find his team in a sad mess, possibly with
+disastrous results. If the leader, in spite of a stroke from the whip at
+the right moment and on the right spot, still persists in turning, the
+only thing to be done is to turn the wheeler also; and then when the
+tandem has been straightened, to turn the horses back once more to their
+original direction. For this reason it is never safe to harness a tandem
+to a four-wheeled vehicle; because if it should be necessary to turn the
+wheeler sharply round, the fore-carriage would probably lock and the
+trap be overturned. Of comparatively recent years a great improvement
+has been effected in the harnessing of a tandem by the introduction of
+swinging bars similar to those used in four-in-hand. Formerly the
+leading traces in tandem drew direct from tugs on the wheeler's hames,
+or less frequently from the stops on the shafts. This left a
+considerable length of trace which, when draught was taken off the
+leader, hung slack between the two horses; with the result that either
+of them might get a leg over the leading trace, with dangerous
+consequences. In the more modern arrangement short traces attached to
+the wheeler's tugs hold a bar, which is kept in place by a few inches of
+chain from the kidney-link on the wheeler's collar. This bar is
+connected by short traces or chains with a second bar to which the
+leader's true traces are hooked in the usual way, allowing him a
+comfortable distance clear of the bar precisely as in four-in-hand. The
+leader thus draws as before from the wheeler's tugs; but the length of
+trace is broken up by the two swinging bars, and as these are prevented
+from falling low by their attachment to the wheeler's collar, the danger
+from a too slack leading trace is reduced to a minimum; though care is
+needed when the leader is not pulling to prevent the bar falling on his
+hocks.
+
+Expert tandem driving, owing to the greater freedom of the leader from
+control, is a more difficult art than the driving of four horses, in
+spite of the fact that the weight on the hand is much less severe; but
+the general principles of the two are the same. In Great Britain,
+however, the coach-and-four is the more popular. It is more showy than
+tandem; it keeps alive the romantic associations of the days when the
+stagecoach was the ordinary means of locomotion; and a coach, or "drag,"
+accommodates a larger party of passengers to a race-meeting or other
+expedition for pleasure than a dogcart. But for those whose means do not
+permit the more costly luxury of a four-horse team, a tandem will be
+found to make all the demand on skill and nerve which, in combination
+with the taste for horses, makes the art of driving a source of
+enjoyment.
+
+  See Donald Walker, _British Manly Exercises: in which Riding, Driving,
+  Racing are now first described_ (London, 1834); Fuller, _Essay on
+  Wheel Carriages_ (London, 1828); William Bridges Adams, _English
+  Pleasure Carriages: their Origin, History, Materials, Construction_
+  (London, 1837); _The Equestrian: A Handbook of Horsemanship,
+  containing Plain Rules for Riding, Driving and the Management of the
+  Horse_ (London, 1854); a Cavalry Officer, _The Handy Horse Book; or
+  Practical Instruction in Driving and the Management of the Horse_
+  (London, 1865-1867, 1871-1881); H. J. Helm, _American Roadsters and
+  Trotting Horses_ (Chicago, 1878); E. M. Stratton, _The World on
+  Wheels_ (New York, 1878); J. H. Walsh ("Stonehenge"), _Riding and
+  Driving_ (London, 1863); James A. Garland, _The Private Stable_ (2nd
+  ed., Boston, 1902); the Duke of Beaufort, _Driving_ (The Badminton
+  Library, London, 1889), containing a bibliography; F. H. Huth, _Works
+  on Horses and Equitation: A Bibliographical Record of Hippology_
+  (London, 1887).     (R. J. M.)
+
+
+
+
+DROGHEDA, a municipal borough, seaport and market town, on the southern
+border of Co. Louth, Ireland, in the south parliamentary division, on
+the river Boyne, about 4 m. from its mouth in Drogheda Bay, and 31½ m.
+N. by W. from Dublin on the Great Northern main line. Pop. (1901)
+12,760. It occupies both banks of the river; but the northern division
+is the larger of the two, and has received greater attention in modern
+times. The ancient fortifications, still extant in the beginning of the
+19th century, have disappeared almost entirely, but of the four gateways
+one named after St Lawrence remains nearly perfect, consisting of two
+loopholed circular towers; and there are considerable ruins of another,
+the West or Butler Gate. Among the public buildings are a mansion-house
+or mayoralty, with a suite of assembly rooms attached; and the Tholsel,
+a square building with a cupola. St Peter's chapel formerly served as
+the cathedral of the Roman Catholic archbishopric of Armagh; and in the
+abbey of the Dominican nuns there is still preserved the head of Oliver
+Plunkett, the archbishop who was executed at Tyburn in 1681 on an
+unfounded charge of treason. There was formerly an archiepiscopal palace
+in the town, built by Archbishop Hampton about 1620; and the Dominicans,
+the Franciscans, the Augustinians, the Carmelites and the knights of St
+John have monastic establishments. Of the Dominican monastery (1224)
+there still exists the stately Magdalen tower; while of the Augustinian
+abbey of St Mary d'Urso (1206) there are the tower and a fine pointed
+arch. At the head of the educational institutions there is a classical
+school endowed by Erasmus Smith. There is also a blue-coat school,
+founded about 1727 for the education of freemen's sons. The present
+building was erected in 1870. Benjamin Whitworth, M.P., was a generous
+benefactor to the town, who built the Whitworth Hall, furnished half the
+funds for the construction of waterworks, established a cotton factory,
+and is commemorated by a statue in the Mall. The industrial
+establishments comprise cotton, flax and flour mills, sawmills,
+tanneries, salt and soap works, breweries, chemical manure and
+engineering works. The town is the headquarters of the valuable Boyne
+salmon-fishery. A brisk trade is carried on mainly in agricultural
+produce, especially with Liverpool (which is distant 135 m. due E.) and
+with Glasgow. Many works of improvement have been effected from time to
+time in the harbour, the quays of which occupy both sides of the river,
+the principal, 1000 yds. in length, being on the north side. Here is a
+depth of 21 ft. at the highest and 14 ft. at the lowest tides. The tide
+reaches 2½ m. above the town to Oldbridge; and barges of 50 tons burden
+can proceed 19 m. inland to Navan. The river is crossed by a bridge for
+ordinary traffic, and by a fine railway viaduct. The town is governed
+by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors.
+
+In the earliest notices the town of Drogheda is called Inver-Colpa or
+the Port of Colpa; the present name signifies "The Bridge over the
+Ford." In 1152 the place is mentioned as the seat of a synod convened by
+the papal legate, Cardinal Paparo; in 1224 it was chosen by Lucas de
+Netterville, archbishop of Armagh, for the foundation of the Dominican
+friary of which there are still remains; and in 1228 the two divisions
+of the town received separate incorporation from Henry III. But there
+grew up a strong feeling of hostility between Drogheda _versus Uriel_
+and Drogheda _versus Midiam_, in consequence of trading vessels lading
+their cargoes in the latter or southern town, to avoid the pontage duty
+levied in the former or northern town. At length, after much blood had
+been shed in the dispute, Philip Bennett, a monk residing in the town,
+succeeded by his eloquence, on the festival of Corpus Christi, 1412, in
+persuading the authorities of the two corporations to send to Henry IV.
+for a new charter sanctioning their combination, and this was granted on
+the 1st of November. Drogheda was always considered by the English a
+place of much importance. In the reign of Edward III. it was classed
+along with Dublin, Waterford and Kilkenny as one of the four staple
+towns of Ireland. Richard II. received in its Dominican monastery the
+submissions of O'Neal, O'Donnell and other chieftains of Ulster and
+Leinster. The right of coining money was bestowed on the town, and
+parliaments were several times held within its walls. In the reign of
+Edward IV. the mayor received a sword of state and an annuity of £20, in
+recognition of the services rendered by the inhabitants at Malpus Bridge
+against O'Reilly; the still greater honour of having a university with
+the same privileges as that of Oxford remained a mere paper distinction,
+owing to the poverty of the town and the unsettled state of the country;
+and an attempt made by the corporation in modern times to resuscitate
+their rights proved unsuccessful. In 1495 Poyning's laws were enacted by
+a parliament held in the town. In the civil wars of 1641 the place was
+besieged by O'Neal and the Northern Irish forces; but it was gallantly
+defended by Sir Henry Tichbourne, and after a long blockade was relieved
+by the Marquess of Ormond. The same nobleman relieved it a second time,
+when it was invested by the Parliamentary army under Colonel Jones. In
+1649 it was captured by Cromwell, after a short though spirited defence;
+and nearly every individual within its walls, without distinction of age
+or sex, was put to the sword. Thirty only escaped, who were afterwards
+transported as slaves to Barbados. In 1690 it was garrisoned by King
+James's army; but after the decisive battle of the Boyne (q.v.) it
+surrendered to the conqueror without a struggle, in consequence of a
+threat that quarter would not be granted if the town were taken by
+storm.
+
+Drogheda ceased to be a parliamentary borough in 1885, and a county of a
+town in 1898. Before 1885 it returned one member, and before the Union
+in 1800 it returned four members to the Irish parliament.
+
+From the close of the 12th century, certainly long before the
+Reformation and for some time after it, the primates of Ireland lived in
+Drogheda. Being mostly Englishmen, they preferred to reside in the
+portion of their diocese within the gate, and Drogheda, being a walled
+town, was less liable to attack from the natives. From 1417 onwards
+Drogheda was their chief place of residence and of burial. Its proximity
+to Dublin, the seat of government and of the Irish parliament, in which
+the primates were such prominent figures, induced them to prefer it to
+_Ardmacha inter Hibernicos_. Archbishop O'Scanlain, who did much in the
+building of the cathedral at Armagh, preferred to live at Drogheda, and
+there he was buried in 1270. Near Drogheda in later times was the
+primates' castle and summer palace at Termonfeckin, some ruins of which
+remain. In Drogheda itself there is now not a vestige of the palace,
+except the name "Palace Street." It stood at the corner of the main
+street near St Lawrence's gate, and its grounds extended back to St
+Peter's church. The primates of the 15th century were buried in or near
+Drogheda. After the Reformation five in succession lived in Drogheda and
+there were buried, though there is now nothing to fix the spot where any
+of them lies. The last of these--Christopher Hampton--who was
+consecrated to the primacy in 1613, repaired the ruined cathedral of
+Armagh. He built a new and handsome palace at Drogheda, and he repaired
+the old disused palace at Armagh and bestowed on it a demesne of 300
+acres.
+
+
+
+
+DROIT (Fr. for "right," from Lat. _directus_, straight), a legal title,
+claim or due; a term used in English law in the phrase _droits of
+admiralty_, certain customary rights or perquisites formerly belonging
+to the lord high admiral, but now to the crown for public purposes and
+paid into the exchequer. These _droits_ (see also WRECK) consisted of
+flotsam, jetsam, ligan, treasure, deodand, derelict, within the
+admiral's jurisdiction; all fines, forfeitures, ransoms, recognizances
+and pecuniary punishments; all sturgeons, whales, porpoises, dolphins,
+grampuses and such large fishes; all ships and goods of the enemy coming
+into any creek, road or port, by durance or mistake; all ships seized at
+sea, salvage, &c., with the share of prizes--such shares being
+afterwards called "tenths," in imitation of the French, who gave their
+admiral a _droit de dixième_. The _droits of admiralty_ were definitely
+surrendered for the benefit of the public by Prince George of Denmark,
+when lord high admiral of England in 1702. American law does not
+recognize any such _droits_, and the disposition of captured property is
+regulated by various acts of Congress.
+
+The term _droit_ is also used in various legal connexions (for _French
+law_, see FRANCE: _law_), such as the _droit_ of angary (q.v.), the
+_droit d'achat_ (right of pre-emption) in the case of contraband (q.v.),
+the feudal _droit de bris_ (see WRECK), the _droit de régale_ or ancient
+royal privilege of claiming the revenues and patronage of a vacant
+bishopric, and the feudal droits of seignory generally.
+
+
+
+
+DROITWICH, a market town and municipal borough in the Droitwich
+parliamentary division of Worcestershire, England, 5½ m. N.N.E. of
+Worcester, and 126 m. N.W. by W. from London by the Great Western
+railway. Pop. (1901) 4201. It is served by the Bristol-Birmingham line
+of the Midland railway, and by the Worcester-Shrewsbury line of the
+Great Western. It stands on the river Salwarpe, an eastern tributary of
+the Severn. There is connexion with the Severn by canal. There are three
+parish churches, St Andrew, St Peter and St Michael, of which the two
+first are fine old buildings in mixed styles, while St Michael's is
+modern. The principal occupation is the manufacture of the salt obtained
+from the brine springs or _wyches_, to which the town probably owes both
+its name and its origin. The springs also give Droitwich a considerable
+reputation as a health resort. There are Royal Brine baths, supplied
+with water of extreme saltness, St Andrew's baths, and a private bath
+hospital. The water is used in cases of gout, rheumatism and kindred
+diseases. Owing to the pumping of the brine for the salt-works there is
+a continual subsidence of the ground, detrimental to the buildings, and
+new houses are mostly built in the suburbs. In the pleasant well-wooded
+district surrounding Droitwich the most noteworthy points are Hindlip
+Hall, 3 m. S., where (in a former mansion) some of the conspirators in
+the Gunpowder Plot defied search for eight days (1605); and Westwood, a
+fine hall of Elizabethan and Carolean date on the site of a Benedictine
+nunnery, a mile west of Droitwich, which offered a retreat to many
+Royalist cavaliers and churchmen during the Commonwealth. Droitwich is
+governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 1856 acres.
+
+A Roman villa, with various relics, has been discovered here, but it is
+doubtful how far the Romans made use of the brine springs. Droitwich
+(_Wic_, _Salturic_, _Wich_) probably owed its origin to the springs,
+which are mentioned in several charters before the Conquest. At the time
+of the Domesday Survey all the salt springs belonged to the king, who
+received from them a yearly farm of £65, but the manor was divided
+between several churches and tenants-in-chief. The burgesses of
+Droitwich are mentioned in the Domesday Survey, but they probably only
+had certain franchises in connexion with the salt trade. The town is
+first called a borough in the pipe roll of 2 Henry II., when an aid of
+20s. was paid, but the burgesses did not receive their first charter
+until 1215, when King John granted them freedom from toll throughout the
+kingdom and the privilege of holding the town at a fee-farm of £100. The
+burgesses appear to have had much difficulty in paying this large farm;
+in 1227 the king pardoned twenty-eight marks of the thirty-two due as
+tallage, while in 1237 they were £23 in arrears for the farm. They
+continued, however, to pay the farm until the payment gradually lapsed
+in the 18th century. In medieval times Droitwich was governed by two
+bailiffs and twelve jurats, the former being elected every year by the
+burgesses; Queen Mary granted the incorporation charter in 1554 under
+the name of the bailiffs and burgesses. James I. in 1625 granted another
+and fuller charter, which remained the governing charter until the
+Municipal Reform Act. King John's charter granted the burgesses a fair
+on the feast of SS. Andrew and Nicholas lasting for eight days, but
+Edward III. in 1330 granted instead two fairs on the vigil and day of St
+Thomas the Martyr and the vigil and day of SS. Simon and Jude. Queen
+Mary granted three new fairs, and James I. changed the market day from
+Monday to Friday.
+
+
+
+
+DRÔME, a department in the south-east of France, formed of parts of
+Dauphiné and Provence, and bounded W. by the Rhone, which separates it
+from Ardèche, N. and N.E. by Isère, E. by Hautes-Alpes, S.E. by
+Basses-Alpes, and S. by Vaucluse; area 2533 sq. m.; pop. (1906) 297,270.
+Drôme is traversed from east to west by numerous rivers of the Rhone
+basin, chief among which are the Isère in the north, the Drôme in the
+centre and the Aygues in the south. The left bank of the Rhone is
+bordered by alluvial plains and low hills, but to the east of this zone
+the department is covered to the extent of two-thirds of its surface by
+spurs of the Alps, sloping down towards the west. To the north of the
+Drôme lie the Vercors and the Royans, a region of forest-clad ridges
+running uniformly north and south. South of that river the mountain
+system is broken, irregular and intersected everywhere by torrents. The
+most easterly portion of the department, where it touches the mountains
+of the Dévoluy, contains its culminating summit (7890 ft.). North of the
+Isère stretches a district of low hills terminating on the limits of the
+department in the Valloire, its most productive portion. The climate,
+except in the valleys bordering the Rhone, is cold, and winds blow
+incessantly. Snow is visible on the mountain-tops during the greater
+part of the year.
+
+The agriculture of the department is moderately prosperous. The main
+crops are wheat, which is grown chiefly on the banks of the Isère and
+Rhone, oats and potatoes. Large flocks of sheep feed on the pastures in
+the south; cattle-raising is carried on principally in the north-east.
+Good wines, among which the famous Hermitage growth ranks first, are
+grown on the hills and plains near the Rhone and Drôme. Fruit culture is
+much practised. Olives and figs are grown in the south; the cultivation
+of mulberries and walnuts is more widely spread. In the rearing of
+silkworms Drôme ranks high in importance among French departments. The
+Montélimar district is noted for its truffles, which are also found
+elsewhere in the department. The mineral products of Drôme include
+lignite, blende, galena, calamine, freestone, lime, cement, potter's
+clay and kaolin. Brick and tile works, potteries and porcelain
+manufactories exist in several localities. The industries comprise
+flour-milling, distilling, wood-sawing, turnery and dyeing. The chief
+textile industry is the preparation and weaving of silk, which is
+carried on in a number of towns. Woollen and cotton goods are also
+manufactured. Leather working and boot-making, which are carried on on a
+large scale at Romans, are important, and the manufacture of machinery,
+hats, confectionery and paper employs much labour. Drôme exports fruit,
+oil, cheese, wine, wool, live stock and its manufactured articles; the
+chief import is coal. It is served by the Paris-Lyon railway, and the
+Rhone and Isère furnish over 100 m. of navigable waterway. The canal de
+la Bourne, the only one in the department, is used for purposes of
+irrigation only. Drôme is divided into the arrondissements of Valence,
+Die, Montélimar and Nyons, comprising 29 cantons and 379 communes. The
+capital is Valence, which is the seat of a bishopric of the province of
+Avignon. The department forms part of the académie (educational
+division) of Grenoble, where its court of appeal is also located, and of
+the region of the XIV. army corps.
+
+Besides Valence, the chief towns of the department are Die, Montélimar,
+Crest and Romans (qq.v.). Nyons is a small industrial town with a
+medieval bridge and remains of ramparts. Suze-la-Rousse is dominated by
+a fine château with fortifications of the 12th and 14th centuries; in
+the interior the buildings are in the Renaissance style. At St Donat
+there are remains of the palace of the kings of Cisjuran Burgundy;
+though but little of the building is of an earlier date than the 12th
+century, it is the oldest example of civil architecture in France. The
+churches of Léoncel, St Restitut and La Garde-Adhémar, all of Romanesque
+architecture, are also of antiquarian interest. St Paul-Trois-Châteaux,
+an old Roman town, once the seat of a bishopric, has a Romanesque
+cathedral. At Grignan there are remains of the Renaissance château where
+Madame de Sévigné died. At Tain there is a sacrificial altar of A.D.
+184.
+
+
+
+
+DROMEDARY (from the Gr. [Greek: dromas, dromados], running, [Greek:
+dramein], to run), a word applied to swift riding camels of either the
+Arabian or the Bactrian species. (See CAMEL.)
+
+
+
+
+DROMORE, a market town of Co. Down, Ireland, in the west parliamentary
+division, on the upper Lagan, 17½ m. S.W. of Belfast by a branch of the
+Great Northern railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 2307. It is in the
+linen manufacturing district. The town is of high antiquity, and was the
+seat of a bishopric, which grew out of an abbey of Canons Regular
+attributed to St Colman in the 6th century, and was united in 1842 to
+Down and Connor. The town and cathedral were wholly destroyed during the
+insurrection of 1641, and the present church was built by Bishop Jeremy
+Taylor in 1661, who is buried here, as also is Thomas Percy, another
+famous bishop of the diocese, who laid out the fine grounds of the
+palace. Remains of a castle and earthworks are to be seen, together with
+a large rath or encampment known as the Great Fort. The town gives its
+name to a Roman Catholic diocese.
+
+
+
+
+DROMOS (Gr. for running-place), in architecture, the name of the
+entrance passage leading down to the beehive tombs in Greece, open to
+the air and enclosed between stone walls.
+
+
+
+
+DRONE, in music[1] (corresponding to Fr. _bourdon_; Ger. _Summer_,
+_Stimmer_, _Hummel_; Ital. _bordone_), the bass pipe or pipes of the
+bagpipe, having no lateral holes and therefore giving out the same note
+without intermission as long as there is wind in the bag, thus forming a
+continuous pedal, or drone bass. The drone consists of a jointed pipe
+having a cylindrical bore and usually terminating in a bell. During the
+middle ages bagpipes are represented in miniatures with conical
+drones,[2] and M. Praetorius[3] gives a drawing of a bagpipe, which he
+calls _Grosser Bock_, having two drones ending in a curved ram's horn.
+The drone pipe has, instead of a mouthpiece, a socket fitted with a
+reed, and inserted into a stock or short pipe immovably fixed in an
+aperture of the bag. The reed is of the kind known as beating reed or
+_squeaker_, prepared by making a cut in the direction of the
+circumference of the pipe and splitting back the reed from the cut
+towards a joint or knot, thus leaving a flap or tongue which vibrates or
+beats, alternately opening and closing the aperture. The sound is
+produced by the stream of air forced from the bag by the pressure of the
+performer's arm causing the reed tongue to vibrate over the aperture,
+thus setting the whole column of air in vibration. Like all cylindrical
+pipes with reed mouthpiece, the drone pipe has the acoustic properties
+of the closed pipe and produces a note of the same pitch as that of an
+open pipe twice its length. The conical drones mentioned above would,
+therefore, speak an octave higher than a cylindrical drone of the same
+length. The drones are tuned by means of sliding tubes at the joints.
+
+The drones of the old French _cornemuse_ played in concert with the
+_hautbois de Poitou_ (see BAGPIPE), and differing from the shepherd's
+_cornemuse_ or _chalémie_, formed an exception to this method of
+construction, being furnished with double reeds like that of the oboe.
+The drones of the musette and of the union pipes of Ireland are also
+constructed on an altogether different plan. Instead of having long
+cumbersome pipes, pointing over the shoulder, the musette drones consist
+of a short barrel containing lengths of tubing necessary for four or
+five drones, reduced to the most compact form and resembling the rackett
+(q.v.). The narrow bores are pierced longitudinally through the
+thickness of the barrel in parallel channels communicating with each
+other in twos or threes, and so arranged as to provide the requisite
+length for each drone. The reeds are double reeds all set in the wooden
+stock within the bag. By means of regulating slides (called in English
+_regulators_ and in French _layettes_), which may be pushed up and down
+in longitudinal grooves round the circumference of the barrel, the
+length of each drone tube can be so regulated that a simple harmonic
+bass consisting of the common chord is obtainable. In the union pipes
+the drones are separate pipes having keys played by the elbow, which
+correspond to the sliders in the musette drone and produce the same kind
+of harmonic bass. The modern Egyptian arghool consists of a kind of
+clarinet with a drone attached to it by means of waxed thread; in this
+case the beating reed of the drone is set in vibration directly by the
+breath of the performer, who takes both mouthpieces into his mouth,
+without the medium of a wind reservoir. Mersenne gave very clear
+descriptions of the construction of cornemuse and musette, with clear
+illustrations of the reeds and stock.[4] There are allusions in the
+Greek classics which point to the existence of a pipe with a drone,
+either of the arghool or the bagpipe type.[5] (K. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] For the "drone," the male of the honey bee, see BEE. The musical
+   sense, both for the noise made and for the instrument, comes from the
+   buzzing of the bee.
+
+  [2] British Museum, Add. MS. 12,228 (Italian work), _Roman du Roy
+    Meliadus_, 14th century, fol. 221 b., and Add. MS. 18,851, end 15th
+    century (Spanish work illustrated by Flemish artists), fol. 13.
+
+  [3] _Syntagma musicum. Theatrum instrumentorum_, pl. xi. No. 6.
+
+  [4] _L'Harmonie universelle_ (Paris, 1636-1637), t. ii. bk. 5, pp.
+    282-287 and p. 305.
+
+  [5] Plato, _Crito_, 54; Aristophanes, _Acharnians_, 865, where some
+    musicians are in derision dubbed "bumblebee pipers." See BAGPIPE;
+    also Kathleen Schlesinger, "Researches into the Origin of the Organs
+    of the Ancients," _Intern. mus. Ges._ vol. ii. (1901), Sammelband ii.
+    pp. 188-202.
+
+
+
+
+DRONFIELD, an urban district in the north-eastern parliamentary division
+of Derbyshire, England, 6 m. S. of Sheffield, on the Midland railway.
+Pop. (1901) 3809. It lies on the small river Drone, a tributary of the
+Rother, in a busy industrial district in which are numerous coal-mines,
+and there are iron foundries and manufactures of tools and other iron
+and steel goods. The church of St John the Baptist, with a lofty spire,
+is a good example of Decorated work, with Perpendicular additions.
+
+
+
+
+DROPSY (contracted from the old word _hydropisy_, derived from the Gr.
+[Greek: udrôps]; [Greek: udôr], water, and [Greek: ôps], appearance),
+the name given to a collection of simple serous fluid in all or any of
+the cavities of the body, or in the meshes of its tissues. Dropsy of the
+subcutaneous connective tissue is termed _oedema_ when it is localized
+and limited in extent; when more diffuse it is termed _anasarca_; the
+term _oedema_ is also applied to dropsies of some of the internal
+organs, notably to that of the lungs. _Hydrocephalus_ signifies an
+accumulation of fluid within the ventricles of the brain or in the
+arachnoid cavity; _hydrothorax_, a collection of fluid in one or both
+pleural cavities; _hydropericardium_, in the pericardium; _ascites_, in
+the peritoneum; and, when _anasarca_ is conjoined with the accumulation
+of fluid in one or more of the serous cavities, the dropsy is said to be
+general (see also PATHOLOGY).
+
+Dropsy (excluding "epidemic dropsy," for which see below) is essentially
+a symptom and not a specific disease, and is merely an exaggeration of a
+certain state of health. Fluid, known as lymph, is continually passing
+through the capillary walls into the tissues, and in health this is
+removed as fast as it is exuded, in one or more of three ways: part of
+it is used in the nutrition of the tissues, part is returned to the
+general circulation by the veins, and part by the lymphatics. Any
+accumulation constitutes dropsy and is a sign of disease, though not a
+disease in itself. The serous effusions due to inflammation are not
+included under the term dropsy. A dropsical fluid varies considerably in
+composition according to its position in the body, but varies only
+slightly according to the disease which has given rise to it. Its
+specific gravity ranges between 1008 and 1018; the mineral salts present
+are the same and in about the same proportion as those of blood, nor do
+they vary with the position of the exudation. The quantity of albumin,
+however, depends much on the position of the fluid, and slightly on the
+underlying disease. In oedema the fluid contains only traces, whereas a
+pleural or peritoneal effusion is always highly albuminous. Also an
+effusion due to heart disease contains more albumin than one due to
+kidney disease. In appearance it may be colourless, greenish or reddish
+from the presence of blood pigment, or yellowish from the presence of
+bile pigment; transparent or opalescent or milky from the presence of
+fatty matter derived from the chyle. The membrane from which the
+dropsical fluid escapes is healthy, or at least not inflamed, and only
+somewhat sodden by long contact with the fluid--the morbid condition on
+which the transudation depends lying elsewhere.
+
+The simplest cause of dropsy is purely mechanical, blood pressure being
+raised beyond a certain point owing to venous obstruction. This may be
+due to thrombosis of a vein as in phlegmasia dolens (white leg),
+retardation of venous circulation as in varicose veins, or obstruction
+of a vein due to the pressure of an aneurism or tumour. Cardiac and
+renal dropsy are more complicated in origin, but cardiac dropsy is
+probably due to diminished absorption, and renal dropsy, when
+unassociated with heart failure, to increased exudation. But the
+starting point of acute renal dropsy, of the dropsy sometimes occurring
+in diabetes, and that of chlorosis is the toxic condition of the blood.
+For accounts of the various local dropsies see HYDROCEPHALUS; ASCITES;
+LIVER, &c.; general dropsy, or dropsy which depends on causes acting on
+the system at large, is due chiefly to diseases of the heart, kidneys or
+lungs, occasionally on lardaceous disease, more rarely still on diabetes
+or one of the anaemias.
+
+Broadly speaking, 50% of cases of general dropsy are due to disease of
+the heart or aorta, and 25% to renal troubles. The natural tendency of
+all diseases of the heart is to transfer the blood pressure from the
+arteries to the veins, and, so soon as this has reached a sufficient
+degree, dropsy in the form of local _oedema_ commences to appear at
+whatever may be the most depending part of the body--the instep and
+ankle in the upright position, the lower part of the back or the lungs
+if the patient be in bed--and this tends gradually to increase till all
+the cavities of the body are invaded by the serous accumulation. The
+diseases of the lungs which produce dropsy are those which obstruct the
+passage of the blood through them, such as emphysema and fibrosis, and
+thus act precisely like disease of the heart in transferring the blood
+pressure from the arteries to the veins, inducing dropsy in exactly a
+similar manner. The dropsy of renal disease is dependent for the most
+part on an excess of exudation, due largely to an increase of arterial
+and cardiac tension. This in its turn produces arterial thickening and
+cardiac hypertrophy, which, if the case be sufficiently prolonged,
+brings about a natural removal of the fluid. In kidney cases, in the
+absence of cardiac disease, the dropsy will be found to appear first
+about the loose cellular tissue surrounding the eyes, where the vessels,
+turgid with watery blood, have less efficient support. The dropsy of
+chlorosis is very similar to renal dropsy, a toxic condition of blood
+being present in both; also other forms of anaemia, as also hydraemia,
+tend to produce or assist in the production of dropsical effusions.
+
+For the treatment of dropsy the reader is referred to the articles on
+the several diseases of which it is a symptom. Briefly, however, tapping
+of the abdomen or puncture of the legs are constantly resorted to in
+severe cases. Dehydration by diet is very valuable under certain
+circumstances when the dropsy is other than renal. And there is the
+routine treatment by drugs, purgative, diaphoretic and diuretic as the
+symptoms of the case may demand.
+
+It may be well to mention that there are certain affections which may be
+termed _spurious dropsies_, such as _ovarian dropsy_, which is only a
+cystic disease of the ovary; _hydrometria_, dropsy of the uterus, due to
+inflammatory occlusion of the os uteri; _hydronephrosis_, dropsy of the
+kidney, due to obstruction of the ureter, and subsequent distension of
+these organs by serous accumulations; other hollow organs may also be
+similarly affected.
+
+Having no known relation to the preceding is _epidemic dropsy_, the
+first recorded outbreak of which occurred in Calcutta in the year 1877.
+It disappeared during the hot weather of the following year, only to
+recur over a wider area in the cold months of 1878 to 1879, and once
+again in the cold of 1879 to 1880. Since then only isolated cases have
+been recorded in the immediate neighbourhood of Calcutta, though
+epidemics have broken out in other places both by land and sea. At the
+end of 1902 an outbreak occurred in the Barisal gaol, Bengal, in which
+nearly one-third of the cases ended fatally. Dropsy was an invariable
+feature of the disease, and was either the first symptom or occurred
+early. The lower limbs were first affected, trunk and upper limbs later
+in severe cases, the face very rarely. It was accompanied by pyrexia,
+gastro-enteritis, deep-seated pains in limbs and body, and burning and
+pricking of the skin. Various rashes appeared early in the attack, while
+eczema, desquamation and even ulceration supervened later. Anaemia was
+very marked, giving rise in Mauritius to the name of acute anaemic
+dropsy. The duration of the disease was very variable, the limits being
+three weeks and three months. Death was often sudden, resulting chiefly
+from cardiac and respiratory complications. The cause of the disease has
+remained obscure, but there is reason to suppose that it was originally
+imported from the Madras famine tracts.
+
+
+
+
+DROPWORT, in botany, the common name for a species of _Spiraea_, _S.
+filipendula_ (nat. ord. _Rosaceae_), found in dry pastures. It is a
+perennial herb, with much divided radical leaves and an erect stem 2 to
+3 ft. high bearing a loose terminal inflorescence of small white
+flowers, closely resembling those of the nearly allied species _S.
+Ulmaria_, or meadowsweet.
+
+Water Dropwort, _Oenanthe crocata_ (nat. ord. _Umbelliferae_), is a tall
+herbaceous plant growing in marshes and ditches. The stem, which springs
+from a cluster of thickened roots, is stout, branched, hollow and 2 to 5
+ft. high; the leaves are large and pinnately divided, and the flowers
+are borne in a compound umbel, the long rays bearing dense partial
+umbels of small white flowers. The plant, which is very poisonous, is
+often mistaken for celery.
+
+
+
+
+DROSHKY (Russ. _drozhki_, diminutive of _drogi_, a wagon), a light
+four-wheeled uncovered carriage used in Russia. Properly it consists of
+two pairs of wheels joined by a board. This forms a seat for the
+passengers who sit sideways, while the driver sits astride in front. The
+word _Droschke_, however, is applied especially in Germany to light
+carriages generally which ply for hire.
+
+
+
+
+DROSTE-HÜLSHOFF, ANNETTE ELISABETH, FREIIN VON (1797-1848), German poet,
+was born at the family seat of Hülshoff near Münster in Westphalia on
+the 10th of January 1797. Her early mental training was largely
+influenced by her cousin, Clemens August, Freiherr von Droste zu
+Vischering, who, as archbishop of Cologne, became notorious for his
+extreme ultramontane views (see below); and she received a more liberal
+education than in those days ordinarily fell to a woman's lot. After
+prolonged visits among the intellectual circles at Coblenz, Bonn and
+Cologne, she retired to the estate of Ruschhaus near Münster, belonging
+to her mother's family. In 1841, owing to delicate health, she went to
+reside in the house of her brother-in-law, the well-known scholar,
+Joseph, Freiherr von Lassberg (1770-1855), at Schloss Meersburg on the
+Lake of Constance, where she met Levin Schücking (q.v.); and there she
+died on the 24th of May 1848. Annette von Droste-Hülshoff is, beyond
+doubt, the most gifted and original of German women poets. Her verse is
+strong and vigorous, but often unmusical even to harshness; one looks in
+vain for a touch of sentimentality or melting sweetness in it. As a
+lyric poet, she is at her best when she is able to attune her thoughts
+to the sober landscape of the Westphalian moorlands of her home. Her
+narrative poetry, and especially _Das Hospiz auf dem Grossen St Bernard_
+and _Die Schlacht im Loener Bruch_ (both 1838), belongs to the best
+German poetry of its kind. She was a strict Roman Catholic, and her
+religious poems, published in 1852, after her death, under the title
+_Das geistliche Jahr, nebst einem Anhang religiöser Gedichte_, enjoyed
+great popularity.
+
+  Annette von Droste-Hülshoff's _Gedichte_ were first published in 1844
+  during her lifetime, and a number of her poems were translated into
+  English by Thomas Medwin. The most complete edition of her works is
+  that in 4 vols. edited by E. von Droste-Hülshoff (Münster, 1886). The
+  _Ausgewählte Gedichte_ were edited by W. von Scholz (Leipzig, 1901).
+  See Levin Schücking, _Annette von Droste-Hülshoff, ein Lebensbild_
+  (2nd ed., Hanover, 1871)--her letters to L. Schücking were published
+  at Leipzig in 1893; also H. Hueffer, _Annette von Droste-Hülshoff und
+  ihre Werke_ (Gotha, 1887), and W. Kreiten, _Annette von
+  Droste-Hülshoff_ (2nd ed., Paderborn, 1900).
+
+
+
+
+DROSTE-VISCHERING, CLEMENS AUGUST, BARON VON (1773-1845), German Roman
+Catholic divine, was born at Münster on the 21st of January 1773. He was
+educated in his native town and entered the priesthood in 1798; in 1807
+the local chapter elected him vicar-general. This office he resigned in
+1813 through his opposition to Napoleon, but assumed it again after the
+battle of Waterloo (1815) until a disagreement with the Prussian
+government in 1820 led to his abdication. He remained in private life
+until 1835, when he was appointed archbishop of Cologne. Here again his
+zeal for the supremacy of the church led him to break the agreement
+between the state and the Catholic bishops which he had signed at his
+installation, and he was arrested by the Prussian government in November
+1837. A battle of pamphlets raged for some time; Droste was not
+re-installed but was obliged to accept a coadjutor. His chief works
+were: _Über die Religionsfreiheit der Katholiken_ (1817), and _Über den
+Frieden unter der Kirche und den Staaten_ (1843).
+
+  See Carl Mirbt's article in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyk. für prot. Theol._
+  v. 23.
+
+
+
+
+DROUAIS, JEAN GERMAIN (1763-1788), French historical painter, was born
+at Paris on the 25th of November 1763. His father, François Hubert
+Drouais, and his grandfather, Hubert Drouais, were well-known portrait
+painters; and it was from his father that he received his first artistic
+instruction. He was afterwards entrusted to the care of Brenet, an
+excellent teacher, though his own pictures did not take high rank. In
+1780 David, who had just returned from Rome, opened a school of painting
+in Paris, and Drouais was one of his earliest and most promising pupils.
+He adopted the classical style of his master, and gave his whole time to
+study--painting during the day, and spending a great part of every night
+in designing. For weeks together it is said that he never left his
+studio. In 1783 he was admitted to compete for the great prize of
+painting offered by the Academy, the subject being the "Widow of Nain."
+After inspecting the works of his fellow-competitors, however, he lost
+hope and destroyed his own canvas, but was consoled by the assurance of
+his master David that had he not done so he would have won the prize.
+Next year he was triumphantly successful, the "Woman of Canaan at the
+Feet of Christ," with which he gained the prize, being compared by
+competent critics with the works of Poussin. He was carried shoulder
+high by his fellow-students through the streets to his mother's house,
+and a place was afterwards found for his picture in the Louvre. His
+success making him only the more eager to perfect himself in his art, he
+accompanied David to Rome, where he worked even more assiduously than in
+Paris. He was most strongly influenced by the remains of ancient art and
+by the works of Raphael. Goethe, who was at Rome at the time it was
+finished, has recorded the deep impression made by his "Marius at
+Minturno," which he characterizes as in some respects superior to the
+work of David, his master. The last picture which he completed was his
+"Philoctetus on the Island of Lemnos." He died on the 15th of July
+1788. A monument to his memory was erected by his fellow-students in the
+church of Santa Maria in the Via Lata.
+
+
+
+
+DROUET, JEAN BAPTISTE (1763-1824), French Revolutionist, chiefly noted
+for the part he played in the arrest of Louis XVI. at Varennes, was born
+at Sainte-Menehould. He served for seven years in the army, and
+afterwards assisted his father, who was post-master of his native town.
+The carriages conveying the royal family on their flight to the frontier
+stopped at his door on the evening of the 21st of June 1791; and the
+passengers, travelling under assumed names, were recognized by Drouet,
+who immediately took steps which led to their arrest and detection on
+reaching Varennes. For this service the Assembly awarded him 30,000
+francs, but he appears to have declined the reward. In September 1792 he
+was elected deputy to the Convention, and took his place with the most
+violent party. He voted the death of the king without appeal, showed
+implacable hostility to the Girondins, and proposed the slaughter of all
+English residents in France. Sent as commissioner to the army of the
+north, he was captured at the siege of Maubeuge and imprisoned at
+Spielberg till the close of 1795. He then became a member of the Council
+of Five Hundred, and was named secretary. Drouet was implicated in the
+conspiracy of Babeuf, and was imprisoned; but he made his escape into
+Switzerland, and thence to Teneriffe. There he took part in the
+successful resistance to the attempt of Nelson on the island, in 1797,
+and later visited India. The first empire found in him a docile
+sub-prefect of Sainte-Menehould. After the second Restoration he was
+compelled to quit France. Returning secretly he settled at Macon, under
+the name of Merger and a guise of piety, and preserved his incognito
+till his death on the 11th of April 1824.
+
+  See G. Lenotre, _Le Drame de Varennes_ (Paris, 1905).
+
+
+
+
+DROWNING AND LIFE SAVING. To "drown" (a verb used both transitively and
+intransitively, of which the origin, though traced to earlier forms, is
+unknown) is to suffer or inflict death by submersion in water, or
+figuratively to submerge entirely in water or some other liquid. As a
+form of ancient capital punishment, the method of drowning is referred
+to at the end of this article, but the interest of the subject is mainly
+associated with rescue-work in cases of accident.
+
+Death from drowning is the result of asphyxia, due to the stoppage of a
+supply of fresh air to the lungs. There is a certain amount of
+stationary air in the lungs, and into this is diffused oxygen from the
+fresh air taken in, while the carbonic acid which it has taken from the
+blood through the walls of the capillaries is driven out. This process
+of exchange is ever proceeding, the whole of it being regulated from the
+nervous centre at the base of the brain. When a person gets under water
+and cannot swim, there is a natural tendency to struggle, and in the
+efforts to respire water is drawn into the windpipe and cough is brought
+on. This expels the air from the lungs with the water which threatened
+to suffocate him, and as further efforts are made to respire more water
+is taken in and has to be swallowed. Meanwhile, the oxygen in the lungs
+is gradually diminishing, the quantity of carbonic acid is increasing,
+and at length the air in the lungs becomes too impure to effect an
+exchange with the blood. Then the blood passing into the heart becomes
+venous and the heart begins to send out venous instead of arterial blood
+to all parts of the body. Immediately a dull, sickening pain becomes
+apparent at the base of the neck, and insensibility rapidly ensues. This
+arises from the affection of the respiratory nerve centre. In a short
+space of time the face becomes dark and congested through the veins
+being gorged with blood, and the heart ultimately ceases to beat.
+
+When a person unable to swim falls into the water, he usually rises to
+the surface, throws up his arms and calls for help. This, with the water
+swallowed, will make him sink, and if the arms are moved above the head
+when under water, he will, as a natural consequence, sink still lower.
+The struggle will be prolonged a few seconds, and then probably cease
+for a time, allowing him to rise again, though perhaps not sufficiently
+high to enable him to get another breath of air. If still conscious, he
+will renew his struggle, more feebly perhaps, but with the same result.
+As soon as insensibility occurs, the body sinks altogether, owing to the
+loss of air and the filling of the stomach with water. There is a
+general belief that a drowning person must rise three times before he
+finally sinks, but this is a fallacy. The question whether he rises at
+all, or how often he does so, entirely depends upon circumstances. A man
+may get entangled among weeds, which prevent his coming to the surface,
+or he may die through heart failure from the shock or fright of entering
+the water.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--1st Release Method.]
+
+On seeing a person struggling in the water in danger of drowning, no
+time should be lost in going to his assistance, for he may sink at once,
+and then there is danger of missing the body when searching under water
+for it, or it may get entangled among weeds and then the rescuer's task
+is rendered doubly dangerous. Before diving in to the rescue the boots
+and heavy clothing should be discarded if possible, and in cases where a
+leap has to be made from a height, such as a bridge, high embankment,
+vessel or pier, or where the depth of the water is not known, it is best
+to drop in feet first. Where weeds abound there is always danger of
+entanglement, and therefore progress should be made in the direction of
+the stream. When approaching a drowning man there is always the danger
+of being clutched, but a swimmer who knows the right way to deal with a
+man in the water can easily avoid this; but if through some mistake he
+finds himself seized by the drowning person, a necessary thing for the
+swimmer to do is to take advantage of his knowledge of the water and
+keep uppermost, as this weakens the drowning person and makes the effort
+of effecting a release much easier than would otherwise be the case. To
+the Royal Life Saving Society in England is due the credit of
+disseminating, throughout the entire world, the ideas of swimmers, based
+on practical experience, as to the safest methods which should be
+adopted for release and rescue, and their methods, as well as the
+approved ones for resuscitation, are now taught in almost every school
+and college.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--2nd Release Method.]
+
+If the rescuer be held by the wrists, he must turn both arms
+simultaneously against the drowning person's thumbs, and bring his arms
+at right angles to the body, thus dislocating the thumbs of the drowning
+person if he does not leave go (fig. 1). If he be clutched round the
+neck he must take a deep breath and lean well over the drowning person,
+at the same time placing one hand in the small of his back, then raise
+the other arm in line with the shoulder, and pass it over the drowning
+person's arm, then pinch the nostrils close with the fingers, and at the
+same time place the palm of the hand on the chin and push away with all
+possible force. By the firm holding of the nose the drowning person is
+made to open his mouth for breathing, and as he will then be under
+water, choking ensues and he gives way to the rescuer, who then gains
+complete control (fig. 2). One of the most dangerous clutches is that
+round the body and arms or round the body only. When so tackled the
+rescuer should lean well over the drowning person, take a breath as
+before, and either withdraw both arms in an upward direction in front of
+his body, or else act in the same way as when releasing oneself when
+clutched round the neck. In any case one hand must be placed on the
+drowning man's shoulder, and the palm of the other hand against his
+chin, and at the same time one knee should be brought up against the
+lower part of his chest. Then, with a strong and sudden push, the arms
+and legs should be stretched out straight and the whole weight of the
+body thrown backwards. This sudden and totally unexpected action will
+break the clutch and leave the rescuer free to get hold of the drowning
+person in such a manner as to be able to bring him to land (fig. 3).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--3rd Release Method.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Easiest method of carrying a person not
+struggling.]
+
+There are several practical methods of carrying a person through the
+water, the easiest assistance to render being that to a swimmer attacked
+by cramp or exhaustion, or a drowning person who may be obedient and
+remain quiet when approached and assured of safety. Then the person
+assisted should place his arms on the rescuer's shoulders, close to the
+neck, with the arms at full stretch, lie on his back perfectly still,
+with the head well back. The rescuer will then be uppermost, and having
+his arms and legs free can, with the breast stroke, make rapid progress
+to the shore; indeed a good pace can easily be made (fig. 4). In this,
+as in the other methods afterwards described, every care should be taken
+to keep the face of the drowning person above the water. All jerking,
+struggling or tugging should be avoided, and the stroke of the legs be
+regular and well timed, thus husbanding strength for further effort. The
+drowning person being able to breathe with freedom is reassured, and is
+likely to cease struggling, feeling that he is in safe hands.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--1st Rescue Method.]
+
+When a drowning person is not struggling, but yet seems likely to do so
+when approached, the best method of rescue is to swim straight up, turn
+him on his back, and then place the hands on either side of his face.
+Then the rescuer should lie on his back, holding the drowning man in
+front of him, and swim with the back stroke, always taking care to keep
+the man's face above water (fig. 5). If the man be struggling and in a
+condition difficult to manage, he should be turned on his back as
+before, and a firm hold taken of his arms just above his elbows. Then
+the man's arms should be drawn up at right angles to his body and the
+rescuer should start swimming with the back stroke (fig. 6). He should
+take particular care not to go against the current or stream, and
+thereby avoid exhaustion. If the arms be difficult to grasp, or the
+struggling so violent as to prevent a firm hold, the rescuer should slip
+his hands under the armpits of the drowning person, and place them on
+his chest or round his arms, then raise them at right angles to his
+body, thus placing the drowning person completely in his power. The
+journey to land can then be made by swimming on the back as in the other
+methods (fig. 7). In carrying a person through the water, it will be of
+much advantage to keep his elbows well out from the sides, as this
+expands the chest, inflates the lungs and adds to his buoyancy. The legs
+should be kept well up to the surface and the whole body as horizontal
+as possible. This avoids a drag through the water, and will considerably
+help the rescuer. In some cases it may happen that the drowning person
+has sunk to the bottom and does not rise again. In that event the
+rescuer should look for bubbles rising to the surface before diving in.
+In still water the bubbles rise perpendicularly; in running water they
+rise obliquely, so that the rescuer must look for his object higher up
+the stream than where the bubbles rise. It is also well to remember that
+in running water a body may be carried along by the current and must be
+looked for in the direction in which it flows. When a drowning person is
+recovered on the bottom, the rescuer should seize him by the head or
+shoulders, place the left foot on the ground and the right knee in the
+small of his back, and then, with a vigorous push, come to the surface.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--2nd Rescue Method.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--3rd Rescue Method.]
+
+When the rescuer reaches land with an insensible person, no time should
+be lost in sending for a medical man, but in the meantime an attempt to
+induce artificial respiration may be made. The first recorded cases of
+resuscitating the apparently drowned are mentioned in the notes to
+William Derham's _Physico-Theology_, as having occurred at Troningholm
+and Oxford, about 1650. In 1745 Dr J. Fothergill read a paper on the
+subject before the Royal Society. It dealt with the recovery of a man
+dead in appearance by distending the lungs by Mr William Tossack,
+surgeon in Alloa, in 1744. In 1767 several cases of resuscitation were
+reported in Switzerland, and shortly after a society was formed at
+Amsterdam for recovery of the apparently drowned, and to instruct the
+common people as to the best manner of treating them when rescued, and
+to reward the people for their services. In 1773 Dr A. Johnson suggested
+the formation of a similar society in England, and Dr Thomas Cogan
+translated the memoirs of the Amsterdam society. Dr William Hawes
+secured a copy and tried to form a society. There was, however, a strong
+prejudice against the idea, but he publicly offered rewards to persons
+who, between Westminster and London Bridges, should rescue drowning
+persons and bring them to certain places on shore in order that
+resuscitation might be attempted. In this way he was instrumental in the
+saving of several lives, and paid the rewards out of his own pocket,
+until his zeal brought him sympathy and the Royal Humane Society was
+founded. This was in 1774. The system then in vogue was a means of
+inducing artificial respiration by inserting the pipe of a pair of
+bellows into one nostril and closing the other. Air was forced into the
+lungs and then expelled by pressing the chest, thus imitating
+respiration. Dr Hawes used for his resuscitation work a kind of cradle,
+in which the subject was placed, and then raised over a furnace.
+Bleeding, holding up by the heels, rolling on casks, &c. were at various
+times resorted to. Simple means are often as effective as the official
+ones. In 1891 a subject was restored in Australia by being held over a
+smoky fire, which is the native method of restoring life; while a few
+years back, at an English riverside town, a patient was saved by the
+placing of a handkerchief over his mouth and the alternate blowing into
+and drawing air out of the lungs until natural breathing was restored.
+
+One of the oldest methods of resuscitation was that of Dr Marshall Hall
+(1790-1857), introduced in 1856. In this method the operator takes his
+place at the patient's left side, and places a roll of clothing or
+pillow (which must be the same length as that used in the previous
+methods), so that it may be in position under the chest when the patient
+is turned over. The assistant at the head pays particular attention to
+the patient's arms, that they may not be laid upon or twisted at the
+wrists, elbows, hands or shoulders. The patient is then turned face
+downwards, with the body reclining over the pillow, the operator makes a
+firm pressure with the hand upon the back, between and on the shoulder
+blades, he then pulls the patient slowly up on to the side towards
+himself. Once in position, the operator pushes the patient back again
+until the face is downward, when the pressure on the back is to be
+repeated. These three movements must be continued at the rate of about
+fifteen times a minute, until natural breathing has been restored.
+
+Then came the methods of Dr H. R. Silvester and Dr Benjamin Howard, of
+New York.
+
+When using the Silvester method, or, for the matter of that, any other
+method, the first thing to do is to send for medical assistance. Dr
+Silvester recommended that the patient should not be carried face
+downwards or held up by his feet. All rough usage should be avoided,
+especially twisting or bending of limbs, and the patient must not be
+allowed to remain on the back unless the tongue is pulled forward. In
+the event of respiration not being entirely suspended when a person is
+lifted out of the water, it may not be necessary to imitate breathing,
+but natural respiration may be assisted by the application of an
+irritant substance to the nostrils and tickling the nose.
+Smelling-salts, pepper and snuff may be used, or hot and cold water
+alternately dashed on the face or chest. Provided no sign of life can be
+seen or felt or the heart's action heard, promotion of breathing, _not_
+circulation must be the first aim and effort. Lay the patient flat on
+his back, with the head at a slightly higher level than the feet. Remove
+all tight clothing about the neck, chest and abdomen, and loosen the
+braces, belts or corsets. The operator taking his place at the head,
+with an assistant on one side, will turn the patient over until he is
+lying face downwards, his head resting upon one arm. He should then,
+after the assistant has given one or two sharp blows with the open hand
+between the shoulder blades, wipe and clear the mouth, throat and
+nostrils of all matter that may prevent the air from entering the lungs,
+using a handkerchief for this purpose. This being done, the patient
+should be turned upon his back, the tongue pulled forward and kept in
+position by means of a dry cloth, handkerchief or piece of string tied
+round the jaw. Every care must be taken not to let it fall back into the
+mouth and thus obstruct the air passages. When this work has been
+accomplished (it should only last a few seconds) the operator at the
+head should lift the patient, handling the head and shoulders very
+carefully, in order that the assistant may place a roll of clothing or
+pillow under the shoulder blades. The roll being placed in position, the
+operator will lean forward and grasp the arms below the elbows. He will
+then draw the patient's arms steadily upwards and outwards, above the
+head, until fully extended in line with the body. Having held the arms
+in this position for about one second, the operator will carry them back
+again and press them firmly against the side and front of the chest for
+another second. By these means an exchange of air is produced in the
+lungs similar to that effected by natural respiration. These movements
+must be repeated carefully and deliberately about fifteen times a
+minute, and persevered in. When natural respiration is once established,
+the operator should cease to imitate the movements of breathing, and
+proceed with the treatment for _the promotion of warmth and
+circulation_.
+
+Friction over the surface of the body must be at once resorted to, using
+handkerchiefs, flannels, &c., so as to propel the blood along the veins
+towards the heart, while the operator attends to the mouth, nose and
+throat. The friction along the legs, arms and body should all be towards
+the heart and should be continued after the patient has been wrapped in
+blankets or some dry clothing. As soon as possible, the patient should
+be removed to the nearest house and further efforts made to promote
+warmth by the application of hot flannels to the pit of the stomach, and
+bottles or bladders of hot water, heated bricks, &c. to the armpits,
+between the thighs and to the soles of the feet. If there be pain or
+difficulty in breathing, apply a hot linseed meal poultice to the chest.
+On the restoration of life, a teaspoonful of warm water should be given;
+and then, if the power of swallowing has returned, very small quantities
+of wine, warm brandy and water, beef tea or coffee administered, the
+patient kept in bed, and a disposition to sleep encouraged. The patient
+should be carefully watched for some time to see that breathing does not
+fail, and, should any signs of failure appear, artificial respiration
+should at once be resumed. While the patient is in the house, care
+should be taken to let the air circulate freely about the room and all
+overcrowding should be prevented.
+
+In the Howard method there are only two movements; its knowledge is said
+to be necessary in case the patient's arm be in any way injured, or a
+more vigorous method than the "Silvester" deemed necessary, _but care
+should be exercised not to injure the patient by too forcible pressure_.
+The patient is laid on his back, the roll is larger than that used in
+the Silvester method, and is placed farther under the back in order that
+the lower part of the chest may be highest. After adjusting the roll,
+the operator kneels astride of the patient, while his assistant goes to
+the head, lifts the patient's arms beyond the head, and holds them to
+the ground, cleans the mouth and nose, and attends to the tongue. The
+operator, with his fingers spread well apart, taking care that the
+thumbs do not press into the pit of the stomach, grasps the most
+compressible part of the lower ribs, and with both hands applies
+pressure firmly by leaning over the patient; then he springs back,
+lifting his hands off the patient. Artificial respiration is thus
+effected, and continued at the rate of about fifteen times a minute.
+When natural breathing has been restored, the treatment is the same as
+in the Silvester method.
+
+These methods have now been superseded by the Schäfer method, which has
+been taken up by the Royal Life Saving Society, a body instituted in
+1891 for the promotion of technical education in life saving and
+resuscitation of the apparently drowned. The Schäfer method has much to
+recommend it, owing to its extreme simplicity and the ease with which
+the physical operations necessary to carry on artificial respiration may
+be performed, hardly any muscular exertion being required. It involves
+no risk of injury to the congested liver or to any other organ, and as
+the patient is laid face downwards, there is no possibility of the air
+passages being blocked by the falling back of the tongue into the
+pharynx. The water and mucus can also be expelled much more readily from
+the air passages through the mouth and nostrils.
+
+It was due to the happy selection of Professor E. A. Schäfer, as
+chairman of a committee appointed by the Royal Medical & Chirurgical
+Society for the investigation of the methods in use for resuscitation of
+the apparently drowned, that the new method was devised. This committee
+made many experiments upon the cadaver but failed to arrive at any
+definite conclusion by that means. The necessity then appeared of
+thorough investigation of the subject by experiments upon animals, so
+that the phenomena attendant upon drowning might be better known, and
+the various methods of resuscitation properly tried. These experiments
+were made in Edinburgh by Professor Schäfer, with the co-operation of
+Dr P. T. Herring, and the results obtained were embodied in the report
+of the committee, which was presented to the Royal Medical and
+Chirurgical Society in 1904, and published as a supplement to volume 86
+of the _Transactions_ of the society. As the direct outcome of these
+experiments, Professor Schäfer was led to believe that a pressure method
+of resuscitation was not only simpler to perform but also more
+efficacious than any other. This conclusion was put to the test by
+measurements of the results obtained upon the normal human subject by
+the various methods in vogue; from these measurements, which were
+published in the _Proceedings_ of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in
+December 1903, it appeared that when such pressure is exerted in the
+prone position the highest degree of efficiency as well as simplicity is
+obtained. The description of this method was communicated to the Royal
+Medical and Chirurgical Society, and was published in the following year
+(1904) in volume 87 of the _Transactions_ of the society.
+
+Thus it came about that by investigating the phenomena of drowning, and
+the means of resuscitation in dogs, and by applying the results obtained
+to man, the method which the society now advocates as the best was
+arrived at. In the experiments referred to, it was found necessary to
+drown 38 dogs, all but two of which were from first to last in a
+complete state of anaesthesia, the two exceptions having been simply
+drowned without anaesthesia. It is important that the public should
+understand that the evolution of a method which will probably be the
+means of saving thousands of lives has resulted from the painless
+sacrifice of less than 40 dogs, a number which would doubtless in any
+case have been destroyed by drowning or some other form of suffocation,
+but without the benefit of the anaesthetics which were employed in the
+experiments.
+
+[Illustration: FIG 8..--Schäfer method of treatment of the apparently
+drowned. Position A.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Schäfer method of treatment of the apparently
+drowned. Position B.]
+
+Professor Schäfer describes the method as follows:--Lay the subject face
+downwards on the ground, then without stopping to remove the clothing
+the operator should at once place himself in position astride or at one
+side of the subject, facing his head and kneeling upon one or both
+knees. He then places his hands flat over the lower part of the back (on
+the lowest ribs), one on each side (fig. 8), and then gradually throws
+the weight of his body forward on to them so as to produce firm pressure
+(fig. 9)--which must not be violent, or upon the patient's chest. By
+this means the air, and water if any, are driven out of the patient's
+lungs. Immediately thereafter the operator raises his body slowly so as
+to remove the pressure, but the hands are left in position. This forward
+and backward movement is repeated every four or five seconds; in other
+words, the body of the operator is swayed slowly forwards and backwards
+upon the arms from twelve to fifteen times a minute, and should be
+continued for at least half an hour, or until the natural respirations
+are resumed. Whilst one person is carrying out artificial respiration in
+this way, others may, if there be opportunity, busy themselves with
+applying hot flannels to the body and limbs, and hot bottles to the
+feet, but no attempt should be made to remove the wet clothing or to
+give any restoratives by the mouth until natural breathing has
+recommenced.
+
+In his paper read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh in December 1903
+Professor Schäfer gave the following table of the relative exchanges of
+air under different methods:--
+
+  +------------------------------+--------+---------------+--------------+
+  |                              | Number | Amount of air |Amount of air |
+  |      Mode of Respiration.    |  per   | exchanged per |exchanged per |
+  |                              | minute.|  respiration. |   minute.    |
+  +------------------------------+--------+---------------+--------------+
+  | Natural respiration (supine) |  13    |     489 c.c.  |   6.460 c.c. |
+  | Natural      "    (prone)    |  12.5  |     422  "    |   5.240  "   |
+  | Prone (pressure), "Schäfer"  |  13    |     520  "    |   6.760  "   |
+  | Supine (pressure), "Howard"  |  13.6  |     295  "    |   4.020  "   |
+  | Rolling (with pressure),     |        |               |              |
+  |   "Marshall Hall"            |  13    |     254  "    |   3.300  "   |
+  | Rolling (without pressure),  |        |               |              |
+  |   "Marshall Hall"            |  12    |     192  "    |   2.300  "   |
+  | Traction (with pressure),    |        |               |              |
+  |   "Silvester"                |  12.8  |     178  "    |   2.280  "   |
+  +------------------------------+--------+---------------+--------------+
+
+These experiments all tend to show that by far the most efficient method
+of performing artificial respiration is that of intermittent pressure
+upon the lower ribs with the subject in the prone position or face
+downward. It is also the easiest to perform, requiring practically no
+exertion, as the weight of the operator's body produces the effect, and
+the swinging forwards and backwards of the body some thirteen times a
+minute, which alone is required, is by no means fatiguing, and has the
+further great advantage that it can be effectively carried out by one
+person.
+
+  See Taylor, _Medical Jurisprudence_; "Description of a simple and
+  efficient method of performing artificial respiration in the human
+  subject, especially in cases of drowning," by E. A. Schäfer, F.R.S.
+  (vol. 87, _Medico-Chirurgical Society's Transactions_); "The relative
+  efficiency of certain methods of performing artificial respiration in
+  man," by E. A. Schäfer, F.R.S. (vol. 23, part i. _Proceedings of the
+  Royal Society of Edinburgh_); _A Method for the Treatment of the
+  Apparently Drowned_, by R. S. Bowles (London, 1903); _Handbook of
+  Instruction_, Royal Life Saving Society (London, 1908).     (W. HY.)
+
+_Penal Use of Drowning._--As a form of capital punishment, drowning was
+once common throughout Europe, but it is now only practised in
+Mahommedan countries and the Far East. Tacitus states that the ancient
+Germans hanged criminals of any rank, but those of the low classes were
+drowned beneath hurdles in fens and bogs. The Romans also drowned
+convicts. The Lex Cornelia ordained that parricides should be sewn in a
+sack with a dog, cock, viper and ape, and thrown into the sea. The law
+of ancient Burgundy ordered that an unfaithful wife should be smothered
+in mud. The Anglo-Saxon punishment for women guilty of theft was
+drowning. So usual was the penalty in the middle ages that grants of
+life and death jurisdiction were worded to be "_cum fossa et furca_"
+(i.e. "with drowning-pit and gallows"). The owner of Baynard's Castle,
+London, in the reign of John, had powers of trying criminals, and his
+descendants long afterwards claimed the privileges, the most valued of
+which was the right of drowning in the Thames traitors taken within
+their jurisdiction. Drowning was the punishment ordained by Richard
+Coeur de Lion for any soldier of his army who killed a fellow-crusader
+during the passage to the Holy Land. Drowning was usually reserved for
+women as being the least brutal form of death-penalty, but occasionally
+a male criminal was so executed as a matter of favour. Thus in Scotland
+in 1526 a man convicted of theft and sacrilege was ordered to be drowned
+"by the queen's special grace." In 1611 a man was drowned at Edinburgh
+for stealing a lamb, and in 1623 eleven gipsy women suffered there. By
+that date the penalty was obsolete in England. It survived in Scotland
+till 1685 (the year of the drowning of the Wigtoun martyrs). The last
+execution by drowning in Switzerland was in 1652, in Austria 1776, in
+Iceland 1777; while in France during the Revolution the penalty was
+revived in the terrible _Noyades_ carried out by the terrorist Jean
+Baptiste Carrier at Nantes. It was abolished in Russia at the beginning
+of the 18th century.
+
+
+
+
+DROYSEN, JOHANN GUSTAV (1808-1884), German historian, was born on the
+6th of July 1808 at Treptow in Pomerania. His father, Johann Christoph
+Droysen, was an army chaplain, in which capacity he was present at the
+celebrated siege of Kolberg in 1806-7. As a child young Droysen
+witnessed some of the military operations during the War of Liberation,
+for his father was pastor at Greifenhagen, in the immediate
+neighbourhood of Stettin, which was held by the French during the
+greater part of 1813. The impressions of these early years laid the
+foundation of the ardent attachment to Prussia which distinguished him,
+like so many other historians of his generation. He was educated at the
+gymnasium of Stettin and at the university of Berlin; in 1829 he became
+a master at the Graue Kloster (or Grey Friars), one of the oldest
+schools in Berlin; besides his work there he gave lectures at the
+university, from 1833 as _privat-dozent_, and from 1835 as professor,
+without a salary. During these years he was occupied with classical
+antiquity; he published a translation of Aeschylus and a paraphrase of
+Aristophanes, but the work by which he made himself known as a historian
+was his _Geschichte Alexanders des Grossen_ (Berlin, 1833, and other
+editions), a book which still remains probably the best work on the
+subject. It was in some ways the herald of a new school of German
+historical thought, for it shows that idealization of power and success
+which he had learnt from the teaching of Hegel. It was followed by other
+volumes dealing with the successors of Alexander, published under the
+title of _Geschichte des Hellenismus_ (Hamburg, 1836-1843). A new and
+revised edition of the whole work was published in 1885; it has been
+translated into French, but not into English.
+
+In 1840 Droysen was appointed professor of history at Kiel. He was at
+once attracted into the political movement for the defence of the rights
+of the Elbe duchies, of which Kiel was the centre. Like his predecessor
+F. C. Dahlmann, he placed his historical learning at the service of the
+estates of Schleswig-Holstein and composed the address of 1844, in which
+the estates protested against the claim of the king of Denmark to alter
+the law of succession in the duchies. In 1848 he was elected a member of
+the Frankfort parliament, and acted as secretary to the committee for
+drawing up the constitution. He was a determined supporter of Prussian
+ascendancy, and was one of the first members to retire after the king of
+Prussia refused the imperial crown in 1849. During the next two years he
+continued to support the cause of the duchies, and in 1850, with Carl
+Samwer, he published a history of the dealings of Denmark with
+Schleswig-Holstein, _Die Herzogthümer Schleswig-Holstein und das
+Königreich Dänemark seit dem Jahre 1806_ (Hamburg, 1850). A translation
+was published in London in the same year under the title _The Policy of
+Denmark towards the Duchies of Schleswig-Holstein_. The work was one of
+great political importance, and had much to do with the formation of
+German public opinion on the rights of the duchies in their struggle
+with Denmark.
+
+After 1851 it was impossible for him to remain at Kiel, and he was
+appointed to a professorship at Jena; in 1859 he was called to Berlin,
+where he remained till his death. In his later years he was almost
+entirely occupied with Prussian history. In 1851 he brought out a life
+of Count Yorck von Wartenburg (Berlin, 1851-1852, and many later
+editions), one of the best biographies in the German language, and then
+began his great work on the _Geschichte der preussischen Politik_
+(Berlin, 1855-1886). Seven volumes were published, the last not till
+after his death. It forms a complete history of the growth of the
+Prussian monarchy down to the year 1756. This, like all Droysen's work,
+shows a strongly marked individuality, and a great power of tracing the
+manner in which important dynamic forces worked themselves out in
+history. It was this characteristic quality of comprehensiveness that
+also gave him so much influence as a teacher.
+
+Droysen, who was twice married, died in Berlin on the 19th of June 1884.
+His eldest son, Gustav, is the author of several well-known historical
+works, namely, _Gustav Adolf_ (Leipzig, 1869-1870); _Herzog Bernhard von
+Weimar_ (Leipzig, 1885); an admirable _Historischer Handatlas_ (Leipzig,
+1885), and several writings on various events of the Thirty Years' War.
+Another son, Hans Droysen, is the author of some works on Greek history
+and antiquities.
+
+  See M. Duncker, _Johann Gustav Droysen, ein Nachruf_ (Berlin, 1885);
+  and Dahlmann-Waitz, _Quellenkunde der deutschen Geschichte_ (Leipzig,
+  1906).     (J. W. HE.)
+
+
+
+
+DROZ, ANTOINE GUSTAVE (1832-1895), French man of letters, son of the
+sculptor J. A. Droz (1807-1872), was born in Paris on the 9th of June
+1832. He was educated as an artist, and began to exhibit in the Salon of
+1857. A series of sketches dealing gaily and lightly with the intimacies
+of family life, published in the _Vie parisienne_ and issued in book
+form as _Monsieur, Madame et Bébé_ (1866), won for the author an
+immediate and great success. _Entre nous_ (1867) was built on a similar
+plan, and was followed by some psychological novels: _Le Cahier bleu de
+Mlle Cibot_ (1868); _Autour d'une source_ (1869); _Un Paquet de lettres_
+(1870); _Babolein_ (1872); _Les Étangs_ (1875); _L'Enfant_ (1885). His
+_Tristesses et sourires_ (1884) is a delicate analysis of the niceties
+of family intercourse and its difficulties. Droz's first book was
+translated into English under the title of _Papa, Mamma and Baby_
+(1887). _Un Été à la campagne_, a book which caused considerable
+scandal, was erroneously attributed to him. He died on the 22nd of
+October 1895.
+
+
+
+
+DROZ, FRANÇOIS-XAVIER JOSEPH (1773-1850), French writer on ethics and
+political science, was born on the 31st of October 1773 at Besançon,
+where his family had furnished men of considerable mark to the legal
+profession. His own legal studies led him to Paris in 1792; he arrived
+on the very day after the dethronement of the king, and was present
+during the massacres of September; on the declaration of war he joined
+the volunteer _bataillon_ of the Doubs, and for the next three years
+served in the Army of the Rhine. Receiving his discharge on the score of
+ill-health, he obtained a much more congenial post in the newly-founded
+_école centrale_ of Besançon; and in 1799 he made his first appearance
+as an author by an _Essai sur l'art oratoire_ (Paris, Fructidor, An
+VII.), in which he acknowledges his indebtedness more especially to Hugh
+Blair. Removing to Paris in 1803, he became intimate not only with the
+like-minded Ducis, but also with the sceptical Cabanis; and it was on
+this philosopher's advice that, in order to catch the public ear, he
+produced the romance of _Lina_, which Sainte-Beuve has characterized as
+a mingled echo of Florian and _Werther_. Like several other literary men
+of the time, he obtained a post in the revenue office known as the
+_Droits réunis_; but from 1814 he devoted himself exclusively to
+literature and became a contributor to various journals. Already
+favourably known by his _Essai sur l'art d'être heureux_ (Paris, 1806),
+his _Éloge de Montaigne_ (1812), and his _Essai sur le beau dans les
+arts_ (1815), he not only gained the Monthyon prize in 1823 by his work
+_De la philosophie morale ou des différents systèmes sur la science de
+la vie_, but also in 1824 obtained admission to the Académie Française.
+The main doctrine inculcated in this last treatise is that society will
+never be in a proper state till men have been educated to think of their
+duties and not of their rights. It was followed in 1825 by _Application
+de la morale à la philosophie et à la politique_, and in 1829 by
+_Économie politique, ou principes de la science des richesses_, a
+methodical and clearly written treatise, which was edited by Michel
+Chevalier in 1854. His next and greatest work was a _Histoire du règne
+de Louis XVI_ (3 vols., Paris, 1839-1842). As he advanced in life Droz
+became more and more decidedly religious, and the last work of his
+prolific pen was _Pensées du Christianisme_ (1842). Few have left so
+blameless a reputation: in the words of Sainte-Beuve, he was born and he
+remained all his life of the race of the good and the just.
+
+  See Guizot, _Discours académiques_; Montalembert, "Discours de
+  réception," in _Mémoires de l'Académie française_; Sainte-Beuve,
+  _Causeries du lundi_, t. iii.; Michel Chevalier, Notice prefixed to
+  the _Économie politique_.
+
+
+
+
+DRUG, a district and town of British India, in the Chhattisgarh division
+of the Central Provinces. The district was formed in 1906 out of
+portions of the districts of Bilaspur and Raipur. It has an area of 3807
+sq. m., and the population on that area in 1901 was 628,885, showing a
+heavy decrease in the preceding decade, owing to the famines of 1897 and
+1900. The district is a long narrow tract, with lofty ridges of gravel
+in the centre and north, but otherwise consisting of open rolling
+country. The Tendula and Seonath are the principal rivers. Rich black
+soil covers a large part of the district, and rice, wheat and other
+crops are grown. The main line of the Bengal-Nagpur railway passes
+through the district. Drug, the capital of the district, is on the
+railway, 685 m. from Bombay, and had in 1901 a population of 4002.
+Bell-metal-founding and cotton-weaving are carried on.
+
+
+
+
+DRUG (from Fr. _drogue_, a word common in Romance languages, cf. Span.
+and Ital. _droga_; the origin of the word is obscure, but may possibly
+be connected with Dutch _droog_, dry), any organic and inorganic
+substance used in the preparation of medicines, by itself or in
+combination with others, and either prepared by some method or used in a
+natural state (see PHARMACOLOGY and PHARMACOPOEIA). In a particular
+sense "drug" is often used synonymously for narcotics or poisonous
+substances, and hence "to drug" means to stupefy or poison. The word is
+also applied to any article for which there is no sale, or of which the
+value has greatly depreciated--a "drug in the market."
+
+
+
+
+DRUIDISM, the name usually given to the religious system of the ancient
+inhabitants of Gaul and the British Islands. The word Druid (Lat.
+_druida_) probably represents a Gaulish _druid-s_, Irish _drúi_, gen.
+sing. _drúad_. On the analogy of Irish _súi<su-vid-s_ the word has been
+analysed into _dru-vid-_, "very knowing, wise." The ancient Welsh form
+of the word does not exist. Welsh _derwydd_ and _dryw_ are probably to
+be regarded as of recent coinage, as also the Breton forms _drouiz_,
+_druz_. The important part played by the oak in the religious cults of
+other countries suggests a connexion with Greek [Greek: drus], oak, but
+this etymology is rather in disfavour at the present time.
+
+We find in Caesar the first and at the same time the most circumstantial
+account of the Druids to be met with in the classical writers. He tells
+us that all men of any rank and dignity in Gaul were included among the
+Druids or the nobles. In other words, the Druids constituted the learned
+and the priestly class, and they were in addition the chief expounders
+and guardians of the law. We are, however, informed by Diodorus and
+Strabo that this class was composed of Druids, bards and soothsayers.
+Hence Caesar seems to assign more extensive functions to the Druids than
+they actually possessed. The substance of Caesar's account is as
+follows. On those who refused to submit to their decisions they had the
+power of inflicting severe penalties, of which excommunication from
+society was the most dreaded. As they were not a hereditary caste and
+enjoyed exemption from service in the field as well as from payment of
+taxes, admission to the order was eagerly sought after by the youth of
+Gaul. The course of training to which a novice had to submit was
+protracted, extending sometimes over twenty years. All instruction was
+communicated orally, but for ordinary purposes they had a written
+language in which they used the Greek characters. The president of the
+order, whose office was elective and who enjoyed the dignity for life,
+had supreme authority among them. They taught that the soul was
+immortal. Astrology, geography, physical science and natural theology
+were their favourite studies.
+
+Britain was the headquarters of Druidism, but once every year a general
+assembly of the order was held within the territories of the Carnutes in
+Gaul. The Gauls were accustomed to offer human sacrifices, usually
+criminals. Cicero remarks on the existence among the Gauls of augurs or
+soothsayers, known by the name of Druids, with one of whom, Divitiacus,
+an Aeduan, he was acquainted. Diodorus informs us that a sacrifice
+acceptable to the gods must be attended by a Druid, for they are the
+intermediaries. Before a battle they often throw themselves between two
+armies to bring about peace. They are said to have had a firm belief in
+the immortality of the soul and in metempsychosis, a fact which led
+several ancient writers to conclude that they had been influenced by the
+teaching of the Greek philosopher Pythagoras.
+
+A rescript of Augustus forbade Roman citizens to practise druidical
+rites. In Strabo we find the Druids still acting as arbiters in public
+and private matters, but they no longer deal with cases of murder. Under
+Tiberius the Druids were suppressed by a decree of the senate, but this
+had to be renewed by Claudius in A.D. 54. In Mela we find the Druids
+teaching in the depths of a forest or in caverns. In Pliny their
+activity is limited to the practice of medicine and sorcery. According
+to this writer the Druids held the mistletoe in the highest veneration.
+Groves of oak were their chosen retreat. Whatever grew on that tree was
+thought to be a gift from heaven, more especially the mistletoe. When
+thus found, the mistletoe was cut with a golden knife by a priest clad
+in a white robe, two white bulls being sacrificed on the spot. Tacitus,
+in describing the attack made on the island of Mona (Anglesea) by the
+Romans under Suetonius Paulinus, represents the legionaries as being
+awe-struck on landing by the appearance of a band of Druids, who, with
+hands uplifted towards heaven, poured forth terrible imprecations on the
+heads of the invaders. The courage of the Romans, however, soon overcame
+such fears; the Britons were put to flight; and the groves of Mona, the
+scene of many a sacrifice and bloody rite, were cut down.
+
+After this the continental Druids disappear entirely, and are only
+referred to on very rare occasions. Ausonius, for instance,
+apostrophizes the rhetorician Attius Patera as sprung from a race of
+Druids.
+
+When we turn to the British Islands we find, as we should expect, no
+traces of the Druids in England and Wales after the conquest of Anglesea
+mentioned above, except in the story of Vortigern as recounted by
+Nennius. After being excommunicated by Germanus the British leader
+invites twelve Druids to assist him. These probably came from North
+Britain. In Irish literature, however, the Druids are frequently
+mentioned, and their functions in the island seem to correspond fairly
+well to those of their Gaulish brethren described by classical writers.
+The functions of Caesar's Druids we here find distributed amongst
+Druids, bards and poets (_fili_), but even in very early times the poet
+has usurped many of the duties of the Druid and finally supplants him
+with the spread of Christianity. The following is the position of the
+Druid in the pagan literature. The most important documents are
+contained in MSS. of the 12th century, but the texts themselves go back
+in large measure to about A.D. 700. In the heroic cycles the Druids do
+not appear to have formed any corporation, nor do they seem to have been
+exempt from military service. Cathbu (Cathbad), the Druid connected with
+Conchobar, king of Ulster, in the older cycle is accompanied by a number
+of youths (100 according to the oldest version) who are desirous of
+learning his art, though what this consisted in we are not told. The
+Druids are represented as being able to foretell the future and to
+perform magic. Before setting out on the great expedition against
+Ulster, Medb, queen of Connaught, goes to consult her Druid, and just
+before the famous heroine Derdriu (Deirdre) is born, Cathbu prophesies
+what sort of a woman she will be. We may cite two instances of the
+magical skill of the Druids. The hero Cuchulinn has returned from the
+land of the fairies after having been enticed thither by a fairy-woman
+named Fand, whom he is now unable to forget. He is given a potion by
+some Druids, which banishes all memory of his recent adventures and
+which also rids his wife Emer of the pangs of jealousy. More remarkable
+still is the story of Etain. This lady, now the wife of Eochaid Airem,
+high-king of Ireland, was in a former existence the beloved of the god
+Mider, who again seeks her love and carries her off. The king has
+recourse to his Druid Dal[=a]n, who requires a whole year to discover
+the haunt of the couple. This he accomplished by means of four wands of
+yew inscribed with ogam characters. The following description of the
+band of Cathbu's Druids occurs in the epic tale, the _Cattle-spoiling of
+Cualnge_ (Cooley): "The attendant raises his eyes towards heaven and
+observes the clouds and answers the band around him. They all raise
+their eyes towards heaven, observe the clouds, and hurl spells against
+the elements, so that they arouse strife amongst them and clouds of fire
+are driven towards the camp of the men of Ireland." We are further told
+that at the court of Conchobar no one had the right to speak before the
+Druids had spoken. In other texts the Druids are able to produce
+insanity.
+
+In the religious literature they are almost exclusively represented as
+magicians and diviners opposing the Christian missionaries, though we
+find two of them acting as tutors to the daughters of Laegaire, the
+high-king, at the coming of St Patrick. They are represented as
+endeavouring to prevent the progress of St Patrick and St Columba by
+raising clouds and mist. Before the battle of Culdremne (561) a Druid
+made an _airbe drúad_ (fence of protection?) round one of the armies,
+but what is precisely meant by the phrase is obscure. The Irish Druids
+seem to have had a peculiar tonsure. The word _drúi_ is always used to
+render the Latin _magus_, and in one passage St Columba speaks of Christ
+as his Druid.
+
+  See D'Arbois de Jubainville, _Les Druides et les dieux celtiques à
+  forme d'animaux_ (Paris, 1906), and _Introduction à l'étude de la
+  littérature celtique_ (Paris, 1883); P. W. Joyce, _A Social History of
+  Ancient Ireland_ (London, 1903).     (E. C. Q.)
+
+
+
+
+DRUIDS, ORDER OF, a friendly society founded, as an imitation of the
+ancient Druids, in London in 1781. They adopted Masonic rites and spread
+to America (1833) and Australia. Their lodges are called "Groves." In
+1872 the Order was introduced into Germany. (See FRIENDLY SOCIETIES.)
+
+
+
+
+DRUM (early forms _drome_ or _dromme_, a word common to many Teut.
+languages, cf. Dan. _tromme_, Ger. _Trommel_: the word is ultimately the
+same as "trumpet," and is probably onomatopoeic in origin; it appears
+late in Eng. about the middle of the 16th century), the name given to
+the well-known musical instrument (see below) and also to many objects
+resembling it in shape. Thus it is used of any receptacle of similar
+shape, as a "drum" of oil, &c.; in machinery, of a revolving cylinder,
+round which belting is passed; of the _tympanum_ or cylindrically shaped
+middle ear, and specially of the membrane that closes the external
+auditory meatus; and, in architecture, of the substructure of a dome
+when raised to some height above the pendentives. The architectural drum
+had a twofold object; first, to give greater elevation to the dome
+externally so that it should rise well above the surrounding building,
+and secondly, to allow of the interior being lighted with vertical
+windows cut in the drum, instead of forming penetrations in the dome
+itself, as in St Sophia, Constantinople. The term is also applied to the
+circular blocks of stone, which in columns of large dimensions were
+built with a series of drums. At Selinus in Sicily some of these great
+circular blocks are found on the road between the quarries and the
+temples; they vary from 8 to 10 ft. in diameter, being about 6 ft. high.
+The term _frusta_ is sometimes applied to them.
+
+In music the drum (Fr. _tambour_; Ger. _Trommel_; Ital. _tamburo_) is an
+instrument of percussion common in some form to all nations and ages. It
+consists of a frame or vessel forming a resonant cavity, over one or
+both ends of which is stretched a skin or vellum set in vibration by
+direct percussion of hand or stick. Drums fall into two divisions
+according to the nature of their sonority:--(1) instruments producing
+sounds of definite musical pitch, and qualified thereby to take part in
+the harmony of the orchestra, such as the kettledrum (q.v.); (2)
+instruments of indefinite sonorousness, and therefore excluded from the
+harmony of the orchestra; such are the bass drum, the side or snare
+drum, the tenor drum, the tambourine, all used for marking the rhythm
+and adding tone colour.
+
+Drums are further divided into three classes according to special
+features of construction:--(1) instruments having a skin stretched over
+one end of the resonant cavity, the other being open, such as the
+tambourine (q.v.) and the _darabukkeh_ or Egyptian drum, shaped like a
+mushroom; (2) instruments consisting of a cup-shaped receptacle of
+metal, wood or earthenware entirely closed by a skin or vellum stretched
+across the opening, as in the kettledrum; (3) a receptacle in the shape
+of a cylinder closed at both ends by skins, as in the bass drum, side
+drum, &c.
+
+Skin or parchment only acquires the elasticity requisite to produce
+vibration by tension; the vibrations of the parchment are taken up by
+the air enclosed in the receptacle, which thus reinforces the sound
+produced by the parchment. The _tone_ of the instrument whether definite
+or indefinite depends upon the dimensions of the vellum, the shape of
+the resonant receptacle, and the method of percussion. The _intensity_
+of the sound depends upon the degree of percussive force used and the
+diameter of the vellum in proportion to the dimensions of the resonant
+receptacle; the material of which the latter consists has little or no
+influence on the tone of the instrument. The _pitch_ of the sound is
+determined by the dimensions of the vellum taken in conjunction with the
+degree of tension, the pitch varying in acuteness directly with the
+degree of tension and inversely with the size of the vellum.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Military Bass Drum (Besson & Co.)]
+
+The _bass drum_ or Turkish drum (Fr. _grosse caisse_; Ger. _Grosse
+Trommel_; Ital. _gran cassa_ or _tamburo grande_) consists of a short
+cylinder of very wide diameter covered at both ends by vellum stretched
+over thin hoops, which in turn are kept in place by larger hoops fitting
+tightly over them. At regular intervals in the two large hoops are bored
+holes through which passes an endless cord stretched in zig-zag round
+the cylinder and connecting the two hoops. The tension of the vellum is
+controlled by means of leather braces which are made to slide up and
+down the zig-zag of cord, slackening or tightening the large hoops, and
+with them the vellum, at the will of the performer. Systems of rods and
+screws are also used for the purpose. The bass drum is mounted on a
+stand when used in the orchestra. The sound is produced by striking the
+centre of the vellum on the one end of the drum with a stick having a
+large soft round knob composed of wood covered with cork, sponge or
+felt. The bass drum cannot be tuned since it gives out no definite note,
+but the pitch may be varied, according as a rich full tone or a mere
+dull thud be required, by tightening or loosening the braces; the
+instrument can, moreover, be muffled by covering it with a piece of
+cloth. The music for the bass drum is generally written on a stave with
+a bass clef, [Illustration: notes], the C being merely used to show the
+rhythm and accents. Sometimes the stave is dispensed with, a single note
+on a single line being sufficient. The bass drum has a place in every
+orchestra, although it is used but sparingly to accentuate the rhythm.
+It is possible to make gradations in _forte_ and _piano_ on the bass
+drum, and to play quavers and semi-quavers in moderate _tempo_. A roll
+is sometimes played by holding a short stick, furnished with a knob at
+each end, in the middle and striking in quick succession with each knob
+alternately; two kettledrum sticks answer the purpose still better. It
+is understood that the cymbals play the same music as the bass drum
+unless the composer has written _senza piatti_ over the part. Wagner did
+not once score for the bass drum after he composed _Rienzi_, but Verdi,
+Gounod, Berlioz and Sullivan used it effectively. The bass drum was
+formerly known as the _long drum_, the cylinder being long in proportion
+to the diameter.
+
+The _side_ or _snare drum_ (Fr. _tambour militaire_; Ger.
+_Militärtrommel_; Ital. _tamburo militare_) is an instrument consisting
+of a small wooden or brass cylinder with a vellum at each end. The
+parchments are lapped over small hoops and pressed firmly down by larger
+hoops. As in the bass drum, these and the vellums are tightened or
+slackened by means of cords and leather braces, or by a system of rods
+and screws. Across the lower head are stretched two or more catgut
+strings called snares, which produce a rattling sound at each stroke on
+the upper head, owing to the sympathetic vibration of the lower head
+which jars against the snares. The upper head, set in vibration by
+direct percussion from the sticks, induces sympathetic vibrations in the
+air contained within the resonating receptacle, and these vibrations are
+communicated to the lower head. The presence of the snares across the
+diameter of the latter produces a phenomenon which gives the side drum
+its peculiar timbre, changing the nature of the vibrations, now no
+longer free: the snares form a kind of nodal contact, inducing double
+the number of vibrations and a sound approximately an octave higher than
+would be the case were the heads left to vibrate freely. Moreover, the
+vibrations of the upper head being weaker, the latter is compelled to
+vibrate synchronously with the lower vellum.[1]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Guards pattern Side Drum (Besson & Co.).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Regulation Side Drum (Besson & Co.).]
+
+The side drum, so called because it is worn at the side, is struck in
+the centre by two small wooden sticks with elongated heads or knobs of
+hard wood, producing a hard rasping sound when the drum is played singly
+and in close proximity to the hearer; when, however, several drums are
+played simultaneously or with other instruments the effect is brilliant
+and exhilarating. The roll is produced by striking two blows alternately
+with each hand quite regularly and very rapidly, the result being a
+rattling tremolo. This roll ("daddy-mammy") is very difficult to
+acquire, and requires long practice. The side drum can be muffled by
+loosening the snares or by inserting a piece of silk or cloth between
+the snares and the parchment. An impressive effect is produced by a
+continued roll on muffled drums in funeral marches. The notation for the
+side drum is similar to that in use for the bass drum; the value of the
+note is alone of importance; the place of the note on the staff is
+immaterial and purely a matter of custom. In orchestral scores, a single
+line is often used, or the part for side and bass drum is written on the
+same staff. A great variety of rhythmical figures can be played on the
+side drum, such as
+
+[Illustration: notes]
+
+The _tenor drum_ (Fr. _caisse roulante_; Ger. _Roll-_ or _Rührtrommel_;
+Ital. _tamburo rulante_) is similar to the side drum but has a larger
+cylinder of wood and no snares; consequently its timbre lacks the
+brilliancy and incisiveness of the side drum. It is used for the roll in
+military bands, in some theatre orchestras, and on the stage.
+
+The _tambourin de Provence_ is a small drum with a long cylinder of
+narrow diameter used in the Basque provinces with a small pipe
+(_galoubet_) having three holes. The drum is beaten with one stick only,
+the performer steadying it with the hand which fingers the pipe. The
+tambourin and galoubet are in fact a survival of the pipe and tabor
+(q.v.).
+
+The popularity of all kinds of drums in the most ancient civilizations
+is established beyond a doubt by the numerous representations of the
+instrument in a variety of shapes and sizes on the monuments and
+paintings of Egypt, Assyria, India and Persia. The _tympanon_, under
+which name seem to have been included tambourines and kettledrums, as
+well as the dulcimer (during the middle ages), was in use among Greeks
+and Romans chiefly in the worship of Cybele and Bacchus; it was
+introduced through the medium of the Roman civilization into western
+Europe. It is often said that the drum was introduced by the crusaders,
+but it was certainly known in England long before the crusades, for Bede
+(_Musica practica_) mentions it in his list of instruments, and
+Cassiodorus (ii. p. 507) describes it. The side drum was, until the
+reign of Elizabeth, of a much larger size than now and was held
+horizontally and beaten on one head only. It is not known at what date
+snares were added; Praetorius (_Syntagma musicum_, 1618) and Mersenne
+(_L'Harmonie universelle_, Paris, 1636) both mention them. A drawing of
+a side drum showing a snare appears in a book[2] from the printing press
+of J. Badius Ascensius (1510); the instrument also has cords and braces.
+Another woodcut of the same century is given as frontispiece to an
+edition of Flavius Vegetius Renatus.[3] An actual side drum with two
+curved drumsticks belonging to the ancient Egyptians was found during
+the excavations conducted at Thebes in 1823.[4] It measured 1½ ft. in
+height by 2 ft. in diameter; the tension of the heads was regulated by
+cords braced by means of catgut encircling both ends of the drum, and
+wound separately round each cord so that these could be tightened or
+slackened at will by pulling the catgut bands closer together or pushing
+them farther apart. The Berlin Museum possesses some ancient Egyptian
+straight drumsticks with handle and knob. Drums were used at the battle
+of Halidon Hill (1333). An old ballad celebrating Edward III.'s victory
+on this occasion appears in a chronicle of the 14th century, preserved
+in the British Museum (Harl. MS. 4690),
+
+  "This was do with merry sowne.
+   With pipes trumpes and tabers thereto.
+   And loud clariones they blew also."
+
+A prose account of the battle in the same MS. states that the "Englische
+mynstrelles beaten their tabers and blewen their trompes and pipers
+pipenede loude and made a great schowte upon the Skottes."
+
+Froissart, under date 1338, gives details of the means taken by the
+Scots to intimidate the soldiers of Edward III.[5] Having mentioned
+their great horns, he adds, "ils font si grand' noise avec grands
+tambours qu'ils ont aussi." The same chronicler, describing the
+triumphal entry of Edward III. into Calais (1347), gives the following
+list of instruments used: "trompes, tambours, nacaires, chalemies,
+muses."[6]
+
+Drums were used in the British army in the 16th century to give signals
+in war and peace-side drums by the infantry and dragoons, and
+kettledrums by the cavalry.[7] In the reign of Henry VIII. two drummers
+were allowed to every company of 100 men. The chief drum beats used by
+the infantry in the 17th century[8] were _call_, _troop_, _preparative_,
+_march_, _battaile_ and _retreat_; these were later[9] changed to
+_general_, _réveillé_, _assembly_ or _troop_, _tattoo_, _chamade_, &c.
+The side drum was admitted into the orchestra in the 17th century, when
+Marais (1636-1728) scored for it in his opera _Alcione_.     (K. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See Victor Mahillon, _Catalogue descriptif_ (Ghent, 1880), vol.
+    i. pp. 19 and 20.
+
+  [2] Joannes Mauburnius, _Rosetum exercitiorum spiritualium et
+    sacrarum meditationum_ (Paris, 1510), Alphabetum, ix.
+
+  [3] _Vier Bücher der Ritterschaft; mit manicherleyen gerüsten_, &c.;
+    (Augsburg, 1534).
+
+  [4] Carl Engel, _The Music of the Most Ancient Nations_ (London,
+    1864), p. 219.
+
+  [5] _Chron._ ii. p. 737, see also Grose's _Military Antiquities_, ii.
+    41.
+
+  [6] See Froissart in J. A. Buchon, _Panthéon litt._ (Paris, 1837),
+    vol. i. cap. 322, p. 273.
+
+  [7] Sir John Smythe, _A Brief Discourse_ (London, 1594), pp. 158-159.
+
+  [8] Lieut.-Col. W. Bariffe, _Militarie Discipline, or the Young
+    Artilleryman_ (London, 1643).
+
+  [9] Sir James Turner, _Pallas armata_ (1685), xxi. 302.
+
+
+
+
+DRUMMOND, HENRY (1786-1860), English banker, politician and writer, best
+known as one of the founders of the Catholic Apostolic or "Irvingite"
+Church, was born at the Grange, near Alresford, Hampshire, on the 5th of
+December 1786. He was the eldest son of Henry Drummond, a prominent
+London banker, by a daughter of the first Lord Melville. He was educated
+at Harrow and at Christ Church, Oxford, but took no degree. His name is
+permanently connected with the university through the chair of political
+economy which he founded in 1825. He entered parliament in early life,
+and took an active interest from the first in nearly all departments of
+politics. Thoroughly independent and often eccentric in his views, he
+yet acted generally with the Conservative party. His speeches were often
+almost inaudible but were generally lucid and informing, and on occasion
+caustic and severe. From 1847 until his death in 1860 he represented
+West Surrey in parliament. Drummond took a deep interest in religious
+subjects, and published numerous books and pamphlets on such questions
+as the interpretation of prophecy, the circulation of the Apocrypha, the
+principles of Christianity, &c., which attracted considerable attention.
+In 1817 he met Robert Haldane at Geneva, and continued his movement
+against the Socinian tendencies then prevalent in that city. In later
+years he was intimately associated with the origin and spread of the
+Catholic Apostolic Church. Meetings of those who sympathized with the
+views of Edward Irving were held for the study of prophecy at Drummond's
+seat, Albury Park, in Surrey; he contributed very liberally to the funds
+of the new church; and he became one of its leading office-bearers,
+visiting Scotland as an "apostle" and being ordained as an "angel" for
+that kingdom. The numerous works he wrote in defence of its distinctive
+doctrines and practice were generally clear and vigorous, if seldom
+convincing. He died on the 20th of February 1860.
+
+
+
+
+DRUMMOND, HENRY (1851-1897), Scottish evangelical writer and lecturer,
+was born in Stirling on the 17th of August 1851. He was educated at
+Edinburgh University, where he displayed a strong inclination for
+physical and mathematical science. The religious element was an even
+more powerful factor in his nature, and disposed him to enter the Free
+Church of Scotland. While preparing for the ministry, he became for a
+time deeply interested in the evangelizing mission of Moody and Sankey,
+in which he actively co-operated for two years. In 1877 he became
+lecturer on natural science in the Free Church College, which enabled
+him to combine all the pursuits for which he felt a vocation. His
+studies resulted in his writing _Natural Law in the Spiritual World_,
+the argument of which was that the scientific principle of continuity
+extended from the physical world to the spiritual. Before the book
+issued from the press (1883), a sudden invitation from the African Lakes
+Company drew Drummond away to Central Africa. Upon his return in the
+following year he found himself famous. Large bodies of serious readers,
+alike among the religious and the scientific classes, discovered in
+_Natural Law_ the common standing-ground which they needed; and the
+universality of the demand proved, if nothing more, the seasonableness
+of its publication. Drummond continued to be actively interested in
+missionary and other movements among the Free Church students. In 1888
+he published _Tropical Africa_, a valuable digest of information. In
+1890 he travelled in Australia, and in 1893 delivered the Lowell
+Lectures at Boston. It had been his intention to reserve them for mature
+revision, but an attempted piracy compelled him to hasten their
+publication, and they appeared in 1894 under the title of _The Ascent of
+Man_. Their object was to vindicate for altruism, or the disinterested
+care and compassion of animals for each other, an important part in
+effecting "the survival of the fittest," a thesis previously maintained
+by Professor John Fiske. Drummond's health failed shortly afterwards,
+and he died on the 11th of March 1897. His character was full of charm.
+His writings were too nicely adapted to the needs of his own day to
+justify the expectation that they would long survive it, but few men
+exercised more religious influence in their own generation, especially
+on young men.
+
+
+
+
+DRUMMOND, THOMAS (1797-1840), British inventor and administrator, was
+born at Edinburgh on the 10th of October 1797, and was educated at the
+high school there. He was appointed to a cadetship at the Royal Military
+Academy, Woolwich, in 1813; and in 1815 he entered the Royal Engineers.
+In 1819, when meditating the renunciation of military service for the
+bar, he made the acquaintance of Colonel T. F. Colby (1784-1852), from
+whom in the following year he received an appointment on the
+trigonometrical survey of Great Britain. During his winters in London he
+attended the chemical lectures of W. T. Brande and M. Faraday at the
+Royal Institution, and the mention at one of these of the brilliant
+luminosity of lime when incandescent suggested to him the employment of
+the lime light for making distant surveying stations visible. In 1825,
+when he was assisting Colby in the Irish survey, his lime-light
+apparatus ("Drummond light") was put to a practical test, and enabled
+observations to be completed between Divis mountain, near Belfast, and
+Slieve Snaght, a distance of 67 m. About the same time he also devised
+an improved heliostat, and in 1829 he was employed in adopting his light
+for lighthouse purposes. In 1831 he entered political life and was
+appointed superintendent of the boundary commission. Four years later he
+was made under-secretary of state for Ireland, where he proved himself a
+most successful administrator, and did much to promote law and order. It
+was he who in 1838 told the Irish landlords that "property has its
+duties as well as its rights." In 1836 he proposed the appointment of a
+commission on railways in Ireland, and took a large share in its work,
+which resulted in the recommendation, not, however, carried out, that
+the state should construct a system of lines throughout the island.
+Drummond's health was undermined by overwork, and he died at Dublin on
+the 15th of April 1840.
+
+  See _Life_ by J. F. M'Lennan (1867); _Life and Letters_ by R. Barry
+  O'Brien (1889); and Sir T. A. Larcom in _Papers on the Duties of the
+  Royal Engineers_, vol. iv. (1840).
+
+
+
+
+DRUMMOND, WILLIAM (1585-1649), called "of Hawthornden," Scottish poet,
+was born at Hawthornden, near Edinburgh, on the 13th of December 1585.
+His father, John Drummond, was the first laird of Hawthornden; and his
+mother was Susannah Fowler, sister of William Fowler (q.v.), poet and
+courtier. Drummond received his early education at the high school of
+Edinburgh, and graduated in July 1605 as M.A. of the recently founded
+university of Edinburgh. His father was a gentleman usher at the English
+court (as he had been at the Scottish court from 1590) and William, in a
+visit to London in 1606, describes the festivities in connexion with the
+visit of the king of Denmark. Drummond spent two years at Bourges and
+Paris in the study of law; and, in 1609, he was again in Scotland,
+where, by the death of his father in the following year, he became laird
+of Hawthornden at the early age of twenty-four. The list of books he
+read up to this time is preserved in his own handwriting. It indicates a
+strong preference for imaginative literature, and shows that he was
+keenly interested in contemporary verse. His collection (now in the
+library of the university of Edinburgh) contains many first editions of
+the most famous productions of the age. On finding himself his own
+master, Drummond naturally abandoned law for the muses; "for," says his
+biographer in 1711, "the delicacy of his wit always run on the
+pleasantness and usefulness of history, and on the fame and softness of
+poetry." In 1612 began his correspondence with Sir William Alexander of
+Menstrie, afterwards earl of Stirling (q.v.), which ripened into a
+life-long friendship after Drummond's visit to Menstrie in 1614.
+
+Drummond's first publication appeared in 1613, an elegy on the death of
+Henry, prince of Wales, called _Teares on the Death of Meliades_
+(_Moeliades_, 3rd edit. 1614). The poem shows the influence of Spenser's
+and Sidney's pastoralism. In the same year he published an anthology of
+the elegies of Chapman, Wither and others, entitled _Mausoleum_, or _The
+Choisest Flowres of the Epitaphs_. In 1616, the year of Shakespeare's
+death, appeared _Poems: Amorous, Funerall, Divine, Pastorall: in
+Sonnets, Songs, Sextains, Madrigals_, being substantially the story of
+his love for Mary Cunningham of Barns, who was about to become his wife
+when she died in 1615. The poems bear marks of a close study of Sidney,
+and of the Italian poets. He sometimes translates direct from the
+Italian, especially from Marini. _Forth Feasting: A Panegyricke to the
+King's Most Excellent Majestie_ (1617), a poem written in heroic
+couplets of remarkable facility, celebrates James's visit to Scotland in
+that year. In 1618 Drummond began a correspondence with Michael Drayton.
+The two poets continued to write at intervals for thirteen years, the
+last letter being dated in the year of Drayton's death. The latter had
+almost been persuaded by his "dear Drummond" to print the later books of
+_Poly-Olbion_ at Hart's Edinburgh press. In the winter of 1618-1619,
+Drummond had included Ben Jonson in his circle of literary friends, and
+at Christmas 1618 was honoured with a visit of a fortnight or more from
+the dramatist. The account of their conversations, long supposed to be
+lost, was discovered in the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh, by David
+Laing, and was edited for the Shakespeare Society in 1842 and printed by
+Gifford & Cunningham. The conversations are full of literary gossip, and
+embody Ben's opinion of himself and of his host, whom he frankly told
+that "his verses were too much of the schooles, and were not after the
+fancie of the time," and again that he "was too good and simple, and
+that oft a man's modestie made a fool of his witt." But the publication
+of what was obviously intended merely for a private journal has given
+Jonson an undeserved reputation for harsh judgments, and has cast blame
+on Drummond for blackening his guest's memory.
+
+In 1623 appeared the poet's fourth publication, entitled _Flowers of
+Sion: By William Drummond of Hawthornedenne: to which is adjoyned his
+Cypresse Grove_. From 1625 till 1630 Drummond was probably for the most
+part engaged in travelling on the Continent. In 1627, however, he seems
+to have been home for a short time, as, in that year, he appears in the
+entirely new character of the holder of a patent for the construction of
+military machines, entitled "Litera Magistri Gulielmi Drummond de
+Fabrica Machinarum Militarium, Anno 1627." The same year, 1627, is the
+date of Drummond's munificent gift (referred to above) of about 500
+volumes to the library of the university of Edinburgh.
+
+In 1630 Drummond again began to reside permanently at Hawthornden, and
+in 1632 he married Elizabeth Logan, by whom he had five sons and four
+daughters. In 1633 Charles made his coronation-visit to Scotland; and
+Drummond's pen was employed in writing congratulatory speeches and
+verses. As Drummond preferred Episcopacy to Presbytery, and was an
+extremely loyal subject, he supported Charles's general policy, though
+he protested against the methods employed to enforce it. When Lord
+Balmerino was put on his trial on the capital charge of retaining in his
+possession a petition regarded as a libel on the king's government,
+Drummond in an energetic "Letter" (1635) urged the injustice and folly
+of the proceedings. About this time a claim by the earl of Menteith to
+the earldom of Strathearn, which was based on the assertion that Robert
+III., husband of Annabella Drummond, was illegitimate, roused the poet's
+pride of blood and prompted him to prepare an historical defence of his
+house. Partly to please his kinsman the earl of Perth, and partly to
+satisfy his own curiosity, the poet made researches in the genealogy of
+the family. This investigation was the real secret of Drummond's
+interest in Scottish history; and so we find that he now began his
+_History of Scotland during the Reigns of the Five Jameses_, a work
+which did not appear till 1655, and is remarkable only for its good
+literary style. His next work was called forth by the king's enforced
+submission to the opposition of his Scottish subjects. It is entitled
+_Irene: or a Remonstrance for Concord, Amity, and Love amongst His
+Majesty's Subjects_ (1638), and embodies Drummond's political creed of
+submission to authority as the only logical refuge from democracy, which
+he hated. In 1639 Drummond had to sign the Covenant in self-protection,
+but was uneasy under the burden, as several political squibs by him
+testify. In 1643 he published [Greek: Skiamachia]: _or a Defence of a
+Petition tendered to the Lords of the Council of Scotland by certain
+Noblemen and Gentlemen_, a political pamphlet in support of those
+royalists in Scotland who wished to espouse the king's cause against the
+English parliament. Its burden is an invective on the intolerance of the
+then dominant Presbyterian clergy.
+
+His later works may be described briefly as royalist pamphlets, written
+with more or less caution, as the times required. Drummond took the part
+of Montrose; and a letter from the Royalist leader in 1646 acknowledged
+his services. He also wrote a pamphlet, "A Vindication of the
+Hamiltons," supporting the claims of the duke of Hamilton to lead the
+Scottish army which was to release Charles I. It is said that Drummond's
+health received a severe shock when news was brought of the king's
+execution. He died on the 4th of December 1649. He was buried in his
+parish church of Lasswade.
+
+Drummond's most important works are the _Cypresse Grove_ and the poems.
+The _Cypresse Grove_ exhibits great wealth of illustration, and an
+extraordinary command of musical English. It is an essay on the folly of
+the fear of death. "This globe of the earth," says he, "which seemeth
+huge to us, in respect of the universe, and compared with that wide
+pavilion of heaven, is less than little, of no sensible quantity, and
+but as a point." This is one of Drummond's favourite moods; and he uses
+constantly in his poems such phrases as "the All," "this great All."
+Even in such of his poems as may be called more distinctively Christian,
+this philosophic conception is at work.
+
+A noteworthy feature in Drummond's poetry, as in that of his courtier
+contemporaries Ayton (q.v.), Lord Stirling and others, is that it
+manifests no characteristic Scottish element, but owes its birth and
+inspiration rather to the English and Italian masters. Drummond was
+essentially a follower of Spenser, but, amid all his sensuousness, and
+even in those lines most conspicuously beautiful, there is a dash of
+melancholy thoughtfulness--a tendency deepened by the death of his first
+love, Mary Cunningham. Drummond was called "the Scottish Petrarch"; and
+his sonnets, which are the expression of a genuine passion, stand far
+above most of the contemporary Petrarcan imitations. A remarkable
+burlesque poem _Polemo-Middinia inter Vitarvam et Nebernam_ (printed
+anonymously in 1684) has been persistently, and with good reason,
+ascribed to him. It is a mock-heroic tale, in dog-Latin, of a country
+feud on the Fifeshire lands of his old friends the Cunninghams.
+
+  Drummond's _Poems_, with _Cypresse Grove_, the _History_, and a few of
+  the minor tracts, were collected in 1656 and edited by Edward
+  Phillips, Milton's nephew. _The Works of William Drummond, of
+  Hawthornden_ (1711), edited by Bishop Sage and Thomas Ruddiman,
+  contains a life by the former, and some of the poet's letters. A
+  handsome edition of the _Poems_ was printed by the Maitland Club in
+  1832. Later editions are by Peter Cunningham (1833), by William R.
+  Turnbull in "The Library of Old Authors" (1856), and by W. C. Ward
+  (1894) for "The Muses' Library." The standard biography of Drummond is
+  by David Masson (1873). Extracts from the Hawthornden MSS. preserved
+  in the Library of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland were printed
+  by David Laing in _Archaeologia Scotica_, vol. iv.
+
+
+
+
+DRUNKENNESS, a term signifying generally a state resulting from
+excessive drinking, and usually associated with alcoholic intoxication,
+or alcohol poisoning. It may represent either an _act_ or a _habit_, the
+latter consisting in frequent repetitions of the former. As an act it
+may be an accident, most usually arising from the incautious use of one
+or other of the commonly employed intoxicating agents; as a habit (as in
+the form of chronic alcoholism) it is one of the most degrading forms of
+vice which can result from the enfeeblement of the moral principle by
+persistent self-indulgence.
+
+What appears to be "intoxication" may arise from many different causes
+(e.g. epilepsy, fractured skull, intracranial haemorrhage, and the
+toxaemic coma of diabetes and uraemia), and the close resemblance
+between the pathological and the toxic phenomena has been the cause of
+many untoward accidents. Cold alone may produce such peculiar effects
+that Captain Parry said in his _Journal_, "I cannot help thinking that
+many a man may have been punished for intoxication who was only
+suffering from the benumbing effects of frost; for I have more than once
+seen our people in a state so exactly resembling that of the most
+stupid intoxication, that I should certainly have charged them with the
+offence had I not been quite sure that no possible means were afforded
+them on Melville Island to procure anything stronger than snow water."
+The same confusion is frequently found in cases which come before the
+police-courts, people being arrested as "drunk and disorderly" who can
+prove that the symptoms were not due to over-indulgence in drink at all.
+Some individuals have, moreover, a special idiosyncrasy or
+susceptibility to alcohol, due to heredity or to one of the sequelae of
+sunstroke or cranial injury. The children of drunkards are usually very
+susceptible to the poison, becoming intoxicated by a far smaller
+quantity than is needed by a normal person.
+
+But, as a rule, the phenomena of drunkenness are actually due to
+excessive consumption of some intoxicating liquid. The physiological
+action of all such agents may be described as a cumulative production of
+paralysis of various parts of the nervous system, but this effect
+results only in doses of a certain amount--a dose which varies with the
+agent, the race and the individual. Even the cup so often said to
+"cheer, but not inebriate," cannot be regarded as altogether free from
+the last-named effect. Tea-sots are well known to be affected with
+palpitation and irregularity of the heart, as well as with more or less
+sleeplessness, mental irritability and muscular tremors, which in some
+culminate in paralysis; while positive intoxication has been known to be
+the result of the excessive use of strong tea. In short, from tea to
+haschisch we have, through hops, alcohol, tobacco and opium, a sort of
+graduated scale of intoxicants, which stimulate in small doses and
+narcotize in larger,--the narcotic dose having no stimulating properties
+whatever, and only appearing to possess them from the fact that the
+agent can only be gradually taken up by the blood, and the system thus
+comes primarily under the influence of a stimulant dose. In certain
+circumstances and with certain agents--as in the production of
+chloroform narcosis--this precursory stage is capable of being much
+abbreviated, if not altogether annihilated; while with other agents--as
+tea--the narcotic stage is by no means always or readily produced.
+
+No subject in modern times has led to more extreme opinions than this of
+indulgence in "intoxicants" to any degree whatever. It is well to
+remember that (in spite of apparently authoritative modern views to the
+contrary) there is not a shadow of proof that the moderate use of any
+one of these agents as a stimulant has any definite tendency to lead to
+its abuse; it is otherwise with their employment as narcotics, which,
+once indulged in, is almost certain to lead to repetition, and to a more
+or less rapid process of degradation, though there are many exceptions
+to this latter statement. It is interesting to know that a former
+English judge, who lived to nearly ninety years of age, believed he had
+prolonged his life and added greatly to his comfort by the moderate use
+of ether, which he was led to employ because neither wine nor tobacco
+agreed with him; while the immoderate use of the same agent has given
+rise to a most deleterious form of drunkenness, both in parts of Ireland
+and in some of the large industrial centres in Great Britain.
+
+Various modern biologists have discussed, with more or less acceptance
+in certain circles, the historical conditions in various races and in
+different countries as to the use and abuse of intoxicants, and have
+drawn varying conclusions from their theories. It has even been
+contended, with much show of learned authority, that since drunkenness
+leads to disease and early death, the proneness to strong drink in the
+long run causes the elimination of the unfit, and results in a general
+sobering of the community, a race being therefore temperate in
+proportion to its past sufferings through alcohol. But on this subject
+it may be said that, at least, no agreement has been reached.
+
+The effects of intoxicants are variously modified by the temperament of
+the individual and the nature of the inebriant. When that is alcohol,
+its action on an average individual is first to fill him with a serene
+and perfect self-complacency. His feelings and faculties are exalted
+into a state of great activity and buoyancy, so that his language
+becomes enthusiastic, and his conversation vivacious if not brilliant.
+The senses gradually become hazy, a soft humming seems to fill the
+pauses of the conversation, and modify the tones of the speaker, a filmy
+haze obscures the vision, the head seems lighter than usual, the
+equilibrium unstable. By-and-by objects appear double, or flit
+confusedly before the eyes; judgment is abolished, secretiveness
+annihilated, and the drunkard pours forth all that is within him with
+unrestrained communicativeness; he becomes boisterous, ridiculous, and
+sinks at length into a mere animal. Every one around him, the very
+houses, trees, even the earth itself, seem drunken and unstable, he
+alone sober, till at last the final stage is reached, and he falls on
+the ground insensible--_dead drunk_ (alcoholic coma)--a state from
+which, after profound slumber, he at last awakes feverish, exhausted,
+sick and giddy, with ringing ears, a throbbing heart and a violent
+headache.
+
+The poison primarily affects the cerebral lobes, and the other parts of
+the cerebro-spinal system are consecutively involved, till in the state
+of _dead-drunkenness_ the only parts not invaded by a benumbing
+paralysis are those automatic centres in the medulla oblongata which
+regulate and maintain the circulation and respiration. But even these
+centres are not unaffected; the paralysis of these as of the other
+sections of the cerebro-spinal system varies in its incompleteness, and
+at times becomes complete, the coma of drunkenness terminating in death.
+More usually the intoxicant is gradually eliminated, and the individual
+restored to consciousness, a consciousness disturbed by the secondary
+results of the agent he has abused, which vary with the nature of that
+agent. Whether, however, directly or indirectly through the nervous
+system, the stomach suffers in every case; thus nutrition is interfered
+with by the defective ingestion of food, as well as by the
+mal-assimilation of that which is ingested; and from this cause, as well
+as by the peculiar local action of the various poisons, the various
+organic degenerations are induced (cirrhosis of the liver, &c.) which in
+most cases shorten the drunkard's days.
+
+The primary discomforts of an act of drunkenness are readily removed for
+the time by a repetition of the cause. Thus what has been an act may
+readily become a habit, all the more readily that each repetition more
+and more enfeebles both the will and the judgment, till they become
+utterly unfit to resist the temptation to indulgence supplied by the
+knowledge of the temporary relief to suffering which is sure to follow,
+and in spite of the consciousness that each repetition of the act only
+forges their chains more tightly. From this condition there is no hope
+of relief but in enforced abstinence; any one in this condition must be
+regarded as temporarily insane (see INSANITY and NEUROPATHOLOGY), and
+ought to be placed in an inebriate asylum till he regain sufficient
+self-control to enable him to overcome his love for drink. Numerous
+"cures" have been started in recent years, which have often succeeded in
+individual cases. An anti-alcoholic serum obtained from alcoholized
+horses has been advocated by Dr Sapelier.
+
+For the law concerning drunkenness the reader is referred to INEBRIETY,
+LAW OF. Its prevalence as a vice has varied considerably according to
+the state of education or comfort in different classes of society. In
+considering the extent to which intemperance has prevailed, the
+statistics of prosecutions upon which such comparisons are usually based
+are far from being completely satisfactory, but, inasmuch as they
+constitute the only possible data for such comparisons, we are compelled
+to accept them. The following table gives the average number of persons
+per 1000 of the population proceeded against for drunkenness in England
+and Wales for quinquennial periods, dating from 1857, the first year of
+the Judicial Statistics:--
+
+  1857-1861             4.28
+  1862-1866             4.78
+  1867-1871             5.47
+  1872-1876             7.83
+  1877-1881             7.25
+  1882-1886             6.90
+  1887-1891             6.19
+  1892-1896             5.84
+  1897-1901             6.42
+  1902-1906             6.51
+
+The figures, it will be seen, show a steady decline from 1872-1876 (when
+the consumption of alcohol was quite abnormal) to 1892-1896. After that
+year, however, the figures again rose. The increase was especially
+marked in 1899, when a tide of exceptional prosperity was again
+accompanied by great drunkenness. It is also disquieting to discover
+that the average number of prosecutions for drunkenness in the three
+years 1897-1899 was 51% higher than the average for 1857-1861, and 35%
+higher than the average for 1862-1866. That the increase was partly due
+to more efficient police administration is probable, but that this is
+not a complete explanation of the figures is made evident by an analysis
+of the general statistics of crime during the same period, from which it
+may be seen that, while crime generally (excluding drunkenness)
+decreased 28% in England and Wales since 1857-1861, drunkenness
+increased 51%. Speaking generally, it may be said that in the United
+Kingdom drunkenness appears chiefly prevalent in the seaport and mining
+districts. If a line be drawn from the mouth of the Severn to the Wash,
+it will be found that the "black" counties, without exception, lie to
+the north-west of this line. The worst counties in England and Wales in
+the matter of drunkenness are Northumberland, Durham and Glamorganshire,
+while Pembrokeshire and Lancashire follow close behind. The most sober
+counties, on the other hand, are Cambridgeshire, Suffolk, Oxfordshire
+and Wiltshire. Averages based upon the returns of entire counties do
+not, however, afford a complete guide to the distribution of
+drunkenness, inasmuch as offences are not equally distributed over the
+whole area of a county. A heavy ratio of drunkenness in a small district
+may often give a county an unfavourable position in the general
+averages, notwithstanding favourable conditions in the rest of its area.
+
+Analysis of the prosecutions for drunkenness shows that about 24% of the
+total number of offences are committed by women. In the larger towns the
+proportion, as a rule, is higher. In London, 38% of the drunkenness is
+attributable to women; in Manchester, 36%; in Belfast and Glasgow, 32%.
+In Liverpool, on the other hand, the proportion is only 24%. The
+much-controverted question as to whether intemperance is increasing
+among women can hardly, however, be decided by an appeal to the criminal
+statistics. So far as these statistics throw any light at all upon the
+question, they suggest important local differences. A more direct clue
+is afforded by the registrar-general's annual returns of deaths directly
+attributed to intemperance. The figures are given below. In order to
+eliminate accidental variations, the comparison is based upon the
+average mortality during consecutive periods:--
+
+  +---------------+----------------------+----------+----------+
+  |     Years.    | Average No. of deaths|   Males  | Females  |
+  |               | (England and Wales). | per cent.| per cent.|
+  +---------------+----------------------+----------+----------+
+  |   1877-1881   |         1071         |    69    |    31    |
+  |   1882-1886   |         1320         |    66    |    34    |
+  |   1887-1891   |         1710         |    64    |    36    |
+  |   1892-1896   |         2044         |    61    |    39    |
+  |   1897-1899   |         2577         |    61    |    39    |
+  |   1899        |         2871         |    60    |    40    |
+  +---------------+----------------------+----------+----------+
+
+For the ten years ending 1904, out of 26,426 deaths from alcoholism,
+59.34% were males and 40.66% females.
+
+The figures are certainly striking. They show, it will be noticed, that
+out of every 100 deaths from alcoholic excess in England and Wales women
+contributed nine more at the end of the century then they did in 1880.
+If, instead of taking the total number of deaths, we take the ratio per
+million persons living, the increase is seen even more clearly:--
+
+  +------------------+----------------+----------------+
+  |     Years.       |   Males per    | Females per    |
+  |                  | million living.| million living.|
+  +------------------+----------------+----------------+
+  |    1877-1881     |        60      |       25       |
+  |    1882-1886     |        67      |       32       |
+  |    1887-1891     |        79      |       42       |
+  |    1892-1896     |        86      |       51       |
+  |    1897-1899     |       103      |       63       |
+  |    1899          |       112      |       70       |
+  +------------------+----------------+----------------+
+
+
+It appears that, while the ratio of mortality from alcoholic excess
+increased 87% among males during the last two decades of the century,
+among females it increased by no less than 180%.
+
+See also LIQUOR LAWS and TEMPERANCE.
+
+
+
+
+DRURY, SIR WILLIAM (1527-1579), English statesman and soldier, was a son
+of Sir Robert Drury of Hedgerley in Buckinghamshire, and grandson of
+another Sir Robert Drury (d. 1536), who was speaker of the House of
+Commons in 1495. He was born at Hawstead in Suffolk on the 2nd of
+October 1527, and was educated at Gonville Hall, Cambridge. Fighting in
+France, Drury was taken prisoner in 1544; then after his release he
+helped Lord Russell, afterwards earl of Bedford, to quell a rising in
+Devonshire in 1549, but he did not come to the front until the reign of
+Elizabeth. In 1559 he was sent to Edinburgh to report on the condition
+of Scottish politics, and five years later he became marshal and
+deputy-governor of Berwick. Again in Scotland in January 1570, it is
+interesting to note that the regent James Stewart, earl of Murray, was
+proceeding to keep an appointment with Drury in Linlithgow when he was
+mortally wounded, and it was probably intended to murder the English
+envoy also. After this event Drury led two raids into Scotland; at least
+thrice he went to that country on more peaceable errands, during which,
+however, his life was continually in danger from assassins; and he
+commanded the force which compelled Edinburgh Castle to surrender in May
+1573. In 1576 he was sent to Ireland as president of Munster, where his
+stern rule was very successful, and in 1578 he became lord justice to
+the Irish council, taking the chief control of affairs after the
+departure of Sir Henry Sidney. The rising of the earl of Desmond had
+just broken out when Sir William died in October 1579.
+
+  Drury's letters to Lord Burghley and others are invaluable for the
+  story of the relations between England and Scotland at this time.
+
+
+
+
+DRUSES, or DRUZES (Arab. _Druz_), a people of mid-Syria (for the
+derivation of the name see HISTORY section below), distributed nowadays
+into three isolated groups, of which the most numerous inhabits Jebel
+Hauran (Jebel Druz), E. of Jordan (about 55,000); the second, the
+_cazas_ of Shuf and Metn in Lebanon (about 50,000); the third, the
+_cazas_ of Hasbeya, Rasheya, W. al Ajem, Homs, Hamadiyeh and Selimiyeh
+in Anti-Lebanon and Hermon (about 45,000). The first group, which has
+been greatly increased by migrants from the second, since the
+establishment of the privileged Lebanon province (1861) under Christian
+auspices, lives apart from other peoples in semi-independence. The
+second is now confined to the southern Lebanon, and even there is
+greatly outnumbered by Maronites, who, in the whole "Mountain," stand to
+Druses as 9 to 2. The third is counterbalanced everywhere by a large
+population of Moslem and Orthodox Syrians. The Hauran, therefore, has
+become the stronghold of the Druses, offering nowadays the best field
+for studying their peculiar customs and religion; and the group there
+still increases at the expense of the other groups, despite efforts on
+the part of the Ottoman government to check Druse migration by both
+conciliatory and repressive measures. The actual distinction of the
+Druses, as a racial unity, despite their dispersion, depends so
+exclusively on the peculiarity of their common religion, that it will be
+well at once to give an account of Druse creed and practice as they are
+understood to stand at the present day. How this religion may have grown
+up and come to be theirs will be considered later.
+
+_Religion._--Druse religion is a secret faith, and the following account
+is given with all reserves. There are many indications that a more
+primitive cult, containing elements of Nature worship, preceded it, and
+still survives in the popular practices of the more remote Druse
+districts, e.g. in the eastern Hauran. The _Muwahhidin_ (Unitarians), as
+the Druses call themselves, believe that there is one and only one God,
+indefinable, incomprehensible, ineffable, passionless. He has made
+himself known to men by successive incarnations, of which the last was
+Hakim, the sixth Fatimite caliph. How many these incarnations have been
+is stated variously; but seventy, one for each period of the world,
+seems the best-attested number. Jesus appears to be accepted as one
+such incarnation, but not Mahomet, although it is agreed that, in his
+time, the "Universal Intelligence" (see later) was made flesh, in the
+person of Mikdad al-Aswad. No further incarnation can now take place: in
+Hakim a final appeal was made to mankind, and after the door of mercy
+had stood open to all for twenty-six years, it was finally and for ever
+closed. When the tribulation of the faithful has reached its height,
+Hakim will reappear to conquer the world and render his religion
+supreme. Druses, believed to be dispersed in China, will return to
+Syria. The combined body of the Faithful will take Mecca, and finally
+Jerusalem, and all the world will accept the Faith. The first of the
+creatures of God is the Universal Intelligence or Spirit, impersonated
+in Hamza, Hakim's vizier. This Spirit was the creator of all subordinate
+beings, and alone has immediate communion with the Deity. Next in rank,
+and equally supporting the throne of the Almighty, are four Ministering
+Spirits, the Soul, the Word, the Right Wing and the Left Wing, who, in
+Hakim's time, were embodied respectively in Ismael Darazi, Mahommed ibn
+Wahab, Selama ibn Abd al-Wahal and Baha ud-Din; and beneath these again
+are spiritual agents of various ranks. The material world is an
+emanation from, and a "mirror" of, the Divine Intelligence. The number
+of human beings admits neither of increase nor of decrease, and a
+regular process of metempsychosis goes on continually. The souls of the
+virtuous pass after death into ever new incarnations of greater
+perfection, till at last they reach a point at which they can be
+re-absorbed into the Deity itself; those of the wicked may be degraded
+to the level of camels or dogs. All previous religions are mere types of
+the true, and their sacred books and observances are to be interpreted
+allegorically. The Gospel and the Koran are both regarded as inspired
+books, but not as religious guides. The latter function is performed
+solely by the Druse Scriptures. As the admission of converts is no
+longer permitted, the faithful are enjoined to keep their doctrine
+secret from the profane; and in order that their allegiance may not
+bring them into danger, they are allowed (like Persian mystics) to make
+outward profession of whatever religion is dominant around them. To this
+latter indulgence is to be attributed the apparent indifferentism which
+leads to their joining Moslems in prayers and ablutions, or sprinkling
+themselves with holy water in Maronite churches. Obedience is required
+to the seven commandments of Hamza, the first and greatest of which
+enjoins truth in words (but only those of Druse speaking with Druse);
+the second, watchfulness over the safety of the brethren; the third,
+absolute renunciation of every other religion; the fourth, complete
+separation from all who are in error; the fifth, recognition of the
+unity of "Our Lord" in all ages; the sixth, complete resignation to his
+will; and the seventh, complete obedience to his orders. Prayer,
+however, is regarded as an impertinent interference with the Creator;
+while, at the same time, instead of the fatalistic predestination of
+Mahommedanism, the freedom of the human will is distinctly maintained.
+Not only is the charge of secrecy rigidly obeyed in regard to the alien
+world, but full initiation into the deeper mysteries of the creed is
+permitted only to a special class designated _Akils_, (Arabic _'Akl_,
+intelligence), in contradistinction from whom all other members of the
+Druse community, whatever may be their position or attainments, are
+called _Jahel_, the Ignorant. About 15% of the adult population belong
+to the order of Akils. Admission is granted to any Druse of either sex
+who expresses willingness to conform to the laws of the society, and
+during a year of probation gives sufficient proof of sincerity and
+stability of purpose. There appears to be no formal distinction of rank
+among the various members; and though the amir, Beshir Shehab, used to
+appoint a sheikh of the Akils, the person thus distinguished obtained no
+primacy over his fellows. Exceptional influence depends upon exceptional
+sanctity or ability. All are required to abstain from tobacco and wine;
+the women used not to be allowed to wear gold or silver, or silk or
+brocade, but this rule is commonly broken now; and although neither
+celibacy nor retirement from the affairs of the world is either
+imperative or customary, unusual respect is shown to those who
+voluntarily submit themselves to ascetic discipline. While the Akils
+mingle frankly with the common people, and are remarkably free from
+clerical pretension, they are none the less careful to maintain their
+privileges. They are distinguished by the wearing of a white turban,
+emblematic of the purity of their life. Their food must be purchased
+with money lawfully acquired; and lest they should unwittingly partake
+of any that is ceremonially unclean, they require those Jahels, whose
+hospitality they share, to supply their wants from a store set apart for
+their exclusive use. The ideal Akil is grave, calm and dignified, with
+an infinite capacity of keeping a secret, and a devotion that knows no
+limits to the interests of his creed. On Thursday evening, the
+commencement of the weekly day of rest, the members of the order meet
+together in the various districts, probably for the reading of their
+sacred books and consultation on matters of ecclesiastical or political
+importance. Their meeting-houses, _khalwas_, are plain, unornamented
+edifices. These have property attached to them, the revenues of which
+are consecrated to the relief of the poor and the demands of
+hospitality. In the eastern Hauran, there are hill-top shrines
+containing each a black stone, on which rugs, &c., are hung, and these
+seem to perpetuate features of pre-Islamic Arabian cult, including the
+sacrifice of animals, e.g. goats. They are held in reverence by the
+Bedouins. The women assemble in the _khalwas_ at the same time as the
+men, a part of the space being fenced off for them by a semi-transparent
+black veil. Even while the Akils are assembled, strangers are readily
+enough admitted to the _khalwas_; but as long as these are present the
+ordinary ceremonies are neglected, and the Koran takes the place of the
+Druse Scriptures. It has been frequently asserted that the image of a
+calf is kept in a niche, and traces of phallic and gynaecocratic worship
+have been vaguely suspected; but there is no authentic information in
+support of either statement. The calf, if calf there be, is probably a
+symbol of the execrable heresy of Darazi, who is frequently styled the
+calf by his Orthodox opponents. Ignorance is the mother of suspicion as
+well as of superstition; and accordingly the Christian inhabitants of
+the Lebanon have long been persuaded that the Druses in their secret
+assemblies are guilty of the most nefarious practices. For this
+allegation, so frequently repeated by European writers, there seems to
+be little evidence; and it is certain that the sacred books of the
+religion contain moral teaching of a high order on the whole.
+
+As a formulated creed, the Druse system is not a thousand years old. In
+the year A.D. 996 (386 A.H.) Hakim Biamrillahi (i.e. he who judges by
+the command of God), sixth of the Fatimite caliphs (third in Egypt),
+began to reign; and during the next twenty-five years he indulged in a
+tyranny at once so terrible and so fantastic that little doubt can be
+entertained of his insanity. He believed that he held direct intercourse
+with the deity, or even that he was an incarnation of the divine
+intelligence; and in A.D. 1016 (407 A.H.) his claims were made known in
+the mosque at Cairo, and supported by the testimony of Ismael Darazi.
+The people showed such bitter hostility to the new gospel that Darazi
+was compelled to seek safety in flight; but even in absence he was
+faithful to his god, and succeeded in winning over certain ignorant
+inhabitants of Lebanon. According to the Druses, this great conversion
+took place in A.D. 1019 (410 A.H.). Meanwhile the endeavours of the
+caliph to get his divinity acknowledged by the people of Cairo
+continued. The advocacy of Hasan ibn Haidara Fergani was without avail;
+but in 1017 (408 A.H.) the new religion found a more successful apostle
+in the person of Hamza ibn Ali ibn Ahmed, a Persian mystic, felt-maker
+by trade, who became Hakim's vizier, gave form and substance to his
+creed, and by an ingenious adaptation of its various dogmas to the
+prejudices of existing sects, finally enlisted an extensive body of
+adherents. In 1020 (411 A.H.) the caliph was assassinated by contrivance
+of his sister Sitt ul-Mulk; but it was given out by Hamza that he had
+only withdrawn for a season, and his followers were encouraged to look
+forward with confidence to his triumphant return. Darazi, who had acted
+independently in his apostolate, was branded by Hamza as a heretic, and
+thus, by a curious anomaly, he is actually held in detestation by the
+very sect which perhaps bears his name. The propagation of the faith in
+accordance with Hamza's initiation was undertaken by Ismael ibn Mahommed
+Tamimi, Mahommed ibn Wahab, Abul-Khair Selama ibn Abd al-Wahal ibn
+Samurri, and Moktana Baha ud-Din, the last of whom became known by his
+writings from Constantinople to the borders of India. In two letters
+addressed to the emperors Constantine VIII. and Michael the Paphlagonian
+he endeavoured to prove that the Christian Messiah reappeared in the
+person of Hamza.
+
+It is possible, even probable, that the segregation of the Druses as a
+people dates only from the adoption of Hamza's creed. But when it is
+recalled that other inhabitants of the same mountain system, e.g. the
+Maronites, the Ansarieh, the Metawali and the "Isma'ilites," also
+profess creeds which, like the Druse system, differ from Sunni Islam in
+the important feature of admitting incarnations of the Deity, it is
+impossible not to suspect that Hamza's emissaries only gave definition
+and form to beliefs long established in this part of the world. Many of
+the fundamental ideas of Druse theology belong to a common West Asiatic
+stock; but the peculiar history of the Mountain is no doubt responsible
+for beliefs, held elsewhere by different peoples, being combined there
+in a single creed. Some allowance, too, must be made for the probability
+that Hamza's system owed something to doctrines Christian and other,
+with which the metropolitan position of Cairo brought Fatimite society
+into contact.
+
+_History_--There is good reason to regard the Druses as, racially, a
+mixture of refugee stocks, in which the Arab largely predominates,
+grafted on to an original mountain population of Aramaic blood and
+Incarnationist tendencies. The latter is represented more purely by the
+Maronites (q.v.). The native tradition regards an immigration of Hira
+Arabs into S. Lebanon, under Khalid ibn Walid in the 9th century, as the
+beginning of Druse distinctiveness and power; but it also accepts
+Turkoman and Kurdish elements in the original Druse state. About the
+same time, or a little later (in the reign of Saladin), it believes that
+Hermon was colonized by a population of 15,000 Hira and Yemenite Arabs,
+who had sojourned awhile in Hauran. The name Druse is met with first in
+Benjamin of Tudela (c. A.D. 1170), and its origin has been much
+disputed. Some authorities see in it a descriptive epithet, derived from
+Arabic _darasa_ (those who _read_ the Book), or _darisa_ (those in
+_possession_ of Truth) or _durs_ (the _clever_ or _initiated_); but more
+connect it with the name of the first missionary, Ismael _Darazi_.
+
+As soon as we begin to know anything of the Druses they were living in a
+feudal state of society, as village communities under _sheikhs_,
+themselves generally subordinate to one or more amirs. In the time of
+the first crusades the main power was in the hands of the Arslan family,
+which, however, suffered so severely in wars with the Franks, that it
+was superseded by the Tnuhs, who, holding Beirut and nearly all the
+Phoenician coast, came into conflict with the sultans of Egypt. One of
+these latter, Malik Ashraf, about A.D. 1300, forced outward compliance
+with Sunni Islam on the Mountain, after defeating the Druses at Ain
+Sofar. Meanwhile, however, the _Maan_ family, lately immigrant from N.
+Arabia, was growing in power, and throwing in its lot with the Osmanli
+invaders in the reign of Selim I., it was promoted to the supreme
+amirate about 1517. Fakr ud-Din Maan II. increased Druse dominion until
+it included all the N. Syrian region from the edge of the Antioch plain
+to Acre, with part of the eastern desert, dominated by his castle at
+Tadmor (Palmyra), and the important towns of Latakia, Tripoli, Beirut
+and Saida; and forming further ambitious designs, he intrigued with
+Christians and broke with the Turks. In 1614 the pasha of Damascus moved
+against him with a large force, and compelled him to fly from Syria. He
+sought the courts of Tuscany and Naples and tried to enlist Frank
+sympathies, inventing (probably) the curious myth, so often credited
+since, that the Druses are of crusading origin and owe their name to the
+counts of Dreux.[1] He landed again at Saida in 1619 and recovered his
+old position. But in 1633 Kuchuk Ahmed Pasha was sent against him with a
+large army, and succeeded in capturing him with his sons. The family was
+sent to Constantinople, and two years later strangled. The dynasty
+struggled on till the end of the century, amid civil war, in which the
+parties seem to have been divided by the earlier Arab factions of
+Kaisites (Qaisites) and Yemenites, the Maan belonging to the latter.
+
+The Shehab family, originally Hira Arabs, which had governed Hauran
+under the early caliphs of Damascus, and thereafter held power in
+Hermon, intermarried with the Maan; and in the latter's day of weakness
+sided with the Kaisi faction and obtained the supreme amirate of the
+Mountain. But it appears never to have professed the Druse creed,
+remaining Sunnite. Haidar Shehab, third of the line, inflicted a notable
+defeat on the pasha of Saida (capital of an Ottoman eyalet since 1688)
+and the Yemenite Druses at Ain Dara, near Zahleh, in 1711, and proceeded
+to consolidate Shehab power, breaking up the old feudal society and
+substituting for the sheikhs _mukatajis_ (tax-contractors), who had
+penal jurisdiction. The Yemenite Druses thereupon emigrated in large
+numbers to the Hauran, and laid the foundation of Druse power there. The
+Turks recognized the _status quo_, and made terms with the Shehab amir
+in 1748; but his power was none too well secured against the opposition
+of the Kurdish _Jumblat_ family, even though he was supported by the
+_Talhuk_, _Abd al-Malik_ and _Yezbeki_ families; and it appears that
+some members of the Shehab joined the Maronite faith in the middle of
+the 18th century, causing a suspicion of secret apostasy to fall on all
+the family.
+
+It is said that the amir Beshir, who succeeded about 1786, was himself a
+crypto-Christian. This remarkable man, who ruled the Mountain for
+fifty-four years, maintained his power by taking the side of one rebel
+pasha after another, betraying each in turn, and cultivating relations
+with European admirals. His earliest ally was Ahmed "Jezzar," who
+established himself in Acre in contumacious independence late in the
+18th century. Beshir supported Jezzar against Napoleon in 1799 and
+earned the friendship of Sir Sidney Smith. Falling out with Jezzar,
+Beshir fled to Cairo in 1805, attached himself to Mehemet Ali, and
+returned to take up the reins. Once more chased out by the Turks, he was
+again in the Mountain in 1823, allied with Abdallah, on whom Jezzar's
+mantle had ultimately fallen at Acre, and maintaining friendly relations
+with the "English Princess," Lady Hester Stanhope. He now finally
+worsted the Jumblat. The invasion of Syria by Mehemet Ali in 1831 caused
+Beshir to desert Abdallah and throw in his lot with Ibrahim Pasha; but
+he was not cordially followed by the Druses in general, and had good
+excuse for revolt in 1839, and intrigue with the British admiral in
+1840. Ibrahim, however, by his possession of Druse hostages, restrained
+the amir, and after the bombardment of Acre, the Turks called him to
+account for his record of rebellion and treachery. He fled to Malta on a
+British ship, but was induced to go to Constantinople, where he died in
+1851.
+
+His successor, Beshir al-Kassim, openly joined the Maronites, and
+instigating these against the malcontents of his own people, brought
+enmities, which had been growing for a century, to a head, and initiated
+a devastating internecine warfare which was to continue for twenty
+years. The state of the Lebanon went from bad to worse, and at last, in
+January 1842, the Turkish government appointed Omar Pasha as
+administrator of the Druses and Maronites, with a council of four chiefs
+from each party; but the pasha, attempting to effect a disarming, was
+besieged in November in the castle of Beit ed-Din by the Druses under
+Shibli el-Arrian. At the instigation of the European powers he was
+recalled in December, and the Druses and Maronites were placed under
+separate _kaimakams_ (governors), who, it was stipulated, were not to be
+of the family of Shehab. Disturbances again broke out in 1845, the
+native _mukatajis_ refusing to obey the _kaimakams_. The Maronites flew
+to arms, but with the assistance of the Turks their opponents carried
+the day. A superficial pacification effected by Shekib Effendi, the
+Ottoman commissioner, lasted only till his departure; and the Porte was
+obliged to despatch a force of 12,000 men to the Lebanon. Forty of the
+chiefs were seized, the people was nominally disarmed, and in 1846 a new
+constitution was inaugurated, by which the _kaimakam_ was to be assisted
+by two Druses, two Maronites, four Greeks, two Turks and one Metawali.
+All, however, was in vain: the conflict was continued through 1858, 1859
+and 1860; and the disturbance culminated in the famous Damascus massacre
+(see SYRIA). The European powers now determined to interfere; and, by a
+protocol of the 3rd of May 1860, it was decided that the Lebanon should
+be occupied by a force of 20,000 men, of whom half were to be French. A
+body of troops was accordingly landed on the 16th of August under
+General Beaufort d'Hautpoul; and Fuad Pasha, who had been appointed
+Turkish commissioner with full powers, proceeded to bring the leaders of
+the massacres to justice. The French occupation continued till the 5th
+of June 1861, and the French and English squadrons cruised on the coast
+for several months after. In accordance with the recommendation of the
+European powers the Porte determined to appoint a Christian governor not
+belonging to the district, and independent of the pasha of Beirut, to
+hold office for three years. The choice fell on Daud Pasha, an Armenian
+Catholic, who was installed on the 4th of July. In spite of many
+difficulties, and especially the ambitious conduct of the Maronite
+Jussuf Karam, he succeeded in restoring order; and by the formation of a
+military force from the inhabitants of the Lebanon he rendered
+unnecessary the presence of the Turkish soldiery.
+
+The privileged province of Lebanon (q.v.) was finally constituted by the
+Organic Statute of the 6th of September 1864, and the subsequent history
+of the Lebanon Druses is one of gradual withdrawal from the jurisdiction
+of that state, in which they see their ancient independence
+irretrievably compromised, and their religion subordinated to Christian
+supremacy. Many now emigrate, when occasion offers, to America.
+
+Meanwhile, the Hauran, the old seat of the Shehab family and Hermon
+Druses, had been steadily receiving a Druse influx, since the day of Ain
+Dara (see above). Towards the close of the 18th century some 600
+families left Lebanon for the Hauran, in discontent with the rule of the
+Shehab dynasty, and their place and property were taken by 1500 families
+driven out of Jebel Ansarieh by Topal Ali in 1811. The Hauran Druses
+increased by the middle of the 19th century to 7000 souls. They had
+successfully resisted Ibrahim, the Egyptian, in 1839 in the Lija, and
+asserted complete independence of the Turks, living under a theocratic
+government directed by the chief Akil in Suweda. A great effort, made by
+Kibrisli Pasha in 1852 to subdue the Hauran, came to nothing. In 1879
+the population numbered 20,000, and by a murderous raid attracted the
+attention of Midhat Pasha, then vali of the province of Syria. After
+experiencing one disaster he defeated their forces and imposed a
+_kaimakam_, at first drawn from the Talhuks, but subsequently chosen
+from the Atrash family of Kunawat. But the Druses still refused to pay
+taxes, to serve in the Ottoman army, or to recognize the _kaimakam_, and
+maintained their contumacy under the lead of the Jumblat, till 1896;
+when, as the result of a military expedition under Tahir Pasha and a
+great defeat at Ijun, a compromise was arrived at, under which the
+Druses agreed to pay taxes, but to serve in their own territory only as
+a frontier guard. The government was put into the hands of a mutessarif
+resident at Sheikh Saad, under whom are _kaimakams_ at Suweda and
+Salkhad. Since that epoch there has been comparative peace between the
+Druses and the government, largely because the latter, having learned
+wisdom, leaves the people very much to itself, maintaining only a small
+garrison of regular troops, and enlisting Druse police for service in
+Jebel Druz itself. The Druses are allowed to carry on their feuds with
+the Bedouins of the E. Desert as they will, so long as they do not
+disturb western districts. With the recent opening out of the W. Hauran
+by railway, the Druse sheikhs are beginning to acquire commercial
+ambitions, and to desire peace.
+
+The Hauran Druses are a vigorous, independent folk, with a well-deserved
+reputation for courage, very astute, and hospitable to Europeans,
+especially the British, with whom they have an old tradition of
+friendship. But, like most persecuted but semi-independent peoples, they
+are both cruel, and, by our standards, treacherous. They are a handsome
+race, the women being often beautiful. The latter no longer carry the
+head-horn which used to support the veil dropped over the face out of
+doors. But their dress is still black with the exception of red
+slippers, and the veil is never abandoned, not even, it is said, during
+sleep. An English lady, who has been much among them, states that the
+Druse women of the Hauran never unveiled before her. The men wear a
+_tarbush_ with white roll, a black under-robe with white girdle, a short
+loose jacket, and when necessary an _aba_ or parti-coloured cloak over
+all. They go habitually armed with scimitar and half-moon axe, besides
+gun or rifle.
+
+Polygamy is forbidden. Marriage retains certain traces of the original
+system of capture; but Druse women enjoy much consideration, and are
+comparatively well educated, dignified and free in their bearing in
+spite of their close veiling. As has been stated above, they join the
+men in religious functions. Divorce is easy and can be initiated by the
+woman; but remarriage of the pair can only be effected by the good
+offices of a proxy (as in Moslem societies, after a third divorce).
+Burial takes place in family mausoleums, walled up after each interment;
+but Akils are buried in their own houses. The body is laid on its side,
+with its face to the south (Mecca).
+
+Education is widely spread, and there is a considerable religious
+literature, much of which is known in Europe. A copy of the _Book of the
+Testimonies to the Mysteries of the Unity_, consisting of seventy
+treatises in four folio volumes, was found in the house of the chief
+Akil at Bakhlin, and presented in 1700 to Louis XIV. by Nusralla ibn
+Gilda, a Syrian doctor. Other manuscripts are to be found at Rome in the
+Vatican, at Oxford in the Bodleian, at Vienna, at Leiden, at Upsala and
+at Munich; and Dr J. L. Porter got possession of seven standard works of
+Druse theology while at Damascus. The Munich collection was presented to
+the king of Bavaria by Clot Bey, the chief physician in the Egyptian
+army during its occupation of Syria; and for a number of the other
+manuscripts we are indebted to the elder Niebuhr. A history of the Druse
+nation by the amir Haidar Shehab is quoted by Urquhart.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Adler, "Druze Catechism," in _Museum Cuficum Borgianum_
+  (1782); Silvestre de Sacy, _Exposé de la religion des Druses_ (1838);
+  Ph. Wolff, _Reise in das gelobte Land_, and _Die Drusen und ihre
+  Vorläufer_ (1842); C. H. Churchill, _Ten Years' Residence in Mount
+  Lebanon_ (3 vols., 1853); G. W. Chasseaud, _The Druzes of the Lebanon_
+  (1855); E. G. Ray, _Voyage dans le Haouran, exécuté pendant les années
+  1857 et 1858_; C. H. Churchill, _The Druzes and Maronites under the
+  Turkish Rule from 1840 to 1860_ (London, 1862); H. Guys, _Le Théogonie
+  des Druses_ (1863), and _La Nation Druse_ (1864); M. von Oppenheim,
+  _Vom Mittelmeer_, &c. (1899); Gertrude L. Bell, _The Desert and the
+  Sown_ (1907).     (D. G. H.; G. BE.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Sophisticated Druses still sometimes claim connexion with
+    Rosicrucians, and a special relation to Scottish freemasons.
+
+
+
+
+DRUSIUS (or VAN DEN DRIESCHE), JOHANNES (1550-1616), Protestant divine,
+distinguished specially as an Orientalist and exegete, was born at
+Oudenarde, in Flanders, on the 28th of June 1550. Being designed for the
+church, he studied Greek and Latin at Ghent, and philosophy at Louvain;
+but his father having been outlawed for his religion, and deprived of
+his estate, retired to England, where the son followed him in 1567. He
+found an admirable teacher of Hebrew in Chevalier, the celebrated
+Orientalist, with whom he resided for some time at Cambridge. In 1572 he
+became professor of Oriental languages at Oxford. Upon the pacification
+of Ghent (1576) he returned with his father to their own country, and
+was appointed professor of Oriental languages at Leiden in the following
+year. In 1585 he removed to Friesland, and was admitted professor of
+Hebrew in the university of Franeker, an office which he discharged with
+great honour till his death, which happened in February 1616. He
+acquired so extended a reputation as a professor that his class was
+frequented by students from all the Protestant countries in Europe. His
+works prove him to have been well skilled in Hebrew and in Jewish
+antiquities; and in 1600 the states-general employed him, at a salary of
+400 florins a year, to write notes on the most difficult passages in the
+Old Testament; but this work was not published until after his death. As
+the friend of Arminius, he was charged by the orthodox and dominant
+party with unfairness in the execution of the task, and the last sixteen
+years of his life were therefore somewhat embittered by controversy. He
+carried on an extensive correspondence with the learned in different
+countries; for, besides letters in Hebrew, Greek and other languages,
+there were found amongst his papers upwards of 2000 written in Latin. He
+had a son, John, who died in England at the age of twenty-one, and was
+accounted a prodigy of learning. He had mastered Hebrew at the age of
+nine, and Scaliger said that he was a better Hebrew scholar than his
+father. He wrote a large number of letters in Hebrew, besides notes on
+the Proverbs of Solomon and other works.
+
+  Paquot states the number of the printed works and treatises of the
+  elder Drusius at forty-eight, and of the unprinted at upwards of
+  twenty. Of the former more than two-thirds were inserted in the
+  collection entitled _Critici sacri, sive annolata doctissimorum
+  virorum in Vetus et Novum Testamentum_ (Amsterdam, 1698, in 9 vols.
+  folio, or London, 1660, in 10 vols. folio). Amongst the works of
+  Drusius not to be found in this collection may be mentioned--(1)
+  _Alphabetum Hebraicum vetus_ (1584, 4to); (2) _Tabulae in grammaticam
+  Chaldaicam ad usum juventutis_ (1602, 8vo); (3) An edition of
+  Sulpicius Severus (Franeker, 1807, 12mo); (4) _Opuscula quae ad
+  grammaticam spectant omnia_ (1609, 4to); (5) _Lacrymae in obitum J.
+  Scaligeri_ (1609, 4to); and (6) _Grammatica linguae sanctae nova_
+  (1612, 4to).
+
+
+
+
+DRUSUS, MARCUS LIVIUS, Roman statesman, was colleague of Gaius Gracchus
+in the tribuneship, 122 B.C. The proposal of Gracchus (q.v.) to confer
+the full franchise on the Latins had been opposed not only by the
+senate, but also by the mob, who imagined that their own privileges
+would thereby be diminished. Drusus threatened to veto the proposal.
+Encouraged by this, the senatorial party put up Drusus to outbid
+Gracchus. Gracchus had proposed to found colonies outside Italy; Drusus
+provided twelve in Italy, to each of which 3000 citizens were to be
+sent. Gracchus had proposed to distribute allotments to the poorer
+citizens subject to a state rent-charge; Drusus promised them free of
+all charge, and further that they should be inalienable. In addition to
+the franchise, immunity from corporal punishment (even in the field) was
+promised the Latins. The absence of Gracchus, and the inefficiency of
+his representative at Rome, led to the acceptance of these proposals,
+which were never intended to be carried. Drusus himself declined all
+responsibility in connexion with carrying them out. He was rewarded for
+his services by the consulship (112), and the title of _patronus
+senatus_. He received Macedonia for his province, where he distinguished
+himself in a campaign against the Scordisci, whom he drove across the
+Danube, being the first Roman general who reached that river. It is
+possible that he is the Drusus mentioned by Plutarch as having died in
+109, the year of his censorship.
+
+  Appian, _Bell. Civ._ i. 23; Plutarch, _Gaius Gracchus_, 8-11; Florus
+  iii. 4; A. H. J. Greenidge, _Hist. of Rome_, vol. i. (1904).
+
+His son, MARCUS LIVIUS DRUSUS, became tribune of the people in 91 B.C.
+He was a thoroughgoing conservative, wealthy and generous, and a man of
+high integrity. With some of the more intelligent members of his party
+(such as Marcus Scaurus and L. Licinius Crassus the orator) he
+recognized the need of reform. At that time an agitation was going on
+for the transfer of the judicial functions from the equites to the
+senate; Drusus proposed as a compromise a measure which restored to the
+senate the office of judices, while its numbers were doubled by the
+admission of 300 equites. Further, a special commission was to be
+appointed to try and sentence all judices guilty of taking bribes. But
+the senate was lukewarm, and the equites, whose occupation was
+threatened, offered the most violent opposition. In order, therefore, to
+catch the popular votes, Drusus proposed the establishment of colonies
+in Italy and Sicily, and an increased distribution of corn at a reduced
+rate. By help of these riders the bill was carried. Drusus now sought a
+closer alliance with the Italians, promising them the long-coveted boon
+of the Roman franchise. The senate broke out into open opposition. His
+laws were abrogated as informal, and each party armed its adherents for
+the civil struggle which was now inevitable. Drusus was stabbed one
+evening as he was returning home. His assassin was never discovered.
+
+  See Rome: _History_, ii. "The Republic" (Period C); also Appian,
+  _Bell. Civ._ i. 35; Florus iii. 17; Diod. Sic. xxxvii. 10; Livy,
+  _Epit._ 70; Vell. Pat. ii. 13.
+
+
+
+
+DRUSUS, NERO[1] CLAUDIUS (38-9 B.C.) Roman general, son of Tiberius
+Claudius Nero and Livia Drusilla, stepson of Augustus and younger
+brother of the emperor Tiberius. Having held the office of quaestor and
+acted as praetor for his brother during the latter's absence in Gaul, he
+began (in 15 B.C.) the military career which has made his name famous.
+In conjunction with Tiberius, he carried on a successful campaign
+against the Raeti and Vindelici, who, although repulsed from Italy,
+continued to threaten the frontiers of Gaul. The credit of the decisive
+victory, however, must be assigned to Tiberius. Two of the _Odes_ of
+Horace (iv. 4 and 14) were written to glorify the exploits of the
+brothers. In 13 Drusus was sent as governor to the newly organized
+province of the three Gauls, where considerable discontent had been
+aroused by the exactions of the Roman governor Licinius. Drusus made a
+fresh assessment for taxation purposes, and summoned the Gallic
+representatives to a meeting at Lugdunum to discuss their grievances. It
+was of great importance to pacify the Gauls, in order to have his hands
+free to deal with the German tribes, one of which, the Sugambri, on the
+right bank of the Rhine, had seized the opportunity, during the absence
+of Augustus, to cross the river (12). Drusus drove them back and pursued
+them through the island of the Batavi and the land of the Usipetes
+(Usipes, Usipii) to their own territory, which he devastated. Sailing
+down the Rhine, he subdued the Frisii and, in order to facilitate
+operations against the Chauci, dug a canal (Fossa Drusiana) leading from
+the Rhenus (Rhine) to the Isala (Yssel)[2] into the lacus Flevus
+(Zuidersee) and the German Ocean. Making his way along the Frisian
+coast, he conquered the island of Burchanis (_Borkum_), defeated the
+Bructeri in a naval engagement on the Amisia (_Ems_), and went on to the
+mouth of the Visurgis (_Weser_) to attack the Chauci. On the way back
+his vessels grounded on the shallows, and were only got off with the
+assistance of the Frisii. Winter being close at hand, the campaign was
+abandoned till the following spring, and Drusus returned to Rome with
+the honour of having been the first Roman general to reach the German
+Ocean.
+
+In his second campaign (11), Drusus defeated the Usipetes, threw a
+bridge over the Luppia (_Lippe_), attacked the Sugambri, and advanced
+through their territory and that of the Tencteri and Chatti as far as
+the Weser, where he gained a victory over the Cherusci. Lack of
+provisions, the approach of winter, and an inauspicious portent
+prevented him from crossing the Weser. While making his way back to the
+Rhine he fell into an ambuscade, but the carelessness of the enemy
+enabled him to inflict a crushing defeat upon them. In view of future
+operations, he built two castles, one at the junction of the Luppia and
+Aliso (_Alme_), the other in the territory of the Chatti on the Taunus,
+near Moguntiacum (_Mainz_).
+
+The third campaign (10) was of little importance. The Chatti had joined
+the Sugambri in revolt; and, after some insignificant successes, Drusus
+returned with Augustus and Tiberius to Rome, and was elected consul for
+the following year. In spite of unfavourable portents at Rome, he
+determined to enter upon his fourth and last campaign (9) without delay.
+He attacked and defeated the Chatti, Suebi, Marcomanni and Cherusci,
+crossed the Weser and penetrated as far as the Albis (_Elbe_). Here
+trophies were set up to mark the farthest point ever reached by a Roman
+army. Various measures were taken to secure the possession of the
+conquered territory: fortresses were erected along the Elbe, Weser and
+Maas (_Meuse_, _Mosa_); a flotilla was placed upon the Rhine and a dam
+built upon the right arm of its estuary to increase the flow of water
+into the canal mentioned above. Drusus was said to have been deterred
+from crossing the Elbe by the sudden appearance of a woman of
+supernatural size, who predicted his approaching end. On his return,
+probably between the Elbe and the Saale (_Sala_), his horse stumbled and
+threw him. His leg was fractured and he died thirty days after the
+accident, on the 14th of September. Suetonius mentions an absurd rumour
+that he had been poisoned by order of Augustus, because he had refused
+to obey the order for his recall. The body was carried to the winter
+quarters of the army, whence it was escorted by Tiberius to Rome, the
+procession being joined by Augustus at Ticinum (Pavia). Tiberius
+delivered an oration over the remains in the Forum, whence they were
+conveyed to the Campus Martius and cremated, and ashes being deposited
+in the mausoleum of Augustus.
+
+Drusus was one of the most distinguished men of his time. His agreeable
+manners, handsome person and brilliant military talents gained him the
+affection of the troops, while his sympathy with republican principles,
+endeared him to the people. It is not too much to say that, had he and
+his son lived long enough, they might have brought about the abolition
+of the monarchy. Although the successes of Drusus, resulting in the
+subjection of the German tribes from the Rhine to the Elbe, were too
+rapid to be lasting, they brought home the fact of the existence of the
+Romans to many who had never heard their name. For his victories he
+received the title of Germanicus. He married Antonia, the daughter of
+Marcus Antonius the triumvir, by whom he had three children: Germanicus,
+adopted by Tiberius; Claudius, afterwards emperor; and a daughter
+Livilla.
+
+  The chief ancient authorities for the life of Drusus are Dio Cassius,
+  the epitomes of Livy, Suetonius (_Claudius_), Tacitus (portions of the
+  _Annals_), Florus (whose chief source is Livy), Velleius Paterculus,
+  and the _Consolatio ad Liviam_. The German campaigns were described in
+  the last books of Livy and the lost _Bella Germaniae_ of the elder
+  Pliny. As would naturally be expected, they have produced an extensive
+  literature in Germany, J. Asbach's "Die Feldzüge des Nero Claudius
+  Drusus" (_Rhein. Jahrb._ lxxxv. 14-30) being especially recommended;
+  see also Mommsen's _History of the Roman Provinces_, i.; Merivale,
+  _History of the Romans under the Empire_, ch. 36; A. Stein in
+  Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopädie_ (1899), where other authorities are
+  given; J. C. Tarver, _Tiberius the Tyrant_ (1902).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Originally Decimus.
+
+  [2] The district extending from Westervoort to Doesborgh.
+
+
+
+
+DRUSUS CAESAR (c. 15 B.C.-A.D. 23), commonly called Drusus junior, to
+distinguish him from his uncle Nero Claudius Drusus, was the only son of
+the emperor Tiberius by his first wife Vipsania Agrippina. After having
+held several curule offices, he was consul elect in A.D. 14, the year of
+Augustus's death. His father, on his accession to the throne,
+immediately sent him to put down a mutiny of the troops in Pannonia, a
+task which he successfully accomplished (Tacitus, _Annals_, i. 24-30).
+As governor of Illyricum (17), he set the Germanic tribes against one
+another, and encouraged Catualda, chief of the Gothones, to drive out
+Marbod (Maroboduus), king of the Marcomanni. On his return Drusus was
+consul a second time (21) and in the following year received the
+tribunician authority from Tiberius, which practically indicated him as
+heir to the throne. Sejanus, who also aspired to the supreme power,
+determined to remove Drusus. He endeavoured to poison Tiberius's mind
+against him, seduced Drusus's wife and persuaded her to assist him in
+murdering her husband. Her physician Eudemus prepared and the eunuch
+Lygdus administered a slow poison, from the effects of which Drusus died
+after a lingering illness. Although Tiberius is said to have received
+the news of his death with indifference, there is no reason to suppose
+that he had any hand in it; indeed, he seems to have entertained a
+genuine affection for his son. Drusus was a man of violent passions, a
+drunkard and a debauchee, but not entirely devoid of better feelings, as
+is shown by his undoubtedly sincere grief at the death of Germanicus.
+The cunning and reserve which he exhibited on occasion were probably due
+to the instructions or influence of Tiberius (_Annals_, iii. 8), since
+he was himself naturally frank and open, and for this reason,
+notwithstanding his vices, more popular than his father. He revelled in
+bloody gladiatorial displays, and the sharpest swords used on such
+occasions were called "Drusine."
+
+  See Tacitus, _Annals_, i. 76, iv. 8-11; Dio Cassius lvii. 13, 14;
+  Suetonius, _Tiberius_, 62; J. C. Tarver, _Tiberius the Tyrant_ (1902).
+
+
+
+
+DRYADES, or HAMADRYADES, in Greek mythology, nymphs of trees and woods.
+Each particular tree ([Greek: drus]) was the home of its own special
+Dryad, who was supposed to be born and to die with it ([Greek: hama]).
+
+
+
+
+DRYANDER, JONAS (1748-1810), Swedish botanist, was born in 1748. By his
+uncle, Dr Lars Montin, to whom his education was entrusted, he was sent
+to the university of Gothenburg, whence he removed to Lund. After taking
+his degree there in 1776, he studied at Upsala under Linnaeus, and then
+became for a time tutor to a young Swedish nobleman. He next visited
+England, and, on the death of his friend Dr Daniel Charles Solander
+(1736-1782), succeeded him as librarian to Sir Joseph Banks. He was
+librarian to the Royal Society and also to the Linnean Society. Of the
+latter, in 1788, he was one of the founders, and, when it was
+incorporated by royal charter in 1802, he took a leading part in drawing
+up its laws and regulations. He was vice-president of the society till
+his death, which took place in London on the 19th of October 1810.
+Besides papers in the Transactions of the Linnean and other societies,
+Dryander published _Dissertatio gradualis fungos regno vegetabili
+vindicans_ (Lund, 1776), and _Catalogus bibliothecae historico-naturalis
+Josephi Banks, Bart._ (London, 1796-1800, 5 vols.). He also edited the
+first and part of the second edition of W. Aiton's _Hortus Kewensis_ and
+W. Roxburgh's _Plants of the Coast of Coromandel_.
+
+
+
+
+DRYBURGH ABBEY, a monastic ruin in the extreme south-west of
+Berwickshire, Scotland, about 5 m. S.E. of Melrose, and 1¼ m. E. of St
+Boswells station on the North British railway's Waverley route from
+Edinburgh to Carlisle. The name has been derived from the Gaelic _darach
+bruach_, "oak bank," in allusion to the fact that the Druids once
+practised their rites here. The abbey occupies the spot where, about
+522, St Modan, an Irish Culdee, established a sanctuary--a secluded
+position on a tongue of land washed on three sides by the Tweed. Founded
+in 1150 by David I.--though it has also been ascribed to Hugh de
+Morville (d. 1162), lord of Lauderdale and constable of Scotland--it
+enjoyed great prosperity until 1322, when it was partially destroyed by
+the English under Edward II. It suffered again at the hands of Richard
+II. in 1385, and was reduced to ruin during the expedition of the earl
+of Hertford in 1545. After the Reformation the estate was erected into a
+temporal lordship and given (1604) by James VI. to John Erskine, 2nd
+earl of Mar. At a later date it was sold, but reverted to a branch of
+the Erskines in 1786, when it was acquired by the 11th earl of Buchan.
+In 1700 the abbey lands belonged to Thomas Haliburton, Scott's
+great-grandfather, and, but for an extravagant grand-uncle who became
+bankrupt and had to part with the property, they would have descended to
+Sir Walter by inheritance. "We have nothing left of Dryburgh," he said,
+"but the right of stretching our bones there." The style in general is
+Early English, but the west door and the restored entrance from the nave
+to the cloisters are fine examples of transitional Norman. Though in
+various stages of decay, nearly every one of the monastic buildings is
+represented by a fragment. Of the cruciform church--190 ft. long by 75
+broad at the transepts--there remain some of the outer walls, a segment
+of the choir, the east aisle of the north transept, the stumps of some
+of the pillars of the nave, the west gable, the south transept and its
+adjacent chapel of St Modan. The most beautiful of these relics is St
+Mary's aisle of the north transept, in which were buried Sir Walter
+Scott (1832), his wife, son, his son-in-law John Gibson Lockhart, and
+his ancestors, the Haliburtons of New Mains. Sir Walter's tomb is a
+plain block of polished Peterhead granite, inscribed only with his name
+and the dates of his birth and death. The next aisle is the burial-place
+of the Erskines of Shielhill and the Haigs of Bemersyde. On the south
+side of the church, at a lower level, stand the cloisters, about 100 ft.
+square, bounded on the west by the dungeons, on the south-west by the
+cellars and refectory, in the west wall of which is an exquisite
+ivy-clad rose window, and on the east by the chapter-house, on a still
+lower level. The chapter-house, a lofty building with vaulted roof, is
+the most complete structure of the group, and adjoining it on the south
+are, first the abbot's parlour and then the library, the three
+apartments communicating with each other, and constituting the oldest
+portion of the abbey. In the grounds are many venerable trees, a yew
+near the chapter-house being at least coeval with the abbey.
+
+
+
+
+DRYDEN, JOHN (1631-1700), English poet, born on or about the 9th of
+August 1631, at Aldwinkle, in Northamptonshire, was of Cumberland stock,
+though his family had been settled for three generations in
+Northamptonshire, had acquired estates and a baronetcy, and intermarried
+with landed families in that county. His great-grandfather, who first
+carried the name south, and acquired by marriage the estate of Canons
+Ashby, is said to have known Erasmus, and to have been so proud of the
+great scholar's friendship that he gave the name of Erasmus to his
+eldest son. The name Erasmus was borne by the poet's father, the third
+son of Sir Erasmus Dryden. The leanings and connexions of the family
+were Puritan and anti-monarchical. Sir Erasmus Dryden went to prison
+rather than pay loan money to Charles I.; the poet's uncle, Sir John
+Dryden, and his father Erasmus, served on government commissions during
+the Commonwealth. His mother's family, the Pickerings, were still more
+prominent on the Puritan side. Sir Gilbert Pickering, his cousin, was
+chamberlain to the Protector, and was summoned to Cromwell's House of
+Lords in 1657. A trustworthy tradition asserts that John Dryden was born
+at the rectory of Aldwinkle All Saints, of which his maternal
+grandfather, Henry Pickering, was rector.
+
+Dryden's education was such as became a scion of these respectable
+families of squires and rectors, among whom the chance contact with
+Erasmus had left a certain tradition of scholarship. His father, whose
+own fortune, added to his wife's, was not large, procured for the poet,
+who was the eldest of fourteen children, admission to Westminster school
+as a king's scholar, under the famous Dr Busby. Some elegiac verses
+which Dryden wrote there on the death of a schoolfellow, Henry, Lord
+Hastings, son of the earl of Huntingdon, in 1649, were published in
+_Lacrymae Musarum_, among other elegies by "divers persons of nobility
+and worth" in commemoration of the same event. He appeared soon after
+again in print, among writers of commendatory verses to a friend of his,
+John Hoddesdon, who published a volume of _Epigrams_ in 1650. Dryden's
+contribution is signed "John Dryden of Trinity C.," as he had gone up
+from Westminster to Cambridge in May 1650. He was elected a scholar of
+Trinity on the Westminster foundation in October of the same year, and
+took his degree of B.A. in 1654. The only recorded incident of his
+college residence is some unexplained act of disobedience to the
+vice-master, for which he was "put out of commons" and "gated" for a
+fortnight. His father died in 1654, leaving him master of two-thirds of
+a small estate near Blakesley, worth about £60 a year. The next three
+years he is said to have spent at Cambridge. In any case they were spent
+somewhere in study; for his first considerable poem bears indisputable
+marks of scholarly habits, as well as of a command of verse that could
+not have been acquired without practice.
+
+The middle of 1657 is given as the date of his leaving the university to
+take up his residence in London. In one of his many subsequent literary
+quarrels, it was said by Shadwell that he had been clerk to Sir Gilbert
+Pickering, his cousin, who was chamberlain to Cromwell; and nothing is
+more likely than that he obtained some employment under his powerful
+cousin when he came to London. He is said to have lived at first in the
+house of his first publisher, Herringman, with whom he was connected
+till 1679, when Jacob Tonson began to publish his books. He first
+emerged from obscurity with his _Heroic Stanzas_ (1659) to the memory of
+the Protector. That these stanzas should have made him a name as a poet
+does not appear surprising when we compare them with Waller's verses on
+the same occasion. Dryden took some time to consider them, and it was
+impossible that they should not give an impression of his intellectual
+strength. Donne was his model; it is obvious that both his ear and his
+imagination were saturated with Donne's elegiac strains when he wrote;
+yet when we look beneath the surface we find unmistakable traces that
+the pupil was not without decided theories that ran counter to the
+practice of the master. It is plainly not by accident that each stanza
+contains one clear-cut brilliant point. The poem is an academic
+exercise, and it seems to be animated by an under-current of strong
+contumacious protest against the irregularities tolerated by the
+authorities. Dryden had studied the ancient classics for himself, and
+their method of uniformity and elaborate finish commended itself to his
+robust and orderly mind. In itself the poem is a magnificent tribute to
+the memory of Cromwell.
+
+To those who regard the poet as a seer with a sacred mission, and refuse
+the name altogether to a literary manufacturer to order, it comes with a
+certain shock to find Dryden, the hereditary Puritan, the panegyrist of
+Cromwell, hailing the return of King Charles in _Astraea Redux_ (1660),
+deploring his long absence, and proclaiming the despair with which he
+had seen "the rebel thrive, the loyal crost." _A Panegyric on the
+Coronation_ followed in 1661. From a literary point of view also,
+_Astraea Redux_ is inferior to the _Heroic Stanzas_.
+
+Dryden was compelled to supplement his slender income by his writings.
+He naturally first thought of tragedy,--his own genius, as he has
+informed us, inclining him rather to that species of composition; and in
+the first year of the Restoration he wrote a tragedy on the fate of
+Henry, duke of Guise. But some friends advised him that its construction
+was not suited to the requirements of the stage, so he put it aside, and
+used only one scene of the original play later on, when he again
+attempted the subject with a more practised hand. Having failed to write
+a suitable tragedy, he next turned his attention to comedy, although, as
+he admitted, he had little natural turn for it. "I confess," he said, in
+a short essay in his own defence, printed before _The Indian Emperor_,
+"my chief endeavours are to delight the age in which I live. If the
+humour of this be for low comedy, small accidents and raillery, I will
+force my genius to obey it, though with more reputation I could write in
+verse. I know I am not so fitted by nature to write comedy; I want that
+gaiety of humour which is required to it. My conversation is slow and
+dull; my humour saturnine and reserved; in short, I am none of those who
+endeavour to break jests in company or make repartees. So that those who
+decry my comedies do me no injury, except it be in point of profit;
+reputation in them is the last thing to which I shall pretend." He was
+really as well as ostentatiously a playwright; the age demanded
+comedies, and he endeavoured to supply the kind of comedy that the age
+demanded. His first attempt was unsuccessful. Bustle, intrigue and
+coarsely humorous dialogue seemed to him to be part of the popular
+demand; and, looking about for a plot, he found something to suit him in
+a Spanish source, and wrote _The Wild Gallant_. The play was acted in
+February 1663, by Thomas Killigrew's company in Vere Street. It was not
+a success, and Pepys showed good judgment in pronouncing the play "so
+poor a thing as ever I saw in my life." Dryden never learned moderation
+in his humour; there is a student's clumsiness and extravagance in his
+indecency; the plays of Etheredge, a man of the world, have not the
+uncouth riotousness of Dryden's. Of this he seems to have been
+conscious, for when the play was revived, in 1667, he complained in the
+epilogue of the difficulty of comic wit, and admitted the right of a
+common audience to judge of the wit's success. Dryden, indeed, took a
+lesson from the failure of _The Wild Gallant_; his next comedy, _The
+Rival Ladies_, also founded on a Spanish plot, produced before the end
+of 1663, and printed in the next year, was correctly described by Pepys
+as "a very innocent and most pretty witty play," though there was much
+in it which the taste of our time would consider indelicate. But he
+never quite conquered his tendency to extravagance. _The Wild Gallant_
+was not the only victim. _The Assignation, or Love in a Nunnery_,
+produced in 1673, shared the same fate; and even as late as 1680, when
+he had had twenty years' experience to guide him, _The Kind Keeper, or
+Mr Limberham_ was prohibited, after three representations, as being too
+indecent for the stage. Dislike to indecency we are apt to think a
+somewhat ludicrous pretext to be made by Restoration playgoers, and
+probably there was some other reason for the sacrifice of _Limberham_;
+still there is a certain savageness in the spirit of Dryden's indecency
+which we do not find in his most licentious contemporaries. The
+undisciplined force of the man carried him to an excess from which more
+dexterous writers held back.
+
+After the production of _The Rival Ladies_ in 1663, Dryden assisted Sir
+Robert Howard in the composition of a tragedy in heroic verse, _The
+Indian Queen_, produced with great splendour in January 1664. He married
+Lady Elizabeth Howard, Sir Robert's sister and daughter of the 1st earl
+of Berkshire, on the 1st of December 1663. Lady Elizabeth's reputation
+was somewhat compromised before this union, which was not a happy one,
+and there is some evidence for the scandal in a letter written by her
+before her marriage to Philip, 2nd earl of Chesterfield. _The Indian
+Queen_ was a great success, one of the greatest since the reopening of
+the theatres. This was in all likelihood due much less to the heroic
+verse and the exclusion of comic scenes from the tragedy than to the
+magnificent scenic accessories--the battles and sacrifices on the stage,
+the spirits singing in the air, and the god of dreams ascending through
+a trap. The novelty of these Indian spectacles, as well as of the Indian
+characters, with the splendid Queen Zempoalla, acted by Mrs Marshall in
+a real Indian dress of feathers presented to her by Mrs Aphra Behn, as
+the centre of the play, was the chief secret of the success of _The
+Indian Queen_. These melodramatic properties were so marked a novelty
+that they could not fail to draw the town. Dryden was tempted to return
+to tragedy; he followed up _The Indian Queen_ with _The Indian Emperor,
+or the Conquest of Mexico by the Spaniards_, which was acted in 1665,
+and also proved a success.
+
+But Dryden was not content with writing tragedies in rhymed verse. He
+took up the question of the propriety of rhyme in serious plays
+immediately after the success of _The Indian Queen_, in the preface to
+an edition (1664) of _The Rival Ladies_. In that first statement of his
+case, he considered the chief objection to the use of rhyme, and urged
+his chief argument in its favour. Rhyme was not natural, some people had
+said; to which he answers that it is as natural as blank verse, and that
+much of its unnaturalness is not the fault of the rhyme but of the
+writer, who has not sufficient command of language to rhyme easily. In
+favour of rhyme he has to say that it at once stimulates the
+imagination, and prevents it from being too discursive in its flights.
+
+During the Great Plague, when the theatres were closed, and Dryden was
+living at Charlton, Wiltshire, at the seat of his father-in-law, the
+earl of Berkshire, he occupied a considerable part of his time in
+thinking over the principles of dramatic composition, and threw his
+conclusions into the form of a dialogue, which he called an _Essay of
+Dramatick Poesie_ and published in 1668. The essay takes the form of a
+dialogue between Neander (Dryden), Eugenius (Charles, Lord Buckhurst,
+afterwards earl of Dorset), Crites (Sir R. Howard), and Lisideius (Sir
+C. Sedley), who is made responsible for the famous definition of a play
+as a "just and lively image of human nature, representing its passions
+and humours, and the changes of fortune to which it is subject, for the
+delight and instruction of mankind." Dryden's form is of course borrowed
+from the ancients, and his main source is the critical work of Corneille
+in the prefaces and discourses contained in the edition of 1660, but he
+was well acquainted with the whole body of contemporary French and
+Spanish criticism. Crites maintains the superiority of the classical
+drama; Lisideius supports the exacting rules of French dramatic writing;
+Neander defends the English drama of the preceding generations,
+including, in a long speech, an examination of Ben Jonson's _Silent
+Woman_. Neander argues, however, that English drama has much to gain by
+the observance of exact methods of construction without abandoning
+entirely the liberty which English writers had always claimed. He then
+goes on to defend the use of rhyme in serious drama. Howard had argued
+against the use of rhyme in a "preface" to _Four New Plays_ (1665),
+which had furnished the excuse for Dryden's essay. Howard replied to
+Dryden's essay in a preface to _The Duke of Lerma_ (1668). Dryden at
+once replied in a masterpiece of sarcastic retort and vigorous
+reasoning, _A Defence of an Essay of Dramatique Poesie_, prefixed to the
+second edition (1668) of _The Indian Emperor_. It is the ablest and most
+complete statement of his views about the employment of rhymed couplets
+in tragedy.
+
+Before his return to town at the end of 1666, when the theatres (which
+had been closed during the disasters of 1665 and 1666) were reopened,
+Dryden wrote a poem on the Dutch war and the Great Fire entitled _Annus
+Mirabilis_. The poem is in quatrains, the metre of his _Heroic Stanzas_
+in praise of Cromwell, which Dryden chose, he tells us, "because he had
+ever judged it more noble and of greater dignity both for the sound and
+number than any other verse in use amongst us." The preface to the poem
+contains an interesting discussion of what he calls "wit-writing,"
+introduced by the remark that "the composition of all poems is or ought
+to be of wit." His description of the Great Fire is a famous specimen of
+this wit-writing, much more careless and daring, and much more difficult
+to sympathize with, than the graver conceits in his panegyric of the
+Protector. In _Annus Mirabilis_ the poet apostrophizes the newly founded
+Royal Society, of which he had been elected a member in 1662.
+
+From the reopening of the theatres in 1666 till November 1681, the date
+of his _Absalom and Achitophel_, Dryden produced nothing but plays. The
+stage was his chief source of income. _Secret Love, or the Maiden
+Queen_, a tragi-comedy, produced in March 1667, was based on an episode
+in the _Artamène, ou le Grand Cyrus_ of Mlle de Scudéry, the historical
+original of the "Maiden Queen" being Christina, queen of Sweden. The
+prologue claims that the piece is written with pains and thought, by the
+exactest rules, with strict observance of the unities, and "a mingled
+chime of Jonson's humour and of Corneille's rhyme"; but it owed its
+success chiefly to the charm of Nell Gwyn's acting in the part of
+Florimel. It is noticeable that only the more passionate parts of the
+dialogue are rhymed, Dryden's theory apparently being that rhyme is then
+demanded for the elevation of the style. His next play, _Sir Martin
+Mar-all, or the Feigned Innocence_, an adaptation in prose of the duke
+of Newcastle's translation of Molière's _L'Étourdi_, was produced at the
+Duke's theatre, without the author's name, in 1667. It was about this
+time that Dryden became a retained writer under contract for the King's
+theatre, receiving from it £300 or £400 a year, till it was burnt down
+in 1672, and about £200 for six years more till the beginning of 1678.
+His co-operation with Davenant in a new version (1667) of Shakespeare's
+_Tempest_--for his share in which Dryden can hardly be pardoned on the
+ground that the chief alterations were happy thoughts of Davenant's,
+seeing that he affirms he never worked at anything with more
+delight--must also be supposed to be anterior to the completion of his
+contract with the Theatre Royal. He was engaged to write three plays a
+year, and he contributed only ten plays during the ten years of his
+engagement, finally exhausting the patience of his partners by joining
+in the composition of a play for the rival house. In adapting
+_L'Étourdi_, Dryden did not catch Molière's lightness of touch; his
+alterations go towards making the comedy into a farce. Perhaps all the
+more on this account _Sir Martin Mar-all_ had a great run at the theatre
+in Lincoln's Inn Fields. There is always a certain coarseness in
+Dryden's humour, apart from the coarseness of his age,--a certain
+forcible roughness of touch which belongs to the character of the man.
+His _An Evening's Love, or the Mock Astrologer_, an adaptation from _Le
+Feint Astrologue_ of the younger Corneille, produced at the King's
+theatre in 1668, seemed to Pepys "very smutty, and nothing so good as
+_The Maiden Queen_ or _The Indian Emperor_ of Dryden's making." Evelyn
+thought it foolish and profane, and was grieved "to see how the stage
+was degenerated and polluted by the licentious times." _Ladies à la
+Mode_, another of Dryden's contract comedies, produced in 1668, was "so
+mean a thing," Pepys says, that it was only once acted, and Dryden never
+published it. Of his other comedies, _Marriage à la Mode_ (produced
+1672), _The Assignation, or Love in a Nunnery_ (1673), _The Kind Keeper,
+or Mr Limberham_ (1678), only the first was moderately successful.
+
+While Dryden met with such indifferent success in his willing efforts to
+supply the demand of the age for low comedy, he struck upon a really
+popular and profitable vein in heroic tragedy. _Tyrannic Love, or the
+Royal Martyr_, a Roman play dealing with the persecution of the
+Christians by Maximin, in which St Catherine is introduced, and with her
+some supernatural machinery, was produced in 1669. It is in rhymed
+couplets, but the author again did not trust solely for success to them;
+for, besides the magic incantations, the singing angels, and the view of
+Paradise, he made Nell Gwyn, who had stabbed herself as Valeria, start
+to life again as she was being carried off the stage, and speak a
+riotous epilogue, in violent contrast to the serious character of the
+play. _Almanzor and Almahide, or the Conquest of Granada_, a tragedy in
+two parts, was written in 1669 to 1670. The historical background is
+taken chiefly from Mlle de Scudéry's romance of _Almahide_, but Dryden
+borrows freely from other books of hers and her contemporaries. This
+piece seems to have given the crowning touch of provocation to the wits,
+who had never ceased to ridicule the popular taste for these extravagant
+heroic plays. Dryden almost invited burlesque in his epilogue to the
+second part of _The Conquest of Granada_, in which he charged the comedy
+of the Elizabethan age with coarseness and mechanical humour, and its
+conceptions of love and honour with meanness, and claimed for his own
+time and his own plays an advance in these respects. _The Rehearsal_,
+written by the duke of Buckingham, with the assistance, it was said, of
+Samuel Butler, Martin Clifford, Thomas Sprat and others, and produced in
+1671, was a severe and just punishment for this boast. Davenant was
+originally the hero, but on his death in 1668 the satire was turned upon
+Dryden, who is here unmercifully ridiculed under the name of Bayes, the
+name being justified by his appointment in 1670 as poet laureate and
+historiographer to the king (with a pension of £300 a year and a butt of
+canary wine). It is said that _The Rehearsal_ was begun in 1663 and
+ready for representation before the plague. But this probably only means
+that Buckingham and his friends had resolved to burlesque the
+absurdities of Davenant's operatic heroes in _The Siege of Rhodes_, and
+the extravagant heroics of _The Indian Queen_. Materials accumulated
+upon them as the fashion continued, and by the time Dryden had produced
+his _Tyrannic Love_, and his _Conquest of Granada_, he had so
+established himself as the chief offender as to become naturally the
+central figure of the burlesque. Later Dryden fully avenged himself on
+Buckingham by his portrait of Zimri in _Absalom and Achitophel_. His
+immediate reply is contained in the preface "Of Heroic Plays" and the
+"Defence of the Epilogue," printed in the first edition (1672) of his
+_Conquest of Granada_. In these, so far from laughing with his censors,
+he addresses them from the eminence of success. "But I have already
+swept the stakes; and, with the common good fortune of prosperous
+gamesters, can be content to sit quietly; to hear my fortune cursed by
+some, and my faults arraigned by others, and to suffer both without
+reply." Heroic verse, he assures them, is so established that few
+tragedies are likely henceforward to be written in any other metre. In
+the course of a year or two _The Conquest of Granada_ was attacked also
+by Elkanah Settle, on whom Dryden revenged himself later, making him the
+"Doeg" of the second part of _Absalom and Achitophel_.
+
+His next tragedy, _Amboyna_ (1673), an exhibition of certain atrocities
+committed by the Dutch on English merchants in the East Indies, put on
+the stage to inflame the public mind in view of the Dutch war, was
+written, with the exception of a few passages, in prose, and those
+passages in blank verse. An opera which he wrote in rhymed couplets,
+called _The State of Innocence, and Fall of Man_, an attempt to turn
+part of _Paradise Lost_ into rhyme, as a proof of its superiority to
+blank verse, was prefaced by an "Apology for Heroique Poetry and
+Poetique Licence," and entered at Stationers' Hall in 1674, but it was
+never acted. The redeeming circumstance about the performance is the
+admiration professed by the adapter for his original, which he
+pronounces "undoubtedly one of the greatest, most noble and most sublime
+poems which either this age or nation has produced." Dryden is said to
+have had the elder poet's leave "to tag his verses." In _Aurengzebe_,
+which was Dryden's last, and also his best, rhymed tragedy, he borrowed
+from contemporary history, for the Great Mogul was still living. In the
+prologue he confessed that he had grown weary of his long-loved
+mistress rhyme and retracted, with characteristic frankness, his
+disparaging contrast of the Elizabethan with his own age. But the stings
+of _The Rehearsal_ had stimulated him to do his utmost to justify his
+devotion to his mistress, and he claims that _Aurengzebe_ is "the most
+correct" of his plays. It was entered at Stationers' Hall and probably
+acted in 1675, and published in the following year.
+
+After the production of _Aurengzebe_ he seems to have rested for an
+interval from writing, enabled to do so, probably by an additional
+pension of £100 granted to him by the king. During this interval he
+would seem to have reconsidered the principles of dramatic composition,
+and to have made a particular study of the works of Shakespeare. The
+fruits of this appeared in _All for Love, or the World Well Lost_, a
+version of the story of Antony and Cleopatra, produced in 1678, which
+must be regarded as a very remarkable departure for a man of his age,
+and a wonderful proof of undiminished openness and plasticity of mind.
+In his previous writings on dramatic theory, Dryden, while admiring the
+rhyme of the French dramatists as an advance in art, did not give
+unqualified praise to the regularity of their plots; he was disposed to
+allow the irregular structure of the Elizabethan dramatists, as being
+more favourable to variety both of action and of character. But now, in
+frank imitation of Shakespeare, he abandoned rhyme, and, if we might
+judge from _All for Love_, and the precepts laid down in his "Grounds of
+Criticism in Tragedy," prefixed to _Troilus and Cressida_ (1679), the
+chief point in which he aimed at excelling the Elizabethans was in
+giving greater unity to his plot. He upheld still the superiority of
+Shakespeare to the French dramatists in the delineation of character,
+but he thought that the scope of the action might be restricted, and the
+parts bound more closely together with advantage. _All for Love_ and
+_Antony and Cleopatra_ are two excellent plays for the comparison of the
+two methods. Dryden gave all his strength to _All for Love_, writing the
+play for himself, as he said, and not for the public. Carrying out the
+idea expressed in the title, he represents the two lovers as being more
+entirely under the dominion of love than Shakespeare's Antony and
+Cleopatra. Shakespeare's Antony is moved by other impulses than the
+passion for Cleopatra; it is his master motive, but it has to maintain a
+struggle for supremacy; "Roman thoughts" strike in upon him even in the
+very height of the enjoyment of his mistress's love, he chafes under the
+yoke, and breaks away from her of his own impulse at the call of
+spontaneously reawakened ambition. Dryden's Antony is so deeply sunk in
+love that no other impulse has power to stir him; it takes much
+persuasion and skilful artifice to detach him from Cleopatra even in
+thought, and his soul returns to her violently before the rupture has
+been completed. On the other hand, Dryden's Cleopatra is so completely
+enslaved by love for Antony that she is incapable of using the
+calculated caprices and meretricious coquetries which Shakespeare's
+Cleopatra deliberately practises as the highest art of love, the surest
+way of maintaining her empire over her great captain's heart. It is with
+difficulty that Dryden's Cleopatra will agree, on the earnest
+solicitation of a wily counsellor, to feign a liking for Dolabella to
+excite Antony's jealousy, and she cannot keep up the pretence through a
+few sentences. The characters of the two lovers are thus very much
+contracted, indeed almost overwhelmed, beneath the pressure of the one
+ruling motive. And as Dryden thus introduces a greater regularity of
+character into the drama, so he also very much contracts the action, in
+order to give probability to this temporary subjugation of individual
+character. The action of Dryden's play takes place wholly in Alexandria,
+within the compass of a few days; it does not, like Shakespeare's,
+extend over several years, and present incessant changes of scene.
+Dryden chooses, as it were, a fragment of a historical action, a single
+moment during which motives play within a narrow circle, the culminating
+point in the relations between his two personages. He devotes his whole
+play, also, to those relations; only what bears upon them is admitted.
+In Shakespeare's play we get a certain historical perspective, in which
+the love of Antony and Cleopatra appears in its true proportions
+beneath the firmament that overhangs human affairs. In Dryden's play
+this love is our universe; all the other concerns of the world retire
+into a shadowy, indistinct background. If we rise from a comparison of
+the plays with an impression that the Elizabethan drama is a higher type
+of drama, taking Dryden's own definition of the word as "a just and
+lively image of human nature," we rise also with an impression of
+Dryden's power such as we get from nothing else that he had written
+since his _Heroic Stanzas_, twenty years before.
+
+It was twelve years before Dryden produced another tragedy worthy of the
+power shown in _All for Love_. _Don Sebastian_ was acted and published
+in 1690. In the interval, to sum up briefly Dryden's work as a
+dramatist, he wrote _Oedipus_ (pr. 1679) and _The Duke of Guise_ (pr.
+1683) in conjunction with Nathaniel Lee; _Troilus and Cressida_ (1679);
+_The Spanish Friar_ (1681); _Albion and Albanius_, an opera (1685);
+_Amphitryon_ (1690). In _Troilus and Cressida_ he follows Shakespeare
+closely in the plot, but the dialogue is rewritten throughout, and not
+for the better. The versification and the language of the first and the
+third acts of _Oedipus_, which with the general plan of the play were
+Dryden's contribution to the joint work, bear marked evidence of his
+recent study of Shakespeare. The _Duke of Guise_ provided an obvious
+parallel with contemporary English politics. Henry III. was identified
+with Charles II., and Monmouth with the duke. The lord chamberlain
+refused to license it until the political situation was less disturbed.
+The plot of _Don Sebastian_ is more intricate than that of _All for
+Love_. It has also more of the characteristics of his heroic dramas; the
+extravagance of sentiment and the suddenness of impulse remind us
+occasionally of _The Indian Emperor_; but the characters are much more
+elaborately studied than in Dryden's earlier plays, and the verse is
+sinewy and powerful. It would be difficult to say whether _Don
+Sebastian_ or _All for Love_ is his best play; they share the palm
+between them. Dryden's subsequent plays are not remarkable. Their titles
+and dates are--_King Arthur_, an opera (1691), for which Purcell wrote
+the music; _Cleomenes_ (1692); _Love Triumphant_ (1694).
+
+Soon after Dryden's abandonment of heroic couplets in tragedy, he found
+new and more congenial work for his favourite instrument in satire. As
+usual the idea was not original to Dryden, though he struck in with his
+majestic step and energy divine, and immediately took the lead. The
+pioneer was Mulgrave in his _Essay on Satire_, an attack on Rochester
+and the court, which was circulated in MS. in 1679. Dryden himself was
+suspected of the authorship, and it is not impossible that he gave some
+help in revising it; but it is not likely that he attacked the king on
+whom he was dependent for the greater part of his income, and Mulgrave
+in a note to his _Art of Poetry_ in 1717 expressly asserts Dryden's
+ignorance. Dryden, however, was attacked in Rose Street, Covent Garden,
+and severely cudgelled by a company of ruffians who were generally
+supposed to have been hired by Rochester. In the same year Oldham's
+satire on the Jesuits had immense popularity, chiefly owing to the
+excitement about the Popish plot. Dryden took the field as a satirist
+towards the close of 1681, on the side of the court, at the moment when
+Shaftesbury, baffled in his efforts to exclude the duke of York from the
+throne as a papist, and secure the succession of the duke of Monmouth,
+was waiting his trial for high treason. _Absalom and Achitophel_
+produced a great stir. Nine editions were sold in rapid succession in
+the course of a year. There was no compunction in Dryden's ridicule and
+invective. Delicate wit was not one of Dryden's gifts; the motions of
+his weapon were sweeping, and the blows hard and trenchant. The
+advantage he had gained by his recent studies of character was fully
+used in his portraits of Shaftesbury and Buckingham, Achitophel and
+Zimri. In these portraits he shows considerable art in the introduction
+of redeeming traits to the general outline of malignity and depravity.
+It is not impossible that the fact that his pension had not been paid
+since the beginning of 1680 weighed with him in writing this satire to
+gain the favour of the court. In a play produced in 1681, _The Spanish
+Friar_, he had written on the other side, gratifying the popular
+feeling by attacking the Roman Catholic priesthood.
+
+Three other satires followed _Absalom and Achitophel_, one of them
+hardly inferior in point of literary power. _The Medall_; a _Satyre
+against Sedition_ (March 1682) was written in ridicule of the medal
+struck to commemorate Shaftesbury's acquittal. Then Dryden had to take
+vengeance on the literary champions of the Whig party who had opened
+upon him with all their artillery. Their leader, Shadwell, had attacked
+him in _The Medal of John Bayes_, which Dryden answered in October 1682
+by _Mac Flecknoe, or a Satyr upon the True-Blew Protestant Poet, T.S._
+This satire, in which Shadwell filled the title-rôle, served as the
+model of the _Dunciad_. To the second part of _Absalom and Achitophel_
+(November 1682), written chiefly by Nahum Tate, he contributed a long
+passage of invective against Robert Ferguson, one of Monmouth's chief
+advisers, Elkanah Settle, Shadwell and others. _Religio Laici_, which
+appeared in the same month, though nominally an exposition of a layman's
+creed, and deservedly admired as such, was not without a political
+purpose. It attacked the Papists, but declared the "fanatics" to be
+still more dangerous.
+
+Dryden's next poem in heroic couplets was in a different strain. On the
+accession of James, in 1685, he became a Roman Catholic. There has been
+much discussion as to whether this conversion was or was not sincere. It
+can only be said that the coincidence between his change of faith and
+his change of patron was suspicious, and that Dryden's character for
+consistency is certainly not of a kind to quench suspicion. The force of
+the coincidence cannot be removed by such pleas as that his wife had
+been a Roman Catholic for several years, or that he was converted by his
+son, who was converted at Cambridge, even if there were any evidence for
+these statements. Scott defended Dryden's conversion,--as Macaulay
+denounced it, from party motives. It is worth while, however, to notice
+that in his earlier defence of the English Church he exhibits a desire
+for the definite guidance of a presumably infallible creed, and the case
+for the Roman Church brought forward at the time may have appeared
+convincing to a mind singularly open to new impressions. At the same
+time nothing can be clearer than that Dryden always regarded his
+literary powers as a means of subsistence, and had little scruple about
+accepting a brief on any side. _The Hind and the Panther_, published in
+1687, is an ingenious argument for Roman Catholicism, put into the mouth
+of "a milk-white hind, immortal and unchanged." There is considerable
+beauty in the picture of this tender creature, and its enemies in the
+forest are not spared. One can understand the admiration that the poem
+received when such allegories were in fashion. It was the chief cause of
+the veneration with which Dryden was regarded by Pope, who, himself
+educated in the Roman Catholic faith, was taken as a boy of twelve to
+see the veteran poet in his chair of honour and authority at Wills's
+coffee-house. It was also very open to ridicule, and was treated in this
+spirit by Prior and Montagu, the future earl of Halifax, in _The Hind
+and the Panther transversed to the story of the Country Mouse and the
+City Mouse_. Dryden's other literary services to James were a savage
+reply to Stillingfleet--who had attacked two papers published by the
+king immediately after his accession, one said to have been written by
+his late brother in advocacy of the Church of Rome, the other by his
+late wife explaining the reasons for her conversion--and a translation
+of a life of Xavier in prose. He had written also a panegyric of
+Charles, _Threnodia Augustalis_, and a poem in honour of the birth of
+James II.'s heir, under the title of _Britannia rediviva_ (1688).
+
+Dryden did not abjure his new faith on the Revolution, and so lost his
+office and pension as laureate and historiographer royal. For this act
+of constancy he deserves credit, if the new powers would have considered
+his services worth having after his frequent apostasies. His rival
+Shadwell reigned in his stead. Dryden was once more thrown mainly upon
+his pen for support. He turned again to the stage and wrote the plays
+already enumerated. A great feature in the last decade of his life was
+his translations from the classics. _Ovid's Epistles translated_
+appeared in 1680; and numerous translations from Virgil, Horace, Ovid,
+Lucretius and Theocritus appeared in the four volumes of _Miscellany
+Poems_--_Miscellany Poems_ (1684), _Sylvae_ (1685), _Examen poeticum_
+(1693), _The Annual Miscellany_ (1694 by the "most eminent hands"); in
+1693 was published the verse translation of the _Satires_ of Juvenal and
+of Persius by "Mr Dryden and several other eminent hands," which
+contained his "Discourse concerning the Original and Progress of
+Satire"; and in 1697 Jacob Tonson published his most important
+translation, _The Works of Virgil_. The book, which was the result of
+three years' labour, was a vigorous, rather than a close, rendering of
+Virgil into the style of Dryden. Among other notable poems of this
+period are the two "Songs for St Cecilia's Day," written for a London
+musical society for 1687 and 1697, and published separately. The second
+of these is the famous ode on "Alexander's Feast." The well-known
+paraphrase of _Veni, Creator Spiritus_ was posthumously printed, and his
+"Ode to the memory of Anne Killigrew," called by Dr Johnson the noblest
+ode in the language, was written in 1686.
+
+His next work was to render some of Chaucer's and Boccaccio's tales and
+Ovid's _Metamorphoses_ into his own verse. These translations appeared
+in November 1699, a few months before his death, and are known by the
+title of _Fables, Ancient and Modern_. The preface, which is an
+admirable example of Dryden's prose, contains an excellent appreciation
+of Chaucer, and, incidentally, an answer to Jeremy Collier's attack on
+the stage. Thus a large portion of the closing years of Dryden's life
+was spent in translating for bread. He had a windfall of 500 guineas
+from Lord Abingdon for a poem on the death of his wife in 1691, and he
+received liberal presents from his cousin John Driden and from the duke
+of Ormonde, but generally he was in considerable pecuniary straits.
+Besides, his three sons held various posts in the service of the pope at
+Rome, and he could not well be on good terms with both courts. However,
+he was not molested in London by the government, and in private he was
+treated with the respect due to his old age and his admitted position as
+the greatest of living English poets. He held a small court at Wills's
+coffee-house, where he spent his evenings; here he had a chair by the
+fire in winter and by the window in summer; Congreve, Vanbrugh and
+Addison were among his admirers, and here Pope saw the old poet of whom
+he was to be the most brilliant disciple. He died at his house in
+Gerrard Street, London, on the 1st of May 1700 and was buried on the
+13th of the month in Westminster Abbey. Dryden's portrait, by Sir G.
+Kneller, is in the National Portrait Gallery.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_The Comedies, Tragedies and Operas written by John
+  Dryden, Esq._ (2 vols., 1701) was published by Tonson, who also issued
+  the poet's _Dramatick Works_ (6 vols., 1717), edited by Congreve.
+  _Poems on Various Occasions and Translations from Several Authors_
+  (1701), also published by Tonson, was very incomplete, and although
+  other editions followed there was no satisfactory collection until the
+  edition of the _Works_ (18 vols., 1808, 2nd ed. 1821) by Sir Walter
+  Scott, who supplied historical and critical notes with a life of the
+  author. This, as revised and corrected by G. Saintsbury (18 vols.,
+  Edinburgh, 1882-1893), remains the standard edition. _His Critical and
+  Miscellaneous Prose Works_ (4 vols., 1800) were edited by Edmund
+  Malone, who collected industriously the materials for a life of
+  Dryden. Convenient partial modern editions are the _Poetical Works_
+  (Globe edition, 1870) edited by W. D. Christie with an excellent
+  "life"; _The Best Plays of John Dryden_ (Mermaid series, 2 vols.),
+  edited by G. Saintsbury; and _Essays of John Dryden_ (2 vols., 1900,
+  Oxford), edited by W. P. Ker. Besides the critical and biographical
+  matter in these editions see Dr Johnson's _Lives of the Poets; Dryden_
+  (English Men of Letters series, 1881), by G. Saintsbury; A. Beljame,
+  _Le Public et les hommes de lettres en Angleterre 1660-1744_ (2nd ed.
+  Paris, 1897); A. W. Ward, _History of English Dramatic Literature_
+  (new ed. 1899), vol. iii. pp. 346-392; J. Churton Collins, _Essays and
+  Studies_; W. J. Courthope, _History of English Poetry_, vol. iv.
+  (1903), chap, xiv., and L. N. Chase, _The English Heroic Play_ (New
+  York, 1903). See also ENGLISH LITERATURE.     (W. M.; M. BR.)
+
+
+
+
+DRYOPITHECUS (Gr. [Greek: drys], oak, [Greek: pithêkos], ape, "the ape
+of the oak-woods"), the name of an extinct ape or monkey from Miocene
+deposits of France, believed to be allied to the baboons, but perhaps
+with some affinity to the higher apes.
+
+
+
+
+DRY ROT, a fungoid disease in timber which occasions the destruction of
+its fibres, and reduces it eventually to a mass of dry dust. It is
+produced most readily in a warm, moist, stagnant atmosphere, while
+common or wet rot is the result of the exposure of wood to repeated
+changes of climatic conditions. The most formidable of the dry rot fungi
+is the species _Merulius lacrymans_, which is particularly destructive
+of coniferous wood; other species are _Polyporus hybridus_, which
+thrives in oak-built ships, and _P. destructor_ and _Thelephora
+puteana_, found in a variety of wooden structures.
+
+The felling of trees when void of fresh sap, as a means of obviating the
+rotting of timber, is a practice of very ancient origin. Vitruvius
+directs (ii. cap. 9) that, to secure good timber, trees should be cut to
+the pith, so as to allow of the escape of their sap, which by dying in
+the wood would injure its quality; also that felling should take place
+only from early autumn until the end of winter. The supposed superior
+quality of wood cut in winter, and the early practice in England of
+felling oak timber at that season, may be inferred from a statute of
+James I., which enacted "that no person or persons shall fell, or cause
+to be felled, any oaken trees meet to be barked, when bark is worth 2s.
+a cart-load (timber for the needful building and reparation of houses,
+ships or mills only excepted), but between the first day of April and
+last day of June, not even for the king's use, out of barking time,
+except for building or repairing his Majesty's houses or ships." In
+giving testimony before a committee of the House of Commons in March
+1771, Mr Barnard of Deptford expressed it as his opinion that to secure
+durable timber for shipbuilding, trees should be barked in spring and
+not felled till the succeeding winter. In France, so long ago as 1669, a
+royal decree limited the felling of timber from the 1st of October to
+the 15th of April; and, in an order issued to the commissioners of
+forests, Napoleon I. directed that the felling of naval timber should
+take place only from November 1 to March 15, and during the decrease of
+the moon, on account of the rapid decay of timber, through the
+fermentation of its sap, if cut at other seasons. The burying of wood in
+water, which dissolves out or alters its putrescible constituents, has
+long been practised as a means of seasoning. The old "Resistance"
+frigate, which went down in Malta harbour, remained under water for some
+months, and on being raised was found to be entirely freed from the dry
+rot fungus that had previously covered her; similarly, in the ship
+"Eden," the progress of rot was completely arrested by 18 months'
+submergence in Plymouth Sound, so that after remaining a year at home in
+excellent condition she was sent out to the East Indies. It was an
+ancient practice in England to place timber for thrashing-floors and oak
+planks for wainscotting in running water to season them. Whale and other
+oils have been recommended for the preservation of wood; and in 1737 a
+patent for the employment of hot oil was taken out by a Mr Emerson.
+
+  For the modern processes of preserving timber see TIMBER.
+
+
+
+
+DUALISM (from rare Lat. _dualis_, containing two, from _duo_), a
+philosophical term applied to all theories which attempt to explain
+facts by reference to two coexistent principles. The term plays an
+important part in metaphysical, ethical and theological speculation.
+
+_In Metaphysics._--Metaphysical dualism postulates the eternal
+coexistence of mind and matter, as opposed to monism both idealistic and
+materialistic. Two forms of this dualism are held. On the one hand it is
+said that mind and matter are absolutely heterogeneous, and, therefore,
+that any causal relation between them is _ex hypothesi_ impossible. On
+the other hand is a hypothetical dualism, according to which it is held
+that mind cannot bridge over the chasm so far as to _know_ matter _in
+itself_, though it is compelled by its own laws of cause and effect to
+postulate matter as the origin, if not the motive cause, of its
+sensations. It follows that, for the thinking mind, matter is a
+necessary hypothesis. Hence the theory is a kind of monism, inasmuch as
+it confessedly does not assert the existence of matter save as an
+intellectual postulate for the thinking mind. Matter, in other words,
+must be assumed to exist, though mind cannot know it _in itself_. From
+this question there emerges a second and more difficult problem.
+Consciousness, it is held, is of two main kinds, sensation and reason.
+Sensation alone is insufficient to explain all our intellectual
+phenomena; all sensation is momentary and individual (cf. Empiricism).
+How then are we to account for memory and the principles of necessity,
+similarity, universality? It is argued that there must be in the mind an
+enduring, primary faculty whereby we retain, compare and group the
+presentations of sense. This faculty is _a priori_, transcendental, and
+entirely separate from all the data of experience and sense-perception.
+Here then we have a dualism within experience. The mind is not to be
+regarded as a sensitized film which automatically records the
+impressions of the senses. It contains within itself this modifying
+critical faculty which reacts upon and arranges the sense-given
+presentations.
+
+_In Ethics and Theology._--In the domain of morals, dualism postulates
+the separate existence of Good and Evil, as principles of existence. In
+theology the appearance of dualism is sporadic and has not the
+fundamental, determining importance which it has in metaphysics. It is a
+result rather than a starting-point. The old Zoroastrianism, and those
+Christian sects (e.g. Manichaeism) which were influenced by it,
+postulate two contending deities Ormuzd and Ahriman (Good and Evil),
+which war against one another in influencing the conduct of men. So, in
+Christianity, the existence of Satan as an evil influence, antagonistic
+to God, involves a kind of dualism. But generally speaking this dualism
+is permissive, inasmuch as it is always held that God will triumph over
+Satan in His own time. So in Zoroastrianism the dualism is not ultimate,
+for Ahriman and Ormuzd are represented as the twin sons of Zervana
+Akarana, i.e. limitless time, wherein both will be finally absorbed. The
+postulate of an Evil Being arises from the difficulty, at all times
+acutely felt by a certain type of mind, of reconciling the existence of
+evil with the divine attributes of perfect goodness, full knowledge and
+infinite power. John Stuart Mill (_Essay on Religion_) preferred to
+disbelieve in the omnipotence of God rather than forgo the belief in His
+goodness. It follows from such a view that Satan is not the creation of
+God, but rather a power coeval in origin, over whose activity God has no
+absolute control.
+
+_In Theology._--Dualism is also used in a special theological sense to
+describe a doctrine of the Nestorian heresy. According to this doctrine
+the personality of Christ is twofold; the divine Logos dwells as a
+distinct personality in the man Jesus Christ, the union of the two
+natures being analogous to the relation between the believer and the
+indwelling Holy Spirit.
+
+_History of the Doctrine._--The earliest European thinkers (see IONIAN
+SCHOOL OF PHILOSOPHY) endeavoured to reduce all the facts of the
+universe to a single material origin, such as Fire, Water, Air. It is
+only gradually that there appears any recognition of a spiritual
+principle exercising a modifying or causal influence over inert matter.
+Anaxagoras was the first to postulate the existence of Reason ([Greek:
+nous]) as the source of change and progress. Yet even he did not
+conceive this Reason as incorporeal; it was in reality only the most
+highly rarefied form of matter in existence. In Plato for the first time
+we find a truly dualistic conception of the universe. Asserting that
+Ideas alone really exist, he yet found it necessary to postulate a
+second principle of not-being, the groundwork of sensuous existence and
+of imperfection and evil. Herein he identified metaphysics and ethics,
+combining the good with the truly existent and evil with the
+non-existent. Aristotle rebels against this conception and substitutes
+the idea of [Greek: prôtê hylê] and development. Nevertheless he does
+not escape from the dualism of Form and Matter, [Greek: nous] and
+[Greek: hylê]. The scholastic philosophers naturally held dualistic
+views resulting from their extreme devotion to formalism. This blind
+dualism found its natural consequence in the revolt of the Renaissance
+thinkers, Bruno and Paracelsus, who asserted the unity of mind and
+matter in all existence and were the precursors of the more intelligent
+monism of Leibnitz and the scientific metaphysics of his successors. The
+birth of modern physical science on the other hand in the investigations
+of Bacon and Descartes obscured the metaphysical issue by the
+predominance of the mechanical principles of natural philosophy. They
+attempted to explain the fundamental problems of existence by the
+unaided evidence of the new natural science. Thus Descartes maintained
+the absolute dualism of the _res cogitans_ and the _res extensa_.
+Spinoza realized the flaw in the division and preferred to postulate
+behind mind and matter a single substance (_unica substantia_) while
+Leibnitz explained the universe as a harmony of spiritual or
+semispiritual principles. Kant practically abandons the problem. He
+never really establishes a relation between pure reason and
+things-in-themselves (_Dinge an sich_), but rather seeks refuge in a
+dualism within consciousness, the transcendental and the empirical.
+Since Kant there are, therefore, two streams of dualism, dealing, one
+with the radical problem of the relation between mind and matter, the
+other with the relation between the pure rational and the empirical
+elements within consciousness. To the first problem there is one obvious
+and conclusive answer, namely that matter in itself is inherently
+unthinkable and comes within the vision of the mind only as an
+intellectual presentation. It follows that philosophy is in a sense both
+dualist and monist; it is a cosmic dualism inasmuch as it admits the
+possible existence of matter as a hypothesis, though it denies the
+possibility of any true knowledge of it, and is hence in regard of the
+only possible knowledge an idealistic monism. It is a self-destructive
+dualism, a confessedly one-sided monism, agnostic as to the fundamental
+problem. To the second problem there are two main answers, that of
+Associationism which denies to the mind any _a priori_ existence and
+asserts that sensation is the only source of knowledge, and that which
+admits the existence of both transcendental and empirical knowledge.
+
+
+
+
+DUALLA, one of the principal negro peoples of Cameroon estuary, West
+Africa. When the Germans established themselves in that region, the
+Dualla were under many petty chiefs, whose domains were usually
+restricted to one village. Over these were two greater chiefs, Bell
+(Mbeli) and Akwa, representing the principal families of the tribe. The
+Dualla are physically a fine race. They are proud of their racial
+purity, and it was formerly usual for all half-caste children to be
+strangled at birth. The Dualla tattoo themselves, the women the whole
+body, the men the face only. They also pull out their eyelashes, which
+they believe prevent sharp sight. The monarchical system is more
+developed among the Dualla than any other of the peoples of Cameroon.
+The kings, many of whom have grown rich through trade, retain part of
+their former power, subject to the German government. The Dualla, who
+are laborious, industrious and capable of great physical endurance, are
+great traders and are proportionately prosperous. The average price for
+a wife among the Dualla is from £90 to £120; but sometimes a great deal
+more is paid. Girls are usually betrothed young and may be divorced if
+sterile. The penalty for adultery is a fine imposed on the seducer; if
+he cannot pay he becomes the husband's slave. Cannibalism as a religious
+rite was formerly common among the Dualla. All accessions to power were
+preceded by a sacrifice, a king having no authority till his hands were
+stained with blood. The religion is fetish blended with
+ancestor-worship, and certain secret societies exist among them which
+seem to have a religious connexion. The dead are buried within the hut,
+which is abandoned shortly afterwards; slaves were formerly buried with
+men of importance. Missionary efforts have yielded many converts, and
+some churches have been built. Many of the natives can read. The Dualla
+are in possession of an interesting code, in accordance with which
+messages can be sent and even conversations maintained by means of
+drums, or rather gongs, giving two notes. (See CAMEROON.)
+
+
+
+
+DU BARRY, MARIE JEANNE BÉCU, Comtesse (1746-1793), French adventuress,
+mistress of Louis XV., was the natural daughter of a poor woman of
+Vaucouleurs, and was born there on the 19th of August 1746. Placed in a
+convent in Paris at an early age, she received a very slight education,
+learning little but the catechism and drawing; and at the age of sixteen
+entered a milliner's shop in the rue St Honoré. Subsequently she lived
+as a courtesan under the name of Mdlle Lange. Her great personal charms
+led the adventurer Jean, comte du Barry, to take her into his house in
+order to make it more attractive to the dupes whose money he won by
+gambling. Her success surpassing his expectations, his hopes took a
+higher flight, and through Lebel, valet de chambre of Louis XV., and the
+duc de Richelieu, he succeeded in installing her as mistress of the
+king. In order to present her at court it was necessary to find a title
+for her, and as Count Jean du Barry was married himself his brother
+Guillaume offered himself as nominal husband. The comtesse du Barry was
+presented at court on the 22nd of April 1769, and became official
+mistress of the king. Her influence over the monarch was absolute until
+his death, and courtiers and ministers were in favour or disgrace with
+him in exact accordance with her wishes. The duc de Choiseul, who
+refused to acknowledge her, was disgraced in 1771; and the duc
+d'Aiguillon, who had the reputation of being her lover, took his place,
+and in concert with her governed the monarch. Louis XV. built for her
+the magnificent mansion of Luciennes. At his death in 1774 an order of
+his successor banished her to the abbey of Pont-aux-Dames, near Meaux,
+but, the queen interceding for her, the king in the following year gave
+her permission to reside at Luciennes with a pension. Here she led a
+retired life with the comte de Cossé-Brissac, and was visited there by
+Benjamin Franklin and the emperor Joseph II., among many other
+distinguished men. Having gone to England in 1792 to endeavour to raise
+money on her jewels, she was on her return accused before the
+Revolutionary Tribunal of having dissipated the treasures of the state,
+conspired against the republic, and worn, in London, "mourning for the
+tyrant." She was condemned to death on the 7th of December 1793, and
+beheaded the same evening. Her contemporaries, scorning her low birth
+rather than her vices, attributed to her a malicious political rôle of
+which she was at heart incapable, and have done scant justice to her
+quick wit, her frank but gracious manners, and her seductive beauty. The
+volume of _Lettres et Anecdotes_ (1779) which bears her name was not
+written by her.
+
+  See E. and J. de Goncourt, _La du Barry_ (Paris, 1880); C. Vatel,
+  _Histoire de Madame du Barry_ (1882-1883), based on sources; R.
+  Douglas, _The Life and Times of Madame du Barry_ (London, 1896).
+
+
+
+
+DU BARTAS, GUILLAUME DE SALUSTE, SEIGNEUR (1544-1590), French poet, was
+born near Auch in 1544. He was employed by Henry IV. of France in
+England, Denmark and Scotland; and he commanded a troop of horse in
+Gascony, under the marshal de Martingan. He was a convinced Huguenot,
+and cherished the idea of writing a great religious epic in which
+biblical characters and Christian sentiment were to supplant the pagan
+_mise en scène_ then in fashion. His first epic, _Judith_, appeared in a
+volume entitled _La Muse chrétienne_ (Bordeaux, 1573). This was followed
+five years later by his principal work, _La Sepmaine_, a poem on the
+creation of the world. This work was held by admirers of du Bartas to
+put him on a level with Ronsard, and thirty editions of it were printed
+within six years after its appearance. Its religious tone and fanciful
+style made it a great favourite in England, where the author was called
+the "divine" du Bartas, and placed on an equality with Ariosto. Spenser,
+Hall and Ben Jonson, all speak in the highest terms of what seems to us
+a most uninteresting poem. King James VI. of Scotland tried his
+"prentice hand" at the translation of du Bartas's poem _L'Uranie_, and
+the compliment was returned by the French writer, who translated, as _La
+Lepanthe_, James's poem on the battle of Lepanto. Du Bartas began the
+publication of the _Seconde Semaine_ in 1584. He aimed at a great epic
+which should stretch from the story of the creation to the coming of the
+Messiah. Of this great scheme he only executed a part, marked by a
+certain elevation of style, but he did not succeed in acclimatizing the
+religious epic in France. The work is spoiled by a constant tendency to
+moralize, and is filled with the indiscriminate information that passed
+under the name of science in the 16th century. Du Bartas, perhaps more
+than any other writer, brought the Ronsardist tradition into dispute. He
+introduced many unwieldy compounds foreign to the genius of the French
+language, and in his borrowings from old French, from provincial
+dialects and from Latin, he failed to show the sure instinct and
+prudence of Ronsard and du Bellay. He was also guilty of reduplicating
+the first syllables of words, producing such expressions as
+_pépétiller_, _sousouflantes_. Du Bartas died in July 1590 in Paris from
+wounds received at the battle of Ivry.
+
+  Joshua Sylvester translated the _Sepmaine_ in 1598; other English
+  translations from du Bartas are _The Historie of Judith ..._ (1584),
+  by Thomas Hudson; of portions of the "Weeks" (1625) by William Lisle
+  (1569-1637), the Anglo-Saxon scholar; _Urania_ (1589), by Robert
+  Ashley (1565-1641); and Sir Philip Sidney (see Florio's dedication of
+  the second book of his translation of Montaigne to Lady Rich) wrote a
+  translation of the first "Week," which is lost. The _OEuvres
+  complètes_ of du Bartas were printed at Paris (1579), Paris and
+  Bordeaux (1611). See also G. Pellissier, _La Vie et les oeuvres de du
+  Bartas_ (1883).
+
+
+
+
+DUBAWNT, or DOOBAUNT (Indian _Toobaung_, i.e. turbid), a river of
+Mackenzie and Keewatin districts, Canada. It rises in Wholdaia (or Daly)
+Lake, in 104° 20' W. and 60° 15' N., and flows northward to its
+confluence with the Thelon river, and thence eastward to Chesterfield
+Inlet, an arm of Hudson Bay. It passes through numerous lake-expansions,
+including Dubawnt Lake, with an area of 1700 sq. m. and an altitude of
+500 ft. above the sea; Aberdeen, altitude 130 ft.; and Baker, 30 ft.
+From the head of Wholdaia Lake to the head of Chesterfield Inlet is 750
+m. and thence to the west coast of Hudson Bay 125 m. The river is
+shallow, and banks and bed are chiefly composed of boulders; grassy
+slopes, however, occur at intervals along its banks, especially on the
+shores of Dubawnt Lake, and are the feeding grounds of large bands of
+cariboo. Discovered in 1770 by Samuel Hearne, the Dubawnt was explored
+by J. B. Tyrrell in 1893, and the Thelon by David Hanbury in 1899.
+
+  See Annual Report of the Geological Survey of Canada for 1896 (printed
+  1898).
+
+
+
+
+DUBBO, a municipal town of Lincoln county, New South Wales, Australia,
+on the Macquarie river, 278 m. by rail N.W. of Sydney. Pop. (1901) 3409.
+It is a flourishing manufacturing town in a pastoral district, in part
+also cultivated. Coal and copper are found in the neighbourhood.
+
+
+
+
+DU BELLAY, GUILLAUME, SIEUR DE LANGEY (1491-1543), French soldier and
+diplomat, was born at the château of Glatigny, near Montmirail, in 1491.
+His father, Louis du Bellay-Langey was a younger son of the Angevin
+family of du Bellay, which from the 14th century was distinguished in
+the service of the dukes of Anjou and afterwards of the kings of France;
+and Louis had six sons, who were among the best servants of Francis I.
+Guillaume, the eldest, is one of the most remarkable figures of the
+time; a brave soldier, a humanist and a historian, he was above all the
+most able diplomat at the command of Francis I., prodigiously active,
+and excelling in secret negotiations. He entered the military service at
+an early age, was taken prisoner at Pavia (1525) and shared the
+captivity of Francis I. His skill and devotion attached him to the king.
+His missions to Spain, Italy, England and Germany were innumerable; sent
+three times to England in 1529-1530, he was occupied with the execution
+of the treaty of Cambrai and also with the question of Henry VIII.'s
+divorce, and with the help of his brother Jean, then bishop of Paris, he
+obtained a decision favourable to Henry VIII. from the Sorbonne (July 2,
+1530). From 1532 to 1536, though he went three times to England, he was
+principally employed in uniting the German princes against Charles V.;
+in May 1532 he signed the treaty of Scheyern with the dukes of Bavaria,
+the landgrave of Hesse, and the elector of Saxony, and in January 1534
+the treaty of Augsburg. During the war of 1537 Francis I. sent him on
+missions to Piedmont; he was governor of Turin from December 1537 till
+the end of 1539, and subsequently replacing Marshal d'Annebaut as
+governor of the whole of Piedmont, he displayed great capacity in
+organization. But at the end of 1542, overwhelmed by work, he was
+compelled to return to France, and died near Lyons on the 9th of January
+1543. Rabelais, an eye-witness, has left a moving story of his death
+(_Pantagruel_, iii. ch. 21, and iv. ch. 27). He was buried in the
+cathedral of Le Mans, where a monument was erected to his memory, with
+the inscription, "Ci gît Langey, dont la plume et l'épée Ont surmonté
+Cicéron et Pompée"; Charles V. is said to have remarked that Langey, by
+his own unaided efforts, did more mischief and thwarted more schemes
+than all the French together.
+
+Guillaume du Bellay was the devoted protector of freedom of thought;
+without actually joining the reformers, he defended the innovators
+against their fanatical opponents. In 1534-1535 he even tried,
+unsuccessfully, to bring about a meeting between Francis I. and
+Melanchthon; and in 1541 he intervened in favour of the Vaudois.
+Rabelais was the most famous of his clients, and followed him to
+Piedmont from 1540 to 1542. Guillaume was himself a valuable historian,
+and a clear and precise writer. He imitated Livy in his _Ogdoades_, a
+history of the rivalry between Francis I. and the emperor from 1521, of
+which, though he had no time to finish it, important fragments remain,
+inserted by his brother Martin du Bellay (d. 1559) in his _Mémoires_
+(1569). The celebrated _Instructions_, reprinted as _Traité de la
+discipline militaire_ in 1554 and 1592, was formerly attributed to him,
+but it has been proved that he could not have written it (see Bayle,
+_Dict. Hist._ i. 502, and Jähns, _Geschichte der Kriegswissenschaften_,
+i. 498 seq.); this work, however, is of the highest value for the study
+of the military art of the 16th century; in 1550 an Italian, in 1567 a
+Spanish, and in 1594 and 1619 German translations were published.
+
+  See also the edition of Martin du Bellay's _Mémoires_ by Michaud and
+  Poujoulat (1838), and Bourrilly's _Fragments de la première Ogdoade_
+  (Paris, 1905). There is an excellent study of Guillaume du Bellay by
+  V. L. Bourrilly (Paris, 1905).     (J. I.)
+
+
+
+
+DU BELLAY, JEAN (c. 1493-1560), French cardinal and diplomat, younger
+brother of Guillaume du Bellay, appears as bishop of Bayonne in 1526,
+member of the privy council in 1530, and bishop of Paris in 1532. Supple
+and clever, he was well fitted for a diplomatic career, and carried out
+several missions in England (1527-1534) and Rome (1534-1536). In 1535 he
+received his cardinal's hat; in 1536-1537 he was nominated
+"lieutenant-general" to the king at Paris and in the Île de France, and
+was entrusted with the organization of the defence against the
+imperialists. When Guillaume du Bellay went to Piedmont, Jean was put in
+charge of the negotiations with the German Protestants, principally
+through the humanist Johann Sturm and the historian Johann Sleidan. In
+the last years of the reign of Francis I., cardinal du Bellay was in
+favour with the duchesse d'Étampes, and received a number of
+benefices--the bishopric of Limoges (1541), archbishopric of Bordeaux
+(1544), bishopric of Le Mans (1546); but his influence in the council
+was supplanted by that of Cardinal de Tournon. Under Henry II., being
+involved in the disgrace of all the servants of Francis I., he was sent
+to Rome (1547), and he obtained eight votes in the conclave which
+followed the death of Pope Paul III. After three quiet years passed in
+retirement in France (1550-1553), he was charged with a new mission to
+Pope Julius III. and took with him to Rome his young cousin the poet
+Joachim du Bellay (q.v.). He lived in Rome thenceforth in great state.
+In 1555 he was nominated bishop of Ostia and dean of the Sacred College,
+an appointment which was disapproved of by Henry II. and brought him
+into fresh disgrace, lasting till his death in Rome on the 16th of
+February 1560. Less resolute and reliable than his brother Guillaume,
+the cardinal had brilliant qualities, and an open and free mind. He was
+on the side of toleration and protected the reformers. Budaeus was his
+friend, Rabelais his faithful secretary and doctor; men of letters, like
+Étienne Dolet, and the poet Salmon Macrin, were indebted to him for
+assistance. An orator and writer of Latin verse, he left three books of
+graceful Latin poems (printed with Salmon Macrin's _Odes_, 1546, by R.
+Estienne), and some other compositions, including _Francisci Francorum
+regis epistola apologetica_ (1542). His voluminous correspondence,
+mostly in MS., is remarkable for its _verve_ and picturesque quality.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The Bibliothèque Nationale at Paris has numerous
+  unpublished letters of Jean du Bellay. See also Ribier, _Lettres et
+  mémoires d'estat_ (Paris, 1666); V. L. Bourrilly and P. de Vaissière,
+  _Ambassade de Jean du Bellay en Angleterre_, vol. i. (Paris, 1905);
+  marquis de la Jonquière, _Le Cardinal du Bellay_ (Alençon, 1887);
+  Heulhard, _Rabelais, ses voyages en Italie_ (Paris, 1891); Chamard,
+  _Joachim du Bellay_ (Lille, 1900); V. L. Bourrilly, _Guillaume du
+  Bellay_ (Paris, 1905); "Jean du Bellay, les protestants et la
+  Sorbonne" in the _Bulletin du Protestantisme français_ (1903, 1904);
+  and "Jean Sleidan et le Cardinal du Bellay," in the _Bulletin, &c._
+  (1901, 1906).     (J. I.)
+
+
+
+
+DU BELLAY, JOACHIM (c. 1522-1560), French poet and critic, member of the
+Pléiade, was born[1] at the château of La Turmelière, not far from Liré,
+near Angers, being the son of Jean du Bellay, seigneur de Gonnor,
+cousin-german of the cardinal Jean du Bellay and of Guillaume du Bellay.
+Both his parents died while he was still a child, and he was left to the
+guardianship of his elder brother, René du Bellay, who neglected his
+education, leaving him to run wild at La Turmelière. When he was
+twenty-three, however, he received permission to go to Poitiers to study
+law, no doubt with a view to his obtaining perferment through his
+kinsman the Cardinal Jean du Bellay. At Poitiers he came in contact with
+the humanist Marc Antoine Muret, and with Jean Salmon Macrin
+(1490-1557), a Latin poet famous in his day. There too he probably met
+Jacques Peletier du Mans, who had published a translation of the _Ars
+poëtica_ of Horace, with a preface in which much of the programme
+advocated later by the Pléiade is to be found in outline.
+
+It was probably in 1547 that du Bellay met Ronsard in an inn on the way
+to Poitiers, an event which may justly be regarded as the starting-point
+of the French school of Renaissance poetry. The two had much in common,
+and immediately became fast friends. Du Bellay returned with Ronsard to
+Paris to join the circle of students of the humanities attached to Jean
+Daurat (q.v.) at the Collège de Coqueret. While Ronsard and Antoine de
+Baïf were most influenced by Greek models, du Bellay was more especially
+a Latinist, and perhaps his preference for a language so nearly
+connected with his own had some part in determining the more national
+and familiar note of his poetry. In 1548 appeared the _Art poétique_ of
+Thomas Sibilet, who enunciated many of the ideas that Ronsard and his
+followers had at heart, though with essential differences in the point
+of view, since he held up as models Clément Marot and his disciples.
+Ronsard and his friends dissented violently from Sibilet on this and
+other points, and they doubtless felt a natural resentment at finding
+their ideas forestalled and, moreover, inadequately presented. The
+famous manifesto of the Pléiade, the _Deffence et illustration de la
+langue françoyse_ (1549), was at once a complement and a refutation of
+Sibilet's treatise. This book was the expression of the literary
+principles of the Pléiade as a whole, but although Ronsard was the
+chosen leader, its redaction was entrusted to du Bellay. To obtain a
+clear view of the reforms aimed at by the Pléiade, the _Deffence_ should
+be further considered in connexion with Ronsard's _Abrégé d'art
+poétique_ and his preface to the _Franciade_. Du Bellay maintained that
+the French language as it was then constituted was too poor to serve as
+a medium for the higher forms of poetry, but he contended that by proper
+cultivation it might be brought on a level with the classical tongues.
+He condemned those who despaired of their mother tongue, and used Latin
+for their more serious and ambitious work. For translations from the
+ancients he would substitute imitations. Not only were the forms of
+classical poetry to be imitated, but a separate poetic language and
+style, distinct from those employed in prose, were to be used. The
+French language was to be enriched by a development of its internal
+resources and by discreet borrowing from the Latin and Greek. Both du
+Bellay and Ronsard laid stress on the necessity of prudence in these
+borrowings, and both repudiated the charge of wishing to latinize their
+mother tongue. The book was a spirited defence of poetry and of the
+possibilities of the French language; it was also a declaration of war
+on those writers who held less heroic views.
+
+The violent attacks made by du Bellay on Marot and his followers, and on
+Sibilet, did not go unanswered. Sibilet replied in the preface to his
+translation (1549) of the _Iphigenia_ of Euripides; Guillaume des
+Autels, a Lyonnese poet, reproached du Bellay with ingratitude to his
+predecessors, and showed the weakness of his argument for imitation as
+opposed to translation in a digression in his _Réplique aux furieuses
+défenses de Louis Meigret_ (Lyons, 1550); Barthélemy Aneau, regent of
+the Collège de la Trinité at Lyons, attacked him in his _Quintil
+Horatian_ (Lyons, 1551), the authorship of which was commonly attributed
+to Charles Fontaine. Aneau pointed out the obvious inconsistency of
+inculcating imitation of the ancients and depreciating native poets in a
+work professing to be a defence of the French language. Du Bellay
+replied to his various assailants in a preface to the second edition
+(1550) of his sonnet sequence _Olive_, with which he also published two
+polemical poems, the _Musagnaeomachie_, and an ode addressed to Ronsard,
+_Contre les envieux poètes_. _Olive_, a collection of love-sonnets
+written in close imitation of Petrarch, first appeared in 1549. With it
+were printed thirteen odes entitled _Vers lyriques_. Olive has been
+supposed to be an anagram for the name of a Mlle Viole, but there is
+little evidence of real passion in the poems, and they may perhaps be
+regarded as a Petrarcan exercise, especially as, in the second edition,
+the dedication to his lady is exchanged for one to Marguerite de Valois,
+sister of Henry II. Du Bellay did not actually introduce the sonnet into
+French poetry, but he acclimatized it; and when the fashion of
+sonneteering became a mania he was one of the first to ridicule its
+excesses.
+
+About this time du Bellay had a serious illness of two years' duration,
+from which dates the beginning of his deafness. He had further anxieties
+in the guardianship of his nephew. The boy died in 1553, and Joachim,
+who had up to this time borne the title of sieur de Liré, became
+seigneur of Gonnor. In 1549 he had published a _Recueil de poësies_
+dedicated to the Princess Marguerite. This was followed in 1552 by a
+version of the fourth book of the _Aeneid_, with other translations and
+some occasional poems. In the next year he went to Rome as one of the
+secretaries of Cardinal du Bellay. To the beginning of his four and a
+half years' residence in Italy belong the forty-seven sonnets of his
+_Antiquités de Rome_, which were rendered into English by Edmund Spenser
+(_The Ruins of Rome_, 1591). These sonnets were more personal and less
+imitative than the _Olive_ sequence, and struck a note which was revived
+in later French literature by Volney and Chateaubriand. His stay in Rome
+was, however, a real exile. His duties were those of an intendant. He
+had to meet the cardinal's creditors and to find money for the expenses
+of the household. Nevertheless he found many friends among Italian
+scholars, and formed a close friendship with another exiled poet whose
+circumstances were similar to his own, Olivier de Magny. Towards the end
+of his sojourn in Rome he fell violently in love with a Roman lady
+called Faustine, who appears in his poetry as Columba and Columbelle.
+This passion finds its clearest expression in the Latin poems. Faustine
+was guarded by an old and jealous husband, and du Bellay's eventual
+conquest may have had something to do with his departure for Paris at
+the end of August 1557. In the next year he published the poems he had
+brought back with him from Rome, the Latin _Poemata_, the _Antiquités de
+Rome_, the _Jeux rustiques_, and the 191 sonnets of the _Regrets_, the
+greater number of which were written in Italy. The _Regrets_ show that
+he had advanced far beyond the theories of the _Deffence_. The
+simplicity and tenderness specially characteristic of du Bellay appear
+in the sonnets telling of his unlucky passion for Faustine, and of his
+nostalgia for the banks of the Loire. Among them are some satirical
+sonnets describing Roman manners, and the later ones written after his
+return to Paris are often appeals for patronage. His intimate relations
+with Ronsard were not renewed; but he formed a close friendship with the
+scholar Jean de Morel, whose house was the centre of a learned society.
+In 1559 du Bellay published at Poitiers _La Nouvelle Manière de faire
+son profit des lettres_, a satirical epistle translated from the Latin
+of Adrien Turnèbe, and with it _Le Poète courtisan_, which introduced
+the formal satire into French poetry. These were published under the
+pseudonym of J. Quintil du Troussay, and the courtier-poet was generally
+supposed to be Melin de Saint-Gelais, with whom du Bellay had always,
+however, been on friendly terms.
+
+A long and eloquent _Discours au roi_ (detailing the duties of a prince,
+and translated from a Latin original written by Michel de l'Hôpital, now
+lost) was dedicated to Francis II. in 1559, and is said to have secured
+for the poet a tardy pension. In Paris he was still in the employ of
+the cardinal, who delegated to him the lay patronage which he still
+retained in the diocese. In the exercise of these functions Joachim
+quarrelled with Eustache du Bellay, bishop of Paris, who prejudiced his
+relations with the cardinal, less cordial since the publication of the
+outspoken _Regrets_. His chief patron, Marguerite de Valois, to whom he
+was sincerely attached, had gone to Savoy. Du Bellay's health was weak;
+his deafness seriously hindered his official duties; and on the 1st of
+January 1560 he died. There is no evidence that he was in priest's
+orders, but he was a clerk, and as such held various preferments. He had
+at one time been a canon of Notre Dame of Paris, and was accordingly
+buried in the cathedral. The statement that he was nominated archbishop
+of Bordeaux during the last year of life is unauthenticated by
+documentary evidence and is in itself extremely improbable.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The best edition of the works of J. du Bellay is
+  _OEuvres françaises_ (2 vols., 1866-1867), edited with introduction
+  and notes by C. Marty-Laveaux in his _Pléiade française_. His _OEuvres
+  choisies_ were published by L. Becq de Fouquières in 1876. The chief
+  source of his biography is his own poetry, especially the Latin elegy
+  addressed to Jean de Morel, "_Elegia ad Janum Morellum Ebredunensem,
+  Pyladem suum_," printed with a volume of _Xenia_ (Paris, 1569). A
+  study of his life and writings by H. Chamard, forming vol. viii. of
+  the _Travaux et mémoires de l'université de Lille_ (Lille, 1900),
+  contains all the available information and corrects many common
+  errors. See also Sainte-Beuve, _Tableau de la poésie française au
+  XVI^e siècle_ (1828); _La Défense et illust. de la langue française_
+  (1905), with biographical and critical introduction by Léon Séché, who
+  also wrote _Joachim du Bellay, documents nouveaux et inédits_ (1880),
+  and published in 1903 the first volume of a new edition of the
+  _OEuvres; Lettres de Joachim du Bellay_ (1884), edited by P. de
+  Nolhac; G. Wyndham, _Ronsard and La Pléiade_ (1906); H. Belloc,
+  _Avril_ (1905); A. Tilley, _The Literature of the French Renaissance_
+  (2 vols., 1904).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] For the date of his birth, commonly given as 1525, see H.
+    Chamard, _Joachim du Bellay_ (Lille, 1900).
+
+
+
+
+DUBLIN, a county of Ireland in the province of Leinster, bounded N. by
+Co. Meath, E. by the Irish Sea, S. by Wicklow, and W. by Kildare and
+Meath. With the exception of Louth and Carlow, Dublin is the smallest
+county in Ireland, having an area of 218,873 acres, or about 342 sq. m.
+The northern portion is flat, and the soil good, particularly on the
+borders of Meath; but on the southern side the land rises into
+elevations of considerable height. The mountains are chiefly covered
+with heath, except where a subsidence in the ground affords a nucleus
+for the formation of bog, with which about 2000 acres are covered. There
+are also a few small tracts of bog in the northern part of the county.
+The mountain district is well adapted for timber. The northern coast of
+the county from Balbriggan to Howth has generally a sandy shore, and
+affords only the small harbours of Balbriggan and Skerries. In the
+promontory of Howth, the coast suddenly assumes a bolder aspect; and
+between the town of Howth and the rocky islet of Ireland's Eye an
+unsuccessful artificial harbour was constructed. Kingstown harbour on
+the south side of Dublin Bay superseded this, and is by far the best in
+the county. Dalkey Island, about 22 acres in extent, lies about midway
+between Kingstown harbour and the beautiful bay of Killiney. North of
+Howth lies Lambay Island, about 600 acres in area. Shell fish,
+especially lobsters, are taken here in abundance. Small islets lie
+farther north off Skerries; the most interesting of which is that known
+as Inispatrick, reputed as the first landing-place of St Patrick, and
+having the ruins of a church said to be the saint's first foundation,
+though it shares this reputation with other sites. Ireland's Eye, off
+Howth, is a very picturesque rock with about 54 acres of grass land. It
+has afforded great room for geological disquisition. The chief river in
+the county is the Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow mountains about 12
+m. S.W. of Dublin, and, after running about 50 m., empties itself into
+Dublin Bay. The course of the river is so tortuous that 40 m. may be
+traversed and only 10 gained in direction. The scenery along the banks
+of the Liffey is remarkably beautiful. The mountains which occupy the
+southern border of the county are the extremities of the great group
+belonging to the adjacent county Wicklow. The principal summits are the
+group containing Glendoo (1919 ft.) and Two Rock (1699 ft.) within the
+county, and the border group of Kippure, reaching in that summit a
+height of 2475 ft. The grandest features of these hills are the great
+natural ravines which open in them, the most extraordinary being the
+Scalp through which the traveller passes from Dublin to Wicklow.
+
+  _Geology._--On the north a Silurian upland stretches, falling to the
+  sea at Balbriggan, where fossiliferous strata contain contemporaneous
+  volcanic rocks. A limestone of Bala age comes out under shales and
+  andesites in the promontory of Portrane, and rocks of the same series
+  occur in the bold island of Lambay, associated with a large mass of
+  dark green porphyritic andesite (the "Lambay porphyry"). Silurian
+  rocks reappear at Tallaght in the south-west, where the granite of
+  Leinster rises through them, forming a moorland 2000 ft. in height
+  only a few miles south of Dublin. Old Red Sandstone, seen at Donabate
+  and Newcastle, leads up into Carboniferous Limestone, which is often
+  darkened by mud and even shaly ("calpy" type). This rock produces a
+  fairly level country, both north and south of the valley of the
+  Liffey, although the beds are greatly folded. Beds of a higher
+  Carboniferous zone are retained in synclinals near Rush. The rugged
+  peninsula of Howth, connected by a raised bench with the mainland, is
+  formed of old quartzites and shales, crushed and folded, and probably
+  of Cambrian age. The rocks of the county show many signs of
+  ice-action, and boulder-clays and drift-gravels cover the lowland, the
+  latter being banked up on the mountain-slopes to heights of 1200 ft.
+  or more. Much of this glacial material has been imported from the area
+  of the Irish Sea. Lead-ore has been mined at the granite-contact at
+  Ballycorus.
+
+  _Industries._--The extension of Dublin city and its suburbs has no
+  doubt had its influence on the decrease of acreage under both tillage
+  and pasture. Oats and potatoes are the principal crops, but live
+  stock, especially cattle, receives greater attention. A large
+  proportion of holdings are of the smallest, nearly one-half of those
+  beneath fifteen acres being also beneath one acre. The manufactures of
+  the county are mainly confined to the city and suburbs, but there is
+  manufacture of cotton hosiery at Balbriggan. The haddock, herring and
+  other fisheries, both deep-sea and coastal, are important, and
+  Kingstown is the headquarters of the fishery district. The salmon
+  fishery district of Dublin also affords considerable employment. As
+  containing the metropolis of Ireland, the communications of the county
+  are naturally good, several important railways and two canals
+  converging upon the city of Dublin, under the head of which they are
+  considered.
+
+_Population and Administration._--The population (148,210 in 1891;
+157,568 in 1901) shows a regular increase, which, however, is not
+consistent from year to year. About 70% are Roman Catholics, the
+Protestant Episcopalians (24%) standing next. The chief towns, apart
+from the capital, are Balbriggan (pop. 2236), Blackrock (8719), Dalkey
+(3398), Killiney and Ballybrack (2744), Pembroke (25,799), Rathmines and
+Rathgar (32,602), and the important port of Kingstown (17,377). These
+are urban districts. Skerries, Howth and Rush are small maritime towns.
+There are nine baronies in the county, which, including the city of
+Dublin, are divided into 100 parishes, all within the Protestant and
+Roman Catholic dioceses of Dublin. Assizes are held in Dublin, and
+quarter sessions also in the capital, and at Balbriggan, Kilmainham,
+Kingstown and Swords. Previous to the union with Great Britain, this
+county returned ten representatives to the Irish Parliament,--two for
+the county, two for the city, two for the university, and two for each
+of the boroughs of Swords and Newcastle. The county parliamentary
+divisions are now two, north and south, each returning one member. The
+city of Dublin constitutes a separate county.
+
+_History._--Dublin is among the counties generally considered to have
+been formed by King John, and comprised the chief portion of country
+within the English pale. The limits of the county, however, were
+uncertain, and underwent many changes before they were fixed. As late as
+the 17th century the mountainous country south of Dublin offered a
+retreat to the lawless, and it was not until 1606 that the boundaries of
+the county received definition in this direction, along with the
+formation of the county Wicklow. Although so near the seat of government
+67,142 acres of profitable land were forfeited in the Rebellion of 1641
+and 34,536 acres in the Revolution of 1688. In 1867 the most formidable
+of the Fenian risings took place near the village of Tallaght, about 7
+m. from the city. The rebels, who numbered from 500 to 700, were found
+wandering at dawn, some by a small force of constabulary who, having in
+vain called upon them to yield, fired and wounded five of them; but the
+great bulk of them were overtaken by the troops under Lord Strathnairn,
+who captured them with ease and marched them into the city. There are
+numerous antiquities in the county. Raths or encampments are frequent,
+and those at Raheny, Coolock, Lucan, with the large specimen at
+Shankill or Rathmichael near the Scalp pass may be mentioned. Cromlechs
+occur in Phoenix Park, Dublin, at Howth, and elsewhere. There are fine
+round towers at Swords, Lusk and Clondalkin, and there is the stump of
+one at Rathmichael.
+
+
+
+
+DUBLIN, a city, county of a city, parliamentary borough and seaport, and
+the metropolis of Ireland, in the province of Leinster. It lies at the
+head of a bay of the Irish Sea, to which it gives name, about midway on
+the eastern coast of the island, 334 m. W.N.W. of London by the Holyhead
+route, and 70 m. W. of Holyhead on the coast of Anglesey, Wales. (For
+map, see IRELAND.) Its population in 1901 was 290,638.
+
+_Site, Streets and Buildings._--Dublin lies on the great central
+limestone district which stretches across the island from the Irish Sea
+to the Atlantic Ocean, and occupies both banks of the river Liffey. Its
+situation is justly admired. The populous shores of the bay are
+exceedingly picturesque. To the north and west the country is
+comparatively level, the central plain of Ireland here reaching to the
+coast, but to the south the foothills of the Wicklow Mountains
+practically touch the confines of Greater Dublin, affording
+comprehensive views of the physical position of the city, and forming a
+background to some of the finest streets. The municipal boundary lies
+generally a little outside the so-called Circular Road, which may be
+taken as encircling the city proper, with a few breaks. It bears this
+name on both the north and south sides of the river. As the city is
+approached from the bay, the river Liffey, which divides the city from
+west to east roughly into two equal parts, is seen to be lined with a
+fine series of quays. At its mouth, on the north side, is the North Wall
+quay, where the principal steamers lie, and in this vicinity are the
+docks. At the opposite (western) end of the city, the Phoenix Park may
+be taken as a convenient landmark. Between this and North Wall the river
+is crossed by twelve bridges, which, in order from west to east, are
+these:--Sarah Bridge, the bridge of the North Wall extension railway;
+King's, commemorating a visit of George IV.; Victoria or Barrack;
+Queen's; Whitworth, of interest as occupying the site where a bridge has
+stood since the 12th century; Richmond, Grattan and Wellington;
+O'Connell, Butt and a swivel bridge carrying a loop railway. Of these
+O'Connell bridge (formerly known as Carlisle) is the principal, as it
+connects the chief thoroughfare on the north side, namely Sackville (or
+O'Connell) Street, with Great Brunswick Street and others on the south.
+Sackville Street, which gains in appearance from its remarkable breadth,
+contains the principal hotels, and the post office, with a fine Ionic
+portico, founded in 1815. At the crossing of Henry Street and Earl
+Street is the Nelson pillar, a beautiful monument 134 ft. in height,
+consisting of a fluted Doric column, raised on a massive pedestal, and
+crowned by a statue of the admiral. At the southern end of the street is
+Daniel O'Connell's monument, almost completed by John Henry Foley before
+his death, and erected in 1882. In Rutland Square, at the northern end,
+is the Rotunda, containing public rooms for meetings, and adjoining it,
+the Rotunda hospital with its Doric façade.
+
+From the north end of Sackville Street, several large thoroughfares
+radiate through the northern part of the city, ultimately joining the
+Circular Road at various points. To the west there are the Broadstone
+station, Dominion Street, and beyond this the large workhouse, prison,
+asylum and other district buildings, while the Royal barracks front the
+river behind Albert Quay. Two other notable buildings face the river on
+the north bank. Between Whitworth and Richmond bridges stands the "Four
+Courts" (law courts), on the site of the ancient Dominican monastery of
+St Saviour. It was erected between 1786 and 1796, and is adjoined by
+other court buildings, the public record office, containing a vast
+collection, and the police offices. Below the lowest bridge on the
+river, and therefore in the neighbourhood of the shipping quarter, is
+the customs house (1781-1791), considered one of the chief ornaments of
+the city. It presents four fronts, that facing the river being of
+Portland stone, in the Doric order, while the rest are of granite. The
+centre is crowned by a dome, surmounted by a statue of Hope. This
+building provides offices for the Local Government Board, Boards of
+Trade and of Public Works and other bodies.
+
+It is, however, to the south of the river that the most interesting
+buildings are found. Crossing O'Connell bridge, the short Westmoreland
+Street strikes into a thoroughfare which traverses the entire city
+parallel with the river, and is known successively (from west to east)
+as James, Thomas, High, Castle, Dame, College and Great Brunswick
+streets. At the end of Westmoreland Street a fine group of buildings is
+seen--Trinity College on the left and the Bank of Ireland on the right.
+Barely half a mile westward down Dame Street, rises the Castle, and 300
+yds. beyond this again is the cathedral of Christ Church. These, with
+the second cathedral of St Patrick, are more conveniently described in
+the inverse order.
+
+
+  Christ Church.
+
+The cathedral of Christ Church, or Holy Trinity, the older of the two
+Protestant cathedrals in the possession of which Dublin is remarkable,
+was founded by Sigtryg, a Christianized king of the Danes of Dublin, in
+1038, but dates its elevation to a deanery and chapter from 1541. It was
+restored in 1870-1877 by G. E. Street at the charge of Mr Henry Roe, a
+merchant of Dublin, who also presented the Synod House. The restoration
+involved the complete rebuilding of the choir and the south side of the
+nave, but the model of the ancient building was followed with great
+care. The crypt embodies remains of the founder's work; the rest is
+Transitional Norman and Early English in style. Among the monuments is
+that of Strongbow, the invader of Ireland, to whom the earlier part of
+the superstructure (1170) is due. Here the tenants of the church lands
+were accustomed to pay their rents. The monument was injured by the fall
+of one of the cathedral walls, but was repaired. By its side is a
+smaller tomb, ascribed to Strongbow's son, whom his father killed for
+showing cowardice in battle. Synods were occasionally held in this
+church, and parliaments also, before the Commons' Hall was destroyed in
+1566 by an accidental explosion of gunpowder. Here also the pretender
+Lambert Simnel was crowned.
+
+
+  St Patrick's.
+
+A short distance south from Christ Church, through the squalid quarter
+of Nicholas and Patrick streets, stands the other Protestant cathedral
+dedicated to St Patrick, the foundation of which was an attempt to
+supersede the older foundation of Christ Church, owing to jealousies,
+both ecclesiastical and political, arising out of the Anglo-Norman
+invasion. It was founded about 1190 by John Comyn, archbishop of Dublin;
+but there was a church dedicated to the same saint before. It was burnt
+about two hundred years later, but was raised from its ruins with
+increased splendour. At the Reformation it was deprived of its status as
+a cathedral, and the building was used for some of the purposes of the
+courts of justice. Edward VI. contemplated its change into a university,
+but the project was defeated. In the succeeding reign of Mary, St
+Patrick's was restored to its primary destination. The installations of
+the knights of St Patrick, the first of which took place in 1783, were
+originally held here, and some of their insignia are preserved in the
+choir. This cathedral contains the monuments of several illustrious
+persons, amongst which the most celebrated are those of Swift (dean of
+this cathedral), of Mrs Hester Johnson, immortalized under the name of
+"Stella"; of Archbishop Marsh; of the first earl of Cork; and of Duke
+Schomberg, who fell at the battle of the Boyne. The tablet over
+Schomberg's grave contains what Macaulay called a "furious libel,"
+though it only states that the duke's relatives refused the expense of
+the tablet. In the cathedral may be seen the chain ball which killed
+General St Ruth at the battle of Aughrim, and the spurs which he wore.
+The cathedral was restored by Sir Benjamin Lee Guinness (1864), whom a
+fine statue by John Henry Foley commemorates, and the work was resumed
+by his son Lord Iveagh in 1900. Attached to the cathedral is Marsh's
+library, incorporated in 1707, by a request of Primate Marsh, archbishop
+of Armagh. It contains a good number of theological works and of
+manuscripts, and is open to the public; but is deficient in modern
+publications.
+
+
+  The Castle.
+
+Dublin Castle stands high, and occupies about ten acres of ground, but
+excepting St Patrick's Hall, the apartments are small, and the building
+is of a motley and unimposing appearance, with the exception of the
+chapel (a Gothic building of the early 19th century) and great tower.
+The castle was originally built in the first two decades of the 13th
+century; and there are portions of this period, but nearly the whole is
+of the 16th century and later. In St Patrick's hall where the knights of
+St Patrick are invested, are the banners of that order. Opposite the
+castle is the city hall (1779), in the possession of the corporation,
+with statues in the central hall of George III., of Grattan (a superb
+work by Sir Francis Chantry), of Daniel O'Connell, and of Thomas
+Drummond by John Hogan and several others.
+
+
+  Bank of Ireland.
+
+The Bank of Ireland (see ARCHITECTURE, fig. 85) occupies five acres, and
+was formerly the House of Parliament. There are three fronts; the
+principal, towards College Green, is a colonnade of the Ionic order,
+with façade and two projecting wings; it connects with the western
+portico by a colonnade of the same order, forming the quadrant of a
+circle. The eastern front, which was the entrance of the House of Lords,
+is, by their special wish, of the Corinthian order, made conformable
+with the rest of the building not without difficulty to the architect.
+The House of Lords contains tapestry dating from 1733, and remains in
+its original condition, but the octagonal House of Commons was
+demolished by the bank directors, and replaced with a cash-office. The
+building was begun in 1729, but the fronts date from the end of the
+century; the remodelling took place in 1803.
+
+
+  Trinity College.
+
+Trinity College, or Dublin University, fronts the street with a
+Palladian façade (1759), with two good statues by Foley, of Goldsmith
+and Burke. Above the gateway is a hall called the Regent House. The
+first quadrangle, Parliament Square, contains the chapel (1798), with a
+Corinthian portico, the public theatre or examination hall (1787),
+containing portraits of Queen Elizabeth, Molyneux, Burke, Bishop
+Berkeley and other celebrities, and the wain-scotted dining hall, also
+containing portraits. A beautiful modern campanile (1853), erected by
+Lord John George Beresford, archbishop of Armagh and chancellor of the
+university, occupies the centre of the square. Library Square takes its
+name from the library, which is one of the four scheduled in the
+Copyright Act as entitled to receive a copy of every volume published in
+the United Kingdom. There is a notable collection of early Irish
+manuscripts, including the magnificently ornamented Book of Kells,
+containing the gospels. The building was begun in 1712. In this square
+are the oldest buildings of the foundation, dating in part from the
+close of the 17th century, and the modern Graduates' Memorial buildings
+(1904). These contain a theatre, library and reading-room, the rooms of
+the college societies and others. The schools form a fine modern pile
+(1856), and other buildings are the provost's house (1760), printing
+house (1760), museum (1857) and the medical school buildings, in three
+blocks, one of the best schools in the kingdom. Other buildings of the
+20th century include chemical laboratories. The College Park and
+Fellows' Garden are of considerable beauty. In the former most of the
+recreations of the students take place; but the college also supports a
+well-known rowing-club. The college observatory is at Dunsink, about 5
+m. north-west of Dublin; it is amply furnished with astronomical
+instruments. It was endowed by Dr Francis Andrews, provost of Trinity
+College, was erected in 1785, and in 1791 was placed by statute under
+the management of the royal astronomer of Ireland, whose official
+residence is here. The magnetic observatory of Dublin was erected in the
+years 1837-1838 in the gardens attached to Trinity College, at the
+expense of the university. A normal climatological station was
+established in the Fellows' Garden in 1904. The botanic garden is at
+Ball's Bridge, 1 m. S.E. of the college.
+
+  The alternative title of Dublin University or Trinity College, Dublin
+  (commonly abbreviated T.C.D.), is explained by the fact that the
+  university consists of only one college, that of "the Holy and
+  Undivided Trinity." This was founded under charter from Queen
+  Elizabeth in 1591, and is the greatest foundation of its kind in the
+  country. The corporation consists of a provost, 7 senior fellows, 25
+  junior fellows and 70 scholars. A vacancy among the fellows is filled
+  up by the provost and a select number of the fellows, after
+  examination comprised in five principal courses, mathematics,
+  experimental science, classics, mental and moral science and Hebrew.
+  Fellowships are held for life. Until the year 1840 the fellows were
+  bound to celibacy, but that restriction was then removed. All except
+  five (medical and law fellows) were bound to take Holy Orders until
+  1872. The scholars on the foundation (or "of the House") are chosen
+  from among the undergraduates, for merit in classics, mathematics or
+  experimental science. The pecuniary advantages attaching to
+  scholarship (£20 Irish, free commons, and rooms at half the charge
+  made to other students) last for four years. Students after an
+  examination are admitted as fellow-commoners, pensioners or sizars.
+  Fellow-commoners, who have decreased in numbers in modern times, pay
+  higher fees than the ordinary undergraduates or pensioners, and have
+  certain advantages of precedence, including the right of dining at the
+  fellows' table. Sizarships are awarded on examination to students of
+  limited means, and carry certain relaxations of fees. They were
+  formerly given on the nomination of fellows. Noblemen, noblemen's sons
+  and baronets (_nobilis, filius nobilis, eques_) have the privilege of
+  forming a separate order with peculiar advantages, on the payment of
+  additional charges. The mode of admission to the university is in all
+  cases by examination. Various exhibitions and prizes are awarded both
+  in connexion with the entrance of students and at subsequent stages of
+  the course of instruction, which normally lasts four years. There are
+  three terms in each year--Michaelmas (beginning the Academic year),
+  Hilary and Trinity. The undergraduate is called in his first year a
+  junior freshman, in his second a senior freshman, in his third a
+  junior sophister, and in his fourth a senior sophister. The usual arts
+  and scientific courses are provided, and there are four professional
+  schools--divinity, law, physic and engineering. The undergraduate has
+  certain examinations in each year, and four "commencements" are held
+  every year for the purpose of conferring degrees. Freedom is offered
+  to students who wish to be transferred from Oxford, Cambridge, or
+  certain colonial universities to Trinity College, by the recognition
+  of terms kept in the former institutions as part of the necessary
+  course at Trinity College. In 1903 it was decided to bestow degrees on
+  women, and in 1904 to establish women's scholarships. The funds of the
+  college, arising from lands and the fees of students, are managed
+  solely by the provost and seven senior fellows, who form a board, to
+  which and to the academic council the whole government of the
+  university, both in its executive and its legislative branches, is
+  committed. The council consists of the provost and sixteen members of
+  the senate elected by the fellows, professors, &c; the senate consists
+  of the chancellor or his deputy and doctors and masters who keep their
+  names on the books. The average number of students on the books is
+  about 1300. By an act passed in 1873, known as Fawcett's Act, all
+  tests were abolished, and the prizes and honours of all grades
+  hitherto reserved for Protestants of the Established Church were
+  thrown open to all. The university returns two members to parliament.
+  (See _Dublin University Calendar_, annual.)
+
+There remain to be mentioned the following buildings in Dublin. The
+permanent building of the International Exhibition of 1865 adjoins the
+pleasure ground of St Stephen's Green. This building was occupied by the
+Royal University of Ireland until its dissolution under the Irish
+Universities Act 1908, which provided for a new university at Dublin, to
+which the building was transferred under the act (see IRELAND:
+_Education_). The new university is called the National University of
+Ireland. At the same time a new college was founded under the name of
+University College. The Royal University replaced the Queen's University
+under the University Act (Ireland) in 1879. No teaching was carried on,
+but examinations were held and degrees conferred, both on men and on
+women. On the west side of St Stephen's Green is the Catholic University
+(1854), which is under the Jesuit Fathers and affiliated to the Royal
+University. Between Trinity College and St Stephen's Green, a large
+group of buildings includes the Royal Dublin Society, founded in 1683 to
+develop agriculture and the useful arts, with a library and gallery of
+statuary; the Science and Arts Museum, and the National Library, the
+former with a noteworthy collection of Irish antiquities; the Museum of
+Natural History, with a splendid collection of Irish fauna; and the
+National Gallery of Ireland, founded in 1853. Here was once a residence
+of the duke of Leinster, and the buildings surround the open space of
+Leinster Lawn. Educational foundations include the Royal College of
+Physicians, of Surgeons and of Science; the Royal Irish Academy, with an
+unequalled collection of national antiquities, including manuscripts and
+a library; and the Royal Hibernian Academy of painting, sculpture and
+architecture. In 1904 the formation of a municipally supported gallery
+of modern art (mainly due to the initiative and generosity of Mr Hugh
+Lane) was signalized by an exhibition including the pictures intended to
+constitute the nucleus of the gallery. In 1905 King Edward VII. laid the
+foundation stone of a college of science on a site in the vicinity of
+Leinster Lawn. The full scheme for the occupation of the site included,
+not only the college, but also offices for the Board of Works and the
+Department of Agriculture. The famous Dublin Horse and Agricultural
+Shows are held at Ball's Bridge in April, August and December.
+
+The most notable churches apart from the cathedrals are Roman Catholic
+and principally modern. The lofty church of the Augustinians in Thomas
+Street; St Mary's, the pro-cathedral, in Marlborough Street, with
+Grecian ornamentation within, and a Doric portico; St Paul's on Arran
+Quay, in the Ionic style; and the striking St Francis Xavier in Gardiner
+Street, also Ionic, are all noteworthy, and the last is one of the
+finest modern churches in Ireland. Among theatres Dublin has, in the
+Royal, a handsome building which replaced the old Theatre Royal, burnt
+down in 1880. Clubs, which are numerous, are chiefly found in the
+neighbourhood of Sackville Street; and there should further be mentioned
+the Rotunda, at the corner of Great Britain Street and Sackville Street,
+a beautiful building of its kind, belonging to the adjacent hospital,
+and used for concerts and other entertainments, while its gardens are
+used for agricultural shows.
+
+_Suburbs._--To the west of the city lies the Phoenix Park. Here, besides
+the viceregal demesne and lodge and the magazine, are a zoological
+garden, a people's garden, the Wellington monument, two barracks, the
+Hibernian military school, the "Fifteen Acres," a natural amphitheatre
+(of much greater extent than its name implies) used as a review ground,
+and a racecourse. The amenities of Phoenix Park were enhanced in 1905 by
+the purchase for the crown of land extending along the Liffey from
+Island bridge to Chapelizod, which might otherwise have been built over.
+To the south lies Kilmainham. Here is the royal hospital for pensioners
+and maimed soldiers. Close by is Kilmainham prison. To the west the
+valley of the Liffey affords pleasant scenery, with the well-known
+grounds called the "Strawberry Beds" on the north bank. In this
+direction lies Chapelizod, said to take its name from that Iseult whom
+Tennyson, Matthew Arnold and Wagner made a heroine; beyond which is
+Lucan connected with the city by tramway. Northward lies Clondalkin,
+with its round tower, marking the site of the important early see of
+Cluain Dolcain; Glasnevin, with famous botanical gardens; Finglas, with
+a ruined church of early foundation, and an Irish cross; and Clontarf, a
+favoured resort on the bay, with its modern castle and many residences
+of the wealthy classes in the vicinity. South of the city are Rathmines,
+a populous suburb, near which, at the "Bloody Fields," English colonists
+were murdered by the natives in 1209; and Donnybrook, celebrated for its
+former fair. Rathmines, Monkstown, Clontarf, Dalkey and Killiney, with
+the neighbourhood of Kingstown and Pembroke, are the most favoured
+residential districts. Howth, Malahide and Sutton to the north, and Bray
+to the south, are favoured seaside watering-places outside the radius of
+actual suburbs.
+
+_Communications._--The direct route to Dublin from London and other
+parts of England is by the Holyhead route, controlled by the London &
+North Western railway with steamers to the port of Dublin itself, while
+the company also works in conjunction with the mail steamers of the City
+of Dublin Steam Packet Company to the outlying port of Kingstown, 7 m.
+S.E. Passenger steamers, however, also serve Liverpool, Heysham,
+Bristol, the south coast ports of England and London; Edinburgh and
+Glasgow, and other ports of Great Britain. The railways leaving Dublin
+are the following: the Great Northern, with its terminus in Amiens
+Street, with suburban lines, and a main line running north to Drogheda,
+Dundalk and Belfast, with ramifications through the northern countries;
+the Great Southern & Western (Kingsbridge terminus) to Kilkenny, Athlone
+and Cork; the Midland Great Western (Broadstone terminus), to Cavan,
+Sligo and Galway; the Dublin & South-Eastern (Harcourt Street and
+Westland Row for Kingstown); and there is the North Wall station of the
+London & North-Western, with the line known as the North Wall extension,
+connecting with the other main lines. The internal communications of the
+city are excellent, electric tramways traversing the principal streets,
+and connecting all the principal suburbs.
+
+_Trade._--Dublin was for long stigmatized as lacking, for so large a
+city, in the proper signs of commercial enterprise. A certain spirit of
+foolish pride was said to exist which sought to disown trade; and the
+tendency to be poor and genteel in the civil service, at the bar, in the
+constabulary, in the army, in professional life, rather than prosperous
+in business, was one of the most unfortunate and strongly marked
+characteristics of Dublin society. This was attributable to the
+lingering yet potent influence of an unhappy past was held by some;
+while others attributed the weakness to the viceregal office and the
+effects of a sham court. About the time of the Revolution, the woollen
+trade flourished in Dublin, and the produce attained great celebrity.
+The cheapness of labour attracted capitalists, who started extensive
+factories in that quarter of the town known even now as the Liberties.
+This quarter was inhabited altogether by workers in wool, and as the
+city was small, the aristocracy lived close by in noble mansions which
+are now miserable memorials of past prosperity. About 1700 the English
+legislature prevailed on William III. to assent to laws which directly
+crushed the Irish trade. All exportation except to England was
+peremptorily forbidden, and the woollen manufacture soon decayed. But at
+the close of the 18th century there were 5000 persons at work in the
+looms of the Liberties. About 1715 parliament favoured the manufacture
+of linen, and the Linen Hall was built. The cotton trade was soon
+afterwards introduced; and silk manufacture was begun by the Huguenots,
+who had settled in Dublin in considerable numbers after the revocation
+of the edict of Nantes. Acts favourable to these enterprises were
+passed, and they flourished apace. But the old jealousy arose in the
+reign of George I., and in the reign of George III. an act was passed
+which tended directly to the ruin of the manufacture. The linen shared
+the same fate. Dublin poplins, however, keep their reputation. However
+adverse influences may have been combated, Dublin yet produces little
+for export save whisky and porter, the latter from the famous Guinness
+brewery and others; but a considerable export trade, principally in
+agricultural produce, passes through Dublin from the country. The total
+annual export trade may be valued at about £120,000, while imports
+exceed in value £3,000,000. To the manufacturing industries of the city
+there should be added mineral water works, foundries and shipbuilding.
+
+
+  Harbour.
+
+By continual dredging a great depth of water is kept available in the
+harbour. The Dublin Port and Docks Board, which was created in 1898 and
+consists of the mayor and six members of the corporation, with other
+members representing the trading and shipping interests, undertook
+considerable works of improvement at the beginning of the 20th century.
+These improvements, _inter alia_, enabled vessels drawing up to 23 ft.
+to lie alongside the extensive quays which border the Liffey, at low
+tide. The extensive Alexandra tidal basin, on the north side of the
+Liffey, admits vessels of similar capacity. The Custom House Works on
+the north side have about 17 ft. of water. With docks named after them
+are connected the Royal and Grand Canals, passing respectively to north
+and south of the city, the one penetrating the great central plain of
+Ireland on the north, the other following the course of the Liffey,
+doing the same on the south, and both joining the river Shannon. The
+docks attached to the canals, and certain other smaller docks, are owned
+by companies, and tolls are levied on vessels entering these, but not
+those entering the docks under the Board.
+
+_Government._--Dublin was formerly represented by two members in the
+imperial parliament, but in 1885 the parliamentary borough was divided
+into the four divisions of College Green, Harbour, St Stephen's Green
+and St Patrick's, each returning one member. The lord-lieutenant of
+Ireland occupies Dublin Castle and the Viceregal Lodge in Phoenix Park.
+Dublin is thus the seat of the viceregal court. It is also the seat of
+the Irish courts of law and equity. In connexion with these it may be
+noted that in 1904 a special court was established for children. On the
+constitution of Dublin as a county borough in 1898, the positions and
+duties of its corporation were left practically unaltered. The
+corporation consists of a lord mayor, 20 aldermen and 60 councillors,
+representing 20 wards. The income of the body arises from rents on
+property, customs and taxes. Under an act passed in 1875 the corporation
+has the right to forward every year three names of persons suitable for
+the office of high sheriff to the viceroy, one of which shall be
+selected by him. The corporation has neither control over the police nor
+any judicial duties, excepting as regards a court of conscience dealing
+with debts under 40s. (Irish); while the lord mayor holds a court for
+debts over 40s., and for the settlement of cases between masters and
+servants. The lord mayor is clerk of the markets and supervises weights
+and measures and deals with cases of adulteration. Besides the usual
+duties of local government, and the connexion with the port and docks
+boards already explained, there should be noticed the connexion of the
+corporation with such bodies as those controlling the city technical
+schools, the Royal Irish Academy of Music, and the gallery of modern
+art. The corporation has shown some concern for the housing of the poor,
+and an extensive scheme taken up in 1904 included the provision of
+cottage dwellings in the suburbs, as at Clontarf, besides improvements
+within the city itself. In 1905 a home on the model of the Rowton Houses
+in London, provided by Lord Iveagh, was opened in Bride Road. A
+competent fire-brigade is maintained by the corporation. The city
+coroner is a corporate officer. The city hall, used as municipal
+offices, has already been mentioned; the official residence of the lord
+mayor is the Mansion House, Dawson Street. The Dublin metropolitan
+police is a force peculiar to the city, the remainder of Ireland being
+protected civilly by the Royal Irish Constabulary. A large military
+force is usually maintained in the city of Dublin, which is the
+headquarters of the military district of Dublin and of the staff of
+Ireland (q.v.). The troops are accommodated in several large barracks in
+various parts of the city.
+
+_Charities._--The number of charitable institutions is large. The
+hospital and Free School of King Charles I., commonly called the Blue
+Coat hospital, was founded in 1670. It is devoted to the education and
+maintenance of the sons of citizens in poor circumstances. Before the
+Irish Parliament Houses were erected the parliament met in the school
+building. Among hospitals those of special general interest are the
+Steevens, the oldest in the city, founded under the will of Dr Richard
+Steevens in 1720; the Mater Misericordiae (1861), which includes a
+laboratory and museum, and is managed by the Sisters of Mercy, but
+relieves sufferers independently of their creed; the Rotunda lying-in
+hospital (1756); the Royal hospital for incurables, Donnybrook, which
+was founded in 1744 by the Dublin Musical Society; and the Royal
+Victoria Eye and Ear hospital, Adelaide Road, which amalgamated (1904)
+two similar institutions. Lunatics are maintained in St Patrick's
+hospital, founded in 1745, pursuant to the will of Dean Swift, and
+conducted by governors appointed under the charter of incorporation. The
+Richmond lunatic asylum, erected near the House of Industry, and placed
+under the care of officers appointed by government, receives patients
+from a district consisting of the counties of Dublin, Louth, Meath and
+Wicklow, each of these contributing towards its expenses in proportion
+to the number of patients sent in. Besides these public establishments
+for the custody of lunatics, there are in the vicinity of Dublin various
+private asylums. The principal institution for blind men (and also those
+afflicted by gout) is Simpson's hospital (1780), founded by a merchant
+of Dublin; while blind women are maintained at the Molyneux asylum
+(1815). An institution for the maintenance and education of children
+born deaf and dumb is maintained at Claremont, near Glasnevin (1816).
+The plan of the Royal hospital, for old and maimed soldiers, was first
+suggested by the earl of Essex, when lord-lieutenant, and carried into
+effect through the repeated applications of the duke of Ormond to
+Charles II. The site chosen for it was that of the ancient priory of
+Kilmainham, founded by Strongbow for Knights Templars. The building,
+completed in 1684, according to a plan of Sir Christopher Wren, is an
+oblong, three sides of which are dwelling-rooms, connected by covered
+corridors. The fourth contains the chapel, the dining-hall, and the
+apartments of the master, who is always the commander of the forces for
+the time being. The Royal Hibernian military school in Phoenix Park
+(1765) provides for soldiers' orphan sons. The Drummond Institution,
+Chapelizod, for the orphan daughters of soldiers, was established in
+1864 by John Drummond, alderman, who left £20,000 to found the asylum.
+The Hibernian Marine Society for the maintenance of seamen's sons was
+established in the city in 1766, but now has buildings at Clontarf. The
+Roman Catholic Church has charge of a number of special charities, some
+of them educational and some for the relief of suffering.
+
+_History._--The name of Dublin signifies the "Black pool." The early
+history is mainly legendary. It is recorded that the inhabitants of
+Leinster were defeated by the people of Dublin in the year 291.
+Christianity was introduced by St Patrick about 450. In the 9th century
+the Danes attacked Dublin and took it. The first Norseman who may be
+reckoned as king was Thorkel I. (832), though the Danes had appeared in
+the country as early as the close of the previous century. Thorkel
+established himself strongly at Armagh. In 1014 Brian Boroihme, king of
+Munster, attacked the enemy and fought the battle of Clontarf, in which
+he and his son and 11,000 of his followers fell. The Irish, however, won
+the battle, but the Danes reoccupied the city. Constant struggles with
+the Irish resulted in intermissions of the Danish supremacy from 1052 to
+1072, at various intervals between 1075 and 1118 and from 1124 to 1136.
+The Danes were finally ousted by the Anglo-Normans in 1171. In 1172
+Henry II. landed at Waterford, and came to Dublin and held his court
+there in a pavilion of wickerwork where the Irish chiefs were
+entertained with great pomp, and alliances entered into with them.
+Previous to his departure for England, Henry bestowed the government on
+Hugh de Lacy, having granted by charter "to his subjects of Bristol his
+city of Dublin to inhabit, and to hold of him and his heirs for ever,
+with all the liberties and free customs which his subjects of Bristol
+then enjoyed at Bristol and through all England." In 1176 Strongbow,
+earl of Pembroke, and chief leader of the Anglo-Norman forces, died in
+Dublin of a mortification in one of his feet, and was buried in Christ
+Church Cathedral, where his monument remains well preserved. A fresh
+charter was granted in 1207 by King John to the inhabitants of Dublin,
+who had not yet made their peace with the neighbourhood, but, like the
+settlers in other towns, were at constant feud with the native Irish; so
+that two years after the date of this charter, whilst the citizens of
+Dublin were celebrating Easter at Cullenswood, they were set upon by the
+Irish of the neighbouring mountains, and 500 of them killed. The scene
+of slaughter is still called the Bloody Fields, and Easter Monday
+denominated Black Monday. On each succeeding anniversary of that day,
+with the prevalent desire of perpetuating a feud, the citizens marched
+out to Cullenswood with banners displayed--"a terror to the native
+Irish." In 1216 Magna Carta, a copy of which is to be found in the Red
+Book of the Exchequer, was granted to the Irish by Henry III. In 1217
+the fee farm of the city was granted to the citizens at a rent of 200
+marks per annum; and about this period many monastic buildings were
+founded. In 1227 the same monarch confirmed the charter of John fixing
+the city boundaries and the jurisdiction of its magistrates.
+
+During the invasion of Ireland by Edward Bruce in 1315 some of the
+suburbs of Dublin were burnt to prevent them from falling into his hand.
+The inroad of Bruce had been countenanced by the native Irish
+ecclesiastics, whose sentiments were recorded in a statement addressed
+to Pope John XXII. Some notion of the defence made against Bruce's
+invasion may be gained from the fact that the churches were torn down to
+supply stones for the building of the city walls. Bruce had seized
+Greencastle on his march; but the natives re-took the town, and brought
+to Dublin the governor who had yielded to Bruce. He was starved to
+death.
+
+Richard II. erected Dublin into a marquisate in favour of Robert de
+Vere, whom he also created duke of Ireland. The same monarch entered
+Dublin in 1394 with 30,000 bowmen and 4000 cavalry, bringing with him
+the crown jewels; but after holding a parliament and making much courtly
+display before the native chieftains, on several of whom he conferred
+knighthood, he returned to England. Five years later, enriched with the
+spoils of his uncle, John of Gaunt, Richard returned to Ireland, landing
+at Waterford, whence he marched through the counties of Kilkenny and
+Wicklow, and subsequently arrived in Dublin, where he remained a
+fortnight, sumptuously entertained by the provost, as the chief
+magistrate of the city was then called, till intelligence of the
+invasion of his kingdom by Bolingbroke recalled him to England.
+
+In 1534 Lord Thomas Fitzgerald, better known as Silken Thomas (so called
+because of a fantastic fringe worn in the helmet of his followers), a
+young man of rash courage and good abilities, son of the Lord Deputy
+Kildare, believing his father, who was imprisoned in the Tower of
+London, to have been beheaded, organized a rebellion against the English
+Government, and marched with his followers from the mansion of the earls
+of Kildare in Thomas Court, through Dame's Gate to St Mary's Abbey,
+where, in the council chamber, he proclaimed himself a rebel. On his
+appearing before the wall with a powerful force, the citizens were
+induced through fear to give admission to a detachment of his troops to
+besiege the castle; but, on hearing that he had met with a reverse in
+another quarter, they suddenly closed their gates and detained his men
+as prisoners. He then attacked the city itself; but, finding it too
+strong to be seized by a _coup de main_, he raised the siege on
+condition of having his captured soldiers exchanged for the children of
+some of the principal citizens who had fallen into his hands. After much
+vicissitude of fortune, Lord Thomas and others concerned in this
+rebellion were executed at Tyburn in 1536.
+
+At the outbreak of civil war in 1641, a conspiracy of the Irish septs,
+under the direction of Roger Moore, to seize Dublin Castle, was
+disclosed by one Owen Connolly on the eve of the day on which the
+attempt was to have been made, and the city was thus preserved for the
+king's party; but the Irish outside began an indiscriminate
+extermination of the Protestant population. In 1646 Dublin was besieged,
+but without success, by the Irish army of 16,000 foot and 1600 horse,
+under the guidance of the Pope's nuncio Rinuccini and others, banded
+together "to restore and establish in Ireland the exercise of the Roman
+Catholic religion." The city had been put in an efficient state of
+defence by the marquess of Ormonde, then lord-lieutenant; but in the
+following year, to prevent it falling into the hands of the Irish, he
+surrendered it on conditions to Colonel Jones, commander of the
+Parliamentary forces. In 1649 Ormonde was totally defeated at the battle
+of Baggotrath, near Old Rathmines, in an attempt to recover possession.
+The same year Cromwell landed in Dublin, as commander-in-chief under the
+parliament, with 9000 foot and 4000 horse, and proceeded thence on his
+career of conquest.
+
+When James II. landed in Ireland in 1689 to assert his right to the
+British throne, he held a parliament in Dublin, which passed acts of
+attainder against upwards of 3000 Protestants. The governor of the city,
+Colonel Luttrell, at the same time issued a proclamation ordering all
+Protestants not housekeepers, excepting those following some trade, to
+depart from the city within 24 hours, under pain of death or
+imprisonment, and in various ways restricting those who were allowed to
+remain. In the hope of relieving his financial difficulties, the king
+erected a mint, where money was coined of the "worst kind of old brass,
+guns and the refuse of metals, melted down together," of the nominal
+value of £1,568,800, with which his troops were paid, and tradesmen were
+compelled to receive it under penalty of being hanged in case of
+refusal. Under these regulations the entire coinage was put into
+circulation. After his defeat at the battle of the Boyne, James returned
+to Dublin, but left it again before daybreak the next day; and William
+III. advancing by slow marches, on his arrival encamped at Finglas, with
+upwards of 30,000 men, and the following day proceeded in state to St
+Patrick's cathedral to return thanks for his victory.
+
+In 1783 a convention of delegates from all the volunteer corps in
+Ireland assembled in Dublin for the purpose of procuring a reform in
+parliament; but the House of Commons refused to entertain the
+proposition, and the convention separated without coming to any
+practical result. In May 1798 the breaking out of a conspiracy planned
+by the United Irishmen to seize the city was prevented by the capture of
+Lord Edward Fitzgerald, son of the duke of Leinster and husband of the
+celebrated "Pamela." Lord Edward died in prison of the wounds received
+in the encounter which preceded his capture. In 1803 an insurrection
+headed by Robert Emmett, a young barrister of much promise, broke out,
+but was immediately quelled, with the loss of some lives in the tumult,
+and the death of its leaders on the scaffold. In 1848 William Smith
+O'Brien, M.P. for Limerick, raised a rebellion in Tipperary, and the
+lower classes in Dublin were greatly agitated. Owing, however, to timely
+and judicious disposition of the military and police forces the city was
+saved from much bloodshed. In 1867 the most serious of modern
+conspiracies, that known as the Fenian organization, came to light. The
+reality of it was proved by a ship being found laden with gunpowder in
+the Liverpool docks, and another with £5000 and 2000 pike-heads in
+Dublin. The Habeas Corpus Act was suspended at one sitting by both
+Houses of Parliament and about 960 arrests were made in Dublin in a few
+hours. Dublin castle was fortified; and the citizens lived in a state of
+terror for several weeks together. For later history, see IRELAND.
+
+  See W. Harris, _History and Antiquities of the City of Dublin_
+  (Dublin, 1766); Sir J. T. Gilbert, _History of the City of Dublin_
+  (Dublin, 1859). The history of the Norsemen in Dublin has been dealt
+  with by a Norwegian writer, L. J. Vogt, _Dublin som Norsk By_
+  (Christiania, 1896).
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 8, Slice 7, by Various
+
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+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 8, Slice 7, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 8, Slice 7
+       "Drama" to "Dublin"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: June 11, 2010 [EBook #32783]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 8 SL 7 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note">
+<tr>
+<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top">
+Transcriber's note:
+</td>
+<td class="norm">
+A few typographical errors have been corrected. They
+appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the
+explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked
+passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration
+when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the
+Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will
+display an unaccented version. <br /><br />
+<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will
+be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+
+<h2>THE ENCYCLOP&AElig;DIA BRITANNICA</h2>
+
+<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2>
+
+<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<h3>VOLUME VIII SLICE VII<br /><br />
+Drama to Dublin</h3>
+<hr class="full" />
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p>
+<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">DRAMA</a> (part)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">DRONFIELD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">DRAMBURG</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">DROPSY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">DRAMMEN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">DROPWORT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">DRANE, AUGUSTA THEODOSIA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">DROSHKY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">DRAPER, JOHN WILLIAM</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">DROSTE-HÜLSHOFF, ANNETTE ELISABETH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">DRAPER</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">DROSTE-VISCHERING, CLEMENS AUGUST</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">DRAUGHT</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">DROUAIS, JEAN GERMAIN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">DRAUGHTS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">DROUET, JEAN BAPTISTE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">DRAUPADI</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">DROWNING AND LIFE SAVING</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">DRAVE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">DROYSEN, JOHANN GUSTAV</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">DRAVIDIAN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">DROZ, ANTOINE GUSTAVE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">DRAWBACK</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">DROZ, FRANÇOIS-XAVIER JOSEPH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">DRAWING</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">DRUG</a> (district of British India)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">DRAWING AND QUARTERIN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">DRUG</a> (medicine)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">DRAWING-ROOM</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">DRUIDISM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">DRAYTON, MICHAEL</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">DRUIDS, ORDER OF</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">DREAM</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">DRUM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">DREDGE and DREDGING</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">DRUMMOND, HENRY</a> (1786-1860)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">DRELINCOURT, CHARLES</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">DRUMMOND, HENRY</a> (1851-1897)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">DRENTE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">DRUMMOND, THOMAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">DRESDEN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">DRUMMOND, WILLIAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">DRESS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">DRUNKENNESS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">DRESSER</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">DRURY, SIR WILLIAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">DREUX</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">DRUSES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">DREW</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">DRUSIUS JOHANNES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">DREW, SAMUEL</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">DRUSUS, MARCUS LIVIUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">DREWENZ</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">DRUSUS, NERO CLAUDIUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">DREXEL, ANTHONY JOSEPH</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">DRUSUS CAESAR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">DREYFUS, ALFRED</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">DRYADES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">DRIBURG</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">DRYANDER, JONAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">DRIFFIELD</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">DRYBURGH ABBEY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">DRIFT</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">DRYDEN, JOHN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">DRILL</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">DRYOPITHECUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">DRINKING VESSELS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">DRY ROT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">DRIPSTONE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">DUALISM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">DRISLER, HENRY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">DUALLA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">DRIVER, SAMUEL ROLLES</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">DU BARRY, MARIE JEANNE BÉCU</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">DRIVING</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">DU BARTAS, GUILLAUME DE SALUSTE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">DROGHEDA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">DUBAWNT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">DROIT</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">DUBBO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">DROITWICH</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">DU BELLAY, GUILLAUME</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">DRÔME</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">DU BELLAY, JEAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">DROMEDARY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">DU BELLAY, JOACHIM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">DROMORE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">DUBLIN</a> (county of Ireland)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">DROMOS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">DUBLIN</a> (city of Ireland)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">DRONE</a></td>  <td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page497" id="page497"></a>497</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">DRAMA.<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span>&emsp;&emsp;(<i>Continued from Volume 8 Slice 6</i>.)</p>
+
+<p class="center pt2 sc">10. <span class="sc">Medieval Drama</span></p>
+
+<p>While the scattered and persecuted strollers thus kept alive
+something of the popularity, if not of the loftier traditions, of
+their art, neither, on the other hand, was there an
+utter absence of written compositions to bridge the
+<span class="sidenote">Ecclesiastical and monastic literary drama.</span>
+gap between ancient and modern dramatic literature.
+In the midst of the condemnation with which the
+Christian Church visited the stage, its professors and
+votaries, we find individual ecclesiastics resorting in their
+writings to both the tragic and the comic form of the ancient
+drama. These isolated productions, which include the <span class="grk" title="Christos
+paschôn">&#935;&#961;&#953;&#963;&#964;&#8000;&#962; &#960;&#940;&#963;&#967;&#969;&#957;</span> (<i>Passion of Christ</i>) formerly attributed to St Gregory
+Nazianzen, and the <i>Querolus</i>, long fathered upon Plautus himself,
+were doubtless mostly written for educational purposes&mdash;whether
+Euripides and Lycophron, or Menander, Plautus and
+Terence, served as the outward models. The same was probably
+<span class="sidenote">Hrosvitha.</span>
+the design of the famous &ldquo;comedies&rdquo; of Hrosvitha, the
+Benedictine nun of Gandersheim, in Eastphalian
+Saxony, which associate themselves in the history of Christian
+literature with the spiritual revival of the 10th century in the
+days of Otto the Great. While avowedly imitated in form from
+the comedies of Terence, these religious exercises derive their
+themes&mdash;martyrdoms,<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and miraculous or otherwise startling
+conversions<a name="fa2a" id="fa2a" href="#ft2a"><span class="sp">2</span></a>&mdash;from the legends of Christian saints. Thus,
+from perhaps the 9th to the 12th centuries, Germany and France,
+and through the latter, by means of the Norman Conquest,
+England, became acquainted with what may be called the literary
+monastic drama. It was no doubt occasionally performed by
+the children under the care of monks or nuns, or by the religious
+themselves; an exhibition of the former kind was that of the
+<i>Play of St Katharine</i>, acted at Dunstable about the year 1110
+in &ldquo;copes&rdquo; by the scholars of the Norman Geoffrey, afterwards
+abbot of St Albans. Nothing is known concerning it except
+the fact of its performance, which was certainly not regarded as
+a novelty.</p>
+
+<p>These efforts of the cloister came in time to blend themselves
+with more popular forms of the early medieval drama. The
+natural agents in the transmission of these popular
+forms were those <i>mimes</i>, whom, while the representatives
+<span class="sidenote">The joculatores, jongleurs, minstrels.</span>
+of more elaborate developments, the &ldquo;pantomimes&rdquo;
+in particular, had inevitably succumbed, the Roman
+drama had left surviving it, unextinguished and unextinguishable.
+Above all, it is necessary to point out how in the long interval
+now in question&mdash;the &ldquo;dark ages,&rdquo; which may, from the present
+point of view, be reckoned from about the 6th to the 11th century&mdash;the
+Latin and the Teutonic elements of what may be broadly
+designated as medieval &ldquo;minstrelsy,&rdquo; more or less imperceptibly,
+coalesced. The traditions of the disestablished and disendowed
+<i>mimus</i> combined with the &ldquo;occupation&rdquo; of the Teutonic <i>scôp</i>,
+who as a professional personage does not occur in the earliest
+Teutonic poetry, but on the other hand is very distinctly traceable
+under this name or that of the &ldquo;gleeman,&rdquo; in Anglo-Saxon
+literature, before it fell under the control of the Christian Church.
+Her influence and that of docile rulers, both in England and in
+the far wider area of the Frank empire, gradually prevailed even
+over the inherited goodwill which neither Alfred nor even Charles
+the Great had denied to the composite growth in which <i>mimus</i>
+and <i>scôp</i> alike had a share.</p>
+
+<p>How far the <i>joculatores</i>&mdash;which in the early middle ages came
+to be the name most widely given to these irresponsible transmitters
+of a great artistic trust&mdash;kept alive the usage of entertainments
+more essentially dramatic than the minor varieties of
+their performances, we cannot say. In different countries these
+entertainers suited themselves to different tastes, and with the
+rise of native literatures to different literary tendencies. The
+literature of the <i>troubadours</i> of Provence, which communicated
+itself to Spain and Italy, came only into isolated contact with the
+beginnings of the religious drama; in northern France the
+<i>jongleurs</i>, as the <i>joculatores</i> were now called, were confounded
+with the <i>trouvères</i>, who, to the accompaniment of <i>vielle</i> or harp,
+sang the <i>chansons de geste</i> commemorative of deeds of war.
+As appointed servants of particular households they were here,
+and afterwards in England, called <i>menestrels</i> (from <i>ministeriales</i>)
+or <i>minstrels</i>. Such a <i>histrio</i> or <i>mimus</i> (as he is called) was
+Taillefer, who rode first into the fight at Hastings, singing his
+songs of Roland and Charlemagne, and tossing his sword in the
+air and catching it again. In England such accomplished
+minstrels easily outshone the less versatile gleemen of pre-Norman
+times, and one or two of them appeared as landholders
+in Domesday Book, and many enjoyed the favour of the Norman,
+Angevin and Plantagenet kings. But here, as elsewhere, the
+humbler members of the craft spent their lives in strolling from
+castle to convent, from village-green to city-street, and there
+exhibiting their skill as dancers, tumblers, jugglers proper, and
+as masquers and conductors of bears and other dumb contributors
+to popular wonder and merriment. Their only chance of survival
+finally came to lie in organization under the protection of powerful
+nobles; but when, in the 15th century in England, companies of
+players issued forth from towns and villages, the profession,
+in so far as its members had not secured preference, saw itself
+threatened with ruin.</p>
+
+<p>In any attempt to explain the transmission of dramatic
+elements from pagan to Christian times, and the influence
+exercised by this transmission upon the beginnings of
+the medieval drama, account should finally be taken
+<span class="sidenote">Survivals and adaptations of pagan festive ceremonies and usages.</span>
+of the pertinacious survival of popular festive rites and
+ceremonies. From the days of Gregory the Great, <i>i.e.</i>
+from the end of the 6th century onwards, the Western
+Church tolerated and even attracted to her own
+festivals popular customs, significant of rejoicing,
+which were in truth relics of heathen ritual. Such were the
+Mithraic feast of the 25th of December, or the egg of Eostre-tide,
+and a multitude of Celtic or Teutonic agricultural ceremonies.
+These rites, originally symbolical of propitiation or of weather-magic,
+were of a semi-dramatic nature&mdash;such as the dipping of
+the neck of corn in water, sprinkling holy drops upon persons
+or animals, processions of beasts or men in beast-masks, dressing
+trees with flowers, and the like, but above all ceremonial dances,
+often in disguise. The sword-dance, recorded by Tacitus, of
+which an important feature was the symbolic threat of death to
+a victim, endured (though it is rarely mentioned) to the later
+middle ages. By this time it had attracted to itself a variety of
+additional features, and of characters familiar as pace-eggers,
+mummers, morris-dancers (probably of distinct origin), who
+continually enlarged the scope of their performances, especially
+as regarded their comic element. The dramatic &ldquo;expulsion of
+death,&rdquo; or winter, by the destruction of a lay-figure&mdash;common
+through western Europe about the 8th century&mdash;seems connected
+with a more elaborate rite, in which a disguised performer
+(who perhaps originally represented summer) was slain and
+afterwards revived (the <i>Pfingstl</i>, Jack in the Green, or Green
+Knight). This representation, after acquiring a comic complexion,
+was annexed by the character dancers, who about the
+15th century took to adding still livelier incidents from songs
+treating of popular heroes, such as St George and Robin Hood;
+which latter found a place in the festivities of May Day with their
+central figure, the May Queen. The earliest ceremonial observances
+of this sort were clearly connected with pastoral and
+agricultural life; but the inhabitants of the towns also came
+to have a share in them; and so, as will be seen later, did the
+clergy. They were in particular responsible for the buffooneries
+of the feast of fools (or asses), which enjoyed the greatest popularity
+in France (though protests against it are on record from
+the 11th century onwards to the 17th), but was well known from
+London to Constantinople. This riotous New Year&rsquo;s celebration
+was probably derived from the ancient Kalend feasts, which
+may have bequeathed to it both the hobby-horse and the lord,
+or bishop, of misrule. In the 16th century the feast of fools was
+combined with the elaborate festivities of courts and cities
+during the twelve Christmas feast-days&mdash;the season when throughout
+the previous two centuries the &ldquo;mummers&rdquo; especially
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page498" id="page498"></a>498</span>
+flourished, who in their disguisings and &ldquo;<i>viseres</i>&rdquo; began as
+dancers gesticulating in dumb-show, but ultimately developed
+into actors proper.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the literary and the professional element, as well as that
+of popular festive usages, had survived to become tributaries
+to the main stream of the early Christian drama,
+which had its direct source in the liturgy of the Church
+<span class="sidenote">The liturgy the main source of the medieval religious drama.</span>
+itself. The service of the Mass contains in itself
+dramatic elements, and combines with the reading
+out of portions of Scripture by the priest&mdash;its &ldquo;epical&rdquo;
+part&mdash;a &ldquo;lyrical&rdquo; part in the anthems and responses
+of the congregation. At a very early period&mdash;certainly
+already in the 5th century&mdash;it was usual on special occasions to
+increase the attractions of public worship by living pictures,
+illustrating the Gospel narrative and accompanied by songs;
+and thus a certain amount of action gradually introduced itself
+into the service. The insertion, before or after sung portions
+<span class="sidenote">Tropes.</span>
+of the service, of tropes, originally one or more verses
+of texts, usually serving as introits and in connexion
+with the gospel of the day, and recited by the two halves of the
+choir, naturally led to dialogue chanting; and this was frequently
+accompanied by illustrative fragments of action, such as drawing
+down the veil from before the altar.</p>
+
+<p>This practice of interpolations in the offices of the church,
+which is attested by texts from the 9th century onwards (the
+so-called &ldquo;Winchester tropes&rdquo; belong to the 10th
+and 11th), progressed, till on the great festivals of the
+<span class="sidenote">The liturgical mystery.</span>
+church the epical part of the liturgy was systematically
+connected with spectacular and in some measure
+mimical adjuncts, the lyrical accompaniment being of course
+retained. Thus the <i>liturgical mystery</i>&mdash;the earliest form of the
+Christian drama&mdash;was gradually called into existence. This had
+certainly been accomplished as early as the 10th century, when
+on great ecclesiastical festivals it was customary for the priests
+to perform in the churches these offices (as they were called).
+The whole Easter story, from the burial to Emmaus, was thus
+presented, the Maries and the angel adding their lyrical <i>planctus</i>;
+while the surroundings of the Nativity&mdash;the Shepherds, the
+Innocents, &amp;c.&mdash;were linked with the Shepherds of Epiphany
+by a recitation of &ldquo;Prophets,&rdquo; including Vergil and the Sibyl.
+Before long, from the 11th century onwards, <i>mysteries</i>, as they
+were called, were produced in France on scriptural subjects
+unconnected with the great Church festivals&mdash;such as the Wise
+and Foolish Virgins, Adam (with the fall of Lucifer), Daniel,
+Lazarus, &amp;c. Compositions on the last-named two themes
+remain from the hand of one of the very earliest of medieval
+play-writers, Hilarius, who may have been an Englishman,
+and who certainly studied under Abelard. He also wrote a
+&ldquo;miracle&rdquo; of St Nicholas, one of the most widely popular of
+medieval saints. Into the pieces founded on the Scripture
+narrative outside characters and incidents were occasionally
+introduced, by way of diverting the audience.</p>
+
+<p>These mysteries and miracles being as yet represented by the
+clergy only, the language in which they were usually written is
+Latin&mdash;in many varieties of verse with occasional
+prose; but already in the 11th century the further
+<span class="sidenote">The collective mystery.</span>
+step was taken of composing these texts in the vernacular&mdash;the
+earliest example being the mystery of the
+Resurrection. In time a whole series of mysteries was joined
+together; a process which was at first roughly and then more
+elaborately pursued in France and elsewhere, and finally resulted
+in the <i>collective mystery</i>&mdash;merely a scholars&rsquo; term of course, but
+one to which the principal examples of the English mystery-drama
+correspond.</p>
+
+<p>The productions of the medieval religious drama it is usual
+technically to divide into three classes. The <i>mysteries</i> proper
+deal with scriptural events only, their purpose being
+to set forth, with the aid of the prophetic or preparatory
+<span class="sidenote">Mysteries, miracles, and morals distinguished.</span>
+history of the Old Testament, and more especially of
+the fulfilling events of the New, the central mystery
+of the Redemption of the world, as accomplished by
+the Nativity, the Passion and the Resurrection. But in fact
+these were not kept distinctly apart from the <i>miracle-plays</i>, or
+<i>miracles</i>, which are strictly speaking concerned with the legends
+of the saints of the church; and in England the name <i>mysteries</i>
+was not in use. Of these species the miracles must more especially
+have been fed from the resources of the monastic literary
+drama. Thirdly, the <i>moralities</i>, or <i>moral-plays</i>, teach and
+illustrate the same truths&mdash;not, however, by direct representation
+of scriptural or legendary events and personages, but allegorically,
+their characters being personified virtues or qualities. Of
+the moralities the Norman <i>trouvères</i> had been the inventors;
+and doubtless this innovation connects itself with the endeavour,
+which in France had almost proved victorious by the end of the
+13th century, to emancipate dramatic performances from the
+control of the church.</p>
+
+<p>The attitude of the clergy towards the dramatic performances
+which had arisen out of the elaboration of the services of the
+church, but soon admitted elements from other sources,
+was not, and could not be, uniform. As the plays grew
+<span class="sidenote">The clergy and the religious drama.</span>
+longer, their paraphernalia more extensive, and their
+spectators more numerous, they began to be represented
+outside as well as inside the churches, at first in the
+churchyards, and the use of the vulgar tongue came to be gradually
+preferred. A Beverley Resurrection play (1220 c.) and some
+others are bilingual. Miracles were less dependent on this
+connexion with the church services than mysteries proper;
+and lay associations, gilds, and schools in particular, soon began
+to act plays in honour of their patron saints in or near their own
+halls. Lastly, as scenes and characters of a more or less trivial
+description were admitted even into the plays acted or superintended
+by the clergy, as some of these characters came to be
+depended on by the audiences for conventional extravagance or
+fun, every new Herod seeking to out-Herod his predecessor, and
+the devils and their chief asserting themselves as indispensable
+favourites, the comic element in the religious drama increased;
+and that drama itself, even where it remained associated with
+the church, grew more and more profane. The endeavour to
+sanctify the popular tastes to religious uses, which connects itself
+with the institution of the great festival of Corpus Christi (1264,
+confirmed 1311), when the symbol of the mystery of the Incarnation
+was borne in solemn procession, led to the closer union
+of the dramatic exhibitions (hence often called <i>processus</i>) with
+this and other religious feasts; but it neither limited their range
+nor controlled their development.</p>
+
+<p>It is impossible to condense into a few sentences the extremely
+varied history of the processes of transformation undergone by
+the medieval drama in Europe during the two centuries&mdash;from
+about 1200 to about 1400&mdash;in which it ran
+<span class="sidenote">Progress of the medieval drama in Europe.</span>
+a course of its own, and during the succeeding period,
+in which it was only partially affected by the influence
+of the Renaissance. A few typical phenomena may,
+however, be noted in the case of the drama of each of the several
+chief countries of the West; where the vernacular successfully
+supplanted Latin as the ordinary medium of dramatic speech,
+where song was effectually ousted by recitation and dialogue,
+and where finally, though the emancipation was on this head
+nowhere absolute, the religious drama gave place to the secular.</p>
+
+<p>In France, where dramatic performances had never fallen
+entirely into the hands of the clergy, the progress was speediest
+and most decided towards forms approaching those
+of the modern drama. The earliest play in the French
+<span class="sidenote">France.</span>
+tongue, however, the 12th-century <i>Adam</i>, supposed to have
+been written by a Norman in England (as is a fragmentary
+<i>Résurrection</i> of much the same date), still reveals its connexion
+with the liturgical drama. Jean Bodel of Arras&rsquo; miracle-play
+of <i>St Nicolas</i> (before 1205) is already the production of a secular
+author, probably designed for the edification of some civic confraternity
+to which he belonged, and has some realistic features.
+On the other hand, the <i>Theophilus</i> of Rutebeuf (d. c. 1280) treats
+its Faust-like theme, with which we meet again in Low-German
+dramatic literature two centuries later, in a rather lifeless form
+but in a highly religious spirit, and belongs to the cycle of
+miracles of the Virgin of which examples abound throughout
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page499" id="page499"></a>499</span>
+this period. Easter or Passion plays were fully established in
+popular acceptance in Paris as well as in other towns of France
+by the end of the 14th century; and in 1402 the <i>Confrérie de
+la Passion</i>, who at first devoted themselves exclusively to the
+performance of this species, obtained a royal privilege for the
+purpose. These series of religious plays were both extensive
+and elaborate; perhaps the most notable series (c. 1450) is that
+by Arnoul Greban, who died as a canon of Le Mans, his native
+town. Its revision, by Jean Michel, containing much illustrative
+detail (first performed at Angers in 1486), was very popular.
+Still more elaborate is the Rouen Christmas mystery of 1474,
+and the celebrated <i>Mystère du vieil testament</i>, produced at
+Abbeville in 1458, and performed at Paris in 1500. Most of the
+Provençal Christmas and Passion plays date from the 14th
+century, as well as a miracle of St Agnes. The miracles of saints
+were popular in all parts of France, and the diversity of local
+colouring naturally imparted to these productions contributed
+materially to the growth of the early French drama. The
+miracles of Ste Geneviève and St Denis came directly home to
+the inhabitants of Paris, as that of St Martin to the citizens of
+Tours; while the early victories of St Louis over the English
+might claim a national significance for the dramatic celebration
+of his deeds. The local saints of Provence were in their turn
+honoured by miracles dating from the 15th and 16th centuries.</p>
+
+<p>It is less easy to trace the origins of the comic medieval drama
+in France, connected as they are with an extraordinary variety
+of associations for professional, pious and pleasurable purposes.
+The <i>ludi inhonesti</i> in which the students of a Paris college
+(Navarre) were in 1315 debarred from engaging cannot be proved
+to have been dramatic performances; the earliest known secular
+plays presented by university students in France were moralities,
+performed in 1426 and 1431. These plays, depicting conflicts
+between opposing influences&mdash;and at bottom the struggle between
+good and evil in the human soul&mdash;become more frequent from
+about this time onwards. Now it is (at Rennes in 1439) the
+contention between <i>Bien-avisé</i> and <i>Mal-avisé</i> (who at the close
+find themselves respectively in charge of <i>Bonne-fin</i> and <i>Male-fin</i>);
+now, one between <i>l&rsquo;homme juste</i> and <i>l&rsquo;homme mondain</i>;
+now, the contrasted story of <i>Les Enfants de Maintenant</i>, who,
+however, is no abstraction, but an honest baker with a wife
+called Mignotte. Political and social problems are likewise
+treated; and the <i>Mystère du Concile de Bâle</i>&mdash;an historical
+morality&mdash;dates back to 1432. But thought is taken even more
+largely of the sufferings of the people than of the controversies
+of the Church; and in 1507 we even meet with a hygienic or
+abstinence morality (by N. de la Chesnaye) in which &ldquo;Banquet&rdquo;
+enters into a conspiracy with &ldquo;Apoplexy,&rdquo; &ldquo;Epilepsy&rdquo; and
+the whole regiment of diseases.</p>
+
+<p>Long before this development of an artificial species had been
+consummated&mdash;from the beginning of the 14th century onwards&mdash;the
+famous fraternity or professional union of the Basoche
+(clerks of the Parlement and the Châtelet) had been entrusted
+with the conduct of popular festivals at Paris, in which, as of
+right, they took a prominent personal share; and from a date
+unknown they had performed plays. But after the <i>Confrérie de
+la Passion</i> had been allowed to monopolize the religious drama,
+the <i>basochiens</i> had confined themselves to the presentment of
+moralities and of farces (from Italian <i>farsa</i>, Latin <i>farcita</i>), in
+which political satire had as a matter of course when possible
+found a place. A third association, calling themselves the
+<i>Enfans sans souci</i>, had, apparently also early in the 15th century,
+acquired celebrity by their performances of short comic plays
+called soties&mdash;in which, as it would seem, at first allegorical
+figures ironically &ldquo;played the fool,&rdquo; but which were probably
+before long not very carefully kept distinct from the farces of
+the Basoche, and were like these on occasion made to serve the
+purposes of State or of Church. Other confraternities and
+associations readily took a leaf out of the book of these devil-may-care
+good-fellows, and interwove their religious and moral plays
+with comic scenes and characters from actual life, thus becoming
+more and more free and secular in their dramatic methods, and
+unconsciously preparing the transition to the regular drama.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest example of a serious secular play known to have
+been written in the French tongue is the <i>Estoire de Griseldis</i>
+(1393); which is in the style of the miracles of the Virgin, but
+is largely indebted to Petrarch. The <i>Mystère du siege d&rsquo;Orléans</i>,
+on the other hand, written about half a century later, in the epic
+tediousness of its manner comes near to a chronicle history,
+and interests us chiefly as the earliest of many efforts to
+bring Joan of Arc on the stage. Jacques Milet&rsquo;s celebrated
+mystery of the <i>Destruction de Troye la grant</i> (1452) seems to have
+been addressed to readers and not to hearers only. The beginnings
+of the French regular comic drama are again more difficult
+to extract from the copious literature of farces and soties, which,
+after mingling actual types with abstract and allegorical figures,
+gradually came to exclude all but the concrete personages;
+moreover, the large majority of these productions in their extant
+form belong to a later period than that now under consideration.
+But there is ample evidence that the most famous of all
+medieval farces, the immortal <i>Maistre Pierre Pathelin</i> (otherwise
+<i>L&rsquo;Avocat Pathelin</i>), was written before 1470 and acted by
+the <i>basochiens</i>; and we may conclude that this delightful story
+of the biter bit, and the profession outwitted, typifies a multitude
+of similar comic episodes of real life, dramatized for the
+delectation of clerks, lawyers and students, and of all lovers
+of laughter.</p>
+
+<p>In the neighbouring Netherlands many Easter and Christmas
+mysteries are noted from the middle of the 15th century, attesting
+the enduring popularity of these religious plays; and
+with them the celebrated series of the Seven Joys of
+<span class="sidenote">The Netherlands.</span>
+Maria&mdash;of which the first is the Annunciation and the
+seventh the Ascension. To about the same date belongs
+the small group of the so-called <i>abele spelen</i> (as who should say
+plays easily managed), chiefly on chivalrous themes. Though
+allegorical figures are already to be found in the Netherlands
+miracles of Mary, the species of the moralities was specially
+cultivated during the great Burgundian period of this century
+by the chambers or lodges of the <i>Rederijkers</i> (rhetoricians)&mdash;the
+well-known civic associations which devoted themselves to
+the cultivation of learned poetry and took an active share in the
+festivals that formed one of the most characteristic features of
+the life of the Low Countries. Among these moralities was that
+of <i>Elckerlijk</i> (printed 1495 and presumably by Peter Dorlandus),
+which there is good reason for regarding as the original of one
+of the finest of English moralities, <i>Everyman</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In Italy the liturgical drama must have run its course as
+elsewhere; but the traces of it are few, and confined to the
+north-east. The collective mystery, so common in
+other Western countries, is in Italian literature
+<span class="sidenote">Italy.</span>
+represented by a single example only&mdash;a <i>Passione di Gesù Cristo</i>,
+performed at Revello in Saluzzo in the 15th century; though
+there are some traces of other cyclic dramas of the kind. The
+Italian religious plays, called <i>figure</i> when on Old, <i>vangeli</i> when on
+New, Testament subjects, and differing from those of northern
+Europe chiefly by the less degree of coarseness in their comic
+characters, seem largely to have sprung out of the development
+of the processional element in the festivals of the Church.
+Besides such processions as that of the Three Kings at Epiphany
+in Milan, there were the penitential processions and songs (<i>laude</i>),
+which at Assisi, Perugia and elsewhere already contained a
+dramatic element; and at Siena, Florence and other centres
+these again developed into the so-called (<i>sacre</i>) <i>rappresentazioni</i>,
+which became the most usual name for this kind of entertainment.
+Such a piece was the <i>San Giovanni e San Paolo</i> (1489), by Lorenzo
+the Magnificent&mdash;the prince who afterwards sought to reform
+the Italian stage by paganizing it; another was the <i>Santa
+Teodora</i>, by Luigi Pulci (d. 1487); <i>San Giovanni Gualberto</i> (of
+Florence) treats the religious experience of a latter-day saint;
+<i>Rosana e Ulimento</i> is a love-story with a Christian moral. Passion
+plays were performed at Rome in the Coliseum by the <i>Compagnia
+del Gonfalone</i>; but there is no evidence on this head before the
+end of the 15th century. In general, the spectacular magnificence
+of Italian theatrical displays accorded with the growing pomp
+of the processions both ecclesiastical and lay&mdash;called <i>trionfi</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page500" id="page500"></a>500</span>
+already in the days of Dante; while the religious drama gradually
+acquired an artificial character and elaboration of form
+assimilating it to the classical attempts, to be noted below,
+which gave rise to the regular Italian drama. The poetry of the
+Troubadours, which had come from Provence into Italy, here
+frequently took a dramatic form, and may have suggested some
+of his earlier poetic experiments to Petrarch.</p>
+
+<p>It was a matter of course that remnants of the ancient popular
+dramatic entertainments should have survived in particular
+abundance on Italian soil. They were to be recognized in the
+improvised farces performed at the courts, in the churches (<i>farse
+spirituali</i>), and among the people; the Roman carnival had
+preserved its wagon-plays, and various links remained to connect
+the modern comic drama of the Italians with the <i>Atellanes</i> and
+<i>mimes</i> of their ancestors. But the more notable later comic
+developments, which belong to the 16th century, will be more
+appropriately noticed below. Moralities proper had not flourished
+in Italy, where the love of the concrete has always been dominant
+in popular taste; more numerous are examples of scenes, largely
+mythological, in which the influence of the Renaissance is already
+perceptible, of eclogues, and of allegorical festival-plays of
+various sorts.</p>
+
+<p>In Spain hardly a monument of the medieval religious drama
+has been preserved. There is manuscript evidence of the 11th
+century attesting the early addition of dramatic
+elements to the Easter office; and a Spanish fragment
+<span class="sidenote">Spain.</span>
+of the Three Kings Epiphany play, dating from the 12th century,
+is, like the French <i>Adam</i>, one of the very earliest examples of
+the medieval drama in the vernacular. But that religious plays
+were performed in Spain is clear from the permission granted
+by Alphonso X. of Castile (d. 1284) to the clergy to represent
+them, while prohibiting the performance by them of <i>juegos de
+escarnio</i> (mocking plays). The earliest Spanish plays which we
+possess belong to the end of the 15th or beginning of the 16th
+century, and already show humanistic influence. In 1472 the
+couplets of <i>Mingo Revulgo</i> (<i>i.e.</i> Domingo Vulgus, the common
+people), and about the same time another dialogue by the same
+author, offer examples of a sort resembling the Italian <i>contrasti</i>
+(see below).</p>
+
+<p>The German religious plays in the vernacular, the earliest of
+which date from the 14th and 15th centuries, and were produced
+at Trier, Wolfenbuttel, Innsbruck, Vienna, Berlin, &amp;c.,
+were of a simple kind; but in some of them, though
+<span class="sidenote">Germany.</span>
+they were written by clerks, there are traces of the minstrels&rsquo;
+hands. The earliest complete Christmas play in German,
+contained in a 14th-century St Gallen MS., has nothing in it to
+suggest a Latin original. On the other hand, the play of <i>The
+Wise and the Foolish Virgins</i>, in a Thuringian MS. thought to be
+as early as 1328, a piece of remarkable dignity, was evidently
+based on a Latin play. Other festivals besides Christmas were
+celebrated by plays; but down to the Reformation Easter
+enjoyed a preference. In the same century miracle-plays began
+to be performed, in honour of St Catherine, St Dorothea and
+other saints. But all these productions seem to belong to a
+period when the drama was still under ecclesiastical control.
+Gradually, as the liturgical drama returned to the simpler forms
+from which it had so surprisingly expanded, and ultimately died
+out, the religious plays performed outside the churches expanded
+more freely; and the type of mystery associated with the name
+of the Frankfort canon Baldemar von Peterweil communicated
+itself, with other examples, to the receptive region of the south-west.
+The Corpus Christi plays, or (as they were here called)
+<i>Frohnleichnamsspiele</i>, are notable, since that of Innsbruck (1391)
+is probably the earliest extant example of its class. The number
+of non-scriptural religious plays in Germany was much smaller
+than that in France; but it may be noted that (in accordance
+with a long-enduring popular notion) the theme of the last
+judgment was common in Germany in the latter part of the
+middle ages. Of this theme <i>Antichrist</i> may be regarded as an
+episode, though in 1469 an <i>Antichrist</i> appears to have occupied
+at Frankfort four days in its performance. The earlier (12th
+century) <i>Antichrist</i> is a production quite unique of its kind;
+this political protest breathes the Ghibelline spirit of the reign
+(Frederick Barbarossa&rsquo;s) in which it was composed.</p>
+
+<p>Though many of the early German plays contain an element
+of the moralities, there were few representative German examples
+of the species. The academical instinct, or some other influence,
+kept the more elaborate productions on the whole apart from
+the drolleries of the professional strollers (<i>fahrende Leute</i>), whose
+Shrove-Tuesday plays (<i>Fastnachtsspiele</i>) and cognate productions
+reproduced the practical fun of common life. Occasionally, no
+doubt, as in the Lübeck <i>Fastnachtsspiel</i> of the Five Virtues,
+the two species may have more or less closely approached to one
+another. When, in the course of the 15th century, Hans Rosenplüt,
+called Schnepperer&mdash;or Hans Schnepperer, called Rosenplüt&mdash;the
+predecessor of Hans Sachs, first gave a more enduring form
+to the popular Shrove-Tuesday plays, a connexion was already
+establishing itself between the dramatic amusements of the
+people and the literary efforts of the &ldquo;master-singers&rdquo; of the
+towns. But, while the main productivity of the writers of
+moralities and cognate productions&mdash;a species particularly suited
+to German latitudes&mdash;falls into the periods of Renaissance and
+Reformation, the religious drama proper survived far beyond
+either in Catholic Germany, and, in fact, was not suppressed
+in Bavaria and Tirol till the end of the 18th century.<a name="fa3a" id="fa3a" href="#ft3a"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p>
+
+<p>It may be added that the performance of miracle-plays is
+traceable in Sweden in the latter half of the 14th century; and
+that the German clerks and laymen who immigrated
+into the Carpathian lands, and into Galicia in particular,
+<span class="sidenote">Sweden, Carpathian lands, &amp;c.</span>
+in the later middle ages, brought with them their
+religious plays together with other elements of culture.
+This fact is the more striking, inasmuch as, though Czech Easter
+plays were performed about the end of the 14th century, we
+hear of none among the Magyars, or among their neighbours of
+the Eastern empire.</p>
+
+<p>Coming now to the English religious drama, we find that from
+its extant literature a fair general idea may be derived of the
+character of these medieval productions. The <i>miracle-plays</i>,
+<i>miracles</i> or <i>plays</i> (these being the terms used in
+<span class="sidenote">Religious drama in England.</span>
+England) of which we hear in London in the 12th
+century were probably written in Latin and acted by
+ecclesiastics; but already in the following century mention is
+made&mdash;in the way of prohibition&mdash;of plays acted by professional
+players. (Isolated moralities of the 12th century are not to be
+regarded as popular productions.) In England as elsewhere, the
+clergy either sought to retain their control over the religious
+plays, which continued to be occasionally acted in churches
+even after the Reformation, or else reprobated them with or
+<span class="sidenote">Cornish miracle-plays.</span>
+without qualifications. In Cornwall miracles in the
+native Cymric dialect were performed at an early date;
+but those which have been preserved are apparently
+copies of English (with the occasional use of French)
+originals; they were represented, unlike the English plays, in
+the open country, in extensive amphitheatres constructed for
+the purpose&mdash;one of which, at St Just near Penzance, has
+recently been restored.</p>
+
+<p>The flourishing period of English miracle-plays begins with the
+practice of their performance by trading-companies in the towns,
+though these bodies were by no means possessed of
+any special privileges for the purpose. Of this practice
+<span class="sidenote">Localities of the performance of miracle-plays.</span>
+Chester is said to have set the example (1268-1276);
+it was followed in the course of the 13th and 14th
+centuries by many other towns, while in yet others
+traces of such performances are not to be found till the
+15th, or even the 16th. These towns with their neighbourhoods
+include, starting from East Anglia, where the religious drama
+was particularly at home, Wymondham, Norwich, Sleaford,
+Lincoln, Leeds, Wakefield, Beverley, York, Newcastle-on-Tyne,
+with a deviation across the border to Edinburgh and Aberdeen.
+In the north-west they are found at Kendal, Lancaster, Preston,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page501" id="page501"></a>501</span>
+Chester; whence they may be supposed to have migrated to
+Dublin. In the west they are noticeable at Shrewsbury, Worcester
+and Tewkesbury; in the Midlands at Coventry and
+Leicester; in the east at Cambridge and Bassingbourne, Heybridge
+and Manningtree; to which places have to be added
+Reading, Winchester, Canterbury, Bethesda and London,
+in which last the performers were the parish-clerks. Four
+collections, in addition to some single examples of such plays,
+<span class="sidenote">The York, Towneley, Chester and Coventry plays.</span>
+have come down to us, the <i>York</i> plays, the so-called
+<i>Towneley</i> plays, which were probably acted at the
+fairs of Widkirk, near Wakefield, and those bearing the
+names of <i>Chester</i> and of <i>Coventry</i>. Their dates, in the
+forms in which they have come down to us, are more
+or less uncertain; that of the <i>York</i> may on the whole be
+concluded to be earlier than that of the <i>Towneley</i>, which were
+probably put together about the middle of the 14th century; the
+<i>Chester</i> may be ascribed to the close of the 14th or the earlier
+part of the 15th; the body of the <i>Coventry</i> probably belongs to
+the 15th or 16th. Many of the individual plays in these collections
+were doubtless founded on French originals; others are taken
+direct from Scripture, from the apocryphal gospels, or from the
+legends of the saints. Their characteristic feature is the combination
+of a whole series of plays into one <i>collective</i> whole, exhibiting
+the entire course of Bible history from the creation to the day
+of judgment. For this combination it is unnecessary to suppose
+that they were generally indebted to foreign examples, though
+there are several remarkable coincidences between the Chester
+plays and the French <i>Mystère du vieil testament</i>. Indeed, the
+oldest of the series&mdash;the <i>York</i> plays&mdash;exhibits a fairly close
+parallel to the scheme of the <i>Cursor mundi</i>, an epic poem of
+Northumbrian origin, which early in the 14th century had set
+an example of treatment that unmistakably influenced the
+collective mysteries as a whole. Among the isolated plays of
+the same type which have come down to us may be mentioned
+<i>The Harrowing of Hell</i> (the Saviour&rsquo;s descent into hell), an
+East-Midland production which professes to tell of &ldquo;a strif of
+Jesu and of Satan&rdquo; and is probably the earliest dramatic, or all
+but dramatic, work in English that has been preserved; and
+several belonging to a series known as the <i>Digby Mysteries</i>,
+including <i>Parfre&rsquo;s Candlemas Day</i> (the massacre of the Innocents),
+and the very interesting miracle of <i>Mary Magdalene</i>. Of the
+so-called &ldquo;Paternoster&rdquo; and &ldquo;Creed&rdquo; plays (which exhibit
+the miraculous powers of portions of the Church service) no
+example remains, though of some we have an account; the
+Croxton <i>Play of the Sacrament</i>, the MS. of which is preserved
+at Dublin, and which seems to date from the latter half of the
+15th century, exhibits the triumph of the holy wafer over
+wicked Jewish wiles.</p>
+
+<p>To return to the collective mysteries, as they present themselves
+to us in the chief extant series. &ldquo;The manner of these
+plays,&rdquo; we read in a description of those at Chester,
+dating from the close of the 16th century, &ldquo;were:&mdash;Every
+<span class="sidenote">English collective mysteries.</span>
+company had his pageant, which pageants were
+a high scaffold with two rooms, a higher and a lower,
+upon four wheels. In the lower they apparelled themselves,
+and in the higher room they played, being all open at the top,
+that all beholders might hear and see them. The places where they
+played them was in every street. They began first at the abbey
+gates, and when the first pageant was played, it was wheeled
+to the high cross before the mayor, and so to every street, and
+so every street had a pageant playing before them at one time
+till all the pageants appointed for the day were played; and
+when one pageant was near ended, word was brought from
+street to street, that so they might come in place thereof, exceedingly
+orderly, and all the streets have their pageants afore
+them all at one time playing together; to see which plays was
+great resort, and also scaffolds and stages made in the streets in
+those places where they determined to play their pageants.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Each play, then, was performed by the representative of
+a particular trade or company, after whom it was called the
+fishers&rsquo;, glovers&rsquo;, &amp;c., <i>pageant</i>; while a general prologue was
+spoken by a herald. As a rule the movable stage sufficed for the
+action, though we find horsemen riding up to the scaffold, and
+Herod instructed to &ldquo;rage in the pagond and in the strete also.&rdquo;
+There is no probability that the stage was, as in France, divided
+into three platforms with a dark cavern at the side of the lowest,
+appropriated respectively to the Heavenly Father and his
+angels, to saints and glorified men, to mere men, and to souls in
+hell. But the last-named locality was frequently displayed
+in the English miracles, with or without fire in its mouth. The
+costumes were in part conventional,&mdash;divine and saintly personages
+being distinguished by gilt hair and beards, Herod being
+clad as a Saracen, the demons wearing hideous heads, the souls
+black and white coats according to their kind, and the angels gold
+skins and wings.</p>
+
+<p>Doubtless these performances abounded in what seem to us
+ludicrous features; and, though their main purpose was serious,
+they were not in England at least intended to be
+devoid of fun. But many of the features in question
+<span class="sidenote">Character of the Plays.</span>
+are in truth only homely and <i>naïf</i>, and the simplicity
+of feeling which they exhibit is at times pathetic
+rather than laughable. The occasional grossness is due to
+an absence of refinement of taste rather than to an obliquity
+of moral sentiment. These features the four series have more or
+less in common, still there are certain obvious distinctions
+between them. The <i>York</i> plays (48), which were performed
+at Corpus Christi, are comparatively free from the tendency to
+jocularity and vulgarity observable in the <i>Towneley</i>; several
+of the plays concerned with the New Testament and early
+Christian story are, however, in substance common to both
+series. The <i>Towneley Plays</i> or <i>Wakefield Mysteries</i> (32) were
+undoubtedly composed by the friars of Widkirk or Nostel; but
+they are of a popular character; and, while somewhat over-free
+in tone, are superior in vivacity and humour to both the later
+collections. The <i>Chester Plays</i> (25) were undoubtedly indebted
+both to the <i>Mystère du vieil testament</i> and to earlier French
+mysteries; they are less popular in character than the earlier
+two cycles, and on the whole undistinguished by original power
+of pathos or humour. There is, on the other hand, a notable
+inner completeness in this series, which includes a play of
+<i>Antichrist</i>, devoid of course of any modern application. While
+these plays were performed at Whitsuntide, the <i>Coventry Plays</i>
+(42) were Corpus Christi performances. Though there is no proof
+that the extant series were composed by the Grey Friars, they
+reveal a considerable knowledge of ecclesiastical literature.
+For the rest, they are far more effectively written than the
+<i>Chester Plays</i>, and occasionally rise to real dramatic force.
+In the <i>Coventry</i> series there is already to be observed an element
+of abstract figures, which connects them with a different species
+of the medieval drama.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>moralities</i> corresponded to the love for allegory which
+manifests itself in so many periods of English literature,
+and which, while dominating the whole field of medieval
+literature, was nowhere more assiduously and effectively
+<span class="sidenote">Moralities.</span>
+cultivated than in England. It is necessary to bear this in
+mind, in order to understand what to us seems so strange, the
+popularity of the moral-plays, which indeed never equalled
+that of the miracles, but sufficed to maintain the former species
+till it received a fresh impulse from the connexion established
+between it and the &ldquo;new learning,&rdquo; together with the new
+political and religious ideas and questions, of the Reformation
+age. Moreover, a specially popular element was supplied to
+these plays, which in manner of representation differed in no
+essential point from the miracles, in a character borrowed from
+the latter, and, in the moralities, usually provided with a companion
+<span class="sidenote">The Devil and the Vice.</span>
+whose task it was to lighten the weight of such abstractions
+as Sapience and Justice. These were the Devil
+and his attendant the <i>Vice</i>, of whom the latter seems to
+have been of native origin, and, as he was usually dressed
+in a fool&rsquo;s habit, was probably suggested by the familiar
+custom of keeping an attendant fool at court or in great houses.
+The Vice had many <i>aliases</i> (<i>Shift</i>, <i>Ambidexter</i>, <i>Sin</i>, <i>Fraud</i>,
+<i>Iniquity</i>, &amp;c.), but his usual duty is to torment and tease the
+Devil his master for the edification and diversion of the audience.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page502" id="page502"></a>502</span>
+He was gradually blended with the domestic fool, who survived
+in the regular drama. There are other concrete elements in the
+moralities; for typical figures are often fitted with concrete
+names, and thus all but converted into concrete human
+personages.</p>
+
+<p>The earlier English moralities<a name="fa4a" id="fa4a" href="#ft4a"><span class="sp">4</span></a>&mdash;from the reign of Henry VI.
+to that of Henry VII.&mdash;usually allegorize the conflict between
+good and evil in the mind and life of man, without any
+side-intention of theological controversy. Such also
+<span class="sidenote">Groups of English moralities.</span>
+is still essentially the purpose of the extant morality
+by Henry VIII.&rsquo;s poet, the witty Skelton.<a name="fa5a" id="fa5a" href="#ft5a"><span class="sp">5</span></a> <i>Everyman</i>
+(pr. c. 1529), perhaps the most perfect example of its class, with
+which the present generation has fortunately become familiar,
+contains passages certainly designed to enforce the specific
+teaching of Rome. But its Dutch original was written at least a
+generation earlier, and could have no controversial intention.
+On the other hand, R. Wever&rsquo;s <i>Lusty Juventus</i> breathes the
+spirit of the dogmatic reformation of the reign of Edward VI.
+Theological controversy largely occupies the moralities of the
+earlier part of Elizabeth&rsquo;s reign,<a name="fa6a" id="fa6a" href="#ft6a"><span class="sp">6</span></a> and connects itself with political
+feeling in a famous morality, Sir David Lyndsay&rsquo;s <i>Satire of the
+Three Estaitis</i>, written and acted (at Cupar, in 1539) on the other
+side of the border, where such efforts as the religious drama
+proper had made had been extinguished by the Reformation.
+Only a single English political morality proper remains to us,
+which belongs to the beginning of the reign of Elizabeth.<a name="fa7a" id="fa7a" href="#ft7a"><span class="sp">7</span></a>
+Another series connects itself with the ideas of the Renaissance
+rather than the Reformation, treating of intellectual progress
+rather than of moral conduct;<a name="fa8a" id="fa8a" href="#ft8a"><span class="sp">8</span></a> this extends from the reign
+of Henry VIII. to that of his younger daughter. Besides these,
+there remain some Elizabethan moralities which have no special
+theological or scientific purpose, and which are none the less
+lively in consequence.<a name="fa9a" id="fa9a" href="#ft9a"><span class="sp">9</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The transition from the morality to the regular drama in
+England was effected, on the one hand, by the intermixture of
+historical personages with abstractions&mdash;as in Bishop
+Bale&rsquo;s <i>Kyng Johan</i> (c. 1548)&mdash;which easily led over to
+<span class="sidenote">Heywood&rsquo;s interludes.</span>
+the <i>chronicle history</i>; on the other, by the introduction
+of types of real life by the side of abstract figures.
+This latter tendency, of which instances occur in earlier
+plays, is observable in several of the 16th-century
+moralities;<a name="fa10a" id="fa10a" href="#ft10a"><span class="sp">10</span></a> but before most of these were written, a further
+step in advance had been taken by a man of genius, John
+<span class="sidenote">Transition from the morality to the regular drama.</span>
+Heywood (b. c. 1500, d. between 1577 and 1587),
+whose &ldquo;interludes&rdquo;<a name="fa11a" id="fa11a" href="#ft11a"><span class="sp">11</span></a> were short farces in the French
+manner. The term &ldquo;interludes&rdquo; was by no means
+new, but had been applied by friend and foe to religious plays,
+and plays (including moralities) in general, already in the 14th
+century. But it conveniently serves to designate a species
+which marks a distinct stage in the history of the modern drama.
+Heywood&rsquo;s interludes dealt entirely with real&mdash;very real&mdash;men
+and women. Orthodox and conservative, he had at the same
+time a keen eye for the vices as well as the follies of his age,
+and not the least for those of the clerical profession. Other
+writers, such as T. Ingeland,<a name="fa12a" id="fa12a" href="#ft12a"><span class="sp">12</span></a> took the same direction; and the
+allegory of abstractions was thus undermined on the stage,
+very much as in didactic literature the ground had been cut
+from under its feet by the <i>Ship of Fooles</i>. Thus the interludes
+facilitated the advent of comedy, without having superseded the
+earlier form. Both moralities and miracle-plays survived into
+the Elizabethan age after the regular drama had already begun
+its course.</p>
+
+<p>Such, in barest outline, was the progress of dramatic entertainments
+in the principal countries of Europe, before the revival of
+classical studies brought about a return to the examples
+of the classical drama, or before this return had
+<span class="sidenote">Pageants.</span>
+distinctly asserted itself. It must not, however, be forgotten
+that from an early period in England as elsewhere had flourished
+a species of entertainments, not properly speaking dramatic,
+but largely contributing to form and foster a taste for dramatic
+spectacles. The <i>pageants</i>&mdash;as they were called in England&mdash;were
+the successors of those <i>ridings</i> from which, when they
+gladdened &ldquo;Chepe,&rdquo; Chaucer&rsquo;s idle apprentice would not keep
+away; but they had advanced in splendour and ingenuity of
+device under the influence of Flemish and other foreign examples.
+Costumed figures represented before gaping citizens the heroes
+of mythology and history, and the abstractions of moral,
+patriotic, or municipal allegory; and the city of London clung
+with special fervour to these exhibitions, which the Elizabethan
+drama was neither able nor&mdash;as represented by most of its poets
+who composed devices and short texts for these and similar shows&mdash;willing
+to oust from popular favour. Some of the greatest and
+some of the least of English dramatists were the ministers of
+pageantry; and perhaps it would have been an advantage for
+the future of the theatre if the legitimate drama and the <i>Triumphs
+of Old Drapery</i> had been more jealously kept apart. With the
+reign of Henry VIII. there also set in a varied succession of
+entertainments at court and in the houses of the great nobles,
+which may be said to have lasted through the Tudor and early
+Stuart periods; but it would be an endless task to attempt to
+discriminate the dramatic elements contained in these productions.
+The &ldquo;mask,&rdquo; stated to have been introduced from Italy
+into England as a new diversion in 1512-1513, at first merely
+added a fresh element of &ldquo;disguising&rdquo; to those already in use;
+as a quasi-dramatic species (&ldquo;mask&rdquo; or &ldquo;masque&rdquo;) capable of
+a great literary development it hardly asserted itself till quite
+the end of the 16th century.</p>
+
+<p class="center pt2 sc">11. The Modern National Drama</p>
+
+<p>The literary influence which finally transformed the growths
+noticed above into the national dramas of the several countries
+of Europe, was that of the Renaissance. Among the
+remains of classical antiquity which were studied,
+<span class="sidenote">Influence of the Renaissance.</span>
+translated and imitated, those of the drama necessarily
+held a prominent place. Never altogether lost sight of,
+they now became subjects of devoted research and models for
+more or less exact imitation, first in Greek or Latin, then in
+modern tongues; and these essentially literary endeavours
+came into more or less direct contact with, and acquired more or
+less control over, dramatic performances and entertainments
+already in existence. This process it will be most convenient
+to pursue <i>seriatim</i>, in connexion with the rise and progress of the
+several dramatic literatures of the West. For no sooner had the
+stream of the modern drama, whose source and contributories
+have been described, been brought back into the ancient bed,
+than its flow diverged into a number of national currents, unequal
+in impetus and strength, and varying in accordance with their
+manifold surroundings. And even of these it is only possible to
+survey the most productive or important.</p>
+
+<p class="center pt2">(a) <i>Italy.</i></p>
+
+<p>The priority in this as in most of the other aspects of the
+Renaissance belongs to Italy. In ultimate achievement the
+Italian drama fell short of the fulness of the results
+obtained elsewhere&mdash;a surprising fact when it is
+<span class="sidenote">The modern Italian drama.</span>
+considered, not only that the Italian language had the
+vantage-ground of closest relationship to the Latin,
+but that the genius of the Italian people has at all times led it
+to love the drama. The cause is doubtless to be sought in the
+lack, noticeable in Italian national life during a long period, and
+more especially during the troubled days of division and strife
+coinciding with the rise and earlier promise of Italian dramatic
+literature, of those loftiest and most potent impulses of popular
+feeling to which a national drama owes so much of its strength.
+This deficiency was due partly to the peculiarities of the Italian
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page503" id="page503"></a>503</span>
+character, partly to the political and ecclesiastical experiences
+which Italy was fated to undergo. The Italians were alike
+strangers to the enthusiasm of patriotism, which was as the breath
+in the nostrils of the English Elizabethan age, and to the religious
+devotion which identified Spain with the spirit of the Catholic
+revival. The clear-sightedness of the Italians had something
+to do with this, for they were too intelligent to believe in their
+tyrants, and too free from illusions to deliver up their minds to
+their priests. Finally, the chilling and enervating effects of a
+pressure of foreign domination, such as no Western people with
+a history and a civilization like those of Italy has ever experienced,
+contributed to paralyse for many generations the higher efforts
+of the dramatic art. No basis was permanently found for a
+really national tragedy; while literary comedy, after turning
+from the direct imitation of Latin models to a more popular form,
+lost itself in an abandoned immorality of tone and in reckless
+insolence of invective against particular classes of society.
+Though its productivity long continued, the poetic drama more
+and more concentrated its efforts upon subordinate or subsidiary
+species, artificial in origin and decorative in purpose, and surrendered
+its substance to the overpowering aids of music, dancing
+and spectacle. Only a single form of the Italian drama, improvised
+comedy, remained truly national; and this was of its
+nature dissociated from higher literary effort. The revival of
+Italian tragedy in later times is due partly to the imitation of
+French models, partly to the endeavour of a brilliant genius to
+infuse into his art the historical and political spirit. Comedy
+likewise attained to new growths of considerable significance,
+when it was sought to accommodate its popular forms to the
+representation of real life in a wider range, and again to render
+it more poetical in accordance with the tendencies of modern
+romanticism.</p>
+
+<p>The regular Italian drama, in both its tragic and its comic
+branches, began with a reproduction, in the Latin language, of
+classical models&mdash;the first step, as it was to prove, towards the
+transformation of the medieval into the modern drama, and
+the birth of modern dramatic literature. But the process was
+both tentative and tedious, and must have died away but for the
+pomp and circumstance with which some of the patrons of the
+Renaissance at Florence, Rome and elsewhere surrounded these
+manifestations of a fashionable taste, and for the patriotic
+inspiration which from the first induced Italian writers to
+dramatize themes of national historic interest. Greek tragedy
+had been long forgotten, and one or two indications in the earlier
+part of the 16th century of Italian interest in the Greek drama,
+chiefly due to the printing presses, may be passed by.<a name="fa13a" id="fa13a" href="#ft13a"><span class="sp">13</span></a> To the
+later middle ages classical tragedy meant Seneca, and even his
+plays remained unremembered till the study of them was revived
+by the Paduan judge Lovato de&rsquo; Lovati (Lupatus, d. 1309).
+Of the comedies of Plautus three-fifths were not rediscovered
+till 1429; and though Terence was much read in the schools,
+he found no dramatic imitators, <i>pour le bon motif</i> or otherwise,
+since Hrosvitha.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the first medieval follower of Seneca, Albertino Mussato
+(1261-1330) may in a sense be called the father of modern
+dramatic literature. Born at Padua, to which city all his services
+were given, he in 1315 brought out his <i>Eccerinis</i>, a Latin tragedy
+very near to the confines of epic poetry, intended to warn the
+Paduans against the designs of Can Grande della Scala by the
+example of the tyrant Ezzelino. Other tragedies of much the
+same type followed during the ensuing century; such as L. da
+Fabiano&rsquo;s <i>De casu Caesenae</i> (1377) a sort of chronicle history in
+Latin prose on Cardinal Albornoz&rsquo; capture of Caesena.<a name="fa14a" id="fa14a" href="#ft14a"><span class="sp">14</span></a> Purely
+classical themes were treated in the <i>Achilleis</i> of A. de&rsquo; Loschi
+of Vicenza (d. 1441), formerly attributed to Mussato, several
+passages of which are taken verbally from Seneca; in the
+celebrated <i>Progne</i> of the Venetian Gregorio Cornaro, which is
+dated 1428-1429, and in later Latin productions included among
+the translations and imitations of Greek and Latin tragedies
+and comedies by Bishop Martirano (d. 1557), the friend of Pope
+Leo X.,<a name="fa15a" id="fa15a" href="#ft15a"><span class="sp">15</span></a> and the efforts of Pomponius Laetus and his followers,
+who, with the aid of Cardinal Raffaele Riario (1451-1521), sought
+to revive the ancient theatre, with all its classical associations,
+at Rome.</p>
+
+<p>In this general movement Latin comedy had quickly followed
+suit, and, as just indicated, it is almost impossible, when we
+reach the height of the Italian Renaissance under the Medici at
+Florence and at Rome in particular, to review the progress of
+either species apart from that of the other. If we possessed the
+lost <i>Philologia</i> of Petrarch, of which, as of a juvenile work, he
+declared himself ashamed, this would be the earliest of extant
+humanistic comedies. As it is, this position is held by <i>Paulus</i>,
+a Latin comedy of life on the classic model, by the orthodox
+P. P. Vergerio (1370-1444); which was followed by many others.<a name="fa16a" id="fa16a" href="#ft16a"><span class="sp">16</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Early in the 16th century, tragedy began to be written in the
+native tongue; but it retained from the first, and never wholly
+lost, the impress of its origin. Whatever the source
+of its subjects&mdash;which, though mostly of classical
+<span class="sidenote">Italian tragedy in the 16th century.</span>
+origin, were occasionally derived from native romance,
+or even due to invention&mdash;they were all treated with
+a predilection for the horrible, inspired by the example of
+Seneca, though no doubt encouraged by a perennial national
+taste. The chorus, stationary on the stage as in old Roman
+tragedy, was not reduced to a merely occasional appearance
+between the acts till the beginning of the 17th century, or ousted
+altogether from the tragic drama till the earlier half of the 18th.
+Thus the changes undergone by Italian tragedy were for a long
+series of generations chiefly confined to the form of versification
+and the choice of themes; nor was it, at all events till the last
+century of the course which it has hitherto run, more than the
+aftergrowth of an aftergrowth. The honour of having been the
+earliest tragedy in Italian seems to belong to A. da Pistoia&rsquo;s
+<i>Pamfila</i> (1499), of which the subject was taken from Boccaccio,
+introduced by the ghost of Seneca, and marred in the taking.
+Carretto&rsquo;s <i>Sofonisba</i>, which hardly rises above the art of a
+chronicle history, though provided with a chorus, followed in
+1502. But the play usually associated with the beginning of
+Italian tragedy&mdash;that with which &ldquo;th&rsquo; Italian scene first learned
+to glow&rdquo;&mdash;was another <i>Sofonisba</i>, acted before Leo X. in 1515,
+and written in blank hendecasyllables instead of the <i>ottava</i> and
+<i>terza rima</i> of the earlier tragedians (retaining, however, the lyric
+measures of the chorus), by G. G. Trissino, who was employed
+as nuncio by that pope. Other tragedies of the former half of
+the 16th century, largely inspired by Trissino&rsquo;s example, were
+the <i>Rosmunda</i> of Rucellai, a nephew of Lorenzo the Magnificent
+(1516); Martelli&rsquo;s <i>Tullia</i>, Alamanni&rsquo;s <i>Antigone</i> (1532); the
+<i>Canace</i> of Sperone Speroni, the envious <i>Mopsus</i> of Tasso, who,
+like Guarini, took Sperone&rsquo;s elaborate style for his model; the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page504" id="page504"></a>504</span>
+<i>Orazia</i>, the earliest dramatic treatment of this famous subject by
+the notorious Aretino (1549); and the nine tragedies of G. B.
+Giraldi (Cinthio) of Ferrara, among which <i>L&rsquo;Orbecche</i> (1541)
+is accounted the best and the bloodiest. Cinthio, the author of
+those <i>Hecatommithi</i> to which Shakespeare was indebted for so
+many of his subjects, was (supposing him to have invented these)
+the first Italian who was the author of the fables of his own
+dramas; he introduced some novelties into dramatic construction,
+separating the prologue and probably also the epilogue
+from the action, and has by some been regarded as the inventor
+of the pastoral drama. But his style was arid. In the latter half
+of the 16th century may be mentioned the <i>Didone</i> and the
+<i>Marianna</i> of L. Dolce, the translator of Euripides and Seneca
+(1565); A. Leonico&rsquo;s <i>Il Soldato</i> (1550); the <i>Adriana</i> (acted
+before 1561 or 1586) of L. Groto, which treats the story of <i>Romeo
+and Juliet</i>; Tasso&rsquo;s <i>Torrismondo</i> (1587); the <i>Tancredi</i> of Asinari
+(1588); and the <i>Merope</i> of Torelli (1593), the last who employed
+the stationary chorus (<i>coro fisso</i>) on the Italian stage. Leonico&rsquo;s
+<i>Soldato</i> is noticeable as supposed to have given rise to the
+<i>tragedia cittadina</i>, or domestic tragedy, of which there are few
+examples in the Italian drama, and De Velo&rsquo;s <i>Tamar</i> (1586)
+as written in prose. Subjects of modern historical interest were
+in this period treated only in isolated instances.<a name="fa17a" id="fa17a" href="#ft17a"><span class="sp">17</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The tragedians of the 17th century continued to pursue the
+beaten track, marked out already in the 16th by rigid prescription.
+In course of time, however, they sought by the
+introduction of musical airs to compromise with the
+<span class="sidenote">Italian tragedy in the 17th and 18th centuries.</span>
+danger with which their art was threatened of being
+(in Voltaire&rsquo;s phrase) extinguished by the beautiful
+monster, the opera, now rapidly gaining ground in the
+country of its origin. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Opera</a></span>.) To Count P. Bonarelli
+(1589-1659), the author of <i>Solimano</i>, is on the other hand
+ascribed the first disuse of the chorus in Italian tragedy. The
+innovation of the use of rhyme attempted in the learned Pallavicino&rsquo;s
+<i>Erminigildo</i> (1655), and defended by him in a discourse
+prefixed to the play, was unable to achieve a permanent success
+in Italy any more than in England; its chief representative
+was afterwards Martelli (d. 1727), whose rhymed Alexandrian
+verse (<i>Martelliano</i>), though on one occasion used in comedy by
+Goldoni, failed to commend itself to the popular taste. By the
+end of the 17th century Italian tragedy seemed destined to expire,
+and the great tragic actor Cotta had withdrawn in disgust at the
+apathy of the public towards the higher forms of the drama.
+The 18th century was, however, to witness a change, the beginnings
+of which are attributed to the institution of the Academy
+of the Arcadians at Rome (1690). The principal efforts of the
+new school of writers and critics were directed to the abolition
+of the chorus, and to a general increase of freedom in treatment.
+<span class="sidenote">Maffei.</span>
+Before long the marquis S. Maffei with his <i>Merope</i>
+(first printed 1713) achieved one of the most brilliant
+successes recorded in the history of dramatic literature. This
+play, which is devoid of any love-story, long continued to be
+considered the masterpiece of Italian tragedy; Voltaire, who
+declared it &ldquo;worthy of the most glorious days of Athens,&rdquo;
+adapted it for the French stage, and it inspired a celebrated
+production of the English drama.<a name="fa18a" id="fa18a" href="#ft18a"><span class="sp">18</span></a> It was followed by a tragedy
+full of horrors,<a name="fa19a" id="fa19a" href="#ft19a"><span class="sp">19</span></a> noticeable as having given rise to the first Italian
+dramatic <i>parody</i>; and by the highly esteemed productions of
+<span class="sidenote">Metastasio.</span>
+Granelli (d. 1769) and his contemporary Bettinelli. P. T.
+Metastasio (1698-1782), who had early begun his career
+as a dramatist by a strict adherence to the precepts of
+Aristotle, gained celebrity by his contributions to the operatic
+drama at Naples, Venice and Vienna (where he held office as
+<i>poeta cesareo</i>, whose function was to arrange the court entertainments).
+But his <i>libretti</i> have a poetic value of their own;<a name="fa20a" id="fa20a" href="#ft20a"><span class="sp">20</span></a> and
+Voltaire pronounced much of him worthy of Corneille and of
+Racine, when at their best. The influence of Voltaire had now
+come to predominate over the Italian drama; and, in accordance
+with the spirit of the times, greater freedom prevailed in the choice
+of tragic themes. Thus the greatest of Italian tragic poets.
+<span class="sidenote">Alfieri.</span>
+Count V. Alfieri (1749-1803), found his path prepared
+for him. Alfieri&rsquo;s grand and impassioned treatment of
+his subjects caused his faultiness of form, which he never
+altogether overcame, to be forgotten. His themes were partly
+classical;<a name="fa21a" id="fa21a" href="#ft21a"><span class="sp">21</span></a> but the spirit of a love of freedom which his creations<a name="fa22a" id="fa22a" href="#ft22a"><span class="sp">22</span></a>
+breathe was the herald of the national ideas of the future.
+Spurning the usages of French tragedy, his plays, which abound
+in soliloquies, owe part of their effect to an impassioned force of
+declamation, part to those &ldquo;points&rdquo; by which Italian acting
+seems pre-eminently capable of thrilling an audience. He has
+much besides the subjects of two of his dramas<a name="fa23a" id="fa23a" href="#ft23a"><span class="sp">23</span></a> in common with
+Schiller, but his amazon-muse (as Schlegel called her) was not
+schooled into serenity, like the muse of the German poet. Among
+his numerous plays (21), <i>Merope</i> and <i>Saul</i>, and perhaps <i>Mirra</i>,
+are accounted his masterpieces.</p>
+
+<p>The political colouring given by Alfieri to Italian tragedy
+reappears in the plays of U. Foscolo and A. Manzoni, both of
+whom are under the influence of the romantic school
+of modern literature; and to these names must be
+<span class="sidenote">Tragedians since Alfieri.</span>
+added those of S. Pellico and G. B. Niccolini (1785-1861),
+Paolo Giacometti (b. 1816) and others, whose
+dramas<a name="fa24a" id="fa24a" href="#ft24a"><span class="sp">24</span></a> treat largely national themes familiar to all students
+of modern history and literature. In their hands Italian tragedy
+upon the whole adhered to its love of strong situations and
+passionate declamation. Since the successful efforts of G.
+Modena (1804-1861) renovated the tragic stage in Italy, the
+art of tragic acting long stood at a higher level in this than
+in almost any other European country; in Adelaide Ristori
+(Marchesa del Grillo) the tragic stage lost one of the greatest
+of modern actresses; and Ernesto Rossi (1827-1896) and
+Tommaso Salvini long remained rivals in the noblest forms of
+tragedy.</p>
+
+<p>In comedy, the efforts of the scholars of the Italian Renaissance
+for a time went side by side with the progress of the popular
+entertainments noticed above. While the <i>contrasti</i> of
+the close of the 15th and of the 16th century were
+<span class="sidenote">Italian comedy; popular forms.</span>
+disputations between pairs of abstract or allegorical
+figures, in the <i>frottola</i> human types take the place of
+abstractions, and more than two characters appear. The <i>farsa</i>
+(a name used of a wide variety of entertainments) was still under
+medieval influences, and in this popular form Alione of Asti
+(soon after 1500) was specially productive. To these popular
+diversions a new literary as well as social significance was given by
+the Neapolitan court-poet Sannazaro (c. 1492); about the same
+time a <i>capitano valoroso</i>, Venturino of Pesara, first brought on
+the modern stage the <i>capitano glorioso</i> or <i>spavente</i>, the military
+braggart, who owed his origin both to Plautus<a name="fa25a" id="fa25a" href="#ft25a"><span class="sp">25</span></a> and to the
+Spanish officers who abounded in the Italy of those days. The
+popular character-comedy, a relic of the ancient <i>Atellanae</i>,
+likewise took a new lease of life&mdash;and this in a double form.
+The <i>improvised</i> comedy (<i>commedia a soggetto</i>) was now as a rule
+performed by professional actors, members of a <i>craft</i>, and was
+<span class="sidenote">Commedia dell&rsquo; arte.</span>
+thence called the <i>commedia dell&rsquo; arte</i>, which is said to
+have been invented by Francesco (called Terenziano)
+Cherea, the favourite player of Leo X. Its scenes, still
+unwritten except in skeleton (<i>scenario</i>), were connected together
+by the ligatures or links (<i>lazzi</i>) of the <i>arlecchino</i>, the descendant
+of the ancient Roman <i>sannio</i> (whence our <i>zany</i>). Harlequin&rsquo;s
+summit of glory was probably reached early in the 17th century,
+when he was ennobled in the person of Cecchino by the emperor
+Matthias; of Cecchino&rsquo;s successors, Zaccagnino and Truffaldino,
+<span class="sidenote">Masked comedy.</span>
+we read that &ldquo;they shut the door in Italy to good harlequins.&rdquo;
+Distinct from this growth is that of the <i>masked</i>
+comedy, the action of which was chiefly carried on by certain
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page505" id="page505"></a>505</span>
+typical figures in masks, speaking in local dialects,<a name="fa26a" id="fa26a" href="#ft26a"><span class="sp">26</span></a> but which
+was not improvised, and indeed from the nature of the case
+hardly could have been. Its inventor was A. Beolco of Padua,
+who called himself Ruzzante (joker), and is memorable under
+that name as the first actor-playwright&mdash;a combination of
+extreme significance for the history of the modern stage. He
+published six comedies in various dialects, including the Greek of
+the day (1530). This was the masked comedy to which the
+Italians so tenaciously clung, and in which, as all their own and
+imitable by no other nation, they took so great a pride that
+even Goldoni was unable to overthrow it. Improvisation and
+burlesque, alike abominable to comedy proper, were inseparable
+from the species.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, the Latin imitations of Roman, varied by occasional
+translations of Greek, comedies early led to the production
+of Italian translations, several of which were performed
+at Ferrara in the last quarter of the 15th century,
+<span class="sidenote">Early Italian regular comedy.</span>
+whence they spread to Milan, Pavia and other towns
+of the north. Contemporaneously, imitations of Latin
+comedy made their appearance, for the most part in rhymed
+verse; most of them applying classical treatment to subjects
+derived from Boccaccio&rsquo;s and other <i>novelle</i>, some still mere
+adaptations of ancient models. In these circumstances it is all
+but idle to assign the honour of having been &ldquo;the first Italian
+comedy&rdquo;&mdash;and thus the first comedy in modern dramatic
+literature&mdash;to any particular play. Boiardo&rsquo;s <i>Timone</i> (before
+1494), for which this distinction was frequently claimed, is to a
+large extent founded on a dialogue of Lucian&rsquo;s; and, since some
+of its personages are abstractions, and Olympus is domesticated
+on an upper stage, it cannot be regarded as more than a transition
+from the moralities. A. Ricci&rsquo;s <i>I Tre Tiranni</i> (before 1530)
+seems still to belong to the same transitional species. Among
+the earlier imitators of Latin comedy in the vernacular may be
+noted G. Visconti, one of the poets patronized by Ludovico il
+Moro at Milan;<a name="fa27a" id="fa27a" href="#ft27a"><span class="sp">27</span></a> the Florentines G. B. Araldo, J. Nardi, the
+historian,<a name="fa28a" id="fa28a" href="#ft28a"><span class="sp">28</span></a> and D. Gianotti.<a name="fa29a" id="fa29a" href="#ft29a"><span class="sp">29</span></a> The step&mdash;very important had it
+been adopted consistently or with a view to consistency&mdash;of
+substituting prose for verse as the diction of comedy, is sometimes
+attributed to Ariosto; but, though his first two comedies
+were originally written in prose, the experiment was not
+new, nor did he persist in its adoption. Caretto&rsquo;s <i>I Sei Contenti</i>
+dates from the end of the 15th century, and Publio Filippo&rsquo;s
+<i>Formicone</i>, taken from Apuleius, followed quite early in the 16th.
+Machiavelli, as will be seen, wrote comedies both in prose and
+in verse.</p>
+
+<p>But, whoever wrote the first Italian comedy, Ludovico
+Ariosto was the first master of the species. All but the first two
+of his comedies, belonging as they do to the field of <i>commedia
+erudita</i>, or scholarly comedy, are in blank verse, to which he gave
+a singular mobility by the dactylic ending of the line (<i>sdrucciolo</i>).
+Ariosto&rsquo;s models were the masterpieces of the <i>palliata</i>, and his
+morals those of his age, which emulated those of the worst days
+of ancient Rome or Byzantium in looseness, and surpassed them
+in effrontery. He chose his subjects accordingly; but his
+dramatic genius displayed itself in the effective drawing of
+character,<a name="fa30a" id="fa30a" href="#ft30a"><span class="sp">30</span></a> and more especially in the skilful management of
+complicated intrigues.<a name="fa31a" id="fa31a" href="#ft31a"><span class="sp">31</span></a> Such, with an additional brilliancy of
+wit and lasciviousness of tone, are likewise the characteristics
+of Machiavelli&rsquo;s famous prose comedy, the <i>Mandragola</i> (<i>The
+Magic Draught</i>);<a name="fa32a" id="fa32a" href="#ft32a"><span class="sp">32</span></a> and at the height of their success, of the plays
+of P. Aretino,<a name="fa33a" id="fa33a" href="#ft33a"><span class="sp">33</span></a> especially the prose <i>Marescalco</i> (1526-1527)
+whose name, it has been said, ought to be written in asterisks.
+It may be added that the plays of Ariosto and his followers were
+represented with magnificent scenery and settings. Other
+dramatists of the 16th century were B. Accolti, whose <i>Virginia</i>
+(prob. before 1513) treats the story from Boccaccio which
+reappears in <i>All&rsquo;s Well that Ends Well</i>; G. Cecchi, F. d&rsquo;Ambra,
+A. F. Grazzini, N. Secco or Secchi and L. Dolce&mdash;all writers of
+romantic comedy of intrigue in verse or prose.</p>
+
+<p>During the same century the &ldquo;pastoral drama&rdquo; flourished
+in Italy. The origin of this peculiar species&mdash;which was the
+bucolic idyll in a dramatic form, and which freely
+lent itself to the introduction of both mythological
+<span class="sidenote">The pastoral drama.</span>
+and allegorical elements&mdash;was purely literary, and
+arose directly out of the classical studies and tastes
+of the Renaissance. It was very far removed from the genuine
+peasant plays which flourished in Venetia and Tuscany early
+in the 16th century. The earliest example of the artificial, but
+in some of its productions exquisite, growth in question was the
+renowned scholar A. Politian&rsquo;s <i>Orfeo</i> (1472), which begins like
+an idyll and ends like a tragedy. Intended to be performed with
+music&mdash;for the pastoral drama is the parent of the opera&mdash;this
+beautiful work tells its story simply. N. da Correggio&rsquo;s (1450-1508)
+<i>Cefalo</i>, or <i>Aurora</i>, and others followed, before in 1554 A.
+Beccari produced, as totally new of its kind, his Arcadian pastoral
+drama <i>Il Sagrifizio</i>, in which the comic element predominates.
+But an epoch in the history of the species is marked by the
+<i>Aminta</i> of Tasso (1573), in whose Arcadia is allegorically mirrored
+the Ferrara court. Adorned by choral lyrics of great beauty, it
+presents an allegorical treatment of a social and moral problem;
+and since the conception of the characters, all of whom think
+and speak of nothing but love, is artificial, the charm of the poem
+lies not in the interest of its action, but in the passion and
+sweetness of its sentiment. This work was the model of many
+others, and the pastoral drama reached its height of popularity
+in the famous <i>Pastor fido</i> (written before 1590) of G. B. Guarini,
+which, while founded on a tragic love-story, introduces into its
+complicated plot a comic element, partly with a satirical intention.
+It is one of those exceptional works which, by circumstance
+as well as by merit, have become the property of the world&rsquo;s
+literature at large. Thus, both in Italian and in other literatures,
+the pastoral drama became a distinct species, characterized, like
+the great body of modern pastoral poetry in general, by a tendency
+either towards the artificial or towards the burlesque. Its
+artificiality affected the entire growth of Italian comedy, including
+the <i>commedia dell&rsquo; arte</i>, and impressed itself in an intensified
+form upon the opera. The foremost Italian masters of the last-named
+species, so far as it can claim to be included in the poetic
+drama, were A. Zeno (1668-1750) and P. Metastasio.</p>
+
+<p>The comic dramatists of the 17th century are grouped as
+followers of the classical and of the romantic school, G. B. della
+Porta (<i>q.v.</i>) and G. A. Cicognini (whom Goldoni
+describes as full of whining pathos and commonplace
+<span class="sidenote">Comedy in the 17th and 18th centuries.</span>
+drollery, but as still possessing a great power to
+interest) being regarded as the leading representatives
+of the former. But neither of these largely intermixed groups
+of writers could, with all its fertility, prevail against the competition,
+on the one hand of the musical drama, and on the other
+of the popular farcical entertainments and those introduced in
+imitation of Spanish examples. Italian comedy had fallen into
+decay, when its reform was undertaken by the wonderful
+<span class="sidenote">Goldoni.</span>
+theatrical genius of C. Goldoni. One of the most
+fertile and rapid of playwrights (of his 150 comedies
+16 were written and acted in a single year), he at the same
+time pursued definite aims as a dramatist. Disgusted with
+the conventional buffoonery, and ashamed of the rampant
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page506" id="page506"></a>506</span>
+immorality of the Italian comic stage, he drew his characters
+from real life, whether of his native city (Venice)<a name="fa34a" id="fa34a" href="#ft34a"><span class="sp">34</span></a> or of society
+at large, and sought to enforce virtuous and pathetic sentiments
+without neglecting the essential objects of his art. Happy and
+various in his choice of themes, and dipping deep into a popular
+life with which he had a genuine sympathy, he produced, besides
+comedies of general human character,<a name="fa35a" id="fa35a" href="#ft35a"><span class="sp">35</span></a> plays on subjects drawn
+from literary biography<a name="fa36a" id="fa36a" href="#ft36a"><span class="sp">36</span></a> or from fiction.<a name="fa37a" id="fa37a" href="#ft37a"><span class="sp">37</span></a> Goldoni, whose style
+was considered defective by the purists whom Italy has at no
+time lacked, met with a severe critic and a temporarily successful
+<span class="sidenote">Gozzi.</span>
+rival in Count C. Gozzi (1722-1806), who sought to
+rescue the comic drama from its association with the
+actual life of the middle classes, and to infuse a new spirit into
+the figures of the old masked comedy by the invention of a new
+species. His themes were taken from Neapolitan<a name="fa38a" id="fa38a" href="#ft38a"><span class="sp">38</span></a> and Oriental<a name="fa39a" id="fa39a" href="#ft39a"><span class="sp">39</span></a>
+fairy tales, to which he accommodated some of the standing
+figures upon which Goldoni had made war. This attempt at
+mingling fancy and humour&mdash;occasionally of a directly satirical
+turn<a name="fa40a" id="fa40a" href="#ft40a"><span class="sp">40</span></a>&mdash;was in harmony with the tendencies of the modern
+romantic school; and Gozzi&rsquo;s efforts, which though successful
+found hardly any imitators in Italy, have a family resemblance
+to those of Tieck and of some more recent writers whose art
+wings its flight, through the windows, &ldquo;over the hills and far
+away.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>During the latter part of the 18th and the early years of the
+19th century comedy continued to follow the course marked
+out by its acknowledged master Goldoni, under the
+influence of the sentimental drama of France and other
+<span class="sidenote">Comedians after Goldoni.</span>
+countries. Abati Andrea Villi, the marquis Albergati
+Capacelli, Antonio Simone Sografi (1760-1825),
+Federici, and Pietro Napoli Signorelli (1731-1815), the historian
+of the drama, are mentioned among the writers of this school;
+to the 19th century belong Count Giraud, Marchisio (who took
+his subjects especially from commercial life), and Nota, a fertile
+writer, among whose plays are three treating the lives of poets.
+Of still more recent date are L. B. Bon and A. Brofferio. At
+the same time, the comedy of dialect to which the example of
+Goldoni had given sanction in Venice, flourished there as well as
+in the mutually remote spheres of Piedmont and Naples. Quite
+modern developments must remain unnoticed here; but the
+fact cannot be ignored that they signally illustrate the perennial
+vitality of the modern drama in the home of its beginnings. A
+new realistic style set fully in about the middle of the 18th
+century with P. Ferrari and A. Torelli; and though an historical
+reaction towards classical and medieval themes is associated with
+the names of P. Cossa and G. Giacosa, modernism reasserted
+itself through P. Bracco and other dramatists. It should be noted
+that the influence of great actors, more especially Ermete
+Novelli and Eleanora Duse, must be credited with a large share
+of the success with which the Italian stage has held its own
+even against the foreign influences to which it gave room. And
+it would seem as if even the paradoxical endeavour of the poet
+Gabrielle d&rsquo; Annunzio to lyricize the drama by ignoring action
+as its essence were a problem for the solution of which the stage
+can furnish unexpected conditions of its own. In any event,
+both Italian tragedy and Italian comedy have survived periods
+of a seemingly hopeless decline; and the fear has vanished
+that either the opera or the ballet might succeed in ousting
+from the national stage the legitimate forms of the national
+drama.</p>
+
+<p class="center pt2">(b) <i>Greece.</i></p>
+
+<p>The dramatic literature of the later Hellenes is a creation
+of the literary movement which preceded their noble struggle
+for independence, or which may be said to form part
+of that struggle. After beginning with dramatic
+<span class="sidenote">Modern Greek and Dalmatian drama.</span>
+dialogues of a patriotic tendency, it took a step in
+advance with the tragedies of J. R. Nerulos<a name="fa41a" id="fa41a" href="#ft41a"><span class="sp">41</span></a> (1778-1850),
+whose name belongs to the political as well as to the
+literary history of his country. His comedies&mdash;especially one
+directed against the excesses of journalism<a name="fa42a" id="fa42a" href="#ft42a"><span class="sp">42</span></a>&mdash;largely contributed
+to open a literary life for the modern Greek tongue. Among
+the earlier patriotic Greek dramatists of the 19th century are
+T. Alkaeos, J. Zampelios (whose tragic style was influenced by
+that of Alfieri),<a name="fa43a" id="fa43a" href="#ft43a"><span class="sp">43</span></a> S. K. Karydis and A. Valaoritis. A. Zoiros<a name="fa44a" id="fa44a" href="#ft44a"><span class="sp">44</span></a>
+is noteworthy as having introduced the use of prose into Greek
+tragedy, while preserving to it that association with sentiments
+and aspirations which will probably long continue to pervade
+the chief productions of modern Greek literature. The love of
+the theatre is ineradicable from Attic as it is from Italian soil;
+and the tendencies of the young dramatic literature of Hellas
+which is not wholly absorbed in the effort to keep abreast of
+recent modern developments, seem to justify the hope that a
+worthy future awaits it.</p>
+
+<p>Under Italian influence an interesting dramatic growth
+attained to some vitality in the Dalmatian lands about the
+beginning of the 16th century, where the religious drama, whose
+days were passing away in Italy, found favour with a people
+with a scant popular literature of its own. At Ragusa Italian
+literary influence had been spread by the followers of Petrarch
+from the later years of the 15th century; here several Servo-Croatian
+writers produced religious plays in the manner of the
+Italian <i>rappresentazioni</i>; and a gifted poet, Martin Dr&#382;i&#263;,
+composed, besides religious plays and farces, a species of pastoral
+which enjoyed much favour.</p>
+
+<p class="center pt2">(c) <i>Spain.</i></p>
+
+<p>Spain is the only country of modern Europe which shares with
+England the honour of having achieved, at a relatively early date,
+the creation of a genuinely national form of the regular drama.
+So proper to Spain was the form of the drama which she
+produced and perfected, that to it the term <i>romantic</i> has been
+specifically applied, though so restricted a use of the epithet is
+clearly unjustifiable. The influences which from the Romance
+peoples&mdash;in whom Christian and Germanic elements mingled
+with the legacy of Roman law, learning and culture&mdash;spread to
+the Germanic nations were represented with the most signal
+force and fulness in the institutions of chivalry,&mdash;to which, in the
+words of Scott, &ldquo;it was peculiar to blend military valour with the
+strongest passions which actuate the human mind, the feelings
+of devotion and those of love.&rdquo; These feelings, in their combined
+operation upon the national character, and in their reflection
+in the national literature, were not confined to Spain; but
+nowhere did they so long or so late continue to animate the moral
+life of a nation.</p>
+
+<p>Outward causes contributed to this result. For centuries
+after the crusades had become a mere memory, Spain was a
+battle-ground between the Cross and the Crescent. And it was
+just at the time when the Renaissance was establishing new
+starting-points for the literary progress of Europe, that Christian
+Spain rose to the height of Catholic as well as national self-consciousness
+by the expulsion of the Moors and the conquest
+of the New World. From their rulers or rivals of so many
+centuries the Spaniards derived that rich, if not very varied,
+glow of colour which became permanently distinctive of their
+national life, and more especially of its literary and artistic
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page507" id="page507"></a>507</span>
+expressions; they also perhaps derived from the same source a
+not less characteristically refined treatment of the passion of
+love. The ideas of Spanish chivalry&mdash;more especially religious
+devotion and a punctilious sense of personal honour&mdash;asserted
+themselves (according to a process often observable in the history
+of civilization) with peculiar distinctness in literature and art,
+after the period of great achievements to which they had contributed
+in other fields had come to an end. The ripest glories
+of the Spanish drama belong to an age of national decay&mdash;mindful,
+it is true, of the ideas of a greater past. The chivalrous
+enthusiasm pervading so many of the masterpieces of its literature
+is indeed a distinctive feature of the Spanish nation in all, even
+in the least hopeful, periods of its later history; and the religious
+ardour breathed by these works, though associating itself with
+what is called the Catholic Reaction, is in truth only a manifestation
+of the spirit which informed the noblest part of the Reformation
+movement itself. The Spanish drama neither sought nor
+could seek to emancipate itself from views and forms of religious
+life more than ever sacred to the Spanish people since the glorious
+days of Ferdinand and Isabella; and it is not so much in the
+beginnings as in the great age of Spanish dramatic literature that
+it seems most difficult to distinguish between what is to be
+termed a religious and what a secular play. After Spain had thus,
+the first after England among modern European countries, fully
+unfolded that incomparably richest expression of national life
+and sentiment in an artistic form&mdash;a truly national dramatic
+literature,&mdash;the terrible decay of her greatness and prosperity
+gradually impaired the strength of a brilliant but, of its nature,
+dependent growth. In the absence of high original genius the
+Spanish dramatists began to turn to foreign models, though
+little supported in such attempts by popular sympathy; and it
+is only in more recent times that the Spanish drama has sought
+to reproduce the ancient forms from whose masterpieces the
+nation had never become estranged, while accommodating them
+to tastes and tendencies shared by later Spanish literature with
+that of Europe at large.</p>
+
+<p>The earlier dramatic efforts of Spanish literature may without
+inconvenience be briefly dismissed. The reputed author of the
+<i>Coplas de Mingo Revulgo</i> (R. Cota the elder) likewise
+composed the first act of a story of intrigue and
+<span class="sidenote">Early efforts.</span>
+character, purely dramatic but not intended for representation.
+This tragic comedy of <i>Calisto and Meliboea</i>, which
+was completed (in 21 acts) by 1499, afterwards became famous
+under the name of <i>Celestina</i>; it was frequently imitated and
+translated, and was adapted for the Spanish stage by R. de
+Zepeda in 1582. But the father of the Spanish drama was J. de
+la Enzina, whose <i>representaciones</i> under the name of &ldquo;eclogues&rdquo;
+were dramatic dialogues of a religious or pastoral character.
+His attempts were imitated more especially by the Portuguese
+<span class="sidenote">Gil Vicente.</span>
+Gil Vicente, whose writings for the stage appear to be
+included in the period 1502-1536, and who wrote both
+in Spanish and in his native tongue. A further impulse
+came, as was natural, from Spaniards resident in Italy, and
+especially from B. de Torres Naharro, who in 1517 published, as
+the chief among the &ldquo;firstlings of his genius&rdquo; (<i>Propaladia</i>), a
+series of eight <i>comedias</i>&mdash;a term generally applied in Spanish
+literature to any kind of drama. He claimed some knowledge of
+the theory of the ancient drama, divided his plays into <i>jornadas</i><a name="fa45a" id="fa45a" href="#ft45a"><span class="sp">45</span></a>
+(to correspond to acts), and opened them with an <i>introyto</i>
+(prologue). Very various in their subjects, and occasionally odd
+in form,<a name="fa46a" id="fa46a" href="#ft46a"><span class="sp">46</span></a> they were gross as well as audacious in tone, and were
+soon prohibited by the Inquisition. The church remained unwilling
+to renounce her control over such dramatic exhibitions
+as she permitted, and sought to suppress the few plays on not
+strictly religious subjects which appeared in the early part of
+the reign of Charles I. Though the universities produced both
+translations from the classical drama and modern Latin plays,
+these exercised very little general effect. Juan Perez&rsquo; (Petreius&rsquo;)
+posthumous Latin comedies were mainly versions of Ariosto.<a name="fa47a" id="fa47a" href="#ft47a"><span class="sp">47</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Thus the foundation of the Spanish national theatre was
+reserved for a man of the people. Cervantes has vividly sketched
+the humble resources which were at the command of
+Lope de Rueda, a mechanic of Seville, who with his
+<span class="sidenote">Lope de Rueda and his followers.</span>
+friend the bookseller Timoneda, and two brother
+authors and actors in his strolling company, succeeded
+in bringing dramatic entertainments out of the churches and
+palaces into the public places of the towns, where they were
+produced on temporary scaffolds. The manager carried about
+his properties in a corn-sack; and the &ldquo;comedies&rdquo; were still
+only &ldquo;dialogues, and a species of eclogues between two or three
+shepherds and a shepherdess,&rdquo; enlivened at times by intermezzos
+of favourite comic figures, such as the negress or the Biscayan,
+&ldquo;played with inconceivable talent and truthfulness by Lope.&rdquo;
+One of his plays at least,<a name="fa48a" id="fa48a" href="#ft48a"><span class="sp">48</span></a> and one of Timoneda&rsquo;s,<a name="fa49a" id="fa49a" href="#ft49a"><span class="sp">49</span></a> seem to have
+been taken from an Italian source; others mingled modern
+themes with classical apparitions,<a name="fa50a" id="fa50a" href="#ft50a"><span class="sp">50</span></a> one of Timoneda&rsquo;s was
+(perhaps again through the Italian) from Plautus.<a name="fa51a" id="fa51a" href="#ft51a"><span class="sp">51</span></a> Others of a
+slighter description were called <i>pasos</i>,&mdash;a species afterwards
+termed <i>entremeses</i> and resembling the modern French <i>proverbes</i>.
+With these popular efforts of Lope de Rueda and his friends a
+considerable dramatic activity began in the years 1560-1590
+in several Spanish cities, and before the close of this period
+permanent theatres began to be fitted up at Madrid. Yet
+Spanish dramatic literature might still have been led
+<span class="sidenote">Classical dramas.</span>
+to follow Italian into an imitation of classical models.
+Two plays by G. Bermudez (1577), called by their
+learned author &ldquo;the first Spanish tragedies,&rdquo; treating the national
+subject of Inez de Castro, but divided into five acts, composed in
+various metres, and introducing a chorus; a <i>Dido</i> (c. 1580) by
+C. de Virues (who claimed to have first divided dramas into
+three <i>jornadas</i>); and the tragedies of L. L. de Argensola (acted
+1585, and praised in <i>Don Quixote</i>) alike represent this tendency.</p>
+
+<p>Such were the alternatives which had opened for the Spanish
+drama, when at last, about the same time as that of the English,
+its future was determined by writers of original genius.
+The first of these was the immortal Cervantes, who,
+<span class="sidenote">Cervantes.</span>
+however, failed to anticipate by his earlier plays (1584-1588) the
+great (though to him unproductive) success of his famous
+romance. In his endeavour to give a poetic character to the
+drama he fell upon the expedient of introducing personified
+abstractions speaking a &ldquo;divine&rdquo; or elevated language&mdash;a
+device which was for a time favourably received. But these
+plays exhibit a neglect or ignorance of the laws of dramatic
+construction; their action is episodical; and it is from the
+realism of these episodes (especially in the <i>Numancia</i>, which is
+crowded with both figures and incidents), and from the power
+and flow of the declamation, that their effect must have been
+derived. When in his later years (1615) Cervantes returned to
+dramatic composition, the style and form of the national drama
+had been definitively settled by a large number of writers, the
+brilliant success of whose acknowledged chief may previously
+have diverted Cervantes from his labours for the theatre. His
+influence upon the general progress of dramatic literature is,
+however, to be sought, not only in his plays, but also in those
+<i>novelas exemplares</i>&mdash;incomparable alike in their clearness and
+their terseness of narrative&mdash;to which more than one drama is
+indebted for its plot, and for much of its dialogue to boot.</p>
+
+<p>Lope de Vega, one of the most astonishing geniuses the world
+has known, permanently established the national forms of the
+Spanish drama. Some of these were in their beginnings
+taken over by him from ruder predecessors; some
+<span class="sidenote">Lope de Vega.</span>
+were cultivated with equal or even superior success by
+subsequent authors; but in variety, as in fertility of dramatic
+production, he has no rivals. His fertility, which was such that
+he wrote about 1500 plays, besides 300 dramatic works classed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page508" id="page508"></a>508</span>
+as <i>autos sacramentales</i> and <i>entremeses</i>, and a vast series of other
+literary compositions, has indisputably prejudiced his reputation
+with those to whom he is but a name and a number. Yet as a
+dramatist Lope more fully exemplifies the capabilities of the
+Spanish theatre than any of his successors, though as a poet
+Calderon may deserve the palm. Nor would it be possible to
+imagine a truer representative of the Spain of his age than a poet
+who, after suffering the hardships of poverty and exile, and the
+pangs of passion, sailed against the foes of the faith in the
+Invincible Armada, subsequently became a member of the Holy
+Inquisition and of the order of St Francis, and after having been
+decorated by the pope with the cross of Malta and a theological
+doctorate, honoured by the nobility, and idolized by the nation,
+ended with the names of Jesus and Mary on his lips. From the
+plays of such a writer we may best learn the manners and the
+sentiments, the ideas of religion and honour, of the Spain of the
+Philippine age, the age when she was most prominent in the eyes
+of Europe and most glorious in her own. For, with all its
+inventiveness and vigour, the genius of Lope primarily set itself
+the task of pleasing his public,&mdash;the very spirit of whose inner as
+well as outer life is accordingly mirrored in his dramatic works.
+In them we have, in the words of Lope&rsquo;s French translator Baret,
+&ldquo;the movement, the clamour, the conflict of unforeseen intrigues
+suitable to unreflecting spectators; perpetual flatteries addressed
+to an unextinguishable national pride; the painting of passions
+dear to a people never tired of admiring itself; the absolute
+sway of the point of honour; the deification of revenge; the
+adoration of symbols; buffoonery and burlesque, everywhere
+beloved of the multitude, but here never defiled by obscenities,
+for this people has a sense of delicacy, and the foundation of its
+character is nobility; lastly, the flow of proverbs which at
+times escape from the <i>gracioso</i>&rdquo; (the comic servant domesticated
+in the Spanish drama by Lope)&mdash;&ldquo;the commonplace literature
+of those who possess no other.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The plays of Lope, and those of the national Spanish drama in
+general, are divided into classes which it is naturally not always
+easy, and which there is no reason to suppose him
+always to have intended, to keep distinct from one
+<span class="sidenote">Comedias de capa y espada.</span>
+another. After in his early youth composing eclogues,
+pastoral plays, and allegorical moralities in the old
+style, he began his theatrical activity at Madrid about 1590,
+and the plays which he thenceforth produced have been distributed
+under the following heads. The <i>comedias</i>, all of which are
+in verse, include (1) the so-called <i>c. de capa y espada</i>&mdash;not
+comedies proper, but dramas in which the principal personages
+are taken from the class of society that wears cloak and sword.
+Gallantry is their main theme, an interesting and complicated,
+but well-constructed and perspicuous intrigue their chief feature;
+and this is usually accompanied by an underplot in which the
+<i>gracioso</i> plays his part. Their titles are frequently taken from
+the old proverbs or proverbial phrases of the people<a name="fa52a" id="fa52a" href="#ft52a"><span class="sp">52</span></a> upon
+the theme suggested, by which the plays often (as G. H. Lewes
+admirably expresses it) constitute a kind of gloss (<i>glosa</i>) in
+action. This is the favourite species of the national Spanish
+theatre; and to the plots of the plays belonging to it the drama
+of other nations owes a debt almost incalculable in extent.
+<span class="sidenote">Heróicas.</span>
+(2) The <i>c. heróicas</i> are distinguished by some of their
+personages being of royal or very high rank, and by
+their themes being often historical and largely<a name="fa53a" id="fa53a" href="#ft53a"><span class="sp">53</span></a> (though not invariably<a name="fa54a" id="fa54a" href="#ft54a"><span class="sp">54</span></a>)
+taken from the national annals, or founded on contemporary
+or recent events.<a name="fa55a" id="fa55a" href="#ft55a"><span class="sp">55</span></a> Hence they exhibit a greater
+gravity of tone; but in other respects there is no difference
+between them and the cloak-and-sword comedies with which they
+share the element of comic underplots. Occasionally Lope condescended
+in the opposite direction, to (3) plays of which the scene
+is laid in common life, but for which no special name appears
+to have existed.<a name="fa56a" id="fa56a" href="#ft56a"><span class="sp">56</span></a> Meanwhile, both he and his successors were
+too devoted sons of the church not to acknowledge in some sort
+her claim to influence the national drama. This claim she had
+never relinquished, even when she could no longer retain an
+absolute control over the stage. For a time, indeed, she was
+able to reassert even this; for the exhibition of all secular plays
+was in 1598 prohibited by the dying Philip II., and remained so
+for two years; and Lope with his usual facility proceeded to
+supply religious plays of various kinds. After a few dramas on
+scriptural subjects he turned to the legends of the saints; and
+<span class="sidenote">Comedias de santos.</span>
+the <i>comedias de santos</i>, of which he wrote a great
+number, became an accepted later Spanish variety
+of the miracle-play. True, however, to the popular
+instincts of his genius, he threw himself with special zeal and
+success into the composition of another kind of religious plays&mdash;a
+development of the Corpus Christi pageants, in honour of
+which all the theatres had to close their doors for a month.
+<span class="sidenote">Autos sacramentales.</span>
+These were the famous <i>autos sacramentales</i> (<i>i.e.</i> solemn
+&ldquo;acts&rdquo; or proceedings in honour of the Sacrament),
+which were performed in the open air by actors who
+had filled the cars of the sacred procession. Of these
+Lope wrote about 400. These entertainments were arranged
+on a fixed scheme, comprising a prologue in dialogue between
+two or more actors in character (<i>loa</i>), a farce (<i>entremes</i>), and the
+<i>auto</i> proper, an allegorical scene of religious purport, as an
+example of which Ticknor cites the <i>Bridge of the World</i>,&mdash;in
+which the Prince of Darkness in vain seeks to defend the bridge
+against the Knight of the Cross, who finally leads the Soul of
+<span class="sidenote">Entremeses.</span>
+Man in triumph across it. Not all the <i>entremeses</i> of
+Lope and others were, however, composed for insertion
+in these <i>autos</i>. This long-lived popular species,
+together with the old kind of dramatic dialogue called <i>eclogues</i>,
+completes the list of the varieties of his dramatic works.</p>
+
+<p>The example of Lope was followed by a large number of
+writers, and Spain thus rapidly became possessed of a dramatic
+literature almost unparalleled in quantity&mdash;for in
+fertility also Lope was but the first among many.
+<span class="sidenote">The school of Lope.</span>
+Among the writers of Lope&rsquo;s school, his friend G. de
+Castro (1569-1631) must not be passed by, for his <i>Cid</i><a name="fa57a" id="fa57a" href="#ft57a"><span class="sp">57</span></a> was the
+basis of Corneille&rsquo;s; nor J. P. de Montalban, &ldquo;the first-born of
+Lope&rsquo;s genius,&rdquo; the extravagance of whose imagination, like
+that of Lee, culminated in madness. Soon after him died (1639)
+Juan Ruiz de Alarcon, in whose plays, as contrasted with those
+of Lope, has been recognized the distinctive element of a moral
+purpose. To G. Tellez, called Tirso de Molina (d. 1648), no
+similar praise seems due; but the frivolous gaiety of the inventor
+of the complete character of Don Juan was accompanied by
+ingenuity in the construction of his excellent<a name="fa58a" id="fa58a" href="#ft58a"><span class="sp">58</span></a> though at times
+&ldquo;sensational&rdquo;<a name="fa59a" id="fa59a" href="#ft59a"><span class="sp">59</span></a> plots. F. de Rojas Zorrilla (b. 1607), who was
+largely plundered by the French dramatists of the latter half of
+the century, survived Molina for about a generation. In vain
+scholars of strictly classical tastes protested in essays in prose and
+verse against the ascendancy of the popular drama; the prohibition
+of Philip II. had been recalled two years after his death
+and was never renewed; and the activity of the theatre spread
+through the towns and villages of the land, everywhere under the
+controlling influence of the school of writers who had established
+so complete a harmony between the drama and the tastes and
+tendencies of the people.</p>
+
+<p>The glories of Spanish dramatic literature reached their height
+in P. Calderon de la Barca, though in the history of the Spanish
+theatre he holds only the second place. He elaborated
+some of the forms of the national drama, but brought
+<span class="sidenote">Calderon.</span>
+about no changes of moment in any of them. Even the brilliancy
+of his style, glittering with a constant reproduction of the same
+family of tropes, and the variety of his melodious versification,
+are mere intensifications of the poetic qualities of Lope, while
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page509" id="page509"></a>509</span>
+in their moral and religious sentiments, and their general views
+of history and society, there is no difference between the two.
+Like Lope, Calderon was a soldier in his youth and an ecclesiastic
+in his later years; like his senior, he suited himself to the tastes
+of both court and people, and applied his genius with equal
+facility to the treatment of religious and of secular themes.
+In fertility Calderon was inferior to Lope (for he wrote not many
+more than 100 plays); but he surpasses the elder poet in richness
+of style, and more especially in fire of imagination. In his <i>autos</i>
+(of which he is said to have left not less than 73), Calderon probably
+attained to his most distinctive excellence; some of these
+appear to take a wide range of allegorical invention,<a name="fa60a" id="fa60a" href="#ft60a"><span class="sp">60</span></a> while they
+uniformly possess great beauty of poetical detail. Other of his
+most famous or interesting pieces are <i>comedias de santos</i>.<a name="fa61a" id="fa61a" href="#ft61a"><span class="sp">61</span></a> In his
+secular plays he treats as wide a variety of subjects as Lope,
+but it is not a dissimilar variety; nor would it be easy to decide
+whether a poet so uniformly admirable within his limits has
+achieved greater success in romantic historical tragedy,<a name="fa62a" id="fa62a" href="#ft62a"><span class="sp">62</span></a> in the
+comedy of amorous intrigue,<a name="fa63a" id="fa63a" href="#ft63a"><span class="sp">63</span></a> or in a dramatic work combining
+fancy and artificiality in such a degree that it has been diversely
+described as a romantic caprice and as a philosophical poem.<a name="fa64a" id="fa64a" href="#ft64a"><span class="sp">64</span></a></p>
+
+<p>During the life of the second great master of the Spanish
+drama there was little apparent abatement in the productivity
+of its literature; while the <i>autos</i> continued to flourish
+in Madrid and elsewhere, till in 1765 (shortly before
+<span class="sidenote">Contemporaries of Calderon.</span>
+the expulsion of the Jesuits from Spain) their public
+representation was prohibited by royal decree. In the
+world of fashion, the opera had reached Spain already during
+Calderon&rsquo;s lifetime, together with other French influences,
+and the great dramatist had himself written one or two of his
+plays for performance with music. But the regular national
+<span class="sidenote">Moreto and the comedia de figuron.</span>
+drama continued to command popular favour, and
+with A. Moreto may be said to have actually taken a
+step in advance. While he wrote in all the forms
+established by Lope and cultivated by Calderon, his
+manner seems most nearly to approach the masterpieces of
+French and later English comedy of character; he was the earliest
+writer of the <i>comedias de figuron</i>, in which the most prominent
+personage is (in Congreve&rsquo;s phrase) &ldquo;a character of affectation,&rdquo;
+in other words, the Spanish fop of real life.<a name="fa65a" id="fa65a" href="#ft65a"><span class="sp">65</span></a> His masterpiece,
+a favourite of many stages, is one of the most graceful and
+pleasing of modern comedies&mdash;simple but interesting in plot,
+and true to nature, with something like Shakespearian truth.<a name="fa66a" id="fa66a" href="#ft66a"><span class="sp">66</span></a>
+Other writers trod more closely in the footsteps of the masters
+without effecting any noticeable changes in the form of the
+Spanish drama; even the <i>saynete</i> (tit-bit), which owes its name
+to Benavente (fl. 1645), was only a kind of <i>entremes</i>. The
+Spanish drama in all its forms retained its command over the
+nation, because they were alike popular in origin and character;
+nor is there any other example of so complete an adaptation
+of a national art to the national taste and sentiment in its ethics
+and aesthetics, in the nature of the plots of the plays (whatever
+their origin), in the motives of their actions, in the conduct and
+tone and in the very costume of their characters.</p>
+
+<p>National as it was, and because of this very quality, the Spanish
+drama was fated to share the lot of the people it so fully represented.
+At the end of the 17th century, when the
+Spanish throne at last became the declared apple of
+<span class="sidenote">Decay of the national Spanish drama.</span>
+discord among the governments of Europe, the Spanish
+people lay, in the words of an historian of its later days,
+&ldquo;like a corpse, incapable of feeling its own impotence.&rdquo;
+That national art to which it had so faithfully clung had fallen
+into decline and decay with the spirit of Spain itself. By the
+time of the close of the great war, the theatre had sunk into a
+mere amusement of the populace, which during the greater part
+of the 18th century, while allowing the old masters the measure of
+favour which accords with traditional esteem, continued to uphold
+the representatives of the old drama in its degeneracy&mdash;authors
+on the level of their audiences. But the Spanish court was now
+<span class="sidenote">The French school of the 18th century.</span>
+French, and in the drama, even more than in any other
+form of art, France was the arbiter of taste in Europe.
+With the restoration of peace accordingly began isolated
+attempts to impose the French canons of dramatic
+theory, and to follow the example of French dramatic
+practice; and in the middle of the century these endeavours
+assumed more definite form. Montiano&rsquo;s bloodless tragedy of
+<i>Virginia</i> (1750), which was never acted, was accompanied
+by a discourse endeavouring to reconcile the doctrines of the
+author with the practice of the old Spanish dramatists; the play
+itself was in blank verse (a metre never used by Calderon, though
+occasionally by Lope), instead of the old national ballad-measures
+(the romance-measure with assonance and the rhymed <i>redondilla</i>
+quatrain) preferred by the old masters among the variety of
+metres employed by them. The earliest Spanish comedy in
+the French form (a translation only, though written in the
+national metre)<a name="fa67a" id="fa67a" href="#ft67a"><span class="sp">67</span></a> (1751), and the first original Spanish comedy
+on the same model, Nicolas Moratin&rsquo;s <i>Petimetra</i> (<i>Petite-Maîtresse</i>),
+printed in 1726 with a critical dissertation, likewise remained
+unacted. In 1770, however, the same author&rsquo;s <i>Hormesinda</i>,
+an historic drama on a national theme and in the national
+metre, but adhering to the French rules, appeared on the stage;
+and similar attempts followed in tragedy by the same writer
+and others (including Ayala, who ventured in 1775 to compete
+with Cervantes on the theme of Numantia), and in comedy by
+Iriarte and Jovellanos (afterwards minister under Godoy), who
+produced a sentimental comedy in Diderot&rsquo;s manner.<a name="fa68a" id="fa68a" href="#ft68a"><span class="sp">68</span></a> But
+<span class="sidenote">Other later dramatists.</span>
+these endeavours failed to effect any change in the
+popular theatre, which was with more success raised
+from its deepest degradation by R. de la Cruz, a fertile
+author of light pieces of genuine humour, especially
+<i>saynetes</i>, depicting the manners of the middle and lower classes.
+In literary circles Garcia de la Huerta&rsquo;s voluminous collection
+of the old plays (1785) gave a new impulse to dramatic productivity,
+and the conflict continued between representatives
+of the old school, such as Luciano Francisco Comella (1716-1779)
+and of the new, such as the younger Moratin, whose comedies&mdash;of
+which the last and most successful<a name="fa69a" id="fa69a" href="#ft69a"><span class="sp">69</span></a> was in prose&mdash;raised
+him to the foremost position among the dramatists of his age.
+In tragedy N. de Cienfuegos likewise showed some originality.
+After, however, the troubles of the French domination and the
+war had come to an end, the precepts and examples of the new
+school failed to reassert themselves.</p>
+
+<p>Already in 1815 an active critical controversy was carried on
+by Böhl de Faber against the efforts of J. Faber and Alcalá
+Galiano to uphold the principles of classicism; and with the aid
+of the eminent actor Máiquez the old romantic masterpieces were
+easily reinstated in the public favour, which as a matter of fact
+they had never forfeited. The Spanish dramatists of the 19th
+century, after passing, as in the instance of F. Martinez de la
+Rosa and Bréton de los Herreros, from the system of French
+comedy to the manner of the national drama, appear either to
+have stood under the influence of the French romantic school,
+or to have returned once more to the old Spanish models. Among
+the former class A. Gil y Zarate, of the latter J. Zorrilla, are
+mentioned as specially prominent. The most renowned Spanish
+dramatist at the opening of the 20th century was the veteran
+politician and man of letters J. Echegaray.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, the old religious performances are not wholly
+extinct in Spain, and the relics of the solemn pageantry with
+which they were associated may long continue to survive there,
+as in the case of the <i>pasos</i>, which claim to have been exhibited
+in Holy Week at Seville for at least three centuries. As to the
+theatre itself, there can be no fear either that the imitation
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page510" id="page510"></a>510</span>
+of foreign examples will satisfy Spanish dramatists&mdash;especially
+when, like the author of <i>Doña Perfecta</i> (Perez Galdos), they have
+excellent home material of their own for adaptation,&mdash;or that the
+Spanish public itself, with fine actors and actresses still upholding
+the lofty traditions of the national drama, will remain too
+fatigued to consume the drama unless bit by bit&mdash;in the shape
+of <i>zarzuelas</i> and similar one-act confections. Whatever may be
+the future of one of the noblest of modern dramatic literatures,
+it may confidently be predicted that, so long as Spain is Spain, her
+theatre will not be permanently either denationalized or degraded.</p>
+
+<p class="center pt2">(d) <i>Portugal.</i></p>
+
+<p>The Portuguese drama in its earlier phases, especially before
+in the latter part of the 14th century the nation completely
+achieved its independence, seems to have followed
+much the same course as the Spanish; and the religious
+<span class="sidenote">The Portuguese drama.</span>
+drama in all its prevailing forms and direct
+outgrowths retained its popularity even by the side
+of the products of the Renaissance. In the later period of that
+movement translations of classical dramas into the vernacular
+were stimulated by the cosmopolitan example of George
+Buchanan, who for a time held a post in the university of Coimbra;
+to this class of play Teive&rsquo;s <i>Johannes</i> (1553) may be supposed
+to have belonged. In the next generation Antonio Ferreira<a name="fa70a" id="fa70a" href="#ft70a"><span class="sp">70</span></a>
+and others still wrote comedies more or less on the classical
+model. But the rather vague title of &ldquo;the Plautus of Portugal&rdquo;
+is accorded to an earlier comic writer, the celebrated Gil Vicente,
+who died about 1536, after, it is stated, producing forty-two plays.
+He was the founder of popular Portuguese comedy, and his
+plays were called <i>autos</i>, or by the common name of <i>praticas</i>.<a name="fa71a" id="fa71a" href="#ft71a"><span class="sp">71</span></a>
+Among his most gifted successors are mentioned A. Ribeiro,
+called <i>Chiado</i> (the mocking-bird), who died in 1590;<a name="fa72a" id="fa72a" href="#ft72a"><span class="sp">72</span></a> his brother
+Jeronymo, B. Dias, A. Pires, J. Pinto, H. Lopes and others.
+The dramatic efforts of the illustrious poet Luis de Camões
+(Camoens) are relatively of slight importance; they consist
+of one of the many modern versions of the <i>Amphitruo</i>, and of two
+other comedies, of which the earlier (<i>Filodemo</i>) was acted at
+Goa in 1553, the subjects having a romantic colour.<a name="fa73a" id="fa73a" href="#ft73a"><span class="sp">73</span></a> Of greater
+importance were the contributions to dramatic literature of
+F. de Sá de Miranda, who, being well acquainted with both
+Spanish and Italian life, sought early in his career to domesticate
+the Italian comedy of intrigue on the Portuguese stage;<a name="fa74a" id="fa74a" href="#ft74a"><span class="sp">74</span></a> but
+he failed to carry with him the public taste, which preferred
+the <i>autos</i> of Gil Vicente. The followers of Miranda were, however,
+more successful than he had been himself, among them the
+already-mentioned Antonio Ferreira; the prose plays of Jorge
+Ferreira de Vasconcellos, which bear some resemblance to the
+Spanish <i>Celestina</i>, are valuable as pictures of contemporary
+manners in city and court.<a name="fa75a" id="fa75a" href="#ft75a"><span class="sp">75</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The later Portuguese dramatic literature seems also to have
+passed through phases corresponding to those of the Spanish,
+though with special features of its own. In the 18th century
+Alcino Mycenio (1728-1770), known as Domingos dos Reis Quito
+in everyday life, in which his avocation was that of Allan Ramsay,
+was remarkably successful with a series of plays,<a name="fa76a" id="fa76a" href="#ft76a"><span class="sp">76</span></a> including of
+course an <i>Inez de Castro</i>, which in a subsequent adaptation by
+J. B. Gomes long held the national stage. Another dramatist,
+of both merit and higher aspirations, was Lycidas Cynthio (<i>alias</i>
+Manoel de Figueiredo, 1725-1801).<a name="fa77a" id="fa77a" href="#ft77a"><span class="sp">77</span></a> But the romantic movement
+was very late in coming to Portugal. Curiously enough, one of
+its chief representatives, the viscount da Almeida Garrett,
+exhibited his sympathy with French, revolutionary and anti-English
+ideas by a tragedy on the subject of Cato;<a name="fa78a" id="fa78a" href="#ft78a"><span class="sp">78</span></a> but his
+later works were mainly on national subjects.<a name="fa79a" id="fa79a" href="#ft79a"><span class="sp">79</span></a> The expansive
+tendencies of later Portuguese dramatic literature are illustrated
+by the translations of A. F. de Castilho, who even ventured
+upon Goethe&rsquo;s <i>Faust</i> (1872). Among 19th-century dramatists
+are to be noted Pereira da Cunha, R. Cordeiro, E. Biester,
+L. Palmeirin, and Garrett&rsquo;s disciple F. G. de Amorim, by
+whom both political and social themes have been freely
+treated. The reaction against romanticism observable in
+Portuguese poetic literature can hardly fail to affect (or perhaps
+has already affected) the growth of the national drama; for the
+receptive qualities of both are not less striking than the productive.</p>
+
+<p class="center pt2">(e) <i>France.</i></p>
+
+<p>France was the only country, besides Italy, in which classical
+tragedy was naturalized. In 1531 the Benedictine Barthélemy
+of Loches printed a <i>Christus Xylonicus</i>; and a very
+notable impulse was given both to the translation and
+<span class="sidenote">The French regular drama.</span>
+to the imitation of ancient models by a series of efforts
+made in the university of Paris and other French
+places of learning. The most successful of these attempts was
+the <i>Johannes Baptistes</i> of George Buchanan, who taught in
+Paris for five years and at a rather later date resided at Bordeaux,
+where in 1540 he composed this celebrated tragedy (afterwards
+translated into four or five modern languages), in which it is
+now ascertained that he had in view the trial and condemnation
+of Sir Thomas More. He also wrote <i>Jephthah</i>, and translated
+into Latin the <i>Medea</i> and <i>Alcestis</i> of Euripides. At a rather
+later date the great scholar M. A. Muret (Muretus) produced his
+<i>Julius Caesar</i>, a work perhaps superior in correctness to
+Buchanan&rsquo;s tragic masterpiece, but inferior to it in likeness to
+life. About the same time the enthusiasm of the Paris classicists
+showed itself in several translations of Sophoclean and Euripidean
+tragedies into French verse.<a name="fa80a" id="fa80a" href="#ft80a"><span class="sp">80</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Thus the beginnings of the regular drama in France, which,
+without absolutely determining, potently swayed its entire
+course, came to connect themselves directly with the great
+literary movement of the Renaissance. Du Bellay sounded the
+note of attack which converted that movement in France into
+an endeavour to transform the national literature; and in
+Ronsard the classical school of poetry put forward its conquering
+hero and sovereign lawgiver. Among the disciples who gathered
+<span class="sidenote">Jodelle.</span>
+round Ronsard, and with him formed the &ldquo;Pleiad&rdquo;
+of French literature, Étienne Jodelle, the reformer of
+the French theatre, soon held a distinguished place. The stage
+of this period left ample room for the enterprise of this youthful
+writer. The popularity of the old entertainments had reached
+its height when Louis XII., in his conflict with Pope Julius II.,
+had not scrupled to call in the aid of Pierre Gringoire (Gringon),
+and when the <i>Mère sotte</i> had mockingly masqueraded in the
+petticoats of Holy Church. In the reign of Francis I. the
+Inquisition, and on occasion the king himself, had to some extent
+succeeded in repressing the audacity of the actors, whose follies
+were at the same time an utter abomination in the eyes of the
+Huguenots. For a time the very mysteries of the Brethren of
+the Passion had been prohibited; while the moralities and
+farces had sunk to an almost contemptible level. Yet to this
+reign belong the contributions to farce-literature of three writers
+so distinguished as Rabelais (non-extant), Clément Marot and
+Queen Margaret of Navarre. Meanwhile isolated translations
+of Italian<a name="fa81a" id="fa81a" href="#ft81a"><span class="sp">81</span></a> as well as classical dramas had in literature begun
+the movement which Jodelle now transferred to the stage itself.
+His tragedy <i>Cléopatre captive</i> was produced there on the same
+day as his comedy <i>L&rsquo;Eugène</i>, in 1552, his <i>Didon se sacrifiant</i>
+following in 1558. Thus at a time when a national theatre was
+perhaps impossible in a country distracted by civil and religious
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page511" id="page511"></a>511</span>
+conflicts, whose monarchy had not yet welded together a number
+of provinces attached each to its own traditions, and whose
+population, especially in the capital, was enervated by frivolity
+or enslaved by fanaticism, was born that long-lived artificial
+growth, the so-called classical tragedy of France. For French
+comedy, though subjected to the same influences as tragedy,
+had a national basis upon which to proceed, and its history is
+partly that of a modification of old popular forms.</p>
+
+<p>The history of French tragedy begins with the <i>Cléopâtre
+captive</i>, in the representation of which the author, together
+with other members of the &ldquo;Pleiad,&rdquo; took part. It is
+a tragedy in the manner of Seneca, devoid of action
+<span class="sidenote">French tragedy in the 16th century.</span>
+and provided with a ghost and a chorus. Though
+mainly written in the five-foot Iambic couplet, it
+already contains passages in the Alexandrine metre, which soon
+afterwards J. de La Péruse by his <i>Médée</i> (pr. 1556) established
+in French tragedy, and which Jodelle employed in his <i>Didon</i>.
+Numerous tragedies followed in the same style by various authors,
+among whom Gabriel Bounyn produced the first French regular
+tragedy on a subject neither Greek nor Roman,<a name="fa82a" id="fa82a" href="#ft82a"><span class="sp">82</span></a> and the brothers
+de la Taille,<a name="fa83a" id="fa83a" href="#ft83a"><span class="sp">83</span></a> and J. Grévin,<a name="fa84a" id="fa84a" href="#ft84a"><span class="sp">84</span></a> distinguished themselves by their
+style. In the reign of Charles IX. a vain attempt was made by
+Nicolas Filleul to introduce the pastoral style of the Italians into
+French tragedy;<a name="fa85a" id="fa85a" href="#ft85a"><span class="sp">85</span></a> and the Brotherhood of the Passion was
+intermingling with pastoral plays its still continued reproductions
+of the old entertainments, and the religious drama making its
+expiring efforts, among which T. Le Coq&rsquo;s interesting mystery
+of <i>Cain</i> (1580) should be noted. Beza&rsquo;s <i>Abraham sacrifiant</i>
+(1550), J. de Coignac&rsquo;s <i>Goliath</i> (dedicated to Edward VI.),
+Rivandeau&rsquo;s <i>Haman</i> (1561), belong to a group of Biblical tragedies,
+inspired by Calvinist influences. But these more and
+more approached to the examples of the classical school, which,
+in spite of all difficulties and rivalries, prevailed. Among its
+followers Montchrétien exhibited unusual vigour of rhetoric,<a name="fa86a" id="fa86a" href="#ft86a"><span class="sp">86</span></a>
+and in R. Garnier French tragedy reached the greatest height
+in nobility and dignity of style, as well as in the exhibition of
+dramatic passion, to which it attained before Corneille. In his
+tragedies<a name="fa87a" id="fa87a" href="#ft87a"><span class="sp">87</span></a> choruses are still interspersed among the long Alexandrine
+tirades of the dialogue.</p>
+
+<p>During this period comedy had likewise been influenced by
+classical models; but the distance was less between the national
+farces and Terence, than between the mysteries and
+moralities, and Seneca and the Greeks. <i>L&rsquo;Eugène</i>
+<span class="sidenote">Comedy under Italian influence.</span>
+differs little in style from the more elaborate of the old
+farces; and while it satirizes the foibles of the clergy
+without any appreciable abatement of the old licence, its theme
+is the favourite burden of the French comic theatre in all times&mdash;<i>le
+cocuage</i>. The examples, however, which directly facilitated
+the productivity of the French comic dramatists of this period,
+among whom Jean de la Taille was the first to attempt a regular
+comedy in prose,<a name="fa88a" id="fa88a" href="#ft88a"><span class="sp">88</span></a> were those of the Italian stage, which in 1576
+established a permanent colony in France, destined to survive
+there till the close of the 17th century, by which time it had
+adopted the French language, and was ready to coalesce with
+French actors, without, however, relinquishing all remembrance
+of its origin. R. Belleau, a member of the &ldquo;Pleiad,&rdquo; produced
+a comedy in which the type (already approached by Jodelle)
+of the swaggering captain appears,<a name="fa89a" id="fa89a" href="#ft89a"><span class="sp">89</span></a> J. Grévin copied Italian
+intrigue, characters and manners;<a name="fa90a" id="fa90a" href="#ft90a"><span class="sp">90</span></a> O. de Turnèbe (d. 1581)
+borrowed the title of one Italian play<a name="fa91a" id="fa91a" href="#ft91a"><span class="sp">91</span></a> and perhaps parts of the
+plots of others; the Florentine F. d&rsquo;Amboise (d. 1558) produced
+versions of two Italian comedies;<a name="fa92a" id="fa92a" href="#ft92a"><span class="sp">92</span></a> and the foremost French
+comic poet of the century, P. de Larivey, likewise an Italian
+born (of the name of Pietro Giunto), openly professed to imitate
+the poets of his native country. His plays are more or less literal
+translations of L. Dolce,<a name="fa93a" id="fa93a" href="#ft93a"><span class="sp">93</span></a> Secchi<a name="fa94a" id="fa94a" href="#ft94a"><span class="sp">94</span></a> and other Italian dramatists;
+and this lively and witty author, to whom Molière owes much,
+thus connects two of the most important and successful growths
+of the modern comic drama.</p>
+
+<p>The close conjunction between the history of a living dramatic
+literature and that of the theatre can least of all be ignored in the
+case of France, where the actor&rsquo;s art has gone through so ample
+an evolution, and where the theatre has so long and continuously
+formed an important part of the national life. By the middle
+of the 16th century not only had theatrical representations, now
+quite emancipated from clerical control, here and there already
+become matters of speculation and business, but the acting
+profession was beginning to organize itself as such; strolling
+companies of actors had become a more or less frequent experience;
+and the attitude of the church and of civic respectability
+were once more coming to be systematically hostile to
+the stage and its representatives.</p>
+
+<p>Before, however, either tragedy or comedy in France entered
+into the period of their history when genius was to illuminate
+both of them with creations of undying merit, and
+before the theatre had associated itself enduringly
+<span class="sidenote">French tragedy and comedy in the 17th century before Corneille.</span>
+with the artistic and literary divisions of court and
+society and the people at large, the country had passed
+through a new phase of the national life. When the
+troubles and terrors of the great civil and religious
+wars of the 16th century were over at last, they were
+found to have produced a reaction towards culture and
+refinement which spread from certain spheres of society whose
+influence was for a time prevailing. The seal had been set upon
+the results of the Renaissance by Malherbe, the father of French
+style. The masses meanwhile continued to solace or distract
+their weariness and their sufferings with the help of the accredited
+ministers of that half-cynical gaiety which has always lighted
+up the darkest hours of French popular life. In the troublous
+days preceding Richelieu&rsquo;s definitive accession to power (1624),
+the <i>tabarinades</i>&mdash;a kind of street dialogue recalling the earliest
+days of the popular drama&mdash;had made the Pont-Neuf the
+favourite theatre of the Parisian populace. Meanwhile the
+influence of Spain, which Henry IV. had overcome in politics,
+had throughout his reign and afterwards been predominant in
+other spheres, and not the least in that of literature. The <i>stilo
+culto</i>, of which Gongora was the native Spanish, Marino the
+Italian, and Lyly the English representative, asserted its dominion
+over the favourite authors of French society; the pastoral
+romance of Honoré d&rsquo;Urfé&mdash;the text-book of pseudo-pastoral
+gallantry&mdash;was the parent of the romances of the Scudérys, de
+La Calprenède and Mme de La Fayette; the Hôtel de Rambouillet
+was in its glory; the true (not the false) <i>précieuses</i> sat
+on the heights of intellectual society; and J. L. G. de Balzac
+(ridiculed in the earliest French dramatic parody)<a name="fa95a" id="fa95a" href="#ft95a"><span class="sp">95</span></a> and Voiture
+were the dictators of its literature. Much of the French drama
+of this age is of the same kind as its romance-literature, like
+which it fell under the polite castigation of Boileau&rsquo;s satire.
+Heroic love (quite a technical passion), &ldquo;fertile in tender sentiments,&rdquo;
+seized hold of the theatre as well as of the romances;
+and La Calprenède, G. de Scudéry<a name="fa96a" id="fa96a" href="#ft96a"><span class="sp">96</span></a> and his sister and others
+were equally fashionable in both species. The Gascon Cyrano de
+Bergerac, though not altogether insignificant as a dramatist,<a name="fa97a" id="fa97a" href="#ft97a"><span class="sp">97</span></a>
+gained his chief literary reputation by a Rabelaisian fiction.
+Meanwhile, Spanish and Italian models continued to influence
+both branches of the drama. Everybody knew by heart Gongora&rsquo;s
+version of the story of &ldquo;young Pyramus and his love Thisbe,&rdquo;
+as dramatized by Th. Viaud (1590-1626); and the sentiment of
+Tristan<a name="fa98a" id="fa98a" href="#ft98a"><span class="sp">98</span></a> (1601-1655) overpowered Herod on the stage, and
+drew tears from Cardinal Richelieu in the audience. J. Mairet
+was noted for superior vigour.<a name="fa99a" id="fa99a" href="#ft99a"><span class="sp">99</span></a> P. Du Ryer&rsquo;s style is described
+as, while otherwise superior to that of his contemporaries,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page512" id="page512"></a>512</span>
+Italian in its defects. A mixture of the forms of classical
+comedy with elements of Spanish and of the Italian pastoral was
+attempted with great temporary success by A. Hardy, a playwright
+who thanked Heaven that he knew the precepts of his
+art while preferring to follow the demands of his trade. The
+mixture of styles begun by him was carried on by the marquis de
+Racan,<a name="fa100a" id="fa100a" href="#ft100a"><span class="sp">100</span></a> J. de Rotrou and others; and among these comedies of
+intrigue in the Spanish manner the earliest efforts of Corneille
+himself<a name="fa101a" id="fa101a" href="#ft101a"><span class="sp">101</span></a> are to be classed. Rotrou&rsquo;s noteworthier productions<a name="fa102a" id="fa102a" href="#ft102a"><span class="sp">102</span></a>
+are later in date than the event which marks an epoch in the
+history of the French drama, the appearance of Corneille&rsquo;s
+<i>Cid</i> (1636).</p>
+
+<p>P. Corneille is justly revered as the first, and in some respects
+the unequalled, great master of French tragedy, whatever may
+have been unsound in his theories, or defective in his
+practice. The attempts of his predecessors had been
+<span class="sidenote">Corneille.</span>
+without life, because they lacked really tragic characters and the
+play of really tragic passions; while their style had been either
+pedantically imitative or a medley of plagiarisms. He conquered
+tragedy at once for the national theatre and for the national
+literature&mdash;and this, not by a long tentative process of production,
+but by a few masterpieces, which may be held to be
+comprehended within the ten years 1636 to 1646; for in his
+many later tragedies he never again proved fully equal to himself.
+The French tragedy, of which the great age begins with the <i>Cid</i>,
+<i>Horace</i>, <i>Cinna</i>, <i>Polyeucte</i> and <i>Rodogune</i>, was not, whatever it
+professed to be, a copy of the classical tragedy of Greeks or
+Romans, or an imitation of the Italian imitations of these; nor,
+though in his later tragedies Corneille depended less and less
+upon characters, and more and more, after the fashion of the
+Spaniards, upon situations, and even upon spectacle, were
+the forms of the Spanish drama able to assert their dominion
+over the French tragic stage. The mould of French tragedy
+was cast by Corneille; but the creative power of his genius was
+unable to fill it with more than a few examples. His range of
+passions and characters was limited; he preferred, he said, the
+reproach of having made his women too heroic to that of having
+made his men effeminate. His actions inclined too much to
+the exhibition of conflicts political rather than broadly ethical
+in their significance. The defects of his style are of less moment;
+but in this, as in other respects, he was, with all his strength
+and brilliancy, not one of those rarest of artists who are at the
+same time the example and the despair of their successors.
+The <i>examens</i> which he printed of all his plays up to 1660 show
+how much self-criticism (though it may not always be as in this
+case conscious) contributes to the true fertility of genius.</p>
+
+<p>In comedy also Corneille begins the first great original epoch
+of French dramatic literature; for it was to him that Molière
+owed the inspiration of the tone and style which he made those
+of the higher forms of French comedy. But <i>Le Menteur</i> (the
+parent, with its sequel, of a numerous dramatic progeny<a name="fa103a" id="fa103a" href="#ft103a"><span class="sp">103</span></a>) was
+itself derived from a Spanish original,<a name="fa104a" id="fa104a" href="#ft104a"><span class="sp">104</span></a> which it did not (as was
+the case with the <i>Cid</i>) transform into something new. French
+tragi-comedy Corneille can hardly be said to have invented;<a name="fa105a" id="fa105a" href="#ft105a"><span class="sp">105</span></a>
+and of the mongrel growths of sentimental comedy and of
+domestic drama or <i>drame</i>, he rather suggested than exemplified
+the conditions.</p>
+
+<p>The tragic art of Racine supplements rather than surpasses
+that of his older contemporary. His works reflect the serene
+and settled formality of an age in which the sun of
+monarchy shone with an effulgence no clouds seemed
+<span class="sidenote">Racine.</span>
+capable of obscuring, and in which the life of a nation seemed
+reducible to the surroundings of a court. The tone of the poetic
+literature of such an age is not necessarily unreal, because the
+range of its ideas is limited, and because its forms seem to exist
+by an immutable authority. That Racine should permanently
+hold the position which belongs to him in French dramatic
+literature is due to the fact that to him it was given to present
+these forms&mdash;the forms approved by his age&mdash;in what may
+reasonably be called perfection; and, from the point of view
+of workmanship, Sophocles could not have achieved more.
+What his plays contain is another question. They suit themselves
+so well to the successive phases in the life of Louis XIV.,
+that Madame de Sévigné described Racine as having in his later
+years loved God as he had formerly loved his mistresses; and
+this sally at all events indicates the range of passions which
+inspired his tragic muse. His heroes are all of one type&mdash;that
+of a gracious gloriousness; his heroines vary in their fortunes,
+but they are all the &ldquo;trophies of love,&rdquo;<a name="fa106a" id="fa106a" href="#ft106a"><span class="sp">106</span></a> with the exception
+of the scriptural figures, which stand apart from the rest.<a name="fa107a" id="fa107a" href="#ft107a"><span class="sp">107</span></a>
+T. Corneille, Campistron, Joseph Duché (1668-1704), Antoin de
+Lafosse (c. 1653-1708) and Quinault were mere followers of one
+or both of the great masters of tragedy, though the last named
+achieved a reputation of his own in the bastard species of the
+opera.</p>
+
+<p>The type of French tragedy thus established, like everything
+else which formed part of the &ldquo;age of Louis XIV.,&rdquo; proclaimed
+itself as the definitively settled model of its kind, and
+was accepted as such by a submissive world. Proud
+<span class="sidenote">Characteristics of French classical tragedy.</span>
+of its self-imposed fetters, French tragedy dictatorially
+denied the liberty of which it had deprived itself to the
+art of which it claimed to furnish the highest examples.
+Yet, though calling itself classical, it had not caught the essential
+spirit of the tragedy of the Greeks. The elevation of tone which
+characterizes the serious drama of the age of Louis XIV. is a true
+elevation, but its heights do not lose themselves in a sphere
+peopled by the myths of a national religion, still less in the region
+of great thoughts which ask Heaven to stoop to the aspirations
+and the failures of man. The personages of this drama are
+conventional like its themes, but the convention is with itself
+only; Orestes and Iphigenia have not brought with them the
+cries of the stern goddesses and the flame on the altar of Artemis;
+their passions like their speech are cadenced by a modern measure.
+In construction, the simplicity and regularity of the ancient
+models are stereotyped into a rigid etiquette by the exigencies
+of the court-theatre, which is but an apartment of the palace.
+The unities of time and place, with the Greeks mere rules of
+convenience, French tragedy imposes upon itself as a permanent
+yoke. The Euripidean prologue is judiciously exchanged for
+the exposition of the first act, and the lyrical element essential
+to Greek tragedy is easily suppressed in its would-be copy;
+lyrical passages still occur in some of Corneille&rsquo;s early masterpieces,<a name="fa108a" id="fa108a" href="#ft108a"><span class="sp">108</span></a>
+but the chorus is consistently banished, to reappear only
+in Racine&rsquo;s latest works<a name="fa109a" id="fa109a" href="#ft109a"><span class="sp">109</span></a> as a scholastic experiment appropriate
+to a conventual atmosphere. Its uses for explanation and
+comment are served by the expedient, which in its turn becomes
+conventional, of the conversations with <i>confidants</i> and <i>confidantes</i>,
+which more than sufficiently supply the foil of general sentiments.
+The epical element is allowed full play in narrative passages,
+more especially in those which relate parts of the catastrophe,<a name="fa110a" id="fa110a" href="#ft110a"><span class="sp">110</span></a>
+and, while preserving the stage intact from realisms, suit themselves
+to the generally rhetorical character of this species of the
+tragic drama. This character impressed itself more and more
+upon the tragic art of a rhetorical nation in an age when the
+loftiest themes were in the pulpit receiving the most artistic
+oratorical treatment, and developed in the style of French
+classical tragedy the qualities which cause it to become something
+between prose and poetry&mdash;or to appear (in the phrase of
+a French critic) like prose in full dress. The force of this description
+is borne out by the fact that the distinction between the
+versification of French tragedy and that of French comedy seems
+at times imperceptible.</p>
+
+<p>The universal genius of Voltaire found it necessary to shine
+in all branches of literature, and in tragedy to surpass predecessors
+whom his own authority declared to have surpassed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page513" id="page513"></a>513</span>
+the efforts of the Attic muse. He succeeded in impressing the
+world with the belief that his innovations had imparted a fresh
+<span class="sidenote">Voltaire.</span>
+vitality to French tragedy; in truth, however, they
+represent no essential advance in art, but rather
+augmented the rhetorical tendency which paralyses true dramatic
+life. Such life as his plays possess lies in their political and social
+sentiments, their invective against tyranny,<a name="fa111a" id="fa111a" href="#ft111a"><span class="sp">111</span></a> and their exposure
+of fanaticism.<a name="fa112a" id="fa112a" href="#ft112a"><span class="sp">112</span></a> In other respects his versatility was barren of
+enduring results. He might take his themes from French history,<a name="fa113a" id="fa113a" href="#ft113a"><span class="sp">113</span></a>
+or from Chinese,<a name="fa114a" id="fa114a" href="#ft114a"><span class="sp">114</span></a> or Egyptian,<a name="fa115a" id="fa115a" href="#ft115a"><span class="sp">115</span></a> or Syrian,<a name="fa116a" id="fa116a" href="#ft116a"><span class="sp">116</span></a> from the days of the
+Epigoni<a name="fa117a" id="fa117a" href="#ft117a"><span class="sp">117</span></a> or from those of the Crusades;<a name="fa118a" id="fa118a" href="#ft118a"><span class="sp">118</span></a> he might appreciate
+Shakespeare, with a more or less partial comprehension of his
+strength, and condescendingly borrow from and improve the
+barbarian.<a name="fa119a" id="fa119a" href="#ft119a"><span class="sp">119</span></a> But he added nothing to French tragedy where it
+was weakest&mdash;in character; and where it was strongest&mdash;in
+diction&mdash;he never equalled Corneille in fire or Racine in refinement.
+While the criticism to which French tragedy in this age
+at last began to be subjected has left unimpaired the real titles
+to immortality of its great masters, the French theatre itself has
+all but buried in respectful oblivion the dramatic works bearing
+the name of Voltaire&mdash;a name persistently belittled, but
+second to none in the history of modern progress and of modern
+civilization.</p>
+
+<p>As it is of relatively little interest to note the ramifications of
+an art in its decline, the contrasts need not be pursued among
+the contemporaries of Voltaire, between his imitator
+Bernard Joseph Saurin (1706-1781), Saurin&rsquo;s royalist
+<span class="sidenote">French classical tragedy in its decline.</span>
+rival de Belloy, Racine&rsquo;s imitator Lagrange-Chancel
+and Voltaire&rsquo;s own would-be rival, the &ldquo;terrible&rdquo;
+Crébillon the elder, who professed to vindicate to
+French tragedy, already mistress of the heavens through Corneille,
+and of the earth through Racine, Pluto&rsquo;s supplementary realm,
+but who, though thus essaying to carry tragedy lower, failed
+to carry it farther. In the latter part of the 18th century French
+classical tragedy as a literary growth was dying a slow death,
+however numerous might be the leaves which sprouted from the
+decaying tree. Its form had been permanently fixed; and even
+Shakespeare, as manipulated by Ducis<a name="fa120a" id="fa120a" href="#ft120a"><span class="sp">120</span></a>&mdash;an author whose
+tastes were better than his times&mdash;failed to bring about a change.
+&ldquo;It is a Moor, not a Frenchman, who has written this play,&rdquo;
+cried a spectator of Ducis&rsquo; <i>Othello</i> (1791); but Talma&rsquo;s conviction
+was almost as strong as his capacity was great for convincing
+his public; and he certainly did much to prepare the influence
+which Shakespeare was gradually to assert over the French
+drama, and which was aided by translations, more especially
+that of Pierre Letourneur (1736-1788), which had attracted the
+sympathy of Diderot and the execrations of the aged Voltaire.<a name="fa121a" id="fa121a" href="#ft121a"><span class="sp">121</span></a>
+Meanwhile, the command which classical French tragedy continued
+to assert over the stage was due in part, no doubt, to the
+love of Roman drapery&mdash;not always abundant, but always in
+the grand style&mdash;which characterized the Revolution, and which
+was by the Revolution handed down to the Empire. It was
+likewise, and more signally, due to the great actors who freed
+the tragic stage from much of its artificiality and animated it
+by their genius. No great artist has ever more generously
+estimated the labours of a predecessor than Talma judged those
+of Le Kain; but it was Talma himself whose genius was pre-eminently
+fitted to reproduce the great figures of antiquity in
+the mimic world, which, like the world outside, both required
+and possessed its Caesar. He, like Rachel after him, reconciled
+French classical tragedy with nature; and it is upon the art of
+great original actors such as these that the theatrical future of
+this form of the drama in France depends. Mere whims of fashion&mdash;even
+when inspired by political feeling&mdash;will not waft back
+to it a real popularity; nor will occasional literary aftergrowths,
+however meritorious, such as the admirable <i>Lucrèce</i> of F. Ponsard
+and the attempts of even more recent writers, suffice to re-establish
+a living union between it and the progress of the
+national literature.</p>
+
+<p>The rival influences under which classical tragedy has after
+a long struggle virtually become a thing of the past in French
+literature are also to be traced in the history of French
+comedy, which under the co-operation of other influences
+<span class="sidenote">Comedy.</span>
+produced a wide variety of growths. The germs of most
+of these&mdash;though not of all&mdash;are to be found in the works of the
+most versatile, the most sure-footed, and, in some respects,
+the most consummate master of the comic drama whom the
+<span class="sidenote">Molière.</span>
+world has known&mdash;Molière. What Molière found in
+existence was a comedy of intrigue, derived from
+Spanish or Italian examples, and the elements of a comedy of
+character, in French and more especially in Italian farce and
+ballet-pantomime. Corneille&rsquo;s <i>Menteur</i> had pointed the way to
+a fuller combination of character with intrigue, and in this
+direction Molière&rsquo;s genius exercised the height of its creative
+powers. After beginning with farces, he produced in the earliest
+of his plays (from 1652), of which more than fragments remain,
+comedies of intrigue which are at the same time marvellously
+lively pictures of manners, and then proceeded, with the <i>École
+des maris</i> (1661), to begin a long series of masterpieces of comedy
+of character. Yet even these, the chief of which are altogether
+unrivalled in dramatic literature, do not exhaust the variety
+of his productions. To define the range of his art is as difficult
+as to express in words the essence of his genius. For though he
+has been copied ever since he wrote, neither his spirit nor his
+manner has descended in full to any of his copyists, whole schools
+of whom have missed elements of both. A Molière can only be
+judged in his relations to the history of comedy at large. He
+was indeed the inheritor of many forms and styles&mdash;remaining
+a stranger to those of Old Attic comedy only, rooted as it was
+in the political life of a free imperial city; though even the rich
+extravagances of Aristophanes&rsquo; burlesque was not left wholly
+unreproduced by him. Molière is both a satirist and a humorist;
+he displays at times the sentiments of a loyal courtier, at others
+that gay spirit of opposition which is all but indispensable to
+a popular French wit. His comedies offer elaborate and subtle&mdash;even
+tender&mdash;pictures of human character in its eternal types,
+lively sketches of social follies and literary extravagances, and
+broad appeals to the ordinary sources of vulgar merriment.
+Light and perspicuous in construction, he is master of the delicate
+play of irony, the penetrating force of wit, and the expansive
+gaiety of frolicsome fun. Faithful to the canons of artistic taste,
+and under the sure guidance of true natural humour, his style
+suits itself to every species attempted by him. His morality is the
+reverse of rigid, but its aberrations are not those of prurience,
+nor its laws those of pretence; and, wholly free as he was from
+the didactic aim which is foreign to all true dramatic representation,
+the services rendered by him to his art are not the less
+services rendered to society, concerning which the laughter of
+genuine comedy tells the truth. He raised the comedy of character
+out of the lower sphere of caricature, and in his greatest
+creations subordinated to the highest ends of all dramatic
+composition the plots he so skilfully built, and the pictures of
+the manners he so faithfully reproduced.</p>
+
+<p>Even among the French comic dramatists of this age there
+must have been many who &ldquo;were not aware&rdquo; that Molière
+was its greatest poet. For though he had made the true
+path luminous to them, their efforts were still often
+<span class="sidenote">Molière&rsquo;s contemporaries and successors.</span>
+of a tentative kind, and one was reviving <i>Pathelin</i>
+while another was translating the <i>Andria</i>. A more
+unique attempt was made in one of the very few really
+modern versions of an Aristophanic comedy, which deserves to
+be called an original copy&mdash;the <i>Plaideurs</i> of Racine. The tragic
+poets Quinault and Campistron likewise wrote comedies, one<a name="fa122a" id="fa122a" href="#ft122a"><span class="sp">122</span></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page514" id="page514"></a>514</span>
+or more of which furnished materials to contemporary English
+dramatists, as did one of the felicitous plays in which Boursault
+introduced Mercury and Aesop into the theatrical <i>salon</i>.<a name="fa123a" id="fa123a" href="#ft123a"><span class="sp">123</span></a> Antoine
+Montfleury (1640-1685), Baron and Dancourt, who were actors
+like Molière, likewise wrote comedies. But if the mantle of
+Molière can be said to have fallen upon any of his contemporaries
+or successors, this honour must be ascribed to J. F. Regnard,
+who imitated the great master in both themes and characters,<a name="fa124a" id="fa124a" href="#ft124a"><span class="sp">124</span></a>
+while the skilfulness of his plots, and his gaiety of the treatment
+even of subjects tempting into the by-path of sentimental
+comedy,<a name="fa125a" id="fa125a" href="#ft125a"><span class="sp">125</span></a> entitle him to be regarded as a comic poet of original
+genius. With him C. R. Dufresny occasionally collaborated.</p>
+
+<p>In the next generation (that of Voltaire) comedy gradually&mdash;but
+only gradually&mdash;surrendered for a time the very essence of
+its vitality to the seductions of a hybrid species, which disguised
+its identity under more than a single name. A. R. le Sage,
+who as a comic dramatist at first followed successfully in the
+footsteps of Molière, proved himself on the stage as well as in
+picturesque fiction a keen observer and inimitable satirist of
+human life.<a name="fa126a" id="fa126a" href="#ft126a"><span class="sp">126</span></a> The light texture of the playful and elegant art
+of J. B. L. Gresset was shown on the stage in a character comedy
+of merit;<a name="fa127a" id="fa127a" href="#ft127a"><span class="sp">127</span></a> and in a comedy which reveals something of his
+pointed wit, A. Piron produced something like a new type of
+enduring ridiculousness.<a name="fa128a" id="fa128a" href="#ft128a"><span class="sp">128</span></a> P. C. de Marivaux, the French
+<i>Spectator</i>, is usually supposed to have formed the connecting
+link between the &ldquo;old&rdquo; French comedy and the &ldquo;new&rdquo; and
+bastard variety. Yet, though his minute analysis of the tender
+passion excited the scorn of Voltaire, it should not be overlooked
+that in <i>marivaudage</i> proper the wit holds the balance to the
+sentiment, and that in some of this frequently misjudged writer&rsquo;s
+earlier and most delightful plays the elegance and gaiety of diction
+are as irresistible as the pathetic sentiment, which is in fact rather
+an ingredient in his comedy than the pervading characteristic of
+it.<a name="fa129a" id="fa129a" href="#ft129a"><span class="sp">129</span></a> Some of the comedies of P. H. Destouches no doubt have a
+serious basis, and in his later plays he comes near to a kind of
+drama in which the comic purpose has been virtually submerged.<a name="fa130a" id="fa130a" href="#ft130a"><span class="sp">130</span></a>
+The writer who is actually to be credited with the
+transition to sentimental comedy, and who was fully conscious
+of the change which he was helping to effect, was Nivelle de La
+Chaussée, in whose hands French comedy became a champion of
+the sanctity of marriage, and reproduced the sentiments&mdash;in
+one instance even the characters&mdash;of Richardson.<a name="fa131a" id="fa131a" href="#ft131a"><span class="sp">131</span></a> To his play
+<i>La Fausse Antipathie</i> the author supplied a <i>critique</i>, amounting
+to an apology for the new species of which it was designed as
+an example.</p>
+
+<p>The new species known as <i>comédie larmoyante</i> was now fairly
+in the ascendant; and it would be easy to show how even
+Voltaire, who had deprecated the innovation, had to yield to a
+power greater than his own, and introduced the sentimental
+element into some of his comedies.<a name="fa132a" id="fa132a" href="#ft132a"><span class="sp">132</span></a> The further step, by which
+<i>comédie larmoyante</i> was transformed into <i>tragédie bourgeoise</i>,
+from which the comic element was to all intents and purposes
+extruded, was taken by a great French writer, D. Diderot; to
+whose influence it was largely due that the species which had
+attained to this consummation for more than a generation ruled
+supreme in the dramatic literature of Europe. But the final
+impulse, as Diderot himself virtually acknowledged in the
+<i>entretiens</i> subjoined by him to his <i>Fils naturel</i> (1757), had been
+given by a far humbler citizen of the world of letters, the author
+of <i>The London Merchant</i>. Diderot&rsquo;s own plays were a literary
+rather than a theatrical success. <i>Le Fils naturel ou les épreuves
+de la vertu</i> was not publicly performed till 1771, and then only
+in deference to the determination of a single actor of the Français
+(Molé); nor was the performance of it repeated. Diderot&rsquo;s
+second play, <i>Le Père de famille</i>, printed in 1758 with a <i>Discours
+sur la poésie dramatique</i>, went through a few public performances
+in 1761; and a later revival was unsuccessful. But &ldquo;at a
+distance,&rdquo; as was well said, the effect of Diderot&rsquo;s endeavours, the
+earlier in particular, was extremely great, and Lessing, though
+very critical as to particular points, greatly helped to spread it.
+Diderot had for the first time consciously sought to proclaim the
+theatre an agency of social reform, and to entrust to it as its
+task the propagation of the gospel of philanthropy. Though
+the execution of his dramatic works fell far short of his aims;
+though Madame de Staël was not far wrong in denouncing them
+as exhibiting not nature itself, but &ldquo;the affectation of nature,&rdquo;
+yet they contained, in a measure almost unequalled in the history
+of the modern drama, the fermenting element which never seems
+to subside. Their author announced them as examples of a third
+dramatic form&mdash;the <i>genre sérieux</i>&mdash;which he declared to be the
+consummation of the dramatic art. Making war upon the frigid
+artificiality of classical tragedy, he banished verse from the new
+species. The effect of these plays was intended to spring from
+their truth to nature&mdash;a truth such as no spectator could mistake,
+and which should bring home its moral teachings to the business
+as well as the bosoms of all. The theatre was to become a real
+and realistic school of the principles of society and of the conduct
+of life&mdash;it was, in other words, to usurp functions with which
+it has no concern, and to essay the direct reformation of mankind.
+The idea was neither new nor just; but its speciousness will
+probably continue to commend it to many enthusiastic minds,
+whensoever and in whatsoever shape it is revived.</p>
+
+<p>From this point the history of the French drama becomes
+that of a conflict between an enfeebled artistic school and a
+tendency which is hardly to be dignified by the name
+of a school at all. Among the successful dramatists
+<span class="sidenote">The comedy of the Revolution and the first empire.</span>
+following on Diderot may be mentioned the critical
+and versatile J. F. Marmontel, and more especially
+M. J. Sedaine, who though chiefly working for the opera,
+produced two comedies of acknowledged merit.<a name="fa133a" id="fa133a" href="#ft133a"><span class="sp">133</span></a> P. A. C.
+de Beaumarchais (1732-1799), who for his early sentimental
+plays,<a name="fa134a" id="fa134a" href="#ft134a"><span class="sp">134</span></a> in which he imitated Diderot, invented the appellation
+<i>drame</i>&mdash;so convenient in its vagueness that it became the
+accepted name of the hybrid species to which they belonged&mdash;in
+two works of a very different kind, the famous <i>Barbier de Séville</i>
+and the still more famous <i>Mariage de Figaro</i>, boldly carried
+comedy back into its old Spanish atmosphere of intrigue; but,
+while surpassing all his predecessors in the skill with which he
+constructed his frivolous plots, he drew his characters with a
+lightness and sureness of touch peculiar to himself, animated
+his dialogue with an unparalleled brilliancy of wit, and seasoned
+action as well as dialogue with a political and social meaning,
+which caused his epigrams to become proverbs, and which marks
+his <i>Figaro</i> as a herald of the Revolution. Such plays as these
+were ill suited to the rule of the despot whose vigilance could not
+overlook their significance. The comedy of the empire is, in the
+hands of Collin d&rsquo;Harleville, Louis Picard (1769-1828), A. Duval,
+Étienne and others, mainly a harmless comedy of manners;
+nor was the attempted innovation of N. Lemercier&mdash;who was
+fain to invent a new species, that of historical comedy&mdash;more than
+a flattering self-delusion. The theatre had its share in all the
+movements and changes which ensued in France; though the
+most important revolution which the drama itself was to undergo
+was not one of wholly native origin. Those branches of the
+drama which belong specifically to the history of the opera, or
+which associate themselves with it, are here passed by. Among
+them was the <i>vaudeville</i> (from Val de Vire in Calvados), which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page515" id="page515"></a>515</span>
+began as an interspersion of pantomime with the airs of popular
+songs, and which, after the Italian masks had been removed
+<span class="sidenote">Vaudevilles, etc.</span>
+from it, was cultivated by Ponsard and Marmontel,
+while Sedaine wrote a didactic poem on the subject
+(1756). Sedaine was the father of the <i>opéra-comique</i>
+proper;<a name="fa135a" id="fa135a" href="#ft135a"><span class="sp">135</span></a> Marmontel,<a name="fa136a" id="fa136a" href="#ft136a"><span class="sp">136</span></a> as well as Rousseau,<a name="fa137a" id="fa137a" href="#ft137a"><span class="sp">137</span></a> likewise composed
+<i>opérettes</i>&mdash;a smaller sort of opera, at first of the pastoral variety;
+and these flexible species easily entered into combination. The
+melodrama proper, of which the invention is also attributed to
+Rousseau,<a name="fa138a" id="fa138a" href="#ft138a"><span class="sp">138</span></a> in its latter development became merely a drama
+accentuated by music, though usually in little need of any
+accentuation.</p>
+
+<p>The chief home of the regular drama, however, demanded
+efforts of another kind. At the Théâtre Français, or Comédie
+Française, whose history as that of a single company
+of actors had begun in 1680, the party-strife of the
+<span class="sidenote">The stage.</span>
+times made itself audible; and the most prominent tragic
+poet of the Revolution, M. J. de Chénier, a disciple of Voltaire
+in dramatic poetry as well as in political philosophy, wrote for
+the national stage the historical drama&mdash;with a political moral<a name="fa139a" id="fa139a" href="#ft139a"><span class="sp">139</span></a>&mdash;in
+which in the memorable year 1789 the actor Talma achieved
+his first complete triumph. But the victorious Revolution
+proclaimed among other liberties that of the theatres in Paris,
+of which soon not less than 50 were open. In 1807 the empire
+restricted the number to 9, and reinstated the Théâtre Français
+in sole possession (or nearly such) of the right of performing the
+<span class="sidenote">Transition to the romantic school.</span>
+classic drama. No writer of note was, however,
+tempted or inspired by the rewards and other encouragements
+offered by Napoleon to produce such a
+classic tragedy as the emperor would have willingly
+stamped from out of the earth. The tragedies of C. Delavigne
+represent the transition from the expiring efforts of the classical
+to the ambitious beginnings of the romantic school of the French
+drama.</p>
+
+<p>Of modern romantic drama in France it must suffice to say
+that it derives some of its characteristics from the general
+movement of romanticism which in various ways and
+at various points of time transformed nearly every
+<span class="sidenote">The romantic school.</span>
+modern European literature, others from the rhetorical
+tendency which is a French national feature. Victor
+Hugo was the founder whom it followed in a spirit of high emprise
+to success upon success, his own being the most conspicuous of
+all;<a name="fa140a" id="fa140a" href="#ft140a"><span class="sp">140</span></a> A. Dumas the elder its unshrinking middleman. The
+marvellous fire and grandeur of genius of the former, always in
+extremes but often most sublime at the height of danger, was
+nowhere more signally such than in the drama; Dumas was a
+Briareus, working, however, with many hands besides his own.
+Together with them may, with more or less precision, be classed
+in the romantic school of dramatists A. de Vigny<a name="fa141a" id="fa141a" href="#ft141a"><span class="sp">141</span></a> and George
+Sand,<a name="fa142a" id="fa142a" href="#ft142a"><span class="sp">142</span></a> neither of whom, however, attained to the highest rank
+in the drama, and Jules Sandeau;<a name="fa143a" id="fa143a" href="#ft143a"><span class="sp">143</span></a> A. de Musset, whose originality
+pervades all his plays, but whose later works, more especially
+in his prose &ldquo;proverbs&rdquo; and pieces of a similar kind, have a
+flavour of a delicacy altogether indescribable;<a name="fa144a" id="fa144a" href="#ft144a"><span class="sp">144</span></a> perhaps also
+P. Mérimée (1803-1870), who invented not only Spanish dramas
+but a Spanish dramatist, and who was never more audacious
+than when he seemed most <i>naïf</i>.<a name="fa145a" id="fa145a" href="#ft145a"><span class="sp">145</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The romantic school was not destined to exercise a permanent
+control over French public taste; but it can hardly be said to
+have been overthrown by the brief classical revival begun by
+F. Ponsard, and continued, though in closer contact with modern
+ideas, both by him<a name="fa146a" id="fa146a" href="#ft146a"><span class="sp">146</span></a> and by E. Augier, a dramatist who
+gradually attained to an extraordinary effectiveness in the self-restrained
+<span class="sidenote">Modern schools.</span>
+treatment of social as well as of historical
+themes.<a name="fa147a" id="fa147a" href="#ft147a"><span class="sp">147</span></a> While the theatrical fecundity and the
+remarkable constructive ability of E. Scribe<a name="fa148a" id="fa148a" href="#ft148a"><span class="sp">148</span></a> supplied
+a long series of productions attesting the rapid growth of the
+playwright&rsquo;s mastery over the secrets of his craft the name of his
+competitors is legion. Among them may be mentioned, if only
+as the authors of two of the most successful plays of the historical
+species produced in the century, two writers of great eminence&mdash;C.
+Delavigne<a name="fa149a" id="fa149a" href="#ft149a"><span class="sp">149</span></a> and E. Legouvé.<a name="fa150a" id="fa150a" href="#ft150a"><span class="sp">150</span></a> Later developments of the
+drama bore the impress of a period of social decay, prepared to
+probe its own sufferings, while glad at times to take refuge in
+the gaiety traditional in France in her more light-hearted days,
+but which even then had not yet deserted either French social
+life or the theatre which reflected it. After a fashion which
+would have startled even Diderot, while recalling his efforts
+in the earnestness of its endeavour to arouse moral interests
+to which the theatre had long been a stranger, A. Dumas the
+younger set himself to reform society by means of the stage.<a name="fa151a" id="fa151a" href="#ft151a"><span class="sp">151</span></a>
+But the technical skill which he and contemporary dramatists
+displayed in the execution of their self-imposed task was such as
+had been undreamt of by Diderot. O. Feuillet, more eminent
+as a novelist than on the stage, applied himself, though with
+the aid of fewer prefaces, to the solution of the same or similar
+problems; while the extraordinary versatility of V. Sardou
+and his unfailing constructive skill was applied by him to almost
+every kind of serious, or serio-comic, drama&mdash;even the most
+solid of all.<a name="fa152a" id="fa152a" href="#ft152a"><span class="sp">152</span></a> In the same period, while E. Pailleron revived some
+of the most characteristic tendencies of the best French satirical
+comedy in ridiculing the pompous pretentiousness of learning
+for its own sake,<a name="fa153a" id="fa153a" href="#ft153a"><span class="sp">153</span></a> the light-hearted gaiety of E. Labiche changed
+into something not altogether similar in the productions of the
+comic muse of L. Halévy and H. Meilhac, ranging from the
+licence of the musical burlesque which was the congenial delight
+of the later days of the Second Empire to a species of comedy
+in which the ingredients of bitterness and even of sadness found
+a place.<a name="fa154a" id="fa154a" href="#ft154a"><span class="sp">154</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Dramatic criticism in France has had a material share in the
+maintenance of a deep as well as wide national interest in the
+preservation of a high standard of excellence both in
+the performance of plays and in the plays themselves.
+<span class="sidenote">Tendencies of the drama and of the theatre in France.</span>
+Among its modern representatives the foremost place
+would probably be by common consent allowed to
+F. Sarcey, whose Monday theatrical <i>feuilleton</i> in the
+<i>Temps</i> was long awaited week by week as an oracle of
+dramaturgy. But he was only the first among equals, and the
+successor and the predecessor of writers who have at least
+sought to be equal to a function of real public importance. For
+it seems hardly within the range of probability to suppose that
+the theatre will for many a generation to come lose the hold
+which it has established over the intellectual and moral sympathies
+of nearly the whole of the educated&mdash;to say nothing of a
+great part of the half-educated&mdash;population of France. This
+does not, of course, imply that the creative activity of French
+dramatic literature is certain to endure. Since the great changes
+set in which were consequent upon the disastrous war of 1870,
+French dramatic literature has reflected more than one phase of
+national sentiment and opinion, and has represented the aspirations,
+the sympathies and the philosophy of life of more than one
+class in the community. Thus it has had its episodes of reaction
+in the midst of an onward flow of which it would be difficult to
+predict the end. The tendency of what can only vaguely be
+described as the naturalistic school of writers has corresponded
+to that even more prominent in the dramatic literatures of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page516" id="page516"></a>516</span>
+certain other European nations; but it must be allowed that a
+new poetic will have to be constructed if the freedom of development
+which the dramatic, like all other arts, is entitled to
+claim is to be reconciled to laws deducible from the whole
+previous history of the drama. The reaction towards earlier
+forms has asserted itself in various ways&mdash;through the poetic
+plays of the later years of F. Coppée; in the success (notable for
+reasons other than artistic) of Vicomte H. de Bornier&rsquo;s first
+tragedy; and of late more especially in the dramas&mdash;highly
+original and truly romantic in both form and treatment&mdash;of
+E. Rostand.</p>
+
+<p>The art of acting is not altogether dependent upon the measure
+of contemporary literary productivity, even in France, where
+the connexion between dramatic literature and the stage has
+perhaps been more continuously intimate than in many other
+countries. Talma and Mlle Mars flourished in one of the most
+barren ages of the French literary drama; and though this
+cannot be asserted of the two most brilliant stars of the French
+19th century tragic stage, Rachel and Sarah Bernhardt, or of
+their comic contemporaries from Frédérick-Lemaître down to
+types less unique than the &ldquo;Talma of the boulevards,&rdquo; the
+constantly accumulating experience of the successive schools
+of acting in France may here ensure to the art a future not less
+notable than its past. Moreover, the French theatre has long
+been, and is more than ever likely to continue, an affair of the
+state as well as of the nation; and the judicious policy of not
+leaving the chief theatres at the mercy of shifting fashion and
+the base demands of idleness and sensuality will remain the
+surest guarantee for the maintenance of a high standard both in
+principle and in practice. So long as France continues to maintain
+her ascendancy over other nations in matters of taste, and
+in much else that adorns, brightens and quickens social life,
+the predominant influence of the French theatre over the theatres
+of other nations is likewise assured. But dramatic literature is
+becoming international to a degree hardly dreamt of half a
+century ago; and the distinctive development of the French
+theatre cannot fail to be affected by the success or failure of the
+national drama in retaining and developing its own most characteristic
+qualities. Its history shows periods of marvellously
+rapid advance, of hardly less swift decline, and of frequent
+though at times fitful recovery. Its future may be equally
+varied; but it will remain not less dependent on the conditions
+which in every people, ancient or modern, have proved to be
+indispensable to national vigour and vitality.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. W. W.)</div>
+
+<p><i>Recent French Drama.</i>&mdash;The last twenty-five years of the 19th
+century witnessed an important change in the constructive
+methods, as well as in the moral tendencies, of the French playwrights.
+Of the two leading dramatists who reigned supreme
+over the <i>haute comédie</i> in 1875, one, Émile Augier, had almost
+ended his career, but the other, Alexandre Dumas, was to maintain
+his ascendancy for many years longer. Sardou&rsquo;s fertility
+of invention, and extraordinary cleverness at manipulating a
+complicated intrigue, were also greatly admired, and much was
+expected from Edouard Pailleron&rsquo;s brilliant and&mdash;as it seemed&mdash;inexhaustible
+wit in satirizing the whims and weaknesses of
+high-born and highly-cultured society. Alexandre Dumas had
+created and still monopolized the problem play, of which <i>Le
+Demi-monde</i>, <i>Le Fils naturel</i>, <i>La Question d&rsquo;argent</i>, <i>Les Idées de
+Madame Aubray</i>, <i>La Femme de Claude</i>, <i>Monsieur Alphonse</i>, <i>La
+Visite de noces</i>, <i>L&rsquo;Étrangère</i>, <i>Francillon</i> and <i>Denise</i> may be
+mentioned as the most characteristic specimens. The problem
+play is the presentation of a particular case, with a view to a
+general conclusion on some important question of human conduct.
+This afforded the author, who was, in his way, a moralist and a
+reformer, excellent opportunities for humorous discussions and
+the display of that familiar eloquence which was his greatest
+gift and most effective faculty. Among other subjects, the social
+position of women had an all-powerful attraction for his mind,
+and many of his later plays were written with the object of
+placing in strong relief the remarkable inequality of the sexes,
+both as regards freedom of action and responsibility, in modern
+marriage. Like all the dramatists of his time, he adhered to
+Scribe&rsquo;s mode of play-writing&mdash;a mixture of the <i>drame bourgeois</i>,
+as initiated by Diderot, and the comedy of character and manners,
+long in vogue&mdash;from the days of Molière, Regnard, Destouches
+and Marivaux, down to the beginning of the 19th century. In
+his prefaces Dumas often undertook the defence of the system
+which, in his estimation, was best calculated to serve the purpose
+of the artist, the humorist and the moralist&mdash;a dramatist being,
+as he conceived, a combination of the three.</p>
+
+<p>Though the majority of French playgoers continued to side
+with him, and to cling to the time-honoured theatrical beliefs,
+a few young men were beginning to murmur against the too
+elaborate mechanism and artificial logic. Scribe and his successors,
+whose plays were a combination of comedy and drama,
+were wont to devote the first act to a brilliant and witty presentation
+of personages, then to crowd the following scenes with
+incidents, until the action was brought to a climax about the
+end of the fourth act, invariably concluding, in the fifth, with an
+optimistic <i>dénouement</i>, just before midnight, the time appointed
+by police regulations for the closing of playhouses. At the same
+time a more serious and far-reaching criticism was levelled at the
+very principles on which the conception of human life was then
+dependent. A new philosophy, based on scientific research,
+had been gradually gaining ground and penetrating the French
+mind. A host of bold writers had been trying, with considerable
+firmness and continuity of purpose, to start a new kind of fiction,
+writing in perfect accordance with the determinist theories of
+Auguste Comte, Darwin and Taine. The long-disputed success
+of the Naturalistic School carried everything before it during
+the years 1875-1885, and its triumphant leaders were tempted
+to make the best of their advantage by annexing a new province
+and establishing a footing on the stage. In this they failed
+signally, either when they were assisted by professional dramatists
+or when left to their own resources. It became evident that
+Naturalism, to be made acceptable on the stage, would have to
+undergo a special process of transformation and be handled in a
+peculiar way. Henry Becque succeeded in embodying the new
+theories in two plays, which at first met with very indifferent
+success, but were revived at a later period, and finally obtained
+permanent recognition in the French theatre&mdash;even with the
+acquiescence of the most learned critics, when they discovered,
+or fancied they discovered, that Becque&rsquo;s comedies agreed, in
+the main, with Molière&rsquo;s conception of dramatic art. In <i>Les
+Corbeaux</i> and <i>La Parisienne</i> the plot is very simple; the episodes
+are incidents taken from ordinary life. No extraneous character
+is introduced to discuss moral and social theories, or to acquaint
+us with the psychology of the real <i>dramatis personae</i>, or to suggest
+humorous observations about the progress of the dramatic action.
+The characters are left to tell their own tale in their own words,
+which are sometimes very comical, sometimes very repulsive,
+but purport to be always true to nature. Human will, which
+was the soul and mainspring of French tragedy in the 17th
+century, and played such a paramount part in the <i>drame bourgeois</i>
+and the <i>haute comédie</i> of the 19th, appears in M. Becque&rsquo;s plays
+to have fallen from its former exalted position and to have ceased
+to be a free agent. It is a mere passive instrument to our inner
+desires and instincts and appetites, which, in their turn, obey
+natural laws. Thus, in Becque&rsquo;s comedies, as in the old Greek
+drama, destiny, not man, is the chief actor, the real but unseen
+protagonist.</p>
+
+<p>Becque was not a prolific writer, and when he died, in 1899,
+it was remarked that he had spent the last ten years of his life in
+comparative inactivity. But during these years his young and
+ardent disciples had spared no effort in putting their master&rsquo;s
+theories to the test. It had occurred to a gifted and enterprising
+actor-manager, named André Antoine, that the time had come
+for trying dramatic experiments in a continued and methodical
+manner. For this purpose he gathered around him a number
+of young authors, and produced their plays before a select
+audience of subscribers, who had paid in advance for their season-tickets.
+The entertainment was a strictly private one. In this
+way Antoine made himself independent of the censors, and at the
+same time was no longer obliged to consider the requirements
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page517" id="page517"></a>517</span>
+of the average playgoer, as is the case with ordinary managers,
+anxious, above all things, to secure long runs. At the Théâtre
+Libre the most successful play was not to be performed for more
+than three nights.</p>
+
+<p>The reform attempted was to consist in the elimination of what
+was contrary to nature in Dumas&rsquo;s and Augier&rsquo;s comedies: of
+the <i>intrigue parallèle</i> or underplot, of the over-numerous and
+improbable incidents which followed the first act and taxed the
+spectator&rsquo;s memory to the verge of fatigue; and, lastly, of the
+conventional <i>dénouement</i> for which there was no justification.
+A true study of character was to take the place of Sardou&rsquo;s
+complicated fabrications and Dumas&rsquo;s problem plays. The
+authors would present the spectator with a fragment of life, but
+would force no conclusion upon him at the termination of the
+play. The reformation in histrionic art was to proceed apace.
+The actors and actresses of the preceding period had striven
+to give full effect to certain witty utterances of the author, or to
+preserve and to develop their own personal peculiarities or
+oddities. Antoine and his fellow-artists did their best to make
+the public realize, in every word and every gesture, the characteristic
+features and ruling passions of the men and women they were
+supposed to represent.</p>
+
+<p>It was in the early autumn of 1887 that the Théâtre Libre
+opened its doors for the first time. It struggled on for eight
+years amidst unfailing curiosity, but not without encountering
+some adverse, or even derisive, criticism from a considerable
+portion of the public and the press. The Théâtre Libre brought
+under public notice such men as George Courteline and George
+Ancey, who gave respectively, in <i>Bonbouroche</i> and <i>La Dupe</i>,
+specimens of a comic vein called the &ldquo;<i>comique cruel</i>.&rdquo; Fabre, in
+<i>L&rsquo;Argent</i>, approached if not surpassed his master, Henry Becque.
+Brieux, in <i>Blanchette</i>, gave promise of talent, which he has since
+in a great measure justified. In <i>Les Fossiles</i> and <i>L&rsquo;Envers d&rsquo;une
+sainte</i>, by François de Curel, were found evidences of dramatic
+vigour and concentrated energy, allied with a remarkable gift
+for the minute analysis of feeling. Antoine&rsquo;s activity was not
+exclusively confined to the efforts of the French Naturalistic
+School; he included the Norwegian drama in his programme,
+and successively produced several of Ibsen&rsquo;s plays. They
+received a large amount of attention from the critics, the views
+then expressed ranging from the wildest enthusiasm to the
+bitterest irony. Francisque Sarcey was decidedly hostile, and
+Jules Lemaître, who ranked next to him in authority, ventured
+to suggest that Ibsen&rsquo;s ideas were nothing better than long-discarded
+social and literary paradoxes, borrowed from Pierre
+Leroux through George Sand, and returned to the French
+market as novelties. Ibsen was not understood by the French
+public at large, though his influence could be clearly traced on
+thoughtful men like Paul Hervieu and François de Curel.</p>
+
+<p>The authors of the Théâtre Libre were sadly wanting in tact
+and patience. They went at once to extremes, and, while trying
+to free themselves from an obsolete form of drama, fell into a state
+of anarchy. If a too elaborate plot is a fault, no plot at all is an
+absurdity. The old school had been severely taken to task for
+devoting the first act to the delineation of character, and the
+delineation of character was now found to have extended over
+the whole play; and worse still, most of these young men
+seemed to find pleasure in importing a low vocabulary on to the
+stage; they made it their special object to place before the spectator
+revolting pictures of the grossest immorality. In this they
+were supported by a knot of noisy and unwise admirers, whose
+misplaced approval largely contributed towards bringing an
+otherwise useful and interesting undertaking into disrepute.
+The result was that after the lapse of eight years the little group
+collected round Antoine had lost in cohesion and spirit, that it was
+both less hopeful and less compact than it had been at the outset
+of the campaign. But some authors who had kept aloof from
+the movement were not slow in reaping the moral and intellectual
+profit of these tentative experiments. Among them must be
+cited George de Porto-Riche, Henri Lavedan, Paul Hervieu,
+Maurice Donnay and Jules Lemaître. Alone among the authors
+of the Théâtre Libre, É. Brieux secured an assured position on
+the regular stage. Instead of attacking the vices and follies of his
+times, he has made a name by satirizing the weak points or the
+wrong application of certain fundamental principles by which
+modern institutions are supported. He mocked at universal
+suffrage in <i>L&rsquo;Engrenage</i>, at art in <i>Ménages d&rsquo;artistes</i>, at popular
+instruction in <i>Blanchette</i>, at charity in <i>Les Bienfaiteurs</i>, at
+science in <i>L&rsquo;Évasion</i>, and then at law in <i>La Robe rouge</i>.
+Of <i>Les Trois Filles de M. Dupont</i>, one is an old maid with a strong
+bent towards mysticism, another is a star in the demi-monde,
+and the third is married. Neither religion, nor free love, nor
+marriage has made one of the three happy. The strange fact
+about Brieux is that he propounds his uncomfortable ideas with
+an incredible amount of dash and spirit.</p>
+
+<p>All the plays written by the above-mentioned authors, and by
+those who follow in their steps, have been said to constitute
+the &ldquo;new comedy.&rdquo; But one may question the advisability
+of applying the same name to literary works which present so
+little, if any, family likeness. It was tacitly agreed to remove
+the intricacies of the plot and the forced <i>dénouement</i>. But no one
+will trace in those plays the uniformity of moral purpose which
+would justify us in comprising them under the same head, as
+products of the same school. Then, before the Naturalistic,
+or half-Naturalistic, School had attained to a practical result or
+taken a definite shape, a wave of Romanticism swept over the
+French public, and in a measure brought back the old artistic
+and literary dogmas propounded by Victor Hugo and the generation
+of 1830. Signs of a revival in French dramatic poetry were
+not lacking. The success of <i>La Fille de Roland</i>, by the Vicomte
+de Bornier, was restricted to the more cultivated classes, but the
+vogue of Jean Richepin&rsquo;s <i>Chemineau</i> was at once general and
+lasting. <i>Cyrano de Bergerac</i>, produced in the last days of 1897,
+brought a world-wide reputation to its young author, Edmond
+Rostand. This play combines sparkling wit and brilliancy
+of imagination with delightful touches of pathos and delicate
+tenderness. It was assumed that Rostand was endowed to an
+extraordinary degree both with theatrical genius and the poetic
+faculty. <i>L&rsquo;Aiglon</i> fell short of this too favourable judgment.
+It is more a dramatic poem than a real drama, and the author
+handles history with the same childish incompetence and inaccuracy
+as Hugo did in <i>Cromwell</i>, in <i>Ruy Blas</i> and <i>Hernani</i>.
+The persistent approbation of the public seemed, however, to
+indicate a growing taste for poetry, even when unsupported by
+dramatic interest&mdash;a curious symptom among the least poetical
+of modern European races.</p>
+
+<p>To sum up, the French, as regards the present condition of
+their drama, were confronted with two alternative movements.
+Naturalism, furthered by science and philosophy, was contending
+against traditions three centuries old, and seemed unable to
+crystallize into masterly works; while romantic drama, founded
+on vague and exploded theories, had become embodied in productions
+of real artistic beauty, which have been warmly welcomed
+by the general playgoer. It should nevertheless be noted
+that in <i>Cyrano</i> and <i>L&rsquo;Aiglon</i> human will, which was the main-spring
+of Corneille&rsquo;s tragedy and Hugo&rsquo;s drama, tried to reassert
+itself, but was baffled by circumstance, and had to submit to
+inexorable laws. This showed that the victorious school would
+have to reckon with the doctrines of the defeated party, and
+suggested that a determinist theatre might be the ultimate
+outcome of a compromise.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. Fi.)</div>
+
+<p class="center pt2">(f) <i>English Drama.</i></p>
+
+<p>Among the nations of Germanic descent the English alone
+succeeded, mainly through the influence of the Renaissance
+movement, in transforming the later growths of the medieval
+drama into the beginnings of a great and enduring national
+dramatic literature, second neither in volume nor in splendour
+to any other in the records of the world. And, although in
+England, as elsewhere, the preparatory process had been continuing
+for some generations, its consummation coincided with
+one of the greatest epochs of English national history, and indeed
+forms one of the chief glories of that epoch itself; so that, in
+thinking or speaking of the Elizabethan age and the Elizabethan
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page518" id="page518"></a>518</span>
+drama, the one can scarcely be thought or spoken of without
+the other.</p>
+
+<p>It is of course conceivable that the regular drama, or drama
+proper, might in England have been called into life without the
+direct influence of classical examples. Already in the
+reign of Edward VI. the spirit of the Reformation had
+<span class="sidenote">Beginnings of the regular drama.</span>
+(with the aid of a newly awakened desire for the study
+of history, which was no doubt largely due to Italian
+examples) quickened the relatively inanimate species of the
+morality into the beginning of a new development.<a name="fa155a" id="fa155a" href="#ft155a"><span class="sp">155</span></a> But
+though the <i>Kyng Johan</i> of Bale (much as this author abhorred
+the chronicles as written by ecclesiastics) came very near to the
+chronicle histories, there is no proof whatever that the work,
+long hidden away for very good reasons, actually served as a
+transition to the new species; and Bale&rsquo;s production was entirely
+unknown to the particular chronicle history which treated the
+same subject. Before the earliest example of this transitional
+species was produced, English tragedy had directly connected
+its beginnings with classical models.</p>
+
+<p>Much in the same way, nothing could have been more natural
+and in accordance with the previous sluggish evolution of the
+English drama than that a gradual transition, however complete
+in the end, should have been effected from the moralities to
+comedy. It was not, however, John Heywood himself who was
+to accomplish any such transition; possibly, he was himself
+the author of the morality <i>Genus humanum</i> performed at the
+coronation feast of Queen Mary, whose council speedily forbade
+the performance of interludes without the queen&rsquo;s licence. Nor
+are we able to conjecture the nature of the pieces bearing this
+name composed by Richard Farrant, afterwards the master of
+the Children of St George&rsquo;s at Windsor, or of William Hunnis,
+master under Queen Elizabeth of the Children of the Chapel
+Royal. But the process of transition is visible in productions,
+also called interludes, but charged with serious purpose, such
+as T. Ingeland&rsquo;s noteworthy <i>Disobedient Child</i> (before 1560),
+and plays in which the element of abstractions is perceptibly
+yielding to that of real personages, or in which the characters
+are for the most part historical or the main element in the action
+belongs to the sphere of romantic narrative.<a name="fa156a" id="fa156a" href="#ft156a"><span class="sp">156</span></a> The demonstration
+would, however, be alien to the purpose of indicating the main
+conditions of the growth of the English drama. The immediate
+origin of the earliest extant English comedy must, like that of
+<span class="sidenote">Imitation of classical examples.</span>
+the first English tragedy, be sought, not in the development
+of any popular literary or theatrical antecedents,
+but in the imitation, more or less direct, of classical
+models. This cardinal fact, unmistakable though it
+is, has frequently been ignored or obscured by writers intent
+upon investigating the <i>origines</i> of our drama, and to this day
+remains without adequate acknowledgment in most of the
+literary histories accessible to the great body of students.</p>
+
+<p>It is true that in tracing the entrance of the drama into the
+national literature there is no reason for seeking to distinguish
+very narrowly between the several tributaries to the main stream
+which fertilized this as well as other fields under Renaissance
+culture. The universities then still remained, and for a time
+became more prominently than ever, the leading agents of
+education in all its existent stages; and it is a patent fact that
+no influence could have been so strong upon the Elizabethan
+dramatists as that to which they had been subjected during the
+university life through which the large majority of them had
+passed. The corporate life of the universities, and the enthusiasms
+(habitually unanimous) of their undergraduates and
+younger graduates, communicated this influence, as it were
+automatically, to the students, and to the learned societies
+themselves, of the Inns of Court. In the Tudor, as afterwards
+in the early Stuart, times, these Inns were at once the seminaries
+of loyalty, and the obvious resort for the supply of young men
+of spirit desirous of honouring a learned court by contributing
+to its choicer amusements. Thus, whether we trace them in
+the universities, in the &ldquo;bowers&rdquo; or halls of the lawyers, or in
+the palaces of the sovereign, the beginnings of the English
+academical drama, which in later Elizabethan and Jacobean
+literature cannot claim to be more than a subordinate species
+of the national drama, in an earlier period served as the actual
+link between classical tragedy and comedy and the surviving
+native growths, and supplied the actual impulse towards the
+beginnings of English tragedy and comedy.</p>
+
+<p>The academical drama of the early years of Elizabeth&rsquo;s reign
+and of the preceding part of the Tudor period&mdash;including the
+school-drama in the narrower sense of the term and
+other performances of academical origin&mdash;consisted,
+<span class="sidenote">The earlier academical drama.</span>
+apart from actual reproductions of classical plays in
+original Latin or in Latin versions of the Greek,
+in adaptations of Latin originals, or of Latin or English plays
+directly modelled on classical examples. A notable series of
+plays of this kind was performed in the hall of Christ Church,
+Oxford, from the first year of Edward VI. onward, when N.
+Grimald&rsquo;s <i>Archipropheta</i>, treating in classic form the story of
+St John the Baptist, but introducing the Vice and comic scenes,
+was brought out.<a name="fa157a" id="fa157a" href="#ft157a"><span class="sp">157</span></a> Others were J. Calfhill&rsquo;s <i>Progne</i> and R.
+Edwardes&rsquo; <i>Palaemon and Arcyte</i> (both 1566), and, from about
+1580 onwards, a succession of Latin plays by William Gager,
+beginning with the tragedy <i>Meleager</i>, and including, with other
+tragedies,<a name="fa158a" id="fa158a" href="#ft158a"><span class="sp">158</span></a> a comedy <i>Rivales</i>. Yet another comedy, acted at
+Christ Church, and extolled in 1591 by Harington for &ldquo;harmless
+mirth,&rdquo; was the <i>Bellum grammaticale</i>, or Civil War between
+Nouns and Verbs, which may have been a revision of a comedy
+written by Bale&rsquo;s friend, R. Radcliff, in 1538, but of which in any
+case the ultimate origin was a celebrated Italian allegorical
+treatise.<a name="fa159a" id="fa159a" href="#ft159a"><span class="sp">159</span></a> In Cambridge, as is not surprising, the activity of the
+early academical friends and favourers of the drama was even
+more marked. At St John&rsquo;s College, where Bishop Watson&rsquo;s
+Latin tragedy called <i>Absolom</i> was produced within the years
+1534 and 1544, plays were, according to Ascham, repeatedly
+performed about the middle of the century; at Christ&rsquo;s a
+controversial drama in the Lutheran interest called <i>Pammachius</i>,
+of which Gardiner complained to the privy council, and which
+seems afterwards to have been translated by Bale, was acted in
+1544; and at Trinity there was a long series of performances
+which began with Christopherson&rsquo;s <i>Jephtha</i> about 1546, and
+consisted partly of reproductions of classical works,<a name="fa160a" id="fa160a" href="#ft160a"><span class="sp">160</span></a> partly of
+plays and &ldquo;shows&rdquo; unnamed; while on one occasion at all
+events, in 1559, &ldquo;two English plays&rdquo; were produced. In 1560
+was acted, doubtless in the original Latin, and not in Palsgrave&rsquo;s
+English translation (1540) for schoolboys, the celebrated
+&ldquo;comedy&rdquo; of <i>Acolastus</i>, by W. Gnaphaeus, on the story of the
+Prodigal Son. The long series of Trinity plays interspersed with
+occasional plays at King&rsquo;s (where Udall&rsquo;s <i>Ezechias</i> was produced
+in English in 1564), at St John&rsquo;s (where T. Legge&rsquo;s <i>Richardus III.</i>
+was first acted in 1573), and, as will be seen below, at Christ&rsquo;s,
+continued, with few noticeable breaks, up to the time when
+the Elizabethan drama was in full activity.<a name="fa161a" id="fa161a" href="#ft161a"><span class="sp">161</span></a> Among the
+&ldquo;academical&rdquo; plays not traceable to any particular university
+source may be mentioned, as acted at court so early as the end
+of 1565 or the beginning of 1566, the Latin <i>Sapientia Solomonis</i>,
+which generally follows the biblical narrative, but introduces a
+comic element in the sayings of the popular Marcolph, who here
+appears as a court fool.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page519" id="page519"></a>519</span></p>
+
+<p>It was under the direct influence of the Renaissance, viewed
+primarily, in England as elsewhere, as a revival of classical
+studies, and in connexion with the growing taste in
+university and cognate circles of society, and at a
+<span class="sidenote">Influence of Seneca.</span>
+court which prided itself on its love and patronage of
+learning, that English tragedy and comedy took their actual
+beginnings. Those of comedy, as it would seem, preceded
+those of tragedy by a few years. Already in Queen Mary&rsquo;s reign,
+translation was found the readiest form of expression offering
+itself to literary scholarship; and Italian examples helped to
+commend Seneca, the most modern of the ancient tragedians,
+and the imitator of the most human among the masters of Attic
+tragedy, as a favourite subject for such exercises. In the very
+year of Elizabeth&rsquo;s accession&mdash;seven years after Jodelle had
+brought out the earliest French tragedy&mdash;a group of English
+university scholars began to put forth a series of translations of
+the ten tragedies of Seneca, which one of them, T. Newton, in
+1581 collected into a single volume. The earliest of these
+versions was that of the <i>Troades</i> (1559) by Jasper Heywood,
+a son of the author of the <i>Interludes</i>. He also published the
+<i>Thyestes</i> (1560) and the <i>Hercules Furens</i> (1561); the names of
+his fellow-translators were A. Neville, T. Nuce, J. Studley and
+the T. Newton aforesaid. These translations, which occasionally
+include original interpolations (&ldquo;additions,&rdquo; a term which was
+to become a technical one in English dramaturgy), are in no
+instance in blank verse, the favourite metre of the dialogue being
+the couplets of fourteen-syllable lines best known through
+Chapman&rsquo;s <i>Homer</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The authority of Seneca, once established in the English literary
+world, maintained itself there long after English drama had
+emancipated itself from the task of imitating this pallid
+model, and, occasionally, Seneca&rsquo;s own prototype,
+<span class="sidenote">Earliest English tragedies.</span>
+Euripides.<a name="fa162a" id="fa162a" href="#ft162a"><span class="sp">162</span></a> Nor can it be doubted that some translation
+of the Latin tragic poet had at one time or another
+passed through Shakespeare&rsquo;s own hands. But what is of present
+importance is that to the direct influence of Seneca is to be ascribed
+the composition of the first English tragedy which we possess.
+Of <i>Gorboduc</i> (afterwards re-named <i>Ferrex and Porrex</i>), first acted
+on the 18th of January 1562 by the members of the Inner Temple
+before Queen Elizabeth, the first three acts are stated to have
+been written by T. Norton; the rest of the play (if not more)
+was the work of T. Sackville, afterwards Lord Buckhurst and
+earl of Dorset, whom Jasper Heywood praised for his sonnets,
+but who is better known for his leading share in The <i>Mirror for
+Magistrates</i>. Though the subject of <i>Gorboduc</i> is a British legend,
+and though the action is neither copied nor adapted from any
+treated by Seneca, yet the resemblance between this tragedy
+and the <i>Thebais</i> is too strong to be fortuitous. In all formal
+matters&mdash;chorus, messengers, &amp;c.&mdash;<i>Gorboduc</i> adheres to the
+usage of classical tragedy; but the authors show no respect for
+the unities of time or place. Strong in construction, the tragedy
+is&mdash;like its model, Seneca&mdash;weak in characterization. The
+dialogue, it should be noticed, is in blank verse; and the device
+of the <i>dumb-show</i>, in which the contents of each act are in succession
+set forth in pantomime only, is employed at once to
+instruct and to stimulate the spectator.</p>
+
+<p>The nearly contemporary <i>Apius and Virginia</i> (c. 1563), though
+it takes its subject&mdash;destined to become a perennial one on the
+modern stage&mdash;from Roman story; the <i>Historie of Horestes</i> (pr.
+1567); and T. Preston&rsquo;s <i>Cambises King of Percia</i> (1569-1570),
+are somewhat rougher in form, and, the first and last of them at
+all events, more violent in diction, than <i>Gorboduc</i>. They still
+contain elements of the moralities (above all the Vice) and none
+of the formal features of classical tragedy. But a <i>Julyus Sesyar</i>
+seems to have been performed, in precisely the same circumstances
+as <i>Gorboduc</i>, so early as 1562; and, four years later, G. Gascoigne,
+the author of the satire <i>The Steele Glass</i>, produced with the aid
+of two associates (F. Kinwelmersh and Sir Christopher Yelverton,
+who wrote an epilogue), <i>Jocasta</i>, a virtual translation of L. Dolce&rsquo;s
+<i>Giocasta</i>, which was an adaptation, probably, of R. Winter&rsquo;s
+Latin translation of the <i>Phoenissae</i> of Euripides.<a name="fa163a" id="fa163a" href="#ft163a"><span class="sp">163</span></a> Between the
+years 1567 and 1580 a large proportion of the plays presented at
+court by choir- or school-boys, and by various companies of
+actors, were taken from Greek legend or Roman history; as was
+R. Edwardes&rsquo; <i>Damon and Pithias</i> (perhaps as early as 1564-1565),
+which already shades off from tragedy into what soon came to
+be called tragi-comedy.<a name="fa164a" id="fa164a" href="#ft164a"><span class="sp">164</span></a> Simultaneously with the influence,
+exercised directly or indirectly, of classical literature, that of
+Italian, both dramatic and narrative, with its marked tendency
+to treat native themes, asserted itself, and, while diversifying
+the current of early English tragedy, infused into it a long-abiding
+element of passion. There are sufficient grounds for
+concluding that a play on the subject of <i>Romeo and Juliet</i>, which
+L. da Porto and M. Bandello had treated in prose narrative&mdash;that
+of the latter having through a French version formed itself
+into an English poem&mdash;was seen on an English stage in or before
+1562. <i>Gismonde of Salerne</i>, a play founded on Boccaccio, was
+acted before Queen Elizabeth at the Inner Temple in 1568,
+nearly a generation before it was published, rewritten in blank
+verse by R. Wilmot, one of the performers, then in holy orders;
+G. Whetstone&rsquo;s <i>Promos and Cassandra</i>, founded on G. Cinthio
+(from which came the plot of <i>Measure for Measure</i>), followed,
+printed in 1578; and there were other &ldquo;casts of Italian devices&rdquo;
+belonging to this age, in which the choice of a striking theme
+still seemed the chief preoccupation of English tragic poets.</p>
+
+<p>From the double danger which threatened English tragedy
+in the days of its infancy&mdash;that it would congeal on the wintry
+heights of classical themes, or dissolve its vigour in the glowing
+heat of a passion fiercer than that of the Italians&mdash;<i>Ingleso
+Italianato è un diavolo incarnato</i>&mdash;it was preserved more than by
+any other cause by its happy association with the traditions of
+the national history. An exceptional position might seem to be
+in this respect occupied by T. Hughes&rsquo; interesting tragedy <i>The
+Misfortunes of Arthur</i> (1587). But the author of this play&mdash;in
+certain portions of whose framework there were associated with
+him seven other members of Gray&rsquo;s Inn, including Francis Bacon,
+and which was presented before Queen Elizabeth like <i>Gorboduc</i>&mdash;in
+truth followed the example of the authors of that work both
+in choice of theme, in details of form, and in a general though
+far from servile imitation of the manner of Seneca; nor does he
+represent any very material advance upon the first English
+tragedy.</p>
+
+<p>Fortunately, at the very time when from such beginnings
+as those just described the English tragic drama was to set forth
+upon a course in which it was to achieve so much, a
+new sphere of activity suggested itself. And in this,
+<span class="sidenote">Chronicle histories.</span>
+after a few more or less tentative efforts, English
+dramatists very speedily came to feel at home. In their direct
+dramatization of passages or portions of English history (in
+which the doings and sufferings of King Arthur could only by
+courtesy or poetic licence be included) classical models would be
+of scant service, while Italian examples of the treatment of
+national historical subjects, having to deal with material so
+wholly different, could not be followed with advantage. The
+native species of the <i>chronicle history</i>, which designedly assumed
+this name in order to make clear its origin and purpose, essayed
+nothing more or less than a dramatic version of an existing
+chronicle. Obviously, while the transition from half historical,
+half epical narrative often implied carrying over into the new
+form some of the features of the old, it was only when the subject
+matter had been remoulded and recast that a true dramatic action
+could result. But the <i>histories</i> to be found among the plays of
+Shakespeare and one or two other Elizabethans are true dramas,
+and it would be inconvenient to include these in the transitional
+species of those known as <i>chronicle histories</i>. Among these ruder
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page520" id="page520"></a>520</span>
+compositions, which intermixed the blank verse introduced on
+the Stage by <i>Gorboduc</i> with prose, and freely combined or placed
+side by side tragic and comic ingredients, we have but few
+distinct examples. One of these is <i>The Famous Victories of
+Henry the Fifth</i>, known to have been acted before 1588; in
+which both the verse and the prose are frequently of a very rude
+sort, while it is neither divided into acts or scenes nor, in general,
+constructed with any measure of dramatic skill. But its vigour
+and freshness are considerable, and in many passages we recognize
+familiar situations and favourite figures in later masterpieces of
+the English historical drama. The second is <i>The Troublesome
+Raigne of King John</i>, in two parts (printed in 1591), an epical
+narrative transferred to the stage, neither a didactic effort like
+Bale&rsquo;s, nor a living drama like Shakespeare&rsquo;s, but a far from
+contemptible treatment of its historical theme. <i>The True
+Chronicle History of King Leir</i> (acted in 1593) in form resembles
+the above, though it is not properly on a national subject (its
+story is taken from Geoffrey of Monmouth); but, with all its
+defects, it seems only to await the touch of the master&rsquo;s hand to
+become a tragedy of supreme effectiveness. A yet further step
+was taken in the <i>Tragedy of Sir Thomas More</i> (c. 1590)&mdash;in
+which Shakespeare&rsquo;s hand has been thought traceable, and
+which deserves its designation of &ldquo;tragedy&rdquo; not so much on
+account of the relative nearness of the historical subject to the
+date of its dramatic treatment, as because of the tragic responsibility
+of character here already clearly worked out.</p>
+
+<p>Such had been the beginnings of tragedy in England up to
+the time when the genius of English dramatists was impelled
+by the spirit that dominates a great creative epoch
+of literature to seize the form ready to their hands.
+<span class="sidenote">Earliest comedies.</span>
+The birth of English comedy, at all times a process
+of less labour and eased by an always ready popular responsiveness
+to the most tentative efforts of art, had slightly preceded
+that of her serious sister. As has been seen from the brief review
+given above of the early history of the English academical
+drama, isolated Latin comedies had been performed in the original
+or in English versions as early as the reign of Henry VIII.&mdash;perhaps
+even earlier; while the morality and its direct descendant,
+the interlude, pointed the way towards popular treatment in the
+vernacular of actions and characters equally well suited for the
+diversion of Roman, Italian and English audiences. Thus
+there was no innovation in the adaptation by N. Udal (<i>q.v.</i>) of
+the <i>Miles Gloriosus</i> of Plautus under the title of <i>Ralph Roister
+Doister</i>, which may claim to be the earliest extant English
+comedy. It has a genuinely popular vein of humour, and the
+names fit the characters after a fashion familiar to the moralities.
+The second English comedy&mdash;in the opinion of at least one high
+authority our first&mdash;is <i>Misogonus</i>, which was certainly written
+as early as 1560. Its scene is laid in Italy; but the Vice, commonly
+called &ldquo;Cacurgus,&rdquo; is both by himself and others frequently
+designated as &ldquo;Will Summer,&rdquo; in allusion to Henry
+VIII.&rsquo;s celebrated jester. <i>Gammer Gurton&rsquo;s Needle</i>, long regarded
+as the earliest of all <i>English</i> comedies, was printed in 1575, as
+acted &ldquo;not long ago in Christ&rsquo;s College, Cambridge.&rdquo; Its
+authorship was till recently attributed to John Still (afterwards
+bishop of Bath and Wells), who was a resident M.A. at Christ&rsquo;s,
+when a play was performed there in 1566. But the evidence of
+his authorship is inconclusive, and the play &ldquo;made by Mr. S.,
+Master of Arts,&rdquo; may be by William Stevenson, or by some other
+contemporary. This comedy is slighter in plot and coarser in
+diction than <i>Ralph Roister Doister</i>, but by no means unamusing.</p>
+
+<p>In the main, however, early English comedy, while occasionally
+introducing characters and scenes of thoroughly native origin
+and complexion (<i>e.g.</i> Grim, the Collier of Croydon),<a name="fa165a" id="fa165a" href="#ft165a"><span class="sp">165</span></a> was content
+to borrow its themes from classical or Italian sources.<a name="fa166a" id="fa166a" href="#ft166a"><span class="sp">166</span></a> G.
+Gascoigne&rsquo;s <i>Supposes</i> (acted at Gray&rsquo;s Inn in 1566) is a translation
+of <i>I Suppositi</i> of Ariosto, remarkable for the flowing facility of
+its prose. While, on the one hand, the mixture of tragic with
+comic motives, which was to become so distinctive a feature of the
+Elizabethan drama, was already leading in the direction of tragi-comedy,
+the precedent of the Italian pastoral drama encouraged
+the introduction of figures and stories derived from classical
+mythology; and the rapid and diversified influence of Italian
+comedy, in close touch with Italian prose fiction, seemed likely
+to affect and quicken continuously the growth of the lighter
+branch of the English drama.</p>
+
+<p>Out of such promises as these the glories of English drama
+were ripened by the warmth and light of the great Elizabethan
+age&mdash;of which the beginnings may fairly be reckoned
+from the third decennium of the reign to which it owes
+<span class="sidenote">Conditions of the early Elizabethan drama.</span>
+its name. The queen&rsquo;s steady love of dramatic entertainments
+could not of itself have led, though it undoubtedly
+contributed, to such a result. Against the
+attacks which a nascent puritanism was already directing
+against the stage by the hands of J. Northbrooke,<a name="fa167a" id="fa167a" href="#ft167a"><span class="sp">167</span></a> the repentant
+playwright S. Gosson,<a name="fa168a" id="fa168a" href="#ft168a"><span class="sp">168</span></a> P. Stubbes,<a name="fa169a" id="fa169a" href="#ft169a"><span class="sp">169</span></a> and others,<a name="fa170a" id="fa170a" href="#ft170a"><span class="sp">170</span></a> were to be set
+not only the frugal favour of royalty and the more liberal
+patronage of great nobles,<a name="fa171a" id="fa171a" href="#ft171a"><span class="sp">171</span></a> but the fact that literary authorities
+were already weighing the endeavours of the English drama in
+the balance of respectful criticism, and that in the abstract
+at least the claims of both tragedy and comedy were upheld by
+those who shrank from the desipience of idle pastimes. It is
+noticeable that this period in the history of the English theatre
+coincides with the beginning of the remarkable series of visits
+made to Germany by companies of English comedians, which
+did not come to an end till the period immediately before the
+Thirty Years&rsquo; War, and were occasionally resumed after its close.
+As at home the popularity of the stage increased, the functions
+of playwright and actor, whether combined or not, began to
+hold out a reasonable promise of personal gain. Nor, above all,
+was that higher impulse which leads men of talent and genius
+to attempt forms of art in harmony with the tastes and tendencies
+of their times wanting to the group of writers who can be
+remembered by no nobler name than that of Shakespeare&rsquo;s
+predecessors.</p>
+
+<p>The lives of all of these are, of course, in part contemporary
+with the life of Shakespeare himself; nor was there any substantial
+difference in the circumstances under which
+most of them, and he, led their lives as dramatic
+<span class="sidenote">The predecessors of Shakespeare.</span>
+authors. A distinction was manifestly kept up
+between poets and playwrights. Of the contempt
+entertained for the actor&rsquo;s profession some fell to the share of
+the dramatist; &ldquo;even Lodge,&rdquo; says C. M. Ingleby, &ldquo;who had
+indeed never trod the stage, but had written several plays, and
+had no reason to be ashamed of his antecedents, speaks of the
+vocation of the play-maker as sharing the odium attaching to
+the actor.&rdquo; Among the dramatists themselves good fellowship
+and literary partnership only at times asserted themselves as
+stronger than the tendency to mutual jealousy and abuse; of all
+chapters of dramatic history, the annals of the early Elizabethan
+stage perhaps least resemble those of Arcadia.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, the theatre had hardly found its strength as a
+powerful element in the national life, when it was involved in
+a bitter controversy, with which it had originally no
+connexion, on behalf of an ally whose sympathy with
+<span class="sidenote">History of the Elizabethan stage.</span>
+it can only have been of a very limited kind. The
+Marprelate controversy, into which, among leading
+playwrights, Lyly and Nashe were drawn, in 1589 led to a stoppage
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page521" id="page521"></a>521</span>
+of stage-plays which proved only temporary; but the general
+result of the attempt to make the stage a vehicle of political abuse
+and invective was beyond a doubt to coarsen and degrade both
+plays and players. Scurrilous attempts and rough repression
+continued during the years 1590-1593; and the true remedy
+was at last applied, when from about 1594, the chief London
+actors became divided into two great rival companies&mdash;the lord
+chamberlain&rsquo;s and the lord admiral&rsquo;s&mdash;which alone received
+licences. Instead of half a dozen or more companies whose
+jealousies communicated themselves to the playwrights belonging
+to them, there were now, besides the Children of the Chapel, two
+established bodies of actors, directed by steady and, in the full
+sense of the word, respectable men. To the lord chamberlain&rsquo;s
+company, which, after being settled at &ldquo;the Theater&rdquo; (opened as
+early as 1576 or 1577), moved to Blackfriars, purchased by James
+Burbage, in 1596, and to the Globe on the Bankside in 1599,
+Shakespeare and Richard Burbage, the greatest of the Elizabethan
+actors, belonged; the lord admiral&rsquo;s was managed by
+Philip Henslowe, the author of the <i>Diary</i>, and Edward Alleyn,
+the founder of Dulwich College, and was ultimately, in 1600,
+settled at the Fortune. In these and other houses were performed
+the plays of the Elizabethan dramatists, with few
+adventitious aids, the performance being crowded into a brief
+afternoon, when it is obvious that only the idler sections of the
+population could attend. No woman might appear at a playhouse,
+unless masked; on the stage, down to the Restoration,
+women&rsquo;s parts continued to be acted by boys.</p>
+
+<p>It is futile to take no account of such outward circumstances
+as these and many which cannot here be noted in surveying the
+progress of the literature of the Elizabethan drama. Like that
+of the Restoration&mdash;and like that of the present day&mdash;it was
+necessarily influenced in its method and spirit of treatment by
+the conditions and restrictions which governed the place and
+circumstances of the performance of plays, including the construction
+of theatre and stage, as well as by the social composition
+of its audiences, which the local accommodation, not less than
+the entertainment, provided for them had to take into account.
+But to these things a mere allusion must suffice. It may safely be
+said, at the same time, that no dramatic literature which has
+any claim to rank beside the Elizabethan&mdash;not that of Athens
+nor those of modern Italy and Spain, nor those of France and
+Germany in their classic periods&mdash;had to contend against such
+odds; a mighty inherent strength alone ensured to it the vitality
+which it so triumphantly asserted, and which enabled it to run
+so unequalled a course.</p>
+
+<p>Among Shakespeare&rsquo;s predecessors, John Lyly, whose plays
+were all written for the Children of the Chapel and the Children
+of St Paul&rsquo;s, holds a position apart in English dramatic
+literature. The euphuism, to which his famous
+<span class="sidenote">Lyly.</span>
+romance gave its name, likewise distinguishes his mythological,<a name="fa172a" id="fa172a" href="#ft172a"><span class="sp">172</span></a>
+quasi-historical,<a name="fa173a" id="fa173a" href="#ft173a"><span class="sp">173</span></a> allegorical,<a name="fa174a" id="fa174a" href="#ft174a"><span class="sp">174</span></a> and satirical<a name="fa175a" id="fa175a" href="#ft175a"><span class="sp">175</span></a> comedies. But his
+real service to the progress of English drama is to be sought
+neither in his choice of subjects nor in his imagery&mdash;though to
+his fondness for fairylore and for the whole phantasmagoria of
+legend, classical as well as romantic, his contemporaries, and
+Shakespeare in particular, were indebted for a stimulative
+precedent, and though in his <i>Endimion</i> at all events he excites
+curiosity by an allegorical treatment of contemporary characters
+and events. It does not even lie in the songs interspersed in his
+plays, though none of his predecessors had in the slightest degree
+anticipated the lyric grace which distinguishes some of these
+incidental efforts. It consists in his adoption of Gascoigne&rsquo;s
+innovation of writing plays in prose; and in his having, though
+under the fetters of an affected and pretentious style, given the
+first example of brisk and vivacious dialogue&mdash;an example to
+<span class="sidenote">Kyd.</span>
+which even such successors as Shakespeare and Jonson
+were indebted. Thomas Kyd, the author of the
+<i>Spanish Tragedy</i> (preceded or followed by the first part of
+<i>Jeronimo</i>), and probably of several plays whose author was
+unnamed, possesses some of the characteristics, but none of the
+genius, of the greatest tragic dramatist who preceded Shakespeare.
+<span class="sidenote">Marlowe.</span>
+No slighter tribute than this is assuredly the
+due of Christopher Marlowe, whose violent end prematurely
+closed a poetic career of dazzling brilliancy. His
+earliest play, <i>Tamburlaine the Great</i>, in which the use of blank
+verse was introduced upon the English public stage, while full
+of the &ldquo;high astounding terms&rdquo; of an extravagant and often
+bombastic diction, is already marked by the passion which was
+the poet&rsquo;s most characteristic feature, and which was to find
+expression so luxuriantly beautiful in his <i>Doctor Faustus,</i> and
+so surpassingly violent in his <i>Jew of Malta</i>. His masterpiece,
+<i>Edward II.</i>, is a tragedy of singular pathos and of a dramatic
+<span class="sidenote">Peele.</span>
+power unapproached by any of his contemporaries.
+George Peele was a far more versatile writer even as
+a dramatist; but, though his plays contain passages of exquisite
+beauty, not one of them is worthy to be ranked by the side of
+Marlowe&rsquo;s <i>Edward II.</i>, compared with which, if indeed not
+absolutely, Peele&rsquo;s <i>Chronicle of Edward I.</i> still stands on the
+level of the species to which its title and character alike assign it.
+His finest play is undoubtedly <i>David and Bethsabe</i>, which
+resembles <i>Edward I.</i> in construction, but far surpasses it in
+beauty of language and versification, besides treating its subject
+with greatly superior dignity. If the difference between Peele
+and Shakespeare is still, in many respects besides that of genius,
+an immeasurable one, we seem to come into something like a
+<span class="sidenote">Greene.</span>
+Shakespearian atmosphere in more than one passage of
+the plays of the unfortunate Robert Greene&mdash;unfortunate
+perhaps in nothing more enduringly than in the proof
+which he left behind him of his supercilious jealousy of Shakespeare.
+Greene&rsquo;s genius, most conspicuous in plays treating
+English life and scenes, could, notwithstanding his academic
+self-sufficiency, at times free itself from the pedantry apt to
+beset the flight of Peele&rsquo;s and at times even of Marlowe&rsquo;s muse;
+and his most delightful work<a name="fa176a" id="fa176a" href="#ft176a"><span class="sp">176</span></a> seems to breathe something of the
+air, sweet and fresh like no other, which blows over an English
+countryside. Thomas Lodge, whose dramatic, and much less of
+course his literary activity, is measured by the only play that we
+know to have been wholly his;<a name="fa177a" id="fa177a" href="#ft177a"><span class="sp">177</span></a> Thomas Nashe, the redoubtable
+pamphleteer and the father of the English picaresque novel;<a name="fa178a" id="fa178a" href="#ft178a"><span class="sp">178</span></a>
+Henry Chettle, who worked the chords of both pity<a name="fa179a" id="fa179a" href="#ft179a"><span class="sp">179</span></a> and terror<a name="fa180a" id="fa180a" href="#ft180a"><span class="sp">180</span></a>
+with equal vigour, and Anthony Munday, better remembered
+for his city pageants than for his plays, are among the other
+more important writers of the early Elizabethan drama, though
+not all of them can strictly speaking be called predecessors of
+Shakespeare. It is not possible here to enumerate the more
+interesting of the anonymous plays which belong to this &ldquo;pre-Shakespearian&rdquo;
+period of the Elizabethan drama; but many of
+them are by intrinsic merit as well as for special causes deserving
+of the attention of the student.</p>
+
+<p>The common characteristics of nearly all these dramatists
+and plays were in accordance with those of the great age to which
+they belonged. Stirring times called for stirring
+themes, such as those of &ldquo;Mahomet, Scipio and
+<span class="sidenote">Common characteristics of the early Elizabethans.</span>
+Tamerlane&rdquo;; and these again for a corresponding
+vigour of treatment. Neatness and symmetry of
+construction were neglected for fulness and variety
+of matter. Novelty and grandeur of subject seemed
+well matched by a swelling amplitude and often reckless extravagance
+of diction. As if from an inner necessity, the balance
+of rhymed couplets gave way to the impetuous march of blank
+verse; &ldquo;strong lines&rdquo; were as inevitably called for as strong
+situations and strong characters. Although the chief of these
+poets are marked off from one another by the individual genius
+which impressed itself upon both the form and the matter of
+their works, yet the stamp of the age is upon them all. Writing
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page522" id="page522"></a>522</span>
+for the stage only, of which some of them possessed a personal
+experience and from which none of them held aloof, they acquired
+an instinctive insight into the laws of dramatic cause and effect,
+and infused a warm vitality into the dramatic literature which
+they produced, so to speak, for immediate consumption. On
+the other hand, the same cause made rapidity of workmanship
+indispensable to a successful playwright. <i>How</i> a play was
+produced, how many hands had been at work upon it, what
+loans and what spoliations had been made in the process, were
+considerations of less moment than the question <i>whether</i> it was
+produced, and whether it succeeded. His harness&mdash;frequently
+double or triple&mdash;was inseparable from the lusty Pegasus of the
+early English drama, and its genius toiled, to borrow the phrase
+of the Attic comedian, &ldquo;like an Arcadian mercenary.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>This period of the English drama, though it is far from being
+one of crude effort, could not therefore yet be one of full consummation.
+In tragedy the advance which had been
+made in the choice of great themes, in knitting closer
+<span class="sidenote">Progress of tragedy and comedy before Shakespeare.</span>
+the connection between the theatre and the national
+history, in vindicating to passion its right to adequate
+expression, was already enormous. In comedy the
+advance had been less decisive and less independent;
+much had been gained in reaching greater freedom
+of form and something in enlarging the range of subjects; but
+artificiality had proved a snare in the one direction, while the
+licence of the comic stage, upheld by favourite &ldquo;clowns,&rdquo; such
+as Kemp or Tarlton, had not succumbed before less elastic
+demands. The way of escaping from the dilemma had, however,
+been already recognized to lie in the construction of suitable
+plots, for which a full storehouse was open in the popular traditions
+preserved in national ballads, and in the growing literature
+of translated foreign fiction, or of native imitations of it. Meanwhile,
+the aberration of the comic stage to political and religious
+controversy, which it could never hope to treat with Attic
+freedom in a country provided with a strong monarchy and a
+dogmatic religion, seemed likely to extinguish the promise of
+the beginnings of English romantic comedy.</p>
+
+<p>These were the circumstances under which the greatest of
+dramatists began to devote his genius to the theatre. Shakespeare&rsquo;s
+career as a writer of plays can have differed
+little in its beginnings from those of his contemporaries
+<span class="sidenote">Shakespeare.</span>
+and rivals. Before or while he was proceeding from the
+re-touching and re-writing of the plays of others to original
+dramatic composition, the most gifted of those whom we have
+termed his predecessors had passed away. He had been decried
+as an actor before he was known as an author; and after living
+through days of darkness for the theatre, if not for himself,
+attained, before the close of the century, to the beginnings of his
+prosperity and the beginnings of his fame. But if we call him
+fortunate, it is not because of such rewards as these. As a poet,
+Shakespeare was no doubt happy in his times, which intensified
+the strength of the national character, expanded the activities
+of the national mind, and were able to add their stimulus even
+to such a creative power as his. He was happy in the antecedents
+of the form of literature which commended itself to his choice,
+and in the opportunities which it offered in so many directions
+for an advance to heights yet undiscovered and unknown.
+What he actually accomplished was due to his genius, whose
+achievements are immeasurable like itself. His influence upon
+the progress of English drama divides itself in very unequal
+proportions into a direct and an indirect influence. To the
+former alone reference can here be made.</p>
+
+<p>Already the first editors of Shakespeare&rsquo;s works in a collected
+form recognized so marked a distinction between his plays
+taken from English history and those treating other
+historical subjects (whether ancient or modern) that,
+<span class="sidenote">Shakespeare and the national historical drama.</span>
+while they included the latter among the tragedies at
+large, they grouped the former as <i>histories</i> by themselves.
+These <i>histories</i> are in their literary genesis a
+development of the <i>chronicle histories</i> of Shakespeare&rsquo;s
+predecessors and contemporaries, the taste for which had greatly
+increased towards the beginning of his own career as a dramatist,
+in accordance with the general progress of national life and
+sentiment in this epoch. Though it cannot be assumed that
+Shakespeare composed his several dramas from English history
+in the sequence of the chronology of their themes, his genius
+gave to the entire series an inner harmony, and a continuity
+corresponding to that which is distinctive of the national life,
+such as not unnaturally inspired certain commentators with
+the wish to prove it a symmetrically constructed whole. He
+thus brought this peculiarly national species to a perfection
+which made it difficult, if not impossible, for his later contemporaries
+and successors to make more than an occasional
+addition to his series. None of them was, however, found able
+or ready to take up the thread where Shakespeare had left it,
+after perfunctorily attaching the present to the past by a work
+(probably not all his own) which must be regarded as the end
+rather than the crown of the series of his <i>histories</i>.<a name="fa181a" id="fa181a" href="#ft181a"><span class="sp">181</span></a> But to furnish
+such supplements accorded little with the tastes and tendencies
+of the later Elizabethans; and with the exception of an isolated
+work,<a name="fa182a" id="fa182a" href="#ft182a"><span class="sp">182</span></a> the national historical drama in Shakespeare reached at
+once its perfection and its close. The ruder form of the old
+chronicle history for a time survived the advance made upon it;
+but the efforts in this field of T. Heywood,<a name="fa183a" id="fa183a" href="#ft183a"><span class="sp">183</span></a> S. Rowley,<a name="fa184a" id="fa184a" href="#ft184a"><span class="sp">184</span></a> and others
+are, from a literary point of view, anachronisms.</p>
+
+<p>Of Shakespeare&rsquo;s other plays the several groups exercised
+a more direct influence upon the general progress of our dramatic
+literature. His Roman tragedies, though following their
+authorities with much the same fidelity as that of the English
+<i>histories</i>, even more effectively taught the great lesson of free
+dramatic treatment of historic themes, and thus pre-eminently
+became the perennial models of the modern historic drama. His
+tragedies on other subjects, which necessarily admitted of a more
+absolute freedom of treatment, established themselves as the
+examples for all time of the highest kind of tragedy. Where else
+is exhibited with the same fulness the struggle between will and
+obstacle, character and circumstance? Where is mirrored
+with equal power and variety the working of those passions in
+the mastery of which over man lies his doom? Here, above all,
+Shakespeare as compared with his predecessors, as well as with
+his successors, &ldquo;<i>is</i> that nature which they paint and draw.&rdquo;
+He threw open to modern tragedy a range of hitherto unknown
+breadth and depth and height, and emancipated the national
+drama in its noblest forms from limits to which it could never
+again restrict itself without a consciousness of having renounced
+its enfranchisement. Happily for the variety of his creative
+genius on the English stage, no divorce had been proclaimed
+between the serious and the comic, and no division of species
+had been established such as he himself ridicules as pedantic
+when it professes to be exhaustive. The comedies of Shakespeare
+accordingly refuse to be tabulated in deference to any method
+of classification deserving to be called precise; and several of
+them are comedies only according to a purely technical use of
+the term. In those in which the instinct of reader or spectator
+recognizes the comic interest to be supreme, it is still of its nature
+incidental to the progress of the action; for the criticism seems
+just, as well as in agreement with what we can conclude as to
+Shakespeare&rsquo;s process of construction, that among all his comedies
+not more than a single one<a name="fa185a" id="fa185a" href="#ft185a"><span class="sp">185</span></a> is in both design and effect a comedy
+of character proper. Thus in this direction, while the unparalleled
+wealth of his invention renewed or created a whole
+gallery of types, he left much to be done by his successors;
+while the truest secrets of his comic art, which interweaves fancy
+with observation, draws wisdom from the lips of fools, and
+imbues with character what all other hands would have left
+shadowy, monstrous or trivial, are among the things inimitable
+belonging to the individuality of his poetic genius.</p>
+
+<p>The influences of Shakespeare&rsquo;s diction and versification upon
+those of the English drama in general can hardly be overrated,
+though it would be next to impossible to state them definitely. In
+these points, Shakespeare&rsquo;s manner as a writer was progressive;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page523" id="page523"></a>523</span>
+and this progress has been deemed sufficiently well traceable
+in his plays to be used as an aid in seeking to determine
+<span class="sidenote">His style and its influence.</span>
+their chronological sequence. The general laws of this
+progress accord with those of the natural advance of
+creative genius; artificiality gives way to freedom,
+and freedom in its turn submits to a greater degree
+of regularity and care. In versification as in diction the
+earliest and the latest period of Shakespeare&rsquo;s dramatic writing
+are more easily recognizable than what lies between and may be
+called the <i>normal</i> period, the plays belonging to which in form
+most resemble one another, and are least affected by distinguishable
+peculiarities&mdash;such as the rhymes and intentionally euphuistic
+colouring of style which characterize the earliest, or the feminine
+endings of the lines and the more condensed manner of expression
+common to the latest of his plays. But, such distinctions apart,
+there can be no doubt but that in verse and in prose alike, Shakespeare&rsquo;s
+style, so far as it admitted of reproduction, is itself to be
+regarded as the <i>norm</i> of that of the Elizabethan drama; that
+in it the prose form of English comedy possesses its first accepted
+model; and that in it the chosen metre of the English versified
+drama established itself as irremovable unless at the risk of an
+artificial experiment.</p>
+
+<p>The assertion may seem paradoxical, that it is by their construction
+that Shakespeare&rsquo;s plays exerted the most palpable
+influence upon the English drama, as well as upon the
+modern drama of the Germanic nations in general,
+<span class="sidenote">Influence of his method of construction.</span>
+and upon such forms of the Romance drama as have
+been in more recent times based upon it. For it was
+not in construction that his greatest strength lay,
+or that the individuality of his genius could raise him above the
+conditions under which he worked in common with his immediate
+predecessors and contemporaries. Yet the fact that he accepted
+these conditions, while producing works of matchless strength
+and of unequalled fidelity to the demands of nature and art,
+established them as inseparable from the Shakespearian drama&mdash;to
+use a term which is perhaps unavoidable but has been often
+misapplied. The great and irresistible demand on the part of
+Shakespeare&rsquo;s public was for <i>incident</i>&mdash;a demand which of itself
+necessitated a method of construction different from that of the
+Greek drama, or of those modelled more or less closely upon it.
+To no other reason is to be ascribed the circumstance that Shakespeare
+so constantly combined two actions in the course of a
+single play, not merely supplementing the one by means of the
+other as a bye- or under-plot. In no respect is the progress of
+his technical skill as a dramatist more apparent,&mdash;a proposition
+which a comparison of plays clearly ascribable to successive
+periods of his life must be left to prove.</p>
+
+<p>Should it, however, be sought to express in one word the
+greatest debt of the drama to Shakespeare, this word must be
+the same as that which expresses his supreme gift as
+a dramatist. It is in <i>characterization</i>&mdash;in the drawing
+<span class="sidenote">His characters.</span>
+of characters ranging through almost every type of
+humanity which furnishes a fit subject for the tragic or the comic
+art&mdash;that he remains absolutely unapproached; and it was in
+this direction that he pointed the way which the English drama
+could not henceforth desert without becoming untrue to itself.
+It may have been a mere error of judgment which afterwards
+held him to have been surpassed by others in particular fields
+of characterization (setting him down, forsooth, as supremely
+excellent in male, but not in female, characters). But it was a
+sure sign of decay when English writers began to shrink from
+following him in the endeavour to make the drama a mirror
+of humanity, and when, in self-condemned arrogance, they
+thrust unreality back upon a stage which he had animated with
+the warm breath of life, where Juliet had blossomed like a
+flower of spring, and where Othello&rsquo;s noble nature had suffered
+and sinned.</p>
+
+<p>By the numerous body of poets who, contemporary with
+Shakespeare or in the next generation, cultivated the wide field
+of the national drama, every form commending itself to the
+tastes and sympathies of the national genius was essayed. None
+were neglected except those from which the spirit of English
+literature had been estranged by the Reformation, and those
+which had from the first been artificial importations of the
+<span class="sidenote">Forms of the later Elizabethan drama.</span>
+Renaissance. The mystery could not in England, as in
+Spain, produce such an aftergrowth as the <i>auto</i>, and the
+confines of the religious drama were only now and then
+tentatively touched.<a name="fa186a" id="fa186a" href="#ft186a"><span class="sp">186</span></a> The direct imitations of classical
+examples were, except perhaps in the continued efforts
+of the academical drama, few and feeble. Chapman, while
+resorting to use of narrative in tragedy and perhaps otherwise
+indebted to ancient models, was no follower of them in essentials.
+S. Daniel (1562-1619) may be regarded as a belated disciple of
+Seneca,<a name="fa187a" id="fa187a" href="#ft187a"><span class="sp">187</span></a> while experiments like W. Alexander&rsquo;s (afterwards earl
+of Stirling) <i>Monarchicke Tragedies</i><a name="fa188a" id="fa188a" href="#ft188a"><span class="sp">188</span></a> (1603-1605) are the mere
+isolated efforts of a student, and more exclusively so than
+Milton&rsquo;s imposing <i>Samson Agonistes</i>, which belongs to a later
+date (1677). At the opposite end of the dramatic scale, the light
+gaiety of the Italian and French farce could not establish itself
+on the English popular stage without more substantial adjuncts;
+the Englishman&rsquo;s festive digestion long continued robust, and
+<span class="sidenote">The pastoral drama.</span>
+he liked his amusements solid. In the pastoral drama
+and the mask, however, many English dramatists
+found special opportunities for the exercise of their
+lyrical gifts and of their inventive powers. The former
+could never become other than an exotic, so long as it retained
+the artificial character of its origin. Shakespeare had accordingly
+only blended elements derived from it into the action of
+his romantic comedies. In more or less isolated works Jonson,
+Fletcher, Daniel, Randolph, and others sought to rival Tasso
+and Guarini&mdash;Jonson<a name="fa189a" id="fa189a" href="#ft189a"><span class="sp">189</span></a> coming nearest to nationalizing an
+essentially foreign growth by the fresh simplicity of his treatment,
+Fletcher<a name="fa190a" id="fa190a" href="#ft190a"><span class="sp">190</span></a> bearing away the palm for beauty of poetic execution;
+Daniel being distinguished by simpler beauties of style in both
+verse and prose.<a name="fa191a" id="fa191a" href="#ft191a"><span class="sp">191</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The mask (or masque) was a more elastic kind of composition,
+mixing in varying proportions its constituent elements of
+declamation and dialogue, music and dancing, decoration
+and scenery. In its least elaborate literary form&mdash;which,
+<span class="sidenote">The mask.</span>
+of course, externally was the most elaborate&mdash;it closely
+approached the pageant; in other instances the distinctness of
+its characters or the fulness of the action introduced into its
+scheme, brought it nearer to the regular drama. A frequent
+ornament of Queen Elizabeth&rsquo;s progresses, it was cultivated with
+increased assiduity in the reign of James I., and in that of his
+successor outshone, by the favour it enjoyed with court and
+nobility, the attractions of the regular drama itself. Most of
+the later Elizabethan dramatists contributed to this species,
+upon which Shakespeare expended the resources of his fancy
+only incidentally in the course of his dramas; but by far the
+most successful writer of masks was Ben Jonson, of whose
+numerous compositions of this kind many hold a permanent
+place in English poetic literature, and &ldquo;next&rdquo; whom, in his
+own judgment, &ldquo;only Fletcher and Chapman could write a
+mask.&rdquo; From a poetic point of view, however, they were at least
+rivalled by Dekker and Ford; in productivity and favour T.
+Campion, who was equally eminent as poet and as musician,
+seems for a time to have excelled. Inasmuch, however, as the
+history of the mask in England is to a great extent that of
+&ldquo;painting and carpentry&rdquo; and of Inigo Jones, and as, moreover,
+this kind of piece, while admitting dramatic elements,
+is of its nature occasional, it need not further be pursued here.
+The <i>Microcosmus</i> of T. Nabbes (printed 1637), which is very
+like a morality, seems to have been the first mask brought
+upon the public stage. It was the performance of a mask by
+Queen Henrietta Maria and her ladies at Whitehall which had
+some years previously (1632) been thought to have supplied
+to the invective of <i>Histrio-Mastix</i> against the stage the occasion
+for disloyal innuendo; and it was for the performance of a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page524" id="page524"></a>524</span>
+mask in a great nobleman&rsquo;s castle that Milton&mdash;a Puritan of a
+very different cast&mdash;not long afterwards (1634) wrote one of
+the loftiest and loveliest of English poems. <i>Comus</i> has been
+judged and condemned as a drama&mdash;unjustly, for the dramatic
+qualities of a mask are not essential to it as a species. Yet its
+history in England remains inseparably connected with that
+of the Elizabethan drama. In later times the mask merged
+into the opera, or continued a humble life of its own apart
+from contact with higher literary effort. It is strange that later
+English poets should have done so little to restore to its nobler
+uses, and to invest with a new significance, a form so capable of
+further development as the poetic mask.</p>
+
+<p>The annals of English drama proper in the period reaching
+from the closing years of Elizabeth to the outbreak of the
+great Revolution include, together with numerous
+names relatively insignificant, many illustrious in the
+<span class="sidenote">The later Elizabethan drama.</span>
+history of our poetic literature. Among Shakespeare&rsquo;s
+contemporaries and successors there is, however, but
+one who by the energy of his genius, not less than by the circumstances
+of his literary career, reached undisputed primacy
+among his fellows. Ben Jonson, to whom in his latter days a
+whole generation of younger writers did filial homage as to their
+veteran chief, was alone in full truth the founder of a school
+or family of dramatists. Yet his pre-eminence did not (whatever
+he or his followers may have thought) extend to both branches
+of the regular drama. In tragedy he fell short of the highest
+success; the weight of his learning lay too heavily upon his
+efforts to draw from deeper sources than those which had
+sufficed for Shakespeare. Such as they are, his tragic works<a name="fa192a" id="fa192a" href="#ft192a"><span class="sp">192</span></a>
+stand almost, though not quite, alone in this period as examples
+of sustained effort in historic tragedy proper. G. Chapman
+treated stirring themes, more especially from modern French
+history,<a name="fa193a" id="fa193a" href="#ft193a"><span class="sp">193</span></a> always with vigour, and at times with genuine effectiveness;
+but, though rich in beauties of detail, he failed in this
+branch of the drama to follow Shakespeare even at a distance in
+the supreme art of fully developing a character by means of
+the action. Mention has been made above of Ford&rsquo;s isolated
+effort in the direction of historic tragedy, as well as of excursions
+into the still popular domain of the chronicle history by T.
+Heywood, Dekker and others, which cannot be regarded as
+anything more than retrogressions. With the great body of the
+English dramatists of this and of the next period, tragedy had
+passed into a phase where its interest depended mainly upon plot
+and incident. The romantic tragedies and tragi-comedies which
+crowd English literature in this period constitute together a
+growth of at first sight astonishing exuberance, and in mere
+externals of theme&mdash;ranging as these plays do from Byzantium
+to ancient Britain, and from the Caesars of ancient Rome to
+the tyrants of the Renaissance&mdash;of equally astonishing variety.
+The sources from which these subjects were derived had been
+perennially augmenting. Besides Italian, Spanish and French
+fiction, original or translated, besides British legend in its
+Romance dress, and English fiction in its humbler or in its more
+ambitious and artificial forms, the contemporary foreign drama,
+especially the Spanish, offered opportunities for resort. To the
+English, as to the French and Italian drama, of both this and the
+following century, the prolific dramatists clustering round Lope
+de Vega and Calderon, and the native or naturalized fictions from
+which they drew their materials supplied a whole arsenal of
+plots, incidents and situations&mdash;among others to Middleton, to
+Webster, and most signally to Beaumont and Fletcher. And, in
+addition to these resources, a new field of supply was at hand
+since English dramatists had begun to regard events and episodes
+of domestic life as fit subjects for tragic treatment. Domestic
+tragedy of this description was indeed no novelty on the English
+stage; Shakespeare himself may have retouched with his master-hand
+more than one effort of this kind;<a name="fa194a" id="fa194a" href="#ft194a"><span class="sp">194</span></a> but T. Heywood may
+be set down as the first who achieved any work of considerable
+literary value of this class,<a name="fa195a" id="fa195a" href="#ft195a"><span class="sp">195</span></a> to which some of the plays of T.
+Dekker, T. Middleton, and others likewise more or less belong.
+Yet, in contrast to this wide variety of sources, and consequent
+apparent variety of themes, the number of <i>motives</i> employed&mdash;at
+least as a rule&mdash;in the tragic drama of this period was comparatively
+small and limited. Hence it is that, notwithstanding
+the diversity of subjects among the tragic dramas of such
+writers as Marston, Webster, Fletcher, Ford and Shirley, an
+impression of sameness is left upon us by a connected perusal
+of these works. Scheming ambition, conjugal jealousy, absolute
+female devotion, unbridled masculine passion&mdash;such are the
+motives which constantly recur in the Decameron of our later
+Elizabethan drama. And this impression is heightened by the
+want of moderation, by the extravagance of passion, which these
+dramatists so habitually exhibit in the treatment of their
+favourite themes. All the tragic poets of this period are not
+equally amenable to this charge; in J. Webster,<a name="fa196a" id="fa196a" href="#ft196a"><span class="sp">196</span></a> master as he
+is of the effects of the horrible, and in J. Ford,<a name="fa197a" id="fa197a" href="#ft197a"><span class="sp">197</span></a> surpassingly
+seductive in his sweetness, the monotony of exaggerated passion
+is broken by those marvellously sudden and subtle touches
+through which their tragic genius creates its most thrilling effects.
+Nor will the tendency to excess of passion which F. Beaumont
+and J. Fletcher undoubtedly exhibit be confounded with their
+distinctive power of sustaining tenderly pathetic characters and
+irresistibly moving situations in a degree unequalled by any of
+their contemporaries&mdash;a power seconded by a beauty of diction
+and softness of versification which for a time raised them to the
+highest pinnacle of popular esteem, and which entitles them in
+their conjunction, and Fletcher as an independent worker, to
+an enduring pre-eminence among their fellows. In their morals
+Beaumont and Fletcher are not above the level of their age.
+The manliness of sentiment and occasionally greater width of
+outlook which ennoble the rhetorical genius of P. Massinger,
+and the gift of poetic illustration which entitles J. Shirley to be
+remembered not merely as the latest and the most fertile of this
+group of dramatists, have less direct bearing upon the general
+character of the tragic art of the period. The common features
+of the romantic tragedy of this age are sufficiently marked;
+but they leave unobscured the distinctive features in its individual
+writers of which a discerning criticism has been able to take note.</p>
+
+<p>In comedy, on the other hand, the genius and the insight of
+Jonson pointed the way to a steady and legitimate advance.
+His theory of &ldquo;humours&rdquo; (which found the most palpable
+expression in two of his earliest plays<a name="fa198a" id="fa198a" href="#ft198a"><span class="sp">198</span></a>), if translated into the
+ordinary language of dramatic art, signifies the paramount
+importance in the comic drama of the presentation of distinctive
+human types. As such it survived by name into the Restoration
+age<a name="fa199a" id="fa199a" href="#ft199a"><span class="sp">199</span></a> and cannot be said to have ever died out. In the actual
+reproduction of humanity in its infinite but never, in his hands,
+alien variety, it was impossible that Shakespeare should be
+excelled by Jonson; but in the consciousness with which he
+recognized and indicated the highest sphere of a comic dramatist&rsquo;s
+labours, he rendered to the drama a direct service which the
+greater master had left unperformed. By the rest of his contemporaries
+and his successors, some of whom, such as R. Brome,
+were content avowedly to follow in his footsteps, Jonson was
+only occasionally rivalled in individual instances of comic
+creations; in the entirety of its achievements his genius as a
+comic dramatist remained unapproached. The favourite types
+of Jonsonian comedy, to which Dekker, J. Marston and Chapman
+had, though to no large extent, added others of their own, were
+elaborated with incessant zeal and remarkable effect by their
+contemporaries and successors. It was after a very different
+fashion from that in which the Roman comedians reiterated
+the ordinary types of the New Attic comedy, that the inexhaustible
+<i>verve</i> of T. Middleton, the buoyant productivity of
+Fletcher, the observant humour of N. Field, and the artistic
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page525" id="page525"></a>525</span>
+versatility of Shirley&mdash;not to mention many later and not
+necessarily minor names<a name="fa200a" id="fa200a" href="#ft200a"><span class="sp">200</span></a>&mdash;mirrored in innumerable pictures of
+contemporary life the undying follies and foibles of mankind.
+As comedians of manners more than one of these surpassed the
+old master, not indeed in distinctness and correctness&mdash;the
+fruits of the most painstaking genius that ever fitted a learned
+sock to the representation of the living realities of life&mdash;but in a
+lightness not incompatible with sureness of touch; while in the
+construction of plots the access of abundant new materials,
+and the greater elasticity in treatment resulting from accumulated
+experience, enabled them to advance from success to success.
+Thus the comic dramatic literature from Jonson to Shirley is
+unsurpassed as a comedy of manners, while as a comedy of
+character it at least defies comparison with any other national
+literary growth preceding or contemporaneous with it. Though
+the younger generation, of which W. Cartwright may be taken
+as an example, was unequal in originality or force to its predecessors,
+yet so little exhausted was the vitality of the species,
+that its traditions survived the <i>interregnum</i> of the Revolution,
+and connected themselves more closely than is sometimes assumed
+with later growths of English comedy.</p>
+
+<p>Such was also the case with a special growth which had
+continued side by side, but in growing frequency of contact,
+with the progress of the national drama. The
+academical drama of the later Elizabethan period and
+<span class="sidenote">The later academical drama.</span>
+of the first two Stuart reigns by no means fell off
+either in activity or in variety from that of the preceding
+generations. At Oxford, after an apparent break of several
+years&mdash;though in the course of these one or two new plays,
+including a <i>Tancred</i> by Sir Henry Wotton at Queen&rsquo;s, seem to
+have been produced&mdash;a long succession of English plays, some
+in Latin doubtless from time to time intervening, were performed,
+from the early years of the 17th century onwards to the dark
+days of the national theatre and beyond. The production of
+these plays was distributed among several colleges, among
+which the most conspicuously active were Christ Church and
+St John&rsquo;s, where a whole series of festal performances took
+place under the collective title of <i>The Christmas Prince</i> (<i>i.e.</i>
+master of the Christmas revels). They included a wide variety
+of pieces, from the treatment by an author unnamed of the story
+of &ldquo;Ovid&rsquo;s owne Narcissus&rdquo; (1602) and S. Daniel&rsquo;s <i>Queen&rsquo;s
+Arcadia</i> (1606) to Barten Holiday&rsquo;s <i>Technogamia</i> (1618), a
+complicated allegory on the relations between the arts and
+sciences quite in the manner of the moralities; interspersed by
+romantic dramas of the ordinary contemporary type by T. Goffe
+(1591-1629), W. Cartwright, J. Maine (1604-1672) and others.
+At Cambridge the list of Latin and English academical plays,
+performed in the latter half of Elizabeth&rsquo;s reign at Trinity,
+St John&rsquo;s, Queen&rsquo;s and a few other colleges, contains several
+examples in each language which for one reason or another possess
+a special interest. Thus E. Forsett&rsquo;s <i>Pedantius</i>, probably acted
+at Trinity in 1581, ridicules a personage who lived very near the
+rose&mdash;the redoubtable Gabriel Harvey;<a name="fa201a" id="fa201a" href="#ft201a"><span class="sp">201</span></a> a <i>Laelia</i>, acted at
+Queen&rsquo;s in 1590 and again in 1598, resembles <i>Twelfth Night</i>
+in part of its plot; while in <i>Silvanus</i>, performed in 1596, probably
+at St John&rsquo;s, there are certain striking similarities to <i>As You
+Like It</i>. These are in Latin, as are the comedies <i>Hispanus</i>
+(containing some curious allusions to the Armada, Drake and
+Dr Lopez) and <i>Machiavellus</i>, acted at St John&rsquo;s in 1597.<a name="fa202a" id="fa202a" href="#ft202a"><span class="sp">202</span></a> By
+far the most interesting of the English plays of the later Cambridge
+series, and, it may be averred, of the remains of the English
+academical drama as a whole, are the Parnassus Plays (<i>q.v.</i>),
+successively produced at St John&rsquo;s in 1598-1602, which illustrate
+with much truthfulness as well as fancy the relations between
+university life and the outside world, including the world of
+letters and of the stage. Upon a different, but also a very
+notable, aspect of English university life&mdash;the relations between
+town and gown&mdash;a partisan light is thrown by <i>Club-Law</i>, acted
+at Clare in 1599&mdash;and in G. Ruggle&rsquo;s celebrated Latin comedy of
+<i>Ignoramus</i>, twice acted by members of Clare at Trinity in 1615
+before King James I. On one of these occasions were also produced
+in English T. Tomkis&rsquo; comedy <i>Albumazar</i> (a play absurdly
+attributed to Shakespeare), and Phineas Fletcher&rsquo;s <i>Sicelides</i>, a
+&ldquo;piscatory&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i> a pastoral drama in which the place of the
+shepherds is taken by fishermen). Latin and English plays
+continued to be brought out in Cambridge till the year of the
+outbreak of the Civil War, T. Randolph and A. Cowley<a name="fa203a" id="fa203a" href="#ft203a"><span class="sp">203</span></a> being
+among the authors of some of the latest so produced; and with
+the Restoration the usage recommenced, the <i>Adelphi</i> of Terence
+and other Latin comedies being performed as they had been
+a century earlier. A complete survey and classification of the
+English academical drama, for which the materials are at last
+being collected and compared, will prove of an importance which
+is only beginning to be recognized to the future historian of the
+English drama.</p>
+
+<p>To return to the general current of that drama. The rivals
+against which it had to contend in the times with which its
+greatest epoch came to an end have in their turn been
+noticed. From the masks and triumphs at court and
+<span class="sidenote">The stage.</span>
+at the houses of the nobility, with their Olympuses and Parnassuses
+built by Inigo Jones, and filled with goddesses and
+nymphs clad in the gorgeous costumes designed by his inventive
+hand, to the city pageants and shows by land and water&mdash;from
+the tilts and tournaments at Whitehall to the more philosophical
+devices at the Inns of Court and the academical plays at the
+universities&mdash;down even to the brief but thrilling theatrical
+excitements of Bartholomew Fair and the &ldquo;Ninevitical motions&rdquo;
+of the puppets&mdash;in all these ways the various sections of the
+theatrical public were tempted aside. Foreign performers&mdash;French
+and Spanish actors, and even French actresses&mdash;paid
+visits to London. But the national drama held its ground.
+The art of acting maintained itself at least on the level to which it
+had been brought by Shakespeare&rsquo;s associates and contemporaries,
+Burbage and Heminge, Alleyn, Lewin, Taylor, and others &ldquo;of
+the older sort.&rdquo; The profession of actor came to be more generally
+than of old separated from that of playwright, though they
+were still (as in the case of Field) occasionally combined. But
+this rather led to an increased appreciation of the artistic merit
+of actors who valued the dignity of their own profession and
+whose co-operation the authors learnt to esteem as of independent
+significance. The stage was purged from the barbarism of the
+old school of clowns. Women&rsquo;s parts were still acted by boys,
+many of whom attained to considerable celebrity; and a practice
+was thus continued which must assuredly have placed the English
+theatre at a considerable disadvantage as compared with the
+Spanish (where it never obtained), and which may, while it has
+been held to have facilitated freedom of fancy, more certainly
+encouraged the extreme licence of expression cherished by the
+dramatists. The arrangement of the stage, which facilitated a
+rapid succession of scenes without any necessity for their being
+organically connected with one another, remained essentially
+what it had been in Shakespeare&rsquo;s days; though the primitive
+expedients for indicating locality had begun to be occasionally
+exchanged for scenery more or less appropriate to the place of
+action. Costume was apparently cultivated with much greater
+care; and the English stage of this period had probably gone a
+not inconsiderable way in a direction to which it is obviously
+in the interests of the dramatic art to set some bounds, if it
+is to depend for its popular success upon its qualities as such,
+and upon the interpretation of its agents upon the stage. At
+the same time, the drama had begun largely to avail itself of
+adventitious aids to favour. The system of prologues and
+epilogues, and of dedications to published plays, was more
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page526" id="page526"></a>526</span>
+uniformly employed than it had been by Shakespeare as the
+conventional method of recommending authors and actors to the
+favour of individual patrons, and to that of their chief patron,
+the public.</p>
+
+<p>Up to the outbreak of the Civil War the drama in all its
+forms continued to enjoy the favour or good-will of the court,
+although a close supervision was exercised over all
+attempts to make the stage the vehicle of political
+<span class="sidenote">The drama and Puritanism.</span>
+references or allusions. The regular official agent of
+this supervision was the master of the revels; but
+under James I. a special ordinance, in harmony with the king&rsquo;s
+ideas concerning the dignity of the throne, was passed &ldquo;against
+representing any modern Christian king in plays on the stage.&rdquo;
+The theatre could hardly expect to be allowed a liberty of speech
+in reference to matters of state denied to the public at large;
+and occasional attempts to indulge in the freedom of criticism
+dear to the spirit of comedy met with more or less decisive
+repression and punishment.<a name="fa204a" id="fa204a" href="#ft204a"><span class="sp">204</span></a> But the sympathies of the
+dramatists were so entirely on the side of the court that the real
+difficulties against which the theatre had to contend came from
+a directly opposite quarter. With the growth of Puritanism
+the feeling of hostility to the stage increased in a large part
+of the population, well represented by the civic authorities of the
+capital. This hostility found many ways of expressing itself.
+The attempts to suppress the Blackfriars theatre (1619, 1631,
+1633) proved abortive; but the representation of stage-plays
+continued to be prohibited on Sundays, and during the prevalence
+of the plague in London in 1637 was temporarily suspended
+altogether. The desire of the Puritans of the more pronounced
+type openly aimed at a permanent closing of the theatres.
+The war between them and the dramatists was accordingly of a
+life-and-death kind. On the one hand, the drama heaped its
+bitterest and often coarsest attacks upon whatever savoured
+of the Puritan spirit; gibes, taunts, caricatures in ridicule
+and aspersion of Puritans and Puritanism make up a great part
+of the comic literature of the later Elizabethan drama and of its
+aftergrowth in the reigns of the first two Stuarts. This feeling
+of hostility, to which Shakespeare was no stranger,<a name="fa205a" id="fa205a" href="#ft205a"><span class="sp">205</span></a> though he
+cannot be connected with the authorship of one of its earliest
+and coarsest expressions,<a name="fa206a" id="fa206a" href="#ft206a"><span class="sp">206</span></a> rose into a spirit of open defiance in
+some of the masterpieces of Ben Jonson;<a name="fa207a" id="fa207a" href="#ft207a"><span class="sp">207</span></a> and the comedies of
+his contemporaries and successors<a name="fa208a" id="fa208a" href="#ft208a"><span class="sp">208</span></a> abound in caricatured reproductions
+of the more common or more extravagant types of
+Puritan life. On the other hand, the moral defects, the looseness
+of tone, the mockery of ties sanctioned by law and consecrated
+by religion, the tendency to treat middle-class life as the hunting-ground
+for the diversions of the upper classes, which degraded
+so much of the dramatic literature of the age, intensified the
+Puritan opposition to all and any stage plays. A patient endeavour
+to reform instead of suppressing the drama was not to
+be looked for from such adversaries, should they ever possess
+the means of carrying out their views; and whenever Puritanism
+should victoriously assert itself in the state, the stage was
+doomed. Among the attacks directed against it in its careless
+heyday of prosperity Prynne&rsquo;s <i>Histrio-Mastix</i> (1632), while it
+involved its author in shamefully cruel persecution, did not
+remain wholly without effect upon the tone of the dramatic
+literature of the subsequent period; but the quarrel between
+Puritanism and the theatre was too old and too deep to end in
+any but one way, so soon as the latter was deprived of its
+<span class="sidenote">Closing of the theatres.</span>
+protectors. The Civil War began in August 1642;
+and early in the following month was published the
+ordinance of the Lords and Commons, which, after a
+brief and solemn preamble, commanded &ldquo;that while
+these sad causes and set-times of humiliation do continue,
+public stage plays shall cease and be forborne.&rdquo; Many actors
+and playwrights followed the fortunes of the royal cause in the
+field; some may have gone into a more or less voluntary exile;
+upon those who lingered on in the familiar haunts the hand of
+power lay heavy; and, though there seems reason to believe
+that dramatic entertainments of one kind or another continued
+to be occasionally presented, stringent ordinances gave summary
+powers to magistrates against any players found engaged in
+such proceedings (1647), and bade them treat all stage-players
+as rogues, and pull down all stage galleries, seats and boxes
+(1648). A few dramatic works were published in this period;<a name="fa209a" id="fa209a" href="#ft209a"><span class="sp">209</span></a>
+while at fairs about the country were acted farces called &ldquo;drolls,&rdquo;
+consisting of the most vulgar scenes to be found in popular plays.
+Thus, the life of the drama was not absolutely extinguished;
+and its darkest day proved briefer than perhaps either its friends
+or its foes could have supposed.</p>
+
+<p>Already &ldquo;in Oliver&rsquo;s time&rdquo; private performances took place
+from time to time at noblemen&rsquo;s houses and (though not undisturbed)
+in the old haunt of the drama, the Red
+Bull. In 1656 the ingenuity of Sir William Davenant
+<span class="sidenote">Revival of the drama.</span>
+whose name (though not really so significant in the
+dramatic as in another field of English literature) is
+memorable as connecting together two distinct periods in it,
+ventured on a bolder step in the production of a quasi-dramatic
+entertainment &ldquo;of declamation and music&rdquo;; and in the following
+year he brought out with scenery and music a piece which was
+afterwards in an enlarged form acted and printed as the first
+part of his opera, <i>The Siege of Rhodes</i>. This entertainment he
+afterwards removed from the private house where it had been
+produced to the Cockpit, where he soon ventured upon the
+performance of regular plays written by himself. Thus, under
+the cover of two sister arts, whose aid was in the sequel to prove
+by no means altogether beneficial to its progress, the English
+drama had boldly anticipated the Restoration, and was no longer
+hiding its head when that much-desired event was actually
+brought about. Soon after Charles II.&rsquo;s entry into London,
+two theatrical companies are known to have been acting in the
+capital. For these companies patents were soon granted, under
+the names of &ldquo;the Duke (of York)&rsquo;s&rdquo; and &ldquo;the King&rsquo;s Servants,&rdquo;
+to Davenant and one of the brothers Killigrew respectively&mdash;the
+former from 1662 acting at Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn Fields, then at
+Dorset Garden in Salisbury Court, the latter from 1663 at the
+Theatre Royal near Drury Lane. These companies were united
+from 1682, a royal licence being granted in 1695 to a rival
+company which performed in Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn Fields, and which
+migrated to Covent Garden in 1733. Meanwhile, Vanbrugh had
+in 1705 built the theatre in the Haymarket; and a theatre in
+Goodman&rsquo;s Fields&mdash;afterwards rendered famous by the first
+appearance of Garrick&mdash;led a fitful existence from 1729 to 1733.
+The act of 1737 deprived the crown of the power of licensing
+any more theatres; so that the history of the English stage for
+a long period was confined to a restricted area. The rule which
+prevailed after the Restoration, that neither of the rival companies
+should ever attempt a play produced by the other, operated
+beneficially both upon the activity of dramatic authorship
+and upon the progress of the art of acting, which was not exposed
+to the full effects of that deplorable spirit of personal rivalry
+which too often leads even most intelligent actors to attempt
+parts for which they have no special qualification. There can be
+little doubt that the actor&rsquo;s art has rarely flourished more in
+England than in the days of T. Betterton and his contemporaries,
+among whose names those of Hart, Mohun, Kynaston, Nokes,
+Mrs Barry, Mrs Betterton, Mrs Bracegirdle and Mrs Eleanor
+Gwyn have, together with many others, survived in various
+connexions among the memories of the Restoration age. No
+higher praise has ever been given to an actor than that which
+Addison bestowed upon Betterton, in describing his performance
+of <i>Othello</i> as a proof that Shakespeare could not have written the
+most striking passages of the character otherwise than he has
+done.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page527" id="page527"></a>527</span></p>
+
+<p>It may here be noticed that the fortunes of the Irish theatre
+in general followed those of the English, of which of course it was
+merely a branch. Of native dramatic compositions in
+earlier times not a trace remains in Ireland; and the
+<span class="sidenote">The Irish stage.</span>
+drama was introduced into that country as an English
+exotic&mdash;apparently already in the reign of Henry VIII., and
+more largely in that of Elizabeth. The first theatre in Dublin
+was built in 1635; but in 1641 it was closed, and even after the
+Restoration the Irish stage continued in a precarious condition
+till near the end of the century. About that time an extraordinarily
+strong taste for the theatre took possession of Irish
+society, and during the greater part of the 18th century the
+Dublin stage rivalled the English in the brilliancy of its stars.
+Betterton&rsquo;s rival, R. Wilks, Garrick&rsquo;s predecessor in the homage
+paid to Shakespeare, Macklin, and his competitor for favour,
+the &ldquo;silver-tongued&rdquo; Barry, were alike products of the Irish
+stage, as were Mrs Woffington and other well-known actresses.
+Nor should it be forgotten that three of the foremost English
+writers of comedy in its later days, Congreve, Farquhar and
+Sheridan, were Irish, the first by education, and the latter two
+by birth also.</p>
+
+<p>Already in the period preceding the outbreak of the Civil
+War the English drama had perceptibly sunk from the height
+to which it had been raised by the great Elizabethans.
+When it had once more recovered possession of that
+<span class="sidenote">The later Stuart drama.</span>
+arena with which no living drama can dispense, it
+would have been futile to demand that the dramatists
+should return altogether into the ancient paths, unaffected by
+the influences, native or foreign, in operation around them.
+But there was no reason why the new drama should not, like the
+Elizabethan, have been true in spirit to the higher purposes of
+the dramatic art, to the nobler tendencies of the national life,
+and to the demands of moral law. Because the later Stuart
+drama as a whole proved untrue to these, and, while following
+its own courses, never more than partially returned from the
+aberrations to which it condemned itself, its history is that of a
+decay which the indisputable brilliancy, borrowed or original,
+of many of its productions is incapable of concealing.</p>
+
+<p>Owing in part to the influence of the French theatre, which
+by this time had taken the place of the Spanish as the ruling
+drama of Europe, the separation between tragedy and
+comedy is clearly marked in post-Restoration plays.
+<span class="sidenote">Tragedy.</span>
+Comic scenes are still occasionally introduced into tragedies
+by some dramatists who adhered more closely to the Elizabethan
+models (such as Otway and Crowne), but the practice fell into
+disuse; while the endeavour to elevate comedy by pathetic
+scenes and motives is one of the characteristic marks of the
+beginning of another period in English dramatic literature.
+The successive phases through which English tragedy passed in
+the later Stuart times cannot be always kept distinct from one
+another; and the guidance offered by the theories put forth by
+some of the dramatists in support of their practice is often
+delusive. Following the example of Corneille, Dryden and his
+contemporaries and successors were fond of proclaiming their
+adherence to this or that principle of dramatic construction or
+form, and of upholding, with much show of dialectical acumen,
+maxims derived by them from French or other sources, or
+elaborated with modifications and variations of their own, but
+usually amounting to little more than what Scott calls &ldquo;certain
+romantic whimsical imitations of the dramatic art.&rdquo; Students
+of the drama will find much entertainment and much instruction
+in these prefaces, apologies, dialogues and treatises. They will
+acknowledge that Dryden&rsquo;s incomparable vigour does not desert
+him either in the exposing or in the upholding of fallacies, while
+<i>le bon sens</i>, which he hardly ever fails to exhibit, and which is a
+more eclectic gift than common-sense, serves as a sure guide
+to the best intelligence of his age. Even Rymer,<a name="fa210a" id="fa210a" href="#ft210a"><span class="sp">210</span></a> usually regarded
+as having touched the nadir of dramatic criticism, will be found
+to be not wholly without grains of salt. But Restoration tragedy
+itself must not be studied by the light of Restoration criticism.
+So long as any dramatic power remained in the tragic poets&mdash;and
+it is absent from none of the chief among them from Dryden
+to Rowe&mdash;the struggle between fashion (disguised as theory)
+and instinct (tending in the direction of the Elizabethan traditions)
+could never wholly determine itself in favour of the
+former.</p>
+
+<p>Lord Orrery, in deference, as he declares, to the expressed
+tastes of his sovereign King Charles II. himself, was the first to
+set up the standard of <i>heroic plays</i>.<a name="fa211a" id="fa211a" href="#ft211a"><span class="sp">211</span></a> This new species of tragedy
+(for such it professed to be) commended itself by its novel choice
+of themes, to a large extent supplied by recent French romance&mdash;the
+<i>romans de longue haleine</i> of the Scudérys and their contemporaries&mdash;and
+by French plays treating similar themes.
+It likewise borrowed from France that garb of rhyme which the
+English drama had so long abandoned, and which now reappeared
+in the heroic couplet. But the themes which to readers
+of novels might seem of their nature inexhaustible could not long
+suffice to satisfy the more capricious appetite of theatrical
+audiences; and the form, in the application which it was more
+or less sought to enforce for it, was doomed to remain an exotic.
+In conjunction with his brother-in-law Sir R. Howard,<a name="fa212a" id="fa212a" href="#ft212a"><span class="sp">212</span></a> and
+afterwards more confidently by himself,<a name="fa213a" id="fa213a" href="#ft213a"><span class="sp">213</span></a> Dryden threw the incomparable
+vigour and brilliancy of his genius into the scale,
+which soon rose to the full height of fashionable popularity.
+At first he claimed for English tragedy the right to combine her
+native inheritance of freedom with these valuable foreign
+acquisitions.<a name="fa214a" id="fa214a" href="#ft214a"><span class="sp">214</span></a> Nor was he dismayed by the ridicule which the
+celebrated burlesque (by the duke of Buckingham and others)
+of <i>The Rehearsal</i> (1671) cast upon heroic plays, without discriminating
+between them and such other materials for ridicule
+as the contemporary drama supplied to its facetious authors,
+but returned<a name="fa215a" id="fa215a" href="#ft215a"><span class="sp">215</span></a> to the defence of a species which he was himself in
+the end to abandon.<a name="fa216a" id="fa216a" href="#ft216a"><span class="sp">216</span></a> The desire for change proved stronger
+than the love of consistency&mdash;which in Dryden was never more
+than theoretical. After summoning tragedy to rival the freedom
+(without disdaining the machinery) of opera&mdash;with whose birth
+its own revival was as a matter of fact simultaneous&mdash;he came
+to recognize in characterization the truest secret of the master-spirit
+of the Elizabethan drama,<a name="fa217a" id="fa217a" href="#ft217a"><span class="sp">217</span></a> and after audaciously, but in
+one instance not altogether unhappily, essaying to rival Shakespeare
+on his own ground,<a name="fa218a" id="fa218a" href="#ft218a"><span class="sp">218</span></a> produced under the influence of the
+same views at least one work of striking merit.<a name="fa219a" id="fa219a" href="#ft219a"><span class="sp">219</span></a> But he was
+already growing weary of the stage itself as well as of the rhymed
+heroic drama; and, though he put an end to the species to which
+he had given temporary vitality, he failed effectively to point
+the way to a more legitimate development of English tragedy.
+Among the other tragic poets of this period, N. Lee, in the outward
+form of his dramas, accommodated his practice to that of
+Dryden, with whom he occasionally co-operated as a dramatist,
+and like whom he allowed political partisanship to intrude upon
+the stage.<a name="fa220a" id="fa220a" href="#ft220a"><span class="sp">220</span></a> His rhetorical genius was not devoid of genuine
+energy, nor is he to be regarded as a mere imitator. T. Otway,
+the most gifted tragic poet of the younger generation contemporary
+with Dryden, inherited something of the spirit of the
+Elizabethan drama; he possessed a real gift of tragic pathos
+and melting tenderness; but his genius had a worse alloy than
+stageyness, and, though he was often happy in his novel choice
+of themes, his most successful efforts fail to satisfy tests supplementary
+to that of the stage.<a name="fa221a" id="fa221a" href="#ft221a"><span class="sp">221</span></a>  Among dramatists who contributed
+to the vogue of the &ldquo;heroic&rdquo; play may be mentioned
+J. Bankes, J. Weston, C. Hopkins, E. Cooke, R. Gould, S. Pordage,
+T. Rymer and Elkanah Settle. The productivity of J. Crowne
+(d. c. 1703)<a name="fa222a" id="fa222a" href="#ft222a"><span class="sp">222</span></a> covers part of the earlier period as well as of the later,
+to which properly belong T. Southerne, a writer gifted with much
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page528" id="page528"></a>528</span>
+pathetic power, but probably chiefly indebted for his long-lived
+popularity to his skill in the discovery of &ldquo;sensational&rdquo; plots;
+and Lord Lansdowne (&ldquo;Granville the polite&rdquo;) (c. 1667-1735).
+Congreve, by virtue of a single long celebrated but not really
+remarkable tragedy,<a name="fa223a" id="fa223a" href="#ft223a"><span class="sp">223</span></a> and N. Rowe, may be further singled out
+from the list of the tragic dramatists of this period, many of
+whom were, like their comic contemporaries, mere translators
+or adapters from the French. The tragedies of Rowe, whose
+direct services to the study of Shakespeare deserve remembrance,
+indicate with singular distinctness the transition from the fuller
+declamatory style of Dryden to the calmer and thinner manner
+of Addison.<a name="fa224a" id="fa224a" href="#ft224a"><span class="sp">224</span></a> In tragedy (as to a more marked degree in comedy)
+the excesses (both of style and subject) of the past period of the
+English drama had produced an inevitable reaction; decorum
+was asserting its claims on the stage as in society; and French
+tragedy had set the example of sacrificing what passion&mdash;and
+what vigour&mdash;it retained in favour of qualities more acceptable
+to the &ldquo;reformed&rdquo; court of Louis XIV. Addison, in allowing
+his <i>Cato</i> to take its chance upon the stage, when a moment
+of political excitement (April 1713) ensured to it an extraordinary
+success, to which no feature in it corresponds, except an unusual
+number of lines predestined to become familiar quotations,
+unconsciously sealed the doom of English national tragedy.
+The &ldquo;first reasonable English tragedy,&rdquo; as Voltaire called it,
+had been produced, and the oscillations of the tragic drama of
+the Restoration were at an end.</p>
+
+<p>English comedy in this period displayed no similar desire
+to cut itself off from the native soil, though it freely borrowed
+the materials for its plots and many of its figures from
+Spanish, and afterwards more generally from French,
+<span class="sidenote">Comedy.</span>
+originals. The spirit of the old romantic comedy had long since
+fled; the graceful artificialities of the pastoral drama, even the
+light texture of the mask, ill suited the demands of an age which
+made no secret to itself of the grossness of its sensuality. With
+a few unimportant exceptions, such poetic elements as admitted
+of being combined with the poetic drama were absorbed by the
+opera and the ballet. No new species of the comic drama formed
+itself, though towards the close of the period may be noticed
+the beginnings of modern English farce. Political and religious
+partisanship, generally in accordance with the dominant reaction
+against Puritanism, were allowed to find expression in the
+directest and coarsest forms upon the stage, and to hasten the
+necessity for a more systematic control than even the times
+before the Revolution had found requisite. At the same time the
+unblushing indecency which the Restoration had spread through
+court and capital had established its dominion over the comic
+stage, corrupting the manners, and with them the morals, of
+its dramatists, and forbidding them, at the risk of seeming
+dull, to be anything but improper. Much of this found its way
+even into the epilogues, which, together with the prologues,
+proved so important an adjunct of the Restoration drama.
+These influences determine the general character of what is
+with a more than chronological meaning termed the comedy of
+the Restoration. In construction, the national love of fulness
+and solidity of dramatic treatment induced its authors to alter
+what they borrowed from foreign sources, adding to complicated
+Spanish plots characters of native English directness, and
+supplementing single French plots by the addition of others.<a name="fa225a" id="fa225a" href="#ft225a"><span class="sp">225</span></a>
+At the same time, the higher efforts of French comedy of character,
+as well as the refinement of expression in the list of their
+models, notably in Molière, were alike seasoned to suit the
+coarser appetites and grosser palates of English patrons. The
+English comic writers often succeeded in strengthening the
+borrowed texture of their plays, but they never added comic
+humour without at the same time adding coarseness of their own.
+Such were the productions of Sir George Etheredge, Sir Charles
+Sedley, and the &ldquo;mob of gentlemen who wrote with ease&rdquo;; nor
+was there any signal difference between their productions and
+those of a playwright-actor such as J. Lacy (d. 1681), and a
+professional dramatist of undoubted ability such as J. Crowne.
+Such, though often displaying the brilliancy of a genius which
+even where it sank could never wholly abandon its prerogative,
+were, it must be confessed, the comedies of Dryden himself.
+On the other hand, the lowest literary deeps of the Restoration
+drama were sounded by T. D&rsquo;Urfey, while of its moral degradation
+the &ldquo;divine Astraea,&rdquo; the &ldquo;unspeakable&rdquo; Mrs Aphra Behn,
+has an indefeasible title to be considered the most faithful
+representative. T. Shadwell, fated, like the tragic poet Elkanah
+Settle, to be chiefly remembered as a victim of Dryden&rsquo;s satire,
+deserves more honourable mention. Like J. Wilson, whose plays
+seem to class him with the pre-Restoration dramatists, Shadwell
+had caught something not only of the art, but also of the spirit,
+of Ben Jonson; but in most of his works he was, like the rest
+of his earlier contemporaries, and like the brilliant group which
+succeeded them, content to take his moral tone from the reckless
+society for which, or in deference to the tastes of which, he wrote.<a name="fa226a" id="fa226a" href="#ft226a"><span class="sp">226</span></a>
+The absence of a moral sense, which, together with a grossness
+of expression often defying exaggeration, characterizes English
+comic dramatists from the days of Dryden to those of Congreve,
+is the main cause of their failure to satisfy the demands which
+are legitimately to be made upon their art. They essayed to
+draw character as well as to paint manners, but they rarely
+proved equal to the former and higher task; and, while choosing
+the means which most readily commended their plays to the
+favour of their immediate public, they achieved but little as
+interpreters of those essential distinctions which their art is
+capable of illustrating.<a name="fa227a" id="fa227a" href="#ft227a"><span class="sp">227</span></a> Within these limits, though occasionally
+passing beyond them, and always with the same deference to the
+immoral tone which seemed to have become an indispensable
+adjunct of the comic style, even the greatest comic authors of
+this age moved. W. Wycherley was a comic dramatist of real
+power, who drew his characters with vigour and distinctness,
+and constructed his plots and chose his language with natural
+ease. He lacks gaiety of spirit, and his wit is of a cynical turn.
+But, while he ruthlessly uncloaks the vices of his age, his own
+moral tone is affected by their influence in as marked a degree
+as that of the most light-hearted of his contemporaries.<a name="fa228a" id="fa228a" href="#ft228a"><span class="sp">228</span></a> The
+most brilliant of these was indisputably W. Congreve, who is not
+only one of the very wittiest of English writers, but equally excels
+in the graceful ease of his dialogue, and draws his characters
+and constructs his plots with the same masterly skill. His chief
+fault as a dramatist is one of excess&mdash;the brilliancy of the
+dialogue, whoever be the speaker, overpowers the distinction
+between the &ldquo;humours&rdquo; of his personages. Though he is less
+brutal in expression than &ldquo;manly&rdquo; Wycherley, and less coarse
+than the lively Sir J. Vanbrugh, licentiousness in him as in
+them corrupts the spirit of his comic art; but of his best though
+not most successful play<a name="fa229a" id="fa229a" href="#ft229a"><span class="sp">229</span></a> it must be allowed that the issue of the
+main plot is on the side of virtue. G. Farquhar, whose morality
+is on a par with that of the other members of this group, is inferior
+to them in brilliancy; but as pictures of manners in a wider
+sphere of life than that which contemporary comedy usually
+chose to illustrate, two of his plays deserve to be noticed, in
+which we already seem to be entering the atmosphere of the
+18th-century novel.<a name="fa230a" id="fa230a" href="#ft230a"><span class="sp">230</span></a> His influence upon Lessing is a remarkable
+fact in the international history of dramatic literature.</p>
+
+<p>The improvement which now begins to manifest itself in the
+moral tone and spirit of English comedy is partly due to the
+reaction against the reaction of the Restoration, partly to the
+punishment which the excesses of the comic stage had brought
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page529" id="page529"></a>529</span>
+upon it in the invective of Jeremy Collier<a name="fa231a" id="fa231a" href="#ft231a"><span class="sp">231</span></a> (1698), of all the
+assaults the theatre in England has had to undergo the best-founded,
+<span class="sidenote">Sentimental comedy.</span>
+and that which produced the most perceptible
+results. The comic poets, who had always been more or
+less conscious of their sins, and had at all events not
+defended them by the ingenious sophistries which
+it has pleased later literary criticism to suggest on their behalf,
+now began with uneasy merriment to allude in their prologues
+to the reformation which had come over the spirit of the town.
+Writers like Mrs Centlivre became anxious to reclaim their
+offenders with much emphasis in the fifth act; and Colley Cibber&mdash;whose
+<i>Apology for his Life</i> furnishes a useful view of this and
+the subsequent period of the history of the stage, with which
+he was connected as author, manager and actor (excelling in
+this capacity as representative of those fools with which he
+peopled the comic stage)<a name="fa232a" id="fa232a" href="#ft232a"><span class="sp">232</span></a>&mdash;may be credited with having first
+deliberately made the pathetic treatment of a moral sentiment
+the basis of the action of a comic drama. But he cannot be said
+to have consistently pursued the vein which in his <i>Careless
+Husband</i> (1704) he had essayed. His <i>Non-Juror</i> is a political
+adaptation of <i>Tartuffe</i>; and his almost equally celebrated
+<i>Provoked Husband</i> only supplied a happy ending to Vanbrugh&rsquo;s
+unfinished play. Sir R. Steele, in accordance with his general
+tendencies as a writer, pursued a still more definite moral purpose
+in his comedies; but his genius perhaps lacked the sustained
+vigour necessary for a dramatist, and his humour naturally
+sought the aid of pathos. From partial<a name="fa233a" id="fa233a" href="#ft233a"><span class="sp">233</span></a> he passed to more
+complete<a name="fa234a" id="fa234a" href="#ft234a"><span class="sp">234</span></a> experiment; and thus these two writers, who transplanted
+to the comic stage a tendency towards the treatment
+of domestic themes noticeable in such writers of Restoration
+tragedy as Southerne and Rowe, became the founders of <i>sentimental
+comedy</i>, a species which exercised a most depressing
+influence upon the progress of English drama, and helped to
+hasten the decline of its comic branch. With <i>Cato</i> English
+tragedy committed suicide, though its pale ghost survived;
+with <i>The Conscious Lovers</i> English comedy sank for long into
+the tearful embraces of artificiality and weakness.</p>
+
+<p>During the 18th century the productions of dramatic literature
+were still as a rule legitimately designed to meet the demands
+of the stage, from which its higher efforts afterwards
+to so large an extent became dissociated. The goodwill
+<span class="sidenote">The drama and stage in the period before Garrick.</span>
+of most sections of the public continued to be steadily
+accorded to a theatre which had ceased to defy the
+accepted laws and traditions of morality; and the
+opposition still aroused by it was confined to a small
+minority of thinkers, though these included some who were
+far from being puritans. John Dennis was not thought to have
+the worst of the controversy, when he defended the stage against
+the attack of an opponent far above him in stature&mdash;the great
+mystic William Law<a name="fa235a" id="fa235a" href="#ft235a"><span class="sp">235</span></a>&mdash;and to John Wesley himself it seemed
+that &ldquo;a great deal more might be said in defence of seeing a
+serious tragedy&rdquo; than of taking part in the amusements of
+bear-baiting and cock-fighting. On the other hand, the demands
+of the stage and those of its patrons and of the public of the
+&ldquo;Augustan&rdquo; age, and of that which succeeded it, were, in
+general, fast bound by the trammels of a taste with which a
+revival of the poetic drama long remained irreconcilable. There
+is every reason to conclude that the art of acting progressed
+in the same direction of artificiality, and became stereotyped
+in forms corresponding to the &ldquo;chant&rdquo; which represented
+tragic declamation in a series of actors ending with Quin and
+Macklin. In the latter must be recognized features of a precursor,
+but it was reserved to the genius of Garrick, whose
+<span class="sidenote">Garrick.</span>
+theatrical career extended from 1741 to 1776, to open
+a new era in his art. His unparalleled success was due
+in the first instance to his incomparable natural gifts; yet
+these were indisputably enhanced by a careful and continued
+literary training, and ennobled by a purpose which prompted
+him to essay the noblest, as he was capable of performing
+the most various, range of English theatrical characters. By
+devoting himself as actor and manager with special zeal to the
+production of Shakespeare, Garrick permanently popularized
+on the national stage the greatest creations of English drama,
+and indirectly helped to seal the doom of what survived of the
+tendency to maintain in the most ambitious walks of dramatic
+literature the nerveless traditions of the pseudo-classical school.
+A generation of celebrated actors and actresses, many of whom
+live for us in the drastic epigrams of Churchill&rsquo;s <i>Rosciad</i> (1761),
+were his helpmates or his rivals; but their fame has paled,
+while his is destined to endure as that of one of the typical
+masters of his art.</p>
+
+<p>The contrast between the tragedy of the 18th century and
+those plays of Shakespeare and one or two other Elizabethans
+which already before Garrick were known to the
+English stage, was weakened by the mutilated form
+<span class="sidenote">Decline of tragedy.</span>
+in which the old masterpieces generally, if not always,
+made their appearance there. Even so, however, there are
+perhaps few instances in theatrical history in which so unequal
+a competition was so long sustained. In the hands of the
+tragic poets of the age of Pope, as well as that of Johnson,
+tragedy had hopelessly stiffened into the forms of its accepted
+French models. Direct reproductions of these continued, as in
+Ambrose Philips&rsquo;s and Charles Johnson&rsquo;s (1679-1748) translations
+from Racine, and Aaron Hill&rsquo;s from Voltaire. Among
+other tragic dramatists of the earlier part of the century may be
+mentioned J. Hughes, who, after assisting Addison in his <i>Cato</i>,
+produced at least one praiseworthy tragedy of his own;<a name="fa236a" id="fa236a" href="#ft236a"><span class="sp">236</span></a>
+E. Fenton, a joint translator of &ldquo;Pope&rsquo;s <i>Homer</i>&rdquo; and the
+author of one extremely successful drama on a theme of singularly
+enduring interest,<a name="fa237a" id="fa237a" href="#ft237a"><span class="sp">237</span></a> and L. Theobald the first hero of the <i>Dunciad</i>,
+who, besides translations of Greek dramas, produced a few
+more or less original plays, one of which he was daring enough
+to father upon Shakespeare.<a name="fa238a" id="fa238a" href="#ft238a"><span class="sp">238</span></a> A more distinguished name is
+that of J. Thomson, whose unlucky <i>Sophonisba</i> and subsequent
+tragedies are, however, barely remembered by the side of his
+poems (<i>The Seasons</i>, &amp;c.). The literary genius of E. Young, on
+the other hand, possessed vigour and variety enough to distinguish
+his tragedies from the ordinary level of Augustan plays;
+in one of them he seems to challenge comparison in the treatment
+of his theme with a very different rival,<a name="fa239a" id="fa239a" href="#ft239a"><span class="sp">239</span></a> but by his main characteristics
+as a dramatist he belongs to the school of his contemporaries.
+The endeavour of G. Lillo, in his <i>London Merchant,
+or George Barnwell</i> (1731), to bring the tragic lessons of terror
+and pity directly home to his fellow-citizens exercised an extraordinarily
+widespread as well as enduring effect on the history
+of the 18th-century drama. At home, they gave birth to the new,
+or, more properly speaking, to the revived, species of domestic
+tragedy, which connects itself more or less closely with a notable
+epoch in the history of English prose-fiction as well as of English
+painting. Abroad, this play&mdash;whose success was of the kind
+which nothing can kill&mdash;supplied the text to the teachings of
+Diderot, as well as an example to his own dramatic attempts;
+and through Diderot the impulse communicated itself to Lessing,
+and long exercised a great effect upon the literature of the
+German stage. At the same time, it must be allowed that
+Lillo&rsquo;s pedestrian muse failed in the end to satisfy higher artistic
+demands than those met in his most popular play, while in
+another<a name="fa240a" id="fa240a" href="#ft240a"><span class="sp">240</span></a> she was less consciously guilty of an aberration
+towards that &ldquo;tragedy of destiny,&rdquo; which, in the modern drama
+at least, obscures the ethical character of all tragic actions.
+&ldquo;Classical&rdquo; tragedy in the generation of Dr Johnson pursued
+the even tenor of its way, the dictator himself treading with
+solemn footfall in the accustomed path,<a name="fa241a" id="fa241a" href="#ft241a"><span class="sp">241</span></a> and W. Mason
+making the futile attempt to produce a close imitation of Greek
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page530" id="page530"></a>530</span>
+models.<a name="fa242a" id="fa242a" href="#ft242a"><span class="sp">242</span></a> The best-remembered tragedy of the century, Home&rsquo;s
+<i>Douglas</i> (1757), was the production of an author whose famous
+kinsman, David Hume (though no friend of the contemporary
+English stage), had advised him &ldquo;to read Shakespeare, but to
+get Racine and Voltaire by heart.&rdquo; The indisputable merits
+of the play cannot blind us to the fact that <i>Douglas</i> is the
+offspring of <i>Merope</i>.</p>
+
+<p>While thus no high creative talent arose to revive the poetic
+genius of English tragedy, comedy, which had to contend
+against the same rivals, naturally met the demands
+of the conflict with greater buoyancy. The history of
+<span class="sidenote">English opera.</span>
+the most formidable of those rivals, Music, forms no
+part of this sketch; but the points of contact between its
+progress and the history of dramatic literature cannot be altogether
+left out of sight. H. Purcell&rsquo;s endeavours to unite
+English music to the words of English poets were now a thing
+of the past; analogous attempts in the direction of musical
+dialogue, which have been insufficiently noticed, had likewise
+proved transitory; and the isolated efforts of Addison<a name="fa243a" id="fa243a" href="#ft243a"><span class="sp">243</span></a> and
+others to recover the operatic stage for the native tongue had
+proved powerless. Italian texts, which had first made their
+entrance piecemeal, in the end asserted themselves in their
+entirety; and the marvellously assimilative genius of Handel
+completed the triumphs of a form of art which no longer had
+any connexion with the English drama, and which reached the
+height of its fashionable popularity about the time when Garrick
+began to adorn the national stage. In one form, however, the
+English opera was preserved as a pleasing species of the popular
+drama. The pastoral drama had (in 1725) produced an isolated
+aftergrowth in Allan Ramsay&rsquo;s <i>Gentle Shepherd</i>, which, with
+genuine freshness and humour, but without a trace of burlesque,
+transferred to the scenery of the Pentland Hills the lovely tale
+of Florizel and Perdita. The dramatic form of this poem is
+only an accident, but it doubtless suggested an experiment of a
+different kind to the most playful of London wits. Gay&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;Newgate Pastoral&rdquo; of <i>The Beggar&rsquo;s Opera</i> (1728), in which the
+amusing text of a burlesque farce was interspersed with songs
+set to popular airs, caught the fancy of the town by this novel
+combination, and became the ancestor of a series of agreeable
+productions, none of which, however, not even its own continuation,
+<i>Polly</i> (amazingly successful in book form, after its production
+was forbidden by the lord chamberlain), have ever rivalled
+it in success or celebrity. Among these may be mentioned the
+pieces of I. Bickerstaffe<a name="fa244a" id="fa244a" href="#ft244a"><span class="sp">244</span></a> and C. Dibdin.<a name="fa245a" id="fa245a" href="#ft245a"><span class="sp">245</span></a> The opera in England,
+as elsewhere, thus absorbed what vitality remained to the
+pastoral drama, while to the ballet and the pantomime (whose
+glories in England began at Covent Garden in 1733, and to
+whose popularity even Garrick was obliged to defer) was left (in
+the 18th century at all events) the inheritance of the external
+attractions of the mask and the pageant.</p>
+
+<p>In the face of such various rivalries it is not strange that
+comedy, instead of adhering to the narrow path which Steele
+and others had marked out for her, should have
+permitted herself some vagaries of her own. Gay&rsquo;s
+<span class="sidenote">Comedy. Burlesque.</span>
+example pointed the way to a fatally facile form of the
+comic art; and burlesque began to contribute its influence to
+the decline of comedy. In an age when party-government was
+severely straining the capabilities of its system, dramatic satire
+had not far to look for a source of effective seasonings. The
+audacity of H. Fielding, whose regular comedies (original or
+adapted) have secured no enduring remembrance, but whose love
+of parody was afterwards to suggest to him the theme of the
+<span class="sidenote">The Licensing Act.</span>
+first of the novels which have made his name immortal,
+accordingly ventured in two extravaganzas<a name="fa246a" id="fa246a" href="#ft246a"><span class="sp">246</span></a> (so we
+should call them in these days) upon a larger admixture
+of political with literary and other satire. A third
+attempt<a name="fa247a" id="fa247a" href="#ft247a"><span class="sp">247</span></a> (which never reached the stage) furnished the
+offended minister, Sir Robert Walpole, with the desired occasion for
+placing a curb upon the licence of the theatre, such as had already
+been advocated by a representative of its old civic adversaries.
+The famous act of 1737 asserted no new principle, but converted
+into legal power the customary authority hither exercised by the
+lord chamberlain (to whom it had descended from the master
+of the revels). The regular censorship which this act established
+has not appreciably affected the literary progress of the English
+drama, and the objections which have been raised against it
+seem to have addressed themselves to practice rather than to
+principle. The liberty of the stage is a question differing in its
+conditions from that of the liberty of speech in general, or even
+from that of the liberty of the press; and occasional lapses of
+official judgment weigh lightly in the balance against the obvious
+advantages of a system which in a free country needs only the
+vigilance of public opinion to prevent its abuse. The policy of
+the restraint which the act of 1737 put upon the number of
+playhouses is a different, but has long become an obsolete,
+question.<a name="fa248a" id="fa248a" href="#ft248a"><span class="sp">248</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Brought back into its accustomed grooves, English comedy
+seemed inclined to leave to farce the domain of healthy ridicule,
+and to coalesce with domestic tragedy in the attempt
+to make the stage a vehicle of homespun didactic
+<span class="sidenote">Comedy in the latter half of the 18th century.</span>
+morality. Farce had now become a genuine English
+species, and has as such retained its vitality through
+all the subsequent fortunes of the stage; it was
+actively cultivated by Garrick as both actor and author; and
+he undoubtedly had more than a hand in the very best farce
+of this age, which is ascribed to clerical authorship.<a name="fa249a" id="fa249a" href="#ft249a"><span class="sp">249</span></a> S. Foote,
+whose comedies<a name="fa250a" id="fa250a" href="#ft250a"><span class="sp">250</span></a> and farces are distinguished both by wit and
+by variety of characters (though it was an absurd misapplication
+of a great name to call him the English Aristophanes), introduced
+into comic acting the abuse of personal mimicry, for the exhibition
+of which he ingeniously invented a series of entertainments,
+the parents of a long progeny of imitations. Meanwhile,
+the domestic drama of the sentimental kind achieved, though
+not immediately, a success only inferior to that of <i>The London
+Merchant</i>, in <i>The Gamester</i> of E. Moore, to which Garrick seems
+to have directly contributed;<a name="fa251a" id="fa251a" href="#ft251a"><span class="sp">251</span></a> and sentimental comedy courted
+sympathetic applause in the works of A. Murphy, the single
+comedy of W. Whitehead,<a name="fa252a" id="fa252a" href="#ft252a"><span class="sp">252</span></a> and the earliest of H. Kelly.<a name="fa253a" id="fa253a" href="#ft253a"><span class="sp">253</span></a> It
+cannot be said that this species was extinguished, as it is sometimes
+assumed to have been, by O. Goldsmith; but he certainly
+published a direct protest against it between the production
+of his admirable character-comedy of <i>The Good-Natured Man</i>,
+and his delightfully brisk and fresh <i>She Stoops to Conquer</i>, which,
+after startling critical propriety from its self-conceit, taught
+comedy no longer to fear being true to herself. The most
+successful efforts of the elder G. Colman<a name="fa254a" id="fa254a" href="#ft254a"><span class="sp">254</span></a> had in them something
+of the spirit of genuine comedy, besides a finish which, however
+playwrights may shut their eyes to the fact, is one of the qualities
+which ensure a long life to a play. And in the masterpieces of
+R. B. Sheridan some of the happiest features of the comedy of
+Congreve were revived, together with its too uniform brilliancy
+of dialogue, but without its indecency of tone. The varnish
+of the age is indeed upon the style, and the hollowness of its
+morality in much of the sentiment (even where that sentiment is
+meant for the audience) of <i>The Rivals</i> and <i>The School for Scandal</i>;
+but in tact of construction, in distinctness of characters, and in
+pungency of social satire, they are to be ranked among the glories
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page531" id="page531"></a>531</span>
+of English comedy. Something in Sheridan&rsquo;s style, but quite
+without his brilliancy, is the most successful play<a name="fa255a" id="fa255a" href="#ft255a"><span class="sp">255</span></a> of the unfortunate
+General Burgoyne. R. Cumberland, who too consciously
+endeavoured to excel both in sentimental morality and
+in comic characterization, in which he was devoid of depth,
+closes the list of authors of higher pretensions who wrote for the
+theatre.<a name="fa256a" id="fa256a" href="#ft256a"><span class="sp">256</span></a> Like him, Mrs Cowley<a name="fa257a" id="fa257a" href="#ft257a"><span class="sp">257</span></a> (&ldquo;Anna Matilda&rdquo;), T. Holcroft,<a name="fa258a" id="fa258a" href="#ft258a"><span class="sp">258</span></a>
+and G. Colman the younger,<a name="fa259a" id="fa259a" href="#ft259a"><span class="sp">259</span></a> all writers of popular
+comedies, as well as the prolific J. O&rsquo;Keefe (1746-1833), who
+contributed to nearly every species of the comic drama, survived
+into the 19th century. To an earlier date belong the favourite
+burlesques of O&rsquo;Keefe&rsquo;s countryman K. O&rsquo;Hara<a name="fa260a" id="fa260a" href="#ft260a"><span class="sp">260</span></a> (d. 1782), good
+examples of a species the further history of which may be left
+aside. In the hands of at least one later writer, J. R. Planché,
+it proved capable of satisfying a more refined taste than his
+successors have habitually consulted.</p>
+
+<p>The decline of dramatic composition of the higher class,
+perceptible in the history of the English theatre about the
+beginning of the 19th century, was justly attributed
+by Sir Walter Scott to the wearing out of the French
+<span class="sidenote">The English drama of the 19th century.</span>
+model that had been so long wrought upon; but when
+he asserted that the new impulse which was sought in
+the dramatic literature of Germany was derived from
+some of its worst, instead of from its noblest, productions&mdash;from
+Kotzebue rather than from Lessing, Schiller and Goethe&mdash;he
+showed a very imperfect acquaintance with a complicated
+literary movement which was obliquely reflected in the stage-plays
+of Iffland and his contemporaries. The change which was
+coming over English literature was in truth of a wider and
+deeper nature than it was possible for even one of its chief
+representatives to perceive. As that literature freed itself from
+the fetters so long worn by it as indispensable ornaments, and
+threw aside the veil which had so long obscured both the full
+glory of its past and the lofty capabilities of its future, it could not
+resort except tentatively to a form which like the dramatic is
+bound by a hundred bonds to the life of the age itself. Soon, the
+poems with which Scott and Byron, and the unrivalled prose fictions
+with which Scott, both satisfied and stimulated the imaginative
+demands of the public, diverted the attention of the cultivated
+classes from dramatic literature, which was unable to escape,
+with the light foot of verse or prose fiction, into &ldquo;the new, the
+romantic land.&rdquo; New themes, new ideas, new forms occupied
+a new generation of writers and readers; nor did the drama
+readily lend itself as a vessel into which to pour so many fermenting
+elements. In Byron the impressions produced upon a mind
+not less open to impulses from without than subjective in its
+way of recasting them, called forth a series of dramatic attempts
+betraying a more or less wilful ignorance of the demands of
+dramatic compositions; his beautiful <i>Manfred</i>, partly suggested
+by Goethe&rsquo;s <i>Faust</i>, and his powerful <i>Cain</i>, have but the form of
+plays; his tragedies on Italian historical subjects show some
+resemblance in their political rhetoric to the contemporary works
+of Alfieri; his <i>Sardanapalus</i>, autobiographically interesting,
+fails to meet the demands of the stage; his <i>Werner</i> (of which the
+authorship has been ascribed to the duchess of Devonshire) is a
+hastily dramatized sensation novel. To Coleridge (1772-1834),
+who gave to English literature a splendidly loose translation of
+Schiller&rsquo;s <i>Wallenstein</i>, the same poet&rsquo;s <i>Robbers</i> (to which Wordsworth&rsquo;s
+only dramatic attempt, the <i>Borderers</i>, is likewise indebted)
+had probably suggested the subject of his tragedy of
+<i>Osorio</i>, afterwards acted under the title of <i>Remorse</i>. Far superior
+to this is his later drama of <i>Zapolya</i>, a genuine homage to Shakespeare,
+out of the themes of two of whose plays it is gracefully
+woven. Scott, who in his earlier days had translated Goethe&rsquo;s
+<i>Götz von Berlichingen</i>, gained no reputation by his own dramatic
+compositions. W. S. Landor, apart from those <i>Imaginary
+Conversations</i> upon which he best loved to expend powers of
+observation and characterization such as have been given to
+few playwrights, cast in a formally dramatic mould studies of
+character of which the value is far from being confined to their
+wealth in beauties of detail. Of these the magnificent, but in
+construction altogether undramatic, <i>Count Julian</i>, is the most
+noteworthy. Shelley&rsquo;s <i>The Cenci</i>, on the other hand, is not only
+a poem of great beauty, but a drama of true power, abnormally
+revolting indeed in theme, but singularly pure and delicate in
+treatment. A humbler niche in the temple of dramatic literature
+belongs to some of the plays of C. R. Maturin,<a name="fa261a" id="fa261a" href="#ft261a"><span class="sp">261</span></a> Sir T. N. Talfourd,<a name="fa262a" id="fa262a" href="#ft262a"><span class="sp">262</span></a>
+and Dean Milman.<a name="fa263a" id="fa263a" href="#ft263a"><span class="sp">263</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Divorced, except for passing moments, from the stage, English
+dramatic literature could during much the greater part of the
+19th century hardly be regarded as a connected national growth;
+though, already in the last decades of the Victorian age, the
+revival of public interest in the theatre co-operated with a
+gradual change in poetic taste to awaken the hope of a future
+living reunion. Among English poets who lived in this period,
+Sir Henry Taylor probably approached nearest to the objective
+treatment and the amplitude of style characteristic of the
+Elizabethan drama.<a name="fa264a" id="fa264a" href="#ft264a"><span class="sp">264</span></a> R. H. Horne, long an almost solitary
+survivor of the romantic school, was able in at least one memorable
+dramatic attempt to revive something of the early Elizabethan
+spirit.<a name="fa265a" id="fa265a" href="#ft265a"><span class="sp">265</span></a> Of the chief poets of the age, Tennyson only in his later
+years addressed himself to a form of composition little suited
+to his genius, though the very fact of the homage paid by him to
+the national forms of the historic drama and of romantic comedy
+could not fail to ennoble the contemporary stage.<a name="fa266a" id="fa266a" href="#ft266a"><span class="sp">266</span></a> Matthew
+Arnold&rsquo;s stately revival of the traditions of classical tragedy
+proper, on the other hand, deliberately excluded itself from any
+such contact;<a name="fa267a" id="fa267a" href="#ft267a"><span class="sp">267</span></a> while Longfellow&rsquo;s refined literary culture and
+graceful facility of form made ready use of a quasi-dramatic
+medieval vesture.<a name="fa268a" id="fa268a" href="#ft268a"><span class="sp">268</span></a> William Morris&rsquo;s single &ldquo;morality,&rdquo; too,
+cannot be regarded as a contribution to dramatic literature
+proper.<a name="fa269a" id="fa269a" href="#ft269a"><span class="sp">269</span></a> Of very different importance are the excursions into
+dramatic composition of Robert Browning, whose place in the
+living inheritance of the English drama has in one instance at
+least been not unsuccessfully vindicated by a later age, and
+some of whose greatest gifts are beyond a doubt displayed in his
+dramatic work;<a name="fa270a" id="fa270a" href="#ft270a"><span class="sp">270</span></a> and the sustained endeavours of A. C. Swinburne,
+after adding a flower of exquisite beauty to the wreath
+which the lovers of the Attic muse have laid at her feet, to enrich
+the national historic drama by a trilogy instinct with the ardent
+eloquence of passion.<a name="fa271a" id="fa271a" href="#ft271a"><span class="sp">271</span></a> Until a date too near the times in which
+we live to admit of its being fixed with precision, most of the
+English writers who sought to preserve a connexion between
+their dramatic productions and the demands of the stage
+addressed themselves to the theatrical rather than the literary
+public&mdash;for the distinction, in those times at all events, was by
+no means without a difference. The modestly simple and judiciously
+concentrated efforts of Joanna Baillie deserve a respectful
+remembrance in the records of literature as well as of the stage,
+though the day has passed when the theory which suggested
+her <i>Plays on the Passions</i> could find acceptance among critics,
+or her exemplifications of it satisfy the demands of playgoers.
+Sheridan Knowles, on the other hand, composed his conventional
+semblances of genuine tragedy and comedy with a thorough
+knowledge of stage effect, and some of them can hardly yet be
+said to have vanished from the stage.<a name="fa272a" id="fa272a" href="#ft272a"><span class="sp">272</span></a> The first Lord Lytton,
+though his plays were for the most part of a lighter texture,
+showed even more artificiality of sentiment in their conception
+and execution; but the romantic touch which he imparted to at
+least one of them accounts for its long-lived popularity. Among
+later Victorian playwrights T. W. Robertson brought back a
+breath of naturalness into the acted comic drama; Tom Taylor,
+rivalling Lope in fertility, made little pretence to original
+invention, but adapted with an instinct that rarely failed him,
+and materially helped to keep the theatrical diversions of his
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page532" id="page532"></a>532</span>
+age sound and pure; an endeavour in which he had the co-operation
+of Charles Reade and that of most of those who
+competed with them for the favour of generations of playgoers
+more easily contented than their successors. The one deplorable
+aspect of this age of the English drama was to be found neither
+in the sphere of tragedy nor in that of comedy&mdash;nor even in that
+of farce. It was presented in the low depths of contemporary
+burlesque, which had degenerated from the graceful extravaganza
+of J. R. Planché into witless and tasteless emptiness.</p>
+
+<p>Curiously enough, it was at this point that something like
+real originality&mdash;discovering a new sub-species of its own&mdash;first
+began, with the aid of a sister-art, to renovate the English
+popular comic stage. At the beginning of the 19th century the
+greatest tragic actress of the English theatre, Mrs Siddons, had
+passed her prime; and before its second decade had closed, not
+only she (1812) but her brother John Kemble (1817), the representative
+of a grand style of acting which later generations
+might conceivably find overpowering, had withdrawn from the
+boards. Mrs Siddons was soon followed into retirement by her
+successor Miss O&rsquo;Neill (1819); while Kemble&rsquo;s brilliant later
+rival, Edmund Kean, an actor the intuitions of whose genius seem
+to have supplied, so far as intuition ever can supply, the absence
+of a consecutive self-culture, remained on the stage till his death
+in 1833. Young, Macready, and others handed down some of
+the traditions of the older school of acting to the very few artists
+who remained to suggest its semblance to a later generation.
+Even these&mdash;among them S. Phelps, whose special merit it was
+to present to a later age, accustomed to elaborate theatrical
+environments, dramatic masterpieces as dependent upon themselves
+and adequate interpretation; and the foremost English
+actress of the earlier Victorian age, Helen Faucit (Lady Martin)&mdash;were
+unable to leave a school of acting behind them. Still less
+was this possible to Charles Kean the younger, with whom the
+decorative production of Shakespearian plays really had its
+beginning; or even to Sir Henry Irving, an actor of genius, but
+also an irrepressible and almost eccentric theatrical personality,
+whose great service to the English drama was his faith in its
+masterpieces. The comic stage was fortunate in an ampler
+aftergrowth, from generation to generation, of the successors
+of the old actors who live for us all in the reminiscences of
+Charles Lamb; nor were the links suddenly snapped which
+bound the humours of the present to those of the past. In the
+first decade of the 20th century a generation still survived which
+could recall, with many other similar joys, the brilliant levity
+of Charles Mathews the younger; the not less irresistible stolidity
+of J. B. Buckstone; the solemn fooling of H. Compton (1805-1877);
+the subtle humours of J. L. Toole, and the frolic charm
+of Marie Wilton (Lady Bancroft), the most original comic
+actress of her time.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. W. W.)</div>
+
+<p><i>Recent English Drama.</i>&mdash;In England the whole mechanism
+of theatrical life had undergone a radical change in the middle
+decades of the 19th century. At the root of this change lay the
+immense growth of population and the enormously increased
+facilities of communication between London and the provinces.
+Similar causes came into operation, of course, in France, Germany
+and Austria, but were much less distinctly felt, because the
+numerous and important subventioned theatres of these countries
+remained more or less unaffected by economic influences. Free
+trade in theatricals (subject only to certain licensing regulations
+and to a court censorship of new plays) was established in
+England by an act of 1843, which abolished the long moribund
+monopoly of the &ldquo;legitimate drama&rdquo; claimed by the &ldquo;Patent
+Theatres&rdquo; of Drury Lane and Covent Garden. The drama was
+thus formally subjected to the operation of the law of supply and
+demand, like any other article of commerce, and managers were
+left, unaided and unhampered by any subvention or privilege,
+to cater to the tastes of a huge and growing community. Theatres
+very soon multiplied, competition grew ever keener, and the
+long run, with its accompaniments of ostentatious decoration
+and lavish advertisement, became the one object of managerial
+effort. This process of evolution may be said to have begun in
+the second quarter of the 19th century and completed itself in
+the 3rd. The system which obtains to-day, almost unforeseen
+in 1825, was in full operation in 1875. The repertory theatre,
+with its constant changes of programme, maintained on the
+continent partly by subventions, partly by the mere force of
+artistic tradition, had become in England a faint and far-off
+memory. There was not a single theatre in London at which
+plays, old and new, were not selected and mounted solely with
+a view to their continuous performance for as many nights as
+possible, anything short of fifty nights constituting an ignominious
+and probably ruinous failure. It was found, too, that
+those theatres were most successful which were devoted exclusively
+to exploiting the talent of an individual actor. Thus
+when the fourth quarter of the century opened, the long &ldquo;run&rdquo;
+and the actor-manager were in firm possession of the field.</p>
+
+<p>The outlook was in many ways far from encouraging. It
+was not quite so black, indeed, as it had been in the late &rsquo;fifties
+and early &rsquo;sixties, when the &ldquo;legitimate&rdquo; enterprises of Phelps
+at Sadler&rsquo;s Wells and Charles Kean at the Princess&rsquo;s had failed
+to hold their ground, and when modern comedy and drama were
+represented almost exclusively by adaptations from the French.
+There had been a slight stirring of originality in the series of
+comedies produced by T. W. Robertson at the Prince of Wales&rsquo;s
+theatre, where, under the management of Bancroft (<i>q.v.</i>) a new
+school of mounting and acting, minutely faithful (in theory at
+any rate) to everyday reality, had come into existence. But
+the hopes of a revival of English comedy seemed to have died
+with Robertson&rsquo;s death. One of his followers, James Albery,
+possessed both imagination and wit, but had not the strength
+of character to do justice to his talent, and sank into a mere
+adapter. In the plays of another disciple, H. J. Byron, the
+Robertsonian or &ldquo;cup-and-saucer&rdquo; school declined upon sheer
+inanity. Of the numerous plays signed by Tom Taylor some
+were original in substance, but all were cast in the machine-made
+French mould. Wilkie Collins, in dramatizing some of his novels,
+produced somewhat crude anticipations of the modern &ldquo;problem
+play.&rdquo; The literary talent of W. S. Gilbert displayed itself in a
+group of comedies both in verse and prose; but Gilbert saw life
+from too peculiar an angle to represent it otherwise than fantastically.
+The Robertsonian impulse seemed to have died utterly
+away, leaving behind it only five or six very insubstantial
+comedies and a subdued, unrhetorical method in acting. This
+method the Bancrofts proceeded to apply, during the &rsquo;seventies,
+to revivals of stage classics, such as <i>The School for Scandal</i>,
+<i>Money</i> and <i>Masks and Faces</i>, and to adaptations from the French
+of Sardou.</p>
+
+<p>While the modern drama appeared to have relapsed into a
+comatose condition, poetic and romantic drama was giving
+some signs of life. At the Lyceum in 1871 Henry Irving had
+leapt into fame by means of his performance of Mathias in
+<i>The Bells</i>, an adaptation from the French of Erckmann-Chatrian.
+He followed this up by an admirably picturesque performance
+of the title-part in <i>Charles I.</i> by W. G. Wills. In the
+autumn of 1874 the great success of Irving&rsquo;s Hamlet was hailed
+as the prelude to a revival of tragic acting. As a matter of fact,
+it was the prelude to a long series of remarkable achievements
+in romantic drama and melodrama. Irving&rsquo;s lack of physical
+and vocal resources prevented him from scaling the heights of
+tragedy, and his Othello, Macbeth, and Lear could not be ranked
+among his successes; but he was admirable in such parts as
+Richard III., Shylock, Iago and Wolsey, while in melodramatic
+parts, such as Louis XI. and the hero and villain of <i>The Lyons
+Mail</i>, he was unsurpassed. Mephistopheles in a version of
+<i>Faust</i> (1885), perhaps the greatest popular success of his career,
+added nothing to his reputation for artistic intelligence; but
+on the other hand his Becket in Tennyson&rsquo;s play of that name
+(1893) was one of his most masterly efforts. His management
+of the Lyceum (1878-1899) did so much to raise the status of
+the actor and to restore the prestige of poetic drama, that the
+knighthood conferred upon him in 1895 was felt to be no more
+than an appropriate recognition of his services. But his
+managerial career had scarcely any significance for the living
+English drama. He seldom experimented with a new play,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page533" id="page533"></a>533</span>
+and, of the few which he did produce, only <i>The Cup</i> and
+<i>Becket</i> by Lord Tennyson have the remotest chance of being
+remembered.</p>
+
+<p>To trace the history of the new English drama, then, we must
+go back to the Prince of Wales&rsquo;s theatre. Even while it seemed
+that French comedy of the school of Scribe was resuming its
+baneful predominance, the seeds of a new order of things were
+slowly germinating. <i>Diplomacy</i>, an adaptation of Sardou&rsquo;s
+<i>Dora</i>, produced in 1878, brought together on the Prince of Wales&rsquo;s
+stage Mr and Mrs Bancroft, Mr and Mrs Kendal, John Clayton
+and Arthur Cecil&mdash;in other words, the future managers of the
+Haymarket, the St James&rsquo;s and the Court theatres, which were
+destined to see the first real stirrings of a literary revival. Mr
+and Mrs Kendal, who, in conjunction with John Hare, managed
+the St James&rsquo;s theatre from 1879 to 1888, produced A. W.
+Pinero&rsquo;s first play of any consequence, <i>The Money-Spinner</i> (1881),
+and afterwards <i>The Squire</i> (1882) and <i>The Hobby Horse</i> (1887).
+The Bancrofts, who, after entirely rebuilding the Haymarket
+theatre, managed it from 1880 till their retirement in 1885,
+produced in 1883 Pinero&rsquo;s <i>Lords and Commons</i>; and Messrs
+Clayton and Cecil produced at the Court theatre between 1885
+and 1887 his three brilliant farces, <i>The Magistrate</i>, <i>The Schoolmistress</i>
+and <i>Dandy Dick</i>, which, with the sentimental comedy,
+<i>Sweet Lavender</i>, produced at Terry&rsquo;s theatre in 1888, assured his
+position as an original and fertile dramatic humorist of no small
+literary power. It is to be noted, however, that Pinero was
+almost the only original playwright represented under the
+Bancroft, Hare-Kendal and Clayton-Cecil managements, which
+relied for the rest upon adaptations and revivals. Adaptations
+of French vaudevilles were the staple productions of Charles
+Wyndham&rsquo;s management at the Criterion from its beginning
+in 1876 until 1893, when he first produced an original play of any
+importance. When Herbert Beerbohm Tree went into management
+at the Haymarket in 1887, he still relied largely on plays
+of foreign origin. George Alexander&rsquo;s first managerial ventures
+(Avenue theatre, 1890) were two adaptations from the French.
+Until well on in the &rsquo;eighties, indeed, adaptation from the French
+was held the normal occupation of the British playwright, and
+original composition a mere episode. Robertson, Byron, Albery,
+Gilbert, Tom Taylor, Charles Reade, Herman Merivale, G. W.
+Godfrey, all produced numerous adaptations; Sydney Grundy
+was for twenty years occupied almost exclusively in this class
+of work; Pinero himself has adapted more than one French play.
+The &rsquo;eighties, then, may on the whole be regarded as showing
+a very gradual decline in the predominance of France on the
+English stage, and an equally slow revival of originality, so far
+as comedy and drama were concerned, manifesting itself mainly
+in the plays of Pinero.</p>
+
+<p>The reaction against French influence, however, was no less
+apparent in the domain of melodrama and operetta than in that
+of comedy and drama. Until well on in the &rsquo;seventies, D&rsquo;Ennery
+and his disciples, adapted and imitated by Dion Boucicault and
+others, ruled the melodramatic stage. The reaction asserted
+itself in two quarters&mdash;in the East End at the Grecian theatre,
+and in the West End at the Princess&rsquo;s. In <i>The World</i>, produced
+at Drury Lane in 1880, Paul Meritt (d. 1895) and Henry Pettitt
+(d. 1893) brought to the West End the &ldquo;Grecian&rdquo; type of popular
+drama; and at Drury Lane it survived in the elaborately
+spectacular form imparted to it by Sir Augustus Harris, who
+managed that theatre from 1879 till his death in 1896. The
+production of G. R. Sims&rsquo;s <i>Lights o&rsquo; London</i> at the Princess&rsquo;s in
+1881, under Wilson Barrett&rsquo;s management, also marked a new
+departure. This style of melodrama was chiefly cultivated at
+the Adelphi theatre, from 1882 until the end of the century,
+when it died out there as a regular institution, apparently because
+a host of suburban theatres drew away its audiences. Of all
+these English melodramas, only one, <i>The Silver King</i>, by Henry
+Arthur Jones (Princess&rsquo;s, 1882), could for a moment compare in
+invention or technical skill with the French dramas they supplanted.
+The fact remains, however, that even on this lowest
+level of dramatic art the current of the time set decisively towards
+home-made pictures of English life, however crude and puerile.</p>
+
+<p>For twenty-five years, from 1865 to 1890, the English stage
+was overrun with French operettas of the school of Offenbach.
+Hastily adapted by slovenly hacks, their librettos (often witty
+in the original) became incredible farragos of metreless doggrel
+and punning ineptitude. The great majority of them are now
+so utterly forgotten that it is hard to realize how, in their heyday,
+they swarmed on every hand in London and the provinces. The
+reaction began in 1875 with the performance at the Royalty
+theatre of <i>Trial by Jury</i>, by W. S. Gilbert and Arthur Sullivan.
+This was the prelude to that brilliant series of witty and melodious
+extravaganzas which began with <i>The Sorcerer</i> at the Opera
+Comique theatre in 1877, but was mainly associated with the
+Savoy theatre, opened by R. D&rsquo;Oyly Carte (d. 1901) in 1881.
+Little by little the Gilbert and Sullivan operettas (of which
+the most famous, perhaps, were <i>H.M.S. Pinafore</i>, 1878, <i>Patience</i>,
+1881, and <i>The Mikado</i>, 1885) undermined the popularity of the
+French opera-bouffes, and at the same time that of the indigenous
+&ldquo;burlesques&rdquo; which, graceful enough in the hands of their
+inventor J. R. Planché, had become mere incoherent jumbles of
+buffoonery, devoid alike of dramatic ingenuity and of literary
+form. When, early in the &rsquo;nineties, the collaboration between
+Gilbert and Sullivan became intermittent, and the vogue of the
+Savoy somewhat declined, a new class of extravaganza arose,
+under the designation of &ldquo;musical comedy&rdquo; or &ldquo;musical farce.&rdquo;
+It first took form in a piece called <i>In Town</i>, by Messrs &ldquo;Adrian
+Ross&rdquo; and Osmond Carr (Prince of Wales&rsquo;s theatre, 1892), and
+rapidly became very popular. In these plays the scene and
+costumes are almost always modern though sometimes exotic,
+and the prose dialogue, setting forth an attenuated and entirely
+negligible plot, is frequently interrupted by musical numbers.
+The lyrics are often very clever pieces of rhyming, totally different
+from the inane doggrel of the old opera-bouffes and burlesques.
+In other respects there is little to be said for the literary or
+intellectual quality of &ldquo;musical farce&rdquo;; but, being an entirely
+English (or Anglo-American) product, it falls into line with the
+other indications we have noted of the general decline&mdash;one might
+almost say extinction&mdash;of French influence on the English
+stage.</p>
+
+<p>To what causes are we to trace this gradual disuse of adaptation?
+In the domain of modern comedy and drama, to two
+causes acting simultaneously: the decline in France of the
+method of Scribe, which produced &ldquo;well-made,&rdquo; exportable
+plays, more or less suited to any climate and environment;
+and the rise in England of a generation of playwrights more
+original, thoughtful and able than their predecessors. It is not
+at all to be taken for granted that the falling off in the supply of
+exportable plays meant a decline in the absolute merit of French
+drama. The historian of the future may very possibly regard
+the movement in France, no less than the movement in England,
+as a step in advance, and may even see in the two movements
+co-ordinate manifestations of one tendency. Be this as it may,
+the fact is certain that as the playwrights of the Second Empire
+gradually died off, and were succeeded by the authors of the
+&ldquo;new comedy,&rdquo; plays which would bear transplantation became
+ever fewer and farther between. Of recent years Henri Bernstein,
+author of <i>Le Voleur</i> and <i>Samson</i>, has been almost the only
+French dramatist whose works have found a ready and steady
+market in England. Attempts to acclimatize French poetical
+drama&mdash;<i>Pour la Couronne</i>, <i>Le Chemineau</i>, <i>Cyrano de Bergerac</i>&mdash;were
+all more or less unsuccessful.</p>
+
+<p>Having noted the decline of adaptation, we may now trace a
+stage farther the development of the English drama. The first
+stage, already surveyed, ends with the production of <i>Sweet
+Lavender</i> in 1888. Up to this point its author, Pinero (b. 1855),
+stood practically alone, and had won his chief successes as a
+humorist. Henry Arthur Jones (b. 1851) was known as little
+more than an able melodramatist, though in one play, <i>Saints
+and Sinners</i> (1884), he had made some attempt at a serious
+study of provincial life. R. C. Carton (b. 1856) had written, in
+collaboration, one or two plays of slight account. Sydney
+Grundy (b. 1848) had produced scarcely any original work.
+The second stage may be taken as extending from 1889 to 1893.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page534" id="page534"></a>534</span>
+On the 24th of April 1889 John Hare opened the new Garrick
+theatre with <i>The Profligate</i>, by Pinero&mdash;an unripe and superficial
+piece of work in many ways, but still a great advance, both in
+ambition and achievement, upon any original work the stage
+had seen for many a year.</p>
+
+<p>With all its faults, it may be said that <i>The Profligate</i> notably
+enlarged at one stroke the domain open to the English dramatist.
+And it did not stand alone. The same year saw the production
+of two plays by H. A. Jones, <i>Wealth</i> and <i>The Middleman</i>, in
+which a distinct effort towards a serious criticism of life was
+observable, and of two plays by Sydney Grundy, <i>A Fool&rsquo;s
+Paradise</i> and <i>A White Lie</i>, which, though very French in method,
+were at least original in substance. Jones during the next two
+years made a steady advance with <i>Judah</i> (1890), <i>The Dancing
+Girl</i> and <i>The Crusaders</i> (1891). Pinero in these years was putting
+forth less than his whole strength in <i>The Cabinet Minister</i> (1890),
+<i>Lady Bountiful</i> and <i>The Times</i> (1891), and <i>The Amazons</i> (March
+1893). But meanwhile new talents were coming forward. The
+management of George Alexander, which opened at the Avenue
+theatre in 1890, but was transferred in the following year to the
+St James&rsquo;s, brought prominently to the front R. C. Carton,
+Haddon Chambers and Oscar Wilde. Carton&rsquo;s two sentimental
+comedies, <i>Sunlight and Shadow</i> (1890) and <i>Liberty Hall</i> (1892),
+showed excellent workmanship, but did not yet reveal his true
+originality as a humorist. Haddon Chambers&rsquo;s work (notably
+<i>The Idler</i>, 1891) was as yet sufficiently commonplace; but in
+<i>Lady Windermere&rsquo;s Fan</i> (1892) Oscar Wilde showed himself at
+his first attempt a brilliant and accomplished dramatist. Wilde&rsquo;s
+subsequent plays, <i>A Woman of No Importance</i> (1893) and <i>An
+Ideal Husband</i> and <i>The Importance of being Earnest</i> (1895),
+though marred by mannerism and insincerity, did much to
+promote the movement we are here tracing.</p>
+
+<p>As the production of <i>The Profligate</i> marked the opening
+of the second period in the revival of English drama, so the
+production of the same author&rsquo;s <i>The Second Mrs Tanqueray</i> is
+very clearly the starting-point of the third period. Before
+attempting to trace its course we may do well to glance at certain
+conditions which probably influenced it.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place, economic conditions. The Bancroft-Robertson
+movement at the old Prince of Wales&rsquo;s, between
+1865 and 1870, was of even more importance from an economic
+than from a literary point of view. By making their little theatre
+a luxurious place of resort, and faithfully imitating in their
+productions the accent, costume and furniture of upper and
+upper-middle class life, the Bancrofts had initiated a reconciliation
+between society and the stage. Throughout the middle
+decades of the century it was the constant complaint of the
+managers that the world of wealth and fashion could not be
+tempted to the theatre. The Bancroft management changed all
+that. It was at the Prince of Wales&rsquo;s that half-guinea stalls were
+first introduced; and these stalls were always filled. As other
+theatres adopted the same policy of upholstery, both on and off
+the stage, fashion extended its complaisance to them as well. In
+yet another way the reconciliation was promoted&mdash;by the ever-increasing
+tendency of young men and women of good birth and
+education to seek a career upon the English stage. The theatre,
+in short, became at this period one of the favourite amusements
+of fashionable (though scarcely of intellectual) society in
+London. It is often contended that the influence of the sensual
+and cynical stall audience is a pernicious one. In some ways,
+no doubt, it is detrimental; but there is another side to the case.
+Even the cynicism of society marks an intellectual advance upon
+the sheer rusticity which prevailed during the middle years of the
+19th century and accepted without a murmur plays (original and
+adapted) which bore no sort of relation to life. In a celebrated
+essay published in 1879, Matthew Arnold (whose occasional
+dramatic criticisms were very influential in intellectual circles)
+dwelt on the sufficiently obvious fact that the result of giving
+English names and costumes to French characters was to make
+their sayings and doings utterly unreal and &ldquo;fantastic.&rdquo; During
+the years of French ascendancy, audiences had quite forgotten
+that it was possible for the stage to be other than &ldquo;fantastic&rdquo;
+in this sense. They no longer thought of comparing the mimic
+world with the real world, but were content with what may be
+called abstract humour and pathos, often of the crudest quality.
+The cultivation of external realism, coinciding with, and in
+part occasioning, the return of society to the playhouse, gradually
+led to a demand for some approach to plausibility in character
+and action as well as in costume and decoration. The stage
+ceased to be entirely &ldquo;fantastic,&rdquo; and began to essay, however
+imperfectly, the representation, the criticism of life. It cannot
+be denied that the influence of society tended to narrow the
+outlook of English dramatists and to trivialize their tone of
+thought. But this was a passing phase of development; and
+cleverly trivial representations of reality are, after all, to be
+preferred to brainless concoctions of sheer emptiness.</p>
+
+<p>Quite as important, from the economic point of view, as the
+reconciliation of society to the stage, was the reorganization
+of the mechanism of theatrical life in the provinces which took
+place between 1865 and 1875. From the Restoration to the
+middle of the 19th century the system of &ldquo;stock companies&rdquo;
+had been universal. Every great town in the three kingdoms
+had its established theatre with a resident company, playing
+the &ldquo;legitimate&rdquo; repertory, and competing, often by illegitimate
+means, for the possession of new London successes. The smaller
+towns, and even villages, were grouped into local &ldquo;circuits,&rdquo;
+each served by one manager with his troupe of strollers. The
+&ldquo;circuits&rdquo; supplied actors to the resident stock companies,
+and the stock companies served as nurseries to the patent
+theatres in London. Metropolitan &ldquo;stars&rdquo; travelled from one
+country theatre to another, generally alone, sometimes with
+one or two subordinates in their train, and were &ldquo;supported,&rdquo;
+as the phrase went, by the stock company of each theatre. Under
+this system, scenery, costumes and appointments were often
+grotesquely inadequate, and performances almost always rough
+and unfinished. On the other hand, the constant practice in a
+great number and variety of characters afforded valuable training
+for actors, and developed many remarkable talents. As a source
+of revenue to authors, the provinces were practically negligible.
+Stageright was unprotected by law; and even if it had been
+protected, it is doubtful whether authors could have got any
+considerable fees out of country managers, whose precarious
+ventures usually left them a small enough margin of profit.</p>
+
+<p>The spread of railways throughout the country gradually put
+an end to this system. The &ldquo;circuits&rdquo; disappeared early in the
+&rsquo;fifties, the stock companies survived until about the middle
+of the &rsquo;seventies. As soon as it was found easy to transport
+whole companies, and even great quantities of scenery, from
+theatre to theatre throughout the length and breadth of Great
+Britain, it became apparent that the rough makeshifts of the
+stock company system were doomed. Here again we can trace
+to the old Prince of Wales&rsquo;s theatre the first distinct impulse
+towards the new order of things. Robertson&rsquo;s comedies not only
+encouraged but absolutely required a style of art, in mounting,
+stage-management and acting, not to be found in the country
+theatres. To entrust them to the stock companies was well-nigh
+impossible. On the other hand, to quote Sir Squire Bancroft,
+&ldquo;perhaps no play was ever better suited than <i>Caste</i> to a travelling
+company; the parts being few, the scenery and dresses quite
+simple, and consequently the expenses very much reduced.&rdquo;
+In 1867, then, a company was organized and rehearsed in London
+to carry round the provincial theatres as exact a reproduction
+as possible of the London performance of <i>Caste</i> and Robertson&rsquo;s
+other comedies. The smoothness of the representation, the
+delicacy of the interplay among the characters, were new to
+provincial audiences, and the success was remarkable. About
+the same time the whole Haymarket company, under Buckstone&rsquo;s
+management, began to make frequent rounds of the country
+theatres; and other &ldquo;touring combinations&rdquo; were soon organized.
+It is manifest that the &ldquo;combination&rdquo; system and the stock
+company system cannot long coexist, for a manager cannot
+afford to keep a stock company idle while a London combination
+is occupying his theatre. The stock companies, therefore, soon
+dwindled away, and were probably quite extinct before the end
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page535" id="page535"></a>535</span>
+of the &rsquo;seventies. Under the present system, no sooner is a play
+an established success in London than it is reproduced in one,
+two or three exact copies and sent round the provincial theatres
+(and the numerous suburban theatres which have sprung up
+since 1895), Company A serving first-class towns, Company B
+the second-class towns, and so forth. The process is very like
+that of taking plaster casts of a statue, and the provincial
+companies often stand to their London originals very much in
+the relation of plaster to marble. Even the London scenery is
+faithfully reproduced in material of extra strength, to stand the
+wear-and-tear of constant removal. The result is that, instead
+of the square pegs in round holes of the old stock company
+system, provincial audiences now see pegs carefully adjusted
+to the particular holes they occupy, and often incapable of fitting
+any other. Instead of the rough performances of old, they are
+now accustomed to performances of a mechanical and soulless
+smoothness.</p>
+
+<p>In some ways the gain in this respect is undeniable, in other
+ways the loss is great. The provinces are no longer, in any
+effective sense, a nursery of fresh talents for the London theatres,
+for the art acquired in touring combinations is that of mimicry
+rather than of acting. Moreover, provincial playgoers have lost
+all personal interest and pride in their local theatres, which have
+no longer any individuality of their own, but serve as a mere
+frame for the presentation of a series of ready-made London
+pictures. Christmas pantomime is the only theatrical product
+that has any really local flavour in it, and even this is often only
+a second-hand London production, touched up with a few
+topical allusions. Again, the railways which bring London productions
+to the country take country playgoers by the thousand
+to London. The wealthier classes, in the Lancashire, Yorkshire
+and Midland towns at any rate, do almost all their theatre-going
+in London, or during the autumn months when the leading
+London companies go on tour. Thus the better class of comedy
+and drama has a hard fight to maintain itself in the provinces,
+and the companies devoted to melodrama and musical farce
+enjoy an ominous preponderance of popularity.</p>
+
+<p>On the whole, however&mdash;and this is the main point to be
+observed with regard to the literary development of the drama&mdash;the
+economic movement of the five- and twenty years between
+1865 and 1890 was enormously to the advantage of the dramatic
+author. A London success meant a long series of full houses at
+high prices, on which he took a handsome percentage. The
+provinces, in which a popular playwright would often have
+three or four plays going the rounds simultaneously, became a
+steady source of income. And, finally, it was found possible,
+even before international copyright came into force, to protect
+stageright in the United States, so that about the beginning of
+the &rsquo;eighties large receipts began to pour in from America. Thus
+successful dramatists, instead of living from hand to mouth, like
+their predecessors of the previous generation, found themselves
+in comfortable and even opulent circumstances. They had
+leisure for reading, thought and careful composition, and they
+could afford to gratify their ambition with an occasional artistic
+experiment. Failure might mean a momentary loss of prestige,
+but it would not spell ruin. A distinctly progressive spirit, then,
+began to animate the leading English dramatists&mdash;a spirit which
+found intelligent sympathy in such managers as John Hare,
+George Alexander, Beerbohm Tree and Charles Wyndham.
+Nor must it be forgotten that, though the laws of literary
+property, internal and international, remained far from perfect,
+it was found possible to print and publish plays without incurring
+loss of stageright either at home or in America. The playwrights
+of the present generation have accordingly a motive for giving
+literary form and polish to their work which was quite inoperative
+with their predecessors, whose productions were either kept
+jealously in manuscript or printed only in miserable and totally
+unreadable stage editions. It is no small stimulus to ambition
+to know that even if a play prove to be in advance of the standards
+of taste or thought among the public to which it is originally
+presented, it will not perish utterly, but will, if it have any
+inherent vitality, continue to live as literature.</p>
+
+<p>Having now summed up the economic conditions which made
+for progress, let us glance at certain intellectual influences which
+tended in the same direction. The establishment
+of the Théâtre Libre in Paris, towards the close of 1887,
+<span class="sidenote">Influence of foreign drama.</span>
+unquestionably marked the beginning of a period of
+restless experiment throughout the theatrical world of
+Europe. A. Antoine and his supporters were in open rebellion
+against the artificial methods of Scribe and the Second Empire
+playwrights. Their effort was to transfer to the stage the
+realism, the so-called &ldquo;naturalism,&rdquo; which had been dominant
+in French fiction since 1870 or earlier; and this naturalism
+was doubtless, in its turn, the outcome of the scientific movement
+of the century. New methods (or ideals) of observation, and new
+views as to the history and destiny of the race, could not fail to
+produce a profound effect upon art; and though the modern
+theatre is a cumbrous contrivance, slow to adjust its orientation
+to the winds of the spirit, even it at last began to revolve, like a
+rusty windmill, so as to fill its sails in the main current of the
+intellectual atmosphere. Within three or four years of its
+inception, Antoine&rsquo;s experiment had been imitated in Germany,
+England and America. The &ldquo;Freie Bühne&rdquo; of Berlin came
+into existence in 1889, the Independent Theatre of London in
+1891. Similar enterprises were set on foot in Munich and other
+cities. In America several less formal experiments of a like
+nature were attempted, chiefly in Boston and New York. Nor
+must it be forgotten that in Paris itself the Théâtre Libre did
+not stand alone. Many other <i>théâtres à côté</i> sprang up, under
+such titles as &ldquo;Théâtre d&rsquo;Art,&rdquo; &ldquo;Théâtre Moderne,&rdquo; &ldquo;Théâtre
+de l&rsquo;Avenir Dramatique.&rdquo; The most important and least
+ephemeral was the &ldquo;Théâtre de l&rsquo;&OElig;uvre,&rdquo; founded in 1893 by
+Alex. Lugné-Poë, which represented mainly, though not exclusively,
+the symbolist reaction against naturalism.</p>
+
+<p>The impulse which led to the establishment of the Théâtre
+Libre was, in the first instance, entirely French. If any foreign
+influence helped to shape its course, it was that of the great
+Russian novelists. Tolstoi&rsquo;s <i>Puissance des ténèbres</i> was the only
+&ldquo;exotic&rdquo; play announced in Antoine&rsquo;s opening manifesto.
+But the whole movement was soon to receive a potent stimulus
+from the Norwegian poet Henrik Ibsen.</p>
+
+<p>Ibsen&rsquo;s early romantic plays had been known in Germany
+since 1875. In 1878 <i>Pillars of Society</i> and in 1880 <i>A Doll&rsquo;s
+House</i> achieved wide popularity, and held the German stage
+side by side with <i>A Bankruptcy</i>, by Björnstjerne Björnson.
+But these plays had little influence on the German drama.
+Their methods were, indeed, not essentially different from those
+of the French school of the Second Empire, which were then
+dominant in Germany as well as everywhere else. It was <i>Ghosts</i>
+(acted in Augsburg and Meiningen 1886, in Berlin 1887) that gave
+the impulse which, coalescing with the kindred impulse from
+the French Théâtre Libre, was destined in the course of a few
+years to create a new dramatic literature in Germany. During
+the middle decades of the century Germany had produced some
+dramatists of solid and even remarkable talent, such as Friedrich
+Hebbel, Heinrich Laube, Karl Gutzkow and Gustav Freytag.
+Even the generation which held the stage after 1870, and included
+Paul Heyse, Paul Lindau and Adolf Wilbrandt, with
+numerous writers of light comedy and farce, such as E. Wichert,
+O. Blumenthal, G. von Moser, A. L&rsquo;Arronge and F. von Schönthan,
+had produced a good many works of some merit. But, in
+the main, French artificiality and frivolity predominated on
+the German stage. In point of native talent and originality,
+the Austrian popular playwright Ludwig Anzengruber was well
+ahead of his North German contemporaries. It was in 1889,
+with the establishment of the Berlin Freie Bühne, that the
+reaction definitely set in. In Berlin, as afterwards in London,
+<i>Ghosts</i> was the first play produced on the outpost stage, but it
+was followed in Berlin by a very rapid development of native
+talent. Less than a month after the performance of Ibsen&rsquo;s
+play, Gerhart Hauptmann came to the front with <i>Vor Sonnenaufgang</i>,
+an immature piece of almost unrelieved Zolaism,
+which he soon followed up, however, with much more important
+works. In <i>Das Friedensfest</i> (1890) and <i>Einsame Menschen</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page536" id="page536"></a>536</span>
+(1891) he transferred his allegiance from Zola to Ibsen. His
+true originality first manifested itself in <i>Die Weber</i> (1892);
+and subsequently he produced plays in several different styles,
+all bearing the stamp of a potent individuality. His most popular
+productions have been the dramatic poems <i>Hannele</i> and <i>Die
+versunkene Glocke</i>, the low-life comedy <i>Der Biberpelz</i>, and the
+low-life tragedy <i>Fuhrmann Henschel</i>. Other remarkable playwrights
+belonging to the Freie Bühne group are Max Halbe
+(b. 1865), author of <i>Jugend</i> and <i>Mutter Erde</i>, and Otto Erich
+Hartleben (b. 1864), author of <i>Hanna Jagert</i> and <i>Rosenmontag</i>.
+These young men, however, so quickly gained the ear of the
+general public, that the need for a special &ldquo;free stage&rdquo; was no
+longer felt, and the Freie Bühne, having done its work, ceased
+to exist. Unlike the French Théâtre Libre and the English
+Independent theatre, it had been supported from the outset by
+the most influential critics, and had won the day almost without
+a battle. The productions of the new school soon made their
+way even into some of the subventioned theatres; but it was the
+unsubventioned Deutsches Theater of Berlin that most vigorously
+continued the tradition of the Freie Bühne. One or two playwrights
+of the new generation, however, did not actually belong
+to the Freie Bühne group. Hermann Sudermann produced his
+first play, <i>Die Ehre</i>, in 1888, and his most famous work, <i>Heimat</i>,
+in 1892. In him the influence of Ibsen is very clearly perceptible;
+while Arthur Schnitzler of Vienna, author of <i>Liebelei</i>, may rather
+be said to derive his inspiration from the Parisian &ldquo;new
+comedy.&rdquo; Originality, verging sometimes on abnormality,
+distinguishes the work of Frank Wedekind (b. 1864), author
+of <i>Erdgeist</i> and <i>Frühlingserwachen</i>. Hugo von Hofmannsthal
+(b. 1874), in his <i>Elektra</i> and <i>Ödipus</i>, rehandles classic themes
+in the light of modern anthropology and psychology.</p>
+
+<p>The promoters of the Théâtre Libre had probably never heard
+of Ibsen when they established that institution, but three years
+later his fame had reached France, and <i>Les Revenants</i> was produced
+by the Théâtre Libre (29th May 1890). Within the next
+two or three years almost all his modern plays were acted in
+Paris, most of them either by the Théâtre Libre or by L&rsquo;&OElig;uvre.
+Close upon the heels of the Ibsen influence followed another,
+less potent, but by no means negligible. The exquisite tragic
+symbolism of Maurice Maeterlinck began to find numerous
+admirers about 1890. In 1891 his one-act play <i>L&rsquo;Intruse</i> was
+acted; in 1893, <i>Pelléas et Mélisande</i>. By this time, too, the
+reverberation of the impulse which the Théâtre Libre had given
+to the Freie Bühne began to be felt in France. In 1893 Hauptmann&rsquo;s
+<i>Die Weber</i> was acted in Paris, and, being frequently
+repeated, made a deep and lasting impression.</p>
+
+<p>The English analogue to the Théâtre Libre, the Independent
+theatre, opened its first season (March 13, 1891) with a performance
+of <i>Ghosts</i>. This was not, however, the first introduction
+of Ibsen to the English stage. On the 7th of June 1889 (six weeks
+after the production of <i>The Profligate</i>) <i>A Doll&rsquo;s House</i> was acted
+at the Novelty theatre, and ran for three weeks, amid a storm
+of critical controversy. In the same year <i>Pillars of Society</i> was
+presented in London. In 1891 and 1892 <i>A Doll&rsquo;s House</i> was
+frequently acted; <i>Rosmersholm</i> was produced in 1891, and
+again in 1893; in May and June 1891 <i>Hedda Gabler</i> had a run
+of several weeks; and early in 1893 <i>The Master Builder</i> enjoyed a
+similar passing vogue. During these years, then, Ibsen was very
+much &ldquo;in the air&rdquo; in England, as well as in France and Germany.
+The Independent theatre, in the meantime, under the management
+of J. T. Grein, found but scanty material to deal with. It
+presented translations of Zola&rsquo;s <i>Thérèse Raquin</i>, and of <i>A Visit</i>,
+by the Danish dramatist Edward Brandes; but it brought to
+the front only one English author of any note, in the person
+of George Bernard Shaw, whose &ldquo;didactic realistic play,&rdquo;
+<i>Widowers&rsquo; Houses</i>, it produced in December 1892.</p>
+
+<p>None the less is it true that the ferment of fresh energy, which
+between 1887 and 1893 had created a new dramatic literature
+both in France and in Germany, was distinctly felt in England as
+well. England did not take at all kindly to it. The productions
+of Ibsen&rsquo;s plays, in particular, were received with an outcry of
+reprobation. A great part of this clamour was due to sheer
+misunderstanding; but some of it, no doubt, arose from genuine
+and deep-seated distaste. As for the dramatists of recognized
+standing, they one and all, both from policy and from conviction,
+adopted a hostile attitude towards Ibsen, expressing at most
+a theoretical respect overborne by practical dislike. Yet his
+influence permeated the atmosphere. He had revealed possibilities
+of technical stagecraft and psychological delineation
+that, once realized, were not to be banished from the mind of
+the thoughtful playwright. They haunted him in spite of
+himself. Still subtler was the influence exerted over the critics
+and the more intelligent public. Deeply and genuinely as many
+of them disliked Ibsen&rsquo;s works, they found, when they returned
+to the old-fashioned play, the adapted frivolity or the homegrown
+sentimentalism, that they disliked this still more. On
+every side, then, there was an instinctive or deliberate reaching
+forward towards something new; and once again it was Pinero
+who ventured the decisive step.</p>
+
+<p>On the 27th of May 1893 <i>The Second Mrs Tanqueray</i> was
+produced at the St James&rsquo;s theatre. With <i>The Second Mrs
+Tanqueray</i> the English acted drama ceased to be a merely insular
+product, and took rank in the literature of Europe. Here
+was a play which, whatever its faults, was obviously comparable
+with the plays of Dumas, of Sudermann, of Björnson, of Echegaray.
+It might be better than some of these plays, worse than others;
+but it stood on the same artistic level. The fact that such a
+play could not only be produced, but could brilliantly succeed,
+on the London stage gave a potent stimulus to progress. It
+encouraged ambition in authors, enterprise in managers. What
+<i>Hernani</i> was to the romantic movement of the &rsquo;thirties, and
+<i>La Dame aux camélias</i> to the realistic movement of the &rsquo;fifties,
+<i>The Second Mrs Tanqueray</i> was to the movement of the &rsquo;nineties
+towards the serious stage-portraiture of English social life.
+All the forces which we have been tracing&mdash;Robertsonian realism
+of externals, the leisure for thought and experiment involved
+in vastly improved financial conditions, the substitution in France
+of a simpler, subtler technique for the outworn artifices of the
+Scribe school, and the electric thrill communicated to the whole
+theatrical life of Europe by contact with the genius of Ibsen&mdash;all
+these slowly converging forces coalesced to produce, in <i>The
+Second Mrs Tanqueray</i>, an epoch-marking play.</p>
+
+<p>Pinero followed up <i>Mrs Tanqueray</i> with a remarkable series
+of plays&mdash;<i>The Notorious Mrs Ebbsmith</i>, <i>The Benefit of the Doubt</i>,
+<i>The Princess and the Butterfly</i>, <i>Trelawny of the &ldquo;Wells</i>,&rdquo; <i>The
+Gay Lord Quex</i>, <i>Iris</i>, <i>Letty</i>, <i>His House in Order</i> and <i>The Thunderbolt</i>&mdash;all
+of which show marked originality of conception and
+intellectual force. In January 1893 Charles Wyndham initiated
+a new policy at the Criterion theatre, and produced an original
+play, <i>The Bauble-Shop</i>, by Henry Arthur Jones. It belonged
+very distinctly to the pre-Tanqueray order of things; but the
+same author&rsquo;s <i>The Case of Rebellious Susan</i>, in the following year,
+showed an almost startlingly sudden access of talent, which was
+well maintained in such later works as <i>Michael and his Lost
+Angel</i> (1896), that admirable comedy <i>The Liars</i> (1897), and
+<i>Mrs Dane&rsquo;s Defence</i> (1900). Sydney Grundy produced after
+1893 by far his most important original works, <i>The Greatest of
+These</i> (1896) and <i>The Debt of Honour</i> (1900). R. C. Carton,
+breaking away from the somewhat laboured sentimentalism of his
+earlier manner, produced several light comedies of thoroughly
+original humour and of excellent literary workmanship&mdash;<i>Lord
+and Lady Algy</i>, <i>Wheels within Wheels</i>, <i>Lady Huntworth&rsquo;s Experiment</i>,
+<i>Mr Hopkinson</i> and <i>Mr Preedy and the Countess</i>.
+Haddon Chambers, in <i>The Tyranny of Tears</i> (1899) and <i>The
+Awakening</i> (1901), produced two plays of a merit scarcely foreshadowed
+in his earlier efforts.</p>
+
+<p>What was of more importance, a new generation of playwrights
+came to the front. Its most notable representatives
+were J. M. Barrie, who displayed his inexhaustible gift of humorous
+observation and invention in <i>Quality Street</i> (1902), <i>The
+Admirable Crichton</i> (1903), <i>Little Mary</i> (1903), <i>Peter Pan</i> (1904),
+<i>Alice Sit-by-the-Fire</i> (1905) and <i>What Every Woman Knows</i>
+(1908); Mrs Craigie (&ldquo;John Oliver Hobbes&rdquo;), who produced in
+<i>The Ambassador</i> (1898) a comedy of fine accomplishment;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page537" id="page537"></a>537</span>
+and H. V. Esmond, Alfred Sutro, Hubert Henry Davies, W. S.
+Maugham, Rudolf Besier, Roy Horniman and J. B. Fagan.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, the efforts to relieve the drama from the pressure
+of the long-run system had not been confined to the Independent
+theatre. Several other enterprises of a like nature had proved
+more or less short-lived; but the Stage Society, founded in 1900,
+was conducted with more energy and perseverance, and became
+a real force in the dramatic world. After two seasons devoted
+mainly to Bernard Shaw, Ibsen, Maeterlinck and Hauptmann,
+it produced in its third season <i>The Marrying of Ann Leete</i>, by
+Granville Barker (b. 1877), who had developed in its service his
+remarkable gifts as a producer of plays. A year or two later,
+Barker staged for another organization, the New Century
+theatre, Professor Gilbert Murray&rsquo;s rendering of the <i>Hippolytus</i>
+of Euripides; and it was partly the success of this production
+that suggested the Vedrenne-Barker partnership at the Court
+theatre, which, between 1904 and 1907, gave an extraordinary impulse
+to the intellectual life of the theatre. Adopting the &ldquo;short-run&rdquo;
+system, as a compromise between the long-run and the
+repertory systems, the Vedrenne-Barker management made the
+plays of Bernard Shaw (both old and new) for the first time really
+popular. Of the plays already published <i>You Never Can Tell</i>
+and <i>Man and Superman</i> were the most successful; of the new
+plays, <i>John Bull&rsquo;s Other Island</i>, <i>Major Barbara</i> and <i>The Doctor&rsquo;s
+Dilemma</i>. But though Shaw was the mainstay of the enterprise,
+it gave opportunities to several other writers, the most
+notable being John Galsworthy (b. 1867), author of <i>The Silver
+Box</i> and <i>Strife</i>, St John Hankin (1869-1909), author of <i>The
+Return of the Prodigal</i> and <i>The Charity that began at Home</i>, and
+Granville Barker himself, whose plays <i>The Voysey Inheritance</i>
+and <i>Waste</i> (1907) were among the most important products of
+this movement. It should also be noted that the production
+of the <i>Hippolytus</i> was followed up by the production of the
+<i>Trojan Women</i>, the <i>Electra</i> and the <i>Medea</i> of Euripides, all
+translated by Gilbert Murray.</p>
+
+<p>The impulse to which were due the Independent theatre, the
+Stage Society and the Vedrenne-Barker management, combined
+with local influences to bring about the foundation in Dublin
+of the Irish National theatre. Its moving spirit was the poet
+W. B. Yeats (b. 1865), who wrote for it <i>Cathleen-ni-Hoolihan</i>, <i>The
+Hour-Glass</i>, <i>The King&rsquo;s Threshold</i> and one or two other plays.
+Lady Gregory, Padraic Collum, Boyle and other authors also
+contributed to the repertory of this admirable little theatre; but
+its most notable products were the plays of J. M. Synge (1871-1909),
+whose <i>Riders to the Sea</i>, <i>Well of the Saints</i> and <i>Playboy
+of the Western World</i> showed a fine and original dramatic faculty
+combined with extraordinary beauty of style.</p>
+
+<p>Both in Manchester and in Glasgow endeavours have been
+made, with considerable success, to counteract the evils of the
+touring system, by the establishment of resident companies
+acting the better class of modern plays on a &ldquo;short-run&rdquo; plan,
+similar to that of the Vedrenne-Barker management. The
+Manchester enterprise was to some extent subsidized by Miss E.
+Horniman, and may therefore claim to be the first endowed
+theatre in England. The need for endowment on a much larger
+scale was, however, strongly advocated in the early years of the
+20th century by the more progressive supporters of English
+drama, and in 1908 found a place in the scheme for a Shakespeare
+National theatre, which was then superimposed on the earlier
+proposal for a memorial commemorating the Shakespeare
+tercentenary, organized by an influential committee under the
+chairmanship of the Lord Mayor of London. The scheme
+involved the raising of £500,000, half to be devoted to the
+requisite site and building, while the remainder would be invested
+so as to furnish an annual subvention.</p>
+
+<p>It remains to say a few words of the English literary drama,
+as opposed to the acted drama. The two classes are not nearly
+so distinct as they once were; but plays continue to be produced
+from time to time which are wholly unfitted for the theatre,
+and others which, though they may be experimentally placed
+on the stage, make their appeal rather to the reading public.
+Tennyson had essayed in his old age an art which is scarcely
+to be mastered after the energy of youth has passed. He continued
+to the last to occupy himself more or less with drama,
+and all his plays, except <i>Harold</i>, found their way to the stage.
+<i>The Cup</i> and <i>Becket</i>, as we have seen, met with a certain success,
+but <i>The Promise of May</i> (1882), an essay in contemporary drama,
+was a disastrous failure, while <i>The Falcon</i> (1879) and <i>The
+Foresters</i> (acted by an American company in 1893) made little
+impression. Lord Tennyson was certainly not lacking in dramatic
+faculty, but he worked in an outworn form which he had no
+longer the strength to renovate. Swinburne continued now and
+then to cast his creations in the dramatic mould, but it cannot
+be said that his dramas attained either the vitality or the popularity
+of his lyrical poems. <i>Mary Stuart</i> (1881) brought his
+Marian trilogy to a close. In <i>Locrine</i> he produced a tragedy in
+heroic couplets&mdash;a thing probably unattempted since the age
+of Dryden. <i>The Sisters</i> is a tragedy of modern date with a
+medieval drama inserted by way of interlude. <i>Rosamund,
+Queen of the Lombards</i> (1899), perhaps approached more nearly
+than any of his former works to the concentration essential to
+drama. It may be doubted, however, whether his copious and
+ebullient style could ever really subject itself to the trammels of
+dramatic form. Of other dramas on the Elizabethan model,
+the most notable, perhaps, were the works of two ladies who
+adopt the pseudonym of &ldquo;Michael Field&rdquo;; <i>Callirrhoë</i> (1884),
+<i>Brutus Ultor</i> (1887), and many other dramas, show considerable
+power of imagination and expression, but are burdened by a
+deliberate artificiality both of technique and style. Alfred Austin
+put forth several volumes in dramatic form, such as <i>Savonarola</i>
+(1881), <i>Prince Lucifer</i> (1887), <i>England&rsquo;s Darling</i> (1896), <i>Flodden
+Field</i> (1905). They are laudable in intention and fluent in
+utterance. Notable additions to the purely literary drama were
+made by Robert Bridges in his <i>Prometheus</i> (1883), <i>Nero</i> (1885),
+<i>The Feast of Bacchus</i> (1889), and other solid plays in verse, full
+of science and skill, but less charming than his lyrical poems.
+Sir Lewis Morris made a dramatic experiment in <i>Gycia</i>, but was
+not encouraged to repeat it.</p>
+
+<p>From the outset of his career, John Davidson (1857-1909) was
+haunted by the conviction that he was a born dramatist; but
+his earlier plays, such as <i>Smith: a Tragedy</i> (1886), <i>Bruce: a
+Chronicle Play</i> (1884) and <i>Scaramouch in Naxos</i> (1888), contained
+more poetry than drama; and his later pieces, such as <i>Self&rsquo;s
+the Man</i> (1901), <i>The Theatrocrat</i> (1905) and the <i>Triumph of
+Mammon</i> (1907), showed a species of turbulent imagination,
+but became more and more fantastic and impracticable.
+Stephen Phillips (b. 1867), on the other hand, having had some
+experience as an actor, wrote always with the stage in view.
+In his first play, <i>Paolo and Francesca</i> (1899; produced in 1902),
+he succeeded in combining great beauty of diction with intense
+dramatic power and vitality. The same may be said of <i>Herod</i>
+(1900); but in <i>Ulysses</i> (1902) and <i>Nero</i> (1906) a great falling-off
+in constructive power was only partially redeemed by the
+fine inspiration of individual passages.</p>
+
+<p>The collaboration of Robert Louis Stevenson with William
+Ernest Henley produced a short series of interesting experiments
+in drama, two of which, <i>Beau Austin</i> (1883) and <i>Admiral Guinea</i>
+(1884), had more than a merely experimental value. The
+former was an emotional comedy, treating with rare distinction
+of touch a difficult, almost an impossible, subject; the latter was
+a nautical melodrama, raised by force of imagination and diction
+into the region of literature. <span class="correction" title="amended from Imcomparably">Incomparably</span> the most important
+of recent additions to the literary drama is Thomas Hardy&rsquo;s
+vast panorama of the Napoleonic wars, entitled <i>The Dynasts</i>
+(1904-1908). It is rather an epic in dialogue than a play; but
+however we may classify it we cannot but recognize its extraordinary
+intellectual and imaginative powers.</p>
+
+<p><i>United States.</i>&mdash;American dramatists have shown on their
+own account a progressive tendency, quite as marked as that
+which we have been tracing in England. Down to about 1890
+the influence of France had been even more predominant in
+America than in England. The only American dramatist of
+eminence, Bronson Howard (1842-1908), was a disciple, though
+a very able one, of the French school. A certain stirring of native
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page538" id="page538"></a>538</span>
+originality manifested itself during the &rsquo;eighties, when a series
+of semi-improvised farces, associated with the names of two
+actor-managers, Harrigan and Hart, depicted low life in New
+York with real observation, though in a crude and formless
+manner. About the same time a native style of popular melodrama
+began to make its appearance&mdash;a play of conventional and
+negligible plot, which attracted by reason of one or more faithfully
+observed character-types, generally taken from country
+life. <i>The Old Homestead</i>, written by Denman Thompson, who
+himself acted in it, was the most popular play of this class.
+Rude as it was, it distinctly foreshadowed that faithfulness
+to the external aspects, at any rate, of everyday life, in which
+lies the strength of the native American drama. It was at a
+sort of free theatre in Boston that James A. Herne (1840-1901)
+produced in 1891 his realistic drama of modern life, <i>Margaret
+Fleming</i>, which did a great deal to awaken the interest of literary
+America in the theatrical movement. Herne, an actor and a
+most accomplished stage-manager, next produced a drama of
+rural life in New England, <i>Shore Acres</i> (1892), which made an
+immense popular success. It was a play of the <i>Old Homestead</i>
+type, but very much more coherent and artistic. His next
+play, <i>Griffith Davenport</i> (1898), founded on a novel, was a drama
+of life in Virginia during the Civil War, admirable in its strength
+and quiet sincerity; while in his last work, <i>Sag Harbour</i> (1900),
+Herne returned to the study of rustic character, this time in
+Long Island. Herne showed human nature in its more obvious
+and straightforward aspects, making no attempt at psychological
+subtlety; but within his own limits he was an admirable craftsman.
+The same preoccupation with local colour is manifest in the
+plays of Augustus M. Thomas, a writer of genuine humour and
+originality. His localism announces itself in the very titles of
+his most popular plays&mdash;<i>Alabama</i>, <i>In Mizzoura</i>, <i>Arizona</i>. He
+also made a striking success in <i>The Witching Hour</i>, a play dealing
+with the phenomena of hypnotism and suggestion. Clyde Fitch
+(1865-1909), an immensely prolific playwright of indubitable ability,
+after becoming known by some experiments in quasi-historic
+drama (notably <i>Nathan Hale</i>, 1898; <i>Barbara Frietchie</i>, 1899),
+devoted himself mainly to social drama on the French model,
+in which his most notable efforts have been <i>The Climbers</i> (1900),
+<i>The Truth</i> (1906), and <i>The Girl with the Green Eyes</i> (1902). In
+popular drama, with elaborate scenic illustration, William
+Gillette (b. 1856), David Belasco (b. 1859) and Charles Klein
+(b. 1867) have done notable work. William Vaughn Moody
+(b. 1869) produced in <i>The Great Divide</i> (1907) a play of somewhat
+higher artistic pretensions; Eugene Walter in <i>Paid in Full</i>
+(1908) and <i>The Easiest Way</i> (1909) dealt vigorously with characteristic
+themes of modern life; and Edward Sheldon produced in
+<i>Salvation Nell</i> a slum drama of very striking realism. The poetic
+side of drama was mainly represented by Percy Mackaye (b.
+1875), whose <i>Jeanne d&rsquo;Arc</i> (1906) and <i>Sappho and Phaon</i> showed
+a high ambition and no small literary power. On the whole it
+may be said that, though the financial conditions of the American
+stage are even more unfortunate than those which prevail in
+England, they have failed to check a very strong movement
+towards nationalism in drama. Season by season, America
+writes more of her own plays, good or bad, and becomes less
+dependent on imported work, whether French or English.</p>
+<div class="author">(W. A.)</div>
+
+<p class="center pt2">(g) <i>German Drama.</i></p>
+
+<p>The history of the German drama differs widely from that
+of the English, though a close contact is observable between
+them at an early point, and again at relatively recent points, in
+their annals. The dramatic literature of Germany, though in its
+beginnings intimately connected with the great national movement
+of the Reformation, soon devoted its efforts to a sterile
+imitation of foreign models; while the popular stage, persistently
+suiting itself to a robust but gross taste, likewise largely due to
+the influence of foreign examples, seemed destined to a hopeless
+decay. The literary and the acted drama were thus estranged
+from one another during a period of extraordinary length;
+nor was it till the middle of the 18th century that, with the
+opening of a more hopeful era for the life and literature of the
+nation, the reunion of dramatic literature and the stage began to
+accomplish itself. Before the end of the same century the
+progress of the German drama in its turn began to influence
+that of other nations, and by the widely comprehensive character
+of its literature, as well as by the activity of its stage, to invite a
+steadily increasing interest.</p>
+
+<p>It should be premised that in its beginnings the modern
+German drama might have seemed likely to be influenced even
+more largely than the English or the French by the
+copious imitation of classical models which marked
+<span class="sidenote">The Latin drama in Germany.</span>
+the periods of the Renaissance and the Reformation;
+but here the impulse of originality was wanting to
+bring about a speedy and gradually a complete emancipation,
+and imitative reproduction continued in an all but endless
+series. The first German (and indeed the earliest transalpine)
+writer to follow in the footsteps of the modern Latin drama of
+the Italians was the famous Strassburg humanist Jacob
+Wimpheling (1450-1528), whose comedy of <i>Stylpho</i> (1480), an
+attack upon the ignorance of the pluralist beneficed clergy,
+marks a kind of epoch in the history of German dramatic effort.
+It was succeeded by many other Latin plays of various kinds,
+among which may be mentioned J. Kerckmeister&rsquo;s <i>Codrus</i> (1485),
+satirizing pedantic schoolmasters; a series of historical dramas
+in a moralizing vein, partly on the Turkish peril, as well as of
+comedies, by Jacob Locher (1471-1528); two plays by the great
+Johann Reuchlin, of which the so-called <i>Henno</i> went through
+more than thirty editions; and the <i>Ludus Dianae</i>, with another
+play likewise in honour of the emperor Maximilian I., by the
+celebrated Viennese scholar Conrad Celtes (1459-1508). Sebastian
+Brant&rsquo;s <i>Hercules in Bivio</i> (1512) is lost; but Wilibald Pirckheimer&rsquo;s
+<i>Eckius dedolatus</i> (1520) survives as a dramatic contribution
+to Luther&rsquo;s controversy with one of his most active opponents.
+The <i>Acolastus</i> (1525) of W. Gnaphaeus (<i>alias</i> Fullonius, his
+native name was de Volder) should also be mentioned in the
+present connexion, as, though a Dutchman by birth, he spent
+most of his literary life in Germany. This Terentian version of
+the parable of the Prodigal Son was printed in an almost endless
+number of editions, as well as in various versions in modern
+tongues, among which reference has already been made to the
+English, for the use of schools, by J. Palsgrave (1540). Macropedius
+(Langhveldt) belongs wholly to the Low Countries. In
+Germany the stream of these compositions continued to flow
+almost without abatement throughout the earlier half of the
+16th century; but in the days of the Reformation it takes a
+turn to scriptural subjects, and during the latter part of the
+century remains on the whole faithful to this preference.<a name="fa273a" id="fa273a" href="#ft273a"><span class="sp">273</span></a> These
+Latin plays may be called school-dramas in the most precise
+sense; for they were both performed in the schools and read
+in class with commentaries specially composed for them; nor
+was it except very reluctantly that in this age the vernacular
+drama was allowed to intrude into scholastic circles. It should
+be noticed that the Jesuit order, which afterwards proved so
+<span class="sidenote">The Jesuit drama.</span>
+keenly alive to the influence which dramatic performances
+exercise over the youthful mind, only
+very gradually abandoned the principle, formally
+sanctioned in their <i>Ratio studiorum</i>, that the acting of plays
+(these being always in the Latin tongue) should only rarely be
+permitted in their seminaries. The flourishing period of the
+Jesuit drama begins with the spread of the order in the west
+and south-west of the Empire in the last decade of the 16th
+century, and then continues, through the vicissitudes of good
+and evil, with a curious intermixture of Latin and German
+plays, during the whole of the 17th and the better part of the
+18th. These productions, which ranged in their subjects from
+biblical and classical story to themes of contemporary history
+(such as the relief of Vienna by Sobiesky and the peace of Ryswick),
+seem generally to bear the mark of their authorship&mdash;that
+of teachers appointed by their superiors to execute this among
+other tasks allotted to them; but, as it seems unnecessary to
+return to this special growth, it may be added that the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page539" id="page539"></a>539</span>
+extraordinary productiveness of the Jesuit dramatists, and the
+steadiness of self-repetition which is equally characteristic of
+them, should warn us against underrating its influence upon a
+considerable proportion of the nation&rsquo;s educational life during a
+long succession of generations.</p>
+
+<p>While the scholars of the German Renaissance, who became
+so largely the agents of the Reformation, eagerly dramatized
+scriptural subjects in the Latin, and sometimes (as in
+the case of Luther&rsquo;s protégé P. Rebhun<a name="fa274a" id="fa274a" href="#ft274a"><span class="sp">274</span></a>) in the native
+<span class="sidenote">Beginnings of the vernacular German drama.</span>
+tongue, the same influence made itself felt in another
+sphere of dramatic activity. Towards the close of the
+middle ages, as has been seen, dramatic performances
+had in Germany, as in England, largely fallen into the hands of
+the civic gilds, and the composition of plays was more especially
+cultivated by the master-singers of Nuremberg and other towns.
+It was thus that, under the influence of the Reformation, and of
+the impulse given by Luther and others to the use of High
+German as the popular literary tongue, Hans Sachs, the immortal
+<span class="sidenote">Hans Sachs.</span>
+shoemaker of Nuremberg, seemed destined to become
+the father of the popular German drama. In his
+plays, &ldquo;spiritual,&rdquo; &ldquo;secular,&rdquo; and <i>Fastnachtsspiele</i>
+alike, the interest indeed lies in the dialogue rather than in the
+action, nor do they display any attempt at development of
+character. In their subjects, whether derived from Scripture
+or from popular legend and fiction,<a name="fa275a" id="fa275a" href="#ft275a"><span class="sp">275</span></a> there is no novelty, and in
+their treatment no originality. But the healthy vigour and
+fresh humour of this marvellously fertile author, and his innate
+sympathy with the views and sentiments of the burgher class
+to which he belonged, were elements of genuine promise&mdash;a
+promise which the event was signally to disappoint. Though
+the manner of Hans Sachs found a few followers, and is recognizable
+in the German popular drama even of the beginning of the
+17th century, the literature of the Reformation, of which his
+works may claim to form part, was soon absorbed in labours of
+a very different kind. The stage, after admitting novelties
+introduced from Italy or (under Jesuit supervision) from Spain,
+was subjected to another and enduring influence. Among the
+foreign actors of various nations who flitted through the innumerable
+<span class="sidenote">The English comedians.</span>
+courts of the empire, or found a temporary
+home there, special prominence was acquired, towards
+the close of the 16th and in the early years of the 17th
+century, by the &ldquo;English comedians,&rdquo; who appeared
+at Cassel, Wolfenbuttel, Berlin, Dresden, Cologne, &amp;c. Through
+these players a number of early English dramas found their way
+into Germany, where they were performed in more or less
+imperfect versions, and called forth imitations by native authors.
+Duke Henry Julius of Brunswick-Luneburg<a name="fa276a" id="fa276a" href="#ft276a"><span class="sp">276</span></a> (1564-1613) and
+Jacob Ayrer (a citizen of Nuremberg, where he died, 1605)
+represent the endeavours of the early German drama to suit its
+still uncouth forms to themes suggested by English examples;
+and in their works, and in those of contemporary playwrights,
+there reappears no small part of what we may conclude to have
+been the &ldquo;English comedians&rsquo;&rdquo; <i>répertoire</i>.<a name="fa277a" id="fa277a" href="#ft277a"><span class="sp">277</span></a> (The converse
+influence of German themes brought home with them by the
+English actors, or set in motion by their strolling ubiquity,
+cannot have been equal in extent, though Shakespeare himself
+may have derived the idea of one of his plots<a name="fa278a" id="fa278a" href="#ft278a"><span class="sp">278</span></a> from such a
+source). But, though welcome to both princes and people, the
+exertions of these foreign comedians, and of the native imitators
+who soon arose in the earliest professional companies of actors
+known in Germany, instead of bringing about a union between
+the stage and literature, led to a directly opposite result. The
+popularity of these strollers was owing partly to the (very real)
+blood and other horrors with which their plays were deluged,
+partly to the buffoonery with which they seasoned, and the
+various tricks and feats with which they diversified, their performances.
+The representatives of the English clowns had
+learnt much on their way from their brethren in the Netherlands,
+where in this period the art of grotesque acting greatly flourished.
+Nor were the aids of other arts neglected,&mdash;to this day in Germany
+professors of the &ldquo;equestrian drama&rdquo; are known by the popular
+appellation of &ldquo;English riders.&rdquo; From these true descendants
+of the mimes, then, the professional actors in Germany inherited
+a variety of tricks and traditions; and soon the favourite
+figures of the popular comic stage became conventional, and
+were stereotyped by the use of masks. Among these an acknowledged
+supremacy was acquired by the native <i>Hans Wurst</i>
+(Jack Pudding)&mdash;of whose name Luther disavowed the invention,
+and who is known already to Hans Sachs&mdash;the privileged buffoon,
+and for a long series of generations the real lord and master, of
+the German stage. If that stage, with its grossness and ribaldry,
+<span class="sidenote">Separation between the stage and literature.</span>
+seemed likely to become permanently estranged from
+the tastes and sympathies of the educated classes,
+the fault was by no means entirely its own and that
+of its patron the populace. The times were evil times
+for a national effort of any kind; and poetic literature
+was in all its branches passing into the hands of scholars who
+were often pedants, and whose language was a jargon of learned
+affectations. Thus things continued, till the awful visitation
+of the Thirty Years&rsquo; War cast a general blight upon the national
+life, and the traditions of the popular theatre were left to the
+guardianship of the marionettes (<i>Puppenspiele</i>)!</p>
+
+<p>When, in the midst of that war, German poets once more
+began to essay the dramatic form, the national drama was left
+outside their range of vision. M. Opitz, who holds an
+honoured place in the history of the German language
+<span class="sidenote">The literary drama of the 17th century.</span>
+and literature, in this branch of his labours contented
+himself with translations of classical dramas and of
+Italian pastorals&mdash;among the latter one of Rinuccini&rsquo;s
+<i>Daphne</i>, with which the history of the opera in Germany begins.
+A. Gryphius, though as a comic dramatist lacking neither vigour
+nor variety, and acquainted with Shakespearian<a name="fa279a" id="fa279a" href="#ft279a"><span class="sp">279</span></a> as well as Latin
+and Italian examples, chiefly devoted himself to the imitation
+of Latin, earlier French, and Dutch tragedy, the rhetorical
+dialogue of which he effectively reproduced in the Alexandrine
+metre.<a name="fa280a" id="fa280a" href="#ft280a"><span class="sp">280</span></a> Neither the turgid dramas of D. C. von Lohenstein
+(1665-1684), for whose <i>Cleopatra</i> the honour of having been the
+first German tragedy has been claimed, nor even the much
+healthier comedies of Chr. Weise (1642-1708) were brought upon
+the stage; while the religious plays of J. Klay (1616-1656) are
+mere recitations connected with the Italian growth of the
+<i>oratorio</i>. The frigid allegories commemorative of contemporary
+events, with which the learned from time to time supplied the
+theatre, and the pastoral dramas with which the idyllic poets of
+Nuremberg&mdash;&ldquo;the shepherds of the Pegnitz&rdquo;&mdash;after the close of
+the war gratified the peaceful longings of their fellow-citizens,
+were alike mere scholastic efforts. These indeed continued in
+the universities and <i>gymnasia</i> to keep alive the love of both
+dramatic composition and dramatic representation, and to
+encourage the theatrical taste which led so many students into
+the professional companies. But neither these dramatic exercises
+nor the <i>ludi Caesarei</i> in which the Jesuits at Vienna revived
+the pomp and pageantry, and the mixture of classical and
+Christian symbolism, of the Italian Renaissance, had any influence
+upon the progress of the popular drama.</p>
+
+<p>The history of the German stage remains to about the second
+decennium of the 18th century one of the most melancholy,
+as it is in its way one of the most instructive, chapters
+of theatrical history. Ignored by the world of letters,
+<span class="sidenote">The stage before its reform.</span>
+the actors in return deliberately sought to emancipate
+their art from all dependence upon literary material.
+Improvisation reigned supreme, not only in farce, where <i>Hans
+Wurst</i>, with the aid of Italian examples, never ceased to charm
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page540" id="page540"></a>540</span>
+his public, but in the serious drama likewise (in which, however,
+he also played his part) in those <i>Haupt- und Staatsactionen</i> (high-matter-of-state-dramas),
+the plots of which were taken from
+the old stores of the English comedians, from the religious drama
+and its sources, and from the profane history of all times. The
+hero of this period is &ldquo;Magister&rdquo; J. Velthen (or Veltheim),
+who at the head of a company of players for a time entered the
+service of the Saxon court, and, by reproducing comedies of
+Molière and other writers, sought to restrain the licence which he
+had himself carried beyond all earlier precedent, but who had
+to fall back into the old ways and the old life. His career exhibits
+the climax of the efforts of the art of acting to stand alone;
+after his death (c. 1693) chaos ensues. The strolling companies,
+which now included actresses, continued to foster the popular
+love of the stage, and even under its most degraded form to uphold
+its national character against the rivalry of the opera, and that of
+the Italian <i>commedia dell&rsquo; arte</i>. From the latter was borrowed
+Harlequin, with whom <i>Hans Wurst</i> was blended, and who became
+a standing figure in every kind of popular play.<a name="fa281a" id="fa281a" href="#ft281a"><span class="sp">281</span></a> He established
+his sway more especially at Vienna, where from about 1712 the
+first permanent German theatre was maintained. But for the
+actors in general there was little permanence, and amidst miseries
+of all sorts, and under the growing ban of clerical intolerance,
+the popular stage seemed destined to hopeless decay. A certain
+vitality of growth seems, under clerical guidance, to have
+characterized the plays of the people in Bavaria and parts of
+Austria.</p>
+
+<p>The first endeavours to reform what had thus apparently
+passed beyond all reach of recovery were neither wholly nor
+generally successful; but this does not diminish the
+honour due to two names which should never be
+<span class="sidenote">F. K. Neuber, Gottsched, and the Leipzig school.</span>
+mentioned without respect in connexion with the
+history of the drama. Friederike Karoline Neuber&rsquo;s
+(1697-1760) biography is the story of a long-continued
+effort which, notwithstanding errors and weaknesses,
+and though, so far as her personal fortunes were concerned,
+it ended in failure, may almost be described as heroic. As directress
+of a company of actors which from 1727 had its headquarters
+at Leipzig (hence the new school of acting is called the Leipzig
+school), she resolved to put an end to the formlessness of the
+existing stage, to separate tragedy and comedy, and to extinguish
+Harlequin. In this endeavour she was supported by the Leipzig
+professor J. Chr. Gottsched, who induced her to establish French
+tragedy and comedy as the sole models of the regular drama.
+Literature and the stage thus for the first time joined hands,
+and no temporary mischance or personal misunderstanding can
+obscure the enduring significance of the union. Not only were the
+abuses of a century swept away from a representative theatre,
+but a large number of literary works, designed for the stage, were
+produced on it. It is true that they were but versions or imitations
+from the French (or in the case of Gottsched&rsquo;s <i>Dying Cato</i>
+from the French and English),<a name="fa282a" id="fa282a" href="#ft282a"><span class="sp">282</span></a> and that at the moment of the
+regeneration of the German drama new fetters were thus imposed
+upon it, and upon the art of acting at the same time. But the
+impulse had been given, and the beginning made. On the one
+hand, men of letters began to subject their dramatic compositions
+to the test of performance; the tragedies and comedies of J. E.
+Schlegel, the artificial and sentimental comedies of Chr. F.
+Gellert and others, together with the vigorous popular comedies
+of the Danish dramatist Holberg, were brought into competition
+with translations from the French. On the other hand, the
+<span class="sidenote">Ekhof</span>
+Leipzig school exercised a continuous effect upon the
+progress of the art of acting, and before long K. Ekhof
+began a career which made his art a fit subject for the critical
+study of scholars, and his profession one to be esteemed by
+honourable men.</p>
+
+<p>Among the authors contributing to Mme. Neuber&rsquo;s Leipzig
+enterprise had been a young student destined to complete, after
+a very different fashion and with very different aims, the work
+which she and Gottsched had begun. The critical genius of G.
+<span class="sidenote">Lessing.</span>
+E. Lessing is peerless in its comprehensiveness, as in its
+keenness and depth; but if there was any branch of
+literature and art which by study and practice he made pre-eminently
+his own, it was that of the drama. As bearing upon
+the progress of the German theatre, his services to its literature,
+both critical and creative, can only be described as inestimable.
+The <i>Hamburgische Dramaturgie</i>, a series of criticisms of plays
+and (in its earlier numbers) of actors, was undertaken in furtherance
+of the attempt to establish at Hamburg the first national
+German theatre (1767-1769). This fact alone would invest
+these papers with a high significance; for, though the theatrical
+enterprise proved abortive, it established the principle upon
+which the progress of the theatre in all countries depends&mdash;that
+for the dramatic art the immediate theatrical public is no
+sufficient court of appeal. But the direct effect of the <i>Dramaturgie</i>
+was to complete the task which Lessing had in previous
+writings begun, and to overthrow the dominion of the arbitrary
+French rules and the French models established by Gottsched.
+Lessing vindicated its real laws to the drama, made clear the
+difference between the Greeks and their would-be representatives,
+and established the claims of Shakespeare as the modern master
+of both tragedy and comedy. His own dramatic productivity
+was cautious, tentative, progressive. His first step was, by his
+<i>Miss Sara Sampson</i> (1755), to oppose the realism of the English
+domestic drama to the artificiality of the accepted French
+models, in the forms of which Chr. F. Weisse (1726-1804) was
+seeking to treat the subjects of Shakespearian plays.<a name="fa283a" id="fa283a" href="#ft283a"><span class="sp">283</span></a> Then,
+in his <i>Minna von Barnhelm</i> (1767), which owed something to
+Farquhar, he essayed a national comedy drawn from real life,
+and appealing to patriotic sentiments as well as to broad human
+sympathies. It was written in prose (like <i>Miss Sara Sampson</i>),
+but in form held a judicious mean between French and English
+examples.</p>
+
+<p>The note sounded by the criticisms of Lessing met with a
+ready response, and the productivity displayed by the nascent
+dramatic literature of Germany is astonishing, both
+in the efforts inspired by his teachings and in those
+<span class="sidenote">Efforts of the theatre and of literature.</span>
+which continued to controvert or which aspired
+to transcend them. On the stage, Harlequin and
+his surroundings proved by no means easy to suppress,
+more especially at Vienna, the favourite home of frivolous
+amusement; but even here a reform was gradually effected,
+and, under the intelligent rule of the emperor Joseph II., a
+national stage grew into being. The mantle of Ekhof fell upon
+the shoulders of his eager younger rival, F. L. Schröder, who
+was the first to domesticate Shakespeare upon the German stage.
+In dramatic literature few of Lessing&rsquo;s earlier contemporaries
+produced any works of permanent value, unless the religious
+dramas of F. G. Klopstock&mdash;a species in which he had been
+preceded by J. J. Bodmer&mdash;and the patriotic <i>Bardietten</i> of the
+same author be excepted. S. Gessner, J. W. L. Gleim, and G. K.
+Pfeffel (1736-1809) composed pastoral plays. But a far more
+potent stimulus prompted the efforts of the younger generation.
+The translation of Shakespeare, begun in 1762 by C. M. Wieland,
+whose own plays possess no special significance, and completed
+in 1775 by Eschenburg, which furnished the text for many of
+Lessing&rsquo;s criticisms, helps to mark an epoch in German literature.
+Under the influence of Shakespeare, or of their conceptions of
+his genius, arose a youthful group of writers who, while worshipping
+their idol as the representative of nature, displayed but
+slight anxiety to harmonize their imitations of him with the
+demands of art. The notorious <i>Ugolino</i> of H. W. von Gerstenberg
+seemed a premonitory sign that the coming flood might merely
+rush back to the extravagances and horrors of the old popular
+stage; and it was with a sense of this danger in prospect that
+Lessing in his third important drama, the prose tragedy <i>Emilia
+Galotti</i> (1772), set the example of a work of incomparable nicety
+in its adaptation of means to end. But successful as it proved,
+it could not stay the excesses of the <i>Sturm und Drang</i> period
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page541" id="page541"></a>541</span>
+which now set in. Lessing&rsquo;s last drama, <i>Nathan der Weise</i>
+(1779), was not measured to the standard of the contemporary
+stage; but it was to exercise its influence in the progress of
+time&mdash;not only by causing a reaction in tragedy from prose to
+blank verse (first essayed in J. W. von Brawe&rsquo;s <i>Brutus</i>, 1770),
+but by ennobling and elevating by its moral and intellectual
+grandeur the branch of literature to which in form it
+belongs.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the young geniuses of the <i>Sturm und Drang</i> had
+gone forth, as worshippers rather than followers of Shakespeare,
+to conquer new worlds. The name of this group of
+writers, more remarkable for their collective significance
+<span class="sidenote">The Sturm und Drang.</span>
+than for their individual achievements, was derived
+from a drama by one of the most prolific of their
+number, M. F. von Klinger;<a name="fa284a" id="fa284a" href="#ft284a"><span class="sp">284</span></a> other members of the fraternity
+were J. A. Leisewitz<a name="fa285a" id="fa285a" href="#ft285a"><span class="sp">285</span></a> (1752-1806), M. R. Lenz<a name="fa286a" id="fa286a" href="#ft286a"><span class="sp">286</span></a> and F. Müller<a name="fa287a" id="fa287a" href="#ft287a"><span class="sp">287</span></a>
+the &ldquo;painter.&rdquo; The youthful genius of the greatest of German
+poets was itself under the influences of this period, when it
+produced the first of its masterpieces. But Goethe&rsquo;s <i>Götz von
+Berlichingen</i> (1773), both by the choice and treatment of its
+national theme, and by the incomparable freshness and originality
+of its style, holds a position of its own in German dramatic
+literature. Though its defiant irregularity of form prevented its
+complete success upon the stage, yet its influence is far from
+being represented by the series of mostly feeble imitations to
+which it gave rise. The <i>Ritterdramen</i> (plays of chivalry) had
+their day like similar fashions in drama or romance; but the
+permanent effect of <i>Götz</i> was, that it crushed as with an iron
+hand the last remnants of theatrical conventionality (those of
+costume and scenery included), and extinguished with them
+the lingering respect for rules and traditions of dramatic composition
+which even Lessing had treated with consideration.
+Its highest significance, however, lies in its having been the first
+great dramatic work of a great national poet, and having
+definitively associated the national drama with the poetic glories
+of the national literature.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, in the classical period of that literature, of which Goethe
+and Schiller were the ruling stars, the drama had a full share
+of the loftiest of its achievements. Of these, the
+dramatic works of Goethe vary so widely in form and
+<span class="sidenote">Goethe.</span>
+character, and connect themselves so intimately with the
+different phases of the development of his own self-directed
+poetic genius, that it was impossible for any of them to become
+the starting-points of any general growths in the history of the
+German drama. His way of composition was, moreover, so
+peculiar to himself&mdash;conception often preceding execution by
+many years, part being added to part under the influence of
+new sentiments and ideas and views of art, flexibly followed by
+changes of form&mdash;that the history of his dramas cannot be
+severed from his general poetic and personal biography. His
+<i>Clavigo</i> and <i>Stella</i>, which succeeded <i>Götz</i>, are domestic dramas
+in prose; but neither by these, nor by the series of charming
+pastorals and operas which he composed for the Weimar court,
+could any influence be exercised upon the progress of the national
+drama. In the first conception of his <i>Faust</i>, he had indeed
+sought the suggestion of his theme partly in popular legend,
+partly in a domestic motive familiar to the authors of the <i>Sturm
+und Drang</i> (the story of Gretchen); the later additions to the
+First Part, and the Second Part generally, are the results of
+metaphysical and critical studies and meditations belonging
+to wholly different spheres of thought and experience. The
+dramatic unity of the whole is thus, at the most, external only;
+and the standard of judgment to be applied to this wondrous
+poem is not one of dramatic criticism. <i>Egmont</i>, originally
+designed as a companion to <i>Götz</i>, was not completed till many
+years later; there are few dramas more effective in parts, but
+the idea of a historic play is lost in the elaboration of the most
+graceful of love episodes. In <i>Iphigenia</i> and <i>Tasso</i>, Goethe
+exhibited the perfection of form of which his classical period had
+enabled him to acquire the mastery; but the sphere of the
+action of the former (perfect though it is as a dramatic action),
+and the nature of that of the latter, are equally remote from
+<span class="sidenote">Schiller.</span>
+the demands of the popular stage. Schiller&rsquo;s genius,
+unlike Goethe&rsquo;s, was naturally and consistently suited
+to the claims of the theatre. His juvenile works, <i>The Robbers</i>,
+<i>Fiesco</i>, <i>Kabale und Liebe</i>, vibrating under the influence of an
+age of social revolution, combined in their prose form the truthful
+expression of passion with a considerable admixture of extravagance.
+But, with true insight into the demands of his art,
+and with unequalled single-mindedness and self-devotion to it,
+Schiller gradually emancipated himself from his earlier style;
+and with his earliest tragedy in verse, <i>Don Carlos</i>, the first period
+of his dramatic authorship ends, and the promise of the second
+announces itself. The works which belong to this&mdash;from the
+<i>Wallenstein</i> trilogy to <i>Tell</i>&mdash;are the acknowledged masterpieces
+of the German poetic drama, treating historic themes reconstructed
+by conscious dramatic workmanship, and clothing their
+dialogue in a noble vestment of rhetorical verse. The plays of
+Schiller are the living embodiment of the theory of tragedy
+elaborated by Hegel, according to which its proper theme is the
+divine, or, in other words, the moving ethical, element in human
+action. In one of his later plays, <i>The Bride of Messina</i>, Schiller
+attempted a new use of the chorus of Greek tragedy; but the
+endeavour was a splendid error, and destined to exercise no
+lasting effect. The reaction against Schiller&rsquo;s ascendancy began
+with writers who could not reconcile themselves with the cosmopolitan
+and non-national elements in his genius, and is still
+represented by eminent critics; but the future must be left to
+settle the contention.</p>
+
+<p>Schiller&rsquo;s later dramas had gradually conquered the stage,
+over which his juvenile works had in this time triumphantly
+passed, but on which his <i>Don Carlos</i> had met with a
+cold welcome. For a long time, however, its favourites
+<span class="sidenote">The popular stage.</span>
+were authors of a very different order, who suited
+themselves to the demands of a public tolerably indifferent
+to the literary progress of the drama. After popular
+tastes had oscillated between the imitators of <i>Gotz</i> and those of
+<i>Emilia Galotti</i>, they entered into a more settled phase, as the
+establishment of standing theatres at the courts and in the large
+towns increased the demand for good &ldquo;acting&rdquo; plays. Famous
+actors, such as Schröder and A. W. Iffland, sought by translations
+or compositions of their own to meet the popular likings, which
+largely took the direction of that irrepressible favourite of
+theatrical audiences, the sentimental domestic drama.<a name="fa288a" id="fa288a" href="#ft288a"><span class="sp">288</span></a> But the
+most successful purveyor of such wares was an author who,
+though not himself an actor, understood the theatre with a
+professional instinct&mdash;August von Kotzebue. His productivity
+ranged from the domestic drama and comedy of all kinds to
+attempts to rival Schiller and Shakespeare in verse; and though
+his popularity (which ultimately proved his doom) brought
+upon him the bitterest attacks of the romantic school and other
+literary authorities, his self-conceit is not astonishing, and the
+time has come for saying that there is some exaggeration in
+the contempt which has been lavished upon him by posterity.<a name="fa289a" id="fa289a" href="#ft289a"><span class="sp">289</span></a>
+Nor should it be forgotten that German literature had so far
+failed to furnish the comic stage with any successors to <i>Minna
+von Barnhelm</i>; for Goethe&rsquo;s efforts to dramatize characteristic
+events or figures of the Revolutionary age<a name="fa290a" id="fa290a" href="#ft290a"><span class="sp">290</span></a> must be dismissed
+as failures, not from a theatrical point of view only. The joint
+efforts of Goethe and Schiller for the Weimar stage, important in
+many respects for the history of the German drama, at the same
+time reveal the want of a national dramatic literature sufficient
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page542" id="page542"></a>542</span>
+to supply the needs of a theatre endeavouring to satisfy the
+demands of art.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the so-called romantic school of German literature
+was likewise beginning to extend its labours to original dramatic
+composition. From the universality of sympathies
+proclaimed by this school, to whose leaders Germany
+<span class="sidenote">The romantic school.</span>
+owed its classical translation of Shakespeare,<a name="fa291a" id="fa291a" href="#ft291a"><span class="sp">291</span></a> and
+an introduction to the dramatic literatures of so many
+ages and nations,<a name="fa292a" id="fa292a" href="#ft292a"><span class="sp">292</span></a> a variety of new dramatic impulses might be
+expected; while much might be hoped for the future of the
+national drama (especially in its mixed and comic species) from
+the alliance between poetry and real life which they preached,
+and which some of them sought personally to exemplify. But in
+practice universality presented itself as peculiarity or even as
+eccentricity; and in the end the divorce between poetry and
+real life was announced as authoritatively as their union had
+been. Outside this school, the youthful talent of Th. Körner,
+whose early promise as a dramatist<a name="fa293a" id="fa293a" href="#ft293a"><span class="sp">293</span></a> might perhaps have ripened
+into a fulness enabling him not unworthily to occupy the seat
+left vacant by his father&rsquo;s friend Schiller, was extinguished by a
+patriotic death. The efforts of M. von Collin (1779-1824) in the
+direction of the historical drama remained isolated attempts.
+But of the leaders of the romantic school, A. W.<a name="fa294a" id="fa294a" href="#ft294a"><span class="sp">294</span></a> and F. von
+Schlegel<a name="fa295a" id="fa295a" href="#ft295a"><span class="sp">295</span></a> contented themselves with frigid classicalities; and
+L. Tieck, in the strange alembic of his <i>Phantasus</i>, melted legend
+and fairy-tale, novel and drama,<a name="fa296a" id="fa296a" href="#ft296a"><span class="sp">296</span></a> poetry and satire, into a compound,
+enjoyable indeed, but hardly so in its entirety, or in many
+of its parts, to any but the literary mind.</p>
+
+<p>F. de La Motte Fouqué infused a spirit of poetry into the
+chivalry drama. Klemens Brentano was a fantastic dramatist
+unsuited to the stage. Here a feeble outgrowth of the
+romanticists, the &ldquo;destiny dramatists&rdquo; Z. Werner<a name="fa297a" id="fa297a" href="#ft297a"><span class="sp">297</span></a>&mdash;the
+<span class="sidenote">Later dramatists.</span>
+most original of the group&mdash;A. Müllner,<a name="fa298a" id="fa298a" href="#ft298a"><span class="sp">298</span></a> and
+Baron C. E. v. Houwald,<a name="fa299a" id="fa299a" href="#ft299a"><span class="sp">299</span></a> achieved a temporary
+<i>furore</i>; and it was with an attempt in the same direction<a name="fa300a" id="fa300a" href="#ft300a"><span class="sp">300</span></a>
+that the Austrian dramatist F. Grillparzer began his long career.
+He is assuredly, what he pronounced himself to be, the foremost
+of the later dramatic poets of Germany, unless that tribute be
+thought due to the genius of H. von Kleist, who in his short life
+produced, besides other works, a romantic drama<a name="fa301a" id="fa301a" href="#ft301a"><span class="sp">301</span></a> and a rustic
+comedy<a name="fa302a" id="fa302a" href="#ft302a"><span class="sp">302</span></a> of genuine merit, and an historical tragedy of singular
+originality and power.<a name="fa303a" id="fa303a" href="#ft303a"><span class="sp">303</span></a> Grillparzer&rsquo;s long series of plays includes
+poetic dramas on classical themes<a name="fa304a" id="fa304a" href="#ft304a"><span class="sp">304</span></a> and historical subjects from
+Austrian history,<a name="fa305a" id="fa305a" href="#ft305a"><span class="sp">305</span></a> or treated from an Austrian point of view.
+The romantic school, which through Tieck had satirized the
+drama of the <i>bourgeoisie</i> and its offshoots, was in its turn satirized
+by Count A. von Platen-Hallermund&rsquo;s admirable imitations of
+Aristophanic comedy.<a name="fa306a" id="fa306a" href="#ft306a"><span class="sp">306</span></a> Among the objects of his banter were
+the popular playwright E. Raupach, and K. Immermann, a
+true poet, who is, however, less generally remembered as a
+dramatist. F. Hebbel<a name="fa307a" id="fa307a" href="#ft307a"><span class="sp">307</span></a> is justly ranked high among the foremost
+later dramatic poets of his country, few of whom equal him in
+intensity. The eminent lyrical (especially ballad) poet L. Uhland
+left behind him a large number of dramatic fragments, but little
+or nothing really complete. Other names of literary mark are
+those of C. D. Grabbe, J. Mosen, O. Ludwig<a name="fa308a" id="fa308a" href="#ft308a"><span class="sp">308</span></a> (1813-1865), a
+dramatist of great power, and &ldquo;F. Halm&rdquo; (Baron von Münch-Bellinghausen)
+(1806-1871), and, among writers of a more
+modern school, K. Gutzkow,<a name="fa309a" id="fa309a" href="#ft309a"><span class="sp">309</span></a> G. Freytag,<a name="fa310a" id="fa310a" href="#ft310a"><span class="sp">310</span></a> and H. Laube.<a name="fa311a" id="fa311a" href="#ft311a"><span class="sp">311</span></a>
+L. Anzengruber, a writer of real genius though restricted range,
+imparted a new significance to the Austrian popular drama,<a name="fa312a" id="fa312a" href="#ft312a"><span class="sp">312</span></a>
+formerly so commonplace in the hands of F. Raimund and
+J. Nestroy.</p>
+
+<p>During the long period of transition which may be said to have
+ended with the establishment of the new German empire, the
+German stage in some measure anticipated the developments
+which more spacious times were to witness in
+<span class="sidenote">The German stage of the latter half of the 19th century.</span>
+the German drama. The traditions of the national
+theatre contemporary with the great epoch of the
+national literature were kept alive by a succession of
+eminent actors&mdash;such as the nephews of Ludwig
+Devrient, himself an artist of the greatest originality,
+whose most conspicuous success, though nature had fitted him for
+Shakespeare, was achieved in Schiller&rsquo;s earliest play.<a name="fa313a" id="fa313a" href="#ft313a"><span class="sp">313</span></a> Among
+the younger generation of Devrients the most striking personality
+was that of Emil; his elder brother Karl August, husband of
+Wilhelmine Schröder-Devrient, the brilliant star of the operatic
+stage, and their son Friedrich, were also popular actors; yet
+another brother, Eduard, is more widely remembered as the
+historian of the German stage. Partly by reason of the number
+and variety of its centres of intellectual and artistic life, Germany
+was long enabled both to cherish the few masterpieces of its own
+drama, and, with the aid of a language well adapted for translation,
+to give admittance to the dramatic masterpieces of other
+nations also, and to Shakespeare in particular, without going far
+in the search for theatrical novelty or effect. But a change
+came over the spirit of German theatrical management with the
+endeavours of H. Laube, from about the middle of the century
+onwards, at Vienna (and Leipzig), which avowedly placed the
+demands of the theatre as such above those of literary merit
+or even of national sentiment. In a less combative spirit, F.
+Dingelstedt, both at Munich, which under King Maximilian he
+had made a kindly nurse of German culture, and, after his
+efforts there had come to an untimely end,<a name="fa314a" id="fa314a" href="#ft314a"><span class="sp">314</span></a> at Weimar and at
+Vienna, raised the theatre to a very high level of artistic achievement.
+The most memorable event in the annals of his managements
+was the production on the Weimar stage of the series of
+Shakespeare&rsquo;s <i>histories</i>. At a rather later period, of which the
+height extended from 1874 to 1890, the company of actors in
+the service, and under the personal direction, of Duke George
+of Saxe-Meiningen, created a great effect by their performances
+both in and outside Germany&mdash;not so much by their artistic
+improvements in scenery and decoration, as by the extraordinary
+perfection of their <i>ensemble</i>. But no dramaturgic achievement
+in the century could compare in grandeur either of conception or
+of execution with Richard Wagner&rsquo;s Bayreuth performances,
+where, for the first time in the history of the modern stage, the
+artistic instinct ruled supreme in all the conditions of the work
+and its presentment. Though the <i>Ring of the Nibelungs</i> and its
+successors belong to opera rather than drama proper, the importance
+of their production (1876) should be overlooked by no
+student of the dramatic art. Potent as has been the influence
+of foreign dramatic literatures&mdash;whether French or Scandinavian&mdash;and
+that of a movement which has been common to them all,
+and from which the German was perhaps the least likely to
+exclude itself, the most notable feature in the recent history of
+the German drama has been its quick response to wholly new
+demands, which, though the attempt was made with some
+persistence, could no longer be met without an effort to span the
+widths and sound the depths of a more spacious and more
+self-conscious era.<a name="fa315a" id="fa315a" href="#ft315a"><span class="sp">315</span></a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page543" id="page543"></a>543</span></p>
+
+<p class="center pt2">(h) <i>Dutch Drama.</i></p>
+
+<p>Among other modern European dramas the Dutch is interesting
+both in its beginnings, which to all intents and purposes form
+part of those of the German, and because of the special influence
+of the so-called chambers of the <i>rederykers</i> (rhetoricians), from
+the early years of the 15th century onwards, which bear some
+resemblance to the associations of the master-singers in contemporary
+higher Germany. The earliest of their efforts,
+which so effectively tempered the despotism of both church and
+state, seem to have been of a dramatic kind; and a manifold
+variety of allegories, moralities and comic entertainments
+(<i>esbatementen</i> or comedies, <i>kluiten</i> and <i>factien</i> or farces) enhanced
+the attractions of those popular pageants in which the Netherlands
+surpassed all other countries of the North. The Low
+Countries responded more largely to the impulse of the
+Renaissance than, with some local exceptions, any other of the
+Germanic lands. They necessarily had a considerable share
+in the cultivation of the modern Latin drama; and, while the
+author of <i>Acolastus</i> may be claimed as its own by the country
+of his adoption as well as by that of his birth, G. M. Macropedius
+(Langhveldt) (c. 1475-1508), who may be regarded as the foremost
+Latin dramatist of his age, was born and died at Hertogenbosch
+or in its immediate vicinity. Macropedius, who belonged
+to the fraternity of the Common Life, was a writer of great
+realistic power as well as of remarkable literary versatility.<a name="fa316a" id="fa316a" href="#ft316a"><span class="sp">316</span></a>
+The art of acting flourished in the Low Countries even during
+the troubles of the great revolt; but the birth of the regular
+drama was delayed till the advent of quieter times. Dutch
+dramatic literature begins, under the influence of the classical
+studies cherished in the seats of learning founded before and after
+the close of the war, with the classical tragedies of S. Koster
+(c. 1585-c. 1650). The romantic dramas and farces of Gerbrand
+Bredero (1585-1618) and the tragedies of P. Hooft (1581-1647)
+belong to the same period; but its foremost dramatic poet was
+J. van den Vondel, who from an imitation of classical models
+passed to more original forms of dramatic composition, including
+a patriotic play and a dramatic treatment of part of what
+was to form the theme of <i>Paradise Lost</i>.<a name="fa317a" id="fa317a" href="#ft317a"><span class="sp">317</span></a> But Vondel had no
+successor of equal mark. The older form of Dutch tragedy&mdash;in
+which the chorus still appeared&mdash;was, especially under the influence
+of the critic A. Pels, exchanged for a close imitation of
+the French models, Corneille and Racine; nor was the attempt
+to create a national comedy successful. Thus no national Dutch
+drama was permanently called into life.</p>
+
+<p class="center pt2">(i) <i>Scandinavian Drama.</i></p>
+
+<p>Still more distinctly, the dramatic literature of the Scandinavian
+peoples springs from foreign growths. In Denmark,
+where the beginnings of the drama in the plays of
+the schoolmaster Chr. Hansen recall the mixture of
+<span class="sidenote">Denmark.</span>
+religious and farcical elements in contemporary German efforts,
+the drama in the latter half of the 16th century remained essentially
+scholastic, and treated scriptural or classical subjects,
+chiefly in the Latin tongue. J. Ranch (1539-1607) and H. S.
+Sthen were authors of this type. But often in the course of the
+17th century, German and French had become the tongues of
+Danish literature and of the Danish theatre; in the 18th Denmark
+could boast a comic dramatist of thorough originality
+and of a wholly national cast. L. Holberg, one of the most noteworthy
+comic poets of modern literature, not only marks an
+epoch in the dramatic literature of his native land, but he
+contributed to overthrow the trivialities of the German stage
+in its worst period, which he satirized with merciless humour,<a name="fa318a" id="fa318a" href="#ft318a"><span class="sp">318</span></a>
+and set an example, never surpassed, of a series of comedies<a name="fa319a" id="fa319a" href="#ft319a"><span class="sp">319</span></a>
+deriving their types from popular life and ridiculing with healthy
+directness those vices and follies which are the proper theme
+of the most widely effective species of the comic drama. Among
+his followers, P. A. Heiberg is specially noted. Under the
+influence of the Romantic school, whose influence has nowhere
+proved so long-lived as in the Scandinavian north, A. Ohlenschläger
+began a new era of Danish literature. His productivity,
+which belongs partly to his native and partly to German literary
+history, turned from foreign<a name="fa320a" id="fa320a" href="#ft320a"><span class="sp">320</span></a> to native themes; and other
+writers followed him in his endeavours to revive the figures of
+<span class="sidenote">The modern Norwegian drama.</span>
+Northern heroic legend. But these themes have in their
+turn given way in the Scandinavian theatre to subjects
+coming nearer home to the popular consciousness,
+and treated with a direct appeal to the common
+experience of human life, and with a searching insight into the
+actual motives of human action. The most remarkable movement
+to be noted in the history of the Scandinavian drama,
+and one of the most widely effective of those which mark the
+more recent history of the Western drama in general, had its
+origin in Norway. Two Norwegian dramatists, H. Ibsen and
+Björnsterne Björnson, standing as it were side by side, though
+by no means always judging eye to eye, have vitally influenced
+the whole course of modern dramatic literature in the direction
+of a fearlessly candid and close delineation of human nature.
+The lesser of the pair in inventive genius, and in the power of
+exhibiting with scornful defiance the conflict between soul and
+circumstance, but the stronger by virtue of the conviction of
+hope which lies at the root of achievement, is Björnson.<a name="fa321a" id="fa321a" href="#ft321a"><span class="sp">321</span></a> Ibsen&rsquo;s
+long career as a dramatist exhibits a succession of many changes,
+but at no point any failure in the self-trust of his genius. His
+early masterpieces were dramatic only in form.<a name="fa322a" id="fa322a" href="#ft322a"><span class="sp">322</span></a> His world-drama
+of <i>Emperor and Galilean</i> was still unsuited to a stage
+rarely trodden to much purpose by idealists of Julian&rsquo;s type.
+The beginnings of his real and revolutionary significance as a
+dramatist date from the production of his first plays of contemporary
+life, the admirable satirical comedy <i>The Pillars of
+Society</i> (1877), the subtle domestic drama <i>A Doll&rsquo;s House</i> (1879),
+and the powerful but repellent <i>Ghosts</i> (1881),<a name="fa323a" id="fa323a" href="#ft323a"><span class="sp">323</span></a> which last, with
+the effects of its appearance, modern dramatic literature may
+even to this day be said to have failed altogether to assimilate.
+Ibsen&rsquo;s later prose comedies&mdash;(verse, he writes, has immensely
+damaged the art of acting, and a tragedy in iambics belongs to the
+species Dodo)&mdash;for the most part written during an exile which
+accounts for the note of isolation so audible in many of them,
+succeeded one another at regular biennial intervals, growing more
+and more abrupt in form, cruel in method, and intense in elemental
+dramatic force. The prophet at last spoke to a listening
+world, but without the amplitude, the grace and the wholeheartedness
+which are necessary for subduing it. But it may be
+long before the art which he had chosen as the vehicle of his
+comments on human life and society altogether ceases to show
+the impress of his genius.</p>
+
+<p class="center pt2">(j) <i>Drama of the Slav Peoples.</i></p>
+
+<p>As to the history of the Slav drama, only a few hints can be
+here given. Its origins have not yet&mdash;at least in works accessible
+to Western students&mdash;been authoritatively traced. The Russian
+drama in its earliest or religious beginnings is stated to have
+been introduced from Poland early in the 12th century; and,
+again, it would seem that, when the influence of the Renaissance
+touched the east of Europe, the religious drama was cultivated
+in Poland in the 16th, but did not find its way into Russia
+till the 17th century. It is probable that the species was, like so
+many other elements of culture, imported into the Carpathian
+lands in the 15th or 16th century from Germany. How far
+indigenous growths, such as the Russian popular puppet-show
+called <i>vertep</i>, which about the middle of the 17th century began
+to treat secular and popular themes, helped to foster dramatic
+tendencies and tastes, cannot here be estimated. The regular
+drama of eastern Europe is to all intents and purposes of Western
+origin. Thus, the history of the Polish drama may be fairly
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page544" id="page544"></a>544</span>
+dated as beginning with the reign of the last king of Poland,
+Stanislaus II. Augustus, who in 1765 solemnly opened a national
+<span class="sidenote">Polish.</span>
+theatre at Warsaw. This institution was carried on
+till the fatal year 1794, and saw the production of
+a considerable number of Polish plays, mostly translated or
+adapted, but in part original&mdash;as in the case of one or two of
+those from the active pen of the secretary to the educational
+commission, Zablonski. But it was not till after the last partition
+that, paradoxically though not wholly out of accordance with
+the history of the relations between political and literary
+history, the attempts of W. Bogulawski and J. N. Kaminski to
+establish and carry on a Polish national theatre were crowned
+with success. Its literary mainstay was a gifted Franco-Pole,
+Count Alexander Fredro (1793-1876), who in the period between
+the Napoleonic revival and the long exodus fathered a long-lived
+species of modern Polish comedy, French in origin (for Fredro
+was a true disciple of Molière), and wholly out of contact with
+the sentiment that survived in the ashes of a doomed nation.<a name="fa324a" id="fa324a" href="#ft324a"><span class="sp">324</span></a>
+His complaint as to the exiguity of the Polish literary public&mdash;a
+brace of theatres and a bookseller&rsquo;s handcart&mdash;may have been
+premature; but a national drama was most certainly impossible
+in a denationalised and dismembered land, in whose historic
+capital the theatre in which Polish plays continued to be produced
+seemed garrisoned by Cossack officers.</p>
+
+<p>Much in the same way, though with a characteristic difference,
+the Russian regular drama had its origin in the cadet corps at
+St Petersburg, a pupil of which, A. Sumarokov (1718-1777),
+has been regarded as the founder of the modern
+<span class="sidenote">Russian.</span>
+Russian theatre. As a tragic poet he seems to have imitated
+Racine and Voltaire, though treating themes from the national
+history, among others the famous dramatic subject of the False
+Demetrius. He also translated <i>Hamlet</i>. As a comic dramatist
+he is stated to have been less popular than as a tragedian; yet
+it is in comedy that he would seem to have had the most noteworthy
+successors. Among these it is impossible to pass by the
+empress Catherine II., whose comedies seem to have been satirical
+sketches of the follies and foibles of her subjects, and who in one
+comedy as well as in a tragedy had the courage to imitate
+Shakespeare. Comedy aiming at social satire long continued
+to temper the conditions of Russian society, and had representatives
+of mark in such writers as A. N. Ostrovsky of Moscow and
+Griboyedov, the author of <i>Gore et uma</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In any survey of the Slav drama that of the Czech peoples,
+whose national consciousness has so fully reawakened, must not
+be overlooked. A Czech theatre was called into life at Prague
+as early as the 18th century; and in the 19th its demands,
+centring in a sense of nationality, were met by J. N. Stepinek
+(1783-1844), W. C. Klicpera (1792-1859) and J. C. Tyl (1808-1856);
+and later writers continued to make use of the stage for
+a propaganda of historical as well as political significance.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;The following works treat the general theory of
+the drama and the dramatic art, together with the principles of
+dramaturgy and of the art of acting. Works which have reference
+to the drama of a particular period or of a particular nation only are
+mentioned separately. Works which deal with special authors
+only have been intentionally omitted in this bibliography, as being
+mentioned in the articles in the several authors.</p>
+
+<p>Aristotle&rsquo;s <i>Poetics</i> (text and transl. by S. H. Butcher, London,
+1895; transl. by T. Twining, London, 1812; see also Donaldson&rsquo;s
+<i>Theatre of the Greeks</i>); H. Baumgart, <i>Aristoteles, Lessing, u. Goethe.
+Über das ethische u. ästhetische Princip der Tragödie</i> (Leipzig, 1877);
+H. A. Bulthaupt, <i>Dramaturgie des Schauspiels</i> (4 vols., Oldenburg
+u. Leipzig, 1893-1902); L. Campbell, <i>Tragic Drama in Aeschylus,
+Sophocles and Shakespeare</i> (London, 1904); P. Corneille, <i>Discours du
+poëme dramatique&mdash;de la tragédie&mdash;des trois unités, &OElig;uvres</i>, vol. i.
+(Paris, 1862); W. L. Courtney, <i>The Idea of Tragedy in Ancient and
+Modern Drama</i> (Westminster, 1900); Diderot, <i>De la poésie dramatique</i>.
+<i>Entretiens sur le Fils Naturel, &OElig;uvres complètes</i>, vii. (Paris,
+1875); J. Dryden, <i>Essay of Dramatic Poesy</i> and other critical
+essays (<i>Essays of J. Dryden</i>, ed. W. P. Ker, 2 vols., Oxford, 1900);
+G. Freytag, <i>Die Technik des Dramas</i> (5th ed., Leipzig, 1886);
+G. W. F. Hegel, <i>Vorlesungen über Ästhetik</i>, ed. H. G. Hotho, bd. 3,
+chap. iii. c. <i>Die dramatische Poesie</i> (Werke, x. 3; Berlin, 1838);
+G. Larroumet, <i>Études d&rsquo;histoire et de critique dramatiques</i>, 2 sér.
+(Paris, 1892-1899); G. E. Lessing, <i>Hamburgische Dramaturgie</i>.
+<i>Erlautert von F. Schroter u. R. Thiele</i> (Halle, 1877); <i>Materialien zu
+Lessing&rsquo;s Hamburgische Dramaturgie, von W. Cosack</i> (Paderborn,
+1876); G. H. Lewes, <i>On Actors and the Art of Acting</i> (London, 1875);
+Sir T. Martin, <i>Essays on the Drama</i> (London, 1874); K. Mantzius,
+<i>History of Theatrical Art in Ancient and Modern Times</i>, transl. by
+L. von Cossel (London, 1903, &amp;c.); G. Meredith, <i>Essay on Comedy</i>
+(Westminster, 1897); R. Prolss, <i>Katechismus der Dramaturgie</i>
+(Leipzig, 1877); H. T. Rotscher, <i>Die Kunst der dramatischen Darstellung</i>
+(3 vols., Berlin, 1841-1846); <i>Jahrbucher fur dramatische
+Kunst u. Literatur</i> (Berlin and Frankfort, 1848-1849); P. de Saint-Victor,
+<i>Les Deux Masques, tragédie&mdash;comédie</i> (3rd ed., 3 vols., Paris,
+1881, &amp;c.); Saint-Marc Girardin, <i>Cours de littérature dramatique</i>
+(7th ed., 5 vols., Paris, 1868); A. W. von Schlegel, <i>Lectures on
+Dramatic Art and Literature</i> (Eng. transl., London, 1846); Sir W.
+Scott, <i>Essays on Chivalry, Romance and the Drama</i> (including his
+article &ldquo;Drama&rdquo; written for the Supplement to the 4th edition of
+the <i>Ency. Brit.</i>, and reprinted in the 5th, 6th, 7th and 8th editions);
+F. T. Vischer, <i>Ästhetik</i>, vol. iv. (Stuttgart, 1857).</p>
+
+<p>The fullest general history of the drama extant is J. L. Klein&rsquo;s
+<i>Geschichte des Dramas</i>, 13 vols. and index (Leipzig, 1865-1886).
+See also, for encyclopaedic information, W. Davenport Adams, <i>A
+Dictionary of the Drama</i>, vol. i. (London, 1904); C. M. E. Béquet,
+<i>Encyclopédie de l&rsquo;art dramatique</i> (Paris, 1886); A. Pougin, <i>Dictionnaire
+historique et pittoresque du théâtre et des arts qui s&rsquo;y rattachent</i>
+(Paris, 1885).</p>
+
+<p>The drama of the Eastern nations is generally treated in:&mdash;A. P.
+Brozzi, <i>Teatri e spettacoli dei popoli orientali Ebrei, Arabi, Persani,
+Indiani, Cinesi, Giapponesi e Giavanesi</i> (Milan, 1887); Comte J. A.
+de Gobineau, <i>Les Religions et les philosophies dans l&rsquo;Asie centrale</i>
+(2nd ed., Paris, 1866).</p>
+
+<p>The following works deal with the Indian drama:&mdash;M. Schuyler,
+<i>Bibliography of the Sanskrit Drama</i> (Columbia Univ., Indo-Iranian,
+ser. iii., New York, 1906); H. H. Wilson, <i>Select Specimens of the
+Theatre of the Hindus</i>, transl. from the original Sanskrit (with introduction
+on the dramatic system of the Hindus), 3rd ed., 2 vols.
+(London, 1871); S. Levi, <i>Le Théâtre indien</i> (supplements Wilson)
+(Paris, 1891).</p>
+
+<p>For Chinese:&mdash;Tscheng-Ki-Tong, <i>Le Théâtre des Chinois</i> (Paris,
+1886); see also H. A. Giles, <i>History of Chinese Literature</i> (London,
+1901).</p>
+
+<p>For Japanese:&mdash;C. Florenz, <i>Gesch. d. japan. Litteratur</i>, vol. i. 1
+(Leipzig, 1905); see also F. Brinkley, <i>Japan, its History, Arts and
+Literature</i>, vol. iii. (Boston and Tokyo, 1901).</p>
+
+<p>For Persian:&mdash;A. Chodzko, <i>Théâtre persan. Choix de téaziés ou
+drames, traduits pour la première fois du persan par A. Chodzko</i> (Paris,
+1878); E. Montet, <i>Le Théâtre en Perse</i> (Geneva, 1888); Sir L. Pelly,
+<i>The Miracle Play of Hasan and Husain, collected from oral tradition;
+revised with explanatory notes by A. N. Wollaston</i> (2 vols., London, 1879).</p>
+
+<p>Of works treating of the ancient Greek and Roman drama only
+a small selection can be given here. In the case of the Greek drama,
+the chief histories of literature&mdash;such as G. Bernhardy&rsquo;s, K. O.
+Muller&rsquo;s (Eng. tr. by Sir G. C. Lewis, with continuation by J. W.
+Donaldson) and G. Murray&rsquo;s&mdash;and general histories&mdash;such as Grote&rsquo;s,
+Thirlwall&rsquo;s, Curtius&rsquo;s, &amp;c.&mdash;should also be consulted; and for the
+administration and finance of the Attic theatre, Boeckh&rsquo;s <i>Public
+Economy of Athens</i>, Eng. tr. (London, 1842). Much useful information
+will be found in <i>A Companion to Greek Studies</i>, ed. by L.
+Whibley (Cambridge, 1905). The standard collective edition of the
+ancient Greek dramatic poets is the <i>Poetae scenici Graeci</i>, ed. C. W.
+Dindorf (5th ed., Leipzig, 1869), and that of the Comic poets A.
+Meineke&rsquo;s <i>Historia critica comicorum Graecorum. Cum fragmentis</i>
+(5 vols., Berlin, 1839-1857). Aristotle&rsquo;s <i>Poetics</i>, cited above, will
+of course be consulted for the theory of the Greek drama in particular;
+and much valuable critical matter will be found in passages of
+Bentley&rsquo;s <i>Phalaris</i> (1699), which are reprinted in Donaldson&rsquo;s <i>Theatre
+of the Greeks</i>. The following later works, some of which treat of the
+ancient classical drama in general, may be noted:&mdash;E. A. Chaignet,
+<i>La Tragédie grecque</i> (Paris, 1877); J. Denys, <i>Histoire de la comédie
+grecque</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1886); J. W. Donaldson, <i>The Theatre of the
+Greeks</i> (7th ed., London, 1860); Du Méril, <i>Histoire de la comédie.
+Période primitive</i> (Paris, 1864); <i>Histoire de la comédie ancienne</i>
+(Paris, 1869); A. E. Haigh, <i>The Tragic Drama of the Greeks</i> (Oxford,
+1896); <i>The Attic Theatre</i> (Oxford, 1898); G. Korting, <i>Gesch. des
+Theaters in seinen Beziehungen zur Kunstentwickelung der dramatischen
+Dichtkunst</i>, Bd. i. <i>Gesch. des griechischen u. romischen Theaters</i>
+(Paderborn, 1897); R. G. Moulton, <i>The Ancient Classical Drama</i>
+(Oxford, 1898); M. Patin, <i>Étude sur les tragiques grecs</i> (3 vols., Paris,
+1861); C. M. Rapp, <i>Gesch. des griechischen Schauspiels vom Standpunkt
+der dramatischen Kunst</i> (Tubingen, 1862); H. Weil, <i>Études
+sur le drame antique</i> (Paris, 1897); F. G. Welcker, &ldquo;Die griechischen
+Tragodien, mit Rucksicht auf den epischen Cyklus&rdquo; (<i>Rhein. Mus.</i>
+Suppl. ii.) 3 pts. (Bonn, 1839-1841).</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the works of individual Roman dramatists, and
+critical writings concerning them, see <i>Scaenicae Romanorum poesis
+fragmenta</i>, 2 vols. (I. Tragic, II. Comic) ed. by O. Ribbeck (3rd ed.
+Leipzig, 1897-1898). W. S. Teuffel&rsquo;s <i>History of Roman Literature</i>,
+Eng. tr. (2 vols., London, 1891-1892), and M. Schanz&rsquo; <i>Gesch. der
+romischen Litteratur bis Justinian</i> (2 vols., Munich, 1890-1892), may
+be consulted for a complete view of the course of the Roman drama.
+For its later developments consult Dean Merivale&rsquo;s <i>History of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page545" id="page545"></a>545</span>
+Romans under the Empire</i>, and S. Dill&rsquo;s <i>Roman Society in the Last
+Days of the Western Empire</i> (London, 1898). See also L. Friedländer,
+<i>Darstellungen aus der Sittengeschichte Roms</i>, 6th ed., vol. ii. (Leipzig,
+1889); M. Meyer, <i>Étude sur le théâtre latin</i> (Paris, 1847); O. Ribbeck,
+<i>Die römische Tragödie im Zeitalter der Republik</i> (Leipzig, 1875).</p>
+
+<p>The following works treat of the medieval drama, religious or
+secular, of its origins and of usages connected with it:&mdash;H. Anz, <i>Die
+lateinischen Magierspiele</i> (Leipzig, 1905); E. K. Chambers, <i>The
+Medieval Stage</i> (2 vols., Oxford, 1903), with full bibliography; E. de
+Coussemaker, <i>Drames liturgiques du moyen âge</i> (Paris, 1861); du
+Méril, <i>Theatri liturgici quae Latina supersunt monumenta</i> (Caen and
+Paris, 1849); C. A. Hase, <i>Miracle Plays and Sacred Dramas</i> (Eng.
+tr.), (London, 1880); Hilarius, <i>Versus et ludi</i>, ed. Champollion-Figeac
+(Paris, 1838); R. Froning, <i>Das Drama des Mittelalters</i>
+(3 vols., Stuttgart, 1891, &amp;c.); Edwin Norris, <i>Ancient Cornish
+Drama</i> (ed. and tr. 2 vols., 1859); W. Hone, <i>Ancient Mysteries
+Described</i> (London, 1823); A. von Keller, <i>Fastnachtsspiele aus dem
+15. Jahrhundert</i> (Stuttgart, 1858); C. Magnin, <i>Les Origines du théâtre
+moderne</i>, vol. i. only (Paris, 1838); F. J. Mone, <i>Schauspiele des
+Mittelalters</i> (2 vols., Karlsruhe, 1846); A. Reiners, <i>Die Tropen-, Prosen-, u.
+Präfations-Gesänge</i> (Luxemburg, 1884); J. de Rothschild,
+<i>Le Mistère du Viel Testament</i>, ed. J. de Rothschild (6 vols., Paris,
+1878-1891); M. Sepet, <i>Le Drame chrétien au moyen âge</i> (Paris, 1878);
+<i>Origines catholiques du théâtre moderne</i>. <i>Les drames liturgiques</i>
+(Paris, 1901); T. Wright, <i>Early Mysteries and other Latin Poems of
+the 12th and 13th Centuries</i> (London, 1838); C. A. G. von Zezschwitz,
+<i>Das mittelalterliche Drama</i> (Leipzig, 1881).</p>
+
+<p>For French medieval drama in particular:&mdash;L. Clédat, <i>Le Théâtre
+en France au moyen âge</i> (Paris, 1896); E. Fournier, <i>Le Théâtre
+français avant la Renaissance</i> (Paris, 1872); <i>Miracles de Notre
+Dame par personnages</i>, ed. G. Paris and U. Robert (8 vols., Paris,
+1876-1893); L. J. N. Monmerqué and F. Michel, <i>Théâtre français
+au moyen âge</i> (Paris, 1839); L. Petit de Julleville, <i>Histoire du
+théâtre en France au moyen âge</i> (5 vols., Paris, 1880-1886); E. L. N.
+Viollet-le-Duc, <i>Ancien Théâtre français</i> (10 vols., Paris, 1854-1857).</p>
+
+<p>For the medieval Italian in particular:&mdash;A. d&rsquo;Ancona, <i>Sacre
+rappresentazioni dei secoli XIV., XV. e XVI.</i> (Florence, 1872).</p>
+
+<p>For medieval English in particular:&mdash;Ahn, <i>English Mysteries
+and Miracle Plays</i> (Trèves, 1867); S. W. Clarke, <i>The Miracle Play
+in England</i> (London, 1897); F. W. Fairholt, <i>Lord Mayors&rsquo; Pageants</i>,
+2 vols. (Percy Soc.) (London, 1843-1844); A. W. Pollard, <i>English
+Miracle Plays, Moralities and Interludes</i> (3rd ed., Oxford 1898);
+<i>Chester Plays</i> ed. T. Wright, 2 vols. (Shakespeare Soc.) (London,
+1843), re-ed. by H. Deimling (part only) (E.E.T.S.) (London, 1893);
+<i>Coventry Plays, Ludus Coventriae</i>, ed. J. O. Halliwell (-Phillipps)
+(Shakespeare Soc.) (London, 1841); <i>Coventry Plays</i>. <i>Dissertation
+on the pageants or mysteries at Coventry</i>, by T. Sharp (Coventry,
+1825); <i>Digby Plays</i>, ed. F. J. Furnivall (E.E.T.S.) (London, 1896);
+<i>Towneley Mysteries</i>, ed. G. England and A. W. Pollard (E.E.T.S.)
+(London, 1897); <i>York Plays</i>, ed. L. T. Smith (Oxford, 1885).</p>
+
+<p>For the German in particular:&mdash;F. J. Mone, <i>Altteutsche Schauspiele</i>
+(Quedlinburg, 1841); H. Reidt, <i>Das geistliche Schauspiel des Mittelalters
+in Deutschland</i> (Frankfort, 1868); E. Wilken, <i>Gesch. der
+geistlichen Spiele in Deutschland</i> (Göttingen, 1872).</p>
+
+<p>The revival of the classical drama in the Renaissance age is
+treated in P. Bahlmann&rsquo;s <i>Die Erneuerer des antiken Dramas und
+ihre ersten dramatischen Versuche</i>, 1314-1478 (Münster, 1896); A.
+Chassang&rsquo;s <i>Des essais dramatiques imités de l&rsquo;antiquité au XIV^e
+et XV^e siècle</i> (Paris, 1852); and in V. de Amitis&rsquo; <i>L&rsquo;Imitazione latina
+nella commedia del XVI. secolo</i> (Pisa, 1871).</p>
+
+<p>Both the medieval and portions of the later drama are treated in
+W. Cloetta, <i>Beiträge zur Litteraturgeschichte des Mittelalters und der
+Renaissance</i> (2 vols., Halle, 1890-1892); W. Creizenach, <i>Geschichte
+des neueren Dramas</i>, vols. i.-iii. (Halle, 1893-1903); R. Prölss,
+<i>Geschichte des neueren Dramas</i> (3 vols., Leipzig, 1881-1883). See
+also L.-V. Gofflot, <i>Le Théâtre au collège, du moyen âge à nos jours</i>,
+Préface par Jules Claretie (Paris, 1907).</p>
+
+<p>The history of the modern Italian drama, in its various stages, is
+treated by A. d&rsquo;Ancona, <i>Origini del teatro italiano</i> (2nd ed., 2 vols.,
+Turin, 1891); J. Dornis, <i>Le Théâtre italien contemporain</i> (Paris, 1904);
+H. Lyonnet, <i>Le Théâtre en Italie</i> (Paris, 1900); L. Riccoboni, <i>Histoire
+du théâtre italien</i> (2 vols., Rome, 1728-1731); J. C. Walker, <i>Historical
+Memoir on Italian Tragedy</i> (London, 1799). See also A. Gaspary,
+<i>History of Early Italian Literature</i>, transl. by H. Oelsner (London,
+1901).</p>
+
+<p>Some information as to the modern Greek drama is given in
+R. Nicolai, <i>Geschichte der neugriechischen Literatur</i> (Leipzig, 1876).</p>
+
+<p>Modern Spanish drama:&mdash;M. A. Fée, <i>Études sur l&rsquo;ancien théâtre
+espagnol</i> (Paris 1873); A. Gassier, <i>Le Théâtre espagnol</i> (Paris, 1898);
+G. H. Lewes, <i>The Spanish Drama</i> (London, 1846); H. Lyonnet, <i>Le
+Théâtre en Espagne</i> (Paris, 1897); A. Schäffer, <i>Gesch. des spanischen
+Nationaldramas</i> (2 vols., Leipzig, 1890); L. de Viel-Castel, <i>Essai
+sur le théâtre espagnol</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1882). See also G. Ticknor,
+<i>History of Spanish Literature</i> (3 vols., London, 1863).</p>
+
+<p>Modern Portuguese:&mdash;H. Lyonnet, <i>Le Théâtre au Portugal</i> (Paris,
+1898); see also K. von Reinhardstoettner&rsquo;s <i>Portugiesische Literaturgeschichte</i>
+(Sammlung Göschen) (Leipzig, 1904), which contains a
+useful bibliography.</p>
+
+<p>Regular French drama (tragedy and comedy):&mdash;F. Brunetière,
+<i>Les Epoques du théâtre français</i>, 1636-1850 (Paris, 1892); E. Chasles,
+<i>La Comédie en France au XVI^{e} siècle</i> (Paris, 1862); E. Faguet, <i>La
+Tragédie française au XVI^{e} siècle</i> (Paris, 1883); A. Filon, <i>The
+Modern French Drama</i> (London, 1898); V. Fournel, <i>Le Théâtre au
+XVII^{e} siècle</i> (Paris, 1892); E. Fournier, <i>Le Théâtre français au
+XVI^{e} et au XVII^{e} siècle</i> (2 vols., Paris, s.d.); F. Hawkins, <i>Annals
+of the French Stage</i> (London, 1884); H. Lucas, <i>Hist. philosophique
+et littéraire du théâtre français depuis son origine</i> (3 vols., Paris);
+Parfait, <i>Hist. du théâtre français</i> (15 vols., Paris, 1745-1749); L.
+Petit de Julleville, <i>Le théâtre en France depuis ses origines jusqu&rsquo;à
+nos jours</i> (Paris, 1899); E. Rigal, <i>Le théâtre français avant la période
+classique</i> (Paris, 1901); E. Roy, <i>Études sur le théâtre français du
+XV^{e} et du XVI^{e} siècle</i> (Dijon, 1901).</p>
+
+<p>The connexion between the Italian and French theatre in the
+17th century is traced in L. Moland, <i>Molière et la comédie italienne</i>
+(2nd ed., Paris, 1867). See also J. C. Démogeot&rsquo;s, H. von Laun&rsquo;s
+and Saintsbury&rsquo;s histories of French Literature.</p>
+
+<p>Of the ample literature concerned with the modern English drama
+the following works may be specially mentioned, as dealing with
+the entire range of the English drama, or with more than one of its
+periods:&mdash;D. E. Baker, <i>Biographia dramatica</i> (continued to 1811
+by J. Reed and S. Jones) (3 vols., London, 1812); J. P. Collier,
+<i>History of English Dramatic Poetry</i>, new ed. (3 vols., London, 1879);
+C. Dibdin, <i>A complete History of the English Stage</i> (5 vols., London,
+1800); J. J. Jusserand, <i>Le Théâtre en Angleterre</i> (2nd ed., Paris, 1881);
+G. Langbaine, <i>Lives and Characters of the English Dramatic Poets</i>
+(London, 1699); <i>The Poetical Register: or lives and characters of
+the English dramatick poets</i> (London, 1719); C. M. Rapp, <i>Studien
+über das englische Theater</i>, 2 parts (Tübingen, 1862); &ldquo;G. S. B.&rdquo;,
+<i>Study of the Prologue and Epilogue in English Literature</i> (London,
+1884); <i>The Thespian Dictionary: or dramatic biography of the
+18th century</i> (London, 1802); A. W. Ward, <i>History of English
+Dramatic Literature to the Death of Queen Anne</i> (2nd ed., 3 vols.,
+London, 1899); see also the histories of English Literature or Poetry,
+by Warton, Taine, ten Brinck, Courthope, Saintsbury, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>The following works contain the most complete lists of English
+plays:&mdash;W. W. Greg, <i>A List of English Plays written before 1643 and
+published before 1700</i> (Bibliogr. Soc.) (London, 1900); J. O. Halliwell
+(-Phillipps), <i>Dictionary of Old English Plays</i> (London, 1860); W. C.
+Hazlitt, <i>A Manual for the Collector and Amateur of Old English Plays</i>
+(London, 1892); R. W. Lowe, <i>Bibliographical Account of English
+Dramatic Literature</i> (London, 1888) is a valuable handbook for the
+whole of English theatrical literature and matters connected with it.
+The unique work of Genest, <i>Some Account of the English Stage from
+1660-1830</i> (10 vols., Bath, 1832), includes, with a chronological
+series of plays acted on the English stage, notices of unacted plays,
+and critical remarks on plays and actors. &ldquo;A Compleat List&rdquo; of
+English dramatic poets and plays to 1747 was published with T.
+Whincop&rsquo;s <i>Scanderbeg</i> in that year.</p>
+
+<p>The following are the principal collections of English plays&mdash;<i>Ancient
+British Drama</i>, ed. Sir W. Scott (3 vols., London, 1810);
+<i>Modern British Drama</i>, ed. Sir W. Scott (5 vols., London, 1811);
+W. Bang, <i>Materialien zur Kunde des älteren englischen Dramas</i>
+(Louvain, 1902, &amp;c.); A. H. Bullen, <i>Collection of Old English Plays</i>
+(4 vols., London, 1882); R. Dodsley, <i>A Select Collection of Old Plays</i>,
+4th ed. by W. C. Hazlitt (15 vols., London, 1874-1876); <i>Dramatists
+of the Restoration</i> (14 vols., Edinburgh, 1872-1879); <i>Early English
+Dramatists</i>, ed. J. S. Farmer (London, 1905, &amp;c.); C. M. Gayley,
+<i>Representative English Comedies</i> (vol. i., New York, 1903); T.
+Hawkins, <i>Origin of the English Drama</i> (3 vols., Oxford, 1773);
+Mrs Inchbald, <i>British Theatre</i>, new ed. (20 vols., London, 1824),
+<i>Modern Theatre</i> (10 vols., London, 1811), <i>Collection of Farces and
+Afterpieces</i> (7 vols., London, 1815); Malone Society publications
+(London, 1907, &amp;c.); J. M. Manly, <i>Specimens of the Pre-Shakespearean
+Drama</i> (3 vols., London, 1897); <i>Mermaid Series of Old Dramatists</i>,
+ed. Havelock Ellis (London, 1887. &amp;c.); <i>Old English Drama</i> (2 vols.,
+London, 1825); <i>Pearson&rsquo;s Reprints of Elizabethan and Jacobean
+Plays</i> (London, 1871, &amp;c.).</p>
+
+<p>The following deal with the Elizabethan and Jacobean drama in
+especial:&mdash;W. Creizenach, <i>Die Schauspiele der englischen Komödianten</i>
+(Berlin, 1895); J. W. Cunliffe, <i>The Influence of Seneca on
+Elizabethan Tragedy</i> (London, 1893); F. G. Fleay, <i>A Chronicle
+History of the London Stage, 1559-1642</i> (London, 1890), <i>A Biographical
+Chronicle of the English Drama, 1559-1642</i> (London, 1891);
+W. C. Hazlitt, <i>The English Drama and Stage under the Tudor and
+Stuart Princes, 1543-1664</i> (London, 1869); W. Hazlitt, <i>Dramatic
+Literature of the Age of Elizabeth</i> (Works, ed. A. R. Waller, vol. v.)
+(London, 1902); A. F. von Schack, <i>Die englischen Dramatiker vor,
+neben, und nach Shakespeare</i> (Stuttgart, 1893); J. A. Symonds,
+<i>Shakspere&rsquo;s Predecessors in the English Drama</i> (London, 1884).</p>
+
+<p>As to the Latin academical drama of the Elizabethan age see
+G. B. Churchill and W. Keller, &ldquo;Die latein. Universitäts-Dramen
+Englands in der Zeit d. Königin Elizabeth&rdquo; in <i>Jahrbuch der deutschen
+Shakespeare-Gesellschaft</i>. For a short bibliography of the Oxford
+academical drama, 1547-1663, see the introduction to Miss M. L.
+Lee&rsquo;s edition of <i>Narcissus</i> (London, 1893). A list of Oxford plays
+will also be found in <i>Notes and Queries</i>, ser. vii., vol. ii. For a list
+of Cambridge plays from 1534 to 1671, the writer of this article is
+indebted to Prof. G. C. Moore-Smith of the university of Sheffield.</p>
+
+<p>For an account of the Mask see R. Brotanek, <i>Die englischen Maskenspiele</i>
+(Vienna and Leipzig, 1902); H. A. Evans, <i>English Masques</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page546" id="page546"></a>546</span>
+(London, 1897); W. W. Greg, <i>A List of Masques, Pageants, &amp;c.</i>
+(Bibliogr. Soc.) (London, 1902).</p>
+
+<p>As to early London theatres see T. F. Ordish, <i>Early London
+Theatres</i> (London, 1894).</p>
+
+<p>Some information as to puppet-plays, &amp;c., will be found in Henry
+Morley&rsquo;s <i>Memoirs of Bartholomew Fair</i> (London, 1859).</p>
+
+<p>Among earlier critical essays on the Elizabethan and Stuart
+drama should be mentioned those of Sir Philip Sidney, G. Puttenham
+and W. Webbe, T. Rymer and Dryden. For recent essays and
+notes on the Elizabethan drama in general, see, besides the essays
+of Coleridge, Lamb (including the introductory remarks in the
+<i>Specimens</i>), Hazlitt, &amp;c., and the remarkable series of articles in the
+<i>Retrospective Review</i> (1820-1828), the Publications and Transactions
+of the Old and New Shakespeare Societies (1841, &amp;c.; 1874, &amp;c.),
+which also contain reprints of early works of great importance for
+the history of the Elizabethan drama and stage, such as Henslowe&rsquo;s
+<i>Diary</i>, &amp;c., the <i>Jahrbuch der deutschen Shakespeare-Gesellschaft</i>
+(1865, &amp;c.), as well as the German journals <i>Anglia</i>, <i>Englische Studien</i>,
+&amp;c., and the <i>Modern Language Review</i> (Cambridge).</p>
+
+<p>The later English drama from the reopening of the theatres (1660)
+is treated in L. N. Chase, <i>The English Heroic Play</i> (New York, 1903);
+C. Cibber, <i>Apology for the Life of C. Cibber</i>, written by himself, new
+ed. by R. W. Lowe (2 vols., London, 1889), who has also edited
+Churchill&rsquo;s <i>Rosciad</i> and <i>Apology</i> (London, 1891); J. Doran, <i>Their
+Majesties&rsquo; Servants: annals of the English Stage</i> (3 vols., London,
+1888); A. Filon, <i>Le Théâtre anglais: hier, aujourd&rsquo;hui, demain</i>
+(Paris, 1896); W. Hazlitt, <i>A View of the English Stage</i> (<i>Works</i>, ed.
+A. R. Waller, vol. viii.) (London, 1903); W. Nicholson, <i>The Struggle
+for a Free Stage in London</i> (Westminster, 1907).</p>
+
+<p>The following treat of the modern German drama in particular
+periods:&mdash;R. Prölss, <i>Gesch. der deutschen Schauspielkunst von den
+Anfangen bis 1850</i> (Leipzig, 1900); R. E. Prutz, <i>Vorlesungen über
+die Geschichte des deutschen Theaters</i> (Berlin, 1847); R. Froning,
+<i>Das Drama der Reformationszeit</i> (Stuttgart, 1900); C. Heine, <i>Das
+Schauspiel der deutschen Wanderbuhne vor Gottsched</i> (Halle, 1889);
+J. Minor, <i>Die Schicksalstragodie in ihren Hauptvertretern</i> (Frankfort,
+1883); M. Martersteig, <i>Das deutsche Theater im XIX^{ten} Jahrh.</i>
+(Leipzig, 1904). See also G. G. Gervinus, <i>Geschichte der deutschen
+Dichtung</i> (5th ed., 5 vols., Leipzig, 1871-1874); and the literary
+histories of K. Goedeke (<i>Grundriss</i>), A. Koberstein, &amp;c. A special
+aspect of the drama in modern Germany is dealt with in P. Bahlmann,
+<i>Die lateinischen Dramen von Wimpheling&rsquo;s Stylpho bis zur Mitte des
+XVI^{ten} Jahrhunderts, 1480-1550</i> (Münster, 1893), and the same
+author&rsquo;s <i>Jesuiten-Dramen der niederrheinischen Ordensprovinz</i>
+(Leipzig, 1896).</p>
+
+<p>The standard history of the modern German stage is Eduard
+Devrient, <i>Gesch. der deutschen Schauspielkunst</i> (2 vols., Leipzig,
+1848-1861); see also R. Prölss, <i>Gesch. der deutschen Schauspielkunst
+von den Anfangen bis 1850</i> (Leipzig, 1900); O. G. Flüggen, <i>Biographisches
+Buhnen-Lexikon der deutschen Theater</i> (Munich, 1892).</p>
+
+<p>A good account of the history of the Dutch drama is F. von
+Hellwald&rsquo;s <i>Geschichte des hollandischen Theaters</i> (Rotterdam, 1874).
+See also the authorities under J. van den Vondel.</p>
+
+<p>Information concerning the Danish drama will be found in the
+autobiographies of Holberg, Öhlenschläger and Andersen; see also
+vol. i. of G. Brandes&rsquo;s <i>Main Currents in Nineteenth Century Literature</i>
+(Eng. tr., London, 1901). As to the modern Norwegian drama see
+the same writer&rsquo;s <i>Ibsen-Bjornson Studies</i> (Eng. tr., London, 1899);
+also E. Tissot, <i>Le Drame norvégien</i> (Paris, 1893).</p>
+
+<p>The Russian drama is treated in P. O. Morozov&rsquo;s <i>Istoria Russkago
+Teatra</i> (<i>History of the Russian Theatre</i>), vol. i. (St Petersburg, 1889);
+see also P. de Corvin, <i>Le Théâtre en Russie</i> (Paris, 1890). A. Brückner,
+<i>Geschichte der russischen Literatur</i> (Leipzig, 1905), may be consulted
+with advantage. Information as to the dramatic portions of other
+Slav literatures will be found in A. Pipin and V. Spasovich&rsquo;s <i>Istoria
+Slavianskikh Literatur</i> (<i>History of Slavonic Literatures</i>), German
+translation by T. Pech (2 vols., Leipzig, 1880-1884).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. W. W.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Gallicanus</i>, part ii.; <i>Sapientia</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2a" id="ft2a" href="#fa2a"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Gallicanus</i>, part i.; <i>Callimachus</i>; <i>Abraham</i>; <i>Paphnutius</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3a" id="ft3a" href="#fa3a"><span class="fn">3</span></a>  The passion-play of Oberammergau, familiar in its present
+artistic form to so many visitors, was instituted under special circumstances
+in the days of the Thirty Years&rsquo; War (1634). Various reasons
+account for its having been allowed to survive.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4a" id="ft4a" href="#fa4a"><span class="fn">4</span></a> To the earliest group belong <i>The Castle of Perseverance</i>; <i>Wisdom
+who is Christ</i>; <i>Mankind</i>; to the second, or early Tudor group,
+Medwell, <i>Nature</i>; <i>The World and the Child</i>; <i>Hycke-Scorner</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5a" id="ft5a" href="#fa5a"><span class="fn">5</span></a> <i>Magnyfycence</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6a" id="ft6a" href="#fa6a"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>New Custome</i>; N. Woodes, <i>The Conflict of Conscience</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7a" id="ft7a" href="#fa7a"><span class="fn">7</span></a> <i>Albyon Knight</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8a" id="ft8a" href="#fa8a"><span class="fn">8</span></a> Rastell, <i>Nature of the Four Elements</i>; Redford, <i>Wit and Science</i>;
+<i>The Trial of Treasure</i>; <i>The Marriage of Wit and Science</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft9a" id="ft9a" href="#fa9a"><span class="fn">9</span></a> <i>The Marriage of Wit and Wisdom</i>; <i>The Contention between
+Liberality and Prodigality</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft10a" id="ft10a" href="#fa10a"><span class="fn">10</span></a> <i>Jack Juggler</i>; <i>Tom Tiler and his Wife</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft11a" id="ft11a" href="#fa11a"><span class="fn">11</span></a> <i>The Four P&rsquo;s</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft12a" id="ft12a" href="#fa12a"><span class="fn">12</span></a> <i>The Disobedient Child</i> (c. 1560).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft13a" id="ft13a" href="#fa13a"><span class="fn">13</span></a> The <span class="grk" title="Christos paschôn">&#935;&#961;&#953;&#963;&#964;&#8000;&#962; &#960;&#940;&#963;&#967;&#969;&#957;</span>, an artificial Byzantine product, probably
+of the 11th century, glorifying the Virgin in Euripidean verse,
+was not known to the Western world till 1542.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft14a" id="ft14a" href="#fa14a"><span class="fn">14</span></a> Of G. Manzini della Motta&rsquo;s Latin tragedy on the fall of Antonio
+della Scala only a chorus remains. He died after 1389. Probably
+to the earlier half of the century belongs the Latin prose drama
+<i>Columpnarium</i>, the story of which, though it ends happily, resembles
+that of <i>The Cenci</i>. Later plays in Latin of the historic type are the
+extant Landivio de&rsquo; Nobili&rsquo;s <i>De captivitate Ducis Jacobi</i> (the <i>condottiere</i>
+Jacopo Piccinino, d. 1464); C. Verardi&rsquo;s <i>Historia Baetica</i>
+(the expulsion of the Moors from Granada) (1492), and the game
+author&rsquo;s <i>Ferdinandus</i> (of Aragon) <i>Servatus</i>, which is called a tragi-comedy
+because it is neither tragic nor comic. The Florentine
+L. Dali&rsquo;s <i>Hiempsal</i> (1441-1442) remains in MS. A few tragedies on
+sacred subjects were produced in Italy during the last quarter of the
+15th century, and a little later. Such were the religious dramas
+written for his pupils by P. Domizio, on which Politian cast contempt;
+and the tragedies, following ancient models, of T. da Prato of Treviso,
+B. Campagna of Verona, <i>De passione Redemptoris</i>; and G. F. Conti,
+author of <i>Theandrothanatos</i> and numerous vanished plays.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft15a" id="ft15a" href="#fa15a"><span class="fn">15</span></a> <i>Imber aureus</i> (Danae), &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft16a" id="ft16a" href="#fa16a"><span class="fn">16</span></a> L. Bruni&rsquo;s <i>Poliscena</i> (c. 1395); Sicco Polentone&rsquo;s (1370-1463)
+jovial <i>Lusus ebriorum</i> s. <i>De lege bibia</i>; the papal secretary P. Candido
+Decembrio&rsquo;s (1399-1477) non-extant <i>Aphrodisia</i>; L. B. Alberti&rsquo;s
+<i>Philodoxios</i> (1424); Ugolino Pisani of Parma&rsquo;s (d. before 1462)
+<i>Philogenia</i> and <i>Confutatio coquinaria</i> (a merry students&rsquo; play); the
+<i>Fraudiphila</i> of A. Tridentino, also of Parma, who died after 1470
+and perhaps served Pius II.; Eneo Silvio de&rsquo; Piccolomini&rsquo;s own
+verse comedy, <i>Chrisis</i>, likewise in MS., written in 1444; P. Domizio&rsquo;s
+<i>Lucinia</i>, acted in the palace of Lorenzo de&rsquo; Medici in 1478, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft17a" id="ft17a" href="#fa17a"><span class="fn">17</span></a> Mondella, <i>Isifile</i> (1582); Fuligni, <i>Bragadino</i> (1589).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft18a" id="ft18a" href="#fa18a"><span class="fn">18</span></a> Home, <i>Douglas</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft19a" id="ft19a" href="#fa19a"><span class="fn">19</span></a> Lazzaroni, <i>Ulisse il giovane</i> (1719).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft20a" id="ft20a" href="#fa20a"><span class="fn">20</span></a> <i>Didone abbandonata</i>, <i>Siroe</i>, <i>Semiramide</i>, <i>Artaserse</i>, <i>Demetris</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft21a" id="ft21a" href="#fa21a"><span class="fn">21</span></a> <i>Cleopatra</i>, <i>Antigone</i>, <i>Octavia</i>, <i>Mirope</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft22a" id="ft22a" href="#fa22a"><span class="fn">22</span></a> <i>e.g.</i> <i>Bruto I.</i> and <i>II.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft23a" id="ft23a" href="#fa23a"><span class="fn">23</span></a> <i>Filippo</i>; <i>Maria Stuarda</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft24a" id="ft24a" href="#fa24a"><span class="fn">24</span></a> Pellico, <i>Francesca da Rimini</i>; Niccolini, <i>Giovanni da Procida</i>;
+<i>Beatrice Cenci</i>; Giacometti, <i>Cola di Rienzi</i> (Giacometti&rsquo;s masterpiece
+was <i>La Marte civile</i>).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft25a" id="ft25a" href="#fa25a"><span class="fn">25</span></a> Pyrogopolinices in the <i>Miles Gloriosus</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft26a" id="ft26a" href="#fa26a"><span class="fn">26</span></a> The masked characters, each of which spoke the dialect of the
+place he represented, were (according to Baretti) <i>Pantalone</i>, a
+Venetian merchant; <i>Dottore</i>, a Bolognese physician; <i>Spaviento</i>, a
+Neapolitan braggadocio; <i>Pullicinella</i>, a wag of Apulia; <i>Giangurgulo</i>
+and <i>Coviello</i>, clowns of Calabria; <i>Gelfomino</i>, a Roman beau; <i>Brighella</i>,
+a Ferrarese pimp; and <i>Arlecchino</i>, a blundering servant of
+Bergamo. Besides these and a few other such personages (of whom
+four at least appeared in each play), there were the <i>Amorosos</i> or
+<i>Innamoratos</i>, men or women (the latter not before 1560, up to
+which time actresses were unknown in Italy) with serious parts,
+and <i>Smeraldina</i>, <i>Colombina</i>, <i>Spilletta</i>, and other <i>servettas</i> or
+waiting-maids. All these spoke Tuscan or Roman, and wore no
+masks.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft27a" id="ft27a" href="#fa27a"><span class="fn">27</span></a> <i>Pasitea</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft28a" id="ft28a" href="#fa28a"><span class="fn">28</span></a> <i>Amicizia</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft29a" id="ft29a" href="#fa29a"><span class="fn">29</span></a> <i>Milesia</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft30a" id="ft30a" href="#fa30a"><span class="fn">30</span></a> <i>La Lena</i>; <i>Il Negromante</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft31a" id="ft31a" href="#fa31a"><span class="fn">31</span></a> <i>La Cassaria</i>; <i>I Suppositi</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft32a" id="ft32a" href="#fa32a"><span class="fn">32</span></a> Of Machiavelli&rsquo;s other comedies, two are prose adaptations from
+Plautus and Terence, <i>La Clizia</i> (Casina) and <i>Andria</i>; of the two
+others, simply called <i>Commedie</i>, and in verse, his authorship seems
+doubtful.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft33a" id="ft33a" href="#fa33a"><span class="fn">33</span></a> <i>La Cortigiana</i>, <i>La Talanta</i>, <i>Il Ipocrito</i>, <i>Il Filosofo</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft34a" id="ft34a" href="#fa34a"><span class="fn">34</span></a> <i>Momolo Cortesan</i> (<i>Jerome the Accomplished Man</i>); <i>La Bottega
+del caffé</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft35a" id="ft35a" href="#fa35a"><span class="fn">35</span></a> <i>La Vedova scaltra</i> (<i>The Cunning Widow</i>); <i>La Putta onorata</i>
+(<i>The Respectable Girl</i>); <i>La Buona Figlia</i>; <i>La B. Sposa</i>; <i>La B.
+Famiglia</i>; <i>La B. Madre</i> (the last of which was unsuccessful; &ldquo;goodness,&rdquo;
+says Goldoni, &ldquo;never displeases, but the public weary of every
+thing&rdquo;), &amp;c.; and <i>Il Burbero benefico</i>, called in its original French
+version <i>Le Bourru bienfaisant</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft36a" id="ft36a" href="#fa36a"><span class="fn">36</span></a> <i>Molière</i>; <i>Terenzio</i>; <i>Tasso</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft37a" id="ft37a" href="#fa37a"><span class="fn">37</span></a> <i>Pamela</i>; <i>Pamela Maritata</i>; <i>Il Filosofo Inglese</i> (<i>Mr Spectator</i>).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft38a" id="ft38a" href="#fa38a"><span class="fn">38</span></a> <i>L&rsquo; Amore delle tre melarancie</i> (<i>The Three Lemons</i>); <i>Il Corvo</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft39a" id="ft39a" href="#fa39a"><span class="fn">39</span></a> <i>Turandot</i>; <i>Zobeïde</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft40a" id="ft40a" href="#fa40a"><span class="fn">40</span></a> <i>L&rsquo; Amore delle tre m.</i> (against Goldoni); <i>L&rsquo; Angellino Belverde</i>
+(<i>The Small Green Bird</i>), (against Helvetius, Rousseau and Voltaire).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft41a" id="ft41a" href="#fa41a"><span class="fn">41</span></a> <i>Aspasia</i>; <i>Polyxena</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft42a" id="ft42a" href="#fa42a"><span class="fn">42</span></a> <i>Ephemeridophobos</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft43a" id="ft43a" href="#fa43a"><span class="fn">43</span></a> <i>Timoleon</i>; <i>Konstantinos Palaeologos</i>; <i>Rhigas of Pherae</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft44a" id="ft44a" href="#fa44a"><span class="fn">44</span></a> <i>The Three Hundred</i>, or <i>The Character of the Ancient Hellene</i>
+(Leonidas); <i>The Death of the Orator</i> (Demosthenes); <i>A Scion of
+Timoleon</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft45a" id="ft45a" href="#fa45a"><span class="fn">45</span></a> The term is the same as that used in the old French collective
+mysteries (<i>journées</i>).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft46a" id="ft46a" href="#fa46a"><span class="fn">46</span></a> In some of his plays (<i>Comedia Serafina</i>; <i>C. Tinelaria</i>) there is a
+mixture of languages even stranger than that of dialects in the Italian
+masked comedy.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft47a" id="ft47a" href="#fa47a"><span class="fn">47</span></a> <i>Necromanticus</i>, <i>Lena</i>, <i>Decepti</i>, <i>Suppositi</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft48a" id="ft48a" href="#fa48a"><span class="fn">48</span></a> <i>Los Engaños</i> (<i>Gli Ingannati</i>).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft49a" id="ft49a" href="#fa49a"><span class="fn">49</span></a> <i>Cornelia</i> (<i>Il Negromante</i>).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft50a" id="ft50a" href="#fa50a"><span class="fn">50</span></a> Lope, <i>Armelina</i> (Medea and Neptune as <i>deus ex machina</i>&mdash;si
+modo machina adfuisset).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft51a" id="ft51a" href="#fa51a"><span class="fn">51</span></a> <i>Menennos</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft52a" id="ft52a" href="#fa52a"><span class="fn">52</span></a> <i>El Azero de Madrid</i> (<i>The Steel Water of Madrid</i>); <i>Dineros son
+Calidad</i> (= <i>The Dog in the Manger</i>), &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft53a" id="ft53a" href="#fa53a"><span class="fn">53</span></a> <i>La Estrella de Sevilla</i> (<i>The Star of Seville</i>, <i>i.e.</i> Sancho the Brave);
+<i>El Nuevo Mundo</i> (Columbus), &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft54a" id="ft54a" href="#fa54a"><span class="fn">54</span></a> <i>Roma Abrasada</i> (<i>R. in Ashes</i>&mdash;Nero).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft55a" id="ft55a" href="#fa55a"><span class="fn">55</span></a> <i>Arauco domado</i> (<i>The Conquest of Arauco</i>, 1560).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft56a" id="ft56a" href="#fa56a"><span class="fn">56</span></a> <i>La Moza de cantaro</i> (<i>The Water-maid</i>).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft57a" id="ft57a" href="#fa57a"><span class="fn">57</span></a> <i>Las Mocedades</i> (<i>The Youthful Adventures</i>) <i>del Cid</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft58a" id="ft58a" href="#fa58a"><span class="fn">58</span></a> <i>Don Gil de las calzas verdes</i> (<i>D. G. in the Green Breeches</i>).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft59a" id="ft59a" href="#fa59a"><span class="fn">59</span></a> <i>El Burlador de Sevilla y Convivado de piedra</i> (<i>The Deceiver of
+Seville</i>, <i>i.e.</i> Don Juan, <i>and the Stone Guest</i>).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft60a" id="ft60a" href="#fa60a"><span class="fn">60</span></a> <i>El Divino Orfeo</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft61a" id="ft61a" href="#fa61a"><span class="fn">61</span></a> <i>El Magico prodigioso</i>; <i>El Purgatorio de San Patricio</i>; <i>La
+Devocion de la Cruz</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft62a" id="ft62a" href="#fa62a"><span class="fn">62</span></a> <i>El Principe constante</i> (Don Ferdinand of Portugal).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft63a" id="ft63a" href="#fa63a"><span class="fn">63</span></a> <i>La Dama duende</i> (<i>The Fairy Lady</i>).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft64a" id="ft64a" href="#fa64a"><span class="fn">64</span></a> <i>Vida es sueño</i> (<i>Life is a Dream</i>).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft65a" id="ft65a" href="#fa65a"><span class="fn">65</span></a> <i>El Lindo Don Diego</i> (<i>Pretty Don Diego</i>).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft66a" id="ft66a" href="#fa66a"><span class="fn">66</span></a> <i>Desden con el desden</i> (<i>Disdain against Disdain</i>).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft67a" id="ft67a" href="#fa67a"><span class="fn">67</span></a> Luzan, <i>La Razon contra la mode</i> (La Chaussée, <i>Le Préjugé à la
+mode</i>).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft68a" id="ft68a" href="#fa68a"><span class="fn">68</span></a> <i>El Delinquente honrado (The Honoured Culprit).</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft69a" id="ft69a" href="#fa69a"><span class="fn">69</span></a> <i>El Sí de las niñas (The Young Maidens&rsquo; Consent).</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft70a" id="ft70a" href="#fa70a"><span class="fn">70</span></a> <i>O cioso</i> (<i>The Jealous Man</i>), &amp;c. His <i>Inez de Castro</i> is a tragedy
+with choruses, partly founded on the Spanish play of J. Bermudez.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft71a" id="ft71a" href="#fa71a"><span class="fn">71</span></a> <i>Don Duardos</i>, <i>Amadis</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft72a" id="ft72a" href="#fa72a"><span class="fn">72</span></a> <i>Auto das Regateiras</i> (<i>The Market-women</i>), <i>Pratica de compadres</i>
+(<i>The Gossips</i>), &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft73a" id="ft73a" href="#fa73a"><span class="fn">73</span></a> <i>Emphatri&#335;es</i>, <i>Filodemo</i>, <i>Seleuco</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft74a" id="ft74a" href="#fa74a"><span class="fn">74</span></a> <i>Os Estrangeiros</i>, <i>Os Vilhalpandos</i> (<i>The Impostors</i>).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft75a" id="ft75a" href="#fa75a"><span class="fn">75</span></a> <i>Eufrosina</i>, <i>Ulyssipo</i> (Lisbon), <i>Aulegrafia</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft76a" id="ft76a" href="#fa76a"><span class="fn">76</span></a> <i>Astarte</i>, <i>Hermione</i>, <i>Megara</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft77a" id="ft77a" href="#fa77a"><span class="fn">77</span></a> These assumptions of names remind us that we are in the period
+of the &ldquo;<i>Arcadias</i>.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft78a" id="ft78a" href="#fa78a"><span class="fn">78</span></a> <i>Cat&#257;o</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft79a" id="ft79a" href="#fa79a"><span class="fn">79</span></a> <i>Manoel de Sousa</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft80a" id="ft80a" href="#fa80a"><span class="fn">80</span></a> <i>Antigone</i> and <i>Electra</i>; <i>Hecuba</i>; and <i>Iphigenia in Aulis</i>. The
+<i>Andria</i> was also translated, and in 1540 Ronsard translated the
+<i>Plutus</i> of Aristophanes.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft81a" id="ft81a" href="#fa81a"><span class="fn">81</span></a> Trissino, <i>Sofonisba</i>, by de Saint-Gelais.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft82a" id="ft82a" href="#fa82a"><span class="fn">82</span></a> <i>La Soltane</i> (1561).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft83a" id="ft83a" href="#fa83a"><span class="fn">83</span></a> <i>Daïre (Darius).</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft84a" id="ft84a" href="#fa84a"><span class="fn">84</span></a> <i>La Mort de César.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft85a" id="ft85a" href="#fa85a"><span class="fn">85</span></a> <i>Achille</i> (1563).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft86a" id="ft86a" href="#fa86a"><span class="fn">86</span></a> <i>Les Lacènes</i>; <i>Marie Stuart or L&rsquo;Écossaise</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft87a" id="ft87a" href="#fa87a"><span class="fn">87</span></a> <i>La Juive</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft88a" id="ft88a" href="#fa88a"><span class="fn">88</span></a> <i>Les Corivaux</i> (1573).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft89a" id="ft89a" href="#fa89a"><span class="fn">89</span></a> <i>La Reconnue</i> (Le Capitaine Rodomont).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft90a" id="ft90a" href="#fa90a"><span class="fn">90</span></a> <i>Les Esbahis.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft91a" id="ft91a" href="#fa91a"><span class="fn">91</span></a> <i>Les Contens</i> (S. Parabosco, <i>I Contenti</i>).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft92a" id="ft92a" href="#fa92a"><span class="fn">92</span></a> <i>Les Néapolitaines</i>; <i>Les Désespérades de l&rsquo;amour</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft93a" id="ft93a" href="#fa93a"><span class="fn">93</span></a> <i>Le Laquais (Il Ragazzo).</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft94a" id="ft94a" href="#fa94a"><span class="fn">94</span></a> <i>Les Tromperies (Gli Inganni).</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft95a" id="ft95a" href="#fa95a"><span class="fn">95</span></a> &ldquo;L. du Peschier&rdquo; (de Barry), <i>La Comédie des comédies</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft96a" id="ft96a" href="#fa96a"><span class="fn">96</span></a> <i>L&rsquo;Amour tyrannique.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft97a" id="ft97a" href="#fa97a"><span class="fn">97</span></a> <i>Agrippine</i>, <i>Le Pédant joué</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft98a" id="ft98a" href="#fa98a"><span class="fn">98</span></a> <i>Marianne.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft99a" id="ft99a" href="#fa99a"><span class="fn">99</span></a> <i>Sophonisbe.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft100a" id="ft100a" href="#fa100a"><span class="fn">100</span></a> <i>Les Bergeries.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft101a" id="ft101a" href="#fa101a"><span class="fn">101</span></a> <i>Mélite</i>; <i>Clitandre</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft102a" id="ft102a" href="#fa102a"><span class="fn">102</span></a> <i>Le Véritable Saint Genest</i>; <i>Venceslas</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft103a" id="ft103a" href="#fa103a"><span class="fn">103</span></a> Steele, <i>The Lying Lover</i>; Foote, <i>The Liar</i>; Goldoni, <i>Il Bugiardo</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft104a" id="ft104a" href="#fa104a"><span class="fn">104</span></a> Ruiz de Alarcon, <i>La Verdad sospechosa.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft105a" id="ft105a" href="#fa105a"><span class="fn">105</span></a> <i>L&rsquo;Illusion comique</i> is antithetically mixed.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft106a" id="ft106a" href="#fa106a"><span class="fn">106</span></a> <i>Andromaque</i>; <i>Phèdre</i>; <i>Bérénice</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft107a" id="ft107a" href="#fa107a"><span class="fn">107</span></a> <i>Esther</i>; <i>Athalie</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft108a" id="ft108a" href="#fa108a"><span class="fn">108</span></a> <i>Le Cid</i>; <i>Polyeucte</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft109a" id="ft109a" href="#fa109a"><span class="fn">109</span></a> <i>Esther</i>; <i>Athalie</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft110a" id="ft110a" href="#fa110a"><span class="fn">110</span></a> Corneille, <i>Rodogune</i>; Racine, <i>Phèdre</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft111a" id="ft111a" href="#fa111a"><span class="fn">111</span></a> <i>Brutus</i>; <i>La Mort de César</i>; <i>Sémiramis</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft112a" id="ft112a" href="#fa112a"><span class="fn">112</span></a> <i>&OElig;dipe</i>; <i>Le Fanatisme</i> (<i>Mahomet</i>).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft113a" id="ft113a" href="#fa113a"><span class="fn">113</span></a> <i>Adélaïde du Guesclin</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft114a" id="ft114a" href="#fa114a"><span class="fn">114</span></a> <i>L&rsquo;Orphelin de la Chine</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft115a" id="ft115a" href="#fa115a"><span class="fn">115</span></a> <i>Tanis et Zélide</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft116a" id="ft116a" href="#fa116a"><span class="fn">116</span></a> <i>Les Guèbres</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft117a" id="ft117a" href="#fa117a"><span class="fn">117</span></a> <i>Olimpie</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft118a" id="ft118a" href="#fa118a"><span class="fn">118</span></a> <i>Tancrède</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft119a" id="ft119a" href="#fa119a"><span class="fn">119</span></a> <i>La Mort de César</i>; <i>Zaïre</i> (<i>Othello</i>).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft120a" id="ft120a" href="#fa120a"><span class="fn">120</span></a> <i>Hamlet</i>; <i>Le Roi Léar</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft121a" id="ft121a" href="#fa121a"><span class="fn">121</span></a> The lectures delivered by the late Professor A. Beljame at
+Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1905-1906 may be mentioned as
+valuable contributions to our knowledge of the growth of Shakespeare&rsquo;s
+influence in France.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft122a" id="ft122a" href="#fa122a"><span class="fn">122</span></a> Quinault, <i>L&rsquo;Amour indiscret</i> (Newcastle and Dryden&rsquo;s <i>Sir Martin
+Mar-all</i>).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft123a" id="ft123a" href="#fa123a"><span class="fn">123</span></a> <i>Le Mercure galant</i>; <i>Ésope à la ville</i>; <i>Ésope à la cour</i> (Vanbrugh,
+<i>Aesop</i>).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft124a" id="ft124a" href="#fa124a"><span class="fn">124</span></a> <i>Le Bal</i> (<i>M. de Pourceaugnac</i>); Geronte in <i>Le Légataire universel</i>
+(Argan in <i>Le Malade imaginaire</i>); <i>La Critique du L.</i> (<i>La C. de l&rsquo;école
+des femmes</i>).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft125a" id="ft125a" href="#fa125a"><span class="fn">125</span></a> <i>Le Joueur</i>; <i>Le Légataire universel</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft126a" id="ft126a" href="#fa126a"><span class="fn">126</span></a> <i>Crispin rival de son maître</i>; <i>Turcaret</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft127a" id="ft127a" href="#fa127a"><span class="fn">127</span></a> <i>Le Méchant</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft128a" id="ft128a" href="#fa128a"><span class="fn">128</span></a> <i>La Métromanie</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft129a" id="ft129a" href="#fa129a"><span class="fn">129</span></a> <i>Le Jeu de l&rsquo;amour et du hasard</i>; <i>Le Legs</i>; <i>La Surprise de l&rsquo;amour</i>;
+<i>Les Fausses Confidences</i>; <i>L&rsquo;Épreuve</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft130a" id="ft130a" href="#fa130a"><span class="fn">130</span></a> <i>Le Philosophe marié</i>; <i>Le Glorieux</i>; <i>Le Dissipateur</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft131a" id="ft131a" href="#fa131a"><span class="fn">131</span></a> <i>La Fausse Antipathie</i>; <i>Le Préjugé à la mode</i>; <i>L&rsquo;École des amis</i>;
+<i>Méluside</i>; <i>Paméla</i>. <i>L&rsquo;École des mères</i> was the play which Frederick
+the Great described as turning the stage into a <i>bureau général de la
+fadeur</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft132a" id="ft132a" href="#fa132a"><span class="fn">132</span></a> See especially <i>Nanine</i>, founded on the original <i>Paméla</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft133a" id="ft133a" href="#fa133a"><span class="fn">133</span></a> <i>Le Philosophe sans le savoir</i>; <i>La Gageure imprévue</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft134a" id="ft134a" href="#fa134a"><span class="fn">134</span></a> <i>e.g.</i> <i>Eugénie</i> (the original of Goethe&rsquo;s <i>Clavigo</i>) and <i>Les Deux Amis</i>,
+or <i>Le Négociant de Lyon</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft135a" id="ft135a" href="#fa135a"><span class="fn">135</span></a> <i>Richard C&oelig;ur de Lion</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft136a" id="ft136a" href="#fa136a"><span class="fn">136</span></a> <i>Zémire et Azor</i>; <i>Jeannot et Jeannette</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft137a" id="ft137a" href="#fa137a"><span class="fn">137</span></a> <i>Les Muses galantes</i>; <i>Le Devin du village</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft138a" id="ft138a" href="#fa138a"><span class="fn">138</span></a> <i>Pygmalion</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft139a" id="ft139a" href="#fa139a"><span class="fn">139</span></a> <i>Charles IX, ou l&rsquo;école des rois</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft140a" id="ft140a" href="#fa140a"><span class="fn">140</span></a> <i>Hernani</i> (1839); <i>Le Roi s&rsquo;amuse</i>; <i>Ruy Blas</i>; <i>Les Burgraves</i>, &amp;c.
+Even in <i>Torquemada</i>, the fruit of its author&rsquo;s old age, and full of
+bombast, the original power has not altogether gone out.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft141a" id="ft141a" href="#fa141a"><span class="fn">141</span></a> <i>Chatterton</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft142a" id="ft142a" href="#fa142a"><span class="fn">142</span></a> <i>François le champi</i>; <i>Claudie</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft143a" id="ft143a" href="#fa143a"><span class="fn">143</span></a> <i>Le Gendre de M. Poirier</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft144a" id="ft144a" href="#fa144a"><span class="fn">144</span></a> <i>On ne badine pas avec l&rsquo;amour</i>, as interpreted by Delaunay, must
+always remain the most exquisite type of this inimitable <i>genre</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft145a" id="ft145a" href="#fa145a"><span class="fn">145</span></a> <i>Théâtre de Clara Gazul</i>. <i>La Famille Carvajal</i>, one of these pieces,
+treats the same story as that of <i>The Cenci</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft146a" id="ft146a" href="#fa146a"><span class="fn">146</span></a> <i>Lucrèce</i> (1843); <i>L&rsquo;Honneur et l&rsquo;argent</i>; <i>Charlotte Corday</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft147a" id="ft147a" href="#fa147a"><span class="fn">147</span></a> <i>La Ciguë</i>; <i>L&rsquo;Aventurière</i>; <i>Gabrielle</i>; <i>Le Fils de Giboyer</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft148a" id="ft148a" href="#fa148a"><span class="fn">148</span></a> <i>Valérie</i>; <i>Bertrand et Raton</i>; <i>Le Verre d&rsquo;eau</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft149a" id="ft149a" href="#fa149a"><span class="fn">149</span></a> <i>Louis XI.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft150a" id="ft150a" href="#fa150a"><span class="fn">150</span></a> <i>Adrienne Lecouvreur</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft151a" id="ft151a" href="#fa151a"><span class="fn">151</span></a> <i>La Dame aux camélias</i>; <i>Le Demi-monde</i>; <i>Le Supplice d&rsquo;une
+femme</i>; <i>Les Idées de Mme Aubray</i>; <i>L&rsquo;Étrangère</i>; <i>Francillon</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft152a" id="ft152a" href="#fa152a"><span class="fn">152</span></a> <i>Les Pattes de mouche</i>; <i>Nos bons villageois</i>; <i>Patrie</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft153a" id="ft153a" href="#fa153a"><span class="fn">153</span></a> <i>Le Monde où l&rsquo;on s&rsquo;ennuie</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft154a" id="ft154a" href="#fa154a"><span class="fn">154</span></a> <i>Frou-frou</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft155a" id="ft155a" href="#fa155a"><span class="fn">155</span></a> As has been already seen, Sir David Lyndsay&rsquo;s celebrated <i>Satyre
+of the Three Estaits</i>, a dramatic manifesto in favour of the Reformation,
+is in form a morality pure and simple.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft156a" id="ft156a" href="#fa156a"><span class="fn">156</span></a> <i>Tom Tiler and his Wife</i> (1578); <i>A Knack to know a Knave</i> (c.
+1594); <i>Sir Clyomon and Sir Clamydes</i> (misattributed to G. Peele),
+(printed 1599).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft157a" id="ft157a" href="#fa157a"><span class="fn">157</span></a> An earlier drama by him, <i>Christus redivivus</i>, is said to have been
+printed at Cologne.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft158a" id="ft158a" href="#fa158a"><span class="fn">158</span></a> <i>Oedipus</i>; <i>Dido</i>; <i>Ulysses redux</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft159a" id="ft159a" href="#fa159a"><span class="fn">159</span></a> By A. Guarna.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft160a" id="ft160a" href="#fa160a"><span class="fn">160</span></a> <i>Pax</i>; <i>Troas</i>; <i>Menaechmi</i>; <i>Oedipus</i>; <i>Mostellaria</i>; <i>Hecuba</i>; <i>Amphytruo</i>;
+<i>Medea</i>. These fall between 1546 and 1560. The date and
+place of the production of William Goldingham of Trinity Hall&rsquo;s
+<i>Herodes</i>, some time after 1567, are unknown.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft161a" id="ft161a" href="#fa161a"><span class="fn">161</span></a> The date and place of performance of the Latin <i>Fatum Vortigerni</i>
+are unknown; but it was not improbably produced at a later
+time than Shakespeare&rsquo;s <i>Richard II.</i>, which it seems in certain points
+to resemble.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft162a" id="ft162a" href="#fa162a"><span class="fn">162</span></a> Latin &ldquo;academical&rdquo; plays directly imitated from Seneca, but
+of unknown date, are <i>Solymannidae</i> (or the story of Solyman II. and
+his son Mustapha), and <i>Tomumbeius</i> (Tuman Bey, sultan of Egypt,
+1516); yet others exhibit his influence.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft163a" id="ft163a" href="#fa163a"><span class="fn">163</span></a> <i>&rdquo;Supposes&rdquo; and &ldquo;Jocasta,&rdquo;</i> ed. J. W. Cunliffe.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft164a" id="ft164a" href="#fa164a"><span class="fn">164</span></a> His <i>Palamon and Arcyte</i> (produced in Christ Church hall, Oxford,
+in 1566) is not preserved; or we should be able to compare with
+<i>The Two Noble Kinsmen</i> this early dramatic treatment of a singularly
+fine theme.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft165a" id="ft165a" href="#fa165a"><span class="fn">165</span></a> <i>The History of the Collier.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft166a" id="ft166a" href="#fa166a"><span class="fn">166</span></a> <i>A Historie of Error</i> (1577), one of the many imitations of the
+<i>Menaechmi</i>, may have been the foundation of the <i>Comedy of Errors</i>.
+In the previous year was printed the old <i>Taming of a Shrew</i>, founded
+on a novel of G. F. Straparola. Part of the plot of Shakespeare&rsquo;s
+<i>Taming of the Shrew</i> may have been suggested by <i>The Supposes</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft167a" id="ft167a" href="#fa167a"><span class="fn">167</span></a> <i>Treatise wherein Dicing, Dauncing, Vaine Playes or Enterluds
+... are reproved</i>, &amp;c. (1577).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft168a" id="ft168a" href="#fa168a"><span class="fn">168</span></a> <i>The School of Abuse.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft169a" id="ft169a" href="#fa169a"><span class="fn">169</span></a> <i>The Anatomy of Abuses.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft170a" id="ft170a" href="#fa170a"><span class="fn">170</span></a> H. Denham, G. Whetstone (the author of <i>Promos and Cassandra</i>),
+W. Rankine.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft171a" id="ft171a" href="#fa171a"><span class="fn">171</span></a> It may be mentioned that the practice of companies of players,
+of one kind or another, being taken into the service of members of
+the royal family, or of great nobles, dates from much earlier times
+than the reign of Elizabeth. So far back as 1400/1 the corporation
+of Shrewsbury paid rewards to the <i>histriones</i> of Prince Henry and
+of the earl of Stafford, and in 1408/9 reference is made to the players
+of the earl and countess of Arundel, of Lord Powys, of Lord Talbot
+and of Lord Furnival.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft172a" id="ft172a" href="#fa172a"><span class="fn">172</span></a> <i>The Woman in the Moone</i>; <i>Sapho and Phao</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft173a" id="ft173a" href="#fa173a"><span class="fn">173</span></a> <i>Alexander and Campaspe.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft174a" id="ft174a" href="#fa174a"><span class="fn">174</span></a> <i>Endimion</i>; <i>Mydas</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft175a" id="ft175a" href="#fa175a"><span class="fn">175</span></a> <i>Gallathea.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft176a" id="ft176a" href="#fa176a"><span class="fn">176</span></a> <i>Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft177a" id="ft177a" href="#fa177a"><span class="fn">177</span></a> <i>The Wounds of Civil War.</i> With Greene he wrote <i>A Looking-Glass
+for London</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft178a" id="ft178a" href="#fa178a"><span class="fn">178</span></a> <i>Summer&rsquo;s Last Will and Testament</i> is his sole entire extant play.
+<i>Dido, Queen of Carthage</i>, is by him and Marlowe.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft179a" id="ft179a" href="#fa179a"><span class="fn">179</span></a> <i>Patient Grissil</i> (with Dekker and Haughton).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft180a" id="ft180a" href="#fa180a"><span class="fn">180</span></a> <i>Hoffman, or A Revenge for a Father.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft181a" id="ft181a" href="#fa181a"><span class="fn">181</span></a> <i>Henry VIII.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft182a" id="ft182a" href="#fa182a"><span class="fn">182</span></a> Ford, <i>Perkin Warbeck</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft183a" id="ft183a" href="#fa183a"><span class="fn">183</span></a> <i>Edward IV.</i>; <i>If You Know Not Me</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft184a" id="ft184a" href="#fa184a"><span class="fn">184</span></a> <i>Henry VIII.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft185a" id="ft185a" href="#fa185a"><span class="fn">185</span></a> <i>The Merry Wives of Windsor.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft186a" id="ft186a" href="#fa186a"><span class="fn">186</span></a> Massinger, <i>The Virgin Martyr</i>; Shirley, <i>St Patrick for Ireland</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft187a" id="ft187a" href="#fa187a"><span class="fn">187</span></a> <i>Cleopatra</i>; <i>Philotas</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft188a" id="ft188a" href="#fa188a"><span class="fn">188</span></a> <i>Darius</i>; <i>Croesus</i>; <i>Julius Caesar</i>; <i>The Alexandraean Tragedy</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft189a" id="ft189a" href="#fa189a"><span class="fn">189</span></a> <i>The Sad Shepherd</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft190a" id="ft190a" href="#fa190a"><span class="fn">190</span></a> <i>The Faithful Shepherdess.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft191a" id="ft191a" href="#fa191a"><span class="fn">191</span></a> <i>The Queen&rsquo;s Arcadia.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft192a" id="ft192a" href="#fa192a"><span class="fn">192</span></a> <i>Sejanus his Fall</i>; <i>Catiline his Conspiracy</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft193a" id="ft193a" href="#fa193a"><span class="fn">193</span></a> <i>Bussy d&rsquo;Ambois</i>; <i>The Revenge of B. d&rsquo;A.</i>; <i>The Conspiracy of
+Byron</i>; <i>The Tragedy of B.</i>; <i>Chabot, Admiral of France</i> (with Shirley).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft194a" id="ft194a" href="#fa194a"><span class="fn">194</span></a> <i>Arden of Faversham</i>; <i>A Yorkshire Tragedy</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft195a" id="ft195a" href="#fa195a"><span class="fn">195</span></a> <i>A Woman killed with Kindness</i>; <i>The English Traveller</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft196a" id="ft196a" href="#fa196a"><span class="fn">196</span></a> <i>Vittoria Coromboni</i>; <i>The Duchess of Malfi</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft197a" id="ft197a" href="#fa197a"><span class="fn">197</span></a> <i>&rsquo;Tis Pity She&rsquo;s a Whore</i>; <i>The Broken Heart</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft198a" id="ft198a" href="#fa198a"><span class="fn">198</span></a> <i>Every Man in his Humour</i>; <i>Every Man out of his Humour</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft199a" id="ft199a" href="#fa199a"><span class="fn">199</span></a> Shadwell, <i>The Humorists</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft200a" id="ft200a" href="#fa200a"><span class="fn">200</span></a> It is impossible in a summary survey to seek to discriminate
+by any kind of evidence the respective shares in many Elizabethan
+plays, and the respective credit due to them, of the joint writers.
+Yet some such inquiry is necessary before judging the claims to
+remembrance of highly-gifted dramatists such as William Rowley,
+his namesake Samuel, John Day, and not a few others.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft201a" id="ft201a" href="#fa201a"><span class="fn">201</span></a> The Latin comedy <i>Victoria</i> by Abraham Fraunce of St John&rsquo;s was
+written some time before 1583, and dedicated to Sir Philip Sidney;
+but there is no evidence to show that it was ever acted.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft202a" id="ft202a" href="#fa202a"><span class="fn">202</span></a> (Bishop) Hacket&rsquo;s <i>Loyola</i> was acted at Trinity in 1623.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft203a" id="ft203a" href="#fa203a"><span class="fn">203</span></a> <i>Naufragium joculare&mdash;The Guardian</i> (rewritten later as <i>The
+Cutter of Coleman Street</i>).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft204a" id="ft204a" href="#fa204a"><span class="fn">204</span></a> Chapman, Marston (and Jonson), <i>Eastward Hoe</i> (1605); Middleton,
+<i>A Game at Chess</i> (1624); Shirley and Chapman, <i>The Ball</i> (1632);
+Massinger(?), <i>The Spanish Viceroy</i> (1634).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft205a" id="ft205a" href="#fa205a"><span class="fn">205</span></a> <i>Twelfth Night.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft206a" id="ft206a" href="#fa206a"><span class="fn">206</span></a> <i>The Puritan, or the Widow of Watling Street</i>, by &ldquo;W. S.&rdquo; (Wentworth
+Smith?).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft207a" id="ft207a" href="#fa207a"><span class="fn">207</span></a> <i>The Alchemist</i>; <i>Bartholomew Fair</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft208a" id="ft208a" href="#fa208a"><span class="fn">208</span></a> Chapman, <i>An Humorous Day&rsquo;s Mirth</i>; Marston, <i>The Dutch
+Courtesan</i>; Middleton, <i>The Family of Love</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft209a" id="ft209a" href="#fa209a"><span class="fn">209</span></a> Among these was Sir Richard Fanshawe&rsquo;s English version of the
+<i>Pastor fido</i> (1646); after his death were published his translations
+of two plays by A. de Mendoza.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft210a" id="ft210a" href="#fa210a"><span class="fn">210</span></a> <i>A Short View of Tragedy</i> (1693).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft211a" id="ft211a" href="#fa211a"><span class="fn">211</span></a> <i>The Black Prince</i>; <i>Tryphon</i>; <i>Herod the Great</i>; <i>Altemira.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft212a" id="ft212a" href="#fa212a"><span class="fn">212</span></a> <i>The Indian Queen.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft213a" id="ft213a" href="#fa213a"><span class="fn">213</span></a> <i>The Indian Emperor</i>; <i>Tyrannic Love</i>; <i>The Conquest of Granada.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft214a" id="ft214a" href="#fa214a"><span class="fn">214</span></a> <i>Essay of Dramatic Poesy.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft215a" id="ft215a" href="#fa215a"><span class="fn">215</span></a> <i>Essay of Heroic Plays.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft216a" id="ft216a" href="#fa216a"><span class="fn">216</span></a> A direct satirical invective against rhymed tragedy of the
+&ldquo;heroic&rdquo; type is to be found in Arrowsmith&rsquo;s comedy <i>Reformation</i>
+(1673).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft217a" id="ft217a" href="#fa217a"><span class="fn">217</span></a> <i>The Grounds of Criticism in Tragedy.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft218a" id="ft218a" href="#fa218a"><span class="fn">218</span></a> <i>All for Love (Antony and Cleopatra).</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft219a" id="ft219a" href="#fa219a"><span class="fn">219</span></a> <i>Don Sebastian.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft220a" id="ft220a" href="#fa220a"><span class="fn">220</span></a> <i>The Rival Queens</i>; <i>Lucius Junius Brutus</i>; <i>The Massacre of
+Paris.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft221a" id="ft221a" href="#fa221a"><span class="fn">221</span></a> <i>Don Carlos</i>; <i>The Orphan</i>; <i>Venice Preserved.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft222a" id="ft222a" href="#fa222a"><span class="fn">222</span></a> <i>Oroonoko</i>; <i>The Fatal Marriage.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft223a" id="ft223a" href="#fa223a"><span class="fn">223</span></a> <i>The Mourning Bride.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft224a" id="ft224a" href="#fa224a"><span class="fn">224</span></a> <i>The Fair Penitent</i>; <i>Jane Shore.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft225a" id="ft225a" href="#fa225a"><span class="fn">225</span></a> A notable influence was exercised upon English comedy as well
+as upon other branches of literature by C. de Saint-Evremond, a
+soldier and man of fashion who was possessed of great intellectual
+ability and of a charming style. Though during his long exile in
+England&mdash;from 1670 to his death&mdash;he never learned English, his
+critical works included <i>Remarks on English Comedy</i> (1677), and one
+of his own comedies, the celebrated <i>Sir Politick Would-be</i>, professed
+to be composed &ldquo;<i>à la manière angloise</i>.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft226a" id="ft226a" href="#fa226a"><span class="fn">226</span></a> <i>Epsom Wells</i>; <i>The Squire of Alsatia</i>; <i>The Volunteers.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft227a" id="ft227a" href="#fa227a"><span class="fn">227</span></a> A dramatic curiosity of a rare kind would be <i>The Female Rebellion</i>
+(1682), which has been, on evidence rather striking at first
+sight, attributed to Sir Thomas Browne. It is more likely to have
+been by his son.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft228a" id="ft228a" href="#fa228a"><span class="fn">228</span></a> <i>The Country Wife</i>; <i>The Plain-Dealer.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft229a" id="ft229a" href="#fa229a"><span class="fn">229</span></a> <i>The Double Dealer.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft230a" id="ft230a" href="#fa230a"><span class="fn">230</span></a> <i>The Recruiting Officer</i>; <i>The Beaux&rsquo; Stratagem.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft231a" id="ft231a" href="#fa231a"><span class="fn">231</span></a> <i>A Short View of the Immorality and Profaneness of the English
+Stage.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft232a" id="ft232a" href="#fa232a"><span class="fn">232</span></a> Sir Novelty Fashion (Lord Foppington), &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft233a" id="ft233a" href="#fa233a"><span class="fn">233</span></a> <i>The Lying Lover</i>; <i>The Tender Husband.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft234a" id="ft234a" href="#fa234a"><span class="fn">234</span></a> <i>The Conscious Lovers.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft235a" id="ft235a" href="#fa235a"><span class="fn">235</span></a> <i>The Absolute Unlawfulness of Stage Entertainments fully Demonstrated</i>;
+<i>The Stage defended</i>, &amp;c. (1726).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft236a" id="ft236a" href="#fa236a"><span class="fn">236</span></a> <i>The Siege of Damascus.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft237a" id="ft237a" href="#fa237a"><span class="fn">237</span></a> <i>Mariamne.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft238a" id="ft238a" href="#fa238a"><span class="fn">238</span></a> <i>The Double Falsehood.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft239a" id="ft239a" href="#fa239a"><span class="fn">239</span></a> <i>The Revenge (Othello).</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft240a" id="ft240a" href="#fa240a"><span class="fn">240</span></a> <i>Fatal Curiosity.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft241a" id="ft241a" href="#fa241a"><span class="fn">241</span></a> <i>Irene</i> (1749); <i>The Patriot</i> attributed to Johnson, is by Joseph
+Simpson.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft242a" id="ft242a" href="#fa242a"><span class="fn">242</span></a> <i>Elfrida</i>; <i>Caractacus</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft243a" id="ft243a" href="#fa243a"><span class="fn">243</span></a> <i>Rosamunda.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft244a" id="ft244a" href="#fa244a"><span class="fn">244</span></a> <i>Love in a Village</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft245a" id="ft245a" href="#fa245a"><span class="fn">245</span></a> <i>The Waterman</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft246a" id="ft246a" href="#fa246a"><span class="fn">246</span></a> <i>Pasquin</i>; <i>The Historical Register for 1736.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft247a" id="ft247a" href="#fa247a"><span class="fn">247</span></a> <i>The Golden Rump.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft248a" id="ft248a" href="#fa248a"><span class="fn">248</span></a> The first dramatic performance licensed by the lord chamberlain
+after the passing of the act was appropriately entitled <i>The Nest of
+Plays</i>, and consisted of three comedies named respectively <i>The
+Prodigal Reformed</i>, <i>In Happy Constancy</i> and <i>The Trial of Conjugal
+Love</i>. It is a curious fact that in the first decade of the reign of
+George III. a severe control of the theatre was very actively exerted
+after a positive as well as a negative fashion&mdash;objectionable passages
+being ruthlessly suppressed and plays actually written and licensed
+for the purpose of upholding the existing régime.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft249a" id="ft249a" href="#fa249a"><span class="fn">249</span></a> J. Townley, <i>High Life Below Stairs</i> (1759).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft250a" id="ft250a" href="#fa250a"><span class="fn">250</span></a> <i>The Minor</i>; <i>Taste</i>; <i>The Author</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft251a" id="ft251a" href="#fa251a"><span class="fn">251</span></a> This celebrated play was at first persistently attributed to
+Miss Elizabeth Carter.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft252a" id="ft252a" href="#fa252a"><span class="fn">252</span></a> <i>The School for Lovers.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft253a" id="ft253a" href="#fa253a"><span class="fn">253</span></a> <i>False Delicacy.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft254a" id="ft254a" href="#fa254a"><span class="fn">254</span></a> <i>The Jealous Wife</i>; <i>The Clandestine Marriage.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft255a" id="ft255a" href="#fa255a"><span class="fn">255</span></a> <i>The Heiress.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft256a" id="ft256a" href="#fa256a"><span class="fn">256</span></a> <i>The West Indian</i>; <i>The Jew.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft257a" id="ft257a" href="#fa257a"><span class="fn">257</span></a> <i>The Belle&rsquo;s Stratagem</i>; <i>A Bold Stroke for a Husband</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft258a" id="ft258a" href="#fa258a"><span class="fn">258</span></a> <i>The Road to Ruin</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft259a" id="ft259a" href="#fa259a"><span class="fn">259</span></a> <i>John Bull</i>; <i>The Heir at Law</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft260a" id="ft260a" href="#fa260a"><span class="fn">260</span></a> <i>Midas</i>; <i>The Golden Pippin.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft261a" id="ft261a" href="#fa261a"><span class="fn">261</span></a> <i>Bertram.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft262a" id="ft262a" href="#fa262a"><span class="fn">262</span></a> <i>Ion.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft263a" id="ft263a" href="#fa263a"><span class="fn">263</span></a> <i>Fazio.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft264a" id="ft264a" href="#fa264a"><span class="fn">264</span></a> <i>Philip van Artevelde.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft265a" id="ft265a" href="#fa265a"><span class="fn">265</span></a> <i>The Death of Marlowe.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft266a" id="ft266a" href="#fa266a"><span class="fn">266</span></a> <i>Becket</i>; <i>The Cup.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft267a" id="ft267a" href="#fa267a"><span class="fn">267</span></a> <i>Merope.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft268a" id="ft268a" href="#fa268a"><span class="fn">268</span></a> <i>The Golden Legend.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft269a" id="ft269a" href="#fa269a"><span class="fn">269</span></a> <i>Love is Enough.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft270a" id="ft270a" href="#fa270a"><span class="fn">270</span></a> <i>Strafford</i>; <i>The Blot on the Scutcheon.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft271a" id="ft271a" href="#fa271a"><span class="fn">271</span></a> <i>Atalanta in Calydon</i>; <i>Bothwell</i>; <i>Chastelard</i>; <i>Mary Stuart.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft272a" id="ft272a" href="#fa272a"><span class="fn">272</span></a> <i>Virginius</i>; <i>The Hunchback.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft273a" id="ft273a" href="#fa273a"><span class="fn">273</span></a> A drama entitled <i>Speculum vitae humanae</i> is mentioned as
+produced by Archduke Ferdinand of the Tirol in 1584.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft274a" id="ft274a" href="#fa274a"><span class="fn">274</span></a> <i>Susanna</i> (<i>Geistliches Spiel</i>) (1536), &amp;c. Sixt Birk also brought
+out a play on the story of <i>Susanna</i>, which he had previously treated
+in a Latin form, in the vernacular (1552).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft275a" id="ft275a" href="#fa275a"><span class="fn">275</span></a> <i>Siegfried</i>; <i>Eulenspiegel</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft276a" id="ft276a" href="#fa276a"><span class="fn">276</span></a> <i>Susanna</i>; <i>Vincentius Ladislaus</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft277a" id="ft277a" href="#fa277a"><span class="fn">277</span></a> <i>Mahomet</i>; <i>Edward III.</i>; <i>Hamlet</i>; <i>Romeo and Juliet</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft278a" id="ft278a" href="#fa278a"><span class="fn">278</span></a> <i>The Tempest</i> (Ayrer, <i>Comedia v. d. schonen Sidea</i>).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft279a" id="ft279a" href="#fa279a"><span class="fn">279</span></a> <i>Herr Peter Squenz</i> (<i>Pyramus and Thisbe</i>); <i>Horribilicribrifax</i>
+(Pistol?).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft280a" id="ft280a" href="#fa280a"><span class="fn">280</span></a> His son, Christian Gryphius, was author of a curious dramatic
+summary (or <i>revue</i>) of German history, both literary and political;
+but the title of this school-drama is far too long for quotation.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft281a" id="ft281a" href="#fa281a"><span class="fn">281</span></a> One of his <i>aliases</i> was <i>Pickelharnig</i>. In 1702 the electress
+Sophia is found requesting Leibniz to see whether a more satisfactory
+specimen of this class cannot be procured from Berlin than
+is at present to be found at Hanover.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft282a" id="ft282a" href="#fa282a"><span class="fn">282</span></a> Deschamps and Addison.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft283a" id="ft283a" href="#fa283a"><span class="fn">283</span></a> <i>Richard III.</i>; <i>Romeo and Juliet</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft284a" id="ft284a" href="#fa284a"><span class="fn">284</span></a> <i>Die Zwillinge</i> (<i>The Twins</i>); <i>Die Soldaten</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft285a" id="ft285a" href="#fa285a"><span class="fn">285</span></a> <i>Julius von Tarent.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft286a" id="ft286a" href="#fa286a"><span class="fn">286</span></a> <i>Der Hofmeister</i> (<i>The Governor</i>), &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft287a" id="ft287a" href="#fa287a"><span class="fn">287</span></a> <i>Genoveva</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft288a" id="ft288a" href="#fa288a"><span class="fn">288</span></a> Iffland&rsquo;s best play is <i>Die Jager</i> (1785), which recently still held
+the stage. From Mannheim he in 1796 passed to Berlin by desire
+of King Frederick William II., who thus atoned for the hardships
+which he had allowed the pietistic tyranny of his minister Wollner
+to inflict upon the Prussian stage as a whole.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft289a" id="ft289a" href="#fa289a"><span class="fn">289</span></a> <i>Die deutschen Kleinstadter</i> is his most celebrated comedy and
+<i>Menschenhass und Reue</i> one of the most successful of his sentimental
+dramas. According to one classification he wrote 163 plays with
+a moral tendency, 5 with an immoral, and 48 doubtful.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft290a" id="ft290a" href="#fa290a"><span class="fn">290</span></a> <i>Der Groosskophta</i> (Cagliostro); <i>Der Burgergeneral</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft291a" id="ft291a" href="#fa291a"><span class="fn">291</span></a> A. W. von Schlegel and Tieck&rsquo;s (1797-1833).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft292a" id="ft292a" href="#fa292a"><span class="fn">292</span></a> A. W. von Schlegel, <i>Lectures on Dramatic Art and Literature</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft293a" id="ft293a" href="#fa293a"><span class="fn">293</span></a> <i>Zriny</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft294a" id="ft294a" href="#fa294a"><span class="fn">294</span></a> <i>Ion.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft295a" id="ft295a" href="#fa295a"><span class="fn">295</span></a> <i>Alarcos.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft296a" id="ft296a" href="#fa296a"><span class="fn">296</span></a> <i>Kaiser Octavianus</i>; <i>Der gestiefelte Kater</i> (<i>Puss in Boots</i>), &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft297a" id="ft297a" href="#fa297a"><span class="fn">297</span></a> <i>Der 24. Februar</i> (produced on the Weimar stage with Goethe&rsquo;s
+sanction).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft298a" id="ft298a" href="#fa298a"><span class="fn">298</span></a> <i>Der 29. Februar</i>; <i>Die Schuld</i> (<i>Guilt</i>).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft299a" id="ft299a" href="#fa299a"><span class="fn">299</span></a> <i>Das Bild</i> (<i>The Picture</i>); <i>Der Leuchtthurm</i> (<i>The Lighthouse</i>).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft300a" id="ft300a" href="#fa300a"><span class="fn">300</span></a> <i>Die Ahnfrau</i> (<i>The Ancestress</i>).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft301a" id="ft301a" href="#fa301a"><span class="fn">301</span></a> <i>Das Kathchen</i> (<i>Kate</i>) <i>von Heilbronn</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft302a" id="ft302a" href="#fa302a"><span class="fn">302</span></a> <i>Der zerbrochene Krug</i> (<i>The Broken Pitcher</i>).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft303a" id="ft303a" href="#fa303a"><span class="fn">303</span></a> <i>Prinz Friedrich von Homburg.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft304a" id="ft304a" href="#fa304a"><span class="fn">304</span></a> <i>Sappho</i>, <i>Medea</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft305a" id="ft305a" href="#fa305a"><span class="fn">305</span></a> <i>Konig Ottokar&rsquo;s Glück und Ende</i> (<i>Fortune and Fall</i>); <i>Der
+Bruderzwist</i> (<i>Fraternal Feud</i>) <i>in Habsburg</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft306a" id="ft306a" href="#fa306a"><span class="fn">306</span></a> <i>Die verhangnissvolle Gabel</i> (<i>The Fatal Fork</i>); <i>Der romantische
+Oedipus</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft307a" id="ft307a" href="#fa307a"><span class="fn">307</span></a> <i>Die Nibelungen</i>; <i>Judith</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft308a" id="ft308a" href="#fa308a"><span class="fn">308</span></a> <i>Der Erbforster.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft309a" id="ft309a" href="#fa309a"><span class="fn">309</span></a> <i>Uriel Acosta</i>; <i>Der Königslieutenant.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft310a" id="ft310a" href="#fa310a"><span class="fn">310</span></a> <i>Die Valentine.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft311a" id="ft311a" href="#fa311a"><span class="fn">311</span></a> <i>Die Karlsschüler.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft312a" id="ft312a" href="#fa312a"><span class="fn">312</span></a> <i>Der Pfarrer von Kirchfeld</i>; <i>Der Meineidbauer</i>; <i>Die Kreuzelschreiber</i>;
+<i>Das vierte Gebot</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft313a" id="ft313a" href="#fa313a"><span class="fn">313</span></a> <i>The Robbers</i> (Franz Moor). His next most famous part was Lear.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft314a" id="ft314a" href="#fa314a"><span class="fn">314</span></a> In connexion with the production in 1855 of &ldquo;F. Halm&rsquo;s&rdquo;
+<i>Fechter von Ravenna</i>, of which the authorship was claimed by a
+half-demented schoolmaster.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft315a" id="ft315a" href="#fa315a"><span class="fn">315</span></a> As to more recent developments of German theatrical literature
+see the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">German Literature</a></span>, and the remarks on the influence
+of foreign works in the section on <a><i>Recent English Drama</i></a> above.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft316a" id="ft316a" href="#fa316a"><span class="fn">316</span></a> <i>Aluta</i>; <i>Asotus</i>; <i>Hecastus</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft317a" id="ft317a" href="#fa317a"><span class="fn">317</span></a> <i>Gysbrecht van Aemstel</i>; <i>Lucifer</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft318a" id="ft318a" href="#fa318a"><span class="fn">318</span></a> <i>Ulysses of Ithaca.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft319a" id="ft319a" href="#fa319a"><span class="fn">319</span></a> <i>The Politician-Tinman</i>; <i>Jean de France or Hans Franzen;
+The Lying-In</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft320a" id="ft320a" href="#fa320a"><span class="fn">320</span></a> <i>Aladdin</i>; <i>Corregio.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft321a" id="ft321a" href="#fa321a"><span class="fn">321</span></a> <i>Maria Stuart</i>; <i>A Bankruptcy</i>; <i>Leonarda.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft322a" id="ft322a" href="#fa322a"><span class="fn">322</span></a> <i>Brand</i>; <i>Peer Gynt.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft323a" id="ft323a" href="#fa323a"><span class="fn">323</span></a> <i>Samfundets Stöttere</i>; <i>Et Dukkehjem</i>; <i>Gengangere.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft324a" id="ft324a" href="#fa324a"><span class="fn">324</span></a> <i>Pan Jowialski</i>; <i>Oludki i Poeta</i> (<i>The Misanthrope and the Poet</i>).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DRAMBURG,<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> a town of Germany in the kingdom of Prussia,
+on the Drage, a tributary of the Oder, 50 m. E. of Stettin, on
+the railway Ruhnow-Neustettin. Pop. 5800. It contains an
+Evangelical church, a gymnasium, a hospital and various
+administrative offices, and carries on cotton and woollen weaving,
+tanning, brewing and distilling.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DRAMMEN,<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> a seaport of Norway, in Buskerud and Jarlsberg-Laurvik
+<i>amter</i> (counties), at the head of Drammen Fjord, a
+western arm of Christiania Fjord, 33 m. by rail S. W. from
+Christiania. Pop. (1900) 23,093. Its situation, at the mouth
+of the broad Drammen river, between lofty hills, is very beautiful.
+It is the junction of railways from Christiania to Haugsund,
+Kongsberg and Hönefos, and to Laurvik and Skien. The town
+is modern, having suffered from fires in 1866, 1870 and 1880.
+It consists of three parts: Bragernaes on the north, divided by
+the river from Strömsö and the port, Tangen, on the south.
+The prosperity of Drammen depends mainly on the timber
+trade; and saw-milling is an active industry, the logs being
+floated down the river from the upland forests. Timber and
+wood-pulp are exported (over half of each to Great Britain),
+with paper, ice and some cobalt and nickel ore. The chief
+imports are British coal and German machinery. Salmon are
+taken in the upper reaches of the Drammen.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DRANE, AUGUSTA THEODOSIA<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> (1823-1894), English writer,
+was born at Bromley, near Bow, on the 29th of December 1823.
+Brought up in the Anglican creed, she fell under the influence of
+Tractarian teaching at Torquay, and joined the Roman Catholic
+Church in 1850. She wrote, and published anonymously, an
+essay questioning the <i>Morality of Tractarianism</i>, which was
+attributed to John Henry Newman. In 1852, after a prolonged
+stay in Rome, she joined the third order of St Dominic, to which
+she belonged for over forty years. She was prioress (1872-1881)
+of the Stone convent in Staffordshire, where she died on the 29th
+of April 1894. Her chief works in prose and verse are: <i>The
+History of Saint Dominic</i> (1857; enlarged edition, 1891); <i>The
+Life of St Catherine of Siena</i> (1880; 2nd ed., 1899); <i>Christian
+Schools and Scholars</i> (1867); <i>The Knights of St John</i> (1858);
+<i>Songs in the Night</i> (1876); and the <i>Three Chancellors</i> (1859), a
+sketch of the lives of William of Wykeham, William of Waynflete
+and Sir Thomas More.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A complete list of her writings is given in the <i>Memoir of Mother
+Francis Raphael, O.S.D., Augusta Theodosia Drane</i>, edited by B.
+Wilberforce, O.P. (London, 1895).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DRAPER, JOHN WILLIAM<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> (1811-1882), American scientist,
+was born at St Helen&rsquo;s, near Liverpool, on the 5th of May 1811.
+He studied at Woodhouse Grove, at the University of London,
+and, after removing to America in 1832, at the medical school of
+the University of Pennsylvania in 1835-1836. In 1837 he was
+elected professor of chemistry in the University of the City of
+New York, and was a professor in its school of medicine in 1840-1850,
+president of that school in 1850-1873, and professor of
+chemistry until 1881. He died at Hastings, New York, on the
+4th of January 1882. He made important researches in photo-chemistry,
+made portrait photography possible by his improvements
+(1839) on Daguerre&rsquo;s process, and published a <i>Text-book on
+Chemistry</i> (1846), <i>Text-book on Natural Philosophy</i> (1847), <i>Text-book
+on Physiology</i> (1866), and <i>Scientific Memoirs</i> (1878) on
+radiant energy. He is well known also as the author of <i>The
+History of the Intellectual Development of Europe</i> (1862), applying
+the methods of physical science to history, a <i>History of the
+American Civil War</i> (3 vols., 1867-1870), and a <i>History of the
+Conflict between Religion and Science</i> (1874).</p>
+
+<p>His son, <span class="sc">Henry Draper</span> (1837-1882), graduated at the
+University of New York in 1858, became professor of natural
+science there in 1860, and was professor of physiology (in the
+medical school) and dean of the faculty in 1866-1873. He
+succeeded his father as professor of chemistry, but only for a
+year, dying in New York on the 20th of November 1882. Henry
+Draper&rsquo;s most important contributions to science were made in
+spectroscopy; he ruled metal gratings in 1869-1870, made
+valuable spectrum photographs after 1871, and proved the
+presence of oxygen in the sun in a monograph of 1877. Edward
+C. Pickering carried on his study of stellar spectra with the funds
+of the Henry Draper Memorial at Harvard, endowed by his
+widow (<i>née</i> Mary Anna Palmer).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See accounts by George F. Barker in <i>Biographical Memoirs of
+the National Academy of Science</i>, vols. 2 and 3 (Washington, 1886,
+1888).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DRAPER,<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> one who deals in cloth or textiles generally. The
+Fr. <i>drap</i>, cloth, from which <i>drapier</i> and Eng. &ldquo;draper&rdquo; are
+derived, is of obscure origin. It is possible that the Low Lat.
+<i>drappus</i> or <i>trappus</i> (the last form giving the Eng. &ldquo;trappings&rdquo;)
+may be connected with words such as &ldquo;drub,&rdquo; Ger. <i>treffen</i>,
+beat; the original sense would be fulled cloth. &ldquo;Drab,&rdquo; dull,
+pale, brown, is also connected, its first meaning being a cloth of
+a natural undyed colour. The Drapers&rsquo; Company is one of the
+great livery companies of the city of London. The fraternity
+is of very early origin. Henry Fitz-Alwyn (d. 1212?), the first
+mayor of London, is said to have been a draper. The first
+charter was granted in 1364. The Drapers&rsquo; Gild was one of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page547" id="page547"></a>547</span>
+numerous subdivisions of the clothing trade, and appeared to
+have been confined to the retailing of woollen cloths, the linen-drapers
+forming in the 15th century a separate fraternity,
+which disappeared or was merged in the greater company. It
+is usual for drapers to combine the sale of &ldquo;drapery,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> of
+textiles generally, with that of millinery, hosiery, &amp;c. In <i>Wills</i>
+v. <i>Adams</i> (reported in <i>The Times</i>, London, Nov. 20, 1908), the
+term &ldquo;drapery&rdquo; in a restrictive covenant was held not to include
+all goods that a draper might sell, such as furs or fur-lined goods.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DRAUGHT<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> (from the common Teutonic word &ldquo;to draw&rdquo;;
+cf. Ger. <i>Tracht</i>, load; the pronunciation led to the variant form
+&ldquo;draft,&rdquo; now confined to certain specific meanings), the act or
+action of drawing, extending, pulling, &amp;c. It is thus applied
+to animals used for drawing vehicles or loads, &ldquo;draught oxen,&rdquo;
+&amp;c., to the quantity of fish taken by one &ldquo;drag&rdquo; of a net, to
+a quantity of liquid taken or &ldquo;drawn in&rdquo; to the mouth, and to
+a current of air in a chimney, a room or other confined space.
+In furnaces the &ldquo;draught&rdquo; is &ldquo;natural&rdquo; when not increased
+artificially, or &ldquo;forced&rdquo; when increased by mechanical methods
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Boiler</a></span>). The water a ship &ldquo;draws,&rdquo; or her &ldquo;draught,&rdquo;
+is the depth to which she sinks in the water as measured from
+her keel. The word was formerly used of a &ldquo;move&rdquo; in chess or
+similar games, and is thus, in the plural, the general English
+name of the game known also as &ldquo;checkers&rdquo; (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Draughts</a></span>).
+The spelling &ldquo;draft&rdquo; is generally employed in the following
+usages. It is a common term for a written order &ldquo;drawn on&rdquo;
+a banker or other holder of funds for the payment of money to a
+third person; thus a cheque (<i>q.v.</i>) is a draft. A special form of
+draft is a &ldquo;banker&rsquo;s draft,&rdquo; an instruction by one bank to another
+bank, or to a branch of the bank making the instruction, to pay
+a sum of money to the order of a certain specified person. Other
+meanings of &ldquo;draft&rdquo; are an outline, plan or sketch, or a preliminary
+drawing up of an instrument, measure, document, &amp;c.,
+which, after alteration and amendment, will be embodied in a
+final or formal shape; an allowance made by merchants or
+importers to those who sell by retail, to make up a loss incurred
+in weighing or measuring; and a detachment or body of troops
+&ldquo;drawn off&rdquo; for a specific purpose, usually a reinforcement
+from the depot or reserve units to those abroad or in the field.
+For the use of the term &ldquo;draft&rdquo; or &ldquo;draught&rdquo; in masonry and
+architecture see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Drafted Masonry</a></span>.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DRAUGHTS<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> (from A.S. <i>dragan</i>, to draw), a game played with
+pieces (or &ldquo;men&rdquo;) called draughtsmen on a board marked in
+squares of two alternate colours. The game is called Checkers
+in America, and is known to the French as <i>Les Dames</i> and to the
+Germans as <i>Damenspiel</i>. Though the game is not mentioned in
+the <i>Complete Gamester</i>, nor the <i>Académie de jeux</i>, and is styled a
+&ldquo;modern invention&rdquo; by Strutt, yet a somewhat similar game
+was known to the Egyptians, some of the pieces used having
+been found in tombs at least as old as 1600 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, and part of
+Anect Hat-Shepsa&rsquo;s board and some of her men are to be
+seen in the Egyptian gallery of the British Museum. An
+Egyptian vase also shows a lion and an antelope playing at
+draughts, with five men each, the lion making the winning move
+and seizing the bag or purse that contains the stakes. Plato
+ascribes the invention of the game of <span class="grk" title="pessoi">&#960;&#949;&#963;&#963;&#959;&#943;</span>, or draughts, to
+Thoth, the Egyptian Hermes Trismegistus, and Homer represents
+Penelope&rsquo;s suitors as playing it (<i>Odyss.</i> i. 107). In one form of
+the game as played by the Greeks there were 25 squares, and each
+player had 5 men which were probably moved along the lines.
+In another there were 4 men and 16 squares with a &ldquo;sacred
+enclosure,&rdquo; a square of the same size as the others, marked in
+the exact centre and bisected by one of the horizontal lines,
+which was known as the &ldquo;sacred line.&rdquo; From the incident in
+the game of a piece hemmed in on this line by a rival piece
+having to be pushed forward as a last resort, arose the phrase
+&ldquo;to move the man from the sacred line&rdquo; as synonymous with
+being hard pressed. This and other phrases based on incidents
+in the game testify to the vogue the game enjoyed in ancient
+Greece. The Roman game of <i>Latrunculi</i> was similar, but there
+were officers (kings in modern draughts) as well as men. When
+a player&rsquo;s pieces were all hemmed in he was stale-mated, to
+use a chess phrase (<i>ad incitas redactus est</i>), and lost the game.
+Other explanations of this phrase are, however, given (see <i>Les
+Jeux des anciens</i>, by Becq de Fouquières). The fullest account
+of the Roman game is to be found in the <i>De laude Pisonis</i>,
+written by an anonymous contemporary of Nero (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Calpurnius,
+Titus</a></span>). Unfortunately the texts are full of obscurities, so that
+it is difficult to make any definite statements as to how the
+game was played.</p>
+
+<p>As early as the 11th century some form of the game was
+practised by the Norsemen, for in the Icelandic saga of Grettir
+the Strong the board and men are mentioned more than once.</p>
+
+<p>The history of the modern forms of the game starts with
+<i>El Ingenio o juego de marro, de punto o damas</i>, published by
+Torquemada at Valencia in 1547. Another Spaniard, Juan
+Garcia Canalejas, is said to have published in 1610 the first
+edition of his work, a better-known edition of which appeared
+in 1650. The third Spanish classic, that of Joseph Carlos Garcez,
+was printed in Madrid in 1684. It is noteworthy that in an
+illustration in Garcez&rsquo;s book the pieces depicted resemble somewhat
+some of those used by the Egyptians, and are not unlike
+the pawns used in chess.</p>
+
+<p>In 1668 Pierre Mallet had published the first French work on
+the game, and elementary though his knowledge of the game
+seems to have been, even in comparison with that of Canalejas
+or Garcez, the historical notes, rules and instructions which he
+gave, served as a basis for many later works. Mallet wrote on
+<i>Le Jeu de dames à la française</i>, which was almost identical with
+the modern English game. The old French game is, however,
+no longer practised in France, having been superseded by <i>Le
+Jeu de dames à la polonaise</i>. Manoury gives reasons for believing
+that the latter game originated in Paris about 1727.</p>
+
+<p>About 1736 a famous player named Laclef published the first
+book on Polish draughts, but the first important book on the
+game is Manoury&rsquo;s <i>Jeu de dames à la polonaise</i>, in the production
+of which it is said that the author had the assistance of Diderot
+and other <i>encyclopédistes</i>. This book, which appeared in 1787,
+was to the new game all that Mallet&rsquo;s was to the old French game,
+and until the appearance of Poirson Prugneaux&rsquo;s <i>Encyclopédie
+du jeu de dames</i> in 1855 it remained the standard authority on
+so-called Polish draughts. The Polish game early attained
+popularity in Holland, and in 1785 the standard Dutch work,
+Ephraim van Embden&rsquo;s <i>Verhandeling over het Damspel</i>, was
+produced. In German-speaking countries the progress of the
+new game was slower, and the works produced in the first half
+of the 19th century generally treat of the older game as well as
+the Polish game. This is also the case with Petroff&rsquo;s book
+published in St Petersburg in 1827; and similarly Zongono&rsquo;s,
+which dates from 1832, deals with the new game and with the
+older Italian game.</p>
+
+<p>In 1694 Hyde wrote <i>Historia dami ludi seu latrinculorum</i>,
+in which he tried to prove the identity of draughts with <i>ludus
+latrinculorum</i>. This work is historical and descriptive, but contains
+nothing concerning the game as played in Great Britain.
+The authentic history of draughts in England commences with
+William Payne&rsquo;s <i>Introduction to the Game of Draughts</i>, the
+dedication of which was written by Samuel Johnson. Payne&rsquo;s
+games and problems were incorporated in a much more important
+work, namely Sturges&rsquo;s <i>Guide to the Game of Draughts</i>, which
+appeared in 1800 and has gone through a score of editions.
+About this time the game was much practised in both England
+and Scotland, but the first important production of the Scottish
+school was Drummond&rsquo;s <i>Scottish Draught Player</i>, the first part
+of which dates from 1838, additional volumes appearing in 1851-1853
+and 1861. In 1852 Andrew Anderson published his <i>Game
+of Draughts Simplified</i>. A first edition had appeared in 1848,
+but the later print is the important one, as it standardized the
+laws of the game, fixed the nomenclature of the openings,
+introduced a better arrangement of the play, and, since Anderson
+was one of the finest players of the game, excelled in accuracy.
+In Anderson&rsquo;s time little was known about the openings commencing
+with any move other than 11-15, and it was not until
+more than thirty years later that the other openings received
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page548" id="page548"></a>548</span>
+more adequate recognition. This was done in Robertson&rsquo;s
+<i>Guide to the Game of Draughts</i>, and perhaps better in Lees&rsquo; <i>Guide</i>
+(1892).</p>
+
+<p>Andrew Anderson was the first recognized British champion
+player of the game. He and Wyllie, better known as &ldquo;the herd
+laddie,&rdquo; contested five matches for the honour, Anderson winning
+four to Wyllie&rsquo;s one. After his victory in 1847 Anderson
+retired from match play and the title fell to Wyllie, who made
+the game his profession and travelled all over the English-speaking
+world to play it. In 1872 he successfully defended his
+position against Martins, the English champion, and in 1874
+against W. R. Barker, the American champion, but two years
+later he was beaten by Yates, a young American. On the latter&rsquo;s
+retirement from the game, the championship lapsed to Wyllie,
+who held it successfully until his defeat by Ferrie, the Scottish
+champion, in 1894. Two years later Ferrie was beaten in his
+turn by Richard Jordan of Edinburgh, who had just gained the
+Scottish championship; and the new holder defeated Stewart,
+who challenged him in 1897, and successfully defended his title
+against C. F. Barker, the American champion, to meet whom he
+visited Boston in 1900 and played a drawn match.</p>
+
+<p>In 1884 the first international match between England and
+Scotland took place, and resulted in so decisive a victory for the
+northerners that the contest was not renewed for ten years.
+The matches played in 1894 and 1899 also went strongly in
+favour of the Scots, but in 1903 the Englishmen gained their
+first victory.</p>
+
+<p>In 1905 a British team visited America and defeated a side
+representing the United States.</p>
+
+<p>The tournament for the Scottish championship has been held
+annually in Glasgow since 1893. The number and skill of the
+Scottish players have given this tournament its pre-eminence;
+but if the levelling up of the standards of play in Scotland and
+England continues, the competition which is held biennially by
+the English Draughts Association is likely to rank as a serious
+rival to the Glasgow tourney.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 265px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="caption2">BLACK.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figright"><img style="width:215px; height:213px" src="images/img548.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">WHITE.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>The English Game.</i>&mdash;Draughts as played now in English-speaking
+countries is a game for two persons with a board and
+twenty-four men&mdash;twelve white and twelve black&mdash;which at
+starting are placed as follows: the black men on the squares
+numbered 1 to 12, and the white men on the squares numbered
+21 to 32 on the diagram below. In printed diagrams the men are
+usually shown on the white squares for the sake of clearness,
+but in actual play the black squares
+are generally used now. In playing
+on the black squares the board must
+be placed with a black square in the
+left-hand corner. The game is played
+by moving a man forward, one square
+at a time except when making a capture,
+along the diagonals to the right
+or left. Thus a white man placed
+on square 18 in the diagram can
+move to 15 or 14. Each player
+moves alternately, black always
+moving first. If a player touch a
+piece he must move that piece and no other. If the piece
+cannot be moved, or if it is not the player&rsquo;s turn to
+move, he forfeits the game. As soon as a man reaches
+one of the squares farthest from his side of the board, he is
+&ldquo;crowned&rdquo; by having one of the unused or captured men of
+his own colour placed on him, and becomes a &ldquo;king.&rdquo; A
+king has the power of moving and taking backwards as well as
+forwards.</p>
+
+<p>If a man is on the square adjacent to an opponent&rsquo;s man,
+and there is an unoccupied square beyond, the unprotected
+man must be captured and removed from the board. Thus, if
+there is a white man on square 18, and a black man on square
+14, square 9 being vacant, and white having to move, he
+jumps over 14 and remains on square 9, and the man on 14
+is taken up.</p>
+
+<p>If two or more men are so placed that one square intervenes
+between each they may all be taken at one move. Thus if
+white having to move has a man on 28, and black men on 24,
+16 and 8, the intermediate squares and square 3 being vacant,
+white could move from 28 to 3, touching 19 and 12 en route,
+and take the men on 24, 16, and 8; but if there is a piece on 7
+and square 10 is vacant, the piece on 7 cannot be captured,
+for becoming a king ends the move.</p>
+
+<p>It is compulsory to take if possible. If a player can take a
+man (or a series of men) but makes a move that does not capture
+(or does not capture all that is possible), his adversary may allow
+the move to stand, or he may have the move retracted and compel
+the player to take, or he may allow the move to stand and remove
+the piece, that neglected to capture from the board (called
+&ldquo;huffing&rdquo;). &ldquo;Huff and move&rdquo; go together, <i>i.e.</i> the player
+who huffs then makes his move. When one player has lost all
+his pieces, or has all those left on the board blocked, he loses
+the game.</p>
+
+<p>The game is drawn when neither of the players has sufficient
+advantage in force or position to enable him to win.</p>
+
+<p>The losing game, or &ldquo;first off the board,&rdquo; is a form of draughts
+not much practised now by expert draught players. The player
+wins who gets all his pieces taken first. There is no &ldquo;huffing&rdquo;;
+a player who can take must do so.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Draughts Openings.</i>&mdash;As there are seven possible first moves, with
+seven possible replies to each, or forty-nine in all, there is an abundant
+variety of openings; but as two of these (9-14, 21-17 and 10-14, 21-17)
+are obviously unsound, the number is really reduced to forty-seven.
+Much difference of opinion exists regarding the relative strength of
+the various openings. It was at one time generally held that for the
+black side 11-15 was the best opening move.</p>
+
+<p>Towards the end of the 19th century this view became much
+modified, and though 11-15 still remained the favourite, it was
+recognized that 10-15, 9-14 and 11-16 were little, if at all, inferior;
+10-14 and 12-16 were rightly rated as weaker than the four moves
+named above, whilst 9-13, the favourite of the &ldquo;unscientific&rdquo;
+player, was found to be weakest of all.</p>
+
+<p>The white replies to 11-15 have gone through many vicissitudes.
+The seven possible moves have each at different times figured as the
+general favourite. Thus 24-19, which analysis proved to be the
+weakest of the seven, was at one period described by the title of
+&ldquo;Wyllie&rsquo;s Invincible.&rdquo; In course of time it came to be regarded as
+decidedly weak, and its name was altered to the less pretentious
+title of &ldquo;Second Double Corner.&rdquo; In the Scottish Tournament of
+1894 this opening was played between Ferrie and Stewart, and the
+latter won the game with white, introducing new play which has
+stood the test of analysis, and so rehabilitating the opening in public
+favour. The 21-17 reply to 11-15 was introduced by Wyllie, who
+was so successful with it that it became known as the &ldquo;Switcher.&rdquo;
+This opening perhaps lacks the solid strength of some of the others,
+but it so abounds in traps as to be well worthy of its name. The other
+five replies to 11-15, namely 24-20, 23-19, 23-18, 22-18 and 22-17,
+are productive of games which give equal chances to both sides.</p>
+
+<p>The favourite replies to 10-15 are 23-18, 22-18 and 21-17, but
+they do not appear to be appreciably stronger than the others, with
+the possible exception of 24-20.</p>
+
+<p>In response to 11-16, 23-18 is held to give white a trifling advantage,
+but it is more apparent than real. With the exception of 23-19,
+which is weak, the other replies are of equal strength, and are only
+slightly, if at all, inferior to the more popular 23-18. 9-14 is most
+frequently encountered by 22-18, but all white&rsquo;s replies are good,
+except of course 21-17 which loses a man, and 23-18 which weakens
+the centre of white&rsquo;s position.</p>
+
+<p>Against 10-14 the most popular move is 22-17, which gives white
+an advantage. Next in strength come 22-18 and 24-19. 23-18 is
+weak.</p>
+
+<p>The strongest reply to 12-16 is 24-20. The others, except 23-19,
+which is weak, give no initial advantage to either side.</p>
+
+<p>As already mentioned, 9-13 is black&rsquo;s weakest opening move,
+both 22-18 and 24-19 giving white a distinct advantage. Nevertheless
+9-13 is a favourite début with certain expert players, especially
+when playing with inferior opponents.</p>
+
+<p>The term &ldquo;opening&rdquo; is frequently applied in a more restricted
+sense than that used above. When practically all games started with
+11-15 it was convenient to assign names to the more popular lines
+of play. Thus 11-15, 23-19, 8-11, 22-17, if followed by 11-16, was
+called the &ldquo;Glasgow&rdquo;; if followed by 9-13, 17-14, the &ldquo;Laird
+and Lady&rdquo;; if by 3-8, the &ldquo;Alma.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The variety possible in the opening is a fair reply to the objection
+sometimes heard that the game does not afford sufficient scope for
+variation. As a matter of fact a practically unlimited number of
+different games might be played on any one opening.</p>
+
+<p>The three following games are typical examples of the play arising
+from three of the most frequently played openings:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page549" id="page549"></a>549</span></p>
+
+<p class="center pt2">Game No. 1.&mdash;&ldquo;Ayrshire Lassie&rdquo; Opening.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcr">a 11-15</td> <td class="tcr">25-18</td> <td class="tcr">10-15</td> <td class="tcr">22-17</td> <td class="tcr">b 15-18</td> <td class="tcr">24-6&ensp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">a 24-20</td> <td class="tcr">3-8&ensp;</td> <td class="tcr">23-19</td> <td class="tcr">13-22</td> <td class="tcr">24-20</td> <td class="tcr">2-9&ensp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">8-11</td> <td class="tcr">26-22</td> <td class="tcr">6-10</td> <td class="tcr">26-17</td> <td class="tcr">18-27</td> <td class="tcr">17-10</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">28-24</td> <td class="tcr">5-9&ensp;</td> <td class="tcr">{c &amp; d} 27-23</td> <td class="tcr">11-16</td> <td class="tcr">31-24</td> <td class="tcr">8-11</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">9-13</td> <td class="tcr">30-26</td> <td class="tcr">9-14</td> <td class="tcr">20-11</td> <td class="tcr">16-23</td> <td class="tcc">Drawn.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">22-18</td> <td class="tcr">1-5&ensp;</td> <td class="tcr">18-9&ensp;</td> <td class="tcr">7-16</td> <td class="tcr">20-16</td> <td class="tcc">R. Jordan.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">15-22</td> <td class="tcr">32-28</td> <td class="tcr">5-14</td> <td class="tcr">29-25</td> <td class="tcr">12-19</td> <td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>a. 11-15, 24-20 forms the &ldquo;Ayrshire Lassie&rdquo; opening, so named
+by Wyllie. It is generally held to admit of unusual scope for the
+display of critical and brilliant combinations.</p>
+
+<p>b. 16-20, 25-22, 20-27, 31-24, 8-11, 17-13, 2-6, 21-17, 14-21,
+22-17, 21-25, 17-14, 10-17, 19-1. Drawn.  R. Jordan.</p>
+
+<p class="center">(c)</p>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcr">26-23</td> <td class="tcr">28-19</td> <td class="tcr">20-16</td> <td class="tcr">7-11</td> <td class="tcr">14-10</td> <td class="tcr">15-10</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">9-14</td> <td class="tcr">2-6&ensp;</td> <td class="tcr">6-10</td> <td class="tcr">19-24</td> <td class="tcr">26-23</td> <td class="tcr">23-18</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">18-9&ensp;</td> <td class="tcr">20-11</td> <td class="tcr">16-11</td> <td class="tcr">11-18</td> <td class="tcr">10-7&ensp;</td> <td class="tcr">10-15</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">5-14</td> <td class="tcr">8-24</td> <td class="tcr">10-15</td> <td class="tcr">24-27</td> <td class="tcr">4-8&ensp;</td> <td class="tcr">20-16</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">29-25</td> <td class="tcr">27-20</td> <td class="tcr">11-7&ensp;</td> <td class="tcr">18-15</td> <td class="tcr">7-3&ensp;</td> <td class="tcr">15-22</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">11-16</td> <td class="tcr">10-15</td> <td class="tcr">14-18</td> <td class="tcr">27-31</td> <td class="tcr">8-12</td> <td class="tcr">16-7&ensp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">20-11</td> <td class="tcr">31-26</td> <td class="tcr">7-3&ensp;</td> <td class="tcr">22-18</td> <td class="tcr">3-7&ensp;</td> <td class="tcc">Drawn.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">7-16</td> <td class="tcr">15-19</td> <td class="tcr">18-23</td> <td class="tcr">31-27</td> <td class="tcr">27-24</td> <td class="tcc">A. B. Scott.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">24-20</td> <td class="tcr">23-16</td> <td class="tcr">3-7&ensp;</td> <td class="tcr">18-14</td> <td class="tcr">7-11</td> <td class="tcc">v.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">15-24</td> <td class="tcr">12-19</td> <td class="tcr">23-30</td> <td class="tcr">30-26</td> <td class="tcr">24-20</td> <td class="tcc">R. Jordan.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="center">(d)</p>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcr">19-16</td> <td class="tcr">7-10</td> <td class="tcr">23-19</td> <td class="tcr">11-15</td> <td class="tcr">16-11</td> <td class="tcr">25-30</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">12-19</td> <td class="tcr">6-1&ensp;</td> <td class="tcr">15-24</td> <td class="tcr">27-24</td> <td class="tcr">18-25</td> <td class="tcr">20-16</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">22-17</td> <td class="tcr">9-14</td> <td class="tcr">28-19</td> <td class="tcr">22-25</td> <td class="tcr">17-14</td> <td class="tcc">Drawn.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">15-22</td> <td class="tcr">26-23</td> <td class="tcr">8-11</td> <td class="tcr">29-22</td> <td class="tcr">10-17</td> <td class="tcc">R. Jordan.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">24-6&ensp;</td> <td class="tcr">11-15</td> <td class="tcr">19-16</td> <td class="tcr">14-18</td> <td class="tcr">21-14</td> <td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="center pt2">Game No. 2.&mdash;&ldquo;Kelso-Cross&rdquo; Opening.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcr">a 10-15</td> <td class="tcr">8-12</td> <td class="tcr">13-22</td> <td class="tcr">5-9&ensp;</td> <td class="tcr">14-18</td> <td class="tcr">22-25</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">a 23-18</td> <td class="tcr">25-21</td> <td class="tcr">26-17</td> <td class="tcr">20-16</td> <td class="tcr">17-14</td> <td class="tcr">29-22</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">12-16</td> <td class="tcr">1-6&ensp;</td> <td class="tcr">d 19-26</td> <td class="tcr">2-7&ensp;</td> <td class="tcr">10-17</td> <td class="tcr">17-26</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">21-17</td> <td class="tcr">32-27</td> <td class="tcr">30-23</td> <td class="tcr">24-19</td> <td class="tcr">21-14</td> <td class="tcr">5-1&ensp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">9-13</td> <td class="tcr">12-16</td> <td class="tcr">15-22</td> <td class="tcr">15-24</td> <td class="tcr">6-10</td> <td class="tcr">26-30</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">17-14</td> <td class="tcr">27-23</td> <td class="tcr">24-19</td> <td class="tcr">23-19</td> <td class="tcr">14-9&ensp;</td> <td class="tcr">1-5&ensp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">16-19</td> <td class="tcr">7-10</td> <td class="tcr">9-14</td> <td class="tcr">24-27</td> <td class="tcr">10-14</td> <td class="tcr">30-26</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">24-20</td> <td class="tcr">14-7&ensp;</td> <td class="tcr">19-12</td> <td class="tcr">31-24</td> <td class="tcr">19-15</td> <td class="tcr">5-9&ensp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">6-9&ensp;</td> <td class="tcr">3-10</td> <td class="tcr">11-15</td> <td class="tcr">9-13</td> <td class="tcr">14-17</td> <td class="tcr">26-23</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">b 27-24</td> <td class="tcr">c 22-17</td> <td class="tcr">28-24</td> <td class="tcr">24-20</td> <td class="tcr">9-5&ensp;</td> <td class="tcc">Drawn.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc">R. Jordan.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>a. These two moves form the &ldquo;Kelso-Cross&rdquo; opening.</p>
+
+<p>b. 27-23 is also a strong line for white to adopt.</p>
+
+<p>c. 30-25, 4-8, 18-14, 9-27, 22-18, 15-22, 24-15, 11-18, 20-4,
+27-32, 26-17, 13-22, 4-8, 22-26, and black appears to have a winning
+advantage. R. Jordan.</p>
+
+<p>d. Taking the piece on 18 first seems to lose, thus:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcr">15-22</td> <td class="tcr">e 9-13</td> <td class="tcr">13-17</td> <td class="tcr">6-9&ensp;</td> <td class="tcr">5-14</td> <td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">24-8&ensp;</td> <td class="tcr">17-14</td> <td class="tcr">23-18</td> <td class="tcr">14-10</td> <td class="tcr">10-7&ensp;</td> <td class="tcc">White</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">4-11</td> <td class="tcr">10-17</td> <td class="tcr">17-21</td> <td class="tcr">9-14</td> <td class="tcr">2-6&ensp;</td> <td class="tcc">wins.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">31-27</td> <td class="tcr">21-14</td> <td class="tcr">28-24</td> <td class="tcr">18-9&ensp;</td> <td class="tcr">7-2&ensp;</td> <td class="tcc">Dallas.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>e. 2-7, 27-24, 22-26, 23-18, 26-31, 18-15, 11-18, 20-2, 9-13,
+2-9, 5-14, 24-19, 13-22, 30-26. White wins.</p>
+
+<p class="center pt2">Game No. 3.&mdash;&ldquo;Dundee&rdquo; Opening.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcr">12-16</td> <td class="tcr">11-15</td> <td class="tcr">c 8-12</td> <td class="tcr">4-8&ensp;</td> <td class="tcr">9-14</td> <td class="tcr">1-26</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">24-20</td> <td class="tcr">20-11</td> <td class="tcr">17-13</td> <td class="tcr">18-15</td> <td class="tcr">26-22</td> <td class="tcr">31-22</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">8-12</td> <td class="tcr">7-16</td> <td class="tcr">5-9&ensp;</td> <td class="tcr">2-7&ensp;</td> <td class="tcr">14-17</td> <td class="tcr">19-23</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">28-24</td> <td class="tcr">24-20</td> <td class="tcr">22-18</td> <td class="tcr">30-26</td> <td class="tcr">21-14</td> <td class="tcr">13-9&ensp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">9-14</td> <td class="tcr">b 16-19</td> <td class="tcr">15-22</td> <td class="tcr">10-14</td> <td class="tcr">18-23</td> <td class="tcr">12-19</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">22-17</td> <td class="tcr">23-16</td> <td class="tcr">25-18</td> <td class="tcr">29-25</td> <td class="tcr">27-18</td> <td class="tcr">9-6&ensp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">3-8&ensp;</td> <td class="tcr">12-19</td> <td class="tcr">14-23</td> <td class="tcr">14-18</td> <td class="tcr">6-10</td> <td class="tcr">7-11</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">a 26-22</td> <td class="tcr">20-16</td> <td class="tcr">27-18</td> <td class="tcr">32-27</td> <td class="tcr">15-6&ensp;</td> <td class="tcc">Drawn.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc">R. Jordan.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>a. This move is the favourite at this point on account of its
+&ldquo;trappiness,&rdquo; but 25-22 is probably stronger, thus: 25-22, 16-19,
+24-15, 11-25, 29-22, 8-11, 17-13, 11-16, 20-11, 7-16, and white
+can with advantage continue by 27-24, 22-17, 23-19 or 22-18.</p>
+
+<p>b. 15-19, 20-11, 8-15, 23-16, 12-19, 17-13, 5-9, 30-26, 4-8,
+27-23, 8-12, 23-16, 12-19, 31-27, 1-5, 27-23, 19-24, 32-27, 24-31,
+22-17. White wins. C. F. Barker.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcr">c 8-11</td> <td class="tcr">27-18</td> <td class="tcr">15-18</td> <td class="tcr">14-10</td> <td class="tcr">24-27</td> <td class="tcr">7-10</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">16-7&ensp;</td> <td class="tcr">15-22</td> <td class="tcr">14-10</td> <td class="tcr">19-24</td> <td class="tcr">31-24</td> <td class="tcr">27-31</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">2-11</td> <td class="tcr">25-18</td> <td class="tcr">6-15</td> <td class="tcr">10-7&ensp;</td> <td class="tcr">16-20</td> <td class="tcr">10-26</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">22-18</td> <td class="tcr">10-15</td> <td class="tcr">17-14</td> <td class="tcr">18-23</td> <td class="tcr">3-7&ensp;</td> <td class="tcr">31-22</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">14-23</td> <td class="tcr">18-14</td> <td class="tcr">11-16</td> <td class="tcr">7-3&ensp;</td> <td class="tcr">20-27</td> <td class="tcr">30-25</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr" colspan="6">Drawn. R. Stewart v. R. Jordan.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Problem No. 1 is the simplest form of that known to draughts-players
+as the &ldquo;First Position.&rdquo; It is of more frequent occurrence
+in actual play than any other end-game, and is, besides, typical of
+a class of draughts problems which may be described as analytical,
+in contradistinction to &ldquo;strokes.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="caption2">Problem No. 1, by Wm. Payne.<br />BLACK.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center"><img style="width:217px; height:215px" src="images/img549a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption2">WHITE.<br />White to move and win.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Solution:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcr">27-32</td> <td class="tcr">18-15</td> <td class="tcr">15-11</td> <td class="tcr">11-15</td> <td class="tcr">28-32</td> <td class="tcr">19-24</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">28-24</td> <td class="tcr">2-28-24</td> <td class="tcr">12-16</td> <td class="tcr">19-24</td> <td class="tcr">27-31</td> <td class="tcc">White</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">23-18</td> <td class="tcr">32-28</td> <td class="tcr">28-32</td> <td class="tcr">32-28</td> <td class="tcr">15-19</td> <td class="tcc">wins.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">3-a-24-28</td> <td class="tcr">1-24-20</td> <td class="tcr">16-19</td> <td class="tcr">24-27</td> <td class="tcr">31-26 &nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>a. 12-16 same as Var. I. at 5th move.</p>
+
+<p class="center">Var. I.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcr">24-27</td> <td class="tcr">18-15</td> <td class="tcr">19-16</td> <td class="tcr">28-32</td> <td class="tcr">8-12</td> <td class="tcr">15-11</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">15-18</td> <td class="tcr">b 16-20</td> <td class="tcr">18-23</td> <td class="tcr">8-12</td> <td class="tcr">23-18</td> <td class="tcc">White</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">12-16</td> <td class="tcr">15-18</td> <td class="tcr">16-11</td> <td class="tcr">32-27</td> <td class="tcr">12-8&ensp;</td> <td class="tcc">wins.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">28-32</td> <td class="tcr">24-19</td> <td class="tcr">23-19</td> <td class="tcr">12-8&ensp;</td> <td class="tcr">18-15</td> <td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">27-24</td> <td class="tcr">32-28</td> <td class="tcr">11-8&ensp;</td> <td class="tcr">27-23</td> <td class="tcr">8-12</td> <td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>b. 24-28 same as Var. II. at 1st move.</p>
+
+<p>Var. II. 12-16, 15-11, 16-19, 32-27, 28-32, 27-31, 32-28, 11-16,
+19-23, 16-19. White wins.</p>
+
+<p>Var. III. 24-19, 32-28, c 19-16, 28-24, 16-11, 24-20, 11-8, 18-15.
+White wins.</p>
+
+<p>c. 12-16, 28-32, 19-24 or 16-20, same as Var. II. at 5th and 9th
+moves respectively. White wins.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="caption2">Problem No. 2.<br />BLACK.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center"><img style="width:211px; height:210px" src="images/img549b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption2">WHITE.<br />White to move and win.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Problem No. 2 is a fine example of another class of problems,
+namely, &ldquo;strokes.&rdquo; It is formed from the &ldquo;Paisley&rdquo; opening,
+thus:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcr">11-16</td> <td class="tcr">22-17</td> <td class="tcr">11-16</td> <td class="tcr">26-19</td> <td class="tcr">9-13</td> <td class="tcr">15-10</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">24-19</td> <td class="tcr">9-13</td> <td class="tcr">25-21</td> <td class="tcr">4-8&ensp;</td> <td class="tcr">25-22</td> <td class="tcr">a 2-7&ensp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">8-11</td> <td class="tcr">17-14</td> <td class="tcr">6-9&ensp;</td> <td class="tcr">29-25</td> <td class="tcr">7-11 &nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">28-24</td> <td class="tcr">10-17</td> <td class="tcr">23-18</td> <td class="tcr">13-17</td> <td class="tcr">19-15 &nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">16-20</td> <td class="tcr">21-14</td> <td class="tcr">16-23</td> <td class="tcr">31-26</td> <td class="tcr">12-16</td> <td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>a. This forms the position on the diagram. The solution is as
+follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcr">27-23</td> <td class="tcr">7-14</td> <td class="tcr">18-9&ensp;</td> <td class="tcr">14-23</td> <td class="tcr">26-3&ensp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">20-27</td> <td class="tcr">9-6&ensp;</td> <td class="tcr">5-14</td> <td class="tcr">21-7&ensp;</td> <td class="tcr">27-31</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">14-9&ensp;</td> <td class="tcr">1-10</td> <td class="tcr">23-18</td> <td class="tcr">3-10</td> <td class="tcr">3-7&ensp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>White wins. Jacques and Campbell.</p>
+
+<p><i>Other Varieties.</i>&mdash;The forms of draughts practised on the European
+continent differ in some respects from the English variety, chiefly
+in respect of the power assigned to a man after &ldquo;crowning.&rdquo; The
+game of <i>Polish Draughts</i> is played in France, Holland, Belgium and
+Poland, where it has entirely superseded <i>Le Jeu de dames à la
+française</i>. It is played on a board of 100 squares with 20 men a side.
+The men move and capture as in English draughts, except that in
+capturing they move either forward or backward. A crowned man
+becomes a queen, and can move any number of squares along the
+diagonal. In her capture she takes any unguarded man or queen
+in any diagonal she commands, leaping over the captured man or
+queen and remaining on any unoccupied square she chooses of the
+same diagonal, beyond the piece taken. But if there is another unguarded
+man she is bound to choose the diagonal on which it can be
+taken. For example (using an English draught-board) place a
+queen on square 29 and adverse men at squares 22, 16, 24, 14. The
+queen is bound to move from 29 to 11, 20, 27, and having made the
+captures to remain at 9 or 5, whichever she prefers. The capturing
+queen or man must take all the adverse pieces that are <i>en prise</i>, or
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page550" id="page550"></a>550</span>
+that become so by the uncovering of any square from which a piece
+has been removed during the capture, <i>e.g.</i> white queen at square 7,
+black at squares 10, 18, 19, 22 and 27, the queen captures at 10,
+22, 27 and 19, and the piece at 22 being now removed, she must go
+to 15, take the man at 18, and stay at 22, 25 or 29. In consequence
+of the intricacy of some of these moves, it is customary to remove
+every captured piece as it is taken. If a man arrives at a crowning
+square when taking, and he can still continue to take, he must do so,
+and not stay on the crowning square as at draughts. Passing a
+crowning square in taking does not entitle him to be made a queen.
+In capturing, the player must choose the direction by which he can
+take the greatest number of men or queens, or he may be huffed.
+Numerical power is the criterion, <i>e.g.</i> three men must be taken in
+preference to two queens. If the numbers are equal and one force
+comprises more queens than the other, the player may take whichever
+lot he chooses. This form of draughts, played on a board of 144
+squares with 30 men a side, is extensively practised by British
+soldiers in India.</p>
+
+<p>The German <i>Damenspiel</i> is Polish draughts played on a board of
+the same size and with the same number of men as in the English
+game. It is sometimes called Minor Polish draughts, and is practised
+in Germany and Russia.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Italian game</i> differs from the English in two important
+particulars&mdash;a man may not take a king, and when a player has the
+option of capturing pieces in more than one way he must take in the
+manner which captures most pieces. There is a difference too in the
+placing of the board, the black square in the corner of the board
+being at the player&rsquo;s right hand, but until a king is obtained the
+differences from the English system are unimportant in practice.</p>
+
+<p>In <i>Spanish draughts</i> the board is set as for the Italian game. The
+men move as in English draughts, but, in capturing, the largest
+possible number of pieces must be taken, and the king has the same
+powers as in the Polish game. The game does not differ essentially
+from the English game until a king is obtained, and many games from
+Spanish works will be found incorporated in English books. Sometimes
+the game is played with 11 men and a king, or 10 men and
+2 kings a side, instead of the regulation 12 men.</p>
+
+<p><i>Turkish draughts</i> differs widely from all other modern varieties
+of the game. It is played on a board of 64 squares, all of which are
+used in play. Each player has 16 pieces, which are not placed on
+the two back rows of squares, as in chess, but on the second and third
+back rows. The pieces do not move diagonally as in other forms
+of the game, but straight forward or to the right or left horizontally.
+The king has the same command of a horizontal or vertical row of
+squares that the queen in Polish draughts has over a diagonal.
+Capturing is compulsory, and the greatest possible number of pieces
+must be taken, captured pieces being removed one at a time as taken.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Falkener&rsquo;s <i>Games Ancient and Oriental</i>; Lees&rsquo;
+<i>Guide to the Game of Draughts</i>; Drummond&rsquo;s <i>Scottish Draught Players</i>
+(Kear&rsquo;s reprint); Gould&rsquo;s <i>Memorable Matches</i> and <i>Book of Problems</i>,
+&amp;c. The <i>Draughts World</i> is the principal magazine devoted to the
+game. In Dunne&rsquo;s <i>Draught Players&rsquo; Guide and Companion</i> a section
+is devoted to the non-English varieties.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. M. M. D.; R. J.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DRAUPADI<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span>, in Hindu legend, the daughter of Drupada,
+king of Panchala, and wife of the five Pandava princes. She is
+an important character in the <i>Mahabharata</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DRAVE<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Drava</span> (Ger. <i>Drau</i>, Hung. <i>Dráva</i>, Lat. <i>Dravus</i>),
+one of the principal right-bank affluents of the Danube, flowing
+through Austria and Hungary. It rises below the Innichner Eck,
+near the Toblacher Feld in Tirol, at an altitude of a little over
+4000 ft., runs eastward, and forms the longest longitudinal
+valley of the Alps. The Drave has a total length of 450 m.,
+while the length of its Alpine valley to Marburg is 150 m., and to
+its junction with the Mur 250 m. Owing to its great extent and
+easy accessibility the valley of the Drave was the principal road
+through which the invading peoples of the East, as the Huns,
+the Slavs and the Turks, penetrated the Alpine countries. The
+Drave flows through Carinthia and Styria, and enters Hungary
+near Friedau, where up to its confluence with the Danube, at
+Almas, 14 m. E. of Esseg, it forms the boundary between that
+country and Croatia-Slavonia. At its mouth the Drave attains
+a breadth of 1055 ft. and a depth of 20 ft. The Drave is navigable
+for rafts only from Villach, and for steamers from Bárcs,
+a distance of 95 m. The principal affluents of the Drave are:
+on the left the Isel, the Gurk, the Lavant, and the largest of all,
+the Mur; and on the right the Gail and the Drann.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DRAVIDIAN<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> (Sanskrit <i>Dravi&#7693;a</i>), the name given to a collection
+of Indian peoples, and their family of languages<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> comprising all
+the principal forms of speech of Southern India. Their territory,
+which also includes the northern half of Ceylon, extends northwards
+up to an irregular line drawn from a point on the Arabian
+Sea about 100 m. below Goa along the Western Ghats as far as
+Kolhapur, thence north-east through Hyderabad, and farther
+eastwards to the Bay of Bengal. Farther to the north we find
+Dravidian dialects spoken by small tribes in the Central Provinces
+and Chota Nagpur, and even up to the banks of the Ganges in
+the Rajmahal hills. A Dravidian dialect is, finally, spoken by
+the Br&#257;h&#363;&#299;s of Baluchistan in the far north-west. The various
+Dravidian languages, with the number of speakers returned at
+the census of 1901, are as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 40%;" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Tamil</td> <td class="tcr">17,494,901</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Malay&#257;lam</td> <td class="tcr">6,022,131</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Kanarese</td> <td class="tcr">10,368,515</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Tulu</td> <td class="tcr">535,210</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Kodagu</td> <td class="tcr">39,191</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Toda</td> <td class="tcr">805</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">K&#333;ta</td> <td class="tcr">1,300</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Kuru&chi;</td> <td class="tcr">609,721</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Malto</td> <td class="tcr">60,777</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">G&#333;nd&#299;</td> <td class="tcr">1,125,479</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Kui</td> <td class="tcr">494,099</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Telugu</td> <td class="tcr">20,697,264</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Br&#257;h&#363;&#299;</td> <td class="tcr">48,589</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">Total</td> <td class="tcr">57,497,982</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Of these Tamil and Malay&#257;lam can be considered as two
+dialects of one and the same language, which is, in its turn,
+closely related to Kanarese. Tulu, Kodagu, Toda and K&#333;ta
+can be described as lying between Tamil-Malay&#257;lam and
+Kanarese, though they are more nearly related to the latter
+than to the former. The same is the case with Kuru&chi; and Malto,
+while Kui and G&#333;nd&#299; gradually approach Telugu, which latter
+language seems to have branched off from the common stock
+at an early date. Finally, the Br&#257;h&#363;&#299; dialect of Baluchistan has
+been so much influenced by other languages that it is no longer
+a pure Dravidian form of speech.</p>
+
+<p>The Dravidian languages have for ages been restricted to the
+territory they occupy at the present day. Moreover, they are
+gradually losing ground in the north, where they meet with
+Aryan forms of speech. If we compare the caste tables and the
+language tables in the Indian census of 1901 we find that only
+1,125,479 out of the 2,286,913 G&#333;nds returned were stated to
+speak the Dravidian G&#333;nd&#299;. Similarly only 1505 out of 17,187
+K&#333;l&#257;ms entered their language as K&#333;l&#257;m&#299;. Such tribes are
+gradually becoming Hinduized. Their language adopts an ever-increasing
+Aryan element till it is quite superseded by Aryan
+speech. In the north-eastern part of the Dravidian territory,
+to the east of Chanda and Bhandara, the usual state of affairs
+is that Dravidian dialects are spoken in the hills while Aryan
+forms of speech prevail in the plains. The Dravidian Kui thus
+stands out as an isolated island in the sea of Aryan speech.</p>
+
+<p>This process has been going on from time immemorial. The
+Dravidians were already settled in India when the Aryans
+arrived from the north-west. The fair Aryans were at once struck
+by their dark hue, and named them accordingly <i>k&#7771;i&#7779;&#7751;a tvac</i>,
+the black skin. In the course of time, however, the two races
+began to mix, and it is still possible to trace a Dravidian element
+in the Aryan languages of North India.</p>
+
+<p>The teaching of anthropology is to the same effect. Most
+speakers of Dravidian languages belong to a distinct anthropological
+type which is known as the Dravidian. &ldquo;The Dravidian
+race,&rdquo; says Sir H. Risley, &ldquo;the most primitive of the Indian
+types, occupies the oldest geological formation in India, the
+medley of forest-clad ranges, terraced plateaus, and undulating
+plains which stretches, roughly speaking, from the Vindhyas
+to Cape Comorin. On the east and west of the peninsular area
+the domain of the Dravidian is conterminous with the Ghats,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page551" id="page551"></a>551</span>
+while farther north it reaches on one side to the Aravallis and
+on the other to the Rajmahal hills.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>This territory is the proper home of the race. A strong
+Dravidian element can, however, also be traced in the population
+of northern India. In Kashmir and Punjab, where the Aryans
+had already settled in those prehistoric times when the Vedic
+hymns were composed, the prevailing type is the Aryan one. The
+same is the case in Rajputana. From the eastern frontier of the
+Punjab, on the other hand, and eastwards, a Dravidian element
+can be traced. This is the case in the valleys of the Ganges
+and the Jumna, where the Aryans only settled at a later period.
+Anthropologists also state that there is a Dravidian element in
+the population of western India, from Gujarat to Coorg.</p>
+
+<p>It is thus probable that Dravidian languages have once been
+spoken in many tracts which are now occupied by Aryan forms
+of speech. The existence of a Dravidian dialect in Baluchistan
+seems to show that Dravidian settlers have once lived in those
+parts. The tribe in question, the Br&#257;h&#363;&#299;s, are, however, now
+Eranians and not Dravidians by race, and it is not probable
+that there has ever been a numerous Dravidian population in
+Baluchistan. The Br&#257;h&#363;&#299;s are most likely the descendants of
+settlers from the south.</p>
+
+<p>There is no indication that the Dravidians have entered India
+from outside or superseded an older population. For all practical
+purposes they can accordingly be considered as the aborigines
+of the Deccan, whence they appear to have spread over part of
+northern India. Their languages <span class="correction" title="amended from 'from'">form</span> an isolated group, and
+it has not been possible to prove a connexion with any other
+family of languages. Such attempts have been made with
+reference to the Munda family, the Tibeto-Burman languages,
+and the dialects spoken by the aborigines of the Australian
+continent. The arguments adduced have not, however, proved
+to be sufficient, and only the Australian hypothesis can still
+lay claim to some probability. Till it has been more closely
+tested we must therefore consider the Dravidian family as an
+isolated group of languages, with several characteristic features
+of its own.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The pronunciation is described as soft and mellifluous. Abruptness
+and hard combinations of sounds are avoided. There is, for
+example, a distinct tendency to avoid pronouncing a short consonant
+at the end of a word, a very short vowel being often added after it.
+Thus the pronoun of the third person singular, which is <i>avan</i>, &ldquo;he,&rdquo;
+in Tamil, is pronounced <i>avanu</i> in Kanarese; the Sanskrit word
+<i>v&#257;k</i>, &ldquo;speech,&rdquo; is borrowed in the form <i>v&#257;ku</i> in Tamil; the word
+<i>gurram</i>, &ldquo;horse,&rdquo; is commonly pronounced <i>gurramu</i> in Telugu, and
+so on. Combinations of consonants are further avoided in many
+cases where speakers of other languages do not experience any
+difficulty in pronouncing them. This tendency is well illustrated
+by the changes undergone by some borrowed words. Thus the
+Sanskrit word <i>br&#257;hma&#7751;a</i>, &ldquo;a Brahmin,&rdquo; becomes <i>bar&#257;ma&#7751;a</i> in
+Kanarese and <i>pir&#257;ma&#7751;a</i> in Tamil; the Sanskrit <i>Drami&#7693;a</i>, &ldquo;Dravidian,&rdquo;
+is borrowed by Tamil under the form <i>Tir&#257;mi&#7693;a</i>. <i>Drami&#7693;a</i>,
+which also occurs as <i>Dravi&#7693;a</i>, is in its turn developed from an older
+<i>Dami&#7735;a</i>, which is identical with the word <i>Tami&#7771;</i>, Tamil.</p>
+
+<p>The forms <i>pir&#257;ma&#7751;a</i> and <i>Tir&#257;mi&#7693;a</i> in Tamil illustrate another
+feature of Dravidian enunciation. There is a tendency in all of
+them, and in Tamil and Malay&#257;lam it has become a law, against
+any word being permitted to begin with a stopped voiced consonant
+(<i>g</i>, <i>j</i>, <i>&#7693;</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>b</i>), the corresponding voiceless sounds (<i>k</i>, <i>c</i>, <i>&#7789;</i>, <i>t</i>, <i>p</i>, respectively)
+being substituted. In the middle of a word or compound,
+on the other hand, every consonant must be voiced. Thus the
+Sanskrit word <i>danta</i>, &ldquo;tooth,&rdquo; has been borrowed by Tamil in the
+form <i>tandam</i>, and the Telugu <i>anna</i>, &ldquo;elder brother,&rdquo; <i>tammulu</i>,
+&ldquo;younger brother,&rdquo; become when compounded <i>annadammulu</i>,
+&ldquo;elder and younger brothers.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>There is no strongly marked accent on any one syllable, though
+there is a slight stress upon the first one. In some dialects this
+equilibrium between the different parts of a word is accompanied
+by a tendency to approach to each other the sound of vowels in
+consecutive syllables. This tendency, which has been called the
+&ldquo;law of harmonic sequence,&rdquo; is most apparent in Telugu, where
+the short <i>u</i> of certain suffixes is replaced by <i>i</i> when the preceding
+syllable contains one of the vowels <i>i</i> (short and long) and <i>ei</i>. Compare
+the dative suffix <i>ku</i>, <i>ki</i>, in <i>gurramu-ku</i>, &ldquo;to a horse&rdquo;; but
+<i>tammuni-ki</i>, &ldquo;to a younger brother.&rdquo; This tendency does not,
+however, play a prominent rôle in the Dravidian languages.</p>
+
+<p>Words are formed from roots and bases by means of suffixed
+formative additions. The root itself generally remains unchanged
+throughout. Thus from the Tamil base <i>per</i>, &ldquo;great,&rdquo; we can form
+adjectives such as <i>per-iya</i> and <i>per-um</i>, &ldquo;great&rdquo;; verbs such as
+<i>per-u-gu</i>, &ldquo;to become increased&rdquo;; <i>per-u-kku</i>, &ldquo;to cause to increase,&rdquo;
+and so on.</p>
+
+<p>Many bases can be used at will as nouns, as adjectives, and as
+verbs. Thus the Tamil <i>ka&#7693;u</i> can mean &ldquo;sharpness,&rdquo; &ldquo;sharp,&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;to be sharp.&rdquo; Other bases are of course more restricted in their
+respective spheres.</p>
+
+<p>The inflection of words is effected by agglutination, <i>i.e.</i> various
+additions are suffixed to the base in order to form what we would
+call cases and tenses. Such additions have probably once been
+separate words. Most of them are, however, now only used as
+suffixes. Thus from the Tamil base <i>k&#333;n</i>, &ldquo;king,&rdquo; we can form an
+accusative <i>k&#333;n-ei</i>, a verb <i>k&#333;n-en</i>, &ldquo;I am king,&rdquo; and so on.</p>
+
+<p>Dravidian nouns are divided into two classes, which Tamil grammarians
+called high-caste and casteless respectively. The former
+includes those nouns which denote beings endowed with reason,
+the latter all others. Gender is only distinguished in the former
+class, while all casteless nouns are neuter. The gender of animals
+(which are irrational) must accordingly be distinguished by using
+different words for the male and the female, or else by adding words
+meaning male, female, respectively, to the name of the animal&mdash;processes
+which do not, strictly speaking, fall under the head of
+grammar.</p>
+
+<p>There are two numbers, the singular and the plural. The latter
+is formed by adding suffixes. It, however, often remains unmarked
+in the case of casteless nouns.</p>
+
+<p>Cases are formed by adding postpositions and suffixes, usually
+to a modified form of the noun which is commonly called the oblique
+base. Thus we have the Tamil <i>maram</i>, &ldquo;tree&rdquo;; <i>maratt-&#257;l</i>, &ldquo;from
+a tree&rdquo;; <i>maratt-u-kku</i>, &ldquo;to a tree&rdquo;; <i>v&#299;&#7693;u</i>, &ldquo;a house&rdquo;; <i>v&#299;&#7789;&#7789;-&#257;l</i>,
+&ldquo;from a house.&rdquo; The case terminations are the same in the singular
+and in the plural. The genitive, which precedes the governing noun,
+is often identical with the oblique base, or else it is formed by adding
+suffixes.</p>
+
+<p>The numeral system is decimal and higher numbers are counted in
+tens; thus Tamil <i>pattu</i>, &ldquo;ten&rdquo;; <i>iru-badu</i>, &ldquo;two tens,&rdquo; &ldquo;twenty.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The personal pronoun of the first person in most dialects has a
+double form in the plural, one including and the other excluding the
+person addressed. Thus, Tamil <i>n&#257;m</i>, &ldquo;we,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> I and you; <i>n&#257;&#7749;gal</i>,
+&ldquo;we,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> I and they.</p>
+
+<p>There is no relative pronoun. Relative clauses are effected by
+using relative participles. Thus in Telugu the sentence &ldquo;the book
+which you gave to me&rdquo; must be translated <i>m&#299;ru n&#257;ku iccina pus-takamu</i>,
+<i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;you me-to given book.&rdquo; There are several such
+participles in use. Thus from the Telugu verb <i>ko&#7789;&#7789;a</i>, &ldquo;to strike,&rdquo;
+are formed <i>ko&#7789;&#7789;-ut-unna</i>, &ldquo;that strikes,&rdquo; <i>ko&#7789;&#7789;-i-na</i>, &ldquo;that struck,&rdquo;
+<i>ko&#7789;&#7789;&#275;</i>, &ldquo;that would strike,&rdquo; &ldquo;that usually strikes.&rdquo; By adding
+pronouns, or the terminations of pronouns, to such forms, nouns are
+derived which denote the person who performs the action. Thus
+from Telugu <i>ko&#7789;&#7789;&#275;</i> and <i>v&#257;&#7693;u</i>, &ldquo;he,&rdquo; is formed <i>ko&#7789;&#7789;&#275;-v&#257;&#7693;u</i>, &ldquo;one who
+usually strikes.&rdquo; Such forms are used as ordinary verbs, and the
+usual verbal forms of Dravidian languages can broadly be described
+as such nouns of agency. Thus, the Telugu, <i>ko&#7789;&#7789;in&#257;&#7693;u</i>, &ldquo;he struck,&rdquo;
+can be translated literally &ldquo;a striker in the past.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Verbal tenses distinguish the person and number of the subject
+by adding abbreviated forms of the personal pronouns. Thus in
+Kanarese we have <i>m&#257;&#7693;id-enu</i>, &ldquo;I did&rdquo;; <i>m&#257;&#7693;id-i</i>, &ldquo;thou didst&rdquo;;
+<i>m&#257;&#7693;id-evu</i>, &ldquo;we did&rdquo;; <i>m&#257;&#7693;id-aru</i>, &ldquo;they did.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>One of the most characteristic features of the Dravidian verb
+is the existence of a separate negative conjugation. It usually has
+only one tense and is formed by adding the personal terminations
+to a negative base. Thus, Kanarese <i>m&#257;&#7693;-enu</i>, &ldquo;I did not&rdquo;; <i>m&#257;&#7693;-evu</i>,
+&ldquo;we did not&rdquo;; <i>m&#257;&#7693;-aru</i>, &ldquo;they did not.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The vocabulary has adopted numerous Aryan loan-words. This
+was a necessary consequence of the early connexion with the superior
+Aryan civilization.</p>
+
+<p>The oldest Dravidian literature is largely indebted to the Aryans
+though it goes back to a very early date. Tamil, Malay&#257;lam,
+Kanarese and Telugu are the principal literary languages. The
+language of literature in all of them differs considerably from the
+colloquial. The oldest known specimen of a Dravidian language
+occurs in a Greek play which is preserved in a papyrus of the
+2nd century <span class="sc">a.d.</span> The exact period to which the indigenous literature
+can be traced back, on the other hand, has not been fixed with
+certainty.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;Bishop R. Caldwell, <i>A Comparative Grammar of
+the Dravidian or South-Indian Family of Languages</i> (London, 1856;
+2nd edition, 1875); Dr Friedrich Müller, <i>Reise der österreichischen
+Fregatte Novara um die Erde in den Jahren 1857, 1858, 1859, unter
+den Befehlen des Commodore B. von Wüllerstorff-Urbair: Linguistischer
+Theil.</i> (Wien, 1867, pp. 73 and ff.); Dr Friedrich Müller,
+<i>Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft</i>, vol. iii. (Wien, 1884), pp. 106 and
+ff.; G. A. Grierson, <i>Linguistic Survey of India</i>, vol. iv. &ldquo;Munda
+and Dravidian Languages&rdquo; (Calcutta, 1906), pp. 277 and ff. by
+Sten Konow.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(S. K.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> In Dravidian words a line above a vowel shows that it is long.
+The dotted consonants &#7789;, &#7693;, and &#7751; are pronounced by striking the tip
+of the tongue against the centre of the hard palate. The dotted &#7735;
+is distinguished from l in a similar way. Its sound, however, differs
+in the different districts. A Greek &chi; marks the sound of <i>ch</i> in
+&ldquo;loch&rdquo;; <i>&#7779;</i> is the English <i>sh</i>; <i>c</i> the <i>ch</i> in &ldquo;church&rdquo;; and <i>&#7771;i</i> is an
+<i>r</i> which is used as a vowel. In the list of Dravidian languages the
+names are spelt fully, with all the necessary diacritical marks. In
+the rest of the article dots under consonants have been omitted in
+these words.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DRAWBACK<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span>, in commerce, the paying back of a duty previously
+paid upon the exportation of excisable articles or upon the
+re-exportation of foreign goods. The object of a drawback is to
+enable commodities which are subject to taxation to be exported
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page552" id="page552"></a>552</span>
+and sold in a foreign country on the same terms as goods from
+countries where they are untaxed. It differs from a bounty in
+that the latter enables commodities to be sold abroad at less
+than their cost price; it may occur, however, under certain
+conditions that the giving of a drawback has an effect equivalent
+to that of a bounty, as in the case of the so-called sugar bounties
+in Germany (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sugar</a></span>). The earlier tariffs contained elaborate
+tables of the drawbacks allowed on the exportation or re-exportation
+of commodities, but so far as the United Kingdom
+is concerned the system of &ldquo;bonded warehouses&rdquo; practically
+abolished drawbacks, as commodities can be warehoused (placed
+&ldquo;in bond&rdquo;) until required for subsequent exportation.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DRAWING<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span>, in art. Although the verb &ldquo;to draw&rdquo; has various
+meanings, the substantive <i>drawing</i> is confined by usage to its
+artistic sense, delineation or design. The word &ldquo;draw,&rdquo; from a
+root common to the Teutonic languages (Goth, <i>dragan</i>, O.H.G.
+<i>drahan</i>, Mod. Ger. <i>tragen</i>, which all have the sense of &ldquo;carry,&rdquo;
+O. Norse <i>draga</i>, A.S. <i>drazan</i>, <i>drazen</i>, &ldquo;draw,&rdquo; cf. Lat. <i>trahere</i>),
+means to pull or &ldquo;drag&rdquo; (a word of the same origin) as distinct
+from the action of pushing. It is thus used of traction generally,
+whether by men, animals or machines. The same idea is preserved
+in &ldquo;drawing&rdquo; as applied to the fine arts. We do not
+usually say, or think, that a sculptor is drawing when he is using
+his chisel, although he may be expressing or defining forms,
+nor that an engraver is drawing when he is pushing the burin
+with the palm of the hand, although the result may be the
+rendering of a design. But we do say that an artist is drawing
+when he uses the lead pencil, and here we have a motion bearing
+some resemblance to that of traction generally. The action of
+the artist in drawing the pencil point with his fingers along the
+paper is analogous, <i>e.g.</i>, to that of a horse or man drawing a
+pole over soft ground and leaving a mark behind. The same
+analogy may be observed between two of the senses in which the
+<span class="correction" title="amended from Frech">French</span> verb <i>tirer</i> is frequently employed. This word, the origin
+of which is quite uncertain, was formerly used by good writers
+in the two senses of the verb to draw. Thus Lafontaine says,
+&ldquo;Six forts chevaux <i>tiraient</i> un coche&rdquo;; and Caillières wrote,
+&ldquo;Il n&rsquo;y a pas longtemps que je me suis fait <i>tirer</i> par Rigaud,&rdquo;
+meaning that Rigaud had drawn or painted his portrait. At the
+present day the verb <i>tirer</i> has fallen into disuse amongst cultivated
+Frenchmen with regard to drawing and painting, but it is
+still universally used for all kinds of design and even for photography
+by the common people. The cultivated use it still for
+printing, as for example &ldquo;cette gravure sera tirée à cent exemplaires,&rdquo;
+in the sense of pulling. A verb much more nearly
+related to the English verb <i>to draw</i> is the French <i>traire</i> (Lat.
+<i>trahere</i>), which has <i>trait</i> for its past participle. <i>Traire</i> is now
+used exclusively for milking cows and other animals, and though
+the analogy between this and artistic drawing is not obvious at
+first, nevertheless there is a certain analogy of motion, since the
+hand passing down the teat draws the milk downwards. The
+word <i>trait</i> is much more familiar in connexion with art as &ldquo;les
+traits du visage,&rdquo; the natural markings of the face, and it is very
+often used in a figurative sense, as we say &ldquo;traits of character.&rdquo;
+It is familiar in the English <i>portrait</i>, derived from <i>protrahere</i>.
+The ancient Romans used words which expressed more clearly
+the conception that drawing was done in line (<i>delineare</i>) or in
+shade (<i>adumbrare</i>), though there are reasons for believing that
+the words were often indiscriminately applied. Although the
+modern Italians have both <i>traire</i> and <i>trarre</i>, they use <i>delineare</i>
+still <span class="correction" title="amended from 'is'">in</span> the sense of artistic drawing, and also <i>adombrare</i>. The
+Greek verb <span class="grk" title="graphein">&#947;&#961;&#940;&#966;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span> appears in English in &ldquo;graphic&rdquo; and in
+many compounds, such as photograph, &amp;c. It is worth observing
+that the Greeks seem to have considered drawing and writing
+(<i>q.v.</i>) as essentially the same process, since they used the same
+word for both. This points to the early identity of the two arts
+when drawing was a kind of writing, and when such writing as
+men had learned to practise was essentially what we should
+call drawing, though of a rude and simple kind. Even in the
+present day picture writing is not unfrequently resorted to by
+travellers as a means of making themselves intelligible. There
+is also a kind of art which is writing in the modern sense and
+drawing at the same time, such as the work of the medieval
+illuminators in their manuscripts.</p>
+<div class="author">(X.)</div>
+
+<p><i>The Art of Drawing.</i>&mdash;Rather than attempt here a historical
+survey of the various so-called &ldquo;styles&rdquo; of drawing, or write a
+personal appreciation of them, it seems of greater use to give a
+logical account of drawing as an art, applicable to all times and
+countries. Reference to the teaching of drawing will be occasionally
+given rather to illustrate the argument than with a view to
+its being of practical use.</p>
+
+<p>At the outset a distinction must be made between drawing as
+a means of symbolic or literary expression and drawing as the
+direct and only means of expressing the beauty of form. If
+Pharaoh wants to have it known that a hundred ducks were
+consumed at one meal in his court, he employs a draughtsman
+to register the fact on a frieze by picturing a row of cooks occupied
+in preparing the hundred ducks. The artist in this case does not
+represent the scene as he must have known it in the kitchen,
+with all its variety of movement and composition (as an early
+Greek vase painter conceived the interior of a vase factory),
+but all he does and is required to do is to give the sufficient
+number of figures and ducks. The more uniform the figures the
+greater will be the effect of number. Drawing has been employed
+here to tell a story, and it succeeds in so far as it tells the spectator
+plainly what could be told, perhaps less conveniently, in words.
+It matters not whether the figures and objects be feelingly
+rendered and harmoniously composed. So, to-day, a child, or
+any one who has a simple trick of symbolizing figures and objects
+in nature, can describe any event or moral by this process,
+provided the plot be not too elaborate to be expressed by a
+scene, or series of scenes, enacted by dumb symbolic figures.
+It is plain that the amusing pictures in <i>Punch</i> or <i>Fliegende
+Blätter</i> would be none the more amusing if they were done by the
+hand of Michelangelo, nor would the mystic designs of Blake
+be more full of meaning if drawn by Rembrandt, for in neither
+case do these works depend upon any subtle rendering of the
+forms of nature for their success, but upon the dramatic or
+intellectual imagination of the man who conceived them. When
+the witty or ethical man is at the same time a master draughtsman
+his work has two values, the &ldquo;literary&rdquo; content and the
+beauty of his drawing of natural objects. But it must be borne
+in mind that these values are fundamentally distinct; so much
+so that the spectator who has no appreciation of the forms of
+nature enjoys the story told and remains blind to the qualities
+of draughtsmanship, whilst the lover of nature&rsquo;s forms may or
+may not trouble to unravel the literary plot but finds perfect
+satisfaction in the drawing. By far the greater part of illustration,
+and of artistic production generally, must be classed as
+symbolic art. Magazine stories to-day are sometimes illustrated
+even by photography, for the hand of the artist is not required.
+Symbolic art describes indirectly and in a necessarily limited
+scope what literature can do directly and with unlimited powers.
+The only content of symbolic drawing is its literary meaning;
+as drawing it may be quite worthless.</p>
+
+<p>Pure drawing, however, whether it represent a dramatic
+event or a knee-joint, has a content that cannot be expressed
+by words, and is not necessarily directed towards literary expression.
+Just as a fragment of good sculpture pleases the
+connoisseur without any reference either to the whole original
+or to its spiritual significance, fine drawing can appeal to the
+lover of nature independently of indirect considerations.</p>
+
+<p>What is the content of pure drawing? It is held by some
+that drawing or monochrome can suggest colour, and many
+people, some consciously, others unconsciously, attempt to
+represent in drawings the colours of figures and landscape. It
+seems a strange aberration to argue that by different intensities
+of the one colour various other colours can be suggested: it
+would not be more unreasonable to maintain that E flat and F
+could be suggested by striking the note G with varying strength.
+Now the draughtsman employs various intensities of his monochrome
+as light and shade by which to give roundness to his
+forms. But if on the same drawing he uses the same means in
+his attempt to express colour, a conflict would be at once set up
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page553" id="page553"></a>553</span>
+between that which makes for form and that which would make for colour,
+and the result would generally be a confusion. Again, let one attempt to
+give red hair to a monochrome drawing of a man, and if the red be plain
+and unmistakable to all who are not the artist&rsquo;s accomplices, then the
+artist has succeeded; otherwise it is bootless to treat of colour and
+colour values (which of course must depend upon the existence of colour)
+in monochrome. Apart from theory, if we examine the drawings, etchings
+and monochromes of great artists, where do we find them attempting to
+give colour or colour values? The hundreds of costume studies by
+Rembrandt might have been done from white plaster models, and there are
+only a few exceptions where a man has, for instance, a black hat or
+cloak. But in these few instances the &ldquo;colour&rdquo; tone is applied with such
+discretion that the true representation of the form is scarcely, perhaps
+only theoretically, impaired: they certainly have gained nothing in
+colour value because no specific colour is manifest in them. In
+Rembrandt&rsquo;s, Claude&rsquo;s or Turner&rsquo;s drawings of landscapes the formation
+of the country, the architecture, &amp;c., is expressed by line, light and
+shade, and enhanced by shadows cast from clouds and trees. If, in the
+drawings of masters, we should find objects darker or lighter than their
+position in the light would warrant, they have value (perhaps not quite
+a legitimate one) for balancing the composition as a flat pattern. They
+were never intended to suggest colour, nor do they. Yet, in spite of the
+failure to succeed, and contrary to logical argument and the practice of
+great draughtsmen, the student of most of the schools of Europe and
+America still persists in doing the hair dark, and, by attempting to
+give colour values to the clothes, breaks up the consistency of the
+whole. For the same reason that the sculptor uses uniformly coloured
+material in order that the natural light and shade may have full
+opportunity of making his forms manifest to the spectator, the
+draughtsman confines himself to giving light and shade only. If a
+monochrome has &ldquo;colour tones,&rdquo; the effect is similar to that produced by
+a draped statue made out of variously coloured marbles&mdash;an inartistic
+jumble.</p>
+
+<p>As the immediate purpose and content of drawing there remains the
+representation of form only. Drawing is, therefore, essentially the same
+activity as sculpture, and has no additional scope. &ldquo;Pupils,&rdquo; says
+Donatello, &ldquo;I give you the whole art of sculpture when I tell you to
+draw&rdquo; (cited by Holroyd, <i>Michel Angelo</i>, p. 2 95), and the only
+practical teaching of drawing might be summed up by the inversion of the
+above.</p>
+
+<p>Now if everything in nature&mdash;men, mountains or clouds&mdash;were as flat
+targets, <i>i.e.</i> two-dimensional, drawing could be legitimately reduced to
+a mechanical process,&mdash;to trace their contours upon a glass screen or
+even photograph them would be all that would be required. Indeed,
+provided the size of the drawing, the local colour and the texture be
+the same as those of the original, a complete illusion would be the
+result, in fact the proper end of one&rsquo;s labours. But the presence of the
+third dimension in all objects causes light and shade, which in their
+turn bring about radical changes of the local colour, even in uniformly
+coloured objects. Now since drawing cannot suggest colour, local or
+atmospherical, any attempt to effect an illusion by a monochrome is at
+once defeated. If the end of drawing were to approach imitation or
+illusion as nearly as possible, how is it that a mere &ldquo;sketch&rdquo; by a
+master draughtsman can be for itself as valuable as his highly finished
+drawing? And surely a masterly outline drawing of a figure or landscape
+does not pretend to be an illusion. If then the draughtsman does not,
+and cannot hope to imitate nature, he is compelled to state only his
+ideas of it, ideas of three-dimensional form. For this reason only
+drawing must be treated as an art, and not as a mechanical act of
+getting an illusion.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="3"><img style="width:900px; height:344px" src="images/img553.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="f80">(From a Greek vase in the British
+Museum (E. 46).</span><br />
+<span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="f80">(From <i>Bulletino arch. Napol</i>. (1843, tom. 1, tav. 7).</span><br />
+<span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="f80">(From a drawing by Michelangelo (1854, 5, 13, i.),<br />
+Print Room, British Museum).</span><br />
+<span class="sc"> Fig. 3.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>It is interesting to trace in the history of an indigenous art the
+development of drawing that shall ultimately express ideas of
+three-dimensional form. Prof. Emanuel Loewy, in his <i>Rendering of Nature
+in Early Greek Art</i>, demonstrates how the early Greek sculpture (and
+that of all primitive peoples, children and ungifted artists) shows an
+aversion from depth. Their reliefs are of the flattest description,
+almost raised contours, and their figures in the round have at first
+only one aspect, or flat façade, so to speak, then three and four
+aspects, and finally at the date of Lysippus the figures are fully
+rounded out, and the members project at liberty in all directions. Then
+for the first time Greek sculpture showed a complete conception of the
+body&rsquo;s corporeity (<i>Körperlichkeit</i>). The primitive artist, however well
+he may be <i>intellectually</i> aware of the three dimensions of an object,
+does not fully apprehend its true aspect as offered to the eye from one
+point of view. Following this conclusion, it is easy to see also in the
+drawing of the early Greeks, children and so on, the same lack of idea
+of the third dimension. The figures on the vases of the &ldquo;finest period&rdquo;
+(about 475 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>), despite occasional foreshortenings, have, when
+considered as representations of solid forms, a papery appearance. They
+have not half the draughtsmanship shown by the latter period of the vase
+industry, where the figures, though careless, stereotyped and
+ill-composed, come forwards (to use Prof. Loewy&rsquo;s description of later
+sculpture), go backwards, twist and turn in space in a manner which
+cannot be excelled. The reproductions in figs. 1, 2, 3 will illustrate
+the development. The primitive draughtsman is at first bound by the
+silhouette. Later, he desires to fill out the interior, but this cannot
+be done without in great part modifying his contour lines, because they
+are generally merely indications of the disappearing and reappearing
+inner modelling, <i>i.e.</i> of the figure&rsquo;s third dimension. Finally, the
+draughtsman in full possession of a feeling for the corporeity of the
+object will determine his contour entirely from within, a procedure
+which is the exact opposite to that of his first beginnings. He
+conceives the length, breadth and depth of an object and all its parts
+as solid wholes. To him a body in violent foreshortening is as easy as a
+simple
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page554" id="page554"></a>554</span>
+profile, and, though it may not be as attractive, it is perhaps
+more interesting because its contours are more bound up with,
+and dependent upon, the inner modelling; in other words, it has
+more depth. The draughtsman&rsquo;s idea of a form in nature is
+not a &ldquo;flat idea,&rdquo; but one containing three dimensions. This
+idea he seeks to express either by line alone or by light and shade.
+If an artist has not a three-dimensional &ldquo;grasp&rdquo; of forms,
+and, like a child, confines himself to the primitive tracing of the
+silhouette, his compositions may be of excellent flat pattern,
+and equal to any of the designs of ancient carpets or early Greek
+vases; but in the light of the above argument, and when compared
+with the productions of mature draughtsmen of all ages and
+countries, they cannot be said to be complete drawings, any
+more than the early unifacial statues of the Greeks can be called
+true plastic, simply because in neither case has the artist yet
+reached the highest possible development of corporeous conception,
+by which truly to interpret the solid objects of nature as
+we know them, and as master draughtsmen see them.</p>
+
+<p>An attempt should be made to explain the psycho-physiological
+process that must take place in the mind of the real
+draughtsman. When we look at an object in nature we know
+its length and breadth by the flat image on the retina; we see
+also the light and shade, which at once gives us a correct idea
+of the object&rsquo;s depth or relief. But we do not, nor could we,
+have this idea from the flat image on the retina alone, <i>i.e.</i> from
+the mere perception of the light and shade: our knowledge of
+its depth is the result of experience, <i>i.e.</i> of our having from
+infancy remarked a certain dispensation of light and shade on,
+and peculiar to, every form we have touched or traversed, and
+so, by association and inference, being early enabled to have
+ideas of the depth of things by their various arrangements of
+lights and darks without having to touch or traverse them.
+Nevertheless the act (generally, but by no means always, an
+unconscious one) of visually touching a form must necessarily
+take place before we can apprehend the third dimension of a form.
+It is, then, by the combination of the ideas derived from pure
+vision and the ideas derived from touch that we know the
+length, breadth and depth of a solid form. We have shown that
+the art of drawing is not an imitation, but an expression of the
+artist&rsquo;s ideas of form; therefore all drawing of forms that merely
+reproduces the image on the retina, and leaves unconsulted
+the ideas of touch, is incomplete and primitive, because it does
+not express a conception of form which is the result of an association
+of the two senses; in other words, it does not contain an idea
+of the object&rsquo;s relief or solidity. And all teaching of drawing
+that does not impress upon the student the necessity of combining
+the sense of vision with that of touch is erroneous, for it is
+thereby limiting him to a mechanical task, viz. the tracing of the
+flat image on the retina, which could be equally well done by
+mechanical means, or by photography alone.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 430px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:381px; height:145px" src="images/img554.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 4.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In most of the schools of Europe and America it is true that
+great stress is laid upon the importance of giving life-like relief to
+drawings, but the
+method by which
+the students are
+allowed to get
+the relief is by
+employing the
+sense of vision
+only. Tracing the
+silhouette of the
+figure as minutely as possible, they then fill it out with inner-modelling,
+which also is done by vision alone, for the lights
+and darks of the original are copied down as so many flat
+patterns fitted together and gradated like a child&rsquo;s puzzle,
+and are not used merely as indication by which to &ldquo;feel&rdquo; the
+depth of the object. Such a procedure is as if in drawing a
+brick of which three sides were visible, one were first to draw
+the entire contour (fig. 4, a), the subtle perspective of which he
+might get correct with some mechanical apparatus or by infinite
+mechanical pains, and then fill up the interior with its &ldquo;shading&rdquo;
+(fig. 4, b). The method would be plainly laborious, unintelligent
+and unedifying, and in drawing the most complicated foreshortened
+forms of the human body it would seem still more
+illogical. That this principle of instruction does not help the
+student to grasp the three-dimensional character properly can
+be proved by the twenty-minute studies of the average student
+who in his fourth year has won a gold medal for an astounding
+piece of life-like stippling. They are still unintelligent contour
+tracings, as if of cardboard figures, with a few irrelevant patches
+of dark here and there within the silhouette.</p>
+
+<p>But high modelling that would make for illusion of reality is not
+the first aim of draughtsmanship, nor have the best draughtsmen
+employed it save by exception. Michelangelo, Ingres, Holbein
+and Rembrandt have shown us that it is possible to give sufficient
+relief with a mere outline drawing. Again, the desire for salience
+often blunts the student&rsquo;s sense of the real character of the forms
+he is rounding out. So his elaborately modelled portrait may
+look very &ldquo;life-like,&rdquo; but when compared with the original it will
+generally be seen that the whole and each of the individual forms
+of the drawing lack the peculiar character of those of the original.
+It is by carefully watching for the character of each fresh variety
+in figure and feature that great draughtsmen have excelled, and
+not by &ldquo;life-like&rdquo; relief, or even a sophisticated exposition of
+anatomical details at the expense of character. Can it be
+seriously maintained that a masterly sudden grasp of true formal
+character can be developed in a student by a system in which he
+patiently spends many days and weeks in stippling into plastic
+appearance one drawing which has originally been &ldquo;laid in&rdquo; by a
+mechanical process?</p>
+
+<p>It has been shown that to attempt to make an illusion of nature
+is neither within the power of monochrome nor has been the
+chief aim of draughtsmen, but that the art of drawing consists in
+giving a plain statement of one&rsquo;s ideas, be they slight or studied,
+of the solid forms of nature. But the question may still be asked:
+Why is it that a rigorously accurate and finished drawing by a
+student or artist with <i>no</i> such ideas or conception is not good
+drawing, containing as it must do all that can be seen in the
+original, missing only its complete illusion? Why, in a word, is
+not a photograph a work of art?</p>
+
+<p>The common explanation of the above important question is
+that the artist &ldquo;selects and eliminates from the forms of nature.&rdquo;
+But surely this is the principle of the caricaturist and virtuoso?
+A beautiful drawing, however slight, is but the precipitate of the
+whole in the artist&rsquo;s mind. And a highly finished drawing by a
+master does not show even any apparent selection or elimination.
+The adoption of the principle of selection to differentiate art from
+mechanical reproduction is fundamentally vicious, and could be
+shown to be wholly inapplicable to the so-called formative arts.
+Nor could the theory of &ldquo;selection&rdquo; be used as a principle of
+teaching, for if to the first question the pupil would make, &ldquo;What
+am I to select?&rdquo; it were answered, &ldquo;Only the important things,&rdquo;
+then the next question, &ldquo;What are the important things?&rdquo; could
+be answered only by saying, &ldquo;That alone the real artist knows,
+but cannot teach.&rdquo; Certainly there are important things that
+can be taught the student in the initial stage of &ldquo;laying-in&rdquo; a
+figure, but <i>when</i> to begin selecting or eliminating no teacher
+could tell him, simply because he must be aware that a true
+draughtsman can afford to eliminate nothing when the truth of
+the whole is at stake. The artist&rsquo;s conception and its expression
+may be slight or elaborate, but in neither case can selection or
+elimination take place, for a true conception must be founded
+upon the character of the whole, which is determined by the
+entire complex of all the parts.</p>
+
+<p>To explain the essential difference between art and mechanical
+drawing or mechanical reproduction, a more applicable theory
+must be found. Compare the art of telling a story. If, to
+describe an incident in the street you had the entire affair reenacted
+on the same spot, you would have but made a mechanical
+reproduction of it, leaving the spectator to simplify the affair, and
+construct his <i>own</i> conception of it. You have not given <i>your</i>
+ideas of the event, and so you have not made a work of art. So, if
+a man draws an object detail for detail by any mechanical
+process, or traces over its photograph, he has but reduplicated
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page555" id="page555"></a>555</span>
+the real aspect of the object, and has failed to give the spectator a
+simple and intelligible idea of it. Starting out with the generous
+notion of giving all, that there may be &ldquo;something for everyone,&rdquo;
+he has given nothing. He did not originally form an intelligible
+and simplified idea of the figure, so how can his drawing be
+expected to give one to others?</p>
+
+<p>But how can forms be made <i>more</i> simple and intelligible than
+by reproducing their aspect with absolute accuracy? Our
+combined sense of vision and touch comprehends very easily
+certain elementary solid forms, the sphere, the cube, the pyramid
+and the cylinder. No forms but these, and their modifications,
+can be apprehended by the mind in one and the same act of
+vision. Every complex form, even so simple as that of a kidney,
+for instance, must be first broken up into its component parts
+before it can be fully apprehended or remembered. Analogously
+with the above, Prof. Wundt has shown how the mind can
+apprehend <i>as separate units</i> any number, of marbles for instance,
+up to five, after which every number must be split up into lots of
+twos, threes, fours and fives, or twenties, thirties and so on,
+before it can realize the full content of that number in one and the
+same mental picture. So the only way to receive an intelligible
+idea of a complex form, such as a human figure, is first to discover
+in the figure itself, and then in all its parts, only modifications of
+the above elementary solid forms, and the drawing of a conception
+thus informed must needs be a very clear and intelligible
+one. The more the artist is capable and practised, the more
+clearly will he conceive and distinguish in nature each subtle
+modification of these elementary forms, their direction, their
+relation to, and their dependence upon one another. The only
+difference between a good draughtsman and a bad one is the
+degree of subtlety of his apprehension. Unless the draughtsman
+has seen some such clear forms in his original, his labour to
+produce a work of art will be grievous and fruitless. All good
+drawing is stamped with this kind of structural insight. The
+more the artist adheres to nature, and the more finished his
+drawing, the more will the lines and forms that he makes be, so to
+speak, <i>in excess</i> of those of nature, or dull imitation or photography.
+It is not to be supposed that able draughtsmen work, or
+need ever have worked, consciously in this manner. It is,
+indeed, the virtue peculiar to the artist, as interpreter of form,
+that he instinctively comprehends the real elemental character of
+complex forms, whilst the majority of people (on the showing of
+their own drawings) entertain but confused or <i>no</i> ideas of them.
+It is because a good drawing reduces the chaos of ideas supplied
+by the raw material of nature, to one intelligible manner of
+seeing it, that all lovers of nature welcome it with joy. It is this
+process of discovery and interpretation that marks the essential
+difference between art and mechanical drawing or reproduction.
+Art gives intelligible ideas of the forms of nature, mechanism
+attempts to reduplicate their aspects.</p>
+
+<p>There are some who hold that drawing is not exclusively a
+matter of interpreting form, but that great artists have their own
+&ldquo;personalities&rdquo; which they infuse into their work. They will
+ask, How is it otherwise to be explained that two equally good
+draughtsmen will invariably make different drawings of the same
+figure? Is it not for the same reason that one man will divide up
+a row of eight marbles into groups of four, and another into five
+and three? The subjectivity of experience governs the different
+conceptions that good draughtsmen will form of the same object.
+Accordingly as a draughtsman feels form so will he draw it, and it
+is only because our sense apparatuses are more or less similarly
+constituted that we can understand and appreciate one another&rsquo;s
+conceptions.</p>
+
+<p>But if the master draughtsman gives the true character of
+his model&rsquo;s form, why is it that his drawings are not pleasing to
+all alike? Whence the doubts and criticism that have been
+called forth by all original artists? If we first examine the
+attitude of the average man, artist or layman, towards nature,
+we can better explain his attitude towards works of art. The
+average man or artist has not a highly developed appreciation of
+form <i>per se</i>, whether it be the form of natural or manufactured
+objects. And it would seem that he is still less a disinterested
+spectator of the forms and features of his fellow beings and
+animals, their movements, their colour, their value in a room or
+landscape. He has sentimental, moral or intellectual preferences.
+In other words, he likes or dislikes only those faces or
+figures which hundreds of personal associations have taught
+him to like or dislike. The riding man&rsquo;s admiration for the look
+of a particular horse is based upon the fact that it looks like &ldquo;a
+horse to go,&rdquo; and hence it is what he calls beautiful, while the
+artist, in the capacity of artist and not of sportsman, is not
+particular in his choice of horse-flesh, but finds each animal
+equally interesting for itself alone. Consequently in art any face,
+figure or object that does not come into the category of what
+the average man cares for is condemned by him even as it would
+be in real life, since he is no lover of form for form&rsquo;s sake, but
+provided the subject or moral be pleasing the quality of the
+draughtsmanship is of small account. The picture of a dwarf,
+or of an anatomy lesson, or of a group of ordinary bourgeois
+folk would not really please him, even though he were told that
+the work was by Velazquez, Rembrandt or Manet. We have
+only to listen to the common criticism of works of art to know
+that it is founded upon personal predilection only. We do not
+hear such personal criticism upon drawings of landscape, not
+because artists do them better, but because natural landscape
+has no interest for any one other than for its form, or, at least,
+people do not hold such definite personal likes or dislikes with
+regard to its various manifestations. But the artist, though his
+own personal predilections may, and generally do, lead him to
+work within that agreeable <i>milieu</i>, has, in the capacity of artist,
+no subjective prejudices; indeed, if he had them, he could not
+represent them by line, light and shade. He seeks always new
+varieties of form; hence his subjects, and his manner of posing
+them, are often unpleasing to the man who is busy with other
+affairs, and has no great experience of nature&rsquo;s forms. Let a good
+draughtsman make a successful likeness of the mother of some
+average man, and the latter will be delighted, but it by no means
+follows that he will delight in a drawing of the wife of the artist,
+though done by the same hand and with equal skill.</p>
+
+<p>If drawing is the art of giving one&rsquo;s ideas of the forms of
+nature, then all criticism of drawing must be based upon the
+question, &ldquo;How far does such and such a work show an intimate
+knowledge of or intelligent visualization of the forms we know
+in nature?&rdquo; and no other principle of judgment can be applicable
+to all drawing alike. Hence only those who have by natural
+endowment a clear sense of the forms of things, and who have
+made more than ordinary study of them, are in a position to
+apply to drawings the above criterion with any approach to
+infallibility. It is a fact that there are, and always have been,
+a certain number of people who agree perfectly in their appreciation
+of the works of certain draughtsmen of different times and
+countries, and who can state reasons for their appreciation in
+definite and almost identical terms, for it is based upon knowledge
+and experience. To such people all fine draughtsmanship owes
+its public fame, and its immortality lies in their safe keeping.</p>
+
+<p>It may be argued that each has a right to his own opinion
+about form and its representation, on the supposed ground that
+we all see form in different ways. But there is a fallacy in this
+argument. If we take the average man&rsquo;s drawing of any form
+more complex than a loaf of bread as a fair and only testimony
+of his power of visualization of forms, we must conclude that most
+of us see not differently, but <i>wrongly</i>, or rather confusedly and
+disconnectedly, and that some can visualize form scarcely at all.
+If this be true, the average person&rsquo;s sight and ability to judge
+drawing is seriously diminished. If, then, drawing can be judged
+and appreciated only by knowledge and experience of the forms
+of nature, no critical formula could be made out so as to enable
+a child or savage or ordinary civilized adult to estimate or enjoy
+it. If it be argued that drawings are to be judged from some
+abstract or symbolic point of view, independently of its subtle
+representation of form, then incompetent drawing might be as
+beautiful as the competent, which would be absurd. However,
+if the competent characterization of form were admitted as at
+least the first condition of beautiful drawing, it would follow
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page556" id="page556"></a>556</span>
+that any abstract value it might have must be wholly dependent
+upon the manner in which form is represented, and so it would
+be superfluous to judge it by any standard other than the direct,
+definite and concrete one of form. Abstract beauty, since no
+one has yet defined it agreeably to all, is, apparently, with those
+who affect a feeling for it, a matter of individual taste, and
+therefore cannot be questioned. But the clear visualization of
+the forms of nature is based upon a special endowment and
+knowledge, and can be criticized by demonstration. People
+may differ in their tastes, but they may not, nor do they, differ
+upon questions of real knowledge. Drawing, as the activity of
+giving one&rsquo;s ideas of form, must therefore be judged not by taste
+but by knowledge.</p>
+
+<p>In view of the purpose and content of drawing as here demonstrated,
+there is no other principle of judgment that is relevant.
+Yet we often hear drawing judged by criteria which are founded
+upon no such concrete base but upon certain vague abstractions;
+or, again, upon a literary or moral base which could be applicable
+only to symbolic art.</p>
+
+<p>It is said that this or that draughtsman excels in &ldquo;beauty of
+line.&rdquo; Now in spite of the labours of many painters and theorists,
+it cannot reasonably be held that one purely abstract line or
+curve is more beautiful than another, for the simple reason that
+people have no common ground upon which to establish the
+nature of abstract beauty. It may be, however, that even as
+certain simple forms are more easily apprehended than complex
+ones, there is the same distinction with regard to lines. If then
+an artist of clean vision sees in an object of reality such clear
+characteristic lines, he draws them not for their abstract beauty,
+but merely because by them alone can he express his idea of
+the form before him. The early Greek vase painters, and all
+great artists of primitive periods, being attracted only by the
+silhouette, became very subtle to observe nature&rsquo;s outlines in
+their most intelligible character, and to this capacity is due their
+&ldquo;beauty of line,&rdquo; and not to any preconceived notion of an
+abstract line of perfect beauty, and nowhere will &ldquo;beauty of
+line&rdquo; be found on Greek vases, or elsewhere, that is not informed
+by, and does not express, a fine conception of nature&rsquo;s contours.
+So too in later three-dimensional drawing there is no beauty of
+line which does not intelligibly express not only the directions
+and angles of the main contour, but the inner modelling, <i>i.e.</i>
+the relief of the figure. It is only a superficial judgment that
+would prefer one drawing to another, even if both may be equally
+good, because the line of one is neat and the other &ldquo;tormented.&rdquo;
+Contour being <i>in nature</i> an ideal line between one form and
+another, it is illogical to treat it or criticize it in a <i>drawing</i> as an
+actual and specific thing, apart from the forms that make it
+and are made by it. If an artist drew a dragon with deliberate
+disregard for animal construction, his drawing would be silly,
+and only by a profound knowledge of the forms of nature could
+it be made to have beautiful lines. Truth to nature is always
+originality, and it is the only originality worth the name.</p>
+
+<p>Again, some people judge one drawing as better than another
+in that it shows more &ldquo;individuality&rdquo; or &ldquo;temperament.&rdquo; Now
+a man&rsquo;s individuality is, presumably, a vague feeling in our
+minds produced by the net result of the ways in which he sees,
+hears, loves, thinks and so on, so that we could not tell a man&rsquo;s
+individuality from any single one of his manifestations. With
+his entire work as an artist before us, <i>i.e.</i> his manner of seeing,
+we could do no more than infer, with the help of outside data,
+from the subjects he chooses, and the neatness or boldness of his
+line, something about his general character, and that with small
+degree of certainty. To regard a man&rsquo;s works of art, or indeed
+any of his manifestations, from this point of view, is, after all,
+nothing but a kind of inquisitive cheiromancy. Those who
+pretend to like the drawings of Watteau or Michelangelo &ldquo;because
+they show more individuality&rdquo; than the incompetent work of a
+beginner or poor artist cannot be skilled in their own business,
+because the lady who tells your character by your handwriting
+finds as much individuality in bad writing as in good,&mdash;sometimes
+even more. It may be entertaining to some to guess at the
+artist&rsquo;s character from his works by this process of inference
+and comparison, but it is unreasonable to imagine that &ldquo;individuality,&rdquo;
+as such, can be made a serious criterion of aesthetic
+judgment. The only individuality a draughtsman can show
+directly by his drawing is his individual way of conceiving the
+forms of nature, and even this is immaterial provided the
+conception and drawing be good.</p>
+
+<p>A word or two are necessary upon &ldquo;style,&rdquo; which unfortunate
+word has made much mystery in criticism. The great draughtsmen
+of every time and country are known by their own words,
+as well as their works, to have been infinitely respectful to the
+form of every detail in nature. Their drawings always recall
+to our minds reality as we ourselves have seen it (provided we
+have studied from nature and not from pictures). The drawing
+of a hand, for instance, by Hokusai, Ingres or Dürer, revives
+in us our own impressions of the forms and aspects of real hands.
+In short there is manifest in all good drawings, whatever their
+difference of medium or superficial appearance, an entire dependence
+upon the forms of nature. Hence we cannot imagine
+that they were conceived and executed with the conscious
+effort to obtain some abstract style independent of the material
+treated. The style they plainly have can spring from this
+common quality, their truthful and well understood representation
+of forms. Style, then, is the expression of a clear understanding
+of the material from which the artist works. Unless
+a drawing shows this understanding it would be as impossible
+as it would be gratuitous to argue that it could have style. But
+it would seem that some people mean by style nothing more
+than the mere superficial appearance of the work. They would
+have a draughtsman draw &ldquo;in the style of Holbein,&rdquo; but not
+&ldquo;in the style&rdquo; of Rembrandt. This kind of preference, as
+remarked above, is superficial, for it overlooks the main issue
+and purpose of drawing, viz. the representation, by any means
+whatever, of the artist&rsquo;s ideas of form. It is as though one
+should prefer a letter from Holbein to one from Rembrandt,
+though both were equally expressive, simply because Holbein&rsquo;s
+handwriting was prettier than Rembrandt&rsquo;s. Each draughtsman
+manifests a kind of handwriting peculiar to himself even in
+his most faithful rendering of form; and by this we can immediately
+recognize the artist; many, for instance Hogarth and
+some Japanese, seem to have let their quirks, full stops
+and so on, get the upper hand at the expense of serious,
+sensitive draughtsmanship.</p>
+
+<p>It is fair to suppose that all abstract principles of aesthetic
+judgment, such as beauty of line, personality, style, nobility
+of thought, romanticism, are merely pretexts set up by people
+who would still affect to admire the drawings of recognized
+masters when they have neither the knowledge of, nor the care
+for, the forms of nature by virtue of which alone these drawings
+are what they are, and by which alone they can be immediately
+appreciated.</p>
+<div class="author">(J. R. Fo.)</div>
+
+<p><i>Drawing-Office Work.</i>&mdash;In modern engineering, few pieces of
+mechanism are ever produced in the shops until their design has
+been settled in the &ldquo;drawing office,&rdquo; and embodied in suitable
+drawings showing general and detailed views. This is a broad
+statement to which there are exceptions, to be noted presently.</p>
+
+<p>Drawing-office work is divisible into four principal groups.
+First, there is the actual designing, by far the most difficult
+work, which is confined to relatively few well-paid men. The
+qualifications necessary for it are a good scientific, mathematical
+and engineering training, and a specialized experience gathered
+in the particular class of mechanism to which the designing
+relates. Second, there is the work of the rank and file who take
+instructions from the chiefs, and elaborate the smaller details and
+complete the drawings. Third, there are the tracers, either
+youths or girls, who copy drawings on tracing paper without
+necessarily understanding them. Fourth, there is a printing
+department in which phototypes are produced on sensitized
+paper from tracings.</p>
+
+<p>The character of the drawings used includes the general
+drawings, or those which show a mechanism complete; and the
+detailed drawings, which illustrate portions isolated from their
+connexions and relationships. The first are retained in the office
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page557" id="page557"></a>557</span>
+for reference, and copies are only sent out to the men who have to
+assemble or erect and complete mechanisms. The second are
+distributed to the several shops and departments where sectional
+portions are being prepared, as pattern shop, smithy, turnery,
+machine shop, &amp;c. General drawings are, as a rule, drawn to a
+small scale, ranging say from <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span> in. to 1 in. to the foot; but
+details are either to actual size, or to a large scale, as from 1½ in.
+to the foot or 3 in. or 6 in. to the foot.</p>
+
+<p>A large number of minutiae are omitted from general drawings,
+but in the detailed ones that are sent into the shops nothing is
+apparently too trivial for insertion. In this respect, however,
+there is much difference observable in the practice of different
+firms, and in the best practice of the present compared with that
+of former years. In the detailed drawings issued by many firms
+now, every tiny element and section is not only drawn to actual
+size, but also fully dimensioned, and the material to be used is
+specified in every case. This practice largely adds to the work of
+the drawing-office staff, but it pays.</p>
+
+<p>The present tendency therefore is to throw more responsibility
+than of old on the drawing-office staff, in harmony with the
+tendency towards greater centralization of authority. Much of
+detail that was formerly left to the decision of foremen and
+skilled hands is now determined by the drawing-office staff.
+Heterogeneity in details is thus avoided, and the drawings reflect
+accurately and fully the past as well as the present practice of the
+firm. To so great an extent is this the case that the preparation
+of the tools, appliances, templets, jigs and fixtures used in the
+shops is often now not permitted to be undertaken until proper
+drawings have been prepared for them, though formerly the
+foreman&rsquo;s own hand sketches generally sufficed. The practice of
+turret work has been contributory to this result. In many
+establishments now the designing of shop tools and fixtures is
+done in a department of the office specially set apart for that
+kind of work.</p>
+
+<p>The growing specialization of the engineer&rsquo;s work is reflected
+in the drawing office. Specialists are sought after, and receive
+the highest rates of pay. A man is required to be an expert in
+some one branch, as electric cranes or hydraulic machines, steel
+works plant, lathes, or heavy or light machine tools. The days
+are past in which all-round men were in request. In those firms
+which manufacture a large range of machinery, the drawing-office
+staff is separated into departments, each under its own
+chief, and there is seldom any transference of men from one to
+another.</p>
+
+<p>Although in the majority of instances designs and drawings are
+completed before the manufacture is undertaken, exceptions to
+this rule occur in connexion with the work of standardizing
+machines and motors, for repetitive and interchangeable manufacture
+on a large scale. Here it is so essential to secure the most
+minute economies in manufacture that the first articles made
+are of a more or less experimental character. Only after no
+further improvement seems for the time being possible are the
+drawings made or completed for standard use and reference.
+In some modern shops even standardized drawings are scarcely
+used, but their place is taken by the templets, jigs and fixtures
+which are employed by the workmen as their sole guides in
+machining and assembling parts. By the employment of these
+aids locations and dimensions are embodied and fixed absolutely
+for any number of similar parts; reference to drawings thus
+becomes unnecessary, and they therefore fall into disuse.</p>
+
+<p>The mechanical work of the drawing office is confined strictly
+to orthographic projections and sections of objects. Perspective
+views are of no value, though occasionally an object is
+sketched roughly in perspective as an aid to the rapid grasp of an
+idea. Drawings involve plans, elevations, and sectional views,
+in vertical and angular relations.</p>
+
+<p>There are a good many conventionalities adopted which have
+no correspondences in fact, with the object of saving the draughtsman&rsquo;s
+time; or else, as in the case of superposition of plans and
+sections, to show in one view what would otherwise require two
+drawings. Among the convenient conventionalities are the
+indications of toothed wheels by their pitch lines only, of screws
+by parallel lines and by diagonal shade lines; and of rivets,
+bolts and studs by their centres only. The adoption of this
+practice never leads to error.</p>
+
+<p>In the preliminary preparation of drawings in pencil no
+distinction is made between full or unbroken lines, and dotted
+or centre lines, and the actual outlines of the objects. These
+differences are made when the inking-in is being done. Indian
+or Chinese ink is used, because it does not run when colours are
+applied. There are conventional colours used to indicate
+different materials. But colouring is not adopted so much as
+formerly, because of the practice of making sun prints instead of
+the more expensive tracings for the multiplication of drawings.
+When tracings are coloured the colour is applied on the back
+instead of on the side where the ink lines are drawn.</p>
+
+<p>The economical importance of the printing department of the
+drawing office cannot be overestimated. Before its introduction
+drawings could only be reproduced by laborious tracing on paper
+or cloth, the first being flimsy, the second especially liable to
+absorb grease from the hands of the workmen. By the sun
+copying processes (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sun Copying</a></span>) any number of prints can be
+taken from a single tracing. But even the fickle sun is being
+displaced by electricity, so that prints can be made by night as
+well as day, on cloudy days as well as on bright ones. Twenty
+minutes of bright sunshine is required for a print, but the electric
+light produces the same result within five minutes. Prints are
+blue, white or brown. The advantage of white is that they can
+be coloured. But the majority are blue (white lines on blue
+ground). All can be had on stout, thin or medium paper.</p>
+
+<p>An innovation in drawing-office equipment is that of vertical
+boards, displacing horizontal or sloping ones. They have the
+advantage that the draughtsman is able to avoid a bending
+posture at his work. The objection on the ground that the tee-square
+must be held up constantly with one hand is overcome by
+supporting and balancing it with cords and weights.</p>
+<div class="author">(J. G. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DRAWING AND QUARTERING,<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> part of the penalty anciently
+ordained in England for treason. Until 1870 the full punishment
+for the crime was that the culprit be dragged on a hurdle to the
+place of execution; that he be hanged by the neck but not till
+he was dead; that he should be disembowelled or drawn and his
+entrails burned before his eyes; that his head be cut off and his
+body divided into four parts or quartered. This brutal penalty
+was first inflicted in 1284 on the Welsh prince David, and on
+Sir William Wallace a few years later. In Richard III.&rsquo;s reign
+one Collingbourne, for writing the famous couplet &ldquo;The Cat, the
+Rat and Lovel the Dog, Rule all England under the Hog,&rdquo; was
+executed on Tower Hill. Stow says, &ldquo;After having been hanged,
+he was cut down immediately and his entrails were then extracted
+and thrown into the fire, and all this was so speedily done that
+when the executioners pulled out his heart he spoke and said
+&rsquo;Jesus, Jesus.&rsquo;&rdquo; Edward Marcus Despard and his six accomplices
+were in 1803 hanged, drawn and quartered for conspiring
+to assassinate George III. The sentence was last passed (though
+not carried out) upon the Fenians Burke and O&rsquo;Brien in 1867.
+There is a tradition that Harrison the regicide, after being
+disembowelled, rose and boxed the ears of the executioner.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DRAWING-ROOM<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> (a shortened form of &ldquo;with-drawing room,&rdquo;
+the longer form being usual in the 16th and 17th centuries), the
+English name generally employed for a room used in a dwelling-house
+for the reception of company. It originated in the setting
+apart of such a room, as the more private and exclusive preserve
+of the ladies of the household, to which they withdrew from the
+dining-room. The term &ldquo;drawing-room&rdquo; is also used in a special
+sense of the formal receptions or &ldquo;courts&rdquo; held by the British
+sovereign or his representative, at which ladies are presented, as
+distinguished from a &ldquo;levee,&rdquo; at which men are presented.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DRAYTON, MICHAEL<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> (1563-1631), English poet, was born
+at Hartshill, near Atherstone, in Warwickshire in 1563. Even
+in childhood it was his great ambition to excel in writing verses.
+At the age of ten he was sent as page into some great family,
+and a little later he is supposed to have studied for some time
+at Oxford. Sir Henry Goodere of Powlesworth became his
+patron, and introduced him to the countess of Bedford, and for
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page558" id="page558"></a>558</span>
+several years he was esquire to Sir Walter Aston. How the early
+part of his life was spent, however, we possess no means of
+ascertaining. It has been surmised that he served in the army
+abroad. In 1590 he seems to have come up to London, and to
+have settled there.</p>
+
+<p>In 1591 he produced his first book, <i>The Harmony of the Church</i>,
+a volume of spiritual poems, dedicated to Lady Devereux. The
+best piece in this is a version of the Song of Solomon, executed
+with considerable richness of expression. A singular and now
+incomprehensible fate befell the book; with the exception of
+forty copies, seized by the archbishop of Canterbury, the whole
+edition was destroyed by public order. It is probable that he
+had come up to town laden with poetic writings, for he published
+a vast amount within the next few years. In 1593 appeared
+<i>Idea: The Shepherd&rsquo;s Garland</i>, a collection of nine pastorals,
+in which he celebrated his own love-sorrows under the poetic
+name of Rowland. The circumstances of this passion appear
+more distinctly in the cycle of 64 sonnets, published in 1594,
+under the title of <i>Idea&rsquo;s Mirror</i>, by which we learn that the lady
+lived by the river Ankor in Warwickshire. It appears that he
+failed to win his &ldquo;Idea,&rdquo; and lived and died a bachelor. In
+1593 appeared the first of Drayton&rsquo;s historical poems, <i>The Legend
+of Piers Gaveston</i>, and the next year saw the publication of
+<i>Matilda</i>, an epical poem in rhyme royal. It was about this time,
+too, that he brought out <i>Endimion and Phoebe</i>, a volume which
+he never republished, but which contains some interesting
+autobiographical matter, and acknowledgments of literary help
+from Lodge, if not from Spenser and Daniel also. In his <i>Fig
+for Momus</i>, Lodge has reciprocated these friendly courtesies.
+In 1596 Drayton published his long and important poem of
+<i>Mortimerades</i>, which deals with the Wars of the Roses, and is a
+very serious production in <i>ottava rima</i>. He afterwards enlarged
+and modified this poem, and republished it in 1603 under the
+title of <i>The Barons&rsquo; Wars</i>. In 1596 also appeared another
+historical poem, <i>The Legend of Robert, Duke of Normandy</i>, with
+which <i>Piers Gaveston</i> was reprinted. In 1597 appeared <i>England&rsquo;s
+Heroical Epistles</i>, a series of historical studies, in imitation of
+those of Ovid. These last poems, written in the heroic couplet,
+contain some of the finest passages in Drayton&rsquo;s writings.</p>
+
+<p>With the year 1597 the first half of the poet&rsquo;s literary life closes.
+He had become famous by this rapid production of volumes, and
+he rested on his oars. It would seem that he was much favoured
+at the court of Elizabeth, and he hoped that it would be the
+same with her successor. But when, in 1603, he addressed a
+poem of compliment to James I., on his accession, it was ridiculed,
+and his services rudely rejected. His bitterness of spirit found
+expression in a satire, <i>The Owl</i>, which he printed in 1604, although
+he had no talent in this kind of composition. Not much more
+entertaining was his scriptural narrative of <i>Moses in a Map of
+his Miracles</i>, a sort of epic in heroics printed the same year.
+In 1605 Drayton reprinted his most important works, that is to
+say, his historical poems and the <i>Idea</i>, in a single volume which
+ran through eight editions during his lifetime. He also collected
+his smaller pieces, hitherto unedited, in a volume undated, but
+probably published in 1605, under the title of <i>Poems Lyric and
+Pastoral</i>; these consisted of odes, eclogues, and a fantastic
+satire called <i>The Man in the Moon</i>. Some of the odes are
+extremely spirited. In this volume he printed for the first time
+the famous <i>Ballad of Agincourt</i>.</p>
+
+<p>He had adopted as early as 1598 the extraordinary resolution
+of celebrating all the points of topographical or antiquarian
+interest in the island of Great Britain, and on this laborious work
+he was engaged for many years. At last, in 1613, the first part
+of this vast work was published under the title of <i>Poly-Olbion</i>,
+eighteen books being produced, to which the learned Selden
+supplied notes. The success of this great work, which has since
+become so famous, was very small at first, and not until 1622
+did Drayton succeed in finding a publisher willing to undertake
+the risk of bringing out twelve more books in a second part.
+This completed the survey of England, and the poet, who had
+hoped &ldquo;to crown Scotland with flowers,&rdquo; and arrive at last at
+the Orcades, never crossed the Tweed. In 1627 he published
+another of his miscellaneous volumes, and this contains some
+of his most characteristic and exquisite writing. It consists of
+the following pieces: <i>The Battle of Agincourt</i>, an historical poem
+in <i>ottava rima</i> (not to be confused with his ballad on the same
+subject), and <i>The Miseries of Queen Margaret</i>, written in the
+same verse and manner; <i>Nimphidia, the Court of Faery</i>, a most
+joyous and graceful little epic of fairyland; <i>The Quest of Cinthia</i>
+and <i>The Shepherd&rsquo;s Sirena</i>, two lyrical pastorals; and finally
+<i>The Moon Calf</i>, a sort of satire. Of these <i>Nimphidia</i> is perhaps
+the best thing Drayton ever wrote, except his famous ballad on
+the battle of Agincourt; it is quite unique of its kind and full of
+rare fantastic fancy.</p>
+
+<p>The last of Drayton&rsquo;s voluminous publications was <i>The Muses&rsquo;
+Elizium</i> in 1630. He died in London on the 23rd of December
+1631, was buried in Westminster Abbey, and had a monument
+placed over him by the countess of Dorset, with memorial lines
+attributed to Ben Jonson. Of the particulars of Drayton&rsquo;s life
+we know almost nothing but what he himself tells us; he
+enjoyed the friendship of some of the best men of the age.
+He corresponded familiarly with Drummond; Ben Jonson,
+William Browne, George Wither and others were among his
+friends. There is a tradition that he was a friend of Shakespeare,
+supported by a statement of John Ward, once vicar of Stratford-on-Avon,
+that &ldquo;Shakespear, Drayton and Ben Jonson had a
+merry meeting, and it seems, drank too hard, for Shakespear
+died of a feavour there contracted.&rdquo; In one of his poems, an
+&ldquo;elegy&rdquo; or epistle to Mr Henry Reynolds, he has left some
+valuable criticisms on poets whom he had known. He was even
+engaged in the labour of the dramatists; at least he had a
+share, with Munday, Chettle and Wilson, in writing <i>Sir John
+Oldcastle</i>, which was printed in 1600. That he was a restless and
+discontented, as well as a worthy, man may be gathered from his
+own admissions.</p>
+
+<p>The works of Drayton are bulky, and, in spite of the high place
+that he holds in critical esteem, it cannot be pretended that he
+is much read. For this his ponderous style is much to blame.
+The <i>Poly-Olbion</i>, the most famous but far from the most successful
+of his writings, is tedious and barren in the extreme.
+It was, he tells us, a &ldquo;Herculean toil&rdquo; to him to compose it,
+and we are conscious of the effort. The metre in which it is
+composed, a couplet of alexandrines, like the French classical
+measure, is wholly unsuited to the English language, and becomes
+excessively wearisome to the reader, who forgets the learning and
+ingenuity of the poet in labouring through the harsh and overgrown
+lines. His historical poems, which he was constantly rewriting
+and improving, are much more interesting, and often
+rise to a true poetic eloquence. His pastorals are brilliant, but
+overladen with colour and sweet to insipidity. He is, with the
+one magnificent exception of &ldquo;Since there&rsquo;s no help, come let
+us kiss and part,&rdquo; which was first printed in 1619, an indifferent
+sonneteer. The poet with whom it is most natural to compare
+him is Daniel; he is more rough and vigorous, more varied and
+more daring than the latter, but Daniel surpasses him in grace,
+delicacy and judgment. In their elegies and epistles, however,
+the two writers frequently resemble each other. Drayton,
+however, approaches the very first poets of the Elizabethan era
+in his charming <i>Nimphidia</i>, a poem which inspired Herrick
+with his sweet fairy fancies and stands alone of its kind in
+English literature; while some of his odes and lyrics are inspired
+by noble feeling and virile imagination.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In 1748 a folio edition of Drayton&rsquo;s complete works was published
+under the editorial supervision of William Oldys, and again in 1753
+there appeared an issue in four volumes. But these were very unintelligently
+and inaccurately prepared. A complete edition of
+Drayton&rsquo;s works with variant readings was projected by Richard
+Hooper in 1876, but was never carried to a conclusion; a volume of
+selections, edited by A. H. Bullen, appeared in 1883. See especially
+Oliver Elton, <i>Michael Drayton</i> (1906).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. G.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DREAM<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> (from a root <i>dreug</i>, connected with Germ. <i>trügen</i>, to
+deceive), the state of consciousness during sleep; it may also
+be defined as a hallucination or illusion peculiarly associated
+with the condition of sleep, but not necessarily confined to that
+state. In sleep the withdrawal of the mind from the external
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page559" id="page559"></a>559</span>
+world is more complete and the objectivity of the dream images
+is usually unquestioned, whereas in the waking state the
+hallucination is usually recognized as such; we may, however,
+be conscious that we are dreaming, and thus in a measure be
+aware of the hallucinatory character of our percepts. The
+physiological nature of sleep (<i>q.v.</i>; see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Muscle and Nerve</a></span>)
+and of dreaming is obscure. As a rule the control over the
+voluntary muscles in dreams is slight; the sleep-walker is the
+exception and not the rule, and the motor activity represented
+in the dream is seldom realized in practice, largely, no doubt,
+because we are ignorant, under these circumstances, of the
+spatial relations of our bodies. Among the psychological
+problems raised by dreams are the condition of attention, which
+is variously regarded as altogether absent or as fixed, the extent
+of mental control, and the relation of ideas and motor impulses.
+There is present in all dreams a certain amount of dissociation
+of consciousness, or of obstructed association, which may
+manifest itself in the preliminary stage of drowsiness by such
+phenomena as the apparent transformation or inversion of the
+words of a book. We may distinguish two types of dreams,
+(a) representative or centrally initiated, (b) presentative or
+due to the stimulation of the end organs of sense. In both cases,
+the dream having once been initiated, we are concerned with a
+process of reasoning, <i>i.e.</i> the combination of ideas suggested by
+resemblances or other associative elements. The false reasoning
+of dreams is due in the first place to the absence, to a large extent,
+of the memory elements on which our ordinary reasoning
+depends, and, secondly, to the absence of sensory elements.</p>
+
+<p><i>Objectivity of Dreams.</i>&mdash;In waking life we distinguish ideas or
+mental images from real objects by the fact that we are able
+under normal circumstances to dismiss the former at will. In
+sleep, on the other hand, we have, in the first place, no real objects
+with which to compare the images, which therefore take on a
+character of reality comparable to the hallucination of waking
+life; moreover, powers of visualization and other faculties are
+enhanced in sleep, so that the strength of dream images considerably
+exceeds those of the mental images of the ordinary
+man; changes in powers of attention, volition and memory
+help to increase the hallucinatory force of the dream. In the
+second place, the ideas of our dreams are presented in the form
+of images, which we are unable to dismiss; we therefore
+mistake them for realities, exactly as the sufferer from delirium
+tremens in waking life is apt to regard his phantoms as real.</p>
+
+<p><i>Relations of Dreaming and Sleep.</i>&mdash;It has been maintained by
+Hamilton and others (see below, Modern Views) that dreams
+invariably accompany sleep, and that we always find ourselves
+dreaming when we are awakened. But even if it were true
+that dreams were invariably experienced at the moment of
+waking, this would not by any means establish the invariable
+concomitance of dreams and sleep of all sorts; at most it would
+show that imperfect sleep is a condition of dreaming; in the
+same way, dreams before wakening, known to have taken place
+either from the recollection of the dreamer or from the observation
+of another person, may clearly be due to imperfect wakening,
+followed by a deepening of sleep. It is, however, by no means
+true that awakening from sleep is invariably accompanied by a
+dream; in considering the question it must be recollected that
+it is complicated by the common experience of very rapid
+forgetfulness of even a vivid and complicated dream, only the
+fact of having dreamt remaining in the memory; it is clear
+that amnesia may go so far that even the fact of dreaming may
+be forgotten. On the whole, however, there appear to be no
+good grounds for the assertion that we always dream when we
+are asleep. On the other hand, there is no proof that partial
+awakening is a necessary condition of dreaming.</p>
+
+<p><i>Representative Dreams.</i>&mdash;Centrally initiated dreams may be due
+to a kind of automatic excitation of the cerebral regions, especially
+in the case of those clearly arising from the occupations or
+sensations of the day or the hours immediately preceding the
+dream. To the same cause we may attribute the recalling of
+images apparently long since forgotten. Some of these revivals
+of memory may be due to the fact that links of association which
+are insufficient to restore an idea to consciousness in the waking
+state may suffice to do so in sleep. Just as a good visualizer in
+his waking moments may call up an object never clearly seen
+and yet distinguish the parts, so in sleep, as L. F. A. Maury
+(1817-1892) and others have shown, an image may be more
+distinct in a dream than it was when originally presented (see
+also below, Memory).</p>
+
+<p><i>Presentative Dreams.</i>&mdash;The dreams due to real sensations, more
+or less metamorphosed, may arise (a) from the states of the
+internal organs, (b) from muscular states, (c) from subjective
+sensations due to the circulation, &amp;c., or (d) from the ordinary
+cause of the action of external stimuli on the organs of sense.</p>
+
+<p>(a) The state of the stomach, heart, &amp;c., has long been recognized
+as important in the causation of dreams (see below, <a>Classical
+Views</a>). The common sensation of flying seems to be due in
+many cases to the disturbance of these organs setting up sensations
+resembling those felt in rapidly ascending or descending,
+as in a swing or a lift. Indigestion is a frequent cause of nightmare&mdash;the
+term given to oppressive and horrible dreams&mdash;and
+bodily discomfort is sometimes translated into the moral region,
+giving rise to the dream that a murder has been committed.
+(b) Dreams of flying, &amp;c., have also been attributed to the
+condition of the muscles during sleep; W. Wundt remarks that
+the movements of the body, such as breathing, extensions of the
+limbs and so on, must give rise to dream fancies; the awkward
+position of the limbs may also excite images. (c) Especially
+important, probably, for the dreams of the early part of the
+night are the retinal conditions to which are due the <i>illusions
+hypnagogiques</i> of the preliminary drowsy stage; but probably
+Ladd goes too far in maintaining that entoptic stimuli, either
+intra- or extra-organic in origin, condition all dreams. <i>Illusions
+hypnagogiques</i>, termed popularly &ldquo;faces in the dark,&rdquo; of which
+Maury has given a full account, are the not uncommon sensations
+experienced, usually visual and seen with both open and closed
+eyes, in the interval between retiring to rest and actually falling
+asleep; they are comparable to the crystal-gazing visions of
+waking moments; though mainly visual they may also affect
+other senses. Besides the eye the ear may supply material for
+dreams, when the circulation of the blood suggests rushing
+waters or similar ideas. (d) It is a matter of common observation
+that the temperature of the surface of the body determines in
+many cases the character of the dreams, the real circumstances,
+as might be expected from the general character of the
+dream state, being exaggerated. In the same way the pressure
+of bed-clothes, obstruction of the supply of air, &amp;c.,
+may serve as the starting-point of dreams. The common dream
+of being unclothed may perhaps be due to this cause, the
+sensations associated with clothing being absent or so far
+modified as to be unrecognizable. In the same way the absence
+of foot-gear may account for some dreams of flying. It is
+possible to test the influence of external stimuli by direct
+experiment; Maury made a number of trials with the aid of an
+assistant.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rapidity of Dreams.</i>&mdash;It has often been asserted that we
+dream with extreme rapidity; but this statement is by no
+means borne out by experiment. In a trial recorded by J.
+Clavière the beginning of the dream was accurately fixed by the
+sounding of an alarm clock, which rang, then was silent for
+22 seconds, and then began to ring continuously; the dream
+scene was in a theatre, and he found by actual trial that the time
+required in ordinary life for the performance of the scenes during
+the interval of silence was about the same as in ordinary life.
+Spontaneous dreams seem to show a different state of things;
+it must be remembered that (1) dreams are commonly a succession
+of images, the number of which cannot be legitimately
+compared with the number of extra-organic stimuli which would
+correspond to them in ordinary life; the real comparison is
+with mental images; and (2) the rapidity of association varies
+enormously in ordinary waking life. No proof, therefore, that
+some dreams are slow can show that this mentation in others
+is not extremely rapid. The most commonly quoted case is
+one of Maury&rsquo;s; a bed-pole fell on his neck, and (so it is stated)
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page560" id="page560"></a>560</span>
+he dreamt of the French Revolution, the scenes culminating in
+the fall of the guillotine on his neck; this has been held to show
+that (1) dreams are extremely rapid; and (2) we construct a
+dream story leading up to the external stimulus which is assumed
+to have originated the dream. But Maury&rsquo;s dream was not
+recorded till many years after it had occurred; there is nothing
+to show that the dream, in this as in other similar cases, was not
+in progress when the bed-pole fell, which thus by mere coincidence
+would have intervened at the psychological moment; Maury&rsquo;s
+memory on waking may have been to some extent hallucinatory.
+But there are records of waking states, not necessarily abnormal,
+in which time-perception is disturbed and brief incidents seem
+interminably long; on the other hand, it appears from the
+experiences of persons recovered from drowning that there is
+great rapidity of ideation before the extinction of consciousness;
+the same rapidity of thought has been observed in a fall from a
+bicycle.</p>
+
+<p><i>Reason in Dreams.</i>&mdash;Studies of dreams of normal individuals
+based on large collections of instances are singularly few in
+number; such as there are indicate great variations in the
+source of dream thoughts and images, in the coherence of the
+dream, and in the powers of memory. In ordinary life attention
+dominates the images presented; in dreams heterogeneous and
+disconnected elements are often combined; a resemblance need
+not even have been consciously recognized for the mind to combine
+two impressions in a dream; for example, an aching tooth
+may (according to the dream) be extracted, and found to resemble
+rocks on the sea-shore, which had not struck the waking mind
+as in any way like teeth. Incongruence and incoherence are not,
+however, a necessary characteristic of dreams, and individuals
+are found whose dream ideas and scenes show a power of
+reasoning and orderliness equal to that of a scene imagined or
+experienced in ordinary life. In some cases the reasoning power
+may attain a higher level than that of the ordinary conscious
+life. In a well-authenticated case Professor Hilprecht was able
+in a dream to solve a difficulty connected with two Babylonian
+inscriptions, which had not previously been recognized as complementary
+to each other; a point of peculiar interest is the
+dramatic form in which the information came to him&mdash;an old
+Babylonian priest appeared in his dream and gave him the clue
+to the problem (see also below, Personality).</p>
+
+<p><i>Memory in Dreams.</i>&mdash;Although prima facie the dream memory
+is fragmentary and far less complete than the waking memory,
+it is by no means uncommon to find a revival in sleep of early,
+apparently quite forgotten, experiences: more striking is the
+recollection in dreams of matters never supraliminally (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Subliminal Self</a></span>) apperceived at all.</p>
+
+<p>The relation between the memory in dreams and in the
+hypnotic trance is curious: suggestions given in the trance may
+be accepted and then forgotten or never remembered in ordinary
+life; this does not prevent them from reappearing occasionally
+in dreams; conversely dreams forgotten in ordinary life may be
+remembered in the hypnotic trance. These dream memories
+of other states of consciousness suggest that dreams are sometimes
+the product of a deeper stratum of the personality than
+comes into play in ordinary waking life. It must be remembered
+in this connexion that we judge of our dream consciousness by
+our waking recollections, not directly, and our recollection of
+our dreams is extraordinarily fragmentary; we do not know
+how far our dream memory really extends. Connected with
+memory of other states is the question of memory in dreams of
+previous dream states; occasionally a separate chain of memory,
+analogous to a secondary personality, seems to be formed. We
+may be also conscious that we have been dreaming, and subsequently,
+without intermediate waking, relate as a dream the
+dream previously experienced. In spite of the irrationality of
+dreams in general, it by no means follows that the earlier and
+later portions of a dream do not cohere; we may interpolate an
+episode and again take up the first motive, exactly as happens
+in real life. The strength of the dream memory is shown by the
+recurrence of images in dreams; a picture, the page of a book,
+or other image may be reproduced before our eyes several times
+in the course of a dream without the slightest alteration, although
+the waking consciousness would be quite incapable of such a feat
+of visualizing. In this connexion may be mentioned the phenomenon
+of redreaming; the same dream may recur either on
+the same or on different nights; this seems to be in many cases
+pathological or due to drugs, but may also occur under normal
+conditions.</p>
+
+<p><i>Personality.</i>&mdash;As a rule the personality of the dreamer is
+unchanged; but it also happens that the confusion of identity
+observed with regard to other objects embraces the dreamer
+himself; he imagines himself to be some one else; he is alternately
+actor and observer; he may see himself playing a part
+or may divest himself of his body and wander incorporeally.
+Ordinary dreams, however, do not go beyond a splitting of
+personality; we hold conversations, and are intensely surprised
+at the utterances of a dream figure, which, however, is merely
+an <i>alter ego</i>. As in the case of Hilprecht (see above) the information
+given by another part of the personality may not only
+appear but actually be novel.</p>
+
+<p><i>Supernormal Dreams.</i>&mdash;In addition to dreams in which there
+is a revival of memory or a rise into consciousness of facts
+previously only subliminally cognized, a certain number of dreams
+are on record in which telepathy (<i>q.v.</i>) seems to play a part;
+much of the evidence is, however, discounted by the possibility
+of hallucinatory memory. Another class of dreams (prodromic)
+is that in which the abnormal bodily states of the dreamer are
+brought to his knowledge in sleep, sometimes in a symbolical
+form; thus a dream of battle or sanguinary conflict may presage
+a haemorrhage. The increased power of suggestion which is
+the normal accompaniment of the hypnotic trance may make
+its appearance in dreams, and exercise either a curative influence
+or act capriciously in producing hysteria and the tropic changes
+known as &ldquo;stigmata.&rdquo; We may meet with various forms of
+hyperaesthesia in dreams; quite apart from the recovery of
+sight by those who have lost it wholly or in part (see below,
+Dreams of the Blind), we find that the powers of the senses may
+undergo an intensification, and, <i>e.g.</i>, the power of appreciating
+music be enormously enhanced in persons usually indifferent to
+it. Mention must also be made of the experience of R. L.
+Stevenson, who tells in <i>Across the Plains</i> how by self-suggestion
+he was able to secure from his dreams the motives of some of his
+best romances.</p>
+
+<p><i>Voluntary Action in Dreams.</i>&mdash;Connected with dreams voluntarily
+influenced is the question of how far dreams once initiated
+are modifiable at the will of the dreamer. Some few observers,
+like F. W. H. Myers and Dr F. van Eeden, record that they can
+at longer or shorter intervals control their actions in their
+dreams, though usually to a less extent than their imagined
+actions in waking life. Dr van Eeden, for example, tells us that
+he has what he calls a &ldquo;clear dream&rdquo; once a month and is able
+to predetermine what he will do when he becomes aware that
+he is dreaming.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dreams of Children.</i>&mdash;Opinions differ widely as to the age at
+which children begin to dream; G. Compayré maintains that
+dreaming has been observed in the fourth month, but reflex
+action is always a possible explanation of the observed facts.
+S. de Sanctis found that in boys of eleven only one out of eight
+said that he dreamt seldom, as against four out of seven at the
+age of six; but we cannot exclude the possibility that dreams
+were frequent but forgotten. If correct, the observation suggests
+that dreams appear comparatively late. Individual cases of
+dreaming, or possibly of waking hallucination, are known as
+early as the age of two and a half years; according to de Sanctis
+dreams occur before the fifth year, but are seldom remembered;
+as a rule the conscious dream age begins with the fourth year;
+speech or movement, however, in earlier years, though they may
+be attributed to reflex action, are more probably due to dreams.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dreams of the Old.</i>&mdash;In normal individuals above the age of
+sixty-five de Sanctis found dreams were rare; atmospheric
+influences seem to be important elements in causing them;
+memory of them is weak; they are emotionally poor, and deal
+with long past scenes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page561" id="page561"></a>561</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Dreams of Adults.</i>&mdash;Any attempt to record or influence our
+dreams may be complicated by (a) direct suggestion, leading to
+the production of the phenomena for which we are looking, and
+(b) indirect suggestion leading to the more lively recollection of
+dreams in general and of certain dreams in particular. Consequently
+it cannot be assumed that the facts thus ascertained
+represent the normal conditions. According to F. Heerwagen&rsquo;s
+statistics women sleep more lightly and dream more than men;
+the frequency of dreams is proportional to their vividness;
+women who dream sleep longer than those who do not; dreams
+tend to become less frequent with advancing age. The total
+number of remembered dreams varies considerably with different
+observers, some attaining an average of ten per night. The
+senses mainly active in dreams are, according to one set of
+experiments, vision in 60%, hearing in 5%, taste in 3%, and
+smell in 1.5%, where the dreamers had looked at coloured
+papers before falling asleep; when taste or smell had been
+stimulated, the visual dreams fell to about 50%, and the sense
+stimulated was active twice as often as it would otherwise be;
+dreams in which motion was a prominent feature were 10% of
+the former class, 14% and 18% of the two latter. Experiments
+by J. Mourly Vold show even more distinctly the influence of
+suggestion both as to the form, visual or otherwise, and the
+content (colours and forms of objects) of dreams. According to
+most observers dreams are most vivid and frequent between the
+ages of 20 and 25, but H. Maudsley puts the maximum between
+30 and 35. De Sanctis got replies from 165 men and 55 women:
+the proportion between the sexes closely agrees with the results
+attained by Heerwagen and M. W. Calkins; 13% of men and
+33% of women said they always dreamt, 27% and 45% often,
+50% and 13% rarely, and the remainder (precisely the same
+percentage for men and women&mdash;9.09) either did not dream or
+did not remember that they dreamt. Nearly twice as many
+women as men had vivid dreams; in the matter of complication
+of the dream experiences the sexes are about equal; daily life
+supplies more material in the dreams of men; nearly twice as
+many women as men remember their dreams clearly, a fact
+which hangs together to some extent with the vividness of the
+dreams, though it by no means follows that a vivid dream is well
+remembered. There are great variations in the emotional
+character of dreams; some observers report twice as many
+unpleasant dreams as the reverse; in other cases the emotions
+seem to be absent; others again have none but pleasing dreams.
+Individual experience also varies very largely as to the time
+when most dreams are experienced; in some cases the great
+majority are subsequent to 6.30 A.M.; others find that quite half
+occur before 4.0 A.M.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dreams of the Neuropathic, Insane, Idiots, &amp;c.</i>&mdash;Much attention
+has been given to the dreams of hysterical subjects. It appears
+that their dreams are specially liable to exercise an influence over
+their waking life, perhaps because they do not distinguish them,
+any more than their waking hallucinations, from reality. P.
+Janet maintains that the cause of hysteria may be sought in a
+dream. The dreams of the hysterical have a tendency to recur.
+Epileptic subjects dream less than the hysterical, and their dreams
+are seldom of a terrifying nature; certain dreams seem to take the
+place of an epileptic attack. Dreaming seems to be rare in
+idiots. De Sanctis divides paranoiacs into three classes: (a)
+those with systematized delusions, (b) those with frequent
+hallucinations, and (c) degenerates;&mdash;the dreams of the first
+class resemble their delusions; the second class is distinguished
+by the complexity of its dreams; the third by their vividness, by
+their delusions of megalomania, and by their influence on daily
+life. Alcoholic subjects have vivid and terrifying dreams,
+characterized by the frequent appearance of animals in them, and
+delirium tremens may originate during sleep.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dreams of the Blind, Deaf, &amp;c.</i>&mdash;As regards visual dreams the
+blind fall into three classes&mdash;(1) those who are blind from birth or
+become blind before the age of five; (2) those who become blind
+at the &ldquo;critical age&rdquo; from five to seven; (3) those who become
+blind after the age of seven. The dreams of the first class are
+non-visual; but in the dreams of Helen Keller there are traces of
+a visual content; the second class sometimes has visual dreams;
+the third class does not differ from normal persons, though visual
+dreams may fade away after many years of blindness. In the
+case of the partially blind the clearness of vision in a dream
+exceeds that of normal life when the partial loss of sight occurred
+in the sixth or later years. The education of Helen Keller is
+interesting from another point of view; after losing the senses of
+sight and hearing in infancy she began her education at seven
+years and was able to articulate at eleven; it is recorded
+that she &ldquo;talked&rdquo; in her dreams soon after. This accords
+with the experience of normal individuals who acquire a foreign
+language. Her extraordinary memory enables her to recall
+faintly some traces of the sunlit period of her life, but they
+hardly affect her dreams, so far as can be judged. The dreams of
+the blind, according to the records of F. Hitschmann, present
+some peculiarities; animals as well as man speak; toothache and
+bodily pains are perceived as such; impersonal dreaming,
+taking the form of a drama or reading aloud, is found; and he
+had a strong tendency to reproduce or create verse.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dreams of Animals.</i>&mdash;We are naturally reduced to inference in
+dealing with animals as with very young children; but various
+observations seem to show that dreams are common in older dogs,
+especially after hunting expeditions; in young dogs sleep seems to
+be quieter; dogs accustomed to the chase seem to dream more
+than other kinds.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dreams among the Non-European Peoples.</i>&mdash;In the lower
+stages of culture the dream is regarded as no less real and its
+personages as no less objective than those of the ordinary waking
+life; this is due in the main to the habit of mind of such peoples
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Animism</a></span>), but possibly in some measure also to the occurrence
+of veridical dreams (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Telepathy</a></span>). In either case the savage
+explanation is animistic, and animism is commonly assumed to
+have been developed very largely as a result of theorising
+dreams. Two explanations of a dream are found among the
+lower races: (1) that the soul of the dreamer goes out, and visits
+his friends, living or dead, his old haunts or unfamiliar scenes and
+so on; or (2) that the souls of the dead and others come to visit
+him, either of their own motion or at divine command. In
+either of the latter cases or at a higher stage of culture when the
+dream is regarded as god-sent, though no longer explained in
+terms of animism, it is often regarded as oracular (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Oracle</a></span>),
+the explanation being sometimes symbolical, sometimes simple.</p>
+
+<p>There are two classes of dreams which have a special importance
+in the lower cultures: (1) the dream or vision of the initiation
+fast; and (2) the dream caused by the process known as
+incubation, which is often analogous to the initiation fast. In
+many parts of North America the individual Indian acquires a
+tutelary spirit, known as <i>manito</i> or <i>nagual</i>, by his initiation
+dream or vision; the idea being perhaps that the spirit by the act
+of appearing shows its subjection to the will of the man.
+Similarly, the magician acquires his familiar in North America,
+Australia and elsewhere by dreaming of an animal. Incubation
+consists in retiring to sleep in a temple, sometimes on the top of a
+mountain or other unusual spot, in order to obtain a revelation
+through a dream. Fasting, continence and other observances
+are frequently prescribed as preliminaries. Certain classes of
+dreams have, especially in the middle ages, been attributed to the
+influence of evil spirits (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Demonology</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Classical and Medieval Views of Dreams.</i>&mdash;Side by side with the
+prevalent animistic view of dreams we find in antiquity and
+among the semi-civilized attempts at philosophical or physiological
+explanations of dreams. Democritus, from whom the
+Epicureans derived their theory, held the cause of them to be
+the simulacra or phantasms of corporeal objects which are
+constantly floating about the atmosphere and attack the soul
+in sleep&mdash;a view hardly distinguishable from animism. Aristotle,
+however, refers them to the impressions left by objects seen with
+the eyes of the body; he further remarks on the exaggeration
+of slight stimuli when they are incorporated into a dream; a
+small sound becomes a noise like thunder. Plato, too, connects
+dreaming with the normal waking operations of the mind;
+Pliny, on the other hand, admits this only for dreams which take
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page562" id="page562"></a>562</span>
+place after meals, the remainder being supernatural. Cicero,
+however, takes the view that they are simply natural occurrences
+no more and no less than the mental operations and sensations
+of the waking state. The pathological side of dreams attracted
+the notice of physicians. Hippocrates was disposed to admit
+that some dreams might be divine, but held that others were
+premonitory of diseased states of the body. Galen took the same
+view in some of his speculations.</p>
+
+<p>Symbolical interpretations are combined with pathological
+no less than animistic interpretations of dreams; they are
+also extremely common among the lower classes in Europe at
+the present day, but in this case no consistent explanation of
+their importance for the divination of future events is usually
+discoverable. Among the Greeks Plato in the <i>Timaeus</i> (ch. xlvi,
+xlvii) explains dreams as prophetic visions received by the lower
+appetitive soul through the liver; their interpretation requires
+intelligence. The Stoics seem to have held that dreams may be
+a divine revelation and more than one volume on the interpretation
+of dreams has come down to us, the most important being
+perhaps the <span class="grk" title="Oneirokritika">&#908;&#957;&#949;&#953;&#961;&#959;&#954;&#961;&#953;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#940;</span> of Daldianus Artemidorus. We find
+parallels to this in a Mussulman work by Gabdorrachaman,
+translated by Pierre Vattier under the name of <i>Onirocrite
+mussulman</i>, and in the numerous books on the interpretation of
+dreams which circulate at the present day. In Siam dream books
+are found (<i>Intern. Archiv für Anthr.</i> viii 150); one of the
+functions of the Australian medicine man is to decide how a
+dream is to be interpreted.</p>
+
+<p><i>Modern Views.</i>&mdash;The doctrine of Descartes that existence
+depended upon thought naturally led his followers to maintain
+that the mind is always thinking and consequently that dreaming
+is continuous. Locke replied to this that men are not always
+conscious of dreaming, and it is hard to be conceived that the
+soul of the sleeping man should this moment be thinking, while
+the soul of the waking man cannot recollect in the next moment
+a jot of all those thoughts. That we always dream was maintained
+by Leibnitz, Kant, Sir W. Hamilton and others; the
+latter refutes the argument of Locke by the just observation
+that the somnambulist has certainly been conscious, but fails
+to recall the fact when he returns to the normal state.</p>
+
+<p>It has been commonly held by metaphysicians that the nature
+of dreams is explained by the suspension of volition during
+sleep; Dugald Stewart asserts that it is not wholly dormant
+but loses its hold on the faculties, and he thus accounts for the
+incoherence of dreams and the apparent reality of dream images.</p>
+
+<p>Cudworth, from the orderly sequence of dream combinations
+and their novelty, argues that the state arises, not from any
+&ldquo;fortuitous dancings of the spirits,&rdquo; but from the &ldquo;phantastical
+power of the soul.&rdquo; According to K. A. Scherner, dreaming
+is a decentralization of the movement of life; the ego becomes
+purely receptive and is merely the point around which the
+peripheral life plays in perfect freedom. Hobbes held that
+dreams all proceed from the agitation of the inward parts of a
+man&rsquo;s body, which, owing to their connexion with the brain,
+serve to keep the latter in motion. For Schopenhauer the cause
+of dreams is the stimulation of the brain by the internal regions
+of the organism through the sympathetic nervous system.
+These impressions the mind afterwards works up into quasi-realities
+by means of its forms of space, time, causality, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;For full lists of books and articles see J. M.
+Baldwin&rsquo;s <i>Dictionary of Philosophy</i>, bibliography volume (1906),
+and S. de Sanctis, <i>I Sogni</i>, also translated in German with additions
+as <i>Die Träume</i>.  Important works are&mdash;Binz, <i>Über den Traum</i>,
+Giessler <i>Aus den Tiefen des Traumlebens</i>, Maury, <i>Le Sommeil et les
+rêves</i>, Radestock, <i>Schlaf und Traum</i>, Tessié, <i>Les Rêves</i>, Spitta,
+<i>Schlaf und Traumzustande</i>. For super-normal dreams see F. W. H.
+Myers, <i>Human Personality</i>, vol i, and <i>Proc S P R</i> viii 362.  For
+voluntary dreams see <i>Proc. S P R</i> iv 241, xvii. 112. On prophetic
+dreams see <i>Monist</i>, xi 161, <i>Bull. Soc. Anth.</i> (Paris, 1901), 196,
+(1902), 228, <i>Rev. de synthèse historique</i> (1901), 151, &amp;c. On incubation
+see Deubner, <i>De incubatione</i>, Maury, La Magie. On the
+dreams of American Indians see <i>Handbook of American Indians</i>
+(Washington, 1907), s v &ldquo;Dreams&rdquo; and &ldquo;Manito.&rdquo; On the
+interpretation of dreams see Freud, <i>Die Traumdeutung</i>. Other works
+are F. Greenwood, <i>Imagination in Dreams</i>, Hutchinson, <i>Dreams
+and their Meanings</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(N. W. T.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DREDGE<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> <span class="sc">and</span> <b>DREDGING.</b> The word &ldquo;dredge&rdquo; is used
+in two senses. (1) From Mid. Eng. <i>dragie</i>, through Fr. <i>dragée</i>,
+from Gr. <span class="grk" title="tragêmata">&#964;&#961;&#945;&#947;&#942;&#956;&#945;&#964;&#945;</span>, sweetmeats, it means a confection of sugar
+formed with seeds, bits of spice or medicinal agents. The word
+in this sense is obsolete, but survives in &ldquo;dredger,&rdquo; a box with a
+perforated top used for sprinkling such a sugar-mixture, flour
+or other powdered substance. &ldquo;Dredge&rdquo; is also a local term
+for a mixed crop of oats and barley sown together (&ldquo;maslin&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;meslin,&rdquo; cf. Fr. <i>dragée</i>), and in mining is applied to ore
+of a mixed value. (2) Connected with &ldquo;drag,&rdquo; or at least derived
+from the same root, dredge or dredger is a mechanical appliance
+for collecting together and drawing to the surface (&ldquo;dredging&rdquo;)
+objects and material from the beds of rivers or the bottom of the
+sea. In the following account the operations of dredging in this
+sense are discussed (1) as involved in hydraulic engineering, (2)
+in connexion with the work of the naturalist in marine biology.</p>
+
+<p class="center pt2 sc">1. Hydraulic Engineering</p>
+
+<p>Dredging is the name given by engineers to the process of
+excavating materials under water, raising them to the surface
+and depositing them in barges, or delivering them through a
+shoot, a longitudinal conveyor, or pipes, to the place where it is
+desired to deposit them. It has long been useful in works of
+marine and hydraulic engineering, and has been brought in
+modern times to a state of high perfection.</p>
+
+<p>The employment of dredging plant and the selection of special
+appliances to be used in different localities and in varying
+circumstances require the exercise of sound judgment on the
+part of the engineer. In rivers and estuaries where the bottom
+is composed of light soils, and where the scour of the tide can be
+governed by training walls and other works constructed at
+reasonable expense, so as to keep the channel clear without
+dredging, it is manifest that dredging machinery with its large
+cost for working expenses and for annual upkeep should be as
+far as possible avoided. On the other hand, where the bottom
+consists of clay, rock or other hard substances, dredging must,
+in the first instance at any rate, be employed to deepen and
+widen the channel which it is sought to improve. In some
+instances, such as the river Mississippi, a deep channel has for
+many years been maintained by jetties, with occasional resort
+to dredging to preserve the required channel section and to
+hasten its enlargement. The bar of the river Mersey is 11 m.
+from land, and the cost of training works would be so great as to
+forbid their construction; but, by a capital expenditure of
+£120,000 and an annual expense of £20,000 for three years, the
+depth of water over the bar at low tide has been increased by
+dredging from 11 ft. to 27 ft., the channel being 1500 ft. wide.</p>
+
+<p><i>&rdquo;Bag and Spoon&rdquo; Dredger.</i>&mdash;The first employment of
+machinery for dredging is, like the discovery of the canal lock,
+claimed by Holland and Italy, in both of which countries it is
+believed to have been in use before it was introduced into
+Britain. The Dutch, at an early period, used what is termed
+the &ldquo;bag and spoon&rdquo; dredger for cleansing their canals. The
+&ldquo;spoon&rdquo; consisted of a ring of iron about 2 ft. in diameter
+flattened and steeled for about a third of its circumference and
+having a bag of strong leather attached to it by leathern thongs.
+The ring and bag were fixed to a pole which was lowered to the
+bottom from the side of a barge moored in the canal or river.
+The &ldquo;spoon&rdquo; was then dragged along the bottom by a rope
+made fast to the iron ring actuated by a windlass placed at the
+other end of the barge, the pole being prevented from rising by a
+hitched rope which caused the &ldquo;spoon&rdquo; to penetrate the bottom
+and fill the bag. When the &ldquo;spoon&rdquo; reached the end of the barge
+where the windlass was placed, the winding was still continued,
+and the suspended rope being nearly perpendicular the &ldquo;bag&rdquo;
+was raised to the gunwale of the barge and the excavated
+material emptied into the barge. The &ldquo;bag&rdquo; was then hauled
+back to the opposite end to be lowered for another supply. This
+system is still in use, but is only adaptable to a limited depth of
+water and a soft bottom; it has been largely used in canals and
+frequently in the Thames. At the Fosdyke Canal in Lincolnshire
+135,000 tons were raised in the manner described. According
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page563" id="page563"></a>563</span>
+to J. J. Webster (<i>Proc. Inst. C. E.</i> vol. 89), the first application
+of steam power for dredging operations was to a &ldquo;spoon
+&amp; bag&rdquo; dredger for cleansing Sunderland harbour, the engine
+being made by Messrs Boulton &amp; Watt of Soho, Birmingham.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dredging by Bucket between Two Lighters.</i>&mdash;Another plan of
+dredging, practised at an early period in rivers of considerable
+breadth, was to moor two barges, one on each side of the river.
+Between them was slung an iron dredging bucket, which was
+attached to both barges by chains wound on the barrels of a
+crab winch worked by six men in one barge and round a simple
+windlass worked by two men in the other barge. The bucket,
+being lowered at the side of the barge carrying the windlass,
+was drawn across the bottom of the river by the crab winch on
+the other barge; and having been raised and emptied, it was
+hauled across by the opposite windlass for repetition of the
+process. This process was in use in the River Tay until 1833.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bucket Ladder Dredgers.</i>&mdash;The earliest record of a bucket
+ladder dredger is contained in the first paper of the first volume
+(1836) of the <i>Transactions</i> of the Institution of Civil Engineers.
+This machine was brought into use at the Hull Docks about
+1782. The bucket chain was driven by two horses working a
+horse-gear on the deck of the vessel. The buckets were constructed
+of <span class="spp">5</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span> in. bars of iron spaced <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span> in. apart, and were 4 ft.
+long, 13 in. deep, 12 in. wide at the mouth and about 6 in. wide
+at the bottom. This dredger raised about 30 tons per hour at the
+cost of 2½d. per ton, which covered the wages of three men working
+the dredger, eight men working the lighters and the keep of three
+horses. A dredger of this kind and power would only work in
+ballast, mud or other soft material, but the machine was gradually
+improved and increased in capacity and power by different
+manufacturers until it became a very efficient machine in skilful
+hands, excavating and raising material from depths of 5 ft. to
+60 ft. of water at a cost not very different from, and in many
+cases less than, that at which the same work could be performed
+on land. With the powerful dredgers now constructed, almost
+all materials, except solid rock or very large boulders, can be
+dredged with ease. Loose gravel is perhaps the most favourable
+material to work in, but a powerful dredger will readily break up
+and raise indurated beds of gravel, clay and boulders, and has
+even found its way through the surface of soft rock, though it
+will not penetrate very far into it. In some cases steel diggers
+alternating with the buckets on the bucket frame have been
+successfully employed. The construction of large steam dredgers
+is now carried on by many engineering firms. The main feature
+of the machine is the bucket ladder which is hung at the top end
+by eye straps to the frame of the vessel, and at the lower end by
+a chain reived in purchase blocks and connected to the hoisting
+gear, so that the ladder may be raised and lowered to suit the
+varying depths of water in which the dredger works. The upper
+tumbler for working the bucket chain is generally square or
+pentagonal in form and made of steel with loose steel wearing
+pieces securely bolted to it. The tumbler is securely keyed to
+the steel shaft which is connected by gearing and shafting to
+the steam engine, a friction block being inserted at a convenient
+point to prevent breakage should any hidden obstacle causing
+unusual strain be met with in the path of the buckets. The
+lower tumbler is similar in construction to the upper tumbler,
+but is usually pentagonal or hexagonal in shape. The buckets
+are generally made with steel backs to which the plating of the
+buckets is riveted; the cutting edge of the buckets consists of a
+strong steel bar suitably shaped and riveted to the body. The
+intermediate links are made of hammered iron or steel with
+removable steel bushes to take the wear of the connecting pins,
+which are also of steel. The hoisting gear may be driven either
+from the main engine by frictional gearing or by an independent
+set of engines. Six anchors and chains worked by powerful steam
+crabs are provided for regulating the position of the dredger in
+regard to its work.</p>
+
+<p><i>Barge-loading Dredgers</i> used formerly to be provided with two
+ladders, one on each side of the vessel, or contained in wells
+formed in the vessel near each side. Two ladders were adopted,
+partly to permit the dredger to excavate the material close to a
+quay or wall, and partly to enable one ladder to work while the
+other was being repaired. Bucket ladder dredgers are now,
+however, generally constructed with one central ladder working
+in a well; frequently the bucket ladder projects at either the
+head or stern of the vessel, to enable it to cut its own way through
+a shoal or bank, a construction which has been found very useful.
+In one modification of this method the bucket ladder is supported
+upon a traversing frame which slides along the fixed framing of
+the dredger and moves the bucket ladder forward as soon as it
+has been sufficiently lowered to clear the end of the well. In
+places where a large quantity of dredging has to be done, a
+stationary dredger with three or four large hopper barges proves
+generally to be the most economical kind of plant. It has,
+however, the disadvantage of requiring large capital expenditure,
+while the dredger and its attendant barges take up an amount
+of space which is sometimes inconvenient where traffic is large
+and the navigable width narrow. The principal improvements
+made in barge-loading dredgers have been the increase in the
+size of the buckets and the strength of the dredging gear, the
+application of more economical engines for working the machinery,
+and the use of frictional gearing for driving the ladder-hoisting
+gear. It is very important that the main drive be fitted with
+the friction blocks or clutches before alluded to.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Up to the year 1877 dredgers were seldom made with buckets
+of a capacity exceeding 9 cub. ft., but since that time they have been
+gradually increased in capacity. In the dredger &ldquo;Melbourne,&rdquo;
+constructed by Messrs William Simons &amp; Co. to the design and
+specification of Messrs Coode, Son &amp; Matthews, about the year 1886,
+the buckets had a capacity of 22 cub. ft., the dredger being capable
+of making 37 ft. of water. The driving power consists of two pairs of
+surface-condensing engines, each of 250 i.h.p., having cylinders 20 in.
+and 40 in. in diameter respectively, with a 30 in. stroke, the boiler
+pressure being 90 &#8468; per sq. in. The vessel is 200 ft. long by 36 ft.
+wide and 11 ft. 6 in. deep, and is driven by twin screw propellers.
+The gearing is arranged so that either pair of engines can be employed
+for dredging. The speed under steam is 7 knots, and in free-getting
+material 800 tons per hour can be dredged with ease. On
+one occasion the dredger loaded 400 tons in 20 minutes. The speed
+of the bucket chain is 83 lineal ft. per minute. The draught of the
+dredger in working trim is 7 ft. forward and 9 ft. aft. The efficiency
+of the machine, or the net work in raising materials compared with
+the power exerted in the cylinders, is about 25%. The dredged
+material is delivered into barges moored alongside. Contrasting
+favourably with former experience, the &ldquo;Melbourne&rdquo; worked for
+the first six months without a single breakage. She is fitted with
+very powerful mooring winches, a detail which is of great importance
+to ensure efficiency in working.</p>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;St Austell&rdquo; (Plate I. fig. 3), a powerful barge-loading
+dredger 195 ft. long by 35 ft. 6 in. beam by 13 ft. deep, fitted with
+twin-screw compound surface-condensing propelling engines of
+1000 i.h.p., either set of engines being available for dredging, was
+constructed for H.M. Dockyard, Devonport, by Messrs Wm. Simons
+&amp; Co. in 1896. This dredger loaded thirty-five 500-ton hopper
+barges in the week ending April 2, 1898, dredging 17,500 tons of
+material in the working time of 29 hours 5 minutes.</p>
+
+<p>An instance of a still larger and more powerful dredger is the
+&ldquo;Develant,&rdquo; constructed by Messrs Wm. Simons &amp; Co., for Nicolaiev,
+South Russia. She is a bow-well, barge-loading, bucket ladder
+dredger, with a length of 186 ft., a breadth, moulded, of 36 ft., and a
+depth, moulded, of 13 ft. The bucket ladder is of sufficient length
+to dredge 36 ft. below the water level. The buckets are exceptionally
+large, each having a capacity of 36 cub. ft., or fully two tons weight of
+material, giving a lifting capacity of 1890 tons per hour. At the
+dredging trials 2000 tons of spoil were lifted in one hour with an
+expenditure of 250 i.h.p. The propelling power is supplied by one
+pair of compound surface-condensing marine engines of 850 i.h.p.,
+having two cylindrical boilers constructed for a working pressure
+of 120 &#8468; per sq. in. Each boiler is capable of supplying steam to
+either the propelling or dredging machinery, thus allowing the vessel
+to always have a boiler in reserve. On the trials a speed of 8½ knots
+was obtained. The bucket ladder, which weighs over 100 tons, exclusive
+of dredgings, is raised and lowered by a set of independent
+engines. For man&oelig;uvring, powerful winches driven by independent
+engines are placed at the bow and stern. The vessel is fitted
+throughout with electric light, arc lamps being provided above the
+deck to enable dredging to be carried on at night. Steam steering
+gear, a repairing shop, a three-ton crane, and all the latest appliances
+are installed on board.</p>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;Dérocheuse&rdquo; (Plate II. fig. 12), constructed by Messrs
+Lobnitz &amp; Co., is a good example of the dredger fitted with their
+patent rock cutters, as used on the Suez Canal. These rock cutters
+consist of stamps passing down through the bottom of the dredger,
+slightly in advance of the bucket chain, and are employed for breaking
+up rock in front of the bucket ladder so that it may be raised by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page564" id="page564"></a>564</span>
+buckets afterwards. This system of subaqueous rock cutting plant, on
+Messrs Lobnitz&rsquo;s patent system, was effectively employed in deepening
+the Manchester Ship Canal, and removed a considerable length
+of rock, increasing the depth of water from 26 ft. to 28 ft. at a cost
+of about 9d. per cub. yd. A full and illustrated description of this
+plant, and of a similar plant supplied to the Argentine Government,
+was published in <i>Engineering</i> of August 17, 1906. An illustration
+of a bucket of 54 cub. ft. capacity constructed by Messrs Lobnitz
+&amp; Co. is given (Plate II fig. 11), from which some idea of the size
+of dredging machinery as developed in recent practice may be obtained.
+In regard to the depth of water that can be obtained by
+dredging, it is interesting to note that the dredger &ldquo;Diver,&rdquo; constructed
+by Messrs. Hunter &amp; English for Mr Samuel Williams of
+London, is capable of working in 60 ft. of water. In this vessel an
+ingenious arrangement was devised by Mr Williams, by which part
+of the weight of the dredger was balanced while the ladder itself
+could be drawn up through the bucket well and placed upon the
+deck, enabling a long ladder to be used for a comparatively short
+vessel. The &ldquo;Tilbury&rdquo; dredger, also constructed by Messrs Hunter
+&amp; English, was able to dredge to a depth of 45 ft. below the surface
+of the water.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Hopper Barges.</i>&mdash;To receive the materials excavated by barge-loading
+dredgers, steam hopper barges are now generally
+employed, capable of carrying 500 tons or more of excavation
+and of steaming loaded at a speed of about 9 m. per hour. These
+hopper barges are made with hinged flaps in their bottoms,
+which can be opened when the place of deposit is reached and
+the dredgings easily and quickly discharged.</p>
+
+<p>Good examples of these vessels are the two steam hopper barges
+built for the Conservators of the river Thames in 1898. The
+dimensions are: length 190 ft., breadth 30 ft., depth 13 ft.
+3 in., hopper capacity 900 tons. They are propelled by a set of
+triple expansion engines of 1200 i.h.p., with two return-tube
+boilers having a working pressure of 160 &#8468;. Special appliances
+are provided to work the hopper doors by steam power from
+independent engines placed at the forward end of the hopper.
+A steam windlass is fixed forward and a steam capstan aft. The
+vessels are fitted with cabins for the officers and crew. On
+their trial trip, the hoppers having their full load, a speed of
+11 knots was obtained, the coal consumption being 1.44 &#8468;
+per i.h.p.</p>
+
+<p><i>Methods of Dredging.</i>&mdash;In river dredging two systems are
+pursued. One plan consists in excavating a series of longitudinal
+furrows parallel to the axis of the stream; the other in dredging
+cross furrows from side to side of the river. It is found that
+inequalities are left between the longitudinal furrows when that
+system is practised, which do not occur, to the same extent, in
+side or cross dredging; and cross dredging leaves a more uniform
+bottom. In either case the dredger is moored from the head
+and stern by chains about 250 fathoms in length. These chains
+in improved dredgers are wound round windlasses worked by
+the engine, so that the vessel can be moved ahead or astern by
+simply throwing them into or out of gear. In longitudinal
+dredging the vessel is worked forward by the head chain, while
+the buckets are at the same time performing the excavation, so
+that a longitudinal trench is made in the bottom of the river.
+After proceeding a certain length, the dredger is stopped and
+permitted to drop down and commence a new longitudinal
+furrow, parallel to the first one. In cross dredging, on the other
+hand, the vessel is supplied with four additional moorings, two
+on each side, and these chains are, like the head and stern chains,
+wound round barrels worked by steam power. In cross dredging
+we may suppose the vessel to be moored at one side of the
+channel to be excavated. The bucket frame is set in motion,
+but instead of the dredger being drawn forward by the head chain,
+she is drawn across the river by the starboard chains, and, having
+reached the extent of her work in that direction, she is then
+drawn a few feet forward by the head chain, and the bucket
+frame being still in motion the vessel is hauled across by the
+port chains to the side whence she started. By means of this
+transverse motion of the dredger a series of cross cuts is made;
+the dredger takes out the whole excavation from side to side
+to a uniform depth and leaves no protuberances such as are
+found to exist between the furrows in longitudinal dredging,
+even when it is executed with great care. The two systems
+will be understood by reference to fig. 1, where A and B are the
+head and stern moorings, and C, D, E and F the side moorings.
+The arc e f represents the course of the vessel in cross dredging;
+while in longitudinal dredging, as already explained, she is
+drawn forward towards A, and again dropped down to commence
+a new longitudinal furrow.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:433px; height:172px" src="images/img564.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Diagram showing Moorings for Transverse Dredging.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Hopper Dredgers.</i>&mdash;In places where barge-loading dredgers
+are inconvenient, owing to confined space and interference with
+navigation, and where it is necessary to curtail capital expenditure,
+hopper dredgers are convenient and economical. These
+dredgers were first constructed by Messrs. Wm. Simons &amp; Co.
+of Renfrew, who patented and constructed what they call the
+&ldquo;Hopper Dredger,&rdquo; combining in itself the advantages of a
+dredger for raising material and a scow hopper vessel for conveying
+it to the place of discharge, both of which services are
+performed by the same engines and the same crew.</p>
+
+<p>The vessel for this type of dredger is made of sufficient length
+and floating capacity to contain its own dredgings, which it
+carries out to the depositing ground as soon as its hopper is full.
+Considerable time is of course occupied in slipping and recovering
+moorings, and conveying material to the depositing ground,
+but these disadvantages are in many instances counterbalanced
+by the fact that less capital is required for plant and that less
+room is taken up by the dredger. If the depositing ground is
+far away, the time available for dredging is much curtailed,
+but the four-screw hopper dredger constructed by Messrs Wm.
+Simons &amp; Co. for Bristol has done good work at the cost of
+5d. per ton, including wages, repairs, coals, grease, sundries and
+interest on the first cost of the plant, notwithstanding that the
+material has to be taken 10 m. from the Bristol Dock. She can
+lift 400 tons of stiff clay per hour from a depth of 36 ft. below
+the water line, and the power required varies from 120 i.h.p.
+to 150 i.h.p., according to the nature of the material. The
+speed is 9 knots, and 4 propellers are provided, two at the head
+and two at the stern, to enable the vessel to steam equally well
+either way, as the river Avon is too narrow to permit her to be
+turned round.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The hopper dredger &ldquo;La Puissante&rdquo; (Plate I. fig. 4), constructed
+by Messrs Wm. Simons &amp; Co. for the Suez Canal Co. for the improvement
+of Port Said Roads, is a fine example of this class of dredger.
+She is 275 ft. long by 47 ft. beam by 19 ft. deep. The hopper capacity
+is 2000 tons, and the draught loaded 16 ft. 5 in. The maximum
+dredging depth is 40 ft., and the minimum dredging depth is only
+limited by the vessel&rsquo;s draught, she being able to cut her own way.
+The bucket ladder works through the well in the stern and weighs with
+buckets 120 tons. The buckets have each a capacity of 30 cub. ft.
+and raised on trial 1600 tons per hour. The dredger is propelled by
+two sets of independent triple expansion surface-condensing engines
+of 1800 i.h.p. combined, working with steam at 160 &#8468; pressure,
+supplied by two mild steel multitubular boilers. Each set of engines
+is capable of driving the buckets independently at speeds of 16 and
+20 buckets per minute. The bucket ladder is fitted with buffer
+springs at its upper end to lessen the shock when working in a seaway.
+The dredger can deliver the dredged material either into its
+own hopper or into barges lying on either side. The vessel obtained
+a speed of 9¾ knots per hour on trial. The coal consumption during
+6 hours&rsquo; steaming trial was 1.66 &#8468; per i.h.p. hour. Fig. 9 (Plate I.)
+shows a still larger hopper dredger by the same constructors.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Dredgers fitted with Long Shoot or Shore Delivering Apparatus.</i>&mdash;The
+first instance of dredgers being fitted with long shoots was
+in the Suez Canal. The soil in the lakes was very variable, the
+surface being generally loose mud which lay in some places in
+the sand, but frequently more or less on hard clay. Resort was
+had to shoots 230 ft. long, supported on pontoons connected
+with the hull of the dredger. The sand flowed away with a
+moderate supply of water to the shoots when they were fixed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page565" id="page565"></a>565</span>
+at an inclination of about 1 in 20, but when the sand was mixed
+with shells these formed a coating which prevented the stream
+of water from washing out the shoot, and even with an inclination
+of 1 in 10 material could not be delivered. A pair of endless
+chains working down the long shoot overcame the difficulty,
+and also enabled hard clay in lumps to be dealt with. One
+dredger turned out about 2000 cub. yds. of thick clay in 15 hours,
+and when the clay was not hard it could deliver 150,000 cub. yds.
+in a month for several consecutive months.</p>
+
+<p>Shore delivery has been successfully effected by raising the
+material by buckets in the ordinary way and delivering it into
+a vertical cylinder connected with floating jointed pipes through
+which the dredgings pass to the shore. This, of course, can only
+be done where the place of deposit is near the spot where the
+material is dredged. Two plans have been satisfactorily employed
+for this operation. At the Amsterdam Canal the stuff was
+discharged from the buckets into a vertical cylinder, and after
+being mingled with water by a revolving Woodford pump was
+sent off under a head of pressure of 4 or 5 ft. to the place of
+deposit in a semi-fluid state through pipes made of timber,
+hooped with iron. These wooden pipes were made in lengths
+of about 15 ft., connected with leather joints, and floated on the
+surface of the water. A somewhat similar process was also
+employed on the Suez Canal.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A dredger (Plate I. fig. 5), constructed by Messrs Hunter &amp; English
+for reclamation works on Lake Copais in Greece was fitted with delivery
+belts running on rollers in steel lattice frames on each side of
+the vessel supported by masts and ropes. It could deliver 100 cub.
+metres per hour at 85 ft. from the centre of the dredger, at a cost of
+1.82d. per cub. metre for working expenses, with coal at 45s. per ton,
+including 0.66d. per cub. metre for renewal of belts, upon which the
+wear and tear was heavy.</p>
+
+<p>Another instance of the successful application of shore delivery
+apparatus is that of a dredger for Lake Titicaca, Peru, constructed
+by Messrs Hunter &amp; English, which was fitted with long shoots on
+both sides, conveying the dredged material about 100 ft. from the
+centre of the dredger upon either side. The shoots were supported
+by shear-legs and ropes, and were supplied with water from a centrifugal
+pump in the engine room. This dredger could excavate and
+deliver 120 cub. yds. per hour at a cost of 1.725d. per cub. yd. with coal
+costing 40s. per ton. If coal had been available at the ordinary rate
+in England of 20s. per ton, the cost of the dredging and delivery
+would have been 0.82d. per cub. yd. for wages, coal, oil, &amp;c., but
+not including the salary of the superintendent.</p>
+
+<p>An interesting example of a shore delivering dredger is a light
+draught dredger constructed by Messrs Hunter &amp; English for the
+Lakes of Albufera at the mouth of the river Ebro in Spain (Plate I.
+fig. 6). The conditions laid down for this dredger were that it should
+float in 18 in. of water and deliver the dredged material at 90 ft.
+from the centre of its own hull. In order to meet these requirements
+the vessel was made of steel plates <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span> in. thick, and longitudinal
+girders from end to end of the vessel, the upward strain of flotation
+being conveyed to them from the skin plating by transverse bulkheads
+at short intervals. The dredger was 94 ft. long, 25 ft. wide,
+and 3 ft. deep, and the height of the top tumbler above the water
+was 25 ft. When completed the dredger drew 17 in. of water. The
+dredgings were delivered by the buckets upon an endless belt, driven
+from the main compound surface-condensing engine, which ran over
+pulleys supported upon a steel lattice girder, the outer end of which
+rested upon an independent pontoon. This belt delivered the
+dredgings at 90 ft. from the centre of the dredger round an arc of
+180°. The dredger delivered 125 cub. yds. per hour of compact clay
+at a cost of 1.16d. per cub. yd. or 0.86d. per ton for wages, coal and
+stores. Another method of delivering dredgings is that of pneumatic
+delivery, introduced by Mr F. E. Duckham, of the Millwall
+Dock Co., by which the dredgings are delivered into cylindrical
+tanks in the dredger, closed by air-tight doors, and are expelled by
+compressed air either into the sea or through long pipes to the land.
+The Millwall Dock dredger is 113 ft. long, with a beam of 17 ft. and
+a depth of 12 ft. The draught loaded is 8 ft. It contains two
+cylindrical tanks, having a combined capacity of 240 cub. yds., and
+is fitted with compound engines of about 200 i.h.p., with a 20 in.
+air-compressing cylinder. The discharge pipe is 15 in. diameter by
+150 yds. long. The nozzles of the air-injection pipes must not be
+too small, otherwise the compressed air, instead of driving out the
+material, simply pierces holes through it and escapes through the
+discharging pipe, carrying with it all the liquid and thin material in
+the tanks. The cost of working the Millwall Dock dredger is given
+by Mr Duckham at 1.75d. per cub. yd. of mud lifted, conveyed
+and deposited on land 450 ft. from the water-side, for working expenses
+only. This dredger is believed to be the first machine constructed
+with a traversing ladder, as suggested by Captain Gibson
+when dock-master of the Millwall Docks.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Blasting combined with Dredging.</i>&mdash;In some cases it has been
+found that the bottom is too hard to be dredged until it has
+been to some extent loosened and broken up. Thus at Newry,
+John Rennie, after blasting the bottom in a depth of from 6 to
+8 ft. at low water, removed the material by dredging at an
+expense of from 4s. to 5s. per cub. yd. The same process was
+adopted by Messrs Stevenson at the bar of the Erne at Ballyshannon,
+where, in a situation exposed to a heavy sea, large
+quantities of boulder stones were blasted, and afterwards raised
+by a dredger worked by hand at a cost of 10s. 6d. per cub. yd.
+Sir William Cubitt also largely employed blasting in connexion
+with dredging on the Severn (see <i>Proc. Inst. C.E.</i> vol. iv. p. 362).
+The cost of blasting and dredging the marl beds is given as being
+4s. per cub. yd. A combination of blasting and dredging was
+employed in 1875 by John Fowler of Stockton at the river Tees.
+The chief novelty was in the barge upon which the machinery
+was fixed. It was 58 ft. by 28 ft. by 4 ft., and had eight legs
+which were let down when the barge was in position. The
+legs were then fixed to the barge, so that on the tide falling it
+became a fixed platform from which the drilling was done.
+Holes were bored and charged, and when the tide rose the legs
+were heaved up and the barge removed, after which the shots
+were discharged. There were 24 boring tubes on the barge,
+and that was the limit which could at any time be done in one
+tide. The area over which the blasting was done measured
+500 yds. in length by 200 in breadth, a small part being uncovered
+at low water. The depth obtained in mid-channel was
+14 ft. at low water, the average depth of rock blasted being about
+4 ft. 6 in. The holes, which were bored with the diamond drill,
+varied in depth from 7 to 9 ft., the distance between them
+being 10 ft. Dynamite in tin canisters fired by patent fuse was
+used as the explosive, the charges being 2 &#8468; and under. The
+rock is oolite shale of variable hardness, and the average time
+occupied in drilling holes 5 ft. deep was 12 minutes. The
+dredger raised the blasted rock. The cost for blasting, lifting
+and discharging at sea was about 4s. per cub. yd., including
+interest on dredging and other plant employed. The dredger
+sometimes worked a face of blasted material of from 7 to 8 ft.
+The quantity blasted was 110,000 cub. yds., and the contract
+for blasting so as to be lifted by the dredger was 3s. 1d. per cub.
+yd. A similar plan was adopted at Blyth Harbour (see <i>Proc.
+Inst. C.E.</i> vol. 81, p. 302). The cost of the explosives per cub.
+yd. was 1s. 4d., of boring 1s. 9d. per cub. yd., and of dredging
+3s. per cub. yd., including repairs, but nothing for the use of
+plant. The whole cost worked out at 6s. 1d. per cub. yd. on
+the average.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sand-pump Dredgers.</i>&mdash;Perhaps the most important development
+which has taken place in dredging during recent years has
+been the employment of sand-pump dredgers, which are very
+useful for removing sandy bars where the particular object is to
+remove quickly a large quantity of sand or other soft material.
+They are, however, apt to make large holes, and are therefore
+not fitted for positions where it is necessary to finish off the
+dredging work to a uniform flat bottom, for which purpose
+bucket dredgers are better adapted. Pump dredgers are, however,
+admirable and economical machines for carrying out the
+work for which they are specially suited.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In the discussion upon Mr J. J. Webster&rsquo;s paper upon &ldquo;Dredging-Appliances&rdquo;
+(<i>Proc. Inst. C.E.</i> vol. 89) at the Institution of Civil
+Engineers in 1886, Sir John Coode stated that he had first seen sand-pump
+dredgers at the mouth of the Maas in Holland. The centrifugal
+pump was placed against the bulkheads in the after part of the
+vessel, and the sand and water were delivered into a horizontal
+breeches-piece leading into two pipes running along the full length
+of the hopper. The difficulty of preventing the sand from running
+overboard was entirely obviated by its being propelled by the pump
+through these pipes, the bottoms of which were perforated by a series
+of holes. In addition, there were a few small flap-doors fixed at
+intervals, by means of which the men were able to regulate the
+discharge. On being tested, the craft pumped into its hopper 400
+tons of sand in 22 minutes. The coamings round the well of the
+hoppers were constructed with a dip, and when the hopper was full
+the water ran over in a steady stream on either side. The proportion
+of sand delivered into the hopper was about 20% of the total
+capacity of the pump. The dredger was constructed by Messrs
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page566" id="page566"></a>566</span>
+Smit of Kinderdijk, near Rotterdam. In the same discussion
+Mr A. A. Langley, then engineer to the Great Eastern railway, gave
+particulars of a sand pump upon the Bazin system, which had been
+used successfully at Lowestoft. The boat was 60 ft. long by 20 ft.
+wide, and the pump was 2 ft. in diameter, with a two-bladed disk.
+The discharge pipe was 12 in. in diameter. The pump raised 400
+tons of sand, gravel and stones per hour as a maximum quantity,
+the average quantity being about 200 tons per hour. The depth
+dredged was from 7 ft. to 25 ft. The pump was driven by a double-cylinder
+engine, having cylinders of 9 in. diameter by 10 in. stroke,
+and making 120 revolutions per minute. An important improvement
+was made by fitting the working faces of the pump with india-rubber,
+which was very successful and largely reduced the wear and tear.
+The cost of the dredging at Lowestoft was given by Mr Langley at
+2d. per ton, including delivery 2 m. out at sea. The quantity
+dredged was about 200,000 tons per annum.</p>
+
+<p>One of the earliest pumps to be applied to dredging purposes was
+the Woodford, which consisted of a horizontal disk with two or
+more arms working in a case somewhat similar to the ordinary
+centrifugal pump. The disk was keyed to a vertical shaft which was
+driven from above by means of belts or other gear coupled to an
+ordinary portable engine. The pump within rested on the ground;
+the suction pipe was so arranged that water was drawn in with the
+sand or mud, the proportions being regulated to suit the quality of
+the material. The discharge pipe was rectangular and carried a
+vertical shaft, the whole apparatus being adjustable to suit different
+depths of water. This arrangement was very effective, and has been
+used on many works. Burt &amp; Freeman&rsquo;s sand pump, a modification
+of the Woodford pump, was used in the construction of the Amsterdam
+Ship Canal, for which it was designed. The excavations from
+the canal had to be deposited on the banks some distance away from
+the dredgers, and after being raised by the ordinary bucket dredger,
+instead of being discharged into the barges, they were led into a
+vertical chamber on the top side of the pump, suitable arrangements
+being made for regulating the delivery. The pump was 3½ ft. in
+diameter, and made about 230 revolutions per minute. The water
+was drawn up on the bottom side and mixed with the descending
+mud on the top side, and the two were discharged into a pipe 15 in.
+in diameter. The discharge pipe was a special feature, and consisted
+of a series of wooden pipes jointed together with leather hinges
+and floated on buoys from the dredger to the bank. In some cases
+this pipe was 300 yds. long, and discharged the material 8 ft. above
+the water level. Each dredger and pump was capable of discharging
+an average of 1500 cub. yds. per day of 12 hours. Schmidt&rsquo;s
+sand pump is claimed to be an improvement on the Burt &amp; Freeman
+pump. It consists of a revolving wheel 6 ft. in diameter, with cutters
+revolving under a hood which just allows the water to pass underneath.
+To the top side of the hood a 20 in. suction pipe from an
+ordinary centrifugal pump is attached. The pump is driven by two
+16 in. by 20 in. cylinders, at 134 revolutions per minute, the boiler
+pressure being 95 &#8468; per sq. in. This apparatus is capable of excavating
+sticky blue clayey mud, and will deliver the material at
+500 to 650 yds. distance. The best results are obtained when the
+mixture of mud and water is as 1 to 6.5. The average quantity
+excavated per diem by the apparatus is 1300 cub. yds., the maximum
+quantity being 2500 cub. yds.</p>
+
+<p>Kennard&rsquo;s sand pump is entirely different from the pumps already
+described, and is a direct application of the ordinary lift pump. A
+wrought iron box has a suction pipe fitted at the bottom, rising about
+half way up the inside of the box; on the top of the box is fitted the
+actual pump and the flap valves. The apparatus is lowered by
+chains, and the pump lowered from above. As soon as the box is
+filled with sand it is raised, the catches holding up the bottom
+released, and the contents discharged into a punt.</p>
+
+<p>Sand-pump dredgers, designed and arranged by Mr Darnton
+Hutton, were extensively used on the Amsterdam Ship Canal. A
+centrifugal pump with a fan 4 ft. in diameter was employed, the
+suction and delivery pipes, each 18 in. in diameter, being attached
+to an open wrought-iron framework. The machine was suspended
+between guides fixed to the end of the vessel, which was fitted with
+tackle for raising, lowering and adjusting the machine. The vessel
+was fitted with a steam engine and boiler for working and manipulating
+the pumps and the heavy side chains for the guidance of the
+dredger. The engine was 70 h.p., and the total cost of one dredger
+was £8000. The number of hands required for working this sand-pump
+dredger was one captain, one engineer, one stoker and four
+sailors. Each machine was capable of raising about 1300 tons of
+material per day, the engines working at 60 and the pump at 180
+revolutions per minute. The sand was delivered into barges alongside
+the dredger. The cost of raising the material and depositing
+it in barges was about 1d. per ton when the sand pumps were working,
+but upon the year&rsquo;s work the cost was 2.4d. per cub. yd. for
+working expenses and repairs, and 1.24d. per cub. yd. for interest
+and depreciation at 10% upon the cost of the plant, making a total
+cost for dredging of 3.64d. per cub. yd. The cost for transport was
+3.588d. per cub. yd., making a total cost for dredging and transport
+of 7.234d. per cub. yd. Dredging and transport on the same works
+by an ordinary bucket dredger and barges cost 8.328d. per cub. yd.</p>
+
+<p>Two of the largest and most successful instances of sand-pump
+dredgers are the &ldquo;Brancker&rdquo; and the &ldquo;G. B. Crow,&rdquo; belonging
+to the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board. Mr A. G. Lyster gave
+particulars of the work done by these dredgers in a paper read before
+the Engineering Congress in 1899. They are each 320 ft. long, 47 ft.
+wide and 20.5 ft. deep, the draught loaded being 16 ft. They are
+fitted with two centrifugal pumps, each 6 ft. in diameter, with 36 in.
+suction and delivery pipes, united into a 45 in. diameter pipe, hung
+by a ball and socket joint in a trunnion, so as to work safely in a seaway
+when the waves are 10 ft. high. The suction pipe is 76 ft. long
+and will dredge in 53 ft. of water. The eight hoppers hold 3000 tons,
+equivalent when solid to 2000 cub. yds.; they can be filled in three-quarters
+of an hour and discharged in five minutes. Mr Lyster
+stated that up to May 1899, the quantity removed from bar and
+main-channel shoals amounted to 41,240,360 tons, giving a width
+of channel of 1500 ft. through the bar, with a minimum depth of
+27 ft. The cost of dredging on the bar by the &ldquo;G. B. Crow&rdquo; during
+1898, when 4,309,350 tons of material were removed, was 0.61d.
+per ton for wages, supplies and repairs. These figures include all
+direct working costs and a proportion of the charge for actual
+superintendence, but no allowance for interest on capital cost or
+depreciation. On an average, 20% of the sand and mud that are
+raised escapes over the side of the vessel. Mr Lyster has, however,
+to a considerable extent overcome this difficulty by a special
+arrangement added to the hoppers (see <i>Proc. Inst. C.E.</i> vol. 188).</p>
+
+<p>At the Engineering Conference, 1907, Mr Lyster read a note in
+which he stated that the total quantity of material removed from
+the bar of the Mersey, from the Crosby channel, and from other
+points of the main channel by the &ldquo;G. B. Crow&rdquo; and &ldquo;Brancker&rdquo;
+suction dredgers amounted to 108,675,570 tons up to the 1st of May
+1907. &ldquo;In the note of 1899 (he added) it was pointed out that the
+Mersey was a striking instance of the improvement of a river by
+dredging rather than by permanent works, and the economy of the
+system as well as the advantage which its elasticity and adaptability
+to varying circumstances permit, was pointed out....
+The most recent experience, which has resulted in the adoption of
+the proposal to revet the Taylor&rsquo;s bank, indicates that the dredging
+method has its limitations and cannot provide for every contingency
+which is likely to arise; at the same time, the utility and economy
+of the dredging system is in no way diminished.... Having
+regard to the ever-increasing size of vessels, a scheme for new docks
+and entrances on a very large scale received the authority of parliament
+during the session of 1905-1906 In this scheme it was considered
+necessary to make provision for vessels of 1000 ft. in length
+and 40 ft. in draught, and having regard to this prospective growth
+of vessels it has been determined still further to deepen and improve
+the outer channel of the Mersey. No fixed measure of improvement
+has been decided on, but after careful survey of existing conditions
+and a comparison with probable requirements, it has been determined
+to construct a dredger of 10,000 tons capacity, provided with pumping
+power equivalent to about three times that of any existing
+dredgers. By the use of this vessel it is anticipated that it will be
+possible to deal with very much larger quantities of sand at a cheaper
+rate, and to 10 ft. greater depth than the existing plant permits.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The vessel in question was launched on the Mersey from the yard
+of Messrs Cammell, Laird &amp; Co. in October 1908, and was named
+the &ldquo;Leviathan.&rdquo; Her length is 487 ft., beam 69 ft., and depth
+30 ft. 7 in. Her dredging machinery consists of four centrifugal
+pumps driven by four sets of inverted triple expansion engines, and
+connected to four suction tubes 90 ft. long and 42 in. in internal
+diameter. Her propelling machinery, consisting of two sets of triple
+expansion engines, is capable of driving her at a speed of 10 knots.</p>
+
+<p>Another powerful and successful sand-pump dredger, &ldquo;Kate&rdquo;
+(Plate I. fig. 7), was built in 1897 by Messrs Wm. Simons &amp; Co. Ltd.
+for the East London Harbour Board, South Africa. Its dimensions
+are: length 200 ft., breadth 39 ft., depth 14 ft. 6 in., hopper capacity
+1000 tons. The pumping arrangements for filling the hopper with
+sand or discharging overboard consist of two centrifugal pumps,
+each driven from one of the propelling engines. The suction pipes
+are each 27 in. in diameter, and are so arranged that they may be
+used for pumping either forward or aft, as the state of the weather
+may require. Four steam cranes are provided for manipulating the
+suction pipes. Owing to the exceptional weather with which the
+vessel had to contend, special precautions were taken in designing
+the attachments of the suction pipes to the vessel. The attachment
+is above deck and consists of a series of joints, which give a perfectly
+free and universal movement to the upper ends of the pipes. The
+joints, on each side of the vessel, are attached to a carriage, which
+is traversed laterally by hydraulic gear. By this means the pipes
+are pushed out well clear of the vessel&rsquo;s sides when pumping, and
+brought inboard when not in work. Hydraulic cushioning cylinders
+are provided to give any required resistance to the fore and aft
+movements of the pipes. When the vessel arrived at East London
+on the 18th of July 1897, there was a depth of 14 ft. on the bar at
+high tide. On the 10th of October, scarcely three months afterwards,
+there was a depth of 20 ft. on the bar at low water. Working 22 days
+in rough weather during the month of November 1898, the &ldquo;Kate&rdquo;
+raised and deposited 2½ m. at sea 60,000 tons of dredgings. Her
+best day&rsquo;s work (12 hours) was on the 7th of November, when she
+dredged and deposited 6440 tons.</p>
+
+<p>A large quantity of sand-pump dredging has been carried out at
+Boulogne and Calais by steam hopper pump dredgers, workable when
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page567" id="page567"></a>567</span>
+the head waves are not more than 3 ft. high and the cross waves not
+more than 1½ ft. high. The dredgings are taken 2 m. to sea, and the
+price for dredging and depositing from 800,000 to 900,000 cub.
+metres in 5 or 6 years was 7.25d. per cub. yd. The contractor offered
+to do the work at 4.625d. per cub. yd. on condition of being allowed
+to work either at Calais or Boulogne, as the weather might permit.
+Sand-pump dredging has also been extensively carried out at the
+mouth of the ports of Amsterdam, Rotterdam and on the north coast
+of France by sand dredgers constructed by Messrs L. Smit &amp; Son
+and G. &amp; K. Smit. The largest dredger, the &ldquo;Amsterdam,&rdquo; is
+141 ft. by 27 ft. by 10 ft. 8 in., and has engines of 190 i.h.p. The
+hopper capacity is 10,600 cub. ft., and the vessel can carry 600 tons
+of dredgings. The pump fan is 6 ft. 3 in. in diameter by 10 in. wide,
+the plates being of wrought iron, and makes 130 revolutions a minute.
+The pump can raise 230 cub. ft. a minute from a depth of 33 ft.,
+which, taking the proportion of 1 of sand to 7 of water, gives a
+delivery of 29 cub. ft. of sand per minute. The hopper containing
+10,600 cub. ft. was under favourable circumstances filled in 40
+minutes. The vessels are excellent sea boats.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Combined Bucket-Ladder and Sand-Pump Dredgers.</i>&mdash;Bucket
+ladders and sand pumps have also been fitted to the same
+dredger. A successful example of this practice is furnished by
+the hopper dredger &ldquo;Percy Sanderson&rdquo; (Plate I. fig. 8), constructed
+under the direction of Sir C. A. Hartley, engineer of
+the Danube Commission for the deepening of the river Danube
+and the Sulina bar. This dredger is 220 ft. by 40 ft. by 17 ft.
+2 in., and has a hopper capacity for 1250 tons of dredgings.
+The buckets have each a capacity of 25 cub. ft., and are able
+to raise 1000 tons of ordinary material per hour. The suction
+pump, which is driven by an independent set of triple expansion
+engines, is capable of raising 700 tons of sand per hour, and of
+dredging to a depth of 35 ft. below the water-line. The lower
+end of the suction pipe is controlled by special steam appliances
+by which the pipe can be brought entirely inboard. The &ldquo;Percy
+Sanderson&rdquo; raises and deposits on an average 5000 tons of
+material per day.</p>
+
+<p><i>Grab Dredgers.</i>&mdash;The grab dredger was stated by Sir Benjamin
+Baker (<i>Proc. Inst. C.E.</i> vol. 113, p. 38) to have been invented by
+Gouffé in 1703, and was worked by two ropes and a bar. Various
+kinds of apparatus have been designed in the shape of grabs or
+buckets for dredging purposes. These are usually worked by a
+steam crane, which lets the open grab down to the surface of
+the ground to be excavated and then closes it by a chain which
+forces the tines into the ground; the grab is then raised by the
+crane, which deposits the contents either into the hopper of the
+vessel upon which the crane is fixed or into another barge.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The Priestman grab has perhaps been more extensively used than
+any other apparatus of this sort. It is very useful for excavating
+mud, gravel and soft sand, but is less effective with hard sand or
+stiff clay&mdash;a general defect in this class of dredger. It is also capable
+of lifting large loose pieces of rock weighing from 1 to 2 tons. A
+dredger of this type, with grab holding 1 ton of mud, dredged during
+six days, in 19 ft. of water, an average of 52½ tons and a maximum
+of 68½ tons per hour, and during 12 days, in 16 ft. of water, an
+average of 48 tons and a maximum of 58 tons per hour, at a cost of
+1.63d. per ton, excluding interest on the capital and depreciation.
+The largest dredger to which this apparatus has been applied is the
+grab bucket hopper dredger &ldquo;Miles K. Burton&rdquo; (Plate I. fig. 9),
+belonging to the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board. It is equipped
+with 5 grabs on Morgan&rsquo;s patent system, which is a modification of
+Priestman&rsquo;s, the grabs being worked by 5 hydraulic cranes. It
+raised and deposited, 12 to 15 m. at sea, 11 loads of about 1450 tons
+each with a double shift of hands, at a cost of about 1s. 5d. per cub.
+yd. of spoil, including the working expenses for wages of crew, fuel
+and stores. Mr R. A. Marillier of Hull has stated that &ldquo;the efficiency
+of these grabs is not at all dependent upon the force of the blow in
+falling for the penetration and grip in the material, as they do their
+work very satisfactorily even when lowered quite gently on to the
+material to be cut out, the jaws being so framed as to draw down
+and penetrate the material as soon as the upward strain is put on
+the lifting chain. Even in hard material the jaws penetrate so
+thoroughly as to cause the bucket to be well filled. The grab is found
+to work successfully in excavating hard clay from its natural bed
+on dry land.&rdquo; It is claimed on behalf of grabs that they lift a smaller
+proportion of water than any other class of dredger.</p>
+
+<p>Since the beginning of the 20th century considerable advance has
+been made in the use of Priestman grabs, not only for dredging and
+excavating (for which work they were originally designed), but also
+in discharging bulk cargo. The first quadruple dredger used by the
+Liverpool Docks Board had grabs of a capacity of 30 cub. ft., but
+subsequently second and third quadruple dredgers were put to work
+in the Liverpool Docks, with grabs having a capacity of 70 and 100
+cub. ft. respectively. In discharging coal at Southampton, Havre,
+Erith, as well as at the coaling station at Purfleet on the Thames,
+grabs having a capacity of about 80 cub. ft. are in constant use.
+Perhaps the most difficult kind of bulk cargo to lift is &ldquo;Narvick&rdquo;
+iron ore, which sets into a semi-solid body in the holds of the vessels,
+and for this purpose one of the largest grabs, having about 150 cub.
+ft. capacity and weighing about 8 tons, has been adopted. This grab
+was designed as a result of experiments extending over a long period
+in lifting iron ore. It is fitted with long, forged, interlocked steel
+teeth for penetrating the compact material, which is very costly to
+remove by hand labour. The Priestman grab is made to work with
+either one or two chains or wire ropes. Grabs worked with two
+chains or ropes have many advantages, and are therefore adopted
+for large undertakings.</p>
+
+<p>Wild&rsquo;s single chain half-tine grab works entirely with a single
+chain, and has been found very useful in excavating the cylinders in
+Castries harbour. Upon experimenting with an ordinary grab a
+rather curious condition of things was observed with respect to
+sinking. On penetrating the soil to a certain depth the ground was
+found as it were nested, and nothing would induce the grab to sink
+lower. Sir W. Matthews suggested that a further set of external
+tines might possibly get over this difficulty. A new grab having been
+made with this modification, and also with a large increase of
+weight&mdash;all the parts being of steel&mdash;it descended to any required
+depth with ease, the outside tines loosening the ground effectually
+whilst the inside bucket or tines picked up the material.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Miscellaneous Appliances.</i>&mdash;There are several machines or
+appliances which perhaps can hardly be called dredgers, although
+they are used for cleansing and deepening rivers and harbours.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Kingfoot&rsquo;s dredger, used for cleansing the river Stour, consisted
+of a boat with a broad rake fitted to the bow, capable of adjustment
+to different depths. At the sides of the boat were hinged two wings
+of the same depth as the rake and in a line with it. When the rake
+was dropped to the bottom of the river and the wings extended to
+the side, they formed a sort of temporary dam, and the water began
+to rise gradually. As soon as a sufficient head was raised, varying
+from 6 to 12 in., the whole machine was driven forward by the
+pressure, and the rake carried the mud with it. Progress at the rate
+of about 3 m. an hour was made in this manner, and to prevent the
+accumulation of the dredgings, operations were begun at the mouth
+of the river and carried on backwards. The apparatus was very
+effective and the river was cleansed thoroughly, but the distance
+travelled by the dredger must have been great.</p>
+
+<p>In 1876 J. J. Rietschoten designed a &ldquo;propeller dredger&rdquo; for
+removing the shoals of the river Maas. It consisted of an old gunboat
+fitted with a pair of trussed beams, one at each side, each of
+which carried a steel shaft and was capable of being lowered or
+raised by means of a crab. An ordinary propeller 3 ft. 6 in. in
+diameter was fixed to the lower end of the shaft, and driven by bevel
+gear from a cross shaft which derived its motion by belting from
+the fly-wheel of a 12 h.p. portable engine. The propellers were
+lowered until they nearly reached the shoals, and were then worked
+at 150 revolutions per minute. This operation scoured away the
+shoal effectively, for in about 40 minutes it had been lowered about
+3 ft. for a space of 150 yds. long by 8 yds. wide.</p>
+
+<p>A. Lavalley in 1877 designed an arrangement for the harbour of
+Dunkirk to overcome the difficulty of working an ordinary bucket-ladder
+dredger when there is even a small swell. A pump injects
+water into the sand down a pipe terminating in three nozzles to stir
+up the sand, and another centrifugal pump draws up the mixed
+sand and water and discharges it into a hopper, the pumps and all
+machinery being on board the hopper. To allow for the rising and
+falling of the vessel&mdash;either by the action of the tide or by the swell&mdash;the
+ends of the pipes are made flexible. The hopper has a capacity
+of 190 cub. yds., and is propelled and the pumps worked by an engine
+of 150 i.h.p. From 50 to 80 cub. yds. per hour can be raised by this
+dredger.</p>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;Aquamotrice,&rdquo; designed by Popie, and used on the
+Garonne at Agen, appears to be a modification of the old bag and
+spoon arrangement. A flat-bottomed boat 51½ ft. long by 6½ ft.
+wide was fitted at the bow with paddles, which were actuated by the
+tide. Connected with the paddles was a long chain, passing over a
+pulley on uprights and under a roller, and a beam was attached to
+the chain 14 ft. 8 in. long, passing through a hole in the deck. At
+the end of the beam was an iron scoop 2 ft. wide and 2 ft. 6 in. deep.
+When the tide was strong enough it drew the scoop along by means
+of the paddles and chains, and the scoop when filled was opened by
+a lever and discharged. About 65 cub. yds. of gravel could be
+raised by the apparatus in 12 hours. When the tide failed the
+apparatus was worked by men.</p>
+
+<p>The Danube Steam Navigation Co. removed the shingle in the
+shallow parts of the river by means of a triangular rake with wrought-iron
+sides 18 ft. long, and fitted with 34 teeth of chilled cast iron
+12 in. deep. This rake was hung from the bow of a steamer 180 ft.
+long by 21 ft. beam, and dragged across the shallows, increasing the
+depth of water in one instance from 5 ft. 6 in. to 9 ft., after passing
+over the bank 355 times.</p>
+
+<p>A combination of a harrow and high pressure water jets, arranged
+by B. Tydeman, was found very efficacious in removing a large
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page568" id="page568"></a>568</span>
+quantity of mud which accumulated in the Tilbury Dock basin,
+which has an area of about 17 acres, with a depth of 26 ft. at low-water
+spring tides. In the first instance chain harrows merely were
+used, but the addition of the water jets added materially to the
+success of the operation. The system accomplished in six tides
+more than was done in twelve tides without the water jets which
+worked at about 80 lb pressure per sq. in. at the bottom of the dock.</p>
+
+<p>Ive&rsquo;s excavator consists of a long weighted spear, with a sort of
+spade at the end of it. The spade is hinged at the top, and is capable
+of being turned at right angles to the spear by a chain attached to
+the end of the spear. The spade is driven into the ground, and after
+releasing the catch which holds it in position during its descent, it is
+drawn up at right angles to the spear by the chain, carrying the
+material with it. Milroy&rsquo;s excavator is similar, but instead of having
+only one spade it generally has eight, united to the periphery of an
+octagonal iron frame fixed to a central vertical rod. When these
+eight spades are drawn up by means of chains, they form one flat
+table or tray at right angles to the central rod. In operation the
+spades hang vertically, and are dropped into the material to be
+excavated; the chains are then drawn up, and the table thus formed
+holds the material on the top, which is lifted and discharged by
+releasing the spade. This apparatus has been extensively used both
+in Great Britain and in India for excavating in bridge cylinders.</p>
+
+<p>The clam shell dredger consists of two hinged buckets, which when
+closed form one semi-cylindrical bucket. The buckets are held
+open by chains attached to the top of a cross-head, and the machine
+is dropped on to the top of the material to be dredged. The chains
+holding the bucket open are then released, while the spears are held
+firmly in position, the buckets being closed by another chain.
+Bull&rsquo;s dredger, Gatmell&rsquo;s excavator, and Fouracre&rsquo;s dredger are
+modifications with improvements of the clam shell dredger, and
+have all been used successfully upon various works.</p>
+
+<p>Bruce &amp; Batho&rsquo;s dredger, when closed, is of hemispherical form,
+the bucket being composed of three or four blades. It can be worked
+by either a single chain or by means of a spear, the latter being
+generally used for stiff material. The advantage of this form of
+dredger bucket is that the steel points of the blades are well adapted
+for penetrating hard material. Messrs Bruce &amp; Batho also designed
+a dredger consisting of one of these buckets, but worked entirely
+by hydraulic power. This was made for working on the Tyne.
+The excavator or dredger is fixed to the end of a beam which is
+actuated by two hydraulic cylinders, one being used for raising the
+bucket and the other for lowering it; the hydraulic power is supplied
+by the pumps in the engine-room. The novelty in the design is the
+ingenious way in which the lever in ascending draws the shoot under
+the bucket to receive its contents, and draws away again as the
+bucket descends. The hydraulic cylinder at the end of the beam
+is carried on gimbals to allow for irregularities on the surface being
+dredged. The hydraulic pressure is 700 &#8468; per sq. in., and the pumps
+are used in connexion with a steam accumulator.</p>
+
+<p>An unloading apparatus was designed by Mr A. Manning for the
+East &amp; West India Dock Co. for unloading the dredged materials
+out of barges and delivering it on the marsh at the back of the bank
+of the river Thames at Crossness, Kent. A stage constructed of
+wooden piles commanded a series of barge beds, and the unloading
+dredger running from end to end of the stage, lifted and delivered
+the materials on the marsh behind the river wall at the cost of 1 d.
+per cub. yd.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Dredging on the River Scheldt below Antwerp.</i>&mdash;This dredging
+took place at Krankeloon and the Belgian Sluis under the direction
+of L. Van Gansberghe. At Melsele there is a pronounced
+bend in the river, causing a bar at the Pass of Port Philip,
+and just below the pass of Lillo there is a cross-over in the current,
+making a neutral point and forming a shoal. After dredging to
+8 metres (26.24 ft.) below low tide, in clay containing stone
+and ferruginous matter, a sandstone formation was encountered,
+which was very compact and difficult to raise. A suction
+dredger being unsuited to the work, a bucket-ladder dredger
+was employed. The dredging was commenced at Krankeloon
+in September 1894 and continued to the end of 1897. A depth
+of 6 metres (19.68 ft.) was excavated at first, but was afterwards
+increased to 8 metres (26.24 ft.). The place of deposit was at
+first on lands acquired by the State, 2.17 m. above Krankeloon,
+and placed at the disposal of the contractor. The dredgings
+excavated by the bucket-ladder dredger were deposited in scows,
+which were towed to the front of the deposit ground and discharged
+by a suction pump fixed in a special boat, moored close
+to the bank of the river. The material brought by the suction
+dredger in its own hull was discharged by a plant fixed upon the
+dredger itself. In both instances the material was deposited at
+a distance of 1640 ft. from the river, the spoil bank varying
+in depth from 2 to 7 metres. The water thrown out behind
+the dyke with the excavated material returned to the river,
+after settlement, by a special discharge lock built under the dyke.
+After 1896 the material was delivered into an abandoned pass
+by means of barges with bottom hopper doors or by the suction
+dredger. One suction dredger and three bucket-ladder dredgers
+were employed upon the work, and a vessel called &ldquo;Scheldt I.&rdquo;
+used for discharging the material from the scows. Four tugboats
+and twenty scows were also employed.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The largest dredger, &ldquo;Scheldt III.,&rdquo; was 147.63 ft. long by 22.96
+ft. wide by 10.98 ft. deep, and had buckets of 21.18 cub. ft. capacity.
+The output per hour was 10,594 cub. ft. This dredger had also a
+complete installation as a suction dredger, the suction pipe being
+2 ft. diameter. The fan of the centrifugal pump was 5.25 ft. diameter,
+and was driven by the motor of the bucket ladder. The three bucket
+dredgers worked with head to the ebb tide. They could also work
+with head to the flood tide, but it took so long a time to turn them
+about that it was impracticable. The work was for from 13 to 14
+hours a day on the ebb tide. The effective daily excavation
+averaged 4839 cub. yds. Each dredger was fitted with six anchors.
+The excavated cut was 164 ft. wide by 6.56 ft. deep. &ldquo;Scheldt III.&rdquo;
+was capable of lifting a mass 9.84 ft. thick. The suction dredger
+&ldquo;Scheldt II.&rdquo; was of the multiple type, and is stated to be unique
+in construction. It can discharge material from a scow alongside,
+fill its own hopper with excavations, discharge its own load upon the
+bank or into a scow by different pipes provided for the purpose, and
+discharge its own load through hopper doors. The machinery is
+driven by a triple expansion engine of 300 i.h.p. working the propeller
+by a clutch. Owing to the rise and fall in the tide of 23 ft.
+the suction pipe is fitted with spherical joints and a telescopic
+arrangement. The vessel is 157.5 ft. by 28.2 ft. by 12.8 ft. The
+diameter of the pump is 5.25 ft. The wings of the pump are curved,
+the surface being in the form of a cylinder parallel to the axis of
+rotation, the directrix of which is an arc of a circle of 2.62 ft. radius
+with the straight part beyond. The suction and discharge pipes are
+2 ft. diameter. A centrifugal pump is provided for throwing water
+into the scows to liquefy the material during discharge. The dredger,
+which is fitted with electric lights for work at night, is held by two
+anchors, to prevent lurching backwards and forwards; it can work
+on the flood as well as on the ebb tide, and can excavate to a depth
+of 42.65 ft., the output depending upon the nature of the material.
+With good material it can fill its tanks in thirty minutes. To empty
+the tanks by suction and discharge upon the bank over the dyke
+takes about fifty minutes, depending upon the height and distance
+to which the material requires to be delivered. The daily work has
+averaged eighteen hours, ten trips being made when the distance
+from the dredging ground to the point of delivery is about 1 m.
+When the dredged material is discharged into the Scheldt, a quantity
+of 5886 cub. yds. has been raised and deposited in a day, the mean
+quantity being 4700 cub. yds. When the distance of transportation
+is increased to 2½ m., six voyages were made in a day, and the day&rsquo;s
+work amounted to 3530 cub. yds.</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:522px; height:247px" src="images/img568.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Diagram showing Action of Lobnitz Gold Dredger.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Gold Dredgers.</i>&mdash;Dredgers for excavating from river beds soil
+containing gold are generally fitted with a screen and elevator.
+They have been extensively designed and built by Messrs
+Lobnitz &amp; Co. (fig. 2) and also by Messrs Hunter &amp; English.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The writer is indebted to the <i>Proceedings</i> of the Institution of
+Civil Engineers, and especially to the paper of Mr J. J. Webster
+(<i>Proc. Inst. C.E.</i> vol. 89), for much valuable information upon the
+subject treated. He is also indebted to many manufacturers who
+have furnished him with particulars and photographs of dredging
+plant.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. H.*)</div>
+
+<p class="noind pt2 f80 sc">Plate I.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:399px; height:250px" src="images/img568a1.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:400px; height:252px" src="images/img568a2.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;Barge-loading dredger, &ldquo;St Austell,&rdquo; constructed for
+the British Government by Wm. Simons &amp; Co.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>&mdash;Stern-well hopper-dredger &ldquo;La Puissante,&rdquo; by Wm.
+Simons &amp; Co. Length 275 ft., breadth 47 ft., depth 19 ft.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:402px; height:252px" src="images/img568a3.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:403px; height:254px" src="images/img568a4.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>&mdash;Dredger constructed for the Lake Copais Co.
+by Hunter &amp; English.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>&mdash;Light-draught dredger, with delivery apparatus working
+round an arc of 210°, by Hunter &amp; English.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:402px; height:262px" src="images/img568a5.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:400px; height:260px" src="images/img568a6.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>&mdash;Twin-screw sand-pump dredger, &ldquo;Kate,&rdquo; built for the
+East London Harbour Board by Wm. Simons &amp; Co.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>&mdash;Twin-screw hopper-dredger, &ldquo;Percy Sanderson,&rdquo; built
+for the European Danube Commission by Wm. Simons &amp; Co.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:387px; height:259px" src="images/img568a7.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:400px; height:200px" src="images/img568a8.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span>&mdash;Twin-screw grab-dredger, &ldquo;Miles K. Burton,&rdquo;
+built for the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board by Wm.
+Simons &amp; Co.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span>&mdash;Hopper-dredger, &ldquo;David Dale,&rdquo; with buckets of 54
+cub. ft. capacity (see fig. 11) built for the North Eastern Railway
+Company by Lobnitz &amp; Co.</td></tr></table>
+
+
+<p class="noind pt2 f80 sc">Plate II.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:850px; height:551px" src="images/img568b1.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span>&mdash;BUCKETS OF 5 AND 54 CUBIC FEET CAPACITY COMPARED.<br />
+The latter, the largest ever made, were for the hopper-dredger &ldquo;David Dale&rdquo; (Plate I. fig. 10), built by Lobnitz &amp; Co.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:850px; height:561px" src="images/img568b2.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span>&mdash;MODEL OF ROCK-CUTTING DREDGER, &ldquo;DEROCHEUSE.&rdquo;<br />
+Built for special work on the Suez Canal by Lobnitz &amp; Co. Length 180 ft., breadth 40 ft., depth 12 ft.</td></tr></table>
+
+
+<p class="center pt2 sc">2. Marine Biology</p>
+
+<p>The naturalist&rsquo;s dredge is an instrument consisting essentially
+of a net or bag attached to a framework of iron which forms the
+mouth of the net. When in use as the apparatus is drawn over
+the sea-bottom mouth forwards, some part of the framework
+passes beneath objects which it meets and so causes them to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page569" id="page569"></a>569</span>
+enter the net. It is intended for the collection of animals and
+plants living on or near the sea-bottom, or sometimes of specimens
+of the sea-bottom itself, for scientific purposes.</p>
+
+<p>Until the middle of the 18th century, naturalists who studied
+the marine fauna and flora relied for their materials on shore
+collection and the examination of the catches of fishing boats.
+Their knowledge of creatures living below the level of low spring
+tides was thus gained only from specimens cast up in storms, or
+caught by fishing gear designed for the capture of certain edible
+species only. The first effort made to free
+marine biology from these limitations was
+the use of the dredge, which was built
+much on the plan of the oyster dredge.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:145px; height:250px" src="images/img569a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span>&mdash;Otho
+Frederick Müller&rsquo;s
+Dredge (1770).</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>The Oyster Dredge.</i>&mdash;At first naturalists made
+use of the ordinary oyster dredge, which is
+constructed as follows. The frame is an iron
+triangle, the sides being the round iron &ldquo;arms&rdquo;
+of the dredge, the base a flat bar called the
+shere or lip, which is sloped a little, not perpendicular
+to the plane of the triangle; an
+iron bar parallel to the base joins the arms.
+The net is fastened to the parallel bars and
+the portion of the arms between them, and
+consists of two parts: that attached to the
+shere is of round iron rings linked together by
+smaller ones of wire lashings, that attached
+to the upper bar is of ordinary network.
+Where these two portions of the bag meet a
+wooden beam is fastened. In use the frame is towed forward by its
+apex: the shere passes below oysters, &amp;c., which pass back on to the
+iron netting. The length of each side of the triangular frame is about
+6 ft., the width of the shere 3 in. and the height of the mouth just
+under a foot. The rings vary in size, but are usually some 2½ in. in
+diameter. The weight is about 60 &#8468;. This dredge was soon abandoned:
+its weight was prohibitive for small boats, from which the
+naturalist usually worked, its wide rings allowed precious specimens
+to fall through, and its shallow net favoured the washing out of light
+objects on hauling through the moving water of the surface. Moreover,
+it sometimes fell on its back and was then useless, although
+when the apex or towing point was weighted no great skill is needed
+to avoid this.</p>
+
+<p>Otho Müller used a dredge (fig. 13) consisting of a net with a
+square iron mouth, each of whose sides was furnished with a thin
+edge turned slightly away from the dredge&rsquo;s centre. As any one of
+these everted lips could act as a scraper it was a matter of indifference
+which struck the bottom when the dredge
+was lowered. The chief defect of the instrument
+was the ease with which light objects
+could be washed out on hauling, owing to
+the size of the mouth. However, with this
+instrument Müller obtained from the often
+stormy Scandinavian seas all the material for
+his celebrated <i>Zoologia Danica</i>, a description
+of the marine fauna of Denmark and
+Norway which was published with excellent
+coloured plates in 1778; and historical
+interest attaches to the dredge as the first
+made specially for scientific work.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ball&rsquo;s Dredge.</i>&mdash;About 1838 a dredge devised
+by Dr Ball of Dublin was introduced.
+It has been used all over the world, and is
+so apt for its purpose that it has suffered
+very little modification during its 70 years
+of life. It is known as Ball&rsquo;s dredge or more
+generally simply &ldquo;the dredge.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 230px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:176px; height:379px" src="images/img569b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 14.</span>&mdash;Ball&rsquo;s
+Naturalist&rsquo;s Dredge.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Ball&rsquo;s dredge (fig. 14) consists of a rectangular
+net attached to a rectangular
+frame much longer than high, and furnished
+with rods stretching from the four corners
+to meet at a point where they are attached
+to the dredge rope. It differs from Müller&rsquo;s
+dredge in the slit-like shape of the opening,
+which prevents much of the &ldquo;washing out&rdquo; suffered by the earlier
+pattern, and in the edges. The long edges only are fashioned as
+scrapers, being wider and heavier than Müller&rsquo;s, especially in later
+dredges. The short edges are of round iron bar.</p>
+
+<p>Like Müller&rsquo;s form, Ball&rsquo;s dredge will act whichever side touches
+the bottom first, as its frame will not remain on its short edge, and
+either of the long edges acts as a scraper. The scraping lips thicken
+gradually from free edge to net; they are set at 110° to the plane of
+the mouth, and in some later patterns curve outwards instead of
+merely sloping. All dredge frames are of wrought iron.</p>
+
+<p>The thick inner edges of the scrapers are perforated by round
+holes at distances of about an inch, and through these strong iron
+rings about an inch in diameter are passed, and two or three similar
+rings run on the short rods which form the ends of the dredge-frame.
+A light iron rod, bent to the form of the dredge opening, usually runs
+through these rings, and to this rod and to the rings the mouth of
+the dredge-bag is securely attached by stout cord or strong copper
+wire. Various materials have been used for the bag, the chief of
+which are hide, canvas and netting. The hide was recommended
+by its strength, but it is now abandoned. Canvas bags fill quickly
+with mud or sand and then cease to operate: on the other hand
+wide mesh net fails to retain small specimens. Probably the most
+suitable material is hand-made netting of very strong twine, the
+meshes half an inch to the side, the inter-spaces contracting to a
+third of an inch across when the twine is thoroughly soaked, with an
+open canvas or &ldquo;bread-bag&rdquo; lining to the last 6 in. of the net. A
+return to canvas covering has latterly occurred in the small dredge
+called the mud-bag, trailed behind the trawl of the &ldquo;Albatross&rdquo;
+for obtaining a sample of the bottom, and in the conical dredge.</p>
+
+<p>The dimensions of the first dredges were as follows: Frame about
+12 in. by about 4 in.; scraping lips about 2 in. wide; all other iron
+parts of round iron bar <span class="spp">5</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span> in. diameter; bag rather more than 1 ft.
+long. These small dredges were used from rowing boats. Larger
+dredges were subsequently made for use from yawls or cutters.
+The mouth of these was 18 by 5 in., the scraping lips about 2 in.
+wide and bag 2 ft. deep; such a dredge weighs about 20 &#8468;. The
+dredge of the &ldquo;Challenger&rdquo; had a frame 4 ft. 6 in. by 1 ft. 3 in. and
+the bag had a length of 4 ft. 6 in.; the &ldquo;Porcupine&rdquo; used a dredge
+of the same size weighing 225 &#8468;. Doubtless the size of Ball&rsquo;s dredge
+would have grown still more had it not been proved by the
+&ldquo;Challenger&rdquo; expedition that for many purposes trawls could be
+used advantageously instead of dredges.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Operation of the Dredge from Small Vessels.</i> For work round
+the coasts of Europe, at depths attainable from a row-boat or
+yawl, probably the best kind of line is bolt-rope of the best
+Russian hemp, not less than 1½ in. in circumference, containing
+18 to 20 yarns in 3 strands. Each yarn should be nearly a
+hundredweight, so that the breaking strain of such a rope ought
+to be about a ton. Of course it is never voluntarily exposed to
+such a strain, but in shallow water the dredge is often caught
+among rocks or coral, and the rope should be strong enough in
+such a case to bring up the boat, even if there were some little
+way on. It is always well, when dredging, to ascertain the
+approximate depth with the lead before casting the dredge; and
+the lead ought always to be accompanied by a registering
+thermometer, for the subsequent haul of the dredge will gain
+greatly in value as an observation in geographical distribution,
+if it be accompanied by an accurate note of the bottom temperature.
+For depths under 100 fathoms the amount of rope
+paid out should be at least double the depth; under 30 fathoms,
+where one usually works more rapidly, it should be more nearly
+three times; this gives a good deal of slack before the dredge if
+the boat be moving very slowly, and keeps the lip of the dredge
+well down. When there is anything of a current, from whatever
+cause, it is usually convenient to attach a weight, varying from
+14 &#8468; to half a hundredweight, to the rope 3 or 4 fathoms in front
+of the dredge. This prevents in some degree the lifting of the
+mouth of the dredge; if the weight be attached nearer the dredge
+it is apt to injure delicate objects passing in.</p>
+
+<p>In dredging in sand or mud, the dredge-rope may simply be
+passed through the double eye formed by the ends of the two
+arms of the dredge-frame; but in rocky or unknown ground it is
+better to fasten the rope to the eye of one of the arms only, and to
+tie the two eyes together with three or four turns of rope-yarn.
+This stop breaks much more readily than the dredge-rope, so that
+if the dredge get caught it is the first thing to give way under the
+strain, and in doing so it often alters the position of the dredge so
+as to allow of its extrication.</p>
+
+<p>The dredge is slipped gently over the side, either from the bow
+or from the stern&mdash;in a small boat more usually the latter&mdash;while
+there is a little way on, and the direction which the rope
+takes indicates roughly whether the dredge is going down
+properly. When it reaches the ground and begins to scrape, an
+experienced hand upon the rope can usually detect at once a
+tremor given to the dredge by the scraper passing over the
+irregularities of the bottom. The due amount of rope is then
+paid out, and the rope hitched to a bench or rowlock-pin. The
+boat should move very slowly, probably not faster than a mile an
+hour. In still water or with a very slight current the dredge of
+course anchors the boat, and oars or sails are necessary; but if
+the boat be moving at all it is all that is required. It is perhaps
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page570" id="page570"></a>570</span>
+most pleasant to dredge with a close-reefed sail before a light
+wind, with weights, against a very slight tide or current; but
+these are conditions which cannot be commanded. The dredge
+may remain down from a quarter of an hour to twenty minutes,
+by which time, if things go well, it ought to be fairly filled. In
+dredging from a small boat the simplest plan is for two or three
+men to haul in, hand over hand, and coil in the bottom of the
+boat. For a large yawl or yacht, and for depths over 50 fathoms,
+a winch is a great assistance. The rope takes a couple of turns
+round the winch, which is worked by two men, while a third hand
+takes it from the winch and coils it down.</p>
+
+<p>It is easier to operate a dredge from a steam vessel than a
+sailing boat, but if the steamer is of any size great care should be
+taken that the dredge does not move too rapidly.</p>
+
+<p>Two ingenious cases of dredging under unusual conditions are
+worthy of mention, one case from shore, one from ice. In the
+Trondligem Fjord, Canon A. M. Norman in 1890 worked by
+hauling the dredge up the precipitous shores of the fjord. The
+dredge was shot from a boat close to the shore, to which after
+paying out some hundreds of fathoms of line it returned. The
+dredge was then hauled from the top of the cliffs up whose side it
+scraped. Hitches against projecting rocks were frequent and
+were overcome by suddenly paying out line for a time. The
+dredge was lifted into a boat when it reached the surface of the
+sea. The other case occurred during the Antarctic expedition of
+the &ldquo;Discovery.&rdquo; Hodgson dropped loops of line along cracks
+which occasionally formed in the ice. The ice always joined up
+again, but with the line below it; and a hole being cleared at
+each place at which the end of the line emerged, the dredge could
+be worked between them.</p>
+
+<p>The dredge comes up variously freighted according to the
+locality, and the next step is to examine its contents and to store
+the objects of search for future use. In a regularly organized
+dredging expedition a frame or platform is often erected with a
+ledge round it to receive the contents of the dredge, but it does
+well enough to capsize it on an old piece of tarpaulin. There
+are two ways of emptying the dredge; we may either turn it up
+and pour out its contents by the mouth, or we may have a
+contrivance by which the bottom of the bag is made to unlace.
+The first plan is the simpler and the one more usually adopted;
+the second has the advantage of letting the mass slide out more
+smoothly and easily, but the lacing introduces rather a damaging
+complication, as it is apt to loosen or give way. Any objects
+visible on the surface of the heap are now carefully removed, and
+placed for identification in jars or tubs of sea-water, of which
+there should be a number secured in some form of bottle basket,
+standing ready. The heap should not be much disturbed, for the
+delicate objects contained in it have already been unavoidably
+subjected to a good deal of rough usage, and the less friction
+among the stones the better.</p>
+
+<p><i>Examination of the Catch. Sifting.</i>&mdash;The sorting of the catch
+is facilitated by sifting. The sieves used in early English expeditions
+were of various sizes and meshes, each sieve having a finer
+mesh than the sieve smaller than itself. In use the whole were
+put together in the form of a nest, the smallest one with the
+coarsest mesh being on top. A little of the dredge&rsquo;s contents
+were then put in the top sieve, and the whole set moved gently up
+and down in a tub of sea water by handles attached to the bottom
+one. Objects of different sizes are thus left in different sieves.
+A simple but effective plan is to let the sieves of various sized
+mesh fit accurately on each other like lids, the coarsest on top,
+and to pour water upon material placed on the top one. In the
+United States Bureau of Fisheries ship &ldquo;Albatross&rdquo; these
+sieves are raised to form a table and the water is led on them
+from a hose: the very finest objects or sediments are retained by
+the waste water escaping from a catchment tub by muslin bags
+let into its sides. Any of these methods are preferable to sifting
+by the agitation of a sieve hung over the side, as in the last
+anything passing through the sieve is gone past recall.</p>
+
+<p><i>Preservation of Specimens.</i>&mdash;The preservation of specimens
+will of course depend on the purpose for which they are intended.
+For microscopic observation formaldehyde has some advantages.
+It can be stored in 40% solution and used in 2%, thus saving
+space, and it preserves many animals in their colours for a time:
+formalin preparations do not, however, last as well as do those in
+spirit. The suitable fluids for various histological inquiries are
+beyond the scope of the present article; but for general marine
+histology Bles&rsquo; fluid is useful, being simple to prepare and not
+necessitating the removal of the specimen to another fluid. It is
+composed of 70% alcohol 90 parts, glacial acetic acid 7 parts,
+4% formaldehyde 7 parts.</p>
+
+<p>The scientific value of a dredging depends mainly upon two
+things, the care with which the objects procured are preserved and
+labelled for future identification and reference, and the accuracy
+with which all the circumstances of the dredging&mdash;the position,
+the depth, the nature of the ground, the date, the bottom-temperature,
+&amp;c.&mdash;are recorded. In the British Marine Biological
+Association&rsquo;s work in the North Sea, a separate sheet of a printed
+book with carbon paper and duplicate sheets (which remain
+always on the ship) is used for the record of the particulars of
+each haul; depth, gear, &amp;c., being filled into spaces indicated in
+the form. This use of previously prepared forms has been found
+to be a great saving of time and avoids risk of omission. Whether
+labelled externally or not, all bottles should contain parchment
+or good paper labels written with a soft pencil. These cannot
+be lost. The more fully details of reference number of station,
+gear, date, &amp;c., are given the better, as should a mistake be made
+in one particular it can frequently be traced and rectified by
+means of the rest.</p>
+
+<p><i>Growth of Scope of Operations.</i>&mdash;At the Birmingham meeting
+of the British Association in 1839 an important committee was
+appointed &ldquo;for researches with the dredge with a view to the
+investigation of the marine zoology of Great Britain, the <span class="correction" title="amended from illlustration">illustration</span>
+of the geographical distribution of marine animals, and the
+more accurate determination of the fossils of the Pliocene period.&rdquo;
+Of this committee Edward Forbes was the ruling spirit, and
+under the genial influence of his contagious enthusiasm great
+progress was made during the next decade in the knowledge
+of the fauna of the British seas, and many wonderfully pleasant
+days were spent by the original committee and by many others
+who from year to year were &ldquo;added to their number.&rdquo; Every
+annual report of the British Association contains communications
+from the English, the Scottish, or the Irish branches of the
+committee; and in 1850 Edward Forbes submitted its first
+general report on British marine zoology. This report, as might
+have been anticipated from the eminent qualifications of the
+reporter, was of the highest value; and, taken along with his
+remarkable memoirs previously published, &ldquo;On the Distribution
+of the Mollusca and Radiata of the Aegean Sea,&rdquo; and &ldquo;On the
+Zoological Relations of the existing Fauna and Flora of the
+British Isles,&rdquo; may be said to mark an era in the progress of
+human thought.</p>
+
+<p>The dredging operations of the British Association committee
+were carried on generally under the idea that at the 100-fathom
+line, by which amateur work in small boats was practically
+limited, the zero of animal life was approached&mdash;a notion which
+was destined to be gradually undermined, and finally overthrown.
+From time to time, however, there were not wanting
+men of great skill and experience to maintain, with Sir James
+Clark Ross, that &ldquo;from however great a depth we may be
+enabled to bring up mud and stones of the bed of the ocean we
+shall find them teeming with animal life.&rdquo; Samples of the sea-bottom
+procured with great difficulty and in small quantity
+from the first deep soundings in the Atlantic, chiefly by the use
+of Brooke&rsquo;s sounding machine, an instrument which by a neat
+contrivance disengaged its weights when it reached the bottom,
+and thus allowed a tube, so arranged as to get filled with a sample
+of the bottom, to be recovered by the sounding line, were eagerly
+examined by microscopists; and the singular fact was established
+that these samples consisted over a large part of the bed of the
+Atlantic of the entire or broken shells of certain foraminifera.
+Dr Wallich, the naturalist to the &ldquo;Bulldog&rdquo; sounding expedition
+under Sir Leopold M&rsquo;Clintock, reported that star-fishes,
+with their stomachs full of the deep-sea foraminifera, had come
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page571" id="page571"></a>571</span>
+up from a depth of 1200 fathoms on a sounding line; and doubts
+began to be entertained whether the bottom of the sea was in
+truth a desert, or whether it might not present a new zoological
+region open to investigation and discovery, and peopled by a
+peculiar fauna suited to its special conditions.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 1867, while the question was still undecided,
+two testing investigations were undertaken independently. In
+America Count L. F. de Pourtales (1824-1880), an officer employed
+in the United States Coast Survey under Benjamin Peirce,
+commenced a series of deep dredgings across the Gulf Stream off
+the coast of Florida, which were continued in the following year,
+and were productive of most valuable results; and in Great
+Britain the Admiralty, on the representation of the Royal Society,
+placed the &ldquo;Lightning,&rdquo; a small gun-vessel, at the disposal of a
+small committee to sound and dredge in the North Atlantic
+between Shetland and the Faröe Islands.</p>
+
+<p>In the &ldquo;Lightning,&rdquo; with the help of a donkey-engine
+for winding in, dredging was carried on with comparative ease
+at a depth of 600 fathoms, and at that depth animal life was
+found to be still abundant. The results of the &ldquo;Lightning&rsquo;s&rdquo;
+dredgings were regarded of so great importance to science that
+the Royal Society pressed upon the Admiralty the advantage
+of continuing the researches, and accordingly, during the years
+1869 and 1870, the gun-boat &ldquo;Porcupine&rdquo; was put under the
+orders of a committee consisting of Dr W. B. Carpenter, Dr
+Gwyn Jeffreys, and Professor (afterwards Sir Charles) Wyville
+Thomson, one or other of whom superintended the scientific work
+of a series of dredging trips in the North Atlantic to the north
+and west of the British Islands, which occupied two summers.</p>
+
+<p>In the &ldquo;Porcupine,&rdquo; in the summer of 1869, dredging was
+carried down successfully to a depth of 2435 fathoms, upwards
+of two miles and a half, in the Bay of Biscay, and the dredge
+brought up well-developed representatives of all the classes of
+marine invertebrates. During the cruises of the &ldquo;Porcupine&rdquo;
+the fauna of the deep water off the western coasts of Great
+Britain and of Spain and Portugal was tolerably well ascertained,
+and it was found to differ greatly from the fauna of shallow
+water in the same region, to possess very special characters, and
+to show a very marked relation to the faunae of the earlier
+Tertiary and the later Cretaceous periods.</p>
+
+<p>In the winter of 1872, as a sequel to the preliminary cruises
+of the &ldquo;Lightning&rdquo; and &ldquo;Porcupine,&rdquo; by far the most considerable
+expedition in which systematic dredging had ever been
+made a special object left Great Britain. H.M.S. &ldquo;Challenger,&rdquo;
+a corvette of 2306 tons, with auxiliary steam working to 1234
+h.p., was despatched to investigate the physical and biological
+conditions of the great ocean basins.</p>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;Challenger&rdquo; was provided with a most complete and
+liberal organization for the purpose; she had powerful deck
+engines for hauling in the dredge, workrooms, laboratories and
+libraries for investigating the results on the spot, and a staff of
+competent naturalists to undertake such investigations and to
+superintend the packing and preservation of the specimens
+reserved for future study. Since the &ldquo;Challenger&rdquo; expedition
+the use of wire rope has enabled far smaller vessels to undertake
+deep sea work. The &ldquo;Challenger,&rdquo; however, may be said to have
+established the practicability of dredging at any known depth.</p>
+
+<p><i>Operating Dredges and Trawls in deep Seas.</i>&mdash;Dredging operations
+from large vessels in deep seas present numerous difficulties.
+The great weight of the ship makes her motion, whether
+of progress or rolling, irresistible to the dredge. The
+latter tends to jump, therefore, which both lowers its
+efficiency and causes it to exert a sudden strain on
+the dredge rope.</p>
+
+<p>The efficiency or evenness of dredging was secured,
+therefore, by the special device of fastening a heavy
+weight some 200 or 300 fathoms from the dredge end
+of the dredge rope. This was either lowered with the
+dredge or sent down after by means of a &ldquo;messenger,&rdquo;
+a ring of rope fixed round, but running freely on, the
+dredge rope. The latter plan was used on the &ldquo;Challenger&rdquo;;
+the weights were six 28 &#8468; leads in canvas
+covers: their descent was arrested by a toggle or wooden cross-bar
+previously attached to the rope at the desired point. When, however,
+the rope used is of wire this front weight is unnecessary.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The possibility of sudden strain necessitates a constant watching
+of the dredge rope, as the ship&rsquo;s engines may at any moment be
+needed to ease the tension by stopping the vessel&rsquo;s way, and the
+hauling engines by paying out more rope. The use of accumulators
+both renders the strain more gradual and gives warning of an
+increase or decrease; indeed they can be calibrated and used as
+dynamometers to measure the strain. One of the best forms of
+accumulator consists of a pile of perforated rubber disks, which
+receive the strain and become compressed in doing so. The arrangement
+is in essence as follows. The disks form a column resting on
+a cross-bar or base, from which two rods pass up one on each side of
+the column. Another cross-bar rests on the top disk, and from it a
+rod passes freely down the centre perforation of disks and base.
+Eyes are attached to the lower end of this rod and to a yoke connecting
+the side rods at the top: a pull exerted on these eyes is thus
+modified by the elasticity of the dredge. In the &ldquo;Porcupine&rdquo; and
+other early expeditions the accumulator was hung from the main
+yard arm, and the block through which the dredge rope ran suspended
+from it. In more recent ships a special derrick boom is
+rigged for this block, and a second accumulator is sometimes inserted
+between the topping lift by which this is raised and the end of the
+boom.</p>
+
+<p>The margin of safety of steel wire rope is much larger than is that
+of hempen rope, a fact of importance both in towing in a rough sea
+and in hauling. Galvanized steel wire with a hempen core was first
+used by Agassiz on the &ldquo;Blake.&rdquo; He states that his wire weighed
+one pound per fathom, against two pounds per fathom of hempen
+rope, and had a breaking strain nearly twice that of hempen rope,
+which bore two tons. Thus in hauling the wire rope has both greater
+capability and less actual strain. It has also the advantages of
+occupying a mere fraction (<span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">9</span>) of the storage space needed for rope,
+of lasting much longer, and its vibrations transmit much more rapid
+and minute indications of the conduct of the dredge.</p>
+
+<p>Wire rope is kept wound on reels supplied with efficient brakes to
+check or stop its progress, and an engine is often fitted for winding
+it in and veering it out. From the reel it passes to the drum of the
+hauling engine, round which it takes some few turns; care is taken
+by watching or by the use of an automatic regulator (Tanner) that
+it is taken at a rate equal to that at which it is moving over the side.
+From the hauling engine it passes over leading wheels (one of which
+should preferably be a registering wheel and indicate the amount of
+rope which has passed it), and so it reaches the end of the derrick
+boom.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The dredge is lowered from the derrick boom, which has been
+previously trained over to windward so that its end is well clear
+of the ship, while the ship is slowly moving forward. The rope
+is checked until the net is seen to be towing clear, and then
+lowered rapidly. Where a weight is used in front of the trawl
+Captain Calver successfully adopted the plan of backing after
+sufficient line had been paid out: the part of the rope from
+weight to surface thus became more vertical, while the shorter
+remainder, previously in line with it, sank to the bottom without
+change of relative position of weight and dredge. The ship was
+then ready for towing. When no front weight is used the
+man&oelig;uvre is unnecessary.</p>
+
+<p>There should be a relation maintained between speed of vessel
+onward and of rope downward, or a foul haul may result owing
+to the gear capsizing (in the case of a trawl), or getting the net
+over the mouth (in a dredge). The most satisfactory method of
+ensuring this relation seems to be so to manage the two speeds
+that the angle made by the dredge rope is fairly constant. This
+angle can be observed with a simple clinometer. The following
+table abridged from Tanner most usefully brings together the
+requisite angles with other useful quantities.</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Depth of water.</td>
+ <td class="tccm allb">Speed of ship<br />while shooting<br />dredge or trawl.</td>
+ <td class="tccm allb">Length of<br />rope<br />required.</td>
+ <td class="tccm allb">Angle of dredge<br />rope while<br />lowering trawl.</td>
+ <td class="tccm allb">Angle of dredge<br />rope while<br />dragging trawl.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">Fathoms.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Knots.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Fathoms.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">&ensp;100</td> <td class="tcc rb">3&ensp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;200</td> <td class="tcc rb">60</td> <td class="tcc rb">55</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">&ensp;200</td> <td class="tcc rb">3&ensp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;400</td> <td class="tcc rb">60</td> <td class="tcc rb">55</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">&ensp;400</td> <td class="tcc rb">3&ensp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;700</td> <td class="tcc rb">60</td> <td class="tcc rb">52</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">&ensp;600</td> <td class="tcc rb">2¾</td> <td class="tcc rb">1000</td> <td class="tcc rb">55</td> <td class="tcc rb">50</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">&ensp;800</td> <td class="tcc rb">2½</td> <td class="tcc rb">1200</td> <td class="tcc rb">50</td> <td class="tcc rb">44</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1000</td> <td class="tcc rb">2½</td> <td class="tcc rb">1500</td> <td class="tcc rb">50</td> <td class="tcc rb">40</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1500</td> <td class="tcc rb">2¼</td> <td class="tcc rb">2166</td> <td class="tcc rb">50</td> <td class="tcc rb">40</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">2000</td> <td class="tcc rb">2&ensp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">2670</td> <td class="tcc rb">45</td> <td class="tcc rb">35</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">3000</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2&ensp;</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">4000</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">40</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">35</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page572" id="page572"></a>572</span></p>
+
+<p>The speed of towing, always slow, may be assumed to be approximately
+correct if the appropriate angle is maintained. Hauling
+should at first be slow from great depths, but may increase in
+speed as the gear rises.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For further details of deep-sea dredging, especially of the hauling
+machinery and management of the gear, the special reports of the
+various expeditions must be consulted. Commander Tanner, U.S.N.,
+has given in <i>Deep Sea Exploration</i> (1897) a very full and good account
+of the equipment of an exploring ship; and to this book the present
+article is much indebted.</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 240px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:191px; height:410px" src="images/img572a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 15.</span>&mdash;Deep-sea
+Dredge, with Tangle Bar.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Modifications and Additions to the Dredge.</i>&mdash;From 1818, when
+Sir John Ross brought up a fine Astrophyton from over 800
+fathoms on a sounding line in Baffin&rsquo;s Bay, instances gradually
+accumulated of specimens being obtained from great depths
+without nets or traps. The naturalists of the &ldquo;Porcupine&rdquo;
+and other expeditions found that echinoderms, corals and sponges
+were often carried up adhering to the outer surface of the dredge
+and the last few fathoms of dredge rope. In order to increase
+the effectiveness of this method of capture a bar was fastened
+to the bottom of the dredge, to which bunches of teased-out
+hemp were tied. In this way specimens of the greatest interest,
+and frequently of equal importance with those in the dredge
+bag, were obtained. The tangle bar
+was at first attached to the back of the
+net. From the &ldquo;Challenger&rdquo; expedition
+onward it has been fixed behind the
+net by iron bars stretching back from
+the short sides of the dredge frame
+which pass through eyes in their first
+ends (fig. 15). The swabs are thus
+unable to fold over the mouth of the
+dredge. Rope lashings to the lips of
+the dredge are sometimes added, and a
+weight is tied to the larger bar to keep
+it down.</p>
+
+<p>Occasionally the tangle bar is used
+alone (Agassiz), and one form (Tanner)
+has two bars, stretching back like the
+side strokes of the letter A from a strong
+steel spring in the form of an almost
+complete circle. The whole is pulled
+forward from a spherical sinker fastened
+in front of the spring apex; and should
+the apex enter a crevice between rock
+masses, the side bars are closed by the
+pressure instead of catching and bringing up. This is said to
+be a very useful instrument among corals.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>The Blake Dredge.</i>&mdash;In the soft ooze which forms the bottom of
+deep seas the common dredge sinks and digs much too deeply for its
+ordinary purpose, owing partly to its chief weight bearing on the frame
+only, partly to its everted lips. To obviate these defects Lieutenant
+Commander Sigsbee of the &ldquo;Blake&rdquo; devised the Blake dredge. Its
+novel features were the frame and lips. The former was in the form
+of a skeleton box; that is, a rectangle of iron bars was placed at the
+back as well as the front or mouth of the net and four more iron bars
+connected the two rectangles. The lips instead of being everted
+were in parallel planes&mdash;those, namely, of the top and bottom of the
+net. The effect of this was to minimize digging and somewhat
+spread the incidences of the weight. Another advantage was that
+the net being constantly distended by its frame, and, moreover,
+protected top and bottom by an external shield of canvas, quite
+delicate specimens reached the surface uninjured. The dredge
+weighed 80 &#8468; and was 4 ft. square and 9 in. deep.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rake Dredges.</i>&mdash;These are devices for collecting burrowing
+creatures without filling the dredge with the soil in which they live.
+Holt used, at Plymouth, a dredge whose side bars and lower lip were
+of iron, the latter armed with forward and downward pointing teeth
+which stirred up the sand and its denizens in front of the dredge
+mouth. The upper lip of the dredge was replaced by a bar of wood.
+The bag was of cheese-cloth or light open canvas, and the whole was
+of light construction. The apparatus was very useful in capturing
+small burrowing crustacea. The Chester rake dredge is a Blake
+dredge in front of which is secured a heavy iron rectangle with teeth
+placed almost at right angles to its long sides and in the plane of the
+rectangle. Each of these instruments has a width along the scraping
+edge of about 3 ft.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:349px; height:544px" src="images/img572b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 16.</span>&mdash;Conical Dredge being hoisted in.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Triangular and Conical Dredges.</i>&mdash;Two other dredges are worthy
+of mention. The triangular dredge, much resembling Müller&rsquo;s but
+with a triangular mouth, and hung by chains from its angles, is an
+old fashion now not in general use. It is, however, very useful for
+rocky ground. At the Plymouth marine laboratory was also devised
+the conical dredge (1901), the circular form being the suggestion of
+Garstang. This dredge (fig. 16) was intended for digging deeply.
+It is of wrought iron, and of the following dimensions: diameter of
+mouth 16 in., length
+33 in., depth of ring
+at mouth 9 in. Its
+weight is 67 &#8468;. As
+at first used the
+spaces between the
+bars are closed by
+wire netting; if used
+for collecting bottom
+samples it is furnished
+with a lining
+of strong sail-cloth.</p>
+
+<p>Its weight and the
+small length of edge
+in contact with the
+ground cause this
+dredge to dig well,
+and enable the user
+to obtain many
+objects which though
+quite common are of
+rare occurrence in an
+ordinary dredge.
+Thus on the Brown
+Ridges, a fishing-ground
+west of Holland,
+although <i>Donax
+vittalus</i> is known
+from examination of
+fish stomachs to be
+abundant, it is rarely
+taken except in the
+conical dredge: the
+same is true of <i>Echinocyamus
+pusillus</i>,
+which is in many
+parts of the North
+Sea abundant in bottom samples and in no ordinary dredgings.
+With the sail-cloth lining the conical dredge fills in about 10 minutes
+on most ground, and no material washing out of fine sediment occurs
+on hauling. In shallow seas such as the North Sea commercial
+beam and other trawls are now used as quantitative instruments in
+the estimation of the fish population, especially of the <i>Pleuronectidae</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Use of Small Trawls for Dredging.</i>&mdash;Although these trawls do not
+here concern us, certain adaptations of small beam trawls for biological
+exploration are of such identical use with the dredge, and
+differ from it so little in structure and size, that they may be here
+described.</p>
+
+<p>A small beam trawl was first used from the &ldquo;Challenger&rdquo; (fig. 17).
+It was sent down in 600 fathoms off Cape St Vincent, the reason for
+its use being the frequency with which the dredge sank into the sea-bottom
+and there remained until hauling. The experiment was
+entirely successful. The sinking of the net was avoided, the net
+had a much greater spread than the dredge, and in addition to
+invertebrates it captured several fish. After this the trawl was
+frequently used instead of the dredge. Indeed tangle bar, dredge
+and trawl form a series which are fitted
+for use on the roughest, moderately rough
+and fairly firm, and the softest ground
+respectively, although the dredge can be
+used almost anywhere.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 220px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:123px; height:230px" src="images/img572c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="f80">From Sir Charles Wyville
+Thomson&rsquo;s <i>Voyage of the
+&ldquo;Challenger.&rdquo;</i> By permission
+of Macmillan &amp; Co., Ltd.</span><br /><br />
+<span class="sc">Fig. 17.</span>&mdash;Trawl of the
+&ldquo;Challenger.&rdquo;</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The frame of the &ldquo;Challenger&rdquo; trawl consisted
+of a 15 ft. wooden beam which in use
+was drawn over the sea-bed on two runners
+resembling those of a sledge, by means of
+two ropes or bridles attached to eyes in the
+front of the runners or &ldquo;trawl heads.&rdquo; A
+net 30 ft. long was suspended by one side
+to the beam by half-a-dozen stops. The
+remainder of the net&rsquo;s mouth was of much
+greater length than the beam, and was
+weighted with close-set rolls of sheet lead;
+it thus dragged along the bottom in a curve
+approximately to a semicircle, behind the
+beam. The net tapers towards the hinder
+end, and contains a second net with open
+bottom, which, reaching about three-quarters
+of the way down the main net, acts as a
+valve or pocket. Both heels (or hinder ends) of the trawl heads and
+the tail of the net were weighted to assist the net in digging sufficiently
+and to maintain its balance&mdash;an important point, since if the
+trawl lands on its beam the net&rsquo;s mouth remains closed, and nothing
+is caught.</p>
+
+<p>The main differences of this trawl from the dredge are the replacement
+of scraping lip by ground rope, the position of this ground rope
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page573" id="page573"></a>573</span>
+and the greater size of the mouth. The absence of a lip makes it
+less effective for burrowing and sessile creatures, but the weighted
+ground rope nevertheless secures them to a very surprising extent.
+The position of the ground rope is an important feature, as any free
+swimming creature not disturbed until the arrival of the ground
+rope cannot escape by simply rising or &ldquo;striking&rdquo; up. This and
+the greater spread make the trawl especially suitable for the collection
+of fishes and other swiftly moving animals. The first haul of
+the &ldquo;Challenger&rdquo; trawl brought up fishes, and most of our knowledge
+of fish of the greatest depths is due to it.</p>
+
+<p>A tendency to return to the use of the small beam trawl for deep-sea
+work has lately shown itself. That used by Tanner on the
+&ldquo;Albatross&rdquo; has runners more heart-shaped than the &ldquo;Challenger&rsquo;s&rdquo;
+instrument; the net is fastened to the downward and backward
+sloping edge of the runner as well as to the beam, being thus fixed
+on three sides instead of one; and a Norwegian glass float is fastened
+in a network cover to that part of the net which is above and in front
+of the ground rope in use, to assist in keeping the opening clear.
+These floats can stand the pressure at great
+depths, and do not become waterlogged as do
+cork floats. The largest &ldquo;Albatross&rdquo; trawl has
+a beam 11 ft. long, runners 2 ft. 5 in. high, and
+its frame weighs 275 &#8468;.</p>
+
+<p><i>Agassiz or Blake Trawl.</i>&mdash;This is generally
+considered to possess advantages over the preceding,
+and is decidedly better for those not
+experts in trawling. Its frame (fig. 18) consists
+of two iron runners each the shape of a capital
+letter D, joined by iron rods or pipes which
+connect the middle of each stroke with the
+corresponding point on the other letter. The
+net is a tapering one, its mouth being a strong
+rope bound with finer rope for protection till
+the whole reaches a thickness of some 2 in. It
+is fastened to the frame at four points only, the
+ends of the curved rods, and thus has a rectangular
+opening.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:97px; height:274px" src="images/img573.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="f80">From Alexander E.
+Agassiz&rsquo;s <i>Three Cruises
+of the &ldquo;Blake.&rdquo;</i> By permission
+of Houghton,
+Mifflin &amp; Co.</span><br /><br />
+<span class="sc">Fig. 18.</span>&mdash;Agassiz
+or Blake Trawl.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The chief advantage of this frame is that it
+does not matter in the least which side lands
+first on the bottom; it is to the other trawls
+what Ball&rsquo;s dredge is to an oyster dredge. The
+course can also be altered during shooting or
+towing the Blake trawl with far greater ease
+than is the case with others. An Agassiz trawl very successful
+in the North Sea has the following dimensions: length of the connecting
+rods and therefore of the mouth 8 ft., height of runners and
+of mouth 1 ft. 9 in., extreme length of runners 2 ft., length of net
+11 ft. 3 in., weight of whole trawl 94 &#8468;, 63 of which are due to the
+frame.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is instructive to note how closely our knowledge of bottom-living
+forms has been associated with the instruments of capture
+in use. As long as small vessels were used in dredging, the belief
+that life was limited to the regions accessible to them was widely
+spread. The first known denizens of great depths were the
+foraminifera and few echinoderms brought up by various sounding
+apparatus. Next with the dredge and tangles the number
+of groups obtained was much greater. As soon as trawls were
+adopted fish began to make their appearance. The greatest gaps
+in our knowledge still probably occur in the large and swiftly
+moving forms, such as fish and cephalopods. As we can hardly
+hope to move apparatus swiftly over the bottom in great depths,
+the way in which improvement is possible probably is that of
+increasing the spread of the nets; and a start in this direction
+appears to have been made by Dr Petersen, who has devised a
+modified otter sieve which catches fish at all events very well,
+and has been operated already at considerable depths.</p>
+
+<p>Of the economy of quite shallow seas, however, we are still
+largely ignorant. Much as has been learnt of the bionomics
+of the sea, it is but a commencement; and this is of course
+especially true of deep seas. The dredge and its kindred have,
+however, in less than a century enabled naturalists to compile an
+immense mass of knowledge of the structure, development,
+affinities and distribution of the animals of the sea-bed, and in
+the most accessible seas to produce enumerations and morphological
+accounts of them of some approach to completeness.</p>
+<div class="author" style="clear: both;">(J. O. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DRELINCOURT, CHARLES<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> (1595-1669), French Protestant
+divine, was born at Sedan on the 10th of July 1595. In 1618
+he undertook the charge of the French Protestant church at
+Langres, but failed to receive the necessary royal sanction, and
+early in 1620 he removed to Paris, where he was nominated
+minister of the Reformed Church at Charenton. He was the
+author of a large number of works in devotional and polemical
+theology, several of which had great influence. His <i>Catechism</i>
+(<i>Catéchisme ou instruction familière</i>, 1652) and his <i>Christian&rsquo;s
+Defense against the Fears of Death</i> (<i>Consolations de l&rsquo;âme fidèle
+contre les frayeurs de la mort, 1651</i>) became well known in England
+by means of translations, which were very frequently reprinted.
+It has been said that Daniel Defoe wrote his fiction of Mrs Veal
+(<i>A True Relation of the Apparition of Mrs Veal</i>), who came from
+the other world to recommend the perusal of <i>Drelincourt on
+Death</i>, for the express purpose of promoting the sale of an English
+translation of the <i>Consolations</i>; Defoe&rsquo;s contribution is added
+to the fourth edition of the translation (1706). Another popular
+work of his was <i>Les Visites charitables pour toutes sortes de
+personnes affligées</i> (1669). Drelincourt&rsquo;s controversial works were
+numerous. Directed entirely against Roman Catholicism, they
+did much to strengthen and consolidate the Protestant party in
+France. He died on the 3rd of November 1669.</p>
+
+<p>Several of his sons were distinguished as theologians or
+physicians. Laurent (1626-1681) became a pastor, and was the
+author of <i>Sonnets chrétiens sur divers sujets</i> (1677); Charles
+(1633-1697) was professor of physic at the university of Leiden,
+and physician to the prince of Orange; Peter (1644-1722) was
+ordained a priest in the Church of England, and became dean of
+Armagh.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DRENTE<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span>, a province of Holland, bounded N. and N.E. by
+Groningen, S.E. by the Prussian province of Hanover, S. and
+S.W. by Overysel, and N.W. by Friesland; area, 1128 sq. m.;
+pop. (1900) 149,551. The province of Drente is a sandy plateau
+forming the kernel of the surrounding provinces. The soil
+consists almost entirely of sand and gravel, and is covered with
+bleak moorland, patches of wood, and fen. This is only varied
+by the strip of fertile clay and grass-land which is found along
+the banks of the rivers, and by the areas of high fen in the south-eastern
+corner and on the western borders near Assen. The
+surface of the province is a gentle slope from the south-west
+towards the north-east, where it terminates in the long ridge of
+hills known as the Hondsrug (Dog&rsquo;s Back) extending along the
+eastern border into Groningen. The watershed of the province
+runs from east to west across the middle of the province, along
+the line of the Orange canal. The southern streams are all
+collected at two points on the southern borders, namely, at
+Meppel and Koevorden, whence they communicate with the
+Zwarte Water and the Vecht respectively by means of the
+Meppeler Diep and the Koevorden canal. The Steenwyker Aa,
+however, enters the Zuider Zee independently. The northern
+rivers all flow into Groningen. The piles of granite rocks somewhat
+in the shape of cromlechs which are found scattered about
+this province, and especially along the western edge of the
+Hondsrug, have long been named <i>Hunebedden</i>, from a popular
+superstition that they were &ldquo;Huns&rsquo; beds.&rdquo; Possibly the word
+originally meant &ldquo;beds of the dead,&rdquo; or tombs.</p>
+
+<p>Two industries have for centuries been associated with the
+barren heaths and sodden fens so usually found together on the
+sand-grounds, namely, the cultivation of buckwheat and peat-digging.
+The work is conducted on a regular system of fen
+colonization, the first operation being directed towards the
+drainage of the country. This is effected by means of drainage
+canals cut at regular intervals and connected by means of cross
+ditches. These draining ditches all have their issue in a main
+drainage canal, along which the transport of the peat and peat-litter
+takes place and the houses of the colonists are built. The
+heathlands when sufficiently drained are prepared for cultivation
+by being cut into sods and burnt. This system appears to have
+been practised already at the end of the 17th century. After
+eight years, however, the soil becomes exhausted, and twenty
+to thirty years are required for its refertilization. The cultivation
+of buckwheat on these grounds has decreased, and large
+areas which were formerly thus treated now lie waste. Potatoes,
+rye, oats, beans and peas are also largely cultivated. In connexion
+with the cultivation of potatoes, factories are established
+for making spirits, treacle, potato-meal, and straw-paper.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page574" id="page574"></a>574</span>
+Furthermore, agriculture is everywhere accompanied on the
+sand-grounds by the rearing of sheep and cattle, which assist
+in fertilizing the soil. Owing to the meagreness of their food these
+animals are usually thin and small, but are quickly restored
+when placed on richer grounds. The breeding of pigs is also
+widely practised on the sand-grounds, as well as forest culture.
+Of the fen-colonies in Drente the best known are those of
+Frederiksoord and Veenhuizen.</p>
+
+<p>Owing to the general condition of poverty which prevailed
+after the French evacuation in the second decade of the 19th
+century, attention was turned to the means of industry offered
+by the unreclaimed heath-lands in the eastern provinces, and
+in 1818 the Society of Charity (<i>Maatschappij van <span class="correction" title="amended from Weldadigkeid">Weldadigheid</span></i>)
+was formed with Count van den Bosch at its head. This society
+began by establishing the free agricultural colony of Frederiksoord,
+about 10 m. N. of Meppel, named after Prince Frederick,
+son of William I., king of the Netherlands. An industrious
+colonist could purchase a small farm on the estate and make himself
+independent in two years. In addition to this, various industries
+were set on foot for the benefit of those who were not
+capable of field work, such as mat and rope making, and jute and
+cotton weaving. In later times forest culture was added, and the
+Gerard Adriaan van Swieten schools of forestry, agriculture and
+horticulture were established by Major van <span class="correction" title="amended from Sweiten">Swieten</span> in memory
+of his son. A Reformed and a Roman Catholic church are also
+attached to the colony. To this colony the Society of Charity
+later added the adjoining colonies of Willemsoord and Kolonie
+VII. in Overysel, and Wilhelminasoord partly in Friesland.
+The colony of Veenhuizen lies about 7 m. N.W. of Assen, and
+was founded by the same society in 1823. In 1859, however,
+the Veenhuizen estates were sold to the government for the
+purpose of a penal establishment for drunkards and beggars.</p>
+
+<p>Owing to its geographical isolation, the development of Drente
+has remained behind that of every other province in the Netherlands,
+and there are few centres of any importance, either
+agricultural or industrial. Hence the character and customs of
+the people have remained peculiarly conservative. Assen is the
+chief town. In the south Meppel and Koevorden absorb the
+largest amount of trade. Hoogeveen, situated between these
+two, owes its origin to the fen reclamation which was begun here
+in 1625 by Baron van Echten. In the following year it was
+erected into a barony which lasted till 1795. The original
+industry has long since moved onwards to other parts, but the
+town remains a prosperous market centre, and has a considerable
+industrial activity. Extensive fir woods have been laid out in
+the neighbourhood. Zuidlaren is a picturesque village at the
+northern end of the Hondsrug, with an important market. The
+railway from Amsterdam to Groningen traverses Drente; branch
+lines connect Meppel with Leeuwarden and Assen with Delfzÿl.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;The early history of Drente is obscure. That it
+was inhabited at a remote date is proved by the prehistoric
+sepulchral mounds, the <i>Hunebedden</i> already mentioned. In the
+5th and 6th centuries the country was overrun by Saxon tribes,
+and later on was governed by counts under the Frankish and
+German kings. Of these only three are recorded, Eberhard
+(943-944), Balderic (1006) and Temmo (1025). In 1046 the
+emperor Henry III. gave the countship to the bishop and chapter
+of Utrecht, who governed it through the burgrave, or châtelain,
+of Koevorden, a dignity which became hereditary after 1143 in
+the family of Ludolf or Roelof, brother of Heribert of Bierum,
+bishop of Utrecht (1138-1150). This family became extinct
+in the male line about 1232, and was succeeded by Henry I.
+of Borculo (1232-1261), who had married the heiress of Roelof III.
+of Koevorden. In 1395 Reinald IV. (d. 1410) of Borculo-Koevorden
+was deposed by Bishop Frederick of Utrecht, and the
+country was henceforth administered by an episcopal official
+(<i>amptman</i>), who was, however, generally a native. With its
+popularly elected assembly of twenty-four Etten (<i>jurati</i>) Drente
+remained practically independent. This state of things continued
+till 1522, when it was conquered by Duke Charles of
+Gelderland, from whom it was taken by the emperor Charles V.
+in 1536, and became part of the Habsburg dominions.</p>
+
+<p>Drente took part in the revolt of the Netherlands, and being
+a district covered by waste heath and moor was, on account of
+its poverty and sparse population, not admitted into the union
+as a separate province, and it had no voice in the assembly of the
+states-general. It was subdued by the Spaniards in 1580, but
+reconquered by Maurice of Nassau in 1594. During the years
+that followed, Drente, though unrepresented in the states-general,
+retained its local independence and had its own stadtholder.
+William Louis of Nassau-Siegen (d. 1620) held that
+office, and it was held later by Maurice, Frederick Henry,
+William II. and William III., princes of Orange. At the general
+assembly of 1651 Drente put forward its claim to admission as a
+province, but was not admitted. After the deaths of William II.
+(1650) and of William III. (1702) Drente remained for a term of
+years without a stadtholder, but in 1722 William Charles Henry
+of the house of Nassau-Siegen, who, through the extinction of
+the elder line, had become prince of Orange, was elected stadtholder.
+His descendants held that office, which was declared
+hereditary, until the French conquest in 1795. In the following
+year Drente at length obtained the privilege, which it had long
+sought, of being reckoned as an eighth province with representation
+in the states-general. Between 1806 and 1813 Drente,
+with the rest of the Netherlands, was incorporated in the French
+empire, and, with part of Groningen, formed the department
+of Ems Occidental. With the accession of William I. as king of
+the Netherlands it was restored to its old position as a province
+of the new kingdom.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DRESDEN<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span>, a city of Germany, capital of the kingdom of
+Saxony, 71 m. E.S.E. from Leipzig and 111 m. S. from Berlin
+by railway. It lies at an altitude of 402 ft. above the Baltic,
+in a broad and pleasant valley on both banks of the Elbe. The
+prospect of the city with its cupolas, towers, spires and the copper
+green roofs of its palaces, as seen from the distance, is one of
+striking beauty. On the left bank of the river are the Altstadt
+(old town) with four old suburbs and numerous new suburbs,
+and the Friedrichstadt (separated from the Altstadt by a long
+railway viaduct); on the right, the Neustadt (new town),
+Antonstadt, and the modern military suburb Alberstadt. Five
+fine bridges connect the Altstadt and Neustadt. The beautiful
+central bridge&mdash;the Alte or Augustusbrücke&mdash;with 16 arches,
+built in 1727-1731, and 1420 ft. long, has been demolished (1906)
+and replaced by a wider structure. Up-stream are the two
+modern Albert and Königin Carola bridges, and, down-stream,
+the Marien and the Eisenbahn (railway) bridges. The streets
+of the Alstadt are mostly narrow and somewhat gloomy, those
+of the Neustadt more spacious and regular.</p>
+
+<p>On account of its delightful situation and the many objects of
+interest it contains, Dresden is often called &ldquo;German Florence,&rdquo;
+a name first applied to it by the poet Herder. The richness of
+its art treasures, the educational advantages it offers, and its
+attractive surroundings render it a favourite resort of people
+with private means. There are a large number of foreign residents,
+notably Austro-Hungarians and Russians, and also a
+considerable colony of English and Americans, the latter amounting
+to about 1500. The population of the city on the 1st of
+December 1905 was 516,996, of whom 358,776 lived on the
+left bank (Altstadt) and 158,220 on the right (Neustadt). The
+royal house belongs to the Roman Catholic confession, but the
+bulk of the inhabitants are Lutheran Protestants.</p>
+
+<p>Dresden is the residence of the king, the seat of government
+for the kingdom of Saxony, and the headquarters of the XII.
+(Saxon) Army Corps. Within two decades (1880-1900) the capital
+almost at a single bound advanced into the front rank of German
+commercial and industrial towns; but while gaining in prosperity
+it has lost much of its medieval aspect. Old buildings in the
+heart of the Altstadt have been swept away, and their place
+occupied by modern business houses and new streets. Among
+the public squares in the Altstadt must be mentioned the
+magnificent Theaterplatz, with a fine equestrian statue of King
+John, by Schilling; the Altmarkt, with a monument commemorative
+of the war of 1870-71; the Neumarkt, with a
+bronze statue of King Frederick Augustus II., by E. J. Hähnel;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page575" id="page575"></a>575</span>
+the Postplatz, adorned by a Gothic fountain, by Semper; and
+the Bismarckplatz in the Anglo-American quarter. In the
+Neustadt are the market square, with a bronze equestrian statue
+of Augustus the Strong; the Kaiser Wilhelmplatz; and the
+Albertplatz. The continuous Schloss-, See- and Prager-Strasse,
+and the Wilsdruffer- and König Johann-Strasse are the main
+streets in the Altstadt, and the Hauptstrasse in the Neustadt.</p>
+
+<p>The most imposing churches include the Roman Catholic
+Hofkirche, built (1739-1751) by C. Chiaveri, in rococo style, with
+a tower 300 ft. high. It contains a fine organ by Silbermann and
+pictures by Raphael Mengs and other artists, the outside being
+adorned with 59 statues by Mattielli. On the Neumarkt is the
+Frauenkirche, with a stone cupola rising to the height of 311 ft.;
+close to the Altmarkt, the Kreuzkirche, rebuilt after destruction
+by fire in 1897, also with a lofty tower surmounted by a cupola;
+and near the Postplatz the Sophienkirche, with twin spires.
+In the Neustadt is the Dreikönigskirche (dating from the
+18th century) with a high pinnacled tower. Among more
+modern churches may be mentioned: in the Altstadt, the
+Johanneskirche, with a richly decorated interior; the Lukaskirche;
+and the Trinitatiskirche; and in the Neustadt, the
+Martin Luther-Kirche and the new garrison church. Apart
+from the chapels in the royal palaces, Dresden contains in all 32
+churches, viz. 21 Evangelical, 6 Roman Catholic, a Reformed, a
+Russian, an English (erected by Gilbert Scott) with a graceful spire,
+a Scottish (Presbyterian), and an American (Episcopal) church,
+the last a handsome building, with a pretty parsonage attached.</p>
+
+<p>Of secular buildings, the most noteworthy are grouped in the
+Altstadt near the river. The royal palace, built in 1530-1535
+by Duke George (and thus called Georgenschloss), was thoroughly
+restored, and in some measure rebuilt between 1890 and 1902,
+in German Renaissance style, and is now an exceedingly handsome
+structure. The Georgentor has been widened, and through it,
+and beneath the royal apartments, vehicular traffic from the
+centre of the town is directed to the Augustusbrücke. The whole
+is surmounted by a lofty tower&mdash;387 ft.&mdash;the highest in Dresden.
+The interior is splendidly decorated. In the palace chapel are
+pictures by Rembrandt, Nicolas Poussin, Guido Reni and
+Annibale Caracci. The adjoining Prinzen-Palais on the Taschenberg,
+built in 1715, has a fine chapel, in which are various works
+of S. Torelli; it has also a library of 20,000 volumes. The
+Zwinger, begun in 1711, and built in the rococo style, forms an
+enclosure, within which is a statue of King Frederick Augustus I.
+It was intended to be the vestibule to a palace, but now contains
+a number of collections of great value. Until 1846 it was open
+at the north side; but this space has since been occupied by
+the museum, a beautiful Renaissance building, the exterior of
+which is adorned by statues of Michelangelo, Raphael, Giotto,
+Dante, Goethe and other artists and poets by Rietschel and
+Hähnel, and it contains the famous picture gallery. The Brühl
+palace, built in 1737 by Count Brühl, the minister of Augustus II.,
+has been in some measure demolished to make room for the new
+Ständehaus (diet house), with its main façade facing the Hofkirche;
+before the main entrance there is an equestrian statue
+(1906) of King Albert. Close by is the Brühl Terrace, approached
+by a fine flight of steps, on which are groups, by Schilling,
+representing Morning, Evening, Day and Night. The terrace
+commands a view of the Elbe and the distant heights of Loschwitz
+and the Weisser Hirsch, but the prospect has of late years
+become somewhat marred, owing to the extension of the town
+up the river and to the two new up-stream bridges. The Japanese
+palace in the Neustadt, built in 1715 as a summer residence for
+Augustus II., receives its name from certain oriental figures
+with which it is decorated; it is sometimes called the Augusteum
+and contains the royal library. Among other buildings of note
+is the Hoftheatre, a magnificent edifice in the Renaissance
+style, built after the designs of Semper, to replace the theatre
+burnt in 1869, and completed in 1878. A new town hall of huge
+dimensions, also in German Renaissance, with an octagon tower
+400 ft. in height, stands on the former southern ramparts of the
+inner town, close to the Kreuzkirche. In the Altstadt the most
+striking of the newer edifices is the Kunstakademie, constructed
+from designs by K. Lipsius in the Italian Renaissance style,
+1890-1894. The Albertinum, formerly the arsenal, built in
+1559-1563, was rebuilt 1884-1889, and fitted up as a museum
+of oriental and classical antiquities, and as the depository of the
+state archives. On the right bank of the Elbe in Neustadt stand
+the fine buildings of the ministries of war, of finance, justice,
+the interior and education. The public monuments of Dresden
+also include the Moritz Monument, a relief dedicated by the elector
+Augustus to his brother Maurice, a statue of Weber the composer
+by Rietschel, a bronze statue of Theodor Körner by Hähnel, the
+Rietschel monument on the Brühl Terrace by Schilling, a bust
+of Gutzkow, and a statue of Bismarck on the promenade. In
+the suburbs which encircle the old town are to be noted the vast
+central Hauptbahnhof (1893-1898) occupying the site of the old
+Böhmischer railway station, the new premises of the municipal
+hospital and the Ausstellungs-Halle (exhibition buildings).</p>
+
+<p>The chief pleasure-ground of Dresden is the Grosser Garten,
+in which there are a summer theatre, the Reitschel museum,
+and a château containing a museum of antiquities. The
+latter is composed chiefly of objects removed from the churches
+in consequence of the Reformation. Near the château is the
+zoological garden, formed in 1860, and excellently arranged.
+A little to the south of Dresden, on the left bank of the Elbe,
+is the village Räcknitz, in which is Moreau&rsquo;s monument, erected
+on the spot where he was mortally wounded in 1813. The mountains
+of Saxon Switzerland are seen from this neighbourhood.</p>
+
+<p><i>Art.</i>&mdash;Dresden owes a large part of its fame to its extensive
+artistic, literary and scientific collections. Of these the most
+valuable is its splendid picture gallery, founded by Augustus I.
+and increased by his successors at great cost. It is in the museum,
+and contains about 2500 pictures, being especially rich in specimens
+of the Italian, Dutch and Flemish schools. The gem of the
+collection is Raphael&rsquo;s &ldquo;Madonna di San Sisto,&rdquo; for which a room
+is set apart. There is also a special room for the &ldquo;Madonna&rdquo;
+of the younger Holbein. Other paintings with which the name
+of the gallery is generally associated are Correggio&rsquo;s &ldquo;La Notte&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;Mary Magdalene&rdquo;; Titian&rsquo;s &ldquo;Tribute Money&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;Venus&rdquo;; &ldquo;The Adoration&rdquo; and &ldquo;The Marriage in Cana,&rdquo;
+by Paul Veronese; Andrea del Sarto&rsquo;s &ldquo;Abraham&rsquo;s Sacrifice&rdquo;;
+Rembrandt&rsquo;s &ldquo;Portrait of Himself with his Wife sitting on his
+Knee&rdquo;; &ldquo;The Judgment of Paris&rdquo; and &ldquo;The Boar Hunt,&rdquo; by
+Rubens; Van Dyck&rsquo;s &ldquo;Charles I., his Queen, and their Children.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Of modern painters, this magnificent collection contains
+masterpieces by Defregger, Vautier, Makart, Munkacsy, Fritz
+von Uhde, Böcklin, Hans Thoma; portraits by Leon Pohle,
+Delaroche and Sargent; landscapes by Andreas and Oswald
+Achenbach and allegorical works by Sascha Schneider. In
+separate compartments there are a number of crayon portraits,
+most of them by Rosalba Carriera, and views of Dresden by
+Canaletto and other artists. Besides the picture gallery the
+museum includes a magnificent collection of engravings and
+drawings. There are upwards of 400,000 specimens, arranged
+in twelve classes, so as to mark the great epochs in the history
+of art. A collection of casts, likewise in the museum, is designed
+to display the progress of plastic art from the time of the Egyptians
+and Assyrians to modern ages. This collection was begun
+by Raphael Mengs, who secured casts of the most valuable
+antiques in Italy, some of which no longer exist.</p>
+
+<p>The Japanese palace contains a public library of more than
+400,000 volumes, with about 3000 MSS. and 20,000 maps. It is
+especially rich in the ancient classics, and in works bearing on
+literary history and the history of Germany, Poland and France.
+There are also a valuable cabinet of coins and a collection of
+ancient works of art. A collection of porcelain in the &ldquo;Museum
+Johanneum&rdquo; (which once contained the picture gallery) is made
+up of specimens of Chinese, Japanese, East Indian, Sèvres and
+Meissen manufacture, carefully arranged in chronological order.
+There is in the same building an excellent Historical Museum.
+In the Grüne Gewölbe (Green Vault) of the Royal Palace, so
+called from the character of its original decorations, there is an
+unequalled collection of precious stones, pearls and works of art in
+gold, silver, amber and ivory. The objects, which are about 3000
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page576" id="page576"></a>576</span>
+in number, are arranged in eight rooms. They include the regalia
+of Augustus II. as king of Poland; the electoral sword of Saxony;
+a group by Dinglinger, in gold and enamel, representing the court
+of the grand mogul Aurungzebe, and consisting of 132 figures
+upon a plate of silver 4 ft. 4 in. square; the largest onyx known,
+6<span class="spp">2</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span> in. by 2¼ in.; a pearl representing the dwarf of Charles II.
+of Spain; and a green brilliant weighing 40 carats. The royal
+palace also has a gallery of arms consisting of more than 2000
+weapons of artistic or historical value. In the Zwinger are the
+zoological and mineralogical museums and a collection of instruments
+used in mathematical and physical science. Among other
+collections is that of the Körner museum with numerous
+reminiscences of the Goethe-Schiller epoch, and of the wars of
+liberation (1813-15), and containing valuable manuscripts and
+relics. Founded by Hofrath Dr Emil Peschel, it has passed into
+the possession of the city.</p>
+
+<p><i>Education.</i>&mdash;Dresden is the seat of a number of well-known
+scientific associations. The educational institutions are numerous
+and of a high order, including a technical high school (with about
+1100 students), which enjoys the privilege of conferring the
+degrees of doctor of engineering, doctor of technical sciences,
+&amp;c., a veterinary college, a political-economic institution
+(Gehestiftung), with library, a school of architects, a royal and
+four municipal gymnasia, numerous lower grade and popular
+schools, the royal conservatorium for music and drama, and a
+celebrated academy of painting. Dresden has several important
+hospitals, asylums and other charitable institutions.</p>
+
+<p><i>Music and the Theatres.</i>&mdash;Besides the two royal theatres,
+Dresden possesses several minor theatres and music halls. The
+pride of place in the world of music is held by the orchestra
+attached to the court theatre. Founded by Augustus II., it has
+become famous throughout the world, owing to the masters who
+have from time to time been associated with it&mdash;such as Paër,
+Weber, Reissiger and Wagner. Symphony and popular concerts
+are held throughout the year in various public halls, and, during
+the winter, concerts of church music are frequently given in the
+Protestant Kreuz- and Frauen-Kirchen, and on Sundays in the
+Roman Catholic church.</p>
+
+<p><i>Communications and Industries.</i>&mdash;Dresden lies at the centre of
+an extensive railway system, which places it in communication
+with the chief cities of northern and central Germany as well as
+with Austria and the East. Here cross the grand trunk lines
+Berlin-Vienna, Chemnitz-Görlitz-Breslau. It is connected by
+two lines of railway with Leipzig and by local lines with neighbouring
+smaller towns. The navigation on the Elbe has of recent
+years largely developed, and, in addition to trade by river with
+Bohemia and Magdeburg-Hamburg, there is a considerable
+pleasure-boat traffic during the summer months. The communications
+within the city are maintained by an excellent
+system of electric trams, which bring the more distant suburbs
+into easy connexion with the business centre. A considerable
+business is done on the exchange, chiefly in local industrial
+shares, and the financial institutions number some fifty banks,
+among them branches of the Reichs Bank and of the Deutsche
+Bank. Among the more notable industries may be mentioned
+the manufacture of china (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ceramics</a></span>), of gold and silver
+ornaments, cigarettes, chocolate, coloured postcards, perfumery,
+straw-plaiting, artificial flowers, agricultural machinery, paper,
+photographic and other scientific instruments. There are several
+great breweries; corn trade is carried on, and an extensive business
+is done in books and objects of art.</p>
+
+<p><i>Surroundings.</i>&mdash;The environs of the city are delightful. To
+the north are the vine-clad hills of the Lössnitz commanding
+views of the valley of the Elbe from Dresden to Meissen; behind
+them, on an island in a lake, is the castle of Moritzburg, the
+hunting box of the king of Saxony. On the right bank of the
+Elbe, 3 m. above the city, lies the village of Loschwitz, where
+Schiller, in the summer of 1786, wrote the greater part of his
+<i>Don Carlos</i>: above it on the fringe of the Dresdner Heide, the
+climatic health resort Weisser-Hirsch; farther up the river
+towards Pirna the royal summer palace Pillnitz; to the south
+the Plauensche Grund, and still farther the Rabenauer Grund.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;Dresden (Old Slav <i>Drezga</i>, forest, <i>Drezgajan</i>, forest-dwellers),
+which is known to have existed in 1206, is of Slavonic
+origin, and was originally founded on the right bank of the Elbe,
+on the site of the present Neustadt, which is thus actually the <i>old</i>
+town. It became the capital of Henry the Illustrious, margrave
+of Meissen, in 1270, but belonged for some time after his death,
+first to Wenceslaus of Bohemia, and next to the margrave of
+Brandenburg. Early in the 14th century it was restored to the
+margrave of Meissen. On the division of Saxony in 1485 it
+fell to the Albertine line, which has since held it. Having been
+burned almost to the ground in 1491, it was rebuilt; and in the
+16th century the fortifications were begun and gradually extended.
+John George II., in the 17th century, formed the Grosser Garten,
+and otherwise greatly improved the town; but it was in the first
+half of the 18th century, under Augustus I. and Augustus II., who
+were kings of Poland as well as electors of Saxony, that Dresden
+assumed something like its present appearance. The Neustadt,
+which had been burned down in the 17th century, was founded
+anew by Augustus I.; he also founded Friedrichstadt. The town
+suffered severely during the Seven Years&rsquo; War, being bombarded
+in 1760. Some damage was also inflicted on it in 1813, when
+Napoleon made it the centre of his operations; one of the buttresses
+and two arches of the old bridge were then blown up. The dismantling
+of the fortifications had been begun by the French in
+1810, and was gradually completed after 1817, the space occupied
+by them being appropriated to gardens and promenades. Many
+buildings were completed or founded by King Anthony, from
+whom Antonstadt derives its name. Dresden again suffered
+severely during the revolution of 1849, but all traces of the
+disturbances which then took place were soon effaced. In 1866 it
+was occupied by the Prussians, who did not finally evacuate it
+until the spring of the following year. Since that time numerous
+improvements have been carried out.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Lindau, <i>Geschichte der Haupt- und Residenzstadt Dresden</i>
+(2 vols., Dresden, 1884-1885); Prölss, <i>Geschichte des Hoftheaters
+in Dresden</i> (Dresden, 1877); Schumann, <i>Führer durch die königl.
+Sammlungen zu Dresden</i> (1903); Woerl, <i>Führer durch Dresden</i>;
+Daniel, <i>Deutschland</i> (1894).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Battle of Dresden.</span> The battle of Dresden, the last of the
+great victories of Napoleon, was fought on the 26th and 27th
+of August 1813. The intervention of Austria in the War of
+Liberation, and the consequent advance of the Allies under the
+Austrian field-marshal Prince Schwarzenberg from Prague upon
+Dresden, recalled Napoleon from Silesia, where he was engaged
+against the Prussians and Russians under Blücher. Only by a
+narrow margin of time, indeed, was he able to bring back sufficient
+troops for the first day&rsquo;s battle. He detached a column under
+Vandamme to the mountains to interpose between Schwarzenberg
+and Prague (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Napoleonic Campaigns</a></span>); the rest of the
+army pressed on by forced marches for Dresden, around which
+a position for the whole army had been chosen and fortified,
+though at the moment this was held by less than 20,000 men
+under Gouvion St Cyr, who retired thither from the mountains,
+leaving a garrison in Königstein, and had repeatedly sent reports
+to the emperor as to the allied masses gathering to the southward.
+The battle of the first day began late in the afternoon,
+for Schwarzenberg waited as long as possible for the corps of
+Klenau, which formed his extreme left wing on the Freiberg
+road. At last, about 6 p.m. he decided to wait no longer, and
+six heavy columns of attack advanced against the suburbs
+defended by St Cyr and now also by the leading troops of the
+main army. Three hundred guns covered the assault, and
+Dresden was set on fire in places by the cannonade, while the
+French columns marched unceasingly over the bridges and
+through the Altstadt. On the right the Russians under Wittgenstein
+advanced from Striesen, the Prussians under Kleist through
+the Grosser Garten, whilst Prussians under Prince Augustus and
+Austrians under Colloredo moved upon the Moczinski redoubt,
+which was the scene of the most desperate fighting, and was
+repeatedly taken and retaken. The attack to the westward was
+carried out by the other Austrian corps; Klenau, however, was
+still far distant. In the end, the French defences remained
+unshaken. Ney led a counter-attack against the Allies&rsquo; left,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page577" id="page577"></a>577</span>
+the Moczinski redoubt was definitely recaptured from Colloredo,
+and the Prussians were driven out of the Grosser Garten. The
+<i>coup</i> of the Allies had failed, for every hour saw the arrival of
+fresh forces on the side of Napoleon, and at length the Austrian
+leader drew off his men to the heights again. He was prepared
+to fight another battle on the morrow&mdash;indeed he could scarcely
+have avoided it had he wished to do so, for behind him lay the
+mountain defiles, towards which Vandamme was marching with
+all speed.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:524px; height:483px" src="images/img577.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Napoleon&rsquo;s plan for the 27th was, as usual, simple in its outline.
+As at Friedland, a ravine separated a part of the hostile line of
+battle from the rest. The villages west of the Plauen ravine and
+even Löbda were occupied in the early morning by General
+Metzko with the leading division of Klenau&rsquo;s corps from Freiberg,
+and upon Metzko Napoleon intended first to throw the weight
+of his attack, giving to Victor&rsquo;s infantry and the cavalry of
+Murat, king of Naples, the task of overwhelming the isolated
+Austrians. The centre, aided by the defences of the Dresden
+suburbs, could hold its own, as the events of the 26th had
+shown, the left, now under Ney, with whom served Kellermann&rsquo;s
+cavalry and the Young Guard, was to attack Wittgenstein&rsquo;s
+Russians on the Pirna road. Thus, for once, Napoleon decided
+to attack both flanks of the enemy. His motives in so doing
+have been much discussed by the critics; Vandamme&rsquo;s movements,
+it may be suggested, contributed to the French emperor&rsquo;s
+plan, which if carried out would open the Pirna road. Still,
+the left attack may have had a purely tactical object, for in
+that quarter was the main body of the Prussians and Russians,
+and Napoleon&rsquo;s method was always to concentrate the fury of
+the attack on the heaviest masses of the enemy, <i>i.e.</i> the best
+target for his own artillery. A very heavy rainstorm during the
+night seriously affected the movements of troops on the following
+day, but all to Napoleon&rsquo;s advantage, for his more mobile
+artillery, reinforced by every horse available in and about
+Dresden, was still able to move where the Allied guns sank in
+mud. Further, if the cavalry had to walk, or at most trot, through
+the fields the opposing infantry was almost always unable to fire
+their muskets. &ldquo;You cannot fire; surrender,&rdquo; said Murat to
+an Austrian battalion in the battle. &ldquo;Never,&rdquo; they replied;
+&ldquo;you cannot charge us.&rdquo; On the appearance of Murat&rsquo;s horse
+artillery, however, they had to surrender at once. Under such
+conditions, Metzko, unsupported either by Klenau or the main
+army beyond the ravine, was an easy victim. Victor from Löbda
+drove in the advanced posts and assaulted the line of villages
+Wolfnitz-Töltschen; Metzko had to retire to the higher ground
+S.W. of the first line, and Murat, with an overwhelming cavalry
+force from Cotta and Burgstädl, outflanked his left, broke up
+whole battalions, and finally, with the assistance of the renewed
+frontal attack of Victor&rsquo;s infantry, annihilated the division.
+The Austrian corps of Gyulai arrived too late to save it. A few
+formed bodies escaped across the ravine, but Metzko and three-fourths
+of his men were killed or taken prisoners.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile Ney on the other flank, with his left on the Pillnitz
+road and his right on the Grosser Garten, had opened his attack.
+The Russians offered a strenuous resistance, defending Seidnitz,
+Gross Döbritz and Reick with their usual steadiness, and Ney was
+so far advanced that several generals at the Allied headquarters
+suggested a counter-attack of the centre by way of Strehlen,
+so as to cut off the French left from Dresden. This plan was
+adopted, but, owing to various misunderstandings, failed of
+execution. Thus the Allied centre remained inactive all day,
+cannonaded by the Dresden redoubts. One incident only, but
+that of great importance, took place here. The tsar, the king
+of Prussia, Schwarzenberg and a very large headquarter staff
+watched the fighting from a hill near Räcknitz and offered an
+easy mark to the French guns. In default of formed bodies to
+fire at, the latter had for a moment ceased fire; Napoleon,
+riding by, half carelessly told them to reopen, and one of their
+first shots, directed at 2000 yards range against the mass of
+officers on the sky-line, mortally wounded General Moreau, who
+was standing by the emperor Alexander. A council of war
+followed. The Allied sovereigns were for continuing the fight;
+Schwarzenberg, however, knowing the exhaustion of his troops
+decided to retreat. As at Bautzen, the French cavalry was
+unable to make any effective pursuit.</p>
+
+<p>The forces engaged were 96,000 French, Saxons, &amp;c., and
+200,000 Austrians, Russians and Prussians. The French losses
+were about 10,000, or a little over 10%, those of the Allies
+38,000 killed, wounded and prisoners (the latter 23,000) or 19%.
+They lost also 15 colours and 26 guns.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DRESS<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> (from the Fr. <i>dresser</i>, to set out, arrange, formed from
+Lat. <i>directus</i>, arranged, <i>dirigere</i>, to direct, arrange), a substantive
+of which the current meaning is that of clothing or costume in
+general, or, specifically, the principal outer garment worn by a
+woman (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Costume</a></span>). The verb &ldquo;to dress&rdquo; has various
+applications which can be deduced from its original meaning.
+It is thus used not only of the putting on of clothing, but of the
+preparing and finishing of leather, the preparation of food for
+eating, the application of cleansing and healing substances or of
+bandages, &amp;c., to a wound, the drawing up in a correct line of a
+body of troops, and, generally, adorning or decking out, as of
+a ship with flags. In the language of the theatre the &ldquo;dresser&rdquo;
+is the person who looks after the actor&rsquo;s wardrobe and assists
+him in the changing of his costumes. For the printer&rsquo;s use of
+&ldquo;dresser&rdquo; see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Typography</a></span>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DRESSER<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span>, in furniture, a form of sideboard. The name is
+derived from the Fr. <i>dressoir</i>, a piece of furniture used to range or
+<i>dresser</i> the more costly appointments of the table. The appliance
+is the direct descendant of the credence and the buffet, and is,
+indeed, a much more legitimate inheritor of their functions than
+the modern sideboard, which, as we know it, is practically an
+18th-century invention. It developed into its present shape
+about the second quarter of the 17th century, and has since then
+changed but little. As a piece of movable furniture it was
+made rarely, if at all, after the beginning of the 19th century
+until the revival of interest in what is called &ldquo;farmhouse
+furniture&rdquo; at the very beginning of the 20th century led in
+the first place to the construction of many imitation antique
+dressers from derelict pieces of old oak, and especially from
+panels of chests, and in the second to the making of avowed
+imitations. The dresser conformed to a model which varied
+only in detail and in ornament. Its simple and agreeable form
+consisted of a long and rather narrow table or slab, with drawers
+or cupboards beneath and a tall upright closed-in back arranged
+with a varying number of shallow shelves for the reception of
+plates; hooks for mugs were often fixed upon the face of these
+shelves. Towards the end of the 17th century small cupboards
+were often added to the superstructure. The majority of these
+dressers were made of oak, but when, early in the Georgian period
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page578" id="page578"></a>578</span>
+mahogany came into general use, they were frequently inlaid
+with that wood; holly and box were also used for inlaying, most
+frequently in the shape of plain bands or lines. A peculiarly
+effective combination of oak and mahogany is found in the
+dressers, as in other &ldquo;farmhouse furniture,&rdquo; made on the borders
+of Staffordshire and Shropshire. The excellence of the work of
+this kind in that district and in the country lying west of it may
+perhaps explain the expression &ldquo;Welsh dresser,&rdquo; which is now
+no more than a trade term, not necessarily suggestive of the
+place of origin, and applied to all dressers of this type. They are
+most frequently found in the houses of small yeomen and substantial
+farmers, into which fashion penetrated slowly. The dresser
+is now most familiar as necessary plenishing of the kitchen, in
+which it is invariably a fixture. In form it is essentially identical
+with the movable variety, but it is usually much larger, is made
+of deal or other soft wood, and the superstructure has no back.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DREUX<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span>, a town of north-western France, capital of an
+arrondissement in the department of Eure-et-Loir, 27 m. N.N.W.
+of Chartres by rail. Pop. (1906) 8209. It is situated on the
+Blaise, which at this point divides into several arms. It is
+overlooked from the north by an eminence on which stands a
+ruined medieval castle; within the enclosure of this building
+is a gorgeous chapel, begun in 1816 by the dowager duchess of
+Orleans, and completed and adorned at great cost by Louis
+Philippe. It contains the tombs of the Orleans family, chief
+among them that of Louis Philippe, whose remains were removed
+from England to Dreux in 1876. The sculptures on the tombs
+and the stained glass of the chapel windows are masterpieces
+of modern art. The older of the two hôtels-de-ville of Dreux
+was built in the early 16th century, chiefly by Clément Métezau,
+the founder of a famous family of architects, natives of the
+town. It is notable both for the graceful carvings of the façade
+and for the fine staircase and architectural details of the interior.
+The church of St Pierre, which is Gothic in style, contains good
+stained glass and other works of art. The town has a statue of
+the poet Jean de Rotrou, born there in 1609. Dreux is the seat
+of a subprefect. Among the public institutions are tribunals of
+first instance and of commerce, and a communal college. The
+manufacture of boots and shoes, metal-founding and tanning,
+are carried on, and there is trade in wheat and other agricultural
+products and poultry.</p>
+
+<p>Dreux was the capital of the Gallic tribe of the <i>Durocasses</i>.
+In 1188 it was taken and burnt by the English; and in 1562
+Gaspard de Coligny, and Louis I., prince of Condé, were defeated
+in its vicinity by Anne de Montmorency and Francis, duke of
+Guise. In 1593 Henry IV. captured the town after a fortnight&rsquo;s
+siege. It was occupied by the Germans on the 9th of October
+1870, was subsequently evacuated, and was again taken, on the
+17th of November, by General Von Tresckow. In the 10th
+century Dreux was the chief town of a countship, which Odo,
+count of Chartres, ceded to king Robert, and Louis VI. gave to
+his son Robert, whose grandson Peter of Dreux, younger brother
+of Count Robert III., became duke of Brittany by his marriage
+with Alix, daughter of Constance of Brittany by her second
+husband Guy of Thouars. By the marriage of the countess
+Jeanne II. with Louis, viscount of Thouars (d. 1370), the Capetian
+countship of Dreux passed into the Thouars family. In 1377
+and 1378, however, two of the three co-heiresses of Jeanne,
+Perronelle and Marguerite, sold their shares of the countship
+to King Charles V. Charles VI. gave it to Arnaud Amanien
+d&rsquo;Albret, but took it back in order to give it to his brother Louis
+of Orleans (1407); later he gave it back to the lords of Albret.
+Francis of Cleves laid claim to it in the 16th century as heir of
+the d&rsquo;Albrets of Orval, but the parlement of Paris declared the
+countship to be crown property. It was given to Catherine de&rsquo;
+Medici (1539), then to Francis, duke of Alençon (1569); it was
+pledged to Charles de Bourbon, count of Soissons, and through
+him passed to the houses of Orleans, Vendôme and Condé.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DREW<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span>, the name of a family of American actors. <span class="sc">John
+Drew</span> (1827-1862) was born in Dublin and made his first New
+York appearance in 1846. He played Irish and light comedy
+parts with success in all the American cities, and was manager
+of the Arch Street theatre in Philadelphia. He visited England
+in 1855, and Australia in 1859, and died in Philadelphia. His
+wife, <span class="sc">Louise Lane Drew</span> (1820-1897), was the daughter of a
+London actor, and in 1827 went to America, appearing as the
+Duke of York to the elder Booth&rsquo;s Richard III., and as Albert
+to Edwin Forrest&rsquo;s William Tell. After this she starred as a
+child actress, and then as leading lady. She had been twice
+married before she became Mrs Drew in 1850. <span class="correction" title="amended from Fom">From</span> 1861 to
+1892 she had the management of the Arch Street theatre in
+Philadelphia. In 1880 she toured with Joseph Jefferson in his
+elaborate revival of <i>The Rivals</i>, playing Mrs Malaprop to perfection.
+She had three children, John, Sidney and Georgiana,
+wife of Maurice Barrymore (1847-1905), and mother of
+Lionel and Ethel Barrymore, all actors. The eldest son, <span class="sc">John
+Drew</span> (b. 1853), began his stage career under his mother&rsquo;s
+management in Philadelphia as Plumper in <i>Cool as a Cucumber</i>,
+on the 22nd of March 1873; and after playing with Edwin
+Booth and others, became leading man in Augustin Daly&rsquo;s
+company in 1879. His association with this company, and with
+Ada Rehan as the leading lady, constituted a brilliant period
+in recent stage history, his Petruchio being only one, though
+perhaps the most striking, of a series of famous impersonations.
+In 1892 he left Daly&rsquo;s company, and began a career as a &ldquo;star.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DREW, SAMUEL<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> (1765-1833), English theologian, was born
+in the parish of St Austell, in Cornwall, on the 6th of March 1765.
+His father was a poor farm labourer, and could not afford to
+send him to school long enough even to learn to read and write.
+At ten he was apprenticed to a shoemaker, and at twenty he
+settled in the town of St Austell, first as manager for a shoemaker,
+and in 1787 began business on his own account. He had already
+gained a reputation in his narrow circle as a keen debater and a
+jovial companion, and it is said that he had several smuggling
+adventures. He was first aroused to serious thought in 1785 by
+a funeral sermon preached over his elder brother by Adam
+Clarke. He joined the Methodists, was soon employed as a
+class leader and local preacher, and continued to preach till
+a few months before his death. His opportunities of gaining
+knowledge were very scanty, but he strenuously set himself to
+make the most of them. It is stated that an accidental introduction
+to Locke&rsquo;s great essay determined the ultimate direction
+of his studies. In 1798 the first part of Thomas Paine&rsquo;s <i>Age of
+Reason</i> was put into his hands; and in the following year he
+made his first appearance as an author by publishing his <i>Remarks</i>
+on that work. The book was favourably received, and was
+republished in 1820. Drew had begun to meditate a greater
+attempt before he wrote his <i>Remarks on Paine</i>; and, encouraged
+by the antiquary John Whitaker, he published his <i>Essay on
+the Immateriality and Immortality of the Soul</i> in 1802. This
+work made the &ldquo;Cornish metaphysician,&rdquo; as he was called,
+widely known, and for some time it held a high place in the
+judgment of the religious world as a conclusive argument on
+its subject. A fifth edition appeared in 1831. Drew continued
+to work at his trade till 1805, when he entered into an engagement
+with Dr Thomas Coke, a prominent Wesleyan official, which
+enabled him to devote himself entirely to literature. In 1809
+he published his <i>Essay on the Identity and General Resurrection
+of the Human Body</i>, perhaps the most original of his works,
+which reached a second edition in 1822. In 1814 he completed
+a history of Cornwall begun by F. Hitchins. In 1819 he removed
+to Liverpool, being appointed editor of the <i>Imperial Magazine</i>,
+then newly established, and in 1821 to London, the business
+being then transferred to the capital. Here he filled the post
+of editor till his death, and had also the supervision of all
+works issued from the Caxton Press. He was an unsuccessful
+competitor for the Burnett prize offered in 1811 for an essay on
+the existence and attributes of God. The work which he then
+wrote, and which in his own judgment was his best, was published
+in 1820, under the title of <i>An Attempt to demonstrate from Reason
+and Revelation the Necessary Existence, Essential Perfections, and
+Superintending Providence of an Eternal Being, who is the Creator,
+the Supporter, and the Governor of all Things</i> (2 vols. 8 vo). This
+procured him the degree of M.A. from the university of Aberdeen.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page579" id="page579"></a>579</span>
+Among Drew&rsquo;s lesser writings are a <i>Life of Dr Thomas Coke</i>
+(1817), and a work on the deity of Christ (1813). He died at
+Helston in Cornwall on the 29th of March 1833. He was a man
+of strong mind, honourable spirit and affectionate disposition,
+energetic both in speech and in writing.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A memoir of his life by his eldest son appeared in 1834.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DREWENZ<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span>, a river of Germany, a right-bank tributary of the
+Vistula. It rises on the plateau of Hohenstein in East Prussia,
+5 m. S.W. of the town of Hohenstein. After passing through
+the lake of Drewenz (7 m. long), it flows S.W. through flat
+marshy country, and forms, from just below the town of Strassburg
+to that of Leibitsch, a distance of 30 m., the frontier
+between Prussia and Russian Poland. After a course of 148 m.
+it enters the Vistula from the right, a little above the fortress of
+Thorn. It is navigable only for rafts. Lake Drewenz is connected
+with Elbing (and so with the Baltic) by the navigable
+Elbing-Oberland Canal.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DREXEL, ANTHONY JOSEPH<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> (1826-1893), American banker,
+was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 13th of September
+1826. He was the son of Francis M. Drexel (1792-1863), a
+native of Austrian Tirol, who emigrated to America in 1817, and,
+after some years spent as a portrait-painter, became a banker
+and the founder of the house of Drexel &amp; Company. Anthony,
+who entered his father&rsquo;s counting-house in 1839, eventually, with
+his brothers Francis and Joseph, succeeded to the control of
+the business, and organized the banking houses of Drexel,
+Morgan &amp; Company, New York, of which his brother Joseph W.
+(1833-1888) was long the resident head, and of Drexel, Harjes
+&amp; Company, Paris. In 1864 he joined his friend George W. Childs
+in the purchase of the Philadelphia <i>Public Ledger</i>, and with him
+in 1892 founded the Printers&rsquo; Home for union men at Colorado
+Springs. In 1891 he founded, and endowed with $2,000,000,
+the Drexel Institute of Art, Science and Industry in Philadelphia,
+the buildings for which he constructed at a cost of $750,000.
+This institution provides technical instruction for both night and
+day classes and public lecture courses, and has a good museum
+and a library of 35,000 volumes. Drexel died at Carlsbad,
+Germany, on the 30th of June 1893.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DREYFUS, ALFRED<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> (1859-&emsp;&emsp;), French soldier, of Jewish
+parentage, the scandal of whose condemnation for treason and
+subsequent rehabilitation convulsed French political life between
+1894 and 1899, and only ended in 1906, was born in Mülhausen,
+Upper Alsace, removing to Paris in 1874. After going through
+the usual course of military instruction with credit, he became
+a sous-lieutenant in the artillery in 1882, and was promoted
+captain in 1889; and, after passing through the <i>École de Guerre</i>
+with distinction, he was appointed to the general staff. His name
+was, however, unknown to the general public till he was arrested
+on the 15th of October 1894 on a charge of selling military
+secrets to Germany, condemned, publicly degraded (January 4,
+1895), and transported (March 10) to the Ile du Diable, French
+Guiana. The story of the subsequent proceedings in this celebrated
+case is told in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Anti-Semitism</a></span>, and need not
+here be repeated. It was not till 1899 that the unfortunate
+prisoner was brought back to France for retrial by court-martial,
+and even then, so strong was the anti-Semitic and military
+prejudice, he was again found guilty &ldquo;with extenuating circumstances&rdquo;
+at Rennes (September 9), though ten days later he
+was &ldquo;pardoned&rdquo; by President Loubet. It was not till the Cour
+de Cassation ordered a further investigation, and on the 12th
+of July 1906 decided that his conviction had been based on a
+forgery and that Dreyfus was innocent, that the agitation came
+to a final conclusion. He was then restored to his rank in the
+army and promoted major. But the anti-Semitic and anti-Dreyfusard
+spirit in certain French circles could not easily be
+quelled even then; and on the occasion of the translation of the
+remains of Emile Zola (Dreyfus&rsquo;s determined champion) to the
+Pantheon on the 4th of June 1908, Major Dreyfus was shot at
+and wounded by a fanatical journalist named Gregori, who was
+subsequently acquitted by a Paris jury of the charge of attempted
+murder, his own plea being that he had merely intended a
+&ldquo;demonstration.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Dreyfus&rsquo;s own <i>Five Years of my Life</i> (1901), and literature
+cited under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Anti-Semitism</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DRIBURG,<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> a town and spa of Germany, in Prussian Westphalia,
+pleasantly situated on the Aa and the railway Soest-Höxter-Berlin.
+Pop. 2600. It has an Evangelical and a Roman
+Catholic church and some glass manufactures. It is celebrated
+for its saline-ferruginous springs, discovered in 766, and since
+1779 largely frequented in summer. In the vicinity are the ruins
+of Iburg, a castle destroyed by Charlemagne in 775, and bestowed
+by him upon the bishopric of Paderborn.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DRIFFIELD<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (officially Great Driffield), a market town in the
+Buckrose parliamentary division of the East Riding of Yorkshire,
+England, 19½ m. N. by W. from Hull, the junction of several
+branch lines of the North Eastern railway. Pop. of urban
+district (1901) 5766. It is pleasantly situated at the foot of the
+Wolds, and is connected with Hull by a navigable canal. The
+church of All Saints is of various dates from Norman onwards.
+The town is the centre of a rich agricultural district, and large
+markets and fairs are held. There are works for the manufacture
+of oil-cake. Driffield is of high antiquity, and numerous tumuli
+are seen in the vicinity, while there is an excellent private
+antiquarian museum in the town.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DRIFT<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> (from &ldquo;drive&rdquo;), a verb or noun used in various
+connexions with the sense of propelled motion, especially (but
+not necessarily) of an aimless sort, undirected. Thus it is possible
+to speak of a snow-drift, an <span class="correction" title="amended from accumlation">accumulation</span> driven by the wind;
+of a ship drifting out of its course; of the drift of a speech, <i>i.e.</i>
+its general tendency. The word is also used in some technical
+senses, more immediately resulting from the action of driving
+something in. But the most important technical use of the word
+is in geology, as introduced by C. Lyell in 1840 in place of
+&ldquo;Diluvium.&rdquo; The earlier geologists had been in the habit of
+dividing the Quaternary deposits into an older Diluvium and a
+younger Alluvium; the latter is still employed in England,
+but the former has dropped out of use, though it is still retained
+by some continental writers. The Alluvium was distinguished
+from Diluvium by the fact that its mammalian fossils were
+representatives of still living forms, but it is a matter of great
+difficulty to separate these two divisions in practice. &ldquo;The term
+drift is now applied generally to the Quaternary deposits, which
+consist for the most part of gravel, sand, loam or brickearth and
+clay; it naturally refers to strata laid down at some distance
+from the rocks to whose destruction they are largely due; but,
+although applied to river deposits, the word drift is more appropriately
+used in reference to the accumulations of the Glacial
+period.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The occurrence of stones and boulders far removed from their
+parent source early attracted the attention of geologists, but
+for a long period the phenomena, now known as of glacial
+origin, were unexplained, and the drifts were looked upon as
+little more than &lsquo;extraneous rubbish,&rsquo; the product of geological
+agents, quite distinct from those which helped to form the more
+&rsquo;solid&rsquo; rocks that underlie them.&rdquo; (See H. B. Woodward, <i>The
+Geology of England and Wales</i>, 2nd ed., 1887.) The conception
+of an underlying &ldquo;solid&rdquo; geological structure covered by a
+superficial mantle of &ldquo;drift&rdquo; is still retained for certain practical
+purposes; thus, the Geological Survey of Great Britain issues
+many of the maps in two forms, the &ldquo;Solid Edition,&rdquo; showing
+the &ldquo;solid geology,&rdquo; which embraces all igneous rocks and the
+stratified rocks older than Pleistocene, and the &ldquo;Drift Edition,&rdquo;
+which shows only such older strata as are unobscured by drift.</p>
+
+<p>In writing and in conversation the geological expression
+&ldquo;drift&rdquo; is now usually understood to mean Glacial drift,
+including boulder clay and all the varieties of sand, gravel and
+clay deposits formed by the agency of ice sheets, glaciers and
+icebergs. But in the &ldquo;Drift&rdquo; maps many other types of deposit
+are indicated, such, for instance, as the ordinary modern alluvium
+of rivers, and the older river terraces (River-drift of various ages),
+including gravels, brickearth and loam; old raised sea beaches
+and blown-sand (Aeolian-drift); the &ldquo;Head&rdquo; of Cornwall and
+Devon, an angular detritus consisting of stones with clay or
+loam; clay-with-flints, rainwash (landwash), scree and talus;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page580" id="page580"></a>580</span>
+the &ldquo;Warp,&rdquo; a marine and estuarine silt and clay of the Humber;
+and also beds of peat and diatomite.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Glacial Period</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pleistocene</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Boulder Clay</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. A. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DRILL.<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> (1) A tool for boring or making holes in hard substances,
+such as stone, metal, &amp;c. (an adaptation in the 17th
+century from the Dutch <i>dril</i> or <i>drille</i>, from <i>drillen</i>, to turn,
+bore a hole; according to the New English Dictionary the
+word is not to be connected with the English &ldquo;thrill&rdquo;). The word
+<i>drillen</i> was used in Dutch, German and Danish, from the 17th
+century for training in military exercises and was adopted into
+English in the same sense. The origin of the application seems
+to be in the primary sense of &ldquo;to turn round,&rdquo; from the turning
+of the troops in their evolutions and from the turning of the
+weapons in the soldiers&rsquo; hands. Drill is, formally, the preparation
+of soldiers for their duties in war by the practice or rehearsal
+of movements in military order and the handling of arms, and,
+psychologically, the method of producing in the individual soldier
+habits of self-control and of mechanically precise actions under disturbing
+conditions, and of rendering the common instinctive will
+of a body of men, large or small, amenable to the control of, and
+susceptible to a stimulus imparted by its commander&rsquo;s will.</p>
+
+<p>(2) A furrow made in the soil in which seed may be sown,
+and a machine used for sowing seed in such furrows (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sowing</a></span>).
+The word is somewhat doubtful in origin. It may be the same
+as an obsolete word &ldquo;drill,&rdquo; to trickle, flow in drops, also a
+small stream or flow of water, a rill, and is possibly an altered
+form of &ldquo;trill.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>(3) In zoology, the native name of a large short-tailed west
+African baboon, <i>Papio leucophaeus</i>, closely allied to the mandrill
+(<i>q.v.</i>), but distinguished by the absence of brilliant blue and
+scarlet on the jaws of the fully adult males.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 190px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:144px; height:120px" src="images/img580.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>(4) The name of a fabric made in both linen and cotton, and
+commonly bleached and finished stiff. The word is a shortened
+form of &ldquo;drilling,&rdquo; from the German <i>drillich</i>, or &ldquo;three-threaded,&rdquo;
+and is so named because the weave originally used
+in its construction is what is termed the three-leaf twill, nine
+repeats of which appear in the accompanying figure, while
+immediately below the design is an intersection
+of all the nine threads with the first
+pick. It is essentially a warp-faced fabric;
+that is, the upper surface is composed mostly
+of warp threads. In the figure it will be seen
+that two out of every three threads appear
+on the surface, and, by introducing a greater
+number of threads per inch than picks per inch, the weft is made
+to occupy a still more subordinate position so far as the upper
+surface of the cloth is concerned. Although the weave shown
+is still extensively used in this branch, there are others, <i>e.g.</i> the
+4-thread and the 5-thread weaves, which are employed for the
+production of this cloth. Large quantities of drill are shipped
+to the Eastern markets and to other sub-tropical centres, from
+which it is sold for clothing. In temperate climates it forms a
+satisfactory material for ladies&rsquo; and children&rsquo;s summer clothing,
+and it is used by chefs, hairdressers, provision merchants, grocers,
+buttermen, painters and decorators, &amp;c., while many of the long
+jackets or overalls, such as those worn by many mill and factory
+managers, are made from the same material.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DRINKING VESSELS.<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> <a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The use of special vessels for drinking
+purposes may fairly be assumed to have had a natural origin
+and development. From a practical point of view it would soon
+be found desirable to provide vessels for liquids in addition to
+those serving to hold food. As in many other commonplace
+details of modern life, we must turn to the primitive races to
+understand how our present conditions were reached. In almost
+all parts of the world many of the products of nature are capable
+of serving such purposes, with little or no change at the hands
+of man; in tropical and sub-tropical climates the coco-nut and
+the gourd or calabash require but little change to adapt them
+as the most convenient of drinking utensils; the eggs of the
+larger birds, such as the ostrich or the emu, shells, like the
+nautilus and other univalves, as well as the deeper bivalves,
+are equally convenient. Such natural objects are in fact used
+by the uncivilized tribes of Africa, America and Polynesia, as
+well as, in some cases, by the white races who have intruded
+into those parts of the world, and adopted some of the native
+habits. In Paraguay, for example, the so-called &ldquo;Paraguay
+tea,&rdquo; an infusion of the <i>yerba maté</i> (<i>Ilex paraguayensis</i>), is drunk
+through a tube from a small gourd held in the hand, and often
+handsomely mounted in silver or even gold. In the same way,
+as we shall see, civilized man has adopted nearly all the natural
+forms that were found convenient by the savage, altering and
+adorning them in accordance with the taste of the time or
+country where they were used.</p>
+
+<p>Another line of development, however, has been found to be
+the natural outcome of the human mind. Nothing could form
+a more practical drinking cup than the half of a coco-nut shell
+or part of a gourd. Such cups, however, in the countries where
+the plants producing them are common, would be easily obtained,
+and every one, rich or poor, could possess one or more. In order,
+therefore, to distinguish the chief&rsquo;s possessions from those of
+his inferiors, his cup is often made with great labour, from some
+more intractable material, wood or stone, though in practically
+the same form as that of the natural object.</p>
+
+<p>Among European races in medieval times the same lines have
+been followed, though for different reasons. Human ingenuity,
+though perhaps originally inspired by natural forms,
+is apt to turn aside into more artificial channels.
+<span class="sidenote">Early drinking cups.</span>
+The invention of the potter&rsquo;s art (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ceramics</a></span>),
+where the plastic nature of the raw material renders it
+capable of infinite changes of form, gave rise to types of vessels
+having no obvious or necessary relation to the productions of
+nature. In Britain and in northern Europe generally, the
+interments of the races of the Neolithic and Bronze Ages have
+furnished vessels of pottery of a beaker-like form, to which the
+name of &ldquo;drinking-cups&rdquo; has been given. It must be confessed
+that the evidence for attributing such a use to them is slender,
+and mainly consists of the fact that their thin lips would render
+them better adapted for the purpose than the other pottery
+vessels found with them, some of which, on equally slight
+grounds, have been called food vessels. The general use and
+acceptance of the term by two generations of archaeologists is,
+however, an adequate reason for a passing mention in this place.
+In the later prehistoric times of Europe vessels of gold, bronze
+and other materials, including amber, were made, sometimes of
+elegant forms, and would seem to have been used as drinking
+vessels; still, this is again an assumption, though a fairly probable
+one. A small gold cup with handle was found in a barrow
+at Rillaton, Cornwall; one of amber of a similar form was found
+at Hove, and a third of shale near Honiton. All of these doubtless
+may be referred to the Bronze Age.</p>
+
+<p>Schliemann found many drinking vessels in his exploration
+of the superimposed cities of Troy. A pretty form is that found
+in the first city. It is of clay, and closely resembles
+an early Victorian tea cup on a high foot. This form
+<span class="sidenote">New forms found by Schliemann.</span>
+is of interest, as Schliemann discovered the same both
+at Tiryns and Mycenae, five from the latter site being
+of gold, while the type also occurs from Ialysus in Rhodes in
+association with bronze swords. This Trojan cup was found at
+a depth of 50 ft. below the present surface and about 18 ft. below
+the stratum of what Schliemann claimed to be the Homeric
+Troy. In his second city appears a different type of ware,
+somewhat fantastic in form, one vessel being in the form of a
+sow, while others foreshadow the <i>crater</i> and <i>amphora</i> of later
+and more familiar Greek wares.</p>
+
+<p>But the drinking vessel to which Schliemann draws most
+attention is the tall cup of a trumpet form furnished with two
+earlike loop handles. This curious and original type occurs
+also in the Third (or Homeric), Fourth and Sixth Cities, with
+little if any change. Schliemann devotes some pages to the
+discussion of the form, in which he sees the <span class="grk" title="depas amphikypellon">&#948;&#941;&#960;&#945;&#962; &#7936;&#956;&#966;&#953;&#954;&#973;&#960;&#949;&#955;&#955;&#959;&#957;</span><a name="fa2c" id="fa2c" href="#ft2c"><span class="sp">2</span></a>
+of Homer, which has been more usually understood to mean
+an hour-glass shaped cup, in which the distinguishing feature
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page581" id="page581"></a>581</span>
+was two cups, not two handles. He applies the same term to a
+drinking vessel of a very different form, found with several others
+in the Third City. This is a sauce-boat shaped vessel<a name="fa3c" id="fa3c" href="#ft3c"><span class="sp">3</span></a> of gold,
+made with a lip for pouring or drinking at either end, and with
+two loop handles. This equals those previously mentioned in
+originality of form; with it were found others of gold, silver
+and electrum (<i>i.e.</i> 4 parts of gold to 1 of silver). Of these three
+were shaped like 18th-century coffee cups but wanting handles.
+In the Sixth City appear forms more nearly approaching those of
+later times, particularly prototypes of the <i>cantharus</i> and <i>scyphus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>These discoveries in the various strata of Troy may be taken
+as the analogues in the Mediterranean and hither Asia of the
+later Stone and Bronze Ages of northern Europe, with an
+allowance of some centuries of greater antiquity for the former.</p>
+
+<p>It is not proposed in this article to deal with the ceramic and
+metallic drinking vessels of the Greeks and Romans, of what
+is generally known as the classical period (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ceramics</a></span> and
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Plate</a></span>). It may be mentioned, however, that both on the Rhine
+and in various places in Britain, notably at Castor in Northamptonshire
+and in the New Forest, were factories where large
+numbers of <i>pocula</i> or drinking cups were made; those made on
+the Rhine and at Castor bearing legends to indicate their use.
+Many of these are to be seen in the British Museum and in the
+Wallraf-Richartz Museum in Cologne.</p>
+
+<p>After the decline of Roman power, the Gothic and Scandinavian
+races who replaced the Romans in central and northern Europe
+brought with them their own forms and types of drinking
+vessels. These, from about the 4th century, replaced
+<span class="sidenote">Gothic and Scandinavian types.</span>
+the well-known Roman vessels. The northern
+barbarians were as great drinkers as fighters, and their
+literature recites with equal zest the richness of their drinking
+cups as the power and deadly qualities of their arms. Fortunately
+the practice of burying with the dead warrior all his
+property, or at least as much of it as he would be supposed to
+need, has preserved to our day the actual vessels in use by the
+pagan northmen who pervaded northern Europe from the
+4th century onward. Saxon graves in Britain have furnished
+great numbers of drinking cups and horns, in many cases quite
+unbroken. From the remains, of which the chief series are in
+the British and Liverpool Museums, we can learn a great deal
+to amplify the references in literature. The richest single
+interment that has yet been found was within the present churchyard
+at Taplow. Here under a huge mound lay buried a Saxon
+chieftain surrounded by his belongings; arms defensive and
+offensive, his drinking cups, and even his game of draughts.
+The drinking vessels consisted of five cows&rsquo; horns and four glass
+cups. The former were of great size, 2 ft. long, richly mounted
+at the mouth and at the point with silver bands embossed and
+gilt. The glasses also were of great size and of a type familiar
+in Saxon interments. Each was of a trumpet shape, with a
+small foot, while the sides were ornamented with hollow pointed
+tubes bent downwards, and open on the inner side, so that the
+liquid would fill them. Such a plan is most unpractical, and it
+must have been very difficult to keep the vessels clean. Glasses
+of this uncommon form have not been found elsewhere than in
+Saxon graves, either in England or in the north of the continent.
+Other types are perhaps nearly as characteristic, though of simpler
+construction. One of these is a simple cone of glass, sometimes
+quite plain, at others ornamented with an applied spiral glass
+thread, or more rarely with festoons of white glass embedded
+in the body of the vessel. A third form is a plain cup or bowl
+widely expanded at the mouth and with a rounded base, so
+that it could only be set down when empty, in fact a true
+&ldquo;tumbler.&rdquo; This feature is in fact a very common one in the
+drinking vessels of the Saxon race. There are many other
+varieties, plain cylindrical goblets, generally with ornamental
+glass threads on the outside, and a more usual type has a rounded
+body somewhat of the shape of an orange with a wide plain
+mouth. Many of all these classes were found in the famous
+cemetery known as the King&rsquo;s Field at Faversham in Kent (the
+relics from which are now in the British Museum), at Chessel
+Down in the Isle of Wight, and in the cemetery within the
+ancient camp on High Down, near Worthing. In Belgium,
+France and Germany the same types occur, and even as far
+north as Scandinavia, where they are found in association with
+Roman coins of the 4th century. On the continent, however,
+additional types are found that do not occur in Britain&mdash;one
+of these is a drinking glass in the form of a hunting horn with
+glass threads forming an ornamental design on the outside.
+From the wide distribution of these types, it seems certain
+that they sprang originally from a common centre, and the slender
+evidence available on the subject seems to point to that centre
+having been somewhere on the lower Rhine. Although glass
+seems to have been popular and by no means rare as a material
+for drinking vessels, other materials also were used. A large
+number of the smaller pottery vessels would serve such a purpose,
+and in one grave at Broomfield in Essex two small wooden cups
+were found which, from their small size and thinness, were no
+doubt used for liquid.</p>
+
+<p>Of the later Saxon domestic utensils nothing remains, the
+habit of burying such objects with the dead having ceased on
+the gradual introduction of Christianity through the country.
+Manuscripts are our only resource, and they are not only of great
+rarity, but in the main rudely and conventionally drawn in their
+details. In those of the 9th to the 11th century various simple
+forms are seen, some resembling our modern tumbler in shape,
+others like a dice box. Horns as drinking vessels certainly
+retained their popularity at all times, surviving especially among
+the northern nations, and many of the vessels of this form were
+no doubt actual horns, though horn-shaped vessels were often
+made of other materials. Until we come to the 13th and 14th
+centuries there is an absolute dearth of the actual objects used
+in domestic life. And here we begin with plate used in the
+service of the church.</p>
+
+<p>The drinking vessel possessing the most unbroken history is
+doubtless the chalice of the Christian Church.<a name="fa4c" id="fa4c" href="#ft4c"><span class="sp">4</span></a> Like other
+ceremonial objects it was no doubt differentiated from
+the drinking cups in ordinary use by a gradual transition,
+<span class="sidenote">Church vessels.</span>
+and in the early centuries it is unlikely that it
+differed either in form or material from the ordinary domestic
+vessel of the time. Figures of such vessels, apparently with a
+symbolic intention, are found upon early Christian tombstones,
+and it has been contended that the vessel indicated the grave
+of a priest. While this may be the case, the similarity of the
+vessel represented to the ordinary non-liturgical form renders
+the conclusion somewhat weak. Among objects found under
+conditions which lend colour to their specific use as chalices are
+the bottoms of glass vessels found inserted in plaster in the
+Catacombs at Rome; but here again the Jesuit Padre Garrucci
+was unable to find any evidence to support such a conclusion.
+It is not in fact until the 6th century that the sacred vessel
+would appear to have assumed a definite form. From about that
+time date the lost golden chalices of Monza, representations
+of which still exist in that city; and the famous chalice of
+Gourdon in the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris is probably of
+about the same time. All of these are two-handled with a vase-shaped
+body and supported on a high foot; and thus quite
+unlike the more recent medieval types. Two glass vases of
+exactly this two-handled form are in the Slade collection at the
+British Museum, and may well have been chalices. Another
+chalice, in the same collection, of the 6th or 7th century, was
+found with a silver treasure at Lampsacus on the Hellespont.
+It is of silver, with a cylindrical body and small expanding
+foot; with it were found a number of silver spoons and dishes,
+the former inscribed with the names of Apostles, Greek hexameters
+and lines from Virgil&rsquo;s Eclogues. No doubt the whole
+was the treasure of a monastery, buried and never reclaimed.
+So far as evidence exists for the form of the chalice, the vase-shape
+with two handles seems to have been mainly succeeded
+by a goblet with straight sides and without handles; these latter
+in great part disappeared. Then came the rounded cup-shaped
+bowl as seen in the well-known Kremsmünster chalice. An
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page582" id="page582"></a>582</span>
+interesting silver vessel, probably a chalice, found at Trewhiddle
+in Cornwall, is in the British Museum. It is of plain semi-oviform
+shape, and dates from the 9th century. The 13th century
+chalice was usually a broad somewhat shallow cup, on a conical
+base, and squat in its general lines as compared with those of
+later date. These gradually became taller, and with a bowl
+smaller in proportion, following the tendency of the civil vessels
+towards more elegant lines. Both civil and religious vessels
+eventually carried this tendency to an extreme point, so that in
+the 17th century the continental chalices and standing cups
+had lost all sense of true artistic proportions; the bowl of the
+chalice had greatly shrunk in size while the foot had become
+huge and highly elaborate, both in general form and in ornamental
+details. In Britain chalices ceased to be used in the English
+church in the reign of Edward VI., and were replaced by communion
+cups. These were much plainer in make, recalling in
+their outlines the goblet form of about a thousand years earlier,
+the sides of the bowl being concave, or nearly straight, as opposed
+to the convexity of the chalice, while the paten was reversed
+over the mouth and so arranged as to form a closely fitting cover.
+With the beginning of the 17th century English communion
+cups again followed the civil fashion in adapting the outline of
+the Venetian drinking glass, a shape which has survived to our
+own days.</p>
+
+<p>The materials of which chalices were made in the early
+centuries seem to have been as various as those of ordinary
+vessels. Glass was undoubtedly a favourite substance, perhaps
+from its lending itself readily to scrupulous cleanliness; but
+wood, horn, ivory and similar materials were undoubtedly in
+use, and were from time to time condemned as improper by the
+Fathers of the Church. Pewter was in common use, and it was
+not an unusual practice in the 12th and 13th centuries to place
+sacramental vessels, of this or more precious metal, in the grave
+of an ecclesiastic. Bronze was also used, and the Kremsmünster
+chalice is of that metal, which was a favourite one in the Celtic
+church. But gold or silver chalices were no doubt always
+preferred when they could be obtained.</p>
+
+<p>It may be mentioned here that it was a common practice
+in the 16th century and later in England for laymen to make
+gifts to the church of vessels of an entirely domestic character
+for use in the service. Many of these from their associations,
+and in the character of the designs upon them, were entirely
+unsuited for such purposes, and in our own time, when a healthy
+desire has sprung up for the proper investigation of such matters,
+many such unsuitable vessels have been withdrawn from use.
+Domestic plate, however, being much more highly appreciated
+by collectors, there has been a regrettable tendency on the part
+of the holders of such pieces to sell them to the highest bidders;
+the tendency is to be deplored, for while they remain the property
+of the church, they are a national asset; if sold by auction,
+there is a great probability of their going abroad.</p>
+
+<p>It would seem fairly certain that the ordinary drinking vessel
+of medieval times was, like the trenchers of wood, turned on the
+lathe. Of these the commoner varieties have entirely
+disappeared, having become useless from distortion
+<span class="sidenote">Medieval vessels for common uses.</span>
+or other damage. Such as have come down to our
+own time owe their preservation to the added refinement
+of a silver mount. Vessels of this kind are known as
+<i>mazer</i> bowls, a word of uncertain origin, but undoubtedly,
+in the medieval sense, indicating wood of some more
+<span class="sidenote">Mazers.</span>
+or less valuable kind, and not improbably, in the 16th
+century, maple or a wood of that appearance. Spenser in the
+&ldquo;Shepherd&rsquo;s Kalendar&rdquo; speaks of &ldquo;a mazer ywrought of the
+maple warre.&rdquo; Although such vessels are mentioned in the
+inventories and other contemporary records as far back as the
+12th century, no example is known to exist of an earlier date
+than the 14th century, of which date there are two in the possession
+of Harbledown hospital. This type of drinking vessel
+was in common use in well-to-do households until the 16th
+century, when a change of fashion and the greater luxury and
+refinement dictated the adoption of more elegant and complex
+forms. The ordinary mazer was a shallow bowl (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Plate</a></span>,
+Plate II.) about 6 in. in diameter, with a broad expanding
+rim of silver gilt often engraved with a motto in black letter
+or Lombardic capitals, at times referring to the function of
+the cup, such as:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;In the name of the Trinity</p>
+<p class="i05">Fille the Kup and drinke to me.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">or,</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Potum et nos benedicat Agios.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">Within the bowl, in the centre is often found a circular medallion
+called a &ldquo;print&rdquo; with some device upon it, engraved and filled
+with enamel. The reason of this addition may conceivably
+be found in the fact that such bowls were sometimes made from
+the lower half of a gourd or calabash, in the centre of which
+would be a rough projection whence the fibres of the fruit had
+diverged. A rarer form of mazer has the characters just mentioned
+and in addition is mounted upon a high foot, bringing
+it nearer to the category of standing cups or &ldquo;hanaps.&rdquo; The
+famous Scrope mazer belonging to York Minster (early 15th
+century) stands upon three small feet. Of the hanap type
+examples are in the possession of Pembroke College, Cambridge
+(the Foundress&rsquo; Cup), and All Souls&rsquo; College, Oxford, the former
+an exceedingly fine specimen, of the third quarter of the 15th
+century. The form dictated originally by the simple wooden
+cup was at times carried out entirely in silver, or even in stone,
+mazer-like cups being found either entirely in metal or with
+the main portion made of serpentine or some other ornamental
+stone. An example of the former from the Hamilton Palace
+collection, as well as several ordinary mazers, are to be seen in
+the British Museum. The types above described are of English
+origin, with the exception of that made entirely of silver, which is
+thought to be French. Most of the continental forms differed
+from the English, and were more elaborately finished. One of
+the finest is that which belonged to Louis de Male, last count of
+Flanders. It is an exceedingly thin, shallow bowl of fine-grained
+wood, with a cover of the same make. The latter is surmounted
+by a silver figure of a falcon holding a shield in its mouth with
+the arms of the count. The foot is of silver with lozenge-shaped
+panels inserted, bearing in enamel the arms of the count. A
+German form of the 16th century consisted of a depressed
+sphere of wood for the bowl, with a silver rim, and a cover
+formed of a similarly shaped sphere, called in France a &ldquo;creusequin.&rdquo;
+Such mazers were furnished in addition with a short
+metal handle turned up at the end, a feature unknown in the
+English types. All of these again are to be seen in the British
+Museum series.</p>
+
+<p>Although the use of wooden vessels more or less elaborately
+mounted was continued well into the 16th century as a fashion,
+many other materials of far greater value were in use
+among the wealthy long before that time. Crystal,
+<span class="sidenote">Hanaps.</span>
+agate and other hard stones, ivory, Chinese porcelain, as well as
+more ordinary wares, were all in use, as well as the precious
+metals. The inventories of the 14th and 15th centuries are full
+of entries showing that such precious cups were fairly common.
+Of gold cups of any antiquity naturally but few remain; the
+intrinsic value of the metal probably is a sufficient explanation.
+One of the most important in existence is however preserved
+in the British Museum, viz. the royal gold cup of the kings of
+England and France. It is of nearly pure gold with a broad
+bowl and a high foot, the cover pyramidal. The whole is ornamented
+with translucent enamels of the most perfect quality,
+and with a little damage in one part, absolutely well preserved.
+The subjects represented on it are scenes from the life of St
+Agnes, in two rows, one on the cover and one outside the bowl;
+on the foot are the symbols of the four Evangelists, and around
+the base a coronal of leaves alternating with pearls; the cover
+originally had a similar adjunct, but it has unfortunately been
+cut away. This is the only piece of royal plate of the treasures
+of the kings of England and France that now remains, and its
+history has been traced from the time it was made, about the
+year 1380, to the present time. It was made by one of the
+goldsmiths of the luxurious Duc de Berri, the brother of Charles
+V. of France, no doubt to offer as a gift to the king, whose
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page583" id="page583"></a>583</span>
+birthday was St Agnes&rsquo; day. It was, however, never presented,
+probably owing to the death of Charles V. in 1380. The duc
+de Berri was not on friendly terms with his nephew Charles VI.,
+but on their being reconciled he presented the young king with
+this cup. The troubles of his reign led to the invasion of France
+by Henry V. of England, and the ultimate appointment of his
+brother, John, duke of Bedford, as regent. The necessities
+of the half-insane Charles doubtless caused this cup and other
+valuables to pass into the possession of the regent in exchange
+for ready money, for it appears in the duke of Bedford&rsquo;s will,
+under which it passed into the treasury of Henry VI. There
+it remained and appears in all subsequent royal inventories
+up to the time of James I. This monarch, whose motto was
+&ldquo;Beati pacifici,&rdquo; received with joy the embassy sent from
+Spain in the year 1610 to conclude the first treaty of peace with
+England since the Armada, and showered upon the envoy, Don
+Juan de Velasco, constable of Castile, the most lavish and
+extravagant gifts. The constable, in fact, was so impressed by
+the warmth of his reception that he printed an account of his
+embassy, and from this work the main story of the cup has
+eventually been traced. On his return to Spain the constable,
+a piously disposed man, presented this cup, with many other
+valuable gifts, to the convent of Santa Clara Medina de Pomar
+at Burgos, of which his sister was Superior. Although it was a
+domestic vessel, a &ldquo;hanap&rdquo; in fact, the constable elected that
+it should be consecrated and made use of as a chalice at great
+festivals. And so it continued to be used from the early years of
+the 17th century until about the year 1882, when the convent
+having fallen upon evil times, it was decided to sell this precious
+relic. A priest from the Argentine being at the time in Burgos,
+it was confided to him to sell in Paris, and he deposited the sum
+of £100 by way of security. This was all that the unfortunate
+nuns at Burgos ever received in return for their chalice, for
+they never saw the priest again. He took the cup to Paris,
+arriving in the month of September, when the majority of the
+well-to-do are away from town. After many failures to dispose
+of it, he ultimately succeeded in selling it to Baron Jerome
+Pichon for the sum of about £400, practically its weight in gold.
+The baron, after vainly trying to resell it at various sums from
+£20,000 downwards, eventually parted with it to Messrs Wertheimer
+of Bond Street for £8000, and that firm very liberally
+ceded it to Sir Wollaston Franks for the same sum, and it was
+finally secured by a subscription for the British Museum.</p>
+
+
+<p class="noind f80 pt2 sc">Plate I.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 900px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:291px; height:332px" src="images/img582a1.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:291px; height:334px" src="images/img582a2.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:271px; height:327px" src="images/img582a3.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;ROMAN GLASS CUP. With representation
+of a chariot race. Found at Colchester.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;TEUTONIC GLASS CUP. From a grave at Selzen, Rhenish Hesse.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;SAXON GLASS &ldquo;TUMBLER.&rdquo;</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 900px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:411px; height:208px" src="images/img582a4.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:410px; height:210px" src="images/img582a5.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>&mdash;FRANKISH GLASS DRINKING HORN. Bingerbrück.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>&mdash;SAXON COW&rsquo;S HORN. Mounted in silver. Taplow.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 900px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:195px; height:519px" src="images/img582a6.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:400px; height:486px" src="images/img582a7.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:242px; height:529px" src="images/img582a8.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>&mdash;SAXON TRUMPET-SHAPED DRINKING VESSEL.  With hollow tubular ornamentation.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>&mdash;THE ROYAL GOLD ENAMELLED HANAP.  Made about 1380.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>&mdash;SARACENIC ENAMELLED GOBLET. With French silver mountings. Fourteenth century.</td></tr></table>
+
+
+<p class="noind f80 pt2 sc">Plate II.<br />
+All the objects represented on these two plates are in the British Museum.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="tccm">
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:106px; height:966px" src="images/img582b1.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>&mdash;A GLASS &ldquo;YARD OF ALE&rdquo; (English).  Eighteenth century.</td></tr></table>
+
+ </td>
+
+<td class="tccm">
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 720px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:370px; height:529px" src="images/img582b2.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:319px; height:482px" src="images/img582b3.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;VENETIAN GLASS GOBLET. With enamelled decoration. Fifteenth century.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;ENGLISH &ldquo;BLACKJACK.&rdquo; With initials of Charles I. and date 1646.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 720px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:327px; height:166px" src="images/img582b4.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:414px; height:166px" src="images/img582b5.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;THE ROCHESTER MAZER. Presented by Brother Robert Peacham. Sixteenth century.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>&mdash;CHINESE CUP. Carved from rhinoceros horn.  Eighteenth century.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 720px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:281px; height:422px" src="images/img582b6.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:147px; height:416px" src="images/img582b7.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:222px; height:417px" src="images/img582b8.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>&mdash;ENGLISH GLASS TANKARD.  Bearing the Arms of Lord Burleigh.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>&mdash;COCO-NUT CUP.  German, about 1600.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>&mdash;SWISS &ldquo;TANZENMANN.&rdquo; Seventeenth century.</td></tr></table>
+
+ </td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Such is the story of one of the most remarkable &ldquo;hanaps&rdquo;
+in existence. The word &ldquo;hanap&rdquo; is translated by Cotgrave in his
+French dictionary of 1660 as &ldquo;a drinking cup or goblet,&rdquo; and
+probably was intended to mean what would be called a standing
+cup, that is, raised on a foot, to distinguish it from a bowl of the
+mazer class. Such vessels were chiefly used to ornament the
+dinner table or sideboard, in the way that loving-cups are now
+used at civic banquets, where, almost alone in fact, the ancient
+ceremonial of the table is still observed to some extent; and the
+loving-cup is the direct descendant of the hanap of the middle
+ages.</p>
+
+<p>Of all the ornaments of the table in medieval times the most conspicuous
+was probably the &ldquo;nef.&rdquo; This was in the form of a ship
+(<i>navis</i>), as its name implies, and originally was designed
+to hold the table utensils of the host&mdash;knives, napkins,
+<span class="sidenote">Nefs.</span>
+and at times even the wine. Some of the later examples which
+alone survive are carried out with the greatest elaboration, the
+sails and rigging being carefully finished and with a number of
+figures on the deck. The reason for the existence of such an
+article of table furniture was doubtless the fear of poison. As
+in course of time this became less, the nef changed its character,
+and became either a mere ornament, or sometimes was capable
+of being used as a drinking vessel. The former, however, was
+much more common, and the number of nefs that can be practically
+used as drinking cups is small.</p>
+
+<p>In the 15th and 16th centuries the shapes, decoration and
+materials of drinking vessels were almost endless. A favourite
+object to be so adapted was an ostrich egg, and many can be
+seen in museums in elaborate silver mounts; coco-nuts were also
+used in the same way, and Chinese and other Oriental wares
+then of great variety, were often turned into cups and vases by
+<span class="sidenote">16th-century types.</span>
+ingeniously devised silver mounting. The use of drinking
+vessels either formed of actual horns or of other
+materials was common in the 15th and 16th centuries,
+especially in the north. They were usually provided
+with feet so as to serve as standing cups, and some of them were
+mounted with great richness. An excellent example is the
+famous drinking-horn in the possession of Queen&rsquo;s College,
+Oxford, dating from the 14th century. The medieval beliefs
+about &ldquo;griffins&rsquo; claws&rdquo; still survived to this late date, and a
+horn cup in the British Museum bears the inscription &ldquo;Ein
+Greifen Klau bin ich genannt, In Asia, Africa wohl bekannt.&rdquo;
+Another horn, probably that of an ibex, is in the same institution,
+and has a silver mount inscribed &ldquo;Gryphi unguis divo Cuthberto
+dunelmensi sacer.&rdquo; The elegant natural curve of the horn adds
+greatly to the charm of the vessel. In Germany the ingenuity
+of the silversmith was turned in the direction of making vessels
+in the forms of animals, at times in allusion to the coat of arms
+of the patron. Stags, lions, bears and various birds are often
+found; the head generally removable so as to form a small cup
+Switzerland and south Germany had a special type, in the form
+of the figure of a peasant, generally in wood, carrying on his back
+a large basket, which edged with silver formed the drinking cup.
+This type is only found in wine-growing districts, the basket
+being used for carrying grapes. In Germany such cups are called
+&ldquo;Buttenmann,&rdquo; in Switzerland &ldquo;Tanzenmann.&rdquo; The royal and
+princely museums of Germany contain great numbers of such
+vessels, the Green Vault in Dresden in particular, while a good
+number are to be seen in our own great museums. A curious
+fancy, combining instruction with conviviality, was to make cups
+in the form of a globe, terrestrial or celestial, which are still useful
+as showing the state of geographical or astronomical knowledge
+at the time. Several of those made in the 16th century are still
+in existence, one in the British Museum, a second at Nancy, and
+others are in Copenhagen and Zurich and in private collections.
+The upper half of the globe is removable, leaving the lower as
+the drinking cup. Ivory both from the beauty of its colour and
+the evenness of its structure has been a favourite material for
+drinking vessels at all times, and would seem to have been
+continuously used from the earliest period, whether derived from
+Asia or Africa, while the semi-fossil mammoth ivory of Siberia
+has not been neglected. In general, however, the vessels made
+from this material presented no essential differences of form from
+those in wood, until the art of lathe-turning attained great
+perfection, when a wide field was opened for ingenuity and even
+extravagance of form. The most remarkable examples of the
+possibilities of this kind of mechanical skill are seen in the
+productions of the Nuremberg turners of the 17th century, whose
+elaborate and entirely useless <i>tours de force</i> comprise among many
+other things standing cups of ivory sometimes 2 ft. high, exemplifying
+every eccentricity of which the lathe is capable. Peter
+Zick (d. 1632) and his three sons were celebrated for such work.
+Several pieces, doubtless from their hands, are in the British
+Museum.</p>
+
+<p>The use of glass cups was not common in England until the
+16th century, Venice having practically the monopoly of the
+supply. A silver-mounted glass goblet which belonged
+to the great Lord Burghley is, however, in the British
+<span class="sidenote">Glass cups.</span>
+Museum, where there is also a very large series of
+Venetian drinking glasses of various kinds, clear and lace glass
+as well as some of the 15th-century goblets with enamelled
+designs, now of the greatest rarity. The relations of Venice with
+the East were of so intimate a character that the earlier forms of
+Venetian glasses were nearly identical with those of the Mahommedan
+East.</p>
+
+<p>A common type of Arab drinking glass resembled our modern
+tumbler (a beaker), but gradually expanding in a curve towards
+the mouth, and often enamelled. The enamelled designs were
+at times related to the purpose of the vessel, figures drinking and
+the like, but more commonly bore either a mark of ownership,
+such as the armorial device of an emir, or some simple decorative
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page584" id="page584"></a>584</span>
+design. This simple form probably has its origin in the horn
+cup made from the base of a cow&rsquo;s horn and closed at the smaller
+end. The later forms in the late 15th century and after, followed
+the fashion in other materials, and were raised on a tall foot,
+so that from the 16th century onwards the type of wine glass
+has hardly changed, except in details. An interesting variety
+in one detail is seen in the German fashion of providing an
+elaborate silver stand into which the foot of such an ordinary-shaped
+glass was made to fit. Frequently, as might be expected,
+such stands are found without glasses, and their use then seems
+difficult to explain.</p>
+
+<p>Another characteristic German type is the &ldquo;wiederkom,&rdquo; a
+vessel more conspicuous for capacity than for its artistic qualities.
+It is usually a cylindrical vessel of green glass often holding as
+much as a quart, elaborately enamelled with coats of arms and
+views of well-known places; and at times when the cup was a
+wedding gift the figures of the bride and bridegroom are seen
+upon it.</p>
+
+<p>A very fanciful kind of cup was known in England as a &ldquo;yard
+of ale,&rdquo; a long tube of glass generally shaped like a coach horn,
+but ending sometimes in three prongs as a trident, the opening
+in the latter being at the end of the handle, which was about a
+yard in length.</p>
+
+<p>Small silver cups were often made in dozens with various
+devices, differing in each, such as the signs of the zodiac, the
+occupations of the months, or figures of the classical gods and
+goddesses, engraved upon them.</p>
+
+<p>The tankard came into fashion in the 16th century, a practical,
+but seldom graceful object. At first some attempt was made, by
+shaping the sides, to attain to some artistic quality, but usually
+the tankard from the late 16th century to the present time is
+found with straight sides, either vertical or contracting towards
+the top, which is of course always furnished with a hinged lid.</p>
+
+<p>A material that has one obvious merit, that of being practically
+unbreakable, is leather, and drinking cups were often made of it.
+The flagon called a &ldquo;black jack&rdquo; is the best-known,
+and examples are very common, mostly of the 17th
+<span class="sidenote">17th and 18th century types.</span>
+and 18th centuries. A quaint fashion was to have
+a leather cup made in the form of a lady&rsquo;s shoe; this,
+however, was confined to Germany and might be thought in
+somewhat questionable taste.</p>
+
+<p>In the 17th and 18th centuries a great impetus was given to
+the production of curious drinking vessels in pottery. In England
+at various potting centres a great number of cups called &ldquo;tygs&rdquo;
+were made: capacious mugs with several handles, three or four,
+round the sides, so that the cup could be readily passed from one
+to the other. Many of these have quaint devices and inscriptions
+upon them. Another favourite plan is to make a jug with open-work
+round the neck and a variety of spouts, one only communicating
+with the liquid. These &ldquo;puzzle jugs&rdquo; no doubt
+caused a good deal of amusement when attempted by a novice,
+who would inevitably spill some of the contents.</p>
+
+<p>The horn of the rhinoceros is much favoured by the Chinese
+as a material for drinking cups often of a somewhat archaic form.
+The dense structure of the horn is well adapted for the purpose,
+and its beautiful amber hue makes the vessel a very agreeable
+object to the eye. The usual form is of a boat shape on a square
+foot, and the carved decoration is often copied from that of the
+bronze vessels of the earlier dynasties. Others are treated in a
+freer and more naturalistic manner, the bowl being formed as
+the flower of the magnolia, and the entire horn, at times more
+than 2 ft. in length, is utilized in carrying out the design. One
+of this kind is in the Victoria and Albert Museum. Cups of
+the former type are commonly found imitated in ivory-white
+porcelain, and are known as &ldquo;libation cups.&rdquo; Rhinoceros horn
+is held by the Chinese to be an antidote against poison, a belief
+shared by other nations.</p>
+
+<p>There is but little to be said about the vessels used in the
+drinking of tea and coffee. In Europe the type has practically
+remained unchanged since the introduction of tea and coffee
+drinking, except that in the 18th century the tea-cups imported
+from China had no handles, and were generally thinner than the
+<span class="sidenote">Tea and coffee cups.</span>
+coffee cups. In Japan there is a ceremonious way of drinking
+tea, known as <i>Cha no yu</i>. Here powdered green tea is used;
+the party assembles in a small pavilion in a garden,
+and the tea is made in accordance with a rigid etiquette.
+The infusion is stirred with a whisk in a rudely
+fashioned bowl, holding about a pint, and passed from
+one guest to another. The bowls are of very thick pottery,
+never of porcelain, and the most valued kind is that made in
+Korea. In the drinking of rice spirit (saké) in Japan small wide
+shallow cups are used, made generally of porcelain, but sometimes
+of finely lacquered wood. Both kinds are usually ornamented
+with elaborate and sometimes allusive designs.</p>
+
+<p>Among savage races the most peculiar drinking ceremony is
+that of kava drinking in Polynesia, principally in the Fijian,
+Tongan and Samoan groups. The best description
+of the process is given in Mariner&rsquo;s <i>Tonga</i>. The
+<span class="sidenote">Savage utensils.</span>
+principal vessel is usually a large bowl, sometimes
+measuring 2 or 3 ft. in diameter, cut from a solid block of wood.
+It has four short legs and an ear at one side to which a rope of
+coco-nut fibre is generally attached. The liquid is prepared in
+this bowl and ladled out in small cups often made of coco-nut
+shells, and these are handed round with great ceremony. Both
+the bowl and the cups become coated in the inside with a highly
+polished layer, pale blue in colour; but this beautiful tint fades
+when the vessel is out of use, and it is therefore very rarely seen
+in specimens in Europe. The kava itself is prepared from the
+root of a tree of the pepper family (<i>Piper methysticum</i>); the
+root is cut into pieces of a convenient size, and these are given
+to young men and women of the company, who masticate them,
+and the lumps thus shredded are placed in the large bowl, water
+is poured over them, and the mass is strained with great care by
+wringing it in strips of the inner bark of the <i>hibiscus</i>. The liquor
+is slightly intoxicating.</p>
+
+<p>If the Polynesian method of preparing kava as a drink is
+distasteful to our ideas, the favourite drinking bowl of the old
+Tibetans is even more so. Friar Odoric (14th century), quoted
+by Yule, describes how the Tibetan youth &ldquo;takes his father&rsquo;s
+head and straightway cooks and eats it, and of the skull he makes
+a goblet from which he and all his family always drink devoutly
+to the memory of the deceased father.&rdquo; This recalls Livy&rsquo;s
+account of the Boii in Upper Italy, who made a drinking vessel
+of the head of the Roman consul Postumus. Among the
+Tibetans skulls are still used, but generally for libations only;
+for this purpose great care is exercised in the selection of the
+skull, and the &ldquo;points&rdquo; of a good skull are well understood by
+the Lamas.</p>
+<div class="author">(C. H. Rd.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The verb &ldquo;to drink&rdquo; is Common Teut.; cf. Ger. <i>trinken</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2c" id="ft2c" href="#fa2c"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Plate</a></span>, Plate I.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3c" id="ft3c" href="#fa3c"><span class="fn">3</span></a> See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Plate</a></span>, Plate I.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4c" id="ft4c" href="#fa4c"><span class="fn">4</span></a> For two illustrations see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Plate</a></span>, Plate II.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DRIPSTONE,<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> in architecture, a projecting moulding weathered
+on the upper surface and throated underneath so as to form a
+drip. The term is more correctly applied to a string course.
+When carried round an arch its more correct description would
+be a hood (<i>q.v.</i>). When employed inside a building it serves
+a decorative purpose only.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DRISLER, HENRY<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> (1818-1897), American classical scholar,
+was born on the 27th of December 1818, on Staten Island, New
+York. He graduated at Columbia College in 1839, taught classics
+in the Columbia grammar school for four years, and was then
+appointed tutor in classics in the college. In 1845 he became
+adjunct professor of Latin and Greek there, in 1857 was appointed
+to the new separate chair of Latin language and literature, and
+ten years later succeeded Dr Charles Anthon as Jay professor
+of Greek language and literature. He was acting president in
+1867 and in 1888-1889, and from 1890 to his retirement as
+professor emeritus in 1894 was dean of the school of arts. He
+died in New York City on the 30th of November 1897. Dr
+Drisler completed and supplemented Dr Anthon&rsquo;s labours as
+an editor of classical texts. His criticisms and corrections of
+Liddell and Scott&rsquo;s <i>Greek-English Lexicon</i>, of which he brought
+out a revised American edition in 1846, won his name a place on
+the title-page of the British edition in 1879, and in 1870 he
+published a revised and enlarged edition of Yonge&rsquo;s <i>English-Greek
+Lexicon</i>. He was ardently opposed to slavery, and
+brilliantly refuted <i>The Bible View of Slavery</i>, written by Bishop
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page585" id="page585"></a>585</span>
+J. H. Hopkins of Vermont, in a <i>Reply</i> (1863), which meets the
+bishop on purely Biblical ground and displays the wide range of
+Dr Drisler&rsquo;s scholarship.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DRIVER, SAMUEL ROLLES<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (1846-&emsp;&emsp;), English divine
+and Hebrew scholar, was born at Southampton on the 2nd of
+October 1846. He was educated at Winchester and New College,
+Oxford, where he had a distinguished career, taking a first class
+in Literae Humaniores in 1869. He was awarded the Pusey and
+Ellerton scholarship in 1866, the Kennicott scholarship in 1870
+(both Hebrew), and the Houghton Syriac prize in 1872. From
+1870 he was a fellow, and from 1875 also a tutor, of New College,
+and in 1883 succeeded Pusey as regius professor of Hebrew and
+canon of Christ Church. He was a member of the Old Testament
+Revision Committee (1876-1884) and examining chaplain to the
+bishop of Southwell (1884-1904); received the honorary degrees
+of doctor of literature of Dublin (1892), doctor of divinity of
+Glasgow (1901), doctor of literature of Cambridge (1905); and
+was elected a fellow of the British Academy in 1902. Dr Driver
+devoted his life to the study, both textual and critical, of the
+Old Testament. Among his numerous works are commentaries
+on Joel and Amos (1897); Deuteronomy (1902); Daniel (1901);
+Genesis (1909); the Minor Prophets, Nahum to Malachi (1905);
+Job (1905); Jeremiah (1906); Leviticus (1894 Hebrew text,
+1898 trans. and notes); Samuel (Hebrew text, 1890). Among
+his more general works are: <i>Treatise on the Use of the Tenses in
+Hebrew</i> (1892); <i>Isaiah, his Life and Times</i> (1893); <i>Introd. to
+the Literature of the Old Test.</i> (1897, ed. 1909); <i>Sermons on Subjects
+connected with the Old Testament</i> (1892); <i>The Parallel Psalter</i>
+(1904); <i>Heb. and Eng. Lexicon of the O.T.</i> (in collaboration,
+1906); <i>Modern Research as illustrating the Bible</i> (1909); articles
+in the <i>Ency. Brit.</i>, <i>Ency. Bibl.</i> and Hastings&rsquo; <i>Dict. of the Bible</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DRIVING<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> (from &ldquo;to drive,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> generally to propel, force
+along or in, a word common in various forms to the Teutonic
+languages), a word used in a restricted sense for the art of controlling
+and directing draught animals from a coach or other
+conveyance or movable machine to which they are harnessed
+for the purpose of traction. This has been an occupation practised
+since domesticated animals were first put to this use. In
+various parts of the world a number of different animals have
+been, and still are, so employed; of these the horse, ox, mule
+and ass are the most common, though their place is taken by
+the reindeer in northern latitudes, and by the Eskimo dog in
+arctic and antarctic regions. The driving of each of these
+requires special skill, only to be acquired by practice combined
+with knowledge of the characteristics peculiar to the several
+animals employed. The most accomplished driver of spirited
+horses would probably be in difficulties if called upon to drive
+sixteen or twenty dogs in an arctic sledge, or a team of oxen
+or mules drawing the guns of a mountain battery; and the adept
+in either of these branches of the art might provoke the compassion
+of a farmer from Lincolnshire or Texas by his attempts
+to manage a pair of Clydesdale horses in the plough or the
+reaping machine.</p>
+
+<p>Under all these different conditions driving is a work of
+utility, of economic value to civilized society. But from very
+early times driving, especially of horses, has also been regarded
+as a sport or pastime. This probably arose in the first instance
+from its association with battle. In the earliest historical
+records, such as the Old Testament and the Homeric poems,
+the driver of the chariot fills a place of importance in the economy
+of war; and on his skill and efficiency the fate of kings, and even
+of kingdoms, must often have depended. The statement in the
+Book of Kings that Jehu the son of Nimshi was recognized from
+a distance by his style of driving appears to indicate that the
+warrior himself on occasion took the place of the professional
+charioteer; and although it would be unsafe to infer from the
+story that the pleasure derived from the occupation was his
+motive for doing so, the name of this king of Israel has become
+the eponym of drivers. Among the Greeks at an equally early
+period driving was a recognized form of sport, to the popularity
+of which Horace afterwards made allusion. Racing between
+teams of horses harnessed to war-chariots took the place occupied
+by saddle-horse racing and American trotting races (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Horse-Racing</a></span>)
+in the sport of modern times. The element of danger
+doubtless gave pleasurable excitement to chariot racing and
+kept alive its association with incidents familiar in war; just
+as at a later period, when the institution of chivalry had given
+the armed knight on horseback a conspicuous place in medieval
+warfare, the tournament became the most popular sport of the
+aristocracy throughout Europe.</p>
+
+<p>This element of danger cannot be said to enter usually into
+the enjoyment of driving at the present day. Though accidents
+occasionally happen, the pastime is practically unattended by
+serious risk; and the source of the pleasure it affords the driver
+must be sought in the skill it requires, combined with the love
+of the horse which is common to sportsmen, and of exercise of
+power. The art of driving as practised to-day for pleasure
+without profit, and without the excitement of racing, is of quite
+modern development. Oliver Cromwell, indeed, met with a
+mishap in Hyde Park while driving a team of four horses presented
+to him by the count of Oldenburg, which was the subject
+of more than one satirical allusion by contemporary royalist
+writers; but two things were needed before much enjoyment
+could be found in driving apart from utility. These were the
+invention of carriages on springs, and the construction of roads
+with smooth and solid surface. The former did not come into
+general use till near the end of the 18th century, and it was
+about the same period that the engineering skill of Thomas
+Telford and the invention of John London Macadam combined
+to provide the latter. The influence on driving of these two
+developments was soon apparent. Throughout the 18th century
+stage-coaches, ponderous unwieldy vehicles without springs,
+had toiled slowly over rough and deeply rutted tracks as a
+means of communication between different parts of Great
+Britain; but those who made use of them did so as a matter
+of necessity and not for enjoyment. But by the beginning
+of the 19th century the improvement in carriage-building
+and road-construction alike had greatly diminished the discomfort
+of travel; and interest in driving for its own sake grew
+so rapidly that in 1807 the first association of amateur coachmen
+was formed. This was the Bensington Driving Club, the forerunner
+of many aristocratic clubs for gentlemen interested in
+driving as a pastime.</p>
+
+<p>In modern driving one, two or four horses are usually employed.
+When a greater number than four is put in harness, as
+in the case of the state equipages of royal personages on occasions
+of ceremony, the horses are not driven but are controlled by
+&ldquo;postillions&rdquo; mounted on the near-side horse of each pair.
+When two horses are used they may either be placed side by
+side, in &ldquo;double harness,&rdquo; which is the commoner mode of driving
+a pair of horses, or one following the other, in a &ldquo;tandem.&rdquo;
+Four horses, or &ldquo;four-in-hand,&rdquo; are harnessed in two pairs,
+one following the other, and called respectively the &ldquo;leaders&rdquo;
+and the &ldquo;wheelers&rdquo;&mdash;the same terms being used for the two
+horses of a tandem.</p>
+
+<p>Though it is a less difficult accomplishment to drive a single
+horse than a tandem or four-in-hand, or even a pair, it nevertheless
+requires both knowledge and the skill that practice alone
+confers. The driver should have some knowledge of equine
+character, and complete familiarity with every part of the
+harness he uses, and with the purpose which each buckle or
+strap is intended to serve. The indefinable quality known
+in horsemanship as &ldquo;good hands&rdquo; is scarcely less desirable
+on the box-seat than in the saddle. It is often said to be unattainable
+by those who do not possess it by nature; but though
+this may be true to some extent, &ldquo;good hands&rdquo; are partly at
+least the result of learning the correct position for the arm and
+hand that holds the reins. The reins are held in the left hand,
+which should be kept at about the level of the lowest button
+of the driver&rsquo;s waistcoat, and near the body though not pressed
+against it. The driving hand should never be reached forward
+more than a few inches, nor raised as high as the breast. The
+upper arm should lie loosely against the side, the forearm horizontal
+across the front of the body, forming a right angle or
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page586" id="page586"></a>586</span>
+thereabouts at the elbow-joint, the wrist very slightly bent inwards,
+and the back of the hand and knuckles facing outwards
+towards the horses. In this position the three joints of the arm
+form a kind of automatic spring that secures the &ldquo;give&rdquo; to the
+movement of the horse&rsquo;s mouth which, in conjunction with
+firmness, is a large part of what is meant by &ldquo;good hands.&rdquo;
+But this result is only obtained if the reins be also held with
+the proper degree of bearing on the bit. What the proper degree
+may be depends greatly on the character of the horses and the
+severity of the bit. Pulling horses must be restrained by a
+strong draw on their bits, such as would bring other animals
+to a standstill. But under no circumstances, no matter how
+sluggish the horses may be, should the reins be allowed to lie
+slack; for if this is done the horse receives no support in the
+event of a sudden stumble, and no control if he shies unexpectedly.
+The driver should therefore always just &ldquo;feel his
+horse&rsquo;s mouth&rdquo; as lightly as possible; he then has the animal
+well under control in readiness for every emergency, while
+avoiding such a pull on the mouth as would cause a high-spirited
+horse to chafe and fret. Well-broken carriage horses should
+always be willing to run into their bits, and those that draw
+back when lightly held in hand should be kept up to the bit
+with the whip.</p>
+
+<p>These principles are common to all branches of the art of
+driving, whether of one, two or four horses. When they are
+observed no great difficulty confronts the coachman who is
+content with single or double harness, provided he has acquired
+the eye for pace and distance, and the instinctive realization
+of the length of the carriage behind him, without which he may
+suffer collision with other vehicles, or allow insufficient room in
+turning a corner or entering a gateway. For before he can have
+had the practice by which alone this knowledge is to be gained,
+the beginner will have learnt such elementary facts as that his
+horses must be held well in hand going down hill and given
+their heads on an ascent, and that on no account should the
+horse&rsquo;s mouth be &ldquo;jobbed&rdquo; by the driver jerking the reins;
+he will also have learnt a good deal about the character and
+temperament of the horse, on which so much of the art of driving
+depends, and which can best be studied on the box-seat and
+not at all in the library. If he has pursued this study with any
+degree of insight, he will have learnt further to be sparing in
+the use of the hand-brake with which most modern carriages are
+provided. This apparatus is most useful in case of emergency,
+or for taking weight off the carriage on a really steep descent;
+but the habit which too many coachmen fall into of using the
+brake on every trifling decline should be avoided. Its effect
+is that the horses are continually doing collar-work, and are
+thus deprived of the relief which ought to be given them by
+occasional light pole or shaft work instead.</p>
+
+<p>When the ambition of the amateur coachman leads him to
+attempt a tandem or four-in-hand he enters on a much more
+complex department of the art of driving. In the
+first place he has now four reins instead of two to
+<span class="sidenote">Tandem and four-in-hand.</span>
+manipulate, and the increase of weight on his hand,
+especially when four horses are being driven, requires
+considerable strength of wrist to support it without tiring. It is
+of the first importance, moreover, that he should know instinctively
+the position in his hand of each of the reins, and be able
+automatically and instantaneously to lay a finger on any one of
+them. The driver who has to look at his reins to find the off-side
+leader&rsquo;s rein, or who touches the near-side wheeler&rsquo;s in mistake
+for it, is in peril of a catastrophe. It is therefore essential that
+the reins should be correctly disposed between the fingers of
+the left hand, and that the driver should as quickly as possible
+accustom himself to handle them automatically. This is somewhat
+more difficult in driving tandem than in driving four-in-hand,
+because in the latter case there is greater spread of the
+reins in front of the hand than with tandem, where the reins lie
+much more nearly parallel one above the other. The actual
+holding of the reins is the same in both cases. The coachman
+should be careful to take the reins in his hand before mounting
+to the box-seat, as otherwise his team may make a start without
+his having the means to control them. It is customary to hitch
+the reins, ready for him to take them, on the outside terret (the
+ring on the pad through which the rein runs) of the wheeler&mdash;the
+off-side wheeler in four-in-hand. Standing on the ground
+beside the off-side wheel of his carriage, ready to mount to the
+box-seat, the coachman, after drawing up his reins till he almost
+feels the horses&rsquo; mouths, must then let out about a foot of slack
+in his off-side reins, in order that when on his seat he may find
+all the reins as nearly as possible equal in length in his hand.
+He mounts with them disposed in his right hand precisely as they
+will be in his left when ready to start. The leaders&rsquo; reins should
+be separated by the forefinger, and the wheelers&rsquo; by the middle
+finger. The near-leader&rsquo;s rein will then be uppermost of the
+four, between the forefinger and thumb; then between the
+forefinger and middle finger are two reins together&mdash;the off-leader&rsquo;s
+and the near-wheeler&rsquo;s in the order named; while at
+the bottom, between the middle and third fingers, is the off-wheeler&rsquo;s
+rein. It will be found that held thus the reins spread
+immediately in front of the hand in such a way that each several
+rein, and each pair of reins&mdash;two near-side, two off-side, two
+wheelers&rsquo; or two leaders&rsquo;&mdash;can be conveniently manipulated;
+and the proficient driver can instinctively and instantaneously
+grasp any of them he chooses with his right hand without having
+to turn his eyes from the road before him to the reins in his hand.
+Having seated himself on the box and transferred the reins, thus
+disposed, from the right to the left hand, the coachman should
+shorten them till he just feels his wheelers&rsquo; mouths and holds
+back his leaders sufficiently to prevent them quite tightening
+their traces; then, when he has taken the whip from its socket
+in his right hand, he is ready to start. This is an operation
+requiring careful management, to secure that leaders and
+wheelers start simultaneously; for if the leaders start first they
+will be drawn up sharp by their bits, or, what is worse, if their
+reins have not been sufficiently shortened they will jump into
+their collars and possibly break a swinging bar, and in either case
+they will be fretted and disconcerted and will possibly in consequence
+either kick or rear; if the wheelers start before the
+leaders they will ram the swinging bars under the tails of the
+latter, with results equally unfortunate. The worst possible
+method of starting is suddenly to give the horses their heads and
+use the whip. But no positive rule can be laid down, for it is
+just one of those points which depend largely on familiarity
+with the horses forming the team. Horses even moderately
+accustomed to the work will generally start best in obedience
+to the voice, and their attention may simultaneously be aroused
+by gently feeling their mouths. When once started the driver
+should at once see that his team is going straight. If the leaders
+and wheelers are not exactly on the same line, this or that rein
+must be shortened or lengthened as the case may require; and
+it is to be noticed that as the near-wheeler&rsquo;s and off-leader&rsquo;s
+reins lie together between the same fingers, a simultaneous
+shortening or lengthening of these two reins will usually produce
+the desired result. With rare exceptions, reins should be
+shortened or lengthened by pushing them back or drawing them
+forward with the right hand from in front of the driving hand,
+and not from behind it. As soon as the team is in motion the
+leaders may be let out till they draw their traces taut; but
+draught should be taken off them on falling ground or while
+rounding a corner. Good drivers touch the reins as little as
+possible with the whip-hand, and nothing is less workmanlike
+than for a coachman to act as if he were an angler continually
+letting out or reeling in his line. In rounding a corner a loop of
+an inch or two of the leaders&rsquo; rein on the side to which the turn
+is to be made is taken up by the right hand and placed under
+the left thumb. This &ldquo;points the leaders,&rdquo; who accordingly
+make the required turn, while at the same time the right hand
+bears lightly on the wheelers&rsquo; rein of the opposite side, to prevent
+them making the turn too sharply for safety to the coach behind
+them. As soon as the turn is made&mdash;and all this applies equally
+to the passing of other vehicles or obstacles on the road&mdash;the
+driver&rsquo;s left thumb releases the loop, which runs out of itself,
+and the team returns to the straight formation. A circumstance
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page587" id="page587"></a>587</span>
+useful to bear in mind is that the swinging bars are wider than
+the maximum width of the coach; consequently the driver
+knows that wherever the swinging bars can pass through with
+safety&mdash;and as they are before his eyes the calculation is easy&mdash;the
+coach will safely follow.</p>
+
+<p>A necessary part of driving four horses or tandem is the proper
+use of the whip. The novice, before beginning to drive, should
+acquire the knack&mdash;which can only be learnt by
+practical instruction and experiment&mdash;of catching
+<span class="sidenote">The use of the whip.</span>
+up the thong of the whip on to the stick by a flick
+of the wrist. With practice this is done almost automatically
+and without looking at the whip. It is not merely an ornamental
+accomplishment, but a necessary one; for in no other way can
+the whip be kept in constant readiness for use either on wheelers
+or leaders as the need of the moment may dictate. The point
+of the thong is confined in the whip-hand when striking the
+wheelers (which should be done in front of the pad), and is
+released for reaching the leaders. Considerable dexterity is
+required in using the whip on the leaders without at the same
+time touching, or at all events alarming or fretting, the wheelers.
+The thong of the whip should reach the leaders from beneath
+the swinging bar; and proficient &ldquo;whips&rdquo; can unerringly strike
+even the near leader from under the off-side bar without disturbing
+the equanimity of any other member of the team. This
+demands great skill and accuracy; but no coachman is competent
+to drive four horses until he is able to touch with the whip any
+particular horse that may require it, and no other.</p>
+
+<p>Essential as is proficiency in the use of the whip when driving
+four horses, it is even more imperative for the driver of tandem.
+For in four-in-hand the leaders act in some measure as a restraint
+upon each other&rsquo;s freedom of action, whereas the leader in
+tandem is entirely independent and therefore more difficult to
+control. If he takes it into his head to turn completely round
+and face the driver, there is no effectual means of preventing
+him. It is here that a prompt and accurate use of the whip is
+important. A sharp cut with the thong of the whip on the side
+to which he is turning will often drive the leader back into his
+place. But it must be done instantaneously, and the driver
+who has got his thong coiled round the stick of his whip, or who
+cannot make certain of striking the horse on precisely the
+desired spot, will miss the opportunity and may find his team
+in a sad mess, possibly with disastrous results. If the leader,
+in spite of a stroke from the whip at the right moment and on the
+right spot, still persists in turning, the only thing to be done is
+to turn the wheeler also; and then when the tandem has been
+straightened, to turn the horses back once more to their original
+direction. For this reason it is never safe to harness a tandem
+to a four-wheeled vehicle; because if it should be necessary to
+turn the wheeler sharply round, the fore-carriage would probably
+lock and the trap be overturned. Of comparatively recent years
+a great improvement has been effected in the harnessing of a
+tandem by the introduction of swinging bars similar to those
+used in four-in-hand. Formerly the leading traces in tandem
+drew direct from tugs on the wheeler&rsquo;s hames, or less frequently
+from the stops on the shafts. This left a considerable length
+of trace which, when draught was taken off the leader, hung
+slack between the two horses; with the result that either of
+them might get a leg over the leading trace, with dangerous
+consequences. In the more modern arrangement short traces
+attached to the wheeler&rsquo;s tugs hold a bar, which is kept in place
+by a few inches of chain from the kidney-link on the wheeler&rsquo;s
+collar. This bar is connected by short traces or chains with
+a second bar to which the leader&rsquo;s true traces are hooked in the
+usual way, allowing him a comfortable distance clear of the bar
+precisely as in four-in-hand. The leader thus draws as before
+from the wheeler&rsquo;s tugs; but the length of trace is broken up
+by the two swinging bars, and as these are prevented from
+falling low by their attachment to the wheeler&rsquo;s collar, the
+danger from a too slack leading trace is reduced to a minimum;
+though care is needed when the leader is not pulling to prevent
+the bar falling on his hocks.</p>
+
+<p>Expert tandem driving, owing to the greater freedom of the
+leader from control, is a more difficult art than the driving of
+four horses, in spite of the fact that the weight on the hand is
+much less severe; but the general principles of the two are the
+same. In Great Britain, however, the coach-and-four is the more
+popular. It is more showy than tandem; it keeps alive the
+romantic associations of the days when the stagecoach was the
+ordinary means of locomotion; and a coach, or &ldquo;drag,&rdquo; accommodates
+a larger party of passengers to a race-meeting or other
+expedition for pleasure than a dogcart. But for those whose
+means do not permit the more costly luxury of a four-horse
+team, a tandem will be found to make all the demand on skill
+and nerve which, in combination with the taste for horses,
+makes the art of driving a source of enjoyment.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Donald Walker, <i>British Manly Exercises: in which Riding,
+Driving, Racing are now first described</i> (London, 1834); Fuller, <i>Essay
+on Wheel Carriages</i> (London, 1828); William Bridges Adams,
+<i>English Pleasure Carriages: their Origin, History, Materials, Construction</i>
+(London, 1837); <i>The Equestrian: A Handbook of Horsemanship,
+containing Plain Rules for Riding, Driving and the Management
+of the Horse</i> (London, 1854); a Cavalry Officer, <i>The Handy Horse
+Book; or Practical Instruction in Driving and the Management of the
+Horse</i> (London, 1865-1867, 1871-1881); H. J. Helm, <i>American
+Roadsters and Trotting Horses</i> (Chicago, 1878); E. M. Stratton,
+<i>The World on Wheels</i> (New York, 1878); J. H. Walsh (&ldquo;Stonehenge&rdquo;),
+<i>Riding and Driving</i> (London, 1863); James A. Garland,
+<i>The Private Stable</i> (2nd ed., Boston, 1902); the Duke of Beaufort,
+<i>Driving</i> (The Badminton Library, London, 1889), containing a
+bibliography; F. H. Huth, <i>Works on Horses and Equitation: A
+Bibliographical Record of Hippology</i> (London, 1887).</p>
+</div><div class="author">(R. J. M.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DROGHEDA<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span>, a municipal borough, seaport and market town,
+on the southern border of Co. Louth, Ireland, in the south
+parliamentary division, on the river Boyne, about 4 m. from its
+mouth in Drogheda Bay, and 31½ m. N. by W. from Dublin on
+the Great Northern main line. Pop. (1901) 12,760. It occupies
+both banks of the river; but the northern division is the larger
+of the two, and has received greater attention in modern times.
+The ancient fortifications, still extant in the beginning of the
+19th century, have disappeared almost entirely, but of the four
+gateways one named after St Lawrence remains nearly perfect,
+consisting of two loopholed circular towers; and there are
+considerable ruins of another, the West or Butler Gate. Among
+the public buildings are a mansion-house or mayoralty, with a
+suite of assembly rooms attached; and the Tholsel, a square
+building with a cupola. St Peter&rsquo;s chapel formerly served as
+the cathedral of the Roman Catholic archbishopric of Armagh;
+and in the abbey of the Dominican nuns there is still preserved
+the head of Oliver Plunkett, the archbishop who was executed
+at Tyburn in 1681 on an unfounded charge of treason. There
+was formerly an archiepiscopal palace in the town, built by
+Archbishop Hampton about 1620; and the Dominicans, the
+Franciscans, the Augustinians, the Carmelites and the knights
+of St John have monastic establishments. Of the Dominican
+monastery (1224) there still exists the stately Magdalen tower;
+while of the Augustinian abbey of St Mary d&rsquo;Urso (1206) there
+are the tower and a fine pointed arch. At the head of the educational
+institutions there is a classical school endowed by Erasmus
+Smith. There is also a blue-coat school, founded about 1727
+for the education of freemen&rsquo;s sons. The present building was
+erected in 1870. Benjamin Whitworth, M.P., was a generous
+benefactor to the town, who built the Whitworth Hall, furnished
+half the funds for the construction of waterworks, established
+a cotton factory, and is commemorated by a statue in the Mall.
+The industrial establishments comprise cotton, flax and flour
+mills, sawmills, tanneries, salt and soap works, breweries,
+chemical manure and engineering works. The town is the
+headquarters of the valuable Boyne salmon-fishery. A brisk
+trade is carried on mainly in agricultural produce, especially
+with Liverpool (which is distant 135 m. due E.) and with Glasgow.
+Many works of improvement have been effected from time to
+time in the harbour, the quays of which occupy both sides of the
+river, the principal, 1000 yds. in length, being on the north side.
+Here is a depth of 21 ft. at the highest and 14 ft. at the lowest
+tides. The tide reaches 2½ m. above the town to Oldbridge;
+and barges of 50 tons burden can proceed 19 m. inland to Navan.
+The river is crossed by a bridge for ordinary traffic, and by a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page588" id="page588"></a>588</span>
+fine railway viaduct. The town is governed by a mayor, 6
+aldermen and 18 councillors.</p>
+
+<p>In the earliest notices the town of Drogheda is called Inver-Colpa
+or the Port of Colpa; the present name signifies &ldquo;The
+Bridge over the Ford.&rdquo; In 1152 the place is mentioned as the
+seat of a synod convened by the papal legate, Cardinal Paparo;
+in 1224 it was chosen by Lucas de Netterville, archbishop of
+Armagh, for the foundation of the Dominican friary of which
+there are still remains; and in 1228 the two divisions of the
+town received separate incorporation from Henry III. But
+there grew up a strong feeling of hostility between Drogheda
+<i>versus Uriel</i> and Drogheda <i>versus Midiam</i>, in consequence of
+trading vessels lading their cargoes in the latter or southern
+town, to avoid the pontage duty levied in the former or northern
+town. At length, after much blood had been shed in the dispute,
+Philip Bennett, a monk residing in the town, succeeded by his
+eloquence, on the festival of Corpus Christi, 1412, in persuading
+the authorities of the two corporations to send to Henry IV.
+for a new charter sanctioning their combination, and this was
+granted on the 1st of November. Drogheda was always considered
+by the English a place of much importance. In the reign
+of Edward III. it was classed along with Dublin, Waterford and
+Kilkenny as one of the four staple towns of Ireland. Richard II.
+received in its Dominican monastery the submissions of O&rsquo;Neal,
+O&rsquo;Donnell and other chieftains of Ulster and Leinster. The
+right of coining money was bestowed on the town, and parliaments
+were several times held within its walls. In the reign
+of Edward IV. the mayor received a sword of state and an
+annuity of £20, in recognition of the services rendered by the
+inhabitants at Malpus Bridge against O&rsquo;Reilly; the still greater
+honour of having a university with the same privileges as that
+of Oxford remained a mere paper distinction, owing to the
+poverty of the town and the unsettled state of the country;
+and an attempt made by the corporation in modern times to
+resuscitate their rights proved unsuccessful. In 1495 Poyning&rsquo;s
+laws were enacted by a parliament held in the town. In the
+civil wars of 1641 the place was besieged by O&rsquo;Neal and the
+Northern Irish forces; but it was gallantly defended by Sir
+Henry Tichbourne, and after a long blockade was relieved by
+the Marquess of Ormond. The same nobleman relieved it a
+second time, when it was invested by the Parliamentary army
+under Colonel Jones. In 1649 it was captured by Cromwell,
+after a short though spirited defence; and nearly every individual
+within its walls, without distinction of age or sex, was put to
+the sword. Thirty only escaped, who were afterwards transported
+as slaves to Barbados. In 1690 it was garrisoned by
+King James&rsquo;s army; but after the decisive battle of the Boyne
+(<i>q.v.</i>) it surrendered to the conqueror without a struggle, in
+consequence of a threat that quarter would not be granted if
+the town were taken by storm.</p>
+
+<p>Drogheda ceased to be a parliamentary borough in 1885,
+and a county of a town in 1898. Before 1885 it returned one
+member, and before the Union in 1800 it returned four members
+to the Irish parliament.</p>
+
+<p>From the close of the 12th century, certainly long before the
+Reformation and for some time after it, the primates of Ireland
+lived in Drogheda. Being mostly Englishmen, they preferred
+to reside in the portion of their diocese within the gate, and
+Drogheda, being a walled town, was less liable to attack from
+the natives. From 1417 onwards Drogheda was their chief
+place of residence and of burial. Its proximity to Dublin, the
+seat of government and of the Irish parliament, in which the
+primates were such prominent figures, induced them to prefer
+it to <i>Ardmacha inter Hibernicos</i>. Archbishop O&rsquo;Scanlain, who
+did much in the building of the cathedral at Armagh, preferred
+to live at Drogheda, and there he was buried in 1270. Near
+Drogheda in later times was the primates&rsquo; castle and summer
+palace at Termonfeckin, some ruins of which remain. In
+Drogheda itself there is now not a vestige of the palace, except
+the name &ldquo;Palace Street.&rdquo; It stood at the corner of the main
+street near St Lawrence&rsquo;s gate, and its grounds extended back
+to St Peter&rsquo;s church. The primates of the 15th century were
+buried in or near Drogheda. After the Reformation five in
+succession lived in Drogheda and there were buried, though
+there is now nothing to fix the spot where any of them lies. The
+last of these&mdash;Christopher Hampton&mdash;who was consecrated to
+the primacy in 1613, repaired the ruined cathedral of Armagh.
+He built a new and handsome palace at Drogheda, and he
+repaired the old disused palace at Armagh and bestowed on it a
+demesne of 300 acres.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DROIT<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (Fr. for &ldquo;right,&rdquo; from Lat. <i>directus</i>, straight), a legal
+title, claim or due; a term used in English law in the phrase
+<i>droits of admiralty</i>, certain customary rights or perquisites
+formerly belonging to the lord high admiral, but now to the crown
+for public purposes and paid into the exchequer. These <i>droits</i>
+(see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wreck</a></span>) consisted of flotsam, jetsam, ligan, treasure,
+deodand, derelict, within the admiral&rsquo;s jurisdiction; all fines,
+forfeitures, ransoms, recognizances and pecuniary punishments;
+all sturgeons, whales, porpoises, dolphins, grampuses and such
+large fishes; all ships and goods of the enemy coming into any
+creek, road or port, by durance or mistake; all ships seized
+at sea, salvage, &amp;c., with the share of prizes&mdash;such shares being
+afterwards called &ldquo;tenths,&rdquo; in imitation of the French, who
+gave their admiral a <i>droit de dixième</i>. The <i>droits of admiralty</i>
+were definitely surrendered for the benefit of the public by Prince
+George of Denmark, when lord high admiral of England in 1702.
+American law does not recognize any such <i>droits</i>, and the disposition
+of captured property is regulated by various acts of
+Congress.</p>
+
+<p>The term <i>droit</i> is also used in various legal connexions (for
+<i>French law</i>, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">France</a></span>: <i>Law</i>), such as the <i>droit</i> of angary (<i>q.v.</i>),
+the <i>droit d&rsquo;achat</i> (right of pre-emption) in the case of contraband
+(<i>q.v.</i>), the feudal <i>droit de bris</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wreck</a></span>), the <i>droit de régale</i> or
+ancient royal privilege of claiming the revenues and patronage
+of a vacant bishopric, and the feudal droits of seignory generally.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DROITWICH,<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> a market town and municipal borough in the
+Droitwich parliamentary division of Worcestershire, England,
+5½ m. N.N.E. of Worcester, and 126 m. N.W. by W. from London
+by the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 4201. It is served
+by the Bristol-Birmingham line of the Midland railway, and by
+the Worcester-Shrewsbury line of the Great Western. It stands
+on the river Salwarpe, an eastern tributary of the Severn. There
+is connexion with the Severn by canal. There are three parish
+churches, St Andrew, St Peter and St Michael, of which the two
+first are fine old buildings in mixed styles, while St Michael&rsquo;s
+is modern. The principal occupation is the manufacture of the
+salt obtained from the brine springs or <i>wyches</i>, to which the
+town probably owes both its name and its origin. The springs
+also give Droitwich a considerable reputation as a health resort.
+There are Royal Brine baths, supplied with water of extreme
+saltness, St Andrew&rsquo;s baths, and a private bath hospital. The
+water is used in cases of gout, rheumatism and kindred diseases.
+Owing to the pumping of the brine for the salt-works there is a
+continual subsidence of the ground, detrimental to the buildings,
+and new houses are mostly built in the suburbs. In the pleasant
+well-wooded district surrounding Droitwich the most noteworthy
+points are Hindlip Hall, 3 m. S., where (in a former mansion)
+some of the conspirators in the Gunpowder Plot defied search
+for eight days (1605); and Westwood, a fine hall of Elizabethan
+and Carolean date on the site of a Benedictine nunnery, a mile
+west of Droitwich, which offered a retreat to many Royalist
+cavaliers and churchmen during the Commonwealth. Droitwich
+is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area,
+1856 acres.</p>
+
+<p>A Roman villa, with various relics, has been discovered here,
+but it is doubtful how far the Romans made use of the brine
+springs. Droitwich (<i>Wic</i>, <i>Salturic</i>, <i>Wich</i>) probably owed its
+origin to the springs, which are mentioned in several charters
+before the Conquest. At the time of the Domesday Survey all
+the salt springs belonged to the king, who received from them a
+yearly farm of £65, but the manor was divided between several
+churches and tenants-in-chief. The burgesses of Droitwich are
+mentioned in the Domesday Survey, but they probably only
+had certain franchises in connexion with the salt trade. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page589" id="page589"></a>589</span>
+town is first called a borough in the pipe roll of 2 Henry II.,
+when an aid of 20s. was paid, but the burgesses did not receive
+their first charter until 1215, when King John granted them
+freedom from toll throughout the kingdom and the privilege of
+holding the town at a fee-farm of £100. The burgesses appear
+to have had much difficulty in paying this large farm; in 1227
+the king pardoned twenty-eight marks of the thirty-two due as
+tallage, while in 1237 they were £23 in arrears for the farm.
+They continued, however, to pay the farm until the payment
+gradually lapsed in the 18th century. In medieval times
+Droitwich was governed by two bailiffs and twelve jurats, the
+former being elected every year by the burgesses; Queen Mary
+granted the incorporation charter in 1554 under the name of
+the bailiffs and burgesses. James I. in 1625 granted another
+and fuller charter, which remained the governing charter until
+the Municipal Reform Act. King John&rsquo;s charter granted the
+burgesses a fair on the feast of SS. Andrew and Nicholas lasting
+for eight days, but Edward III. in 1330 granted instead two fairs
+on the vigil and day of St Thomas the Martyr and the vigil and
+day of SS. Simon and Jude. Queen Mary granted three new
+fairs, and James I. changed the market day from Monday
+to Friday.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DRÔME,<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> a department in the south-east of France, formed of
+parts of Dauphiné and Provence, and bounded W. by the Rhone,
+which separates it from Ardèche, N. and N.E. by Isère, E. by
+Hautes-Alpes, S.E. by Basses-Alpes, and S. by Vaucluse;
+area 2533 sq. m.; pop. (1906) 297,270. Drôme is traversed
+from east to west by numerous rivers of the Rhone basin, chief
+among which are the Isère in the north, the Drôme in the centre
+and the Aygues in the south. The left bank of the Rhone is
+bordered by alluvial plains and low hills, but to the east of this
+zone the department is covered to the extent of two-thirds of
+its surface by spurs of the Alps, sloping down towards the west.
+To the north of the Drôme lie the Vercors and the Royans, a
+region of forest-clad ridges running uniformly north and south.
+South of that river the mountain system is broken, irregular and
+intersected everywhere by torrents. The most easterly portion
+of the department, where it touches the mountains of the
+Dévoluy, contains its culminating summit (7890 ft.). North
+of the Isère stretches a district of low hills terminating on the
+limits of the department in the Valloire, its most productive
+portion. The climate, except in the valleys bordering the
+Rhone, is cold, and winds blow incessantly. Snow is visible
+on the mountain-tops during the greater part of the year.</p>
+
+<p>The agriculture of the department is moderately prosperous.
+The main crops are wheat, which is grown chiefly on the banks
+of the Isère and Rhone, oats and potatoes. Large flocks of sheep
+feed on the pastures in the south; cattle-raising is carried on
+principally in the north-east. Good wines, among which the
+famous Hermitage growth ranks first, are grown on the hills and
+plains near the Rhone and Drôme. Fruit culture is much
+practised. Olives and figs are grown in the south; the cultivation
+of mulberries and walnuts is more widely spread. In the
+rearing of silkworms Drôme ranks high in importance among
+French departments. The Montélimar district is noted for its
+truffles, which are also found elsewhere in the department.
+The mineral products of Drôme include lignite, blende, galena,
+calamine, freestone, lime, cement, potter&rsquo;s clay and kaolin.
+Brick and tile works, potteries and porcelain manufactories
+exist in several localities. The industries comprise flour-milling,
+distilling, wood-sawing, turnery and dyeing. The chief textile
+industry is the preparation and weaving of silk, which is carried
+on in a number of towns. Woollen and cotton goods are also
+manufactured. Leather working and boot-making, which are
+carried on on a large scale at Romans, are important, and the
+manufacture of machinery, hats, confectionery and paper
+employs much labour. Drôme exports fruit, oil, cheese, wine,
+wool, live stock and its manufactured articles; the chief import
+is coal. It is served by the Paris-Lyon railway, and the Rhone
+and Isère furnish over 100 m. of navigable waterway. The canal
+de la Bourne, the only one in the department, is used for purposes
+of irrigation only. Drôme is divided into the arrondissements
+of Valence, Die, Montélimar and Nyons, comprising 29 cantons
+and 379 communes. The capital is Valence, which is the seat of
+a bishopric of the province of Avignon. The department forms
+part of the académie (educational division) of Grenoble, where
+its court of appeal is also located, and of the region of the
+XIV. army corps.</p>
+
+<p>Besides Valence, the chief towns of the department are Die,
+Montélimar, Crest and Romans (<i>qq.v.</i>). Nyons is a small industrial
+town with a medieval bridge and remains of ramparts. Suze-la-Rousse
+is dominated by a fine château with fortifications of the
+12th and 14th centuries; in the interior the buildings are in
+the Renaissance style. At St Donat there are remains of the
+palace of the kings of Cisjuran Burgundy; though but little of
+the building is of an earlier date than the 12th century, it is the
+oldest example of civil architecture in France. The churches of
+Léoncel, St Restitut and La Garde-Adhémar, all of Romanesque
+architecture, are also of antiquarian interest. St Paul-Trois-Châteaux,
+an old Roman town, once the seat of a bishopric,
+has a Romanesque cathedral. At Grignan there are remains
+of the Renaissance château where Madame de Sévigné died.
+At Tain there is a sacrificial altar of <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 184.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DROMEDARY<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> (from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="dromas, dromados">&#948;&#961;&#959;&#956;&#940;&#962;, &#948;&#961;&#959;&#956;&#940;&#948;&#959;&#962;</span>, running,
+<span class="grk" title="dramein">&#948;&#961;&#945;&#956;&#949;&#8150;&#957;</span>, to run), a word applied to swift riding camels of either
+the Arabian or the Bactrian species. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Camel</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DROMORE,<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> a market town of Co. Down, Ireland, in the west
+parliamentary division, on the upper Lagan, 17½ m. S.W. of
+Belfast by a branch of the Great Northern railway. Pop. of
+urban district (1901) 2307. It is in the linen manufacturing
+district. The town is of high antiquity, and was the seat of
+a bishopric, which grew out of an abbey of Canons Regular
+attributed to St Colman in the 6th century, and was united in
+1842 to Down and Connor. The town and cathedral were wholly
+destroyed during the insurrection of 1641, and the present church
+was built by Bishop Jeremy Taylor in 1661, who is buried here,
+as also is Thomas Percy, another famous bishop of the diocese,
+who laid out the fine grounds of the palace. Remains of a castle
+and earthworks are to be seen, together with a large rath or
+encampment known as the Great Fort. The town gives its name
+to a Roman Catholic diocese.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DROMOS<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> (Gr. for running-place), in architecture, the name
+of the entrance passage leading down to the beehive tombs in
+Greece, open to the air and enclosed between stone walls.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DRONE,<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> in music<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (corresponding to Fr. <i>bourdon</i>; Ger.
+<i>Summer</i>, <i>Stimmer</i>, <i>Hummel</i>; Ital. <i>bordone</i>), the bass pipe or
+pipes of the bagpipe, having no lateral holes and therefore giving
+out the same note without intermission as long as there is wind
+in the bag, thus forming a continuous pedal, or drone bass.
+The drone consists of a jointed pipe having a cylindrical bore and
+usually terminating in a bell. During the middle ages bagpipes
+are represented in miniatures with conical drones,<a name="fa2d" id="fa2d" href="#ft2d"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and M.
+Praetorius<a name="fa3d" id="fa3d" href="#ft3d"><span class="sp">3</span></a> gives a drawing of a bagpipe, which he calls <i>Grosser
+Bock</i>, having two drones ending in a curved ram&rsquo;s horn. The
+drone pipe has, instead of a mouthpiece, a socket fitted with
+a reed, and inserted into a stock or short pipe immovably fixed
+in an aperture of the bag. The reed is of the kind known as
+beating reed or <i>squeaker</i>, prepared by making a cut in the direction
+of the circumference of the pipe and splitting back the reed from
+the cut towards a joint or knot, thus leaving a flap or tongue
+which vibrates or beats, alternately opening and closing the
+aperture. The sound is produced by the stream of air forced
+from the bag by the pressure of the performer&rsquo;s arm causing the
+reed tongue to vibrate over the aperture, thus setting the whole
+column of air in vibration. Like all cylindrical pipes with reed
+mouthpiece, the drone pipe has the acoustic properties of the
+closed pipe and produces a note of the same pitch as that of an
+open pipe twice its length. The conical drones mentioned above
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page590" id="page590"></a>590</span>
+would, therefore, speak an octave higher than a cylindrical
+drone of the same length. The drones are tuned by means of
+sliding tubes at the joints.</p>
+
+<p>The drones of the old French <i>cornemuse</i> played in concert
+with the <i>hautbois de Poitou</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bagpipe</a></span>), and differing from
+the shepherd&rsquo;s <i>cornemuse</i> or <i>chalémie</i>, formed an exception to
+this method of construction, being furnished with double reeds
+like that of the oboe. The drones of the musette and of the
+union pipes of Ireland are also constructed on an altogether
+different plan. Instead of having long cumbersome pipes,
+pointing over the shoulder, the musette drones consist of a short
+barrel containing lengths of tubing necessary for four or five
+drones, reduced to the most compact form and resembling the
+rackett (<i>q.v.</i>). The narrow bores are pierced longitudinally
+through the thickness of the barrel in parallel channels communicating
+with each other in twos or threes, and so arranged as to
+provide the requisite length for each drone. The reeds are double
+reeds all set in the wooden stock within the bag. By means
+of regulating slides (called in English <i>regulators</i> and in French
+<i>layettes</i>), which may be pushed up and down in longitudinal
+grooves round the circumference of the barrel, the length of
+each drone tube can be so regulated that a simple harmonic
+bass consisting of the common chord is obtainable. In the
+union pipes the drones are separate pipes having keys played
+by the elbow, which correspond to the sliders in the musette
+drone and produce the same kind of harmonic bass. The modern
+Egyptian arghool consists of a kind of clarinet with a drone
+attached to it by means of waxed thread; in this case the
+beating reed of the drone is set in vibration directly by the
+breath of the performer, who takes both mouthpieces into his
+mouth, without the medium of a wind reservoir. Mersenne
+gave very clear descriptions of the construction of cornemuse
+and musette, with clear illustrations of the reeds and stock.<a name="fa4d" id="fa4d" href="#ft4d"><span class="sp">4</span></a>
+There are allusions in the Greek classics which point to the
+existence of a pipe with a drone, either of the arghool or the
+bagpipe type.<a name="fa5d" id="fa5d" href="#ft5d"><span class="sp">5</span></a></p>
+<div class="author">(K. S.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For the &ldquo;drone,&rdquo; the male of the honey bee, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bee</a></span>. The
+musical sense, both for the noise made and for the instrument, comes
+from the buzzing of the bee.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2d" id="ft2d" href="#fa2d"><span class="fn">2</span></a> British Museum, Add. MS. 12,228 (Italian work), <i>Roman du
+Roy Meliadus</i>, 14th century, fol. 221 b., and Add. MS. 18,851, end
+15th century (Spanish work illustrated by Flemish artists), fol. 13.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3d" id="ft3d" href="#fa3d"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Syntagma musicum. Theatrum instrumentorum</i>, pl. xi. No. 6.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4d" id="ft4d" href="#fa4d"><span class="fn">4</span></a> <i>L&rsquo;Harmonie universelle</i> (Paris, 1636-1637), t. ii. bk. 5, pp. 282-287
+and p. 305.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5d" id="ft5d" href="#fa5d"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Plato, <i>Crito</i>, 54; Aristophanes, <i>Acharnians</i>, 865, where some
+musicians are in derision dubbed &ldquo;bumblebee pipers.&rdquo; See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bagpipe</a></span>;
+also Kathleen Schlesinger, &ldquo;Researches into the Origin of
+the Organs of the Ancients,&rdquo; <i>Intern. mus. Ges.</i> vol. ii. (1901), Sammelband
+ii. pp. 188-202.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DRONFIELD,<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> an urban district in the north-eastern parliamentary
+division of Derbyshire, England, 6 m. S. of Sheffield,
+on the Midland railway. Pop. (1901) 3809. It lies on the small
+river Drone, a tributary of the Rother, in a busy industrial
+district in which are numerous coal-mines, and there are iron
+foundries and manufactures of tools and other iron and steel
+goods. The church of St John the Baptist, with a lofty spire,
+is a good example of Decorated work, with Perpendicular
+additions.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DROPSY<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> (contracted from the old word <i>hydropisy</i>, derived
+from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="udrôps">&#8021;&#948;&#961;&#969;&#968;</span>; <span class="grk" title="udôr">&#8021;&#948;&#969;&#961;</span>, water, and <span class="grk" title="ôps">&#8036;&#968;</span>, appearance), the
+name given to a collection of simple serous fluid in all or any of
+the cavities of the body, or in the meshes of its tissues. Dropsy
+of the subcutaneous connective tissue is termed <i>oedema</i> when
+it is localized and limited in extent; when more diffuse it is
+termed <i>anasarca</i>; the term <i>oedema</i> is also applied to dropsies
+of some of the internal organs, notably to that of the lungs.
+<i>Hydrocephalus</i> signifies an accumulation of fluid within the
+ventricles of the brain or in the arachnoid cavity; <i>hydrothorax</i>,
+a collection of fluid in one or both pleural cavities; <i>hydropericardium</i>,
+in the pericardium; <i>ascites</i>, in the peritoneum; and,
+when <i>anasarca</i> is conjoined with the accumulation of fluid in
+one or more of the serous cavities, the dropsy is said to be
+general (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pathology</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>Dropsy (excluding &ldquo;epidemic dropsy,&rdquo; for which see below)
+is essentially a symptom and not a specific disease, and is merely
+an exaggeration of a certain state of health. Fluid, known as
+lymph, is continually passing through the capillary walls into
+the tissues, and in health this is removed as fast as it is exuded,
+in one or more of three ways: part of it is used in the nutrition
+of the tissues, part is returned to the general circulation by the
+veins, and part by the lymphatics. Any accumulation constitutes
+dropsy and is a sign of disease, though not a disease in
+itself. The serous effusions due to inflammation are not included
+under the term dropsy. A dropsical fluid varies considerably in
+composition according to its position in the body, but varies
+only slightly according to the disease which has given rise to
+it. Its specific gravity ranges between 1008 and 1018; the
+mineral salts present are the same and in about the same proportion
+as those of blood, nor do they vary with the position of
+the exudation. The quantity of albumin, however, depends much
+on the position of the fluid, and slightly on the underlying
+disease. In oedema the fluid contains only traces, whereas a
+pleural or peritoneal effusion is always highly albuminous.
+Also an effusion due to heart disease contains more albumin
+than one due to kidney disease. In appearance it may be
+colourless, greenish or reddish from the presence of blood pigment,
+or yellowish from the presence of bile pigment; transparent or
+opalescent or milky from the presence of fatty matter derived
+from the chyle. The membrane from which the dropsical fluid
+escapes is healthy, or at least not inflamed, and only somewhat
+sodden by long contact with the fluid&mdash;the morbid condition
+on which the transudation depends lying elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p>The simplest cause of dropsy is purely mechanical, blood
+pressure being raised beyond a certain point owing to venous
+obstruction. This may be due to thrombosis of a vein as in
+phlegmasia dolens (white leg), retardation of venous circulation
+as in varicose veins, or obstruction of a vein due to the pressure
+of an aneurism or tumour. Cardiac and renal dropsy are more
+complicated in origin, but cardiac dropsy is probably due to
+diminished absorption, and renal dropsy, when unassociated
+with heart failure, to increased exudation. But the starting
+point of acute renal dropsy, of the dropsy sometimes occurring
+in diabetes, and that of chlorosis is the toxic condition of the
+blood. For accounts of the various local dropsies see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hydrocephalus</a></span>;
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ascites</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Liver</a></span>, &amp;c.; general dropsy, or dropsy
+which depends on causes acting on the system at large, is due
+chiefly to diseases of the heart, kidneys or lungs, occasionally
+on lardaceous disease, more rarely still on diabetes or one of the
+anaemias.</p>
+
+<p>Broadly speaking, 50% of cases of general dropsy are due to
+disease of the heart or aorta, and 25% to renal troubles. The
+natural tendency of all diseases of the heart is to transfer the
+blood pressure from the arteries to the veins, and, so soon as this
+has reached a sufficient degree, dropsy in the form of local
+<i>oedema</i> commences to appear at whatever may be the most
+depending part of the body&mdash;the instep and ankle in the upright
+position, the lower part of the back or the lungs if the patient
+be in bed&mdash;and this tends gradually to increase till all the cavities
+of the body are invaded by the serous accumulation. The
+diseases of the lungs which produce dropsy are those which
+obstruct the passage of the blood through them, such as emphysema
+and fibrosis, and thus act precisely like disease of the
+heart in transferring the blood pressure from the arteries to the
+veins, inducing dropsy in exactly a similar manner. The dropsy
+of renal disease is dependent for the most part on an excess of
+exudation, due largely to an increase of arterial and cardiac
+tension. This in its turn produces arterial thickening and
+cardiac hypertrophy, which, if the case be sufficiently prolonged,
+brings about a natural removal of the fluid. In kidney cases,
+in the absence of cardiac disease, the dropsy will be found to
+appear first about the loose cellular tissue surrounding the eyes,
+where the vessels, turgid with watery blood, have less efficient
+support. The dropsy of chlorosis is very similar to renal dropsy,
+a toxic condition of blood being present in both; also other
+forms of anaemia, as also hydraemia, tend to produce or assist
+in the production of dropsical effusions.</p>
+
+<p>For the treatment of dropsy the reader is referred to the
+articles on the several diseases of which it is a symptom. Briefly,
+however, tapping of the abdomen or puncture of the legs are
+constantly resorted to in severe cases. Dehydration by diet
+is very valuable under certain circumstances when the dropsy
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page591" id="page591"></a>591</span>
+is other than renal. And there is the routine treatment by
+drugs, purgative, diaphoretic and diuretic as the symptoms of
+the case may demand.</p>
+
+<p>It may be well to mention that there are certain affections
+which may be termed <i>spurious dropsies</i>, such as <i>ovarian dropsy</i>,
+which is only a cystic disease of the ovary; <i>hydrometria</i>, dropsy
+of the uterus, due to inflammatory occlusion of the os uteri;
+<i>hydronephrosis</i>, dropsy of the kidney, due to obstruction of the
+ureter, and subsequent distension of these organs by serous
+accumulations; other hollow organs may also be similarly
+affected.</p>
+
+<p>Having no known relation to the preceding is <i>epidemic dropsy</i>,
+the first recorded outbreak of which occurred in Calcutta in the
+year 1877. It disappeared during the hot weather of the following
+year, only to recur over a wider area in the cold months of 1878
+to 1879, and once again in the cold of 1879 to 1880. Since then
+only isolated cases have been recorded in the immediate neighbourhood
+of Calcutta, though epidemics have broken out in
+other places both by land and sea. At the end of 1902 an
+outbreak occurred in the Barisal gaol, Bengal, in which nearly
+one-third of the cases ended fatally. Dropsy was an invariable
+feature of the disease, and was either the first symptom or
+occurred early. The lower limbs were first affected, trunk and
+upper limbs later in severe cases, the face very rarely. It was
+accompanied by pyrexia, gastro-enteritis, deep-seated pains in
+limbs and body, and burning and pricking of the skin. Various
+rashes appeared early in the attack, while eczema, desquamation
+and even ulceration supervened later. Anaemia was very marked,
+giving rise in Mauritius to the name of acute anaemic dropsy.
+The duration of the disease was very variable, the limits being
+three weeks and three months. Death was often sudden,
+resulting chiefly from cardiac and respiratory complications.
+The cause of the disease has remained obscure, but there is
+reason to suppose that it was originally imported from the
+Madras famine tracts.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DROPWORT,<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> in botany, the common name for a species of
+<i>Spiraea</i>, <i>S. filipendula</i> (nat. ord. <i>Rosaceae</i>), found in dry pastures.
+It is a perennial herb, with much divided radical leaves and an
+erect stem 2 to 3 ft. high bearing a loose terminal inflorescence
+of small white flowers, closely resembling those of the nearly
+allied species <i>S. Ulmaria</i>, or meadowsweet.</p>
+
+<p>Water Dropwort, <i>Oenanthe crocata</i> (nat. ord. <i>Umbelliferae</i>),
+is a tall herbaceous plant growing in marshes and ditches. The
+stem, which springs from a cluster of thickened roots, is stout,
+branched, hollow and 2 to 5 ft. high; the leaves are large and
+pinnately divided, and the flowers are borne in a compound
+umbel, the long rays bearing dense partial umbels of small
+white flowers. The plant, which is very poisonous, is often
+mistaken for celery.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DROSHKY<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> (Russ. <i>drozhki</i>, diminutive of <i>drogi</i>, a wagon),
+a light four-wheeled uncovered carriage used in Russia. Properly
+it consists of two pairs of wheels joined by a board. This
+forms a seat for the passengers who sit sideways, while the driver
+sits astride in front. The word <i>Droschke</i>, however, is applied
+especially in Germany to light carriages generally which ply
+for hire.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DROSTE-HÜLSHOFF, ANNETTE ELISABETH,<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> <span class="sc">Freiin von</span>
+(1797-1848), German poet, was born at the family seat of
+Hülshoff near Münster in Westphalia on the 10th of January
+1797. Her early mental training was largely influenced by her
+cousin, Clemens August, Freiherr von Droste zu Vischering,
+who, as archbishop of Cologne, became notorious for his extreme
+ultramontane views (see below); and she received a more
+liberal education than in those days ordinarily fell to a woman&rsquo;s
+lot. After prolonged visits among the intellectual circles at
+Coblenz, Bonn and Cologne, she retired to the estate of Ruschhaus
+near Münster, belonging to her mother&rsquo;s family. In 1841,
+owing to delicate health, she went to reside in the house of her
+brother-in-law, the well-known scholar, Joseph, Freiherr von
+Lassberg (1770-1855), at Schloss Meersburg on the Lake of
+Constance, where she met Levin Schücking (<i>q.v.</i>); and there
+she died on the 24th of May 1848. Annette von Droste-Hülshoff
+is, beyond doubt, the most gifted and original of German women
+poets. Her verse is strong and vigorous, but often unmusical
+even to harshness; one looks in vain for a touch of sentimentality
+or melting sweetness in it. As a lyric poet, she is at her best
+when she is able to attune her thoughts to the sober landscape
+of the Westphalian moorlands of her home. Her narrative
+poetry, and especially <i>Das Hospiz auf dem Grossen St Bernard</i>
+and <i>Die Schlacht im Loener Bruch</i> (both 1838), belongs to the
+best German poetry of its kind. She was a strict Roman Catholic,
+and her religious poems, published in 1852, after her death,
+under the title <i>Das geistliche Jahr, nebst einem Anhang religiöser
+Gedichte</i>, enjoyed great popularity.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Annette von Droste-Hülshoff&rsquo;s <i>Gedichte</i> were first published in
+1844 during her lifetime, and a number of her poems were translated
+into English by Thomas Medwin. The most complete edition of her
+works is that in 4 vols. edited by E. von Droste-Hülshoff (Münster,
+1886). The <i>Ausgewählte Gedichte</i> were edited by W. von Scholz
+(Leipzig, 1901). See Levin Schücking, <i>Annette von Droste-Hülshoff,
+ein Lebensbild</i> (2nd ed., Hanover, 1871)&mdash;her letters to L. Schücking
+were published at Leipzig in 1893; also H. Hueffer, <i>Annette von
+Droste-Hülshoff und ihre Werke</i> (Gotha, 1887), and W. Kreiten,
+<i>Annette von Droste-Hülshoff</i> (2nd ed., Paderborn, 1900).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DROSTE-VISCHERING, CLEMENS AUGUST,<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron von</span>
+(1773-1845), German Roman Catholic divine, was born at
+Münster on the 21st of January 1773. He was educated in his
+native town and entered the priesthood in 1798; in 1807 the
+local chapter elected him vicar-general. This office he resigned
+in 1813 through his opposition to Napoleon, but assumed it
+again after the battle of Waterloo (1815) until a disagreement
+with the Prussian government in 1820 led to his abdication.
+He remained in private life until 1835, when he was appointed
+archbishop of Cologne. Here again his zeal for the supremacy
+of the church led him to break the agreement between the state
+and the Catholic bishops which he had signed at his installation,
+and he was arrested by the Prussian government in November
+1837. A battle of pamphlets raged for some time; Droste was
+not re-installed but was obliged to accept a coadjutor. His
+chief works were: <i>Über die Religionsfreiheit der Katholiken</i>
+(1817), and <i>Über den Frieden unter der Kirche und den Staaten</i>
+(1843).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Carl Mirbt&rsquo;s article in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyk. für prot.
+Theol.</i> v. 23.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DROUAIS, JEAN GERMAIN<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> (1763-1788), French historical
+painter, was born at Paris on the 25th of November 1763. His
+father, François Hubert Drouais, and his grandfather, Hubert
+Drouais, were well-known portrait painters; and it was from his
+father that he received his first artistic instruction. He was afterwards
+entrusted to the care of Brenet, an excellent teacher, though
+his own pictures did not take high rank. In 1780 David, who had
+just returned from Rome, opened a school of painting in Paris,
+and Drouais was one of his earliest and most promising pupils.
+He adopted the classical style of his master, and gave his whole
+time to study&mdash;painting during the day, and spending a great
+part of every night in designing. For weeks together it is said
+that he never left his studio. In 1783 he was admitted to compete
+for the great prize of painting offered by the Academy, the
+subject being the &ldquo;Widow of Nain.&rdquo; After inspecting the works
+of his fellow-competitors, however, he lost hope and destroyed
+his own canvas, but was consoled by the assurance of his master
+David that had he not done so he would have won the prize.
+Next year he was triumphantly successful, the &ldquo;Woman of
+Canaan at the Feet of Christ,&rdquo; with which he gained the prize,
+being compared by competent critics with the works of Poussin.
+He was carried shoulder high by his fellow-students through the
+streets to his mother&rsquo;s house, and a place was afterwards found
+for his picture in the Louvre. His success making him only
+the more eager to perfect himself in his art, he accompanied
+David to Rome, where he worked even more assiduously than in
+Paris. He was most strongly influenced by the remains of ancient
+art and by the works of Raphael. Goethe, who was at Rome
+at the time it was finished, has recorded the deep impression
+made by his &ldquo;Marius at Minturno,&rdquo; which he characterizes as
+in some respects superior to the work of David, his master. The
+last picture which he completed was his &ldquo;Philoctetus on the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page592" id="page592"></a>592</span>
+Island of Lemnos.&rdquo; He died on the 15th of July 1788. A
+monument to his memory was erected by his fellow-students
+in the church of Santa Maria in the Via Lata.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DROUET, JEAN BAPTISTE<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> (1763-1824), French Revolutionist,
+chiefly noted for the part he played in the arrest of
+Louis XVI. at Varennes, was born at Sainte-Menehould. He
+served for seven years in the army, and afterwards assisted his
+father, who was post-master of his native town. The carriages
+conveying the royal family on their flight to the frontier stopped
+at his door on the evening of the 21st of June 1791; and the
+passengers, travelling under assumed names, were recognized
+by Drouet, who immediately took steps which led to their arrest
+and detection on reaching Varennes. For this service the
+Assembly awarded him 30,000 francs, but he appears to have
+declined the reward. In September 1792 he was elected deputy
+to the Convention, and took his place with the most violent
+party. He voted the death of the king without appeal, showed
+implacable hostility to the Girondins, and proposed the slaughter
+of all English residents in France. Sent as commissioner to the
+army of the north, he was captured at the siege of Maubeuge
+and imprisoned at Spielberg till the close of 1795. He then
+became a member of the Council of Five Hundred, and was
+named secretary. Drouet was implicated in the conspiracy of
+Babeuf, and was imprisoned; but he made his escape into
+Switzerland, and thence to Teneriffe. There he took part in
+the successful resistance to the attempt of Nelson on the island,
+in 1797, and later visited India. The first empire found in him
+a docile sub-prefect of Sainte-Menehould. After the second
+Restoration he was compelled to quit France. Returning
+secretly he settled at Macon, under the name of Merger and a
+guise of piety, and preserved his incognito till his death on the
+11th of April 1824.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See G. Lenotre, <i>Le Drame de Varennes</i> (Paris, 1905).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DROWNING AND LIFE SAVING.<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> To &ldquo;drown&rdquo; (a verb used
+both transitively and intransitively, of which the origin, though
+traced to earlier forms, is unknown) is to suffer or inflict death
+by submersion in water, or figuratively to submerge entirely
+in water or some other liquid. As a form of ancient capital
+punishment, the method of drowning is referred to at the end
+of this article, but the interest of the subject is mainly associated
+with rescue-work in cases of accident.</p>
+
+<p>Death from drowning is the result of asphyxia, due to the
+stoppage of a supply of fresh air to the lungs. There is a certain
+amount of stationary air in the lungs, and into this is diffused
+oxygen from the fresh air taken in, while the carbonic acid which
+it has taken from the blood through the walls of the capillaries
+is driven out. This process of exchange is ever proceeding, the
+whole of it being regulated from the nervous centre at the base
+of the brain. When a person gets under water and cannot swim,
+there is a natural tendency to struggle, and in the efforts to
+respire water is drawn into the windpipe and cough is brought
+on. This expels the air from the lungs with the water which
+threatened to suffocate him, and as further efforts are made to
+respire more water is taken in and has to be swallowed. Meanwhile,
+the oxygen in the lungs is gradually diminishing, the
+quantity of carbonic acid is increasing, and at length the air in
+the lungs becomes too impure to effect an exchange with the
+blood. Then the blood passing into the heart becomes venous
+and the heart begins to send out venous instead of arterial
+blood to all parts of the body. Immediately a dull, sickening
+pain becomes apparent at the base of the neck, and insensibility
+rapidly ensues. This arises from the affection of the respiratory
+nerve centre. In a short space of time the face becomes dark
+and congested through the veins being gorged with blood, and
+the heart ultimately ceases to beat.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 390px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:344px; height:302px" src="images/img592a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;1st Release Method.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>When a person unable to swim falls into the water, he usually
+rises to the surface, throws up his arms and calls for help. This,
+with the water swallowed, will make him sink, and if the arms
+are moved above the head when under water, he will, as a natural
+consequence, sink still lower. The struggle will be prolonged a
+few seconds, and then probably cease for a time, allowing him
+to rise again, though perhaps not sufficiently high to enable him
+to get another breath of air. If still conscious, he will renew his
+struggle, more feebly perhaps, but with the same result. As
+soon as insensibility occurs, the body sinks altogether, owing
+to the loss of air and the filling of the stomach with water. There
+is a general belief that a drowning person must rise three times
+before he finally sinks,
+but this is a fallacy.
+The question whether
+he rises at all, or how
+often he does so, entirely
+depends upon
+circumstances. A man
+may get entangled
+among weeds, which
+prevent his coming
+to the surface, or he
+may die through heart
+failure from the shock
+or fright of entering
+the water.</p>
+
+<p>On seeing a person
+struggling in the
+water in danger of drowning, no time should be lost in going
+to his assistance, for he may sink at once, and then there is
+danger of missing the body when searching under water for
+it, or it may get entangled among weeds and then the rescuer&rsquo;s
+task is rendered doubly dangerous. Before diving in to the
+rescue the boots and heavy clothing should be discarded
+if possible, and in cases where a leap has to be made from
+a height, such as a bridge, high embankment, vessel or
+pier, or where the depth of the water is not known, it is best
+to drop in feet first. Where weeds abound there is always
+danger of entanglement, and therefore progress should be made
+in the direction of the stream. When approaching a drowning
+man there is always the danger of being clutched, but a swimmer
+who knows the right way to deal with a man in the water can
+easily avoid this; but if through some mistake he finds himself
+seized by the drowning person, a necessary thing for the swimmer
+to do is to take advantage of his knowledge of the water and
+keep uppermost, as this weakens the drowning person and makes
+the effort of effecting a release much easier than would otherwise
+be the case. To the Royal Life Saving Society in England is
+due the credit of disseminating, throughout the entire world,
+the ideas of swimmers, based on practical experience, as to the
+safest methods which should be adopted for release and rescue,
+and their methods, as well as the approved ones for resuscitation,
+are now taught in almost every school and college.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 395px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:321px; height:273px" src="images/img592b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;2nd Release Method.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:316px; height:343px" src="images/img593a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;3rd Release Method.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:345px; height:138px" src="images/img593b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>&mdash;Easiest method of carrying
+a person not struggling.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>If the rescuer be held by the wrists, he must turn both arms
+simultaneously against the drowning person&rsquo;s thumbs, and
+bring his arms at right angles to the body, thus dislocating the
+thumbs of the drowning person if he does not leave go (fig. 1).
+If he be clutched
+round the neck he
+must take a deep
+breath and lean well
+over the drowning
+person, at the same
+time placing one hand
+in the small of his
+back, then raise the
+other arm in line with
+the shoulder, and
+pass it over the
+drowning person&rsquo;s
+arm, then pinch the
+nostrils close with
+the fingers, and at
+the same time place the palm of the hand on the chin and push
+away with all possible force. By the firm holding of the nose the
+drowning person is made to open his mouth for breathing, and
+as he will then be under water, choking ensues and he gives way
+to the rescuer, who then gains complete control (fig. 2). One of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page593" id="page593"></a>593</span>
+the most dangerous clutches is that round the body and arms
+or round the body only. When so tackled the rescuer should
+lean well over the drowning person, take a breath as before, and
+either withdraw both arms in an upward direction in front of
+his body, or else act in the same way as when releasing oneself
+when clutched round
+the neck. In any case
+one hand must be placed
+on the drowning man&rsquo;s
+shoulder, and the palm
+of the other hand
+against his chin, and at
+the same time one knee
+should be brought up
+against the lower part
+of his chest. Then,
+with a strong and sudden
+push, the arms and
+legs should be stretched
+out straight and the
+whole weight of the
+body thrown backwards.
+This sudden and totally
+unexpected action will
+break the clutch and leave the rescuer free to get hold of the
+drowning person in such a manner as to be able to bring him to
+land (fig. 3).</p>
+
+<p>There are several practical methods of carrying a person
+through the water, the easiest assistance to render being that
+to a swimmer attacked by cramp or exhaustion, or a drowning
+person who may be obedient and remain quiet when approached
+and assured of safety. Then the person assisted should place
+his arms on the rescuer&rsquo;s shoulders, close to the neck, with the
+arms at full stretch, lie on his back perfectly still, with the
+head well back. The
+rescuer will then be
+uppermost, and having
+his arms and legs
+free can, with the
+breast stroke, make
+rapid progress to the
+shore; indeed a good
+pace can easily be
+made (fig. 4). In</p>
+
+<p>this, as in the other methods afterwards described, every care
+should be taken to keep the face of the drowning person above
+the water. All jerking, struggling or tugging should be avoided,
+and the stroke of the legs be regular and well timed, thus husbanding
+strength for further effort. The drowning person being
+able to breathe with freedom is reassured, and is likely to cease
+struggling, feeling that he is in safe hands.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:412px; height:200px" src="images/img593c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>&mdash;1st Rescue Method.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>When a drowning person is not struggling, but yet seems
+likely to do so when approached, the best method of rescue is
+to swim straight up, turn him on his back, and then place the
+hands on either side of his face. Then the rescuer should lie
+on his back, holding the drowning man in front of him, and swim
+with the back stroke, always taking care to keep the man&rsquo;s face
+above water (fig. 5). If the man be struggling and in a condition
+difficult to manage, he should be turned on his back as before,
+and a firm hold taken of his arms just above his elbows. Then
+the man&rsquo;s arms should be drawn up at right angles to his body
+and the rescuer should start swimming with the back stroke
+(fig. 6). He should take particular care not to go against the
+current or stream, and thereby avoid exhaustion. If the arms
+be difficult to grasp, or the struggling so violent as to prevent a
+firm hold, the rescuer should slip his hands under the armpits
+of the drowning person,
+and place them
+on his chest or round
+his arms, then raise
+them at right angles
+to his body, thus placing
+the drowning person
+completely in his
+power. The journey
+to land can then be
+made by swimming
+on the back as in the
+other methods (fig. 7). In carrying a person through the water, it
+will be of much advantage to keep his elbows well out from the
+sides, as this expands the chest, inflates the lungs and adds to his
+buoyancy. The legs should be kept well up to the surface and
+the whole body as horizontal as possible. This avoids a drag
+through the water, and will considerably help the rescuer. In
+some cases it may happen that the drowning person has sunk to
+the bottom and does not rise again. In that event the rescuer
+should look for bubbles rising to the surface before diving in.
+In still water the bubbles rise perpendicularly; in running water
+they rise obliquely, so that the rescuer must look for his object
+higher up the stream than where the bubbles rise. It is also
+well to remember that in running water a body may be carried
+along by the current and must be looked for in the direction in
+which it flows. When a drowning person is recovered on the
+bottom, the rescuer should seize him by the head or shoulders,
+place the left foot on the ground and the right knee in the small
+of his back, and then, with a vigorous push, come to the surface.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 395px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:345px; height:203px" src="images/img593d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>&mdash;2nd Rescue Method.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:336px; height:252px" src="images/img593e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>&mdash;3rd Rescue Method.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>When the rescuer reaches land with an insensible person, no
+time should be lost in sending for a medical man, but in the
+meantime an attempt to induce artificial respiration may be
+made. The first recorded cases of resuscitating the apparently
+drowned are mentioned in the notes to William Derham&rsquo;s
+<i>Physico-Theology</i>, as having occurred at Troningholm and Oxford,
+about 1650. In 1745 Dr J. Fothergill read a paper on the subject
+before the Royal Society. It dealt with the recovery of a man
+dead in appearance by distending the lungs by Mr William
+Tossack, surgeon in Alloa, in 1744. In 1767 several cases of
+resuscitation were reported in Switzerland, and shortly after a
+society was formed at Amsterdam for recovery of the apparently
+drowned, and to instruct the common people as to the best
+manner of treating them when rescued, and to reward the people
+for their services. In 1773 Dr A. Johnson suggested the formation
+of a similar society in England, and Dr Thomas Cogan
+translated the memoirs
+of the Amsterdam
+society. Dr William
+Hawes secured a copy
+and tried to form a
+society. There was,
+however, a strong prejudice
+against the idea,
+but he publicly offered
+rewards to persons who,
+between Westminster
+and London Bridges,
+should rescue drowning
+persons and bring them
+to certain places on shore in order that resuscitation might be
+attempted. In this way he was instrumental in the saving of
+several lives, and paid the rewards out of his own pocket, until
+his zeal brought him sympathy and the Royal Humane Society
+was founded. This was in 1774. The system then in vogue was
+a means of inducing artificial respiration by inserting the pipe
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page594" id="page594"></a>594</span>
+of a pair of bellows into one nostril and closing the other. Air
+was forced into the lungs and then expelled by pressing the chest,
+thus imitating respiration. Dr Hawes used for his resuscitation
+work a kind of cradle, in which the subject was placed, and then
+raised over a furnace. Bleeding, holding up by the heels, rolling
+on casks, &amp;c. were at various times resorted to. Simple means
+are often as effective as the official ones. In 1891 a subject was
+restored in Australia by being held over a smoky fire, which is
+the native method of restoring life; while a few years back,
+at an English riverside town, a patient was saved by the placing
+of a handkerchief over his mouth and the alternate blowing into
+and drawing air out of the lungs until natural breathing was
+restored.</p>
+
+<p>One of the oldest methods of resuscitation was that of Dr
+Marshall Hall (1790-1857), introduced in 1856. In this method
+the operator takes his place at the patient&rsquo;s left side, and places
+a roll of clothing or pillow (which must be the same length as
+that used in the previous methods), so that it may be in position
+under the chest when the patient is turned over. The assistant
+at the head pays particular attention to the patient&rsquo;s arms,
+that they may not be laid upon or twisted at the wrists, elbows,
+hands or shoulders. The patient is then turned face downwards,
+with the body reclining over the pillow, the operator makes a
+firm pressure with the hand upon the back, between and on the
+shoulder blades, he then pulls the patient slowly up on to the side
+towards himself. Once in position, the operator pushes the
+patient back again until the face is downward, when the pressure
+on the back is to be repeated. These three movements must be
+continued at the rate of about fifteen times a minute, until
+natural breathing has been restored.</p>
+
+<p>Then came the methods of Dr H. R. Silvester and Dr Benjamin
+Howard, of New York.</p>
+
+<p>When using the Silvester method, or, for the matter of that,
+any other method, the first thing to do is to send for medical
+assistance. Dr Silvester recommended that the patient should
+not be carried face downwards or held up by his feet. All rough
+usage should be avoided, especially twisting or bending of limbs,
+and the patient must not be allowed to remain on the back unless
+the tongue is pulled forward. In the event of respiration not
+being entirely suspended when a person is lifted out of the water,
+it may not be necessary to imitate breathing, but natural respiration
+may be assisted by the application of an irritant substance
+to the nostrils and tickling the nose. Smelling-salts, pepper and
+snuff may be used, or hot and cold water alternately dashed on
+the face or chest. Provided no sign of life can be seen or felt or
+the heart&rsquo;s action heard, promotion of breathing, <i>not</i> circulation
+must be the first aim and effort. Lay the patient flat on his back,
+with the head at a slightly higher level than the feet. Remove
+all tight clothing about the neck, chest and abdomen, and loosen
+the braces, belts or corsets. The operator taking his place at
+the head, with an assistant on one side, will turn the patient over
+until he is lying face downwards, his head resting upon one arm.
+He should then, after the assistant has given one or two sharp
+blows with the open hand between the shoulder blades, wipe and
+clear the mouth, throat and nostrils of all matter that may
+prevent the air from entering the lungs, using a handkerchief
+for this purpose. This being done, the patient should be turned
+upon his back, the tongue pulled forward and kept in position
+by means of a dry cloth, handkerchief or piece of string tied
+round the jaw. Every care must be taken not to let it fall back
+into the mouth and thus obstruct the air passages. When this
+work has been accomplished (it should only last a few seconds)
+the operator at the head should lift the patient, handling the
+head and shoulders very carefully, in order that the assistant
+may place a roll of clothing or pillow under the shoulder blades.
+The roll being placed in position, the operator will lean forward
+and grasp the arms below the elbows. He will then draw the
+patient&rsquo;s arms steadily upwards and outwards, above the head,
+until fully extended in line with the body. Having held the arms
+in this position for about one second, the operator will carry them
+back again and press them firmly against the side and front of
+the chest for another second. By these means an exchange of
+air is produced in the lungs similar to that effected by natural
+respiration. These movements must be repeated carefully and
+deliberately about fifteen times a minute, and persevered in.
+When natural respiration is once established, the operator should
+cease to imitate the movements of breathing, and proceed with
+the treatment for <i>the promotion of warmth and circulation</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Friction over the surface of the body must be at once resorted
+to, using handkerchiefs, flannels, &amp;c., so as to propel the blood
+along the veins towards the heart, while the operator attends
+to the mouth, nose and throat. The friction along the legs,
+arms and body should all be towards the heart and should be
+continued after the patient has been wrapped in blankets or
+some dry clothing. As soon as possible, the patient should be
+removed to the nearest house and further efforts made to promote
+warmth by the application of hot flannels to the pit of the
+stomach, and bottles or bladders of hot water, heated bricks, &amp;c.
+to the armpits, between the thighs and to the soles of the feet.
+If there be pain or difficulty in breathing, apply a hot linseed
+meal poultice to the chest. On the restoration of life, a teaspoonful
+of warm water should be given; and then, if the power of
+swallowing has returned, very small quantities of wine, warm
+brandy and water, beef tea or coffee administered, the patient
+kept in bed, and a disposition to sleep encouraged. The patient
+should be carefully watched for some time to see that breathing
+does not fail, and, should any signs of failure appear, artificial
+respiration should at once be resumed. While the patient is
+in the house, care should be taken to let the air circulate freely
+about the room and all overcrowding should be prevented.</p>
+
+<p>In the Howard method there are only two movements; its
+knowledge is said to be necessary in case the patient&rsquo;s arm
+be in any way injured, or a more vigorous method than the
+&ldquo;Silvester&rdquo; deemed necessary, <i>but care should be exercised not to
+injure the patient by too forcible pressure</i>. The patient is laid on
+his back, the roll is larger than that used in the Silvester method,
+and is placed farther under the back in order that the lower part
+of the chest may be highest. After adjusting the roll, the operator
+kneels astride of the patient, while his assistant goes to the
+head, lifts the patient&rsquo;s arms beyond the head, and holds them
+to the ground, cleans the mouth and nose, and attends to the
+tongue. The operator, with his fingers spread well apart, taking
+care that the thumbs do not press into the pit of the stomach,
+grasps the most compressible part of the lower ribs, and with
+both hands applies pressure firmly by leaning over the patient;
+then he springs back, lifting his hands off the patient. Artificial
+respiration is thus effected, and continued at the rate of about
+fifteen times a minute. When natural breathing has been
+restored, the treatment is the same as in the Silvester method.</p>
+
+<p>These methods have now been superseded by the Schäfer
+method, which has been taken up by the Royal Life Saving
+Society, a body instituted in 1891 for the promotion of technical
+education in life saving and resuscitation of the apparently
+drowned. The Schäfer method has much to recommend it,
+owing to its extreme simplicity and the ease with which the
+physical operations necessary to carry on artificial respiration
+may be performed, hardly any muscular exertion being required.
+It involves no risk of injury to the congested liver or to any
+other organ, and as the patient is laid face downwards, there is
+no possibility of the air passages being blocked by the falling
+back of the tongue into the pharynx. The water and mucus can
+also be expelled much more readily from the air passages through
+the mouth and nostrils.</p>
+
+<p>It was due to the happy selection of Professor E. A. Schäfer,
+as chairman of a committee appointed by the Royal Medical &amp;
+Chirurgical Society for the investigation of the methods in use
+for resuscitation of the apparently drowned, that the new
+method was devised. This committee made many experiments
+upon the cadaver but failed to arrive at any definite conclusion
+by that means. The necessity then appeared of thorough
+investigation of the subject by experiments upon animals, so
+that the phenomena attendant upon drowning might be better
+known, and the various methods of resuscitation properly tried.
+These experiments were made in Edinburgh by Professor
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page595" id="page595"></a>595</span>
+Schäfer, with the co-operation of Dr P. T. Herring, and the
+results obtained were embodied in the report of the committee,
+which was presented to the Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society
+in 1904, and published as a supplement to volume 86 of the
+<i>Transactions</i> of the society. As the direct outcome of these
+experiments, Professor Schäfer was led to believe that a pressure
+method of resuscitation was not only simpler to perform but
+also more efficacious than any other. This conclusion was put
+to the test by measurements of the results obtained upon the
+normal human subject by the various methods in vogue; from
+these measurements, which were published in the <i>Proceedings</i>
+of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in December 1903, it appeared
+that when such pressure is exerted in the prone
+position the highest degree of efficiency as well as
+simplicity is obtained. The description of this method
+was communicated to the Royal Medical and Chirurgical
+Society, and was published in the following year
+(1904) in volume 87 of the <i>Transactions</i> of the
+society.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:363px; height:189px" src="images/img595a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig 8.</span>.&mdash;Schäfer method of treatment of the apparently drowned.
+Position A.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Thus it came about that by investigating the
+phenomena of drowning, and the means of resuscitation
+in dogs, and by applying the results obtained to
+man, the method which the society now advocates
+as the best was arrived at. In the experiments
+referred to, it was found necessary to drown 38
+dogs, all but two of which were from first to last in
+a complete state of anaesthesia, the two exceptions having
+been simply drowned without anaesthesia. It is important
+that the public should understand that the evolution of a
+method which will probably be the means of saving thousands
+of lives has resulted from the painless sacrifice of less
+than 40 dogs, a number which would doubtless in any case
+have been destroyed by drowning or some other form of suffocation,
+but without the benefit of the anaesthetics which were
+employed in the experiments.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:366px; height:164px" src="images/img595b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span>&mdash;Schäfer method of treatment of the apparently drowned.
+Position B.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Professor Schäfer describes the method as follows:&mdash;Lay the
+subject face downwards on the ground, then without stopping
+to remove the clothing the operator should at once place himself
+in position astride or at one side of the subject, facing his head
+and kneeling upon one or both knees. He then places his
+hands flat over the lower part of the back (on the lowest ribs),
+one on each side (fig. 8), and then gradually throws the weight
+of his body forward on to them so as to produce firm pressure
+(fig. 9)&mdash;which must not be violent, or upon the patient&rsquo;s chest.
+By this means the air, and water if any, are driven out of the
+patient&rsquo;s lungs. Immediately thereafter the operator raises
+his body slowly so as to remove the pressure, but the hands are
+left in position. This forward and backward movement is
+repeated every four or five seconds; in other words, the body
+of the operator is swayed slowly forwards and backwards upon
+the arms from twelve to fifteen times a minute, and should be
+continued for at least half an hour, or until the natural respirations
+are resumed. Whilst one person is carrying out artificial
+respiration in this way, others may, if there be opportunity,
+busy themselves with applying hot flannels to the body and
+limbs, and hot bottles to the feet, but no attempt should be
+made to remove the wet clothing or to give any restoratives by
+the mouth until natural breathing has recommenced.</p>
+
+<p>In his paper read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh in
+December 1903 Professor Schäfer gave the following table of the
+relative exchanges of air under different methods:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Mode of Respiration.</td>
+ <td class="tccm allb">Number<br />per<br />minute.</td>
+ <td class="tccm allb">Amount of air<br />exchanged per<br />respiration.</td>
+ <td class="tccm allb">Amount of air<br />exchanged per<br />minute.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Natural respiration (supine)</td> <td class="tcl rb">13</td> <td class="tcl rb">489 c.c.</td> <td class="tcl rb">6.460 c.c.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Natural&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;&emsp;(prone)</td> <td class="tcl rb">12.5</td> <td class="tcl rb">422&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl rb">5.240&emsp;&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Prone (pressure), &ldquo;Schäfer&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl rb">13</td> <td class="tcl rb">520&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl rb">6.760&emsp;&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Supine (pressure), &ldquo;Howard&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl rb">13.6</td> <td class="tcl rb">295&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl rb">4.020&emsp;&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Rolling (with pressure), &ldquo;Marshall Hall&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl rb">13</td> <td class="tcl rb">254&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl rb">3.300&emsp;&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Rolling (without pressure), &ldquo;Marshall Hall&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl rb">12</td> <td class="tcl rb">192&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl rb">2.300&emsp;&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Traction (with pressure), &ldquo;Silvester&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">12.8</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">178&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">2.280&emsp;&rdquo;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>These experiments all tend to show that by far the most
+efficient method of performing artificial respiration is that of
+intermittent pressure upon the lower ribs with the subject in the
+prone position or face downward. It is also the easiest to perform,
+requiring practically no exertion, as the weight of the operator&rsquo;s
+body produces the effect, and the swinging forwards and backwards
+of the body some thirteen times a minute, which alone
+is required, is by no means fatiguing, and has the further great
+advantage that it can be effectively carried out by one person.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Taylor, <i>Medical Jurisprudence</i>; &ldquo;Description of a simple
+and efficient method of performing artificial respiration in the human
+subject, especially in cases of drowning,&rdquo; by E. A. Schäfer, F.R.S.
+(vol. 87, <i>Medico-Chirurgical Society&rsquo;s Transactions</i>); &ldquo;The relative
+efficiency of certain methods of performing artificial respiration in
+man,&rdquo; by E. A. Schäfer, F.R.S. (vol. 23, part i. <i>Proceedings of the
+Royal Society of Edinburgh</i>); <i>A Method for the Treatment of the
+Apparently Drowned</i>, by R. S. Bowles (London, 1903); <i>Handbook
+of Instruction</i>, Royal Life Saving Society (London, 1908).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. Hy.)</div>
+
+<p><i>Penal Use of Drowning.</i>&mdash;As a form of capital punishment,
+drowning was once common throughout Europe, but it is now
+only practised in Mahommedan countries and the Far East.
+Tacitus states that the ancient Germans hanged criminals of
+any rank, but those of the low classes were drowned beneath
+hurdles in fens and bogs. The Romans also drowned convicts.
+The Lex Cornelia ordained that parricides should be sewn in a
+sack with a dog, cock, viper and ape, and thrown into the sea.
+The law of ancient Burgundy ordered that an unfaithful wife
+should be smothered in mud. The Anglo-Saxon punishment
+for women guilty of theft was drowning. So usual was the
+penalty in the middle ages that grants of life and death jurisdiction
+were worded to be &ldquo;<i>cum fossa et furca</i>&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;with
+drowning-pit and gallows&rdquo;). The owner of Baynard&rsquo;s Castle,
+London, in the reign of John, had powers of trying criminals,
+and his descendants long afterwards claimed the privileges,
+the most valued of which was the right of drowning in the Thames
+traitors taken within their jurisdiction. Drowning was the punishment
+ordained by Richard C&oelig;ur de Lion for any soldier of his
+army who killed a fellow-crusader during the passage to the
+Holy Land. Drowning was usually reserved for women as being
+the least brutal form of death-penalty, but occasionally a male
+criminal was so executed as a matter of favour. Thus in Scotland
+in 1526 a man convicted of theft and sacrilege was ordered to
+be drowned &ldquo;by the queen&rsquo;s special grace.&rdquo; In 1611 a man
+was drowned at Edinburgh for stealing a lamb, and in 1623
+eleven gipsy women suffered there. By that date the penalty
+was obsolete in England. It survived in Scotland till 1685
+(the year of the drowning of the Wigtoun martyrs). The last
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page596" id="page596"></a>596</span>
+execution by drowning in Switzerland was in 1652, in Austria
+1776, in Iceland 1777; while in France during the Revolution
+the penalty was revived in the terrible <i>Noyades</i> carried out by the
+terrorist Jean Baptiste Carrier at Nantes. It was abolished in
+Russia at the beginning of the 18th century.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DROYSEN, JOHANN GUSTAV<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> (1808-1884), German historian,
+was born on the 6th of July 1808 at Treptow in Pomerania.
+His father, Johann Christoph Droysen, was an army chaplain, in
+which capacity he was present at the celebrated siege of Kolberg
+in 1806-7. As a child young Droysen witnessed some of the
+military operations during the War of Liberation, for his father
+was pastor at Greifenhagen, in the immediate neighbourhood of
+Stettin, which was held by the French during the greater part of
+1813. The impressions of these early years laid the foundation
+of the ardent attachment to Prussia which distinguished him,
+like so many other historians of his generation. He was educated
+at the gymnasium of Stettin and at the university of Berlin;
+in 1829 he became a master at the Graue Kloster (or Grey Friars),
+one of the oldest schools in Berlin; besides his work there he
+gave lectures at the university, from 1833 as <i>privat-dozent</i>, and
+from 1835 as professor, without a salary. During these years
+he was occupied with classical antiquity; he published a translation
+of Aeschylus and a paraphrase of Aristophanes, but the
+work by which he made himself known as a historian was his
+<i>Geschichte Alexanders des Grossen</i> (Berlin, 1833, and other
+editions), a book which still remains probably the best work
+on the subject. It was in some ways the herald of a new school
+of German historical thought, for it shows that idealization of
+power and success which he had learnt from the teaching of Hegel.
+It was followed by other volumes dealing with the successors
+of Alexander, published under the title of <i>Geschichte des Hellenismus</i>
+(Hamburg, 1836-1843). A new and revised edition of the
+whole work was published in 1885; it has been translated into
+French, but not into English.</p>
+
+<p>In 1840 Droysen was appointed professor of history at Kiel.
+He was at once attracted into the political movement for the
+defence of the rights of the Elbe duchies, of which Kiel was
+the centre. Like his predecessor F. C. Dahlmann, he placed
+his historical learning at the service of the estates of Schleswig-Holstein
+and composed the address of 1844, in which the estates
+protested against the claim of the king of Denmark to alter
+the law of succession in the duchies. In 1848 he was elected
+a member of the Frankfort parliament, and acted as secretary
+to the committee for drawing up the constitution. He was a
+determined supporter of Prussian ascendancy, and was one of
+the first members to retire after the king of Prussia refused
+the imperial crown in 1849. During the next two years he continued
+to support the cause of the duchies, and in 1850, with
+Carl Samwer, he published a history of the dealings of Denmark
+with Schleswig-Holstein, <i>Die Herzogthümer Schleswig-Holstein
+und das Königreich Dänemark seit dem Jahre 1806</i> (Hamburg,
+1850). A translation was published in London in the same
+year under the title <i>The Policy of Denmark towards the Duchies
+of Schleswig-Holstein</i>. The work was one of great political
+importance, and had much to do with the formation of German
+public opinion on the rights of the duchies in their struggle with
+Denmark.</p>
+
+<p>After 1851 it was impossible for him to remain at Kiel, and he
+was appointed to a professorship at Jena; in 1859 he was called
+to Berlin, where he remained till his death. In his later years he
+was almost entirely occupied with Prussian history. In 1851
+he brought out a life of Count Yorck von Wartenburg (Berlin,
+1851-1852, and many later editions), one of the best biographies
+in the German language, and then began his great work on the
+<i>Geschichte der preussischen Politik</i> (Berlin, 1855-1886). Seven
+volumes were published, the last not till after his death. It
+forms a complete history of the growth of the Prussian monarchy
+down to the year 1756. This, like all Droysen&rsquo;s work, shows a
+strongly marked individuality, and a great power of tracing the
+manner in which important dynamic forces worked themselves
+out in history. It was this characteristic quality of comprehensiveness
+that also gave him so much influence as a teacher.</p>
+
+<p>Droysen, who was twice married, died in Berlin on the 19th
+of June 1884. His eldest son, Gustav, is the author of several
+well-known historical works, namely, <i>Gustav Adolf</i> (Leipzig,
+1869-1870); <i>Herzog Bernhard von Weimar</i> (Leipzig, 1885);
+an admirable <i>Historischer Handatlas</i> (Leipzig, 1885), and several
+writings on various events of the Thirty Years&rsquo; War. Another
+son, Hans Droysen, is the author of some works on Greek history
+and antiquities.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See M. Duncker, <i>Johann Gustav Droysen, ein Nachruf</i> (Berlin,
+1885); and Dahlmann-Waitz, <i>Quellenkunde der deutschen Geschichte</i>
+(Leipzig, 1906).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. W. He.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DROZ, ANTOINE GUSTAVE<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> (1832-1895), French man of
+letters, son of the sculptor J. A. Droz (1807-1872), was born in
+Paris on the 9th of June 1832. He was educated as an artist,
+and began to exhibit in the Salon of 1857. A series of sketches
+dealing gaily and lightly with the intimacies of family life,
+published in the <i>Vie parisienne</i> and issued in book form as
+<i>Monsieur, Madame et Bébé</i> (1866), won for the author an immediate
+and great success. <i>Entre nous</i> (1867) was built on a
+similar plan, and was followed by some psychological novels:
+<i>Le Cahier bleu de Mlle Cibot</i> (1868); <i>Autour d&rsquo;une source</i> (1869);
+<i>Un Paquet de lettres</i> (1870); <i>Babolein</i> (1872); <i>Les Étangs</i> (1875);
+<i>L&rsquo;Enfant</i> (1885). His <i>Tristesses et sourires</i> (1884) is a delicate
+analysis of the niceties of family intercourse and its difficulties.
+Droz&rsquo;s first book was translated into English under the title of
+<i>Papa, Mamma and Baby</i> (1887). <i>Un Été à la campagne</i>, a book
+which caused considerable scandal, was erroneously attributed
+to him. He died on the 22nd of October 1895.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DROZ, FRANÇOIS-XAVIER JOSEPH<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> (1773-1850), French
+writer on ethics and political science, was born on the 31st of
+October 1773 at Besançon, where his family had furnished
+men of considerable mark to the legal profession. His own legal
+studies led him to Paris in 1792; he arrived on the very day
+after the dethronement of the king, and was present during the
+massacres of September; on the declaration of war he joined
+the volunteer <i>bataillon</i> of the Doubs, and for the next three years
+served in the Army of the Rhine. Receiving his discharge on
+the score of ill-health, he obtained a much more congenial post
+in the newly-founded <i>école centrale</i> of Besançon; and in 1799
+he made his first appearance as an author by an <i>Essai sur l&rsquo;art
+oratoire</i> (Paris, Fructidor, An VII.), in which he acknowledges
+his indebtedness more especially to Hugh Blair. Removing to
+Paris in 1803, he became intimate not only with the like-minded
+Ducis, but also with the sceptical Cabanis; and it was on this
+philosopher&rsquo;s advice that, in order to catch the public ear, he
+produced the romance of <i>Lina</i>, which Sainte-Beuve has characterized
+as a mingled echo of Florian and <i>Werther</i>. Like several
+other literary men of the time, he obtained a post in the revenue
+office known as the <i>Droits réunis</i>; but from 1814 he devoted
+himself exclusively to literature and became a contributor to
+various journals. Already favourably known by his <i>Essai sur
+l&rsquo;art d&rsquo;être heureux</i> (Paris, 1806), his <i>Éloge de Montaigne</i> (1812), and
+his <i>Essai sur le beau dans les arts</i> (1815), he not only gained the
+Monthyon prize in 1823 by his work <i>De la philosophie morale ou
+des différents systèmes sur la science de la vie</i>, but also in 1824
+obtained admission to the Académie Française. The main
+doctrine inculcated in this last treatise is that society will never
+be in a proper state till men have been educated to think of
+their duties and not of their rights. It was followed in 1825 by
+<i>Application de la morale à la philosophie et à la politique</i>, and
+in 1829 by <i>Économie politique, ou principes de la science
+des richesses</i>, a methodical and clearly written treatise, which
+was edited by Michel Chevalier in 1854. His next and greatest
+work was a <i>Histoire du règne de Louis XVI</i> (3 vols., Paris, 1839-1842).
+As he advanced in life Droz became more and more
+decidedly religious, and the last work of his prolific pen was
+<i>Pensées du Christianisme</i> (1842). Few have left so blameless a
+reputation: in the words of Sainte-Beuve, he was born and he
+remained all his life of the race of the good and the just.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Guizot, <i>Discours académiques</i>; Montalembert, &ldquo;Discours de
+réception,&rdquo; in <i>Mémoires de l&rsquo;Académie française</i>; Sainte-Beuve,
+<i>Causeries du lundi</i>, t. iii.; Michel Chevalier, Notice prefixed to the
+<i>Économie politique</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page597" id="page597"></a>597</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">DRUG,<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> a district and town of British India, in the Chhattisgarh
+division of the Central Provinces. The district was formed
+in 1906 out of portions of the districts of Bilaspur and Raipur.
+It has an area of 3807 sq. m., and the population on that area
+in 1901 was 628,885, showing a heavy decrease in the preceding
+decade, owing to the famines of 1897 and 1900. The district
+is a long narrow tract, with lofty ridges of gravel in the centre
+and north, but otherwise consisting of open rolling country.
+The Tendula and Seonath are the principal rivers. Rich black
+soil covers a large part of the district, and rice, wheat and other
+crops are grown. The main line of the Bengal-Nagpur railway
+passes through the district. Drug, the capital of the district,
+is on the railway, 685 m. from Bombay, and had in 1901 a population
+of 4002. Bell-metal-founding and cotton-weaving are
+carried on.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DRUG<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> (from Fr. <i>drogue</i>, a word common in Romance languages,
+cf. Span. and Ital. <i>droga</i>; the origin of the word is obscure, but
+may possibly be connected with Dutch <i>droog</i>, dry), any organic
+and inorganic substance used in the preparation of medicines,
+by itself or in combination with others, and either prepared by
+some method or used in a natural state (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pharmacology</a></span>
+and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pharmacopoeia</a></span>). In a particular sense &ldquo;drug&rdquo; is often
+used synonymously for narcotics or poisonous substances, and
+hence &ldquo;to drug&rdquo; means to stupefy or poison. The word is also
+applied to any article for which there is no sale, or of which the
+value has greatly depreciated&mdash;a &ldquo;drug in the market.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DRUIDISM,<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> the name usually given to the religious system
+of the ancient inhabitants of Gaul and the British Islands. The
+word Druid (Lat. <i>druida</i>) probably represents a Gaulish <i>druid-s</i>,
+Irish <i>drúi</i>, gen. sing. <i>drúad</i>. On the analogy of Irish <i>súi&lt;su-vid-s</i>
+the word has been analysed into <i>dru-vid-</i>, &ldquo;very knowing,
+wise.&rdquo; The ancient Welsh form of the word does not exist.
+Welsh <i>derwydd</i> and <i>dryw</i> are probably to be regarded as of recent
+coinage, as also the Breton forms <i>drouiz</i>, <i>druz</i>. The important
+part played by the oak in the religious cults of other countries
+suggests a connexion with Greek <span class="grk" title="drus">&#948;&#961;&#8166;&#962;</span>, oak, but this etymology
+is rather in disfavour at the present time.</p>
+
+<p>We find in Caesar the first and at the same time the most
+circumstantial account of the Druids to be met with in the
+classical writers. He tells us that all men of any rank and
+dignity in Gaul were included among the Druids or the nobles.
+In other words, the Druids constituted the learned and the
+priestly class, and they were in addition the chief expounders
+and guardians of the law. We are, however, informed by
+Diodorus and Strabo that this class was composed of Druids, bards
+and soothsayers. Hence Caesar seems to assign more extensive
+functions to the Druids than they actually possessed. The
+substance of Caesar&rsquo;s account is as follows. On those who
+refused to submit to their decisions they had the power of inflicting
+severe penalties, of which excommunication from society
+was the most dreaded. As they were not a hereditary caste and
+enjoyed exemption from service in the field as well as from payment
+of taxes, admission to the order was eagerly sought after
+by the youth of Gaul. The course of training to which a novice
+had to submit was protracted, extending sometimes over twenty
+years. All instruction was communicated orally, but for
+ordinary purposes they had a written language in which they
+used the Greek characters. The president of the order, whose
+office was elective and who enjoyed the dignity for life, had
+supreme authority among them. They taught that the soul was
+immortal. Astrology, geography, physical science and natural
+theology were their favourite studies.</p>
+
+<p>Britain was the headquarters of Druidism, but once every
+year a general assembly of the order was held within the territories
+of the Carnutes in Gaul. The Gauls were accustomed to
+offer human sacrifices, usually criminals. Cicero remarks on
+the existence among the Gauls of augurs or soothsayers, known
+by the name of Druids, with one of whom, Divitiacus, an Aeduan,
+he was acquainted. Diodorus informs us that a sacrifice acceptable
+to the gods must be attended by a Druid, for they are the
+intermediaries. Before a battle they often throw themselves
+between two armies to bring about peace. They are said to
+have had a firm belief in the immortality of the soul and in
+metempsychosis, a fact which led several ancient writers to
+conclude that they had been influenced by the teaching of the
+Greek philosopher Pythagoras.</p>
+
+<p>A rescript of Augustus forbade Roman citizens to practise
+druidical rites. In Strabo we find the Druids still acting as
+arbiters in public and private matters, but they no longer deal
+with cases of murder. Under Tiberius the Druids were suppressed
+by a decree of the senate, but this had to be renewed by
+Claudius in <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 54. In Mela we find the Druids teaching in the
+depths of a forest or in caverns. In Pliny their activity is limited
+to the practice of medicine and sorcery. According to this
+writer the Druids held the mistletoe in the highest veneration.
+Groves of oak were their chosen retreat. Whatever grew on
+that tree was thought to be a gift from heaven, more especially
+the mistletoe. When thus found, the mistletoe was cut with a
+golden knife by a priest clad in a white robe, two white bulls
+being sacrificed on the spot. Tacitus, in describing the attack
+made on the island of Mona (Anglesea) by the Romans under
+Suetonius Paulinus, represents the legionaries as being awe-struck
+on landing by the appearance of a band of Druids, who,
+with hands uplifted towards heaven, poured forth terrible
+imprecations on the heads of the invaders. The courage of the
+Romans, however, soon overcame such fears; the Britons were
+put to flight; and the groves of Mona, the scene of many a
+sacrifice and bloody rite, were cut down.</p>
+
+<p>After this the continental Druids disappear entirely, and are
+only referred to on very rare occasions. Ausonius, for instance,
+apostrophizes the rhetorician Attius Patera as sprung from a
+race of Druids.</p>
+
+<p>When we turn to the British Islands we find, as we should
+expect, no traces of the Druids in England and Wales after the
+conquest of Anglesea mentioned above, except in the story of
+Vortigern as recounted by Nennius. After being excommunicated
+by Germanus the British leader invites twelve Druids to
+assist him. These probably came from North Britain. In
+Irish literature, however, the Druids are frequently mentioned,
+and their functions in the island seem to correspond fairly well
+to those of their Gaulish brethren described by classical writers.
+The functions of Caesar&rsquo;s Druids we here find distributed amongst
+Druids, bards and poets (<i>fili</i>), but even in very early times the
+poet has usurped many of the duties of the Druid and finally
+supplants him with the spread of Christianity. The following
+is the position of the Druid in the pagan literature. The most
+important documents are contained in MSS. of the 12th century,
+but the texts themselves go back in large measure to about
+<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 700. In the heroic cycles the Druids do not appear to have
+formed any corporation, nor do they seem to have been exempt
+from military service. Cathbu (Cathbad), the Druid connected
+with Conchobar, king of Ulster, in the older cycle is accompanied
+by a number of youths (100 according to the oldest version)
+who are desirous of learning his art, though what this consisted
+in we are not told. The Druids are represented as being able
+to foretell the future and to perform magic. Before setting out
+on the great expedition against Ulster, Medb, queen of Connaught,
+goes to consult her Druid, and just before the famous heroine
+Derdriu (Deirdre) is born, Cathbu prophesies what sort of a
+woman she will be. We may cite two instances of the magical
+skill of the Druids. The hero Cuchulinn has returned from the
+land of the fairies after having been enticed thither by a fairy-woman
+named Fand, whom he is now unable to forget. He is
+given a potion by some Druids, which banishes all memory of his
+recent adventures and which also rids his wife Emer of the pangs
+of jealousy. More remarkable still is the story of Etain. This
+lady, now the wife of Eochaid Airem, high-king of Ireland, was
+in a former existence the beloved of the god Mider, who again
+seeks her love and carries her off. The king has recourse to his
+Druid Dal&#257;n, who requires a whole year to discover the haunt
+of the couple. This he accomplished by means of four wands of
+yew inscribed with ogam characters. The following description
+of the band of Cathbu&rsquo;s Druids occurs in the epic tale, the
+<i>Cattle-spoiling of Cualnge</i> (Cooley): &ldquo;The attendant raises his
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page598" id="page598"></a>598</span>
+eyes towards heaven and observes the clouds and answers the
+band around him. They all raise their eyes towards heaven,
+observe the clouds, and hurl spells against the elements, so that
+they arouse strife amongst them and clouds of fire are driven
+towards the camp of the men of Ireland.&rdquo; We are further told
+that at the court of Conchobar no one had the right to speak
+before the Druids had spoken. In other texts the Druids are
+able to produce insanity.</p>
+
+<p>In the religious literature they are almost exclusively represented
+as magicians and diviners opposing the Christian missionaries,
+though we find two of them acting as tutors to the daughters
+of Laegaire, the high-king, at the coming of St Patrick. They
+are represented as endeavouring to prevent the progress of St
+Patrick and St Columba by raising clouds and mist. Before the
+battle of Culdremne (561) a Druid made an <i>airbe drúad</i> (fence
+of protection?) round one of the armies, but what is precisely
+meant by the phrase is obscure. The Irish Druids seem to have
+had a peculiar tonsure. The word <i>drúi</i> is always used to render
+the Latin <i>magus</i>, and in one passage St Columba speaks of Christ
+as his Druid.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See D&rsquo;Arbois de Jubainville, <i>Les Druides et les dieux celtiques à
+forme d&rsquo;animaux</i> (Paris, 1906), and <i>Introduction à l&rsquo;étude de la
+littérature celtique</i> (Paris, 1883); P. W. Joyce, <i>A Social History of
+Ancient Ireland</i> (London, 1903).</p>
+</div><div class="author">(E. C. Q.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DRUIDS, ORDER OF,<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> a friendly society founded, as an
+imitation of the ancient Druids, in London in 1781. They
+adopted Masonic rites and spread to America (1833) and Australia.
+Their lodges are called &ldquo;Groves.&rdquo; In 1872 the Order
+was introduced into Germany. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Friendly Societies</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DRUM<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> (early forms <i>drome</i> or <i>dromme</i>, a word common to many
+Teut. languages, cf. Dan. <i>tromme</i>, Ger. <i>Trommel</i>: the word is
+ultimately the same as &ldquo;trumpet,&rdquo; and is probably onomatopoeic
+in origin; it appears late in Eng. about the middle of the 16th
+century), the name given to the well-known musical instrument
+(see below) and also to many objects resembling it in shape.
+Thus it is used of any receptacle of similar shape, as a &ldquo;drum&rdquo;
+of oil, &amp;c.; in machinery, of a revolving cylinder, round which
+belting is passed; of the <i>tympanum</i> or cylindrically shaped
+middle ear, and specially of the membrane that closes the
+external auditory meatus; and, in architecture, of the substructure
+of a dome when raised to some height above the
+pendentives. The architectural drum had a twofold object;
+first, to give greater elevation to the dome externally so that it
+should rise well above the surrounding building, and secondly,
+to allow of the interior being lighted with vertical windows cut
+in the drum, instead of forming penetrations in the dome itself,
+as in St Sophia, Constantinople. The term is also applied to the
+circular blocks of stone, which in columns of large dimensions
+were built with a series of drums. At Selinus in Sicily some of
+these great circular blocks are found on the road between the
+quarries and the temples; they vary from 8 to 10 ft. in diameter,
+being about 6 ft. high. The term <i>frusta</i> is sometimes applied to
+them.</p>
+
+<p>In music the drum (Fr. <i>tambour</i>; Ger. <i>Trommel</i>; Ital. <i>tamburo</i>)
+is an instrument of percussion common in some form to all
+nations and ages. It consists of a frame or vessel forming a
+resonant cavity, over one or both ends of which is stretched a
+skin or vellum set in vibration by direct percussion of hand or
+stick. Drums fall into two divisions according to the nature of
+their sonority:&mdash;(1) instruments producing sounds of definite
+musical pitch, and qualified thereby to take part in the harmony
+of the orchestra, such as the kettledrum (<i>q.v.</i>); (2) instruments
+of indefinite sonorousness, and therefore excluded from the
+harmony of the orchestra; such are the bass drum, the side
+or snare drum, the tenor drum, the tambourine, all used for
+marking the rhythm and adding tone colour.</p>
+
+<p>Drums are further divided into three classes according to
+special features of construction:&mdash;(1) instruments having a
+skin stretched over one end of the resonant cavity, the other
+being open, such as the tambourine (<i>q.v.</i>) and the <i>darabukkeh</i>
+or Egyptian drum, shaped like a mushroom; (2) instruments
+consisting of a cup-shaped receptacle of metal, wood or earthenware
+entirely closed by a skin or vellum stretched across the
+opening, as in the kettledrum; (3) a receptacle in the shape of a
+cylinder closed at both ends by skins, as in the bass drum, side
+drum, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>Skin or parchment only acquires the elasticity requisite to
+produce vibration by tension; the vibrations of the parchment
+are taken up by the air enclosed in the receptacle, which thus
+reinforces the sound produced by the parchment. The <i>tone</i> of
+the instrument whether definite or indefinite depends upon the
+dimensions of the vellum, the shape of the resonant receptacle,
+and the method of percussion. The <i>intensity</i> of the sound
+depends upon the degree of percussive force used and the diameter
+of the vellum in proportion to the dimensions of the
+resonant receptacle; the material of which the latter consists
+has little or no influence on the tone of the instrument. The
+<i>pitch</i> of the sound is determined by the dimensions of the vellum
+taken in conjunction with the degree of tension, the pitch
+varying in acuteness directly with the degree of tension and
+inversely with the size of the vellum.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 357px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:307px; height:378px" src="images/img598a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Military Bass Drum (Besson &amp; Co.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The <i>bass drum</i> or Turkish drum (Fr. <i>grosse caisse</i>; Ger. <i>Grosse
+Trommel</i>; Ital. <i>gran cassa</i> or <i>tamburo grande</i>) consists of a
+short cylinder of very wide diameter covered at both ends by
+vellum stretched over thin hoops, which in turn are kept in place
+by larger hoops fitting
+tightly over them. At
+regular intervals in the
+two large hoops are
+bored holes through
+which passes an endless
+cord stretched in zig-zag
+round the cylinder and
+connecting the two
+hoops. The tension of
+the vellum is controlled
+by means of leather
+braces which are made
+to slide up and down
+the zig-zag of cord,
+slackening or tightening
+the large hoops, and
+with them the vellum,
+at the will of the performer.
+Systems of rods
+and screws are also used
+for the purpose. The
+bass drum is mounted on a stand when used in the orchestra.
+The sound is produced by striking the centre of the vellum on
+the one end of the drum with a stick having a large soft round
+knob composed of wood covered with cork, sponge or felt. The
+bass drum cannot be tuned since it gives out no definite note, but
+the pitch may be varied, according as a rich full tone or a
+mere dull thud be required, by tightening or loosening the
+braces; the instrument can, moreover, be muffled by covering
+it with a piece of cloth. The music for the bass drum is generally
+written on a stave with a bass clef, <img style="width:80px; height:34px" src="images/img598b.jpg" alt="" />, the C being
+merely used to show the rhythm and accents. Sometimes
+the stave is dispensed with, a single note on a single
+line being sufficient. The bass drum has a place in every
+orchestra, although it is used but sparingly to accentuate the
+rhythm. It is possible to make gradations in <i>forte</i> and <i>piano</i>
+on the bass drum, and to play quavers and semi-quavers in
+moderate <i>tempo</i>. A roll is sometimes played by holding a short
+stick, furnished with a knob at each end, in the middle and
+striking in quick succession with each knob alternately; two
+kettledrum sticks answer the purpose still better. It is understood
+that the cymbals play the same music as the bass drum
+unless the composer has written <i>senza piatti</i> over the part.
+Wagner did not once score for the bass drum after he composed
+<i>Rienzi</i>, but Verdi, Gounod, Berlioz and Sullivan used it effectively.
+The bass drum was formerly known as the <i>long drum</i>,
+the cylinder being long in proportion to the diameter.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>side</i> or <i>snare drum</i> (Fr. <i>tambour militaire</i>; Ger. <i>Militärtrommel</i>;
+Ital. <i>tamburo militare</i>) is an instrument consisting of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page599" id="page599"></a>599</span>
+a small wooden or brass cylinder with a vellum at each end.
+The parchments are lapped over small hoops and pressed firmly
+down by larger hoops. As in the bass drum, these and the
+vellums are tightened or slackened by means of cords and leather
+braces, or by a system of rods and screws. Across the lower head
+are stretched two or more catgut strings called snares, which
+produce a rattling sound at each stroke on the upper head,
+owing to the sympathetic vibration of the lower head which
+jars against the snares. The upper head, set in vibration by
+direct percussion from the sticks, induces sympathetic vibrations
+in the air contained within the resonating receptacle, and these
+vibrations are communicated to the lower head. The presence
+of the snares across the diameter of the latter produces a phenomenon
+which gives the side drum its peculiar timbre, changing
+the nature of the vibrations, now no longer free: the snares
+form a kind of nodal contact, inducing double the number of
+vibrations and a sound approximately an octave higher than
+would be the case were the heads left to vibrate freely. Moreover,
+the vibrations of the upper head being weaker, the latter
+is compelled to vibrate synchronously with the lower vellum.<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:455px; height:203px" src="images/img599a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Guards pattern Side Drum<br />(Besson &amp; Co.).</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;Regulation Side Drum<br />(Besson &amp; Co.).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The side drum, so called because it is worn at the side, is
+struck in the centre by two small wooden sticks with elongated
+heads or knobs of hard wood, producing a hard rasping sound
+when the drum is played singly and in close proximity to the
+hearer; when, however, several drums are played simultaneously
+or with other instruments the effect is brilliant and exhilarating.
+The roll is produced by striking two blows alternately with each
+hand quite regularly and very rapidly, the result being a rattling
+tremolo. This roll (&ldquo;daddy-mammy&rdquo;) is very difficult to
+acquire, and requires long practice. The side drum can be
+muffled by loosening the snares or by inserting a piece of silk
+or cloth between the snares and the parchment. An impressive
+effect is produced by a continued roll on muffled drums in funeral
+marches. The notation for the side drum is similar to that in use
+for the bass drum; the value of the note is alone of importance;
+the place of the note on the staff is immaterial and purely a
+matter of custom. In orchestral scores, a single line is often
+used, or the part for side and bass drum is written on the same
+staff. A great variety of rhythmical figures can be played on the
+side drum, such as</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:516px; height:103px" src="images/img599b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The <i>tenor drum</i> (Fr. <i>caisse roulante</i>; Ger. <i>Roll-</i> or <i>Rührtrommel</i>;
+Ital. <i>tamburo rulante</i>) is similar to the side drum but has a larger
+cylinder of wood and no snares; consequently its timbre lacks
+the brilliancy and incisiveness of the side drum. It is used for
+the roll in military bands, in some theatre orchestras, and on the
+stage.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>tambourin de Provence</i> is a small drum with a long cylinder
+of narrow diameter used in the Basque provinces with a small
+pipe (<i>galoubet</i>) having three holes. The drum is beaten with one
+stick only, the performer steadying it with the hand which fingers
+the pipe. The tambourin and galoubet are in fact a survival of
+the pipe and tabor (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The popularity of all kinds of drums in the most ancient
+civilizations is established beyond a doubt by the numerous
+representations of the instrument in a variety of shapes and
+sizes on the monuments and paintings of Egypt, Assyria,
+India and Persia. The <i>tympanon</i>, under which name seem to
+have been included tambourines and kettledrums, as well as
+the dulcimer (during the middle ages), was in use among Greeks
+and Romans chiefly in the worship of Cybele and Bacchus; it
+was introduced through the medium of the Roman civilization
+into western Europe. It is often said that the drum was introduced
+by the crusaders, but it was certainly known in England
+long before the crusades, for Bede (<i>Musica practica</i>) mentions
+it in his list of instruments, and Cassiodorus (ii. p. 507) describes
+it. The side drum was, until the reign of Elizabeth, of a much
+larger size than now and was held horizontally and beaten on
+one head only. It is not known at what date snares were added;
+Praetorius (<i>Syntagma musicum</i>, 1618) and Mersenne (<i>L&rsquo;Harmonie
+universelle</i>, Paris, 1636) both mention them. A drawing of a side
+drum showing a snare appears in a book<a name="fa2e" id="fa2e" href="#ft2e"><span class="sp">2</span></a> from the printing press
+of J. Badius Ascensius (1510); the instrument also has cords
+and braces. Another woodcut of the same century is given as
+frontispiece to an edition of Flavius Vegetius Renatus.<a name="fa3e" id="fa3e" href="#ft3e"><span class="sp">3</span></a> An actual
+side drum with two curved drumsticks belonging to the ancient
+Egyptians was found during the excavations conducted at Thebes
+in 1823.<a name="fa4e" id="fa4e" href="#ft4e"><span class="sp">4</span></a> It measured 1½ ft. in height by 2 ft. in diameter; the
+tension of the heads was regulated by cords braced by means of
+catgut encircling both ends of the drum, and wound separately
+round each cord so that these could be tightened or slackened
+at will by pulling the catgut bands closer together or pushing
+them farther apart. The Berlin Museum possesses some ancient
+Egyptian straight drumsticks with handle and knob. Drums
+were used at the battle of Halidon Hill (1333). An old ballad
+celebrating Edward III.&rsquo;s victory on this occasion appears in a
+chronicle of the 14th century, preserved in the British Museum
+(Harl. MS. 4690),</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;This was do with merry sowne.</p>
+<p class="i05">With pipes trumpes and tabers thereto.</p>
+<p class="i05">And loud clariones they blew also.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">A prose account of the battle in the same MS. states that the
+&ldquo;Englische mynstrelles beaten their tabers and blewen their
+trompes and pipers pipenede loude and made a great schowte
+upon the Skottes.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Froissart, under date 1338, gives details of the means taken
+by the Scots to intimidate the soldiers of Edward III.<a name="fa5e" id="fa5e" href="#ft5e"><span class="sp">5</span></a> Having
+mentioned their great horns, he adds, &ldquo;ils font si grand&rsquo; noise
+avec grands tambours qu&rsquo;ils ont aussi.&rdquo; The same chronicler,
+describing the triumphal entry of Edward III. into Calais (1347),
+gives the following list of instruments used: &ldquo;trompes, tambours,
+nacaires, chalemies, muses.&rdquo;<a name="fa6e" id="fa6e" href="#ft6e"><span class="sp">6</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Drums were used in the British army in the 16th century to
+give signals in war and peace-side drums by the infantry and
+dragoons, and kettledrums by the cavalry.<a name="fa7e" id="fa7e" href="#ft7e"><span class="sp">7</span></a> In the reign of
+Henry VIII. two drummers were allowed to every company of
+100 men. The chief drum beats used by the infantry in the
+17th century<a name="fa8e" id="fa8e" href="#ft8e"><span class="sp">8</span></a> were <i>call</i>, <i>troop</i>, <i>preparative</i>, <i>march</i>, <i>battaile</i> and
+<i>retreat</i>; these were later<a name="fa9e" id="fa9e" href="#ft9e"><span class="sp">9</span></a> changed to <i>general</i>, <i>réveillé</i>, <i>assembly</i>
+or <i>troop</i>, <i>tattoo</i>, <i>chamade</i>, &amp;c. The side drum was admitted into
+the orchestra in the 17th century, when Marais (1636-1728)
+scored for it in his opera <i>Alcione</i>.</p>
+<div class="author">(K. S.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See Victor Mahillon, <i>Catalogue descriptif</i> (Ghent, 1880), vol. i.
+pp. 19 and 20.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2e" id="ft2e" href="#fa2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Joannes Mauburnius, <i>Rosetum exercitiorum spiritualium et
+sacrarum meditationum</i> (Paris, 1510), Alphabetum, ix.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3e" id="ft3e" href="#fa3e"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Vier Bücher der Ritterschaft; mit manicherleyen gerüsten</i>, &amp;c.;
+(Augsburg, 1534).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4e" id="ft4e" href="#fa4e"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Carl Engel, <i>The Music of the Most Ancient Nations</i> (London,
+1864), p. 219.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5e" id="ft5e" href="#fa5e"><span class="fn">5</span></a> <i>Chron.</i> ii. p. 737, see also Grose&rsquo;s <i>Military Antiquities</i>, ii. 41.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6e" id="ft6e" href="#fa6e"><span class="fn">6</span></a> See Froissart in J. A. Buchon, <i>Panthéon litt.</i> (Paris, 1837), vol. i.
+cap. 322, p. 273.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7e" id="ft7e" href="#fa7e"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Sir John Smythe, <i>A Brief Discourse</i> (London, 1594), pp. 158-159.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8e" id="ft8e" href="#fa8e"><span class="fn">8</span></a> Lieut.-Col. W. Bariffe, <i>Militarie Discipline, or the Young
+Artilleryman</i> (London, 1643).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft9e" id="ft9e" href="#fa9e"><span class="fn">9</span></a> Sir James Turner, <i>Pallas armata</i> (1685), xxi. 302.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page600" id="page600"></a>600</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DRUMMOND, HENRY<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> (1786-1860), English banker, politician
+and writer, best known as one of the founders of the Catholic
+Apostolic or &ldquo;Irvingite&rdquo; Church, was born at the Grange, near
+Alresford, Hampshire, on the 5th of December 1786. He was the
+eldest son of Henry Drummond, a prominent London banker,
+by a daughter of the first Lord Melville. He was educated at
+Harrow and at Christ Church, Oxford, but took no degree. His
+name is permanently connected with the university through the
+chair of political economy which he founded in 1825. He
+entered parliament in early life, and took an active interest from
+the first in nearly all departments of politics. Thoroughly
+independent and often eccentric in his views, he yet acted
+generally with the Conservative party. His speeches were often
+almost inaudible but were generally lucid and informing, and on
+occasion caustic and severe. From 1847 until his death in
+1860 he represented West Surrey in parliament. Drummond
+took a deep interest in religious subjects, and published numerous
+books and pamphlets on such questions as the interpretation of
+prophecy, the circulation of the Apocrypha, the principles of
+Christianity, &amp;c., which attracted considerable attention. In
+1817 he met Robert Haldane at Geneva, and continued his
+movement against the Socinian tendencies then prevalent in
+that city. In later years he was intimately associated with the
+origin and spread of the Catholic Apostolic Church. Meetings
+of those who sympathized with the views of Edward Irving
+were held for the study of prophecy at Drummond&rsquo;s seat,
+Albury Park, in Surrey; he contributed very liberally to the
+funds of the new church; and he became one of its leading
+office-bearers, visiting Scotland as an &ldquo;apostle&rdquo; and being
+ordained as an &ldquo;angel&rdquo; for that kingdom. The numerous
+works he wrote in defence of its distinctive doctrines and practice
+were generally clear and vigorous, if seldom convincing. He
+died on the 20th of February 1860.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DRUMMOND, HENRY<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> (1851-1897), Scottish evangelical
+writer and lecturer, was born in Stirling on the 17th of August
+1851. He was educated at Edinburgh University, where he
+displayed a strong inclination for physical and mathematical
+science. The religious element was an even more powerful
+factor in his nature, and disposed him to enter the Free Church
+of Scotland. While preparing for the ministry, he became for
+a time deeply interested in the evangelizing mission of Moody
+and Sankey, in which he actively co-operated for two years. In
+1877 he became lecturer on natural science in the Free Church
+College, which enabled him to combine all the pursuits for which
+he felt a vocation. His studies resulted in his writing <i>Natural
+Law in the Spiritual World</i>, the argument of which was that the
+scientific principle of continuity extended from the physical
+world to the spiritual. Before the book issued from the press
+(1883), a sudden invitation from the African Lakes Company
+drew Drummond away to Central Africa. Upon his return in
+the following year he found himself famous. Large bodies of
+serious readers, alike among the religious and the scientific
+classes, discovered in <i>Natural Law</i> the common standing-ground
+which they needed; and the universality of the demand proved,
+if nothing more, the seasonableness of its publication. Drummond
+continued to be actively interested in missionary and other
+movements among the Free Church students. In 1888 he
+published <i>Tropical Africa</i>, a valuable digest of information.
+In 1890 he travelled in Australia, and in 1893 delivered the
+Lowell Lectures at Boston. It had been his intention to reserve
+them for mature revision, but an attempted piracy compelled
+him to hasten their publication, and they appeared in 1894
+under the title of <i>The Ascent of Man</i>. Their object was to vindicate
+for altruism, or the disinterested care and compassion
+of animals for each other, an important part in effecting &ldquo;the
+survival of the fittest,&rdquo; a thesis previously maintained by
+Professor John Fiske. Drummond&rsquo;s health failed shortly afterwards,
+and he died on the 11th of March 1897. His character
+was full of charm. His writings were too nicely adapted to the
+needs of his own day to justify the expectation that they would
+long survive it, but few men exercised more religious influence
+in their own generation, especially on young men.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DRUMMOND, THOMAS<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> (1797-1840), British inventor and
+administrator, was born at Edinburgh on the 10th of October
+1797, and was educated at the high school there. He was
+appointed to a cadetship at the Royal Military Academy,
+Woolwich, in 1813; and in 1815 he entered the Royal Engineers.
+In 1819, when meditating the renunciation of military service
+for the bar, he made the acquaintance of Colonel T. F. Colby
+(1784-1852), from whom in the following year he received an
+appointment on the trigonometrical survey of Great Britain.
+During his winters in London he attended the chemical lectures
+of W. T. Brande and M. Faraday at the Royal Institution, and
+the mention at one of these of the brilliant luminosity of lime
+when incandescent suggested to him the employment of the lime
+light for making distant surveying stations visible. In 1825,
+when he was assisting Colby in the Irish survey, his lime-light
+apparatus (&ldquo;Drummond light&rdquo;) was put to a practical test,
+and enabled observations to be completed between Divis
+mountain, near Belfast, and Slieve Snaght, a distance of 67 m.
+About the same time he also devised an improved heliostat, and
+in 1829 he was employed in adopting his light for lighthouse
+purposes. In 1831 he entered political life and was appointed
+superintendent of the boundary commission. Four years later
+he was made under-secretary of state for Ireland, where he
+proved himself a most successful administrator, and did much
+to promote law and order. It was he who in 1838 told the Irish
+landlords that &ldquo;property has its duties as well as its rights.&rdquo;
+In 1836 he proposed the appointment of a commission on railways
+in Ireland, and took a large share in its work, which resulted
+in the recommendation, not, however, carried out, that the state
+should construct a system of lines throughout the island.
+Drummond&rsquo;s health was undermined by overwork, and he died
+at Dublin on the 15th of April 1840.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Life</i> by J. F. M&rsquo;Lennan (1867); <i>Life and Letters</i> by R. Barry
+O&rsquo;Brien (1889); and Sir T. A. Larcom in <i>Papers on the Duties of the
+Royal Engineers</i>, vol. iv. (1840).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DRUMMOND, WILLIAM<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> (1585-1649), called &ldquo;of Hawthornden,&rdquo;
+Scottish poet, was born at Hawthornden, near Edinburgh,
+on the 13th of December 1585. His father, John Drummond, was
+the first laird of Hawthornden; and his mother was Susannah
+Fowler, sister of William Fowler (<i>q.v.</i>), poet and courtier.
+Drummond received his early education at the high school of
+Edinburgh, and graduated in July 1605 as M.A. of the recently
+founded university of Edinburgh. His father was a gentleman
+usher at the English court (as he had been at the Scottish court
+from 1590) and William, in a visit to London in 1606, describes
+the festivities in connexion with the visit of the king of Denmark.
+Drummond spent two years at Bourges and Paris in the study
+of law; and, in 1609, he was again in Scotland, where, by the
+death of his father in the following year, he became laird of
+Hawthornden at the early age of twenty-four. The list of books
+he read up to this time is preserved in his own handwriting.
+It indicates a strong preference for imaginative literature, and
+shows that he was keenly interested in contemporary verse.
+His collection (now in the library of the university of Edinburgh)
+contains many first editions of the most famous productions of
+the age. On finding himself his own master, Drummond naturally
+abandoned law for the muses; &ldquo;for,&rdquo; says his biographer in
+1711, &ldquo;the delicacy of his wit always run on the pleasantness
+and usefulness of history, and on the fame and softness of
+poetry.&rdquo; In 1612 began his correspondence with Sir William
+Alexander of Menstrie, afterwards earl of Stirling (<i>q.v.</i>), which
+ripened into a life-long friendship after Drummond&rsquo;s visit to
+Menstrie in 1614.</p>
+
+<p>Drummond&rsquo;s first publication appeared in 1613, an elegy on
+the death of Henry, prince of Wales, called <i>Teares on the Death
+of Meliades</i> (<i>Moeliades</i>, 3rd edit. 1614). The poem shows the
+influence of Spenser&rsquo;s and Sidney&rsquo;s pastoralism. In the same
+year he published an anthology of the elegies of Chapman,
+Wither and others, entitled <i>Mausoleum</i>, or <i>The Choisest Flowres
+of the Epitaphs</i>. In 1616, the year of Shakespeare&rsquo;s death,
+appeared <i>Poems: Amorous, Funerall, Divine, Pastorall: in
+Sonnets, Songs, Sextains, Madrigals</i>, being substantially the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page601" id="page601"></a>601</span>
+story of his love for Mary Cunningham of Barns, who was about
+to become his wife when she died in 1615. The poems bear
+marks of a close study of Sidney, and of the Italian poets. He
+sometimes translates direct from the Italian, especially from
+Marini. <i>Forth Feasting: A Panegyricke to the King&rsquo;s Most
+Excellent Majestie</i> (1617), a poem written in heroic couplets of
+remarkable facility, celebrates James&rsquo;s visit to Scotland in that
+year. In 1618 Drummond began a correspondence with Michael
+Drayton. The two poets continued to write at intervals for
+thirteen years, the last letter being dated in the year of Drayton&rsquo;s
+death. The latter had almost been persuaded by his &ldquo;dear
+Drummond&rdquo; to print the later books of <i>Poly-Olbion</i> at Hart&rsquo;s
+Edinburgh press. In the winter of 1618-1619, Drummond had
+included Ben Jonson in his circle of literary friends, and at
+Christmas 1618 was honoured with a visit of a fortnight or more
+from the dramatist. The account of their conversations, long
+supposed to be lost, was discovered in the Advocates&rsquo; Library,
+Edinburgh, by David Laing, and was edited for the Shakespeare
+Society in 1842 and printed by Gifford &amp; Cunningham. The
+conversations are full of literary gossip, and embody Ben&rsquo;s
+opinion of himself and of his host, whom he frankly told that
+&ldquo;his verses were too much of the schooles, and were not after
+the fancie of the time,&rdquo; and again that he &ldquo;was too good and
+simple, and that oft a man&rsquo;s modestie made a fool of his witt.&rdquo;
+But the publication of what was obviously intended merely
+for a private journal has given Jonson an undeserved reputation
+for harsh judgments, and has cast blame on Drummond for
+blackening his guest&rsquo;s memory.</p>
+
+<p>In 1623 appeared the poet&rsquo;s fourth publication, entitled
+<i>Flowers of Sion: By William Drummond of Hawthornedenne:
+to which is adjoyned his Cypresse Grove</i>. From 1625 till 1630
+Drummond was probably for the most part engaged in travelling
+on the Continent. In 1627, however, he seems to have been
+home for a short time, as, in that year, he appears in the entirely
+new character of the holder of a patent for the construction of
+military machines, entitled &ldquo;Litera Magistri Gulielmi Drummond
+de Fabrica Machinarum Militarium, Anno 1627.&rdquo; The same
+year, 1627, is the date of Drummond&rsquo;s munificent gift (referred
+to above) of about 500 volumes to the library of the university
+of Edinburgh.</p>
+
+<p>In 1630 Drummond again began to reside permanently at
+Hawthornden, and in 1632 he married Elizabeth Logan, by
+whom he had five sons and four daughters. In 1633 Charles
+made his coronation-visit to Scotland; and Drummond&rsquo;s pen
+was employed in writing congratulatory speeches and verses.
+As Drummond preferred Episcopacy to Presbytery, and was an
+extremely loyal subject, he supported Charles&rsquo;s general policy,
+though he protested against the methods employed to enforce
+it. When Lord Balmerino was put on his trial on the capital
+charge of retaining in his possession a petition regarded as a
+libel on the king&rsquo;s government, Drummond in an energetic
+&ldquo;Letter&rdquo; (1635) urged the injustice and folly of the proceedings.
+About this time a claim by the earl of Menteith to the earldom
+of Strathearn, which was based on the assertion that Robert III.,
+husband of Annabella Drummond, was illegitimate, roused the
+poet&rsquo;s pride of blood and prompted him to prepare an historical
+defence of his house. Partly to please his kinsman the earl
+of Perth, and partly to satisfy his own curiosity, the poet made
+researches in the genealogy of the family. This investigation
+was the real secret of Drummond&rsquo;s interest in Scottish history;
+and so we find that he now began his <i>History of Scotland during
+the Reigns of the Five Jameses</i>, a work which did not appear till
+1655, and is remarkable only for its good literary style. His next
+work was called forth by the king&rsquo;s enforced submission to the
+opposition of his Scottish subjects. It is entitled <i>Irene: or a
+Remonstrance for Concord, Amity, and Love amongst His Majesty&rsquo;s
+Subjects</i> (1638), and embodies Drummond&rsquo;s political creed of
+submission to authority as the only logical refuge from democracy,
+which he hated. In 1639 Drummond had to sign the Covenant
+in self-protection, but was uneasy under the burden, as several
+political squibs by him testify. In 1643 he published <span class="grk" title="Skiamachia">&#931;&#954;&#953;&#945;&#956;&#945;&#967;&#943;&#945;</span>:
+<i>or a Defence of a Petition tendered to the Lords of the Council of
+Scotland by certain Noblemen and Gentlemen</i>, a political pamphlet
+in support of those royalists in Scotland who wished to espouse
+the king&rsquo;s cause against the English parliament. Its burden is
+an invective on the intolerance of the then dominant Presbyterian
+clergy.</p>
+
+<p>His later works may be described briefly as royalist pamphlets,
+written with more or less caution, as the times required. Drummond
+took the part of Montrose; and a letter from the Royalist
+leader in 1646 acknowledged his services. He also wrote a
+pamphlet, &ldquo;A Vindication of the Hamiltons,&rdquo; supporting the
+claims of the duke of Hamilton to lead the Scottish army which
+was to release Charles I. It is said that Drummond&rsquo;s health
+received a severe shock when news was brought of the king&rsquo;s
+execution. He died on the 4th of December 1649. He was
+buried in his parish church of Lasswade.</p>
+
+<p>Drummond&rsquo;s most important works are the <i>Cypresse Grove</i>
+and the poems. The <i>Cypresse Grove</i> exhibits great wealth of
+illustration, and an extraordinary command of musical English.
+It is an essay on the folly of the fear of death. &ldquo;This globe of
+the earth,&rdquo; says he, &ldquo;which seemeth huge to us, in respect of
+the universe, and compared with that wide pavilion of heaven,
+is less than little, of no sensible quantity, and but as a point.&rdquo;
+This is one of Drummond&rsquo;s favourite moods; and he uses
+constantly in his poems such phrases as &ldquo;the All,&rdquo; &ldquo;this great
+All.&rdquo; Even in such of his poems as may be called more distinctively
+Christian, this philosophic conception is at work.</p>
+
+<p>A noteworthy feature in Drummond&rsquo;s poetry, as in that of
+his courtier contemporaries Ayton (<i>q.v.</i>), Lord Stirling and
+others, is that it manifests no characteristic Scottish element,
+but owes its birth and inspiration rather to the English and
+Italian masters. Drummond was essentially a follower of
+Spenser, but, amid all his sensuousness, and even in those lines
+most conspicuously beautiful, there is a dash of melancholy
+thoughtfulness&mdash;a tendency deepened by the death of his first
+love, Mary Cunningham. Drummond was called &ldquo;the Scottish
+Petrarch&rdquo;; and his sonnets, which are the expression of a
+genuine passion, stand far above most of the contemporary
+Petrarcan imitations. A remarkable burlesque poem <i>Polemo-Middinia
+inter Vitarvam et Nebernam</i> (printed anonymously in
+1684) has been persistently, and with good reason, ascribed to
+him. It is a mock-heroic tale, in dog-Latin, of a country feud
+on the Fifeshire lands of his old friends the Cunninghams.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Drummond&rsquo;s <i>Poems</i>, with <i>Cypresse Grove</i>, the <i>History</i>, and a few
+of the minor tracts, were collected in 1656 and edited by Edward
+Phillips, Milton&rsquo;s nephew. <i>The Works of William Drummond, of
+Hawthornden</i> (1711), edited by Bishop Sage and Thomas Ruddiman,
+contains a life by the former, and some of the poet&rsquo;s letters. A
+handsome edition of the <i>Poems</i> was printed by the Maitland Club
+in 1832. Later editions are by Peter Cunningham (1833), by
+William R. Turnbull in &ldquo;The Library of Old Authors&rdquo; (1856), and
+by W. C. Ward (1894) for &ldquo;The Muses&rsquo; Library.&rdquo; The standard
+biography of Drummond is by David Masson (1873). Extracts from
+the Hawthornden MSS. preserved in the Library of the Society of
+Antiquaries of Scotland were printed by David Laing in <i>Archaeologia
+Scotica</i>, vol. iv.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DRUNKENNESS,<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> a term signifying generally a state resulting
+from excessive drinking, and usually associated with alcoholic
+intoxication, or alcohol poisoning. It may represent either an
+<i>act</i> or a <i>habit</i>, the latter consisting in frequent repetitions of the
+former. As an act it may be an accident, most usually arising
+from the incautious use of one or other of the commonly employed
+intoxicating agents; as a habit (as in the form of chronic
+alcoholism) it is one of the most degrading forms of vice which
+can result from the enfeeblement of the moral principle by
+persistent self-indulgence.</p>
+
+<p>What appears to be &ldquo;intoxication&rdquo; may arise from many
+different causes (<i>e.g.</i> epilepsy, fractured skull, intracranial
+haemorrhage, and the toxaemic coma of diabetes and uraemia),
+and the close resemblance between the pathological and the
+toxic phenomena has been the cause of many untoward accidents.
+Cold alone may produce such peculiar effects that Captain Parry
+said in his <i>Journal</i>, &ldquo;I cannot help thinking that many a man
+may have been punished for intoxication who was only suffering
+from the benumbing effects of frost; for I have more than once
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page602" id="page602"></a>602</span>
+seen our people in a state so exactly resembling that of the most
+stupid intoxication, that I should certainly have charged them
+with the offence had I not been quite sure that no possible means
+were afforded them on Melville Island to procure anything
+stronger than snow water.&rdquo; The same confusion is frequently
+found in cases which come before the police-courts, people being
+arrested as &ldquo;drunk and disorderly&rdquo; who can prove that the
+symptoms were not due to over-indulgence in drink at all.
+Some individuals have, moreover, a special idiosyncrasy or
+susceptibility to alcohol, due to heredity or to one of the sequelae
+of sunstroke or cranial injury. The children of drunkards are
+usually very susceptible to the poison, becoming intoxicated by
+a far smaller quantity than is needed by a normal person.</p>
+
+<p>But, as a rule, the phenomena of drunkenness are actually
+due to excessive consumption of some intoxicating liquid.
+The physiological action of all such agents may be described as
+a cumulative production of paralysis of various parts of the
+nervous system, but this effect results only in doses of a certain
+amount&mdash;a dose which varies with the agent, the race and the
+individual. Even the cup so often said to &ldquo;cheer, but not
+inebriate,&rdquo; cannot be regarded as altogether free from the last-named
+effect. Tea-sots are well known to be affected with
+palpitation and irregularity of the heart, as well as with more
+or less sleeplessness, mental irritability and muscular tremors,
+which in some culminate in paralysis; while positive intoxication
+has been known to be the result of the excessive use of strong tea.
+In short, from tea to haschisch we have, through hops, alcohol,
+tobacco and opium, a sort of graduated scale of intoxicants,
+which stimulate in small doses and narcotize in larger,&mdash;the
+narcotic dose having no stimulating properties whatever, and
+only appearing to possess them from the fact that the agent can
+only be gradually taken up by the blood, and the system thus
+comes primarily under the influence of a stimulant dose. In
+certain circumstances and with certain agents&mdash;as in the production
+of chloroform narcosis&mdash;this precursory stage is capable
+of being much abbreviated, if not altogether annihilated; while
+with other agents&mdash;as tea&mdash;the narcotic stage is by no means
+always or readily produced.</p>
+
+<p>No subject in modern times has led to more extreme opinions
+than this of indulgence in &ldquo;intoxicants&rdquo; to any degree whatever.
+It is well to remember that (in spite of apparently authoritative
+modern views to the contrary) there is not a shadow of proof
+that the moderate use of any one of these agents as a stimulant
+has any definite tendency to lead to its abuse; it is otherwise
+with their employment as narcotics, which, once indulged in, is
+almost certain to lead to repetition, and to a more or less rapid
+process of degradation, though there are many exceptions to
+this latter statement. It is interesting to know that a former
+English judge, who lived to nearly ninety years of age, believed he
+had prolonged his life and added greatly to his comfort by the
+moderate use of ether, which he was led to employ because
+neither wine nor tobacco agreed with him; while the immoderate
+use of the same agent has given rise to a most deleterious form
+of drunkenness, both in parts of Ireland and in some of the large
+industrial centres in Great Britain.</p>
+
+<p>Various modern biologists have discussed, with more or less
+acceptance in certain circles, the historical conditions in various
+races and in different countries as to the use and abuse of intoxicants,
+and have drawn varying conclusions from their
+theories. It has even been contended, with much show of learned
+authority, that since drunkenness leads to disease and early
+death, the proneness to strong drink in the long run causes the
+elimination of the unfit, and results in a general sobering of the
+community, a race being therefore temperate in proportion to
+its past sufferings through alcohol. But on this subject it may
+be said that, at least, no agreement has been reached.</p>
+
+<p>The effects of intoxicants are variously modified by the temperament
+of the individual and the nature of the inebriant.
+When that is alcohol, its action on an average individual is first
+to fill him with a serene and perfect self-complacency. His
+feelings and faculties are exalted into a state of great activity
+and buoyancy, so that his language becomes enthusiastic, and
+his conversation vivacious if not brilliant. The senses gradually
+become hazy, a soft humming seems to fill the pauses of the
+conversation, and modify the tones of the speaker, a filmy haze
+obscures the vision, the head seems lighter than usual, the
+equilibrium unstable. By-and-by objects appear double, or flit
+confusedly before the eyes; judgment is abolished, secretiveness
+annihilated, and the drunkard pours forth all that is
+within him with unrestrained communicativeness; he becomes
+boisterous, ridiculous, and sinks at length into a mere animal.
+Every one around him, the very houses, trees, even the earth
+itself, seem drunken and unstable, he alone sober, till at last the
+final stage is reached, and he falls on the ground insensible&mdash;<i>dead
+drunk</i> (alcoholic coma)&mdash;a state from which, after profound
+slumber, he at last awakes feverish, exhausted, sick and giddy,
+with ringing ears, a throbbing heart and a violent headache.</p>
+
+<p>The poison primarily affects the cerebral lobes, and the other
+parts of the cerebro-spinal system are consecutively involved, till
+in the state of <i>dead-drunkenness</i> the only parts not invaded by
+a benumbing paralysis are those automatic centres in the medulla
+oblongata which regulate and maintain the circulation and
+respiration. But even these centres are not unaffected; the
+paralysis of these as of the other sections of the cerebro-spinal
+system varies in its incompleteness, and at times becomes
+complete, the coma of drunkenness terminating in death. More
+usually the intoxicant is gradually eliminated, and the individual
+restored to consciousness, a consciousness disturbed by the
+secondary results of the agent he has abused, which vary with
+the nature of that agent. Whether, however, directly or indirectly
+through the nervous system, the stomach suffers in
+every case; thus nutrition is interfered with by the defective
+ingestion of food, as well as by the mal-assimilation of that
+which is ingested; and from this cause, as well as by the peculiar
+local action of the various poisons, the various organic degenerations
+are induced (cirrhosis of the liver, &amp;c.) which in most cases
+shorten the drunkard&rsquo;s days.</p>
+
+<p>The primary discomforts of an act of drunkenness are readily
+removed for the time by a repetition of the cause. Thus what
+has been an act may readily become a habit, all the more readily
+that each repetition more and more enfeebles both the will and
+the judgment, till they become utterly unfit to resist the
+temptation to indulgence supplied by the knowledge of the
+temporary relief to suffering which is sure to follow, and in spite
+of the consciousness that each repetition of the act only forges
+their chains more tightly. From this condition there is no hope
+of relief but in enforced abstinence; any one in this condition
+must be regarded as temporarily insane (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Insanity</a></span> and
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Neuropathology</a></span>), and ought to be placed in an inebriate
+asylum till he regain sufficient self-control to enable him to
+overcome his love for drink. Numerous &ldquo;cures&rdquo; have been
+started in recent years, which have often succeeded in individual
+cases. An anti-alcoholic serum obtained from alcoholized
+horses has been advocated by Dr Sapelier.</p>
+
+<p>For the law concerning drunkenness the reader is referred to
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Inebriety, Law of</a></span>. Its prevalence as a vice has varied considerably
+according to the state of education or comfort in
+different classes of society. In considering the extent to which
+intemperance has prevailed, the statistics of prosecutions upon
+which such comparisons are usually based are far from being
+completely satisfactory, but, inasmuch as they constitute the
+only possible data for such comparisons, we are compelled to
+accept them. The following table gives the average number
+of persons per 1000 of the population proceeded against for
+drunkenness in England and Wales for quinquennial periods,
+dating from 1857, the first year of the Judicial Statistics:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 30%;" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc">1857-1861</td> <td class="tcc">4.28</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1862-1866</td> <td class="tcc">4.78</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1867-1871</td> <td class="tcc">5.47</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1872-1876</td> <td class="tcc">7.83</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1877-1881</td> <td class="tcc">7.25</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1882-1886</td> <td class="tcc">6.90</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1887-1891</td> <td class="tcc">6.19</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1892-1896</td> <td class="tcc">5.84</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1897-1901</td> <td class="tcc">6.42</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1902-1906</td> <td class="tcc">6.51</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page603" id="page603"></a>603</span></p>
+
+<p>The figures, it will be seen, show a steady decline from 1872-1876
+(when the consumption of alcohol was quite abnormal)
+to 1892-1896. After that year, however, the figures again rose.
+The increase was especially marked in 1899, when a tide of
+exceptional prosperity was again accompanied by great drunkenness.
+It is also disquieting to discover that the average number
+of prosecutions for drunkenness in the three years 1897-1899
+was 51% higher than the average for 1857-1861, and 35%
+higher than the average for 1862-1866. That the increase was
+partly due to more efficient police administration is probable,
+but that this is not a complete explanation of the figures is
+made evident by an analysis of the general statistics of crime
+during the same period, from which it may be seen that, while
+crime generally (excluding drunkenness) decreased 28% in
+England and Wales since 1857-1861, drunkenness increased
+51%. Speaking generally, it may be said that in the United
+Kingdom drunkenness appears chiefly prevalent in the seaport
+and mining districts. If a line be drawn from the mouth of the
+Severn to the Wash, it will be found that the &ldquo;black&rdquo; counties,
+without exception, lie to the north-west of this line. The worst
+counties in England and Wales in the matter of drunkenness
+are Northumberland, Durham and Glamorganshire, while
+Pembrokeshire and Lancashire follow close behind. The most
+sober counties, on the other hand, are Cambridgeshire, Suffolk,
+Oxfordshire and Wiltshire. Averages based upon the returns
+of entire counties do not, however, afford a complete guide to
+the distribution of drunkenness, inasmuch as offences are not
+equally distributed over the whole area of a county. A heavy
+ratio of drunkenness in a small district may often give a county
+an unfavourable position in the general averages, notwithstanding
+favourable conditions in the rest of its area.</p>
+
+<p>Analysis of the prosecutions for drunkenness shows that about
+24% of the total number of offences are committed by women.
+In the larger towns the proportion, as a rule, is higher. In
+London, 38% of the drunkenness is attributable to women;
+in Manchester, 36%; in Belfast and Glasgow, 32%. In
+Liverpool, on the other hand, the proportion is only 24%.
+The much-controverted question as to whether intemperance
+is increasing among women can hardly, however, be decided
+by an appeal to the criminal statistics. So far as these statistics
+throw any light at all upon the question, they suggest important
+local differences. A more direct clue is afforded by the registrar-general&rsquo;s
+annual returns of deaths directly attributed to intemperance.
+The figures are given below. In order to eliminate
+accidental variations, the comparison is based upon the average
+mortality during consecutive periods:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Years.</td>
+ <td class="tccm allb">Average No. of deaths<br />(England and Wales).</td>
+ <td class="tccm allb">Males<br />per cent.</td>
+ <td class="tccm allb">Females<br />per cent.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1877-1881</td> <td class="tcc rb">1071</td> <td class="tcc rb">69</td> <td class="tcc rb">31</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1882-1886</td> <td class="tcc rb">1320</td> <td class="tcc rb">66</td> <td class="tcc rb">34</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1887-1891</td> <td class="tcc rb">1710</td> <td class="tcc rb">64</td> <td class="tcc rb">36</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1892-1896</td> <td class="tcc rb">2044</td> <td class="tcc rb">61</td> <td class="tcc rb">39</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1897-1899</td> <td class="tcc rb">2577</td> <td class="tcc rb">61</td> <td class="tcc rb">39</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">1899</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2871</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">60</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">40</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>For the ten years ending 1904, out of 26,426 deaths from
+alcoholism, 59.34% were males and 40.66% females.</p>
+
+<p>The figures are certainly striking. They show, it will be noticed,
+that out of every 100 deaths from alcoholic excess in England
+and Wales women contributed nine more at the end of the
+century then they did in 1880. If, instead of taking the total
+number of deaths, we take the ratio per million persons living,
+the increase is seen even more clearly:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Years.</td>
+ <td class="tccm allb">Males per<br />million living.</td>
+ <td class="tccm allb">Females per<br />million living.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1877-1881</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;60</td> <td class="tcc rb">25</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1882-1886</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;67 </td> <td class="tcc rb">32</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1887-1891</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;79</td> <td class="tcc rb">42</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1892-1896</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;86</td> <td class="tcc rb">51</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1897-1899</td> <td class="tcc rb">103 </td> <td class="tcc rb">63</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">1899</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">112</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">70</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>It appears that, while the ratio of mortality from alcoholic
+excess increased 87% among males during the last two
+decades of the century, among females it increased by no less
+than 180%.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Liquor Laws</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Temperance</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DRURY, SIR WILLIAM<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> (1527-1579), English statesman and
+soldier, was a son of Sir Robert Drury of Hedgerley in Buckinghamshire,
+and grandson of another Sir Robert Drury (d. 1536),
+who was speaker of the House of Commons in 1495. He was
+born at Hawstead in Suffolk on the 2nd of October 1527, and
+was educated at Gonville Hall, Cambridge. Fighting in France,
+Drury was taken prisoner in 1544; then after his release he
+helped Lord Russell, afterwards earl of Bedford, to quell a rising
+in Devonshire in 1549, but he did not come to the front until
+the reign of Elizabeth. In 1559 he was sent to Edinburgh to
+report on the condition of Scottish politics, and five years
+later he became marshal and deputy-governor of Berwick. Again
+in Scotland in January 1570, it is interesting to note that the
+regent James Stewart, earl of Murray, was proceeding to keep
+an appointment with Drury in Linlithgow when he was mortally
+wounded, and it was probably intended to murder the English
+envoy also. After this event Drury led two raids into Scotland;
+at least thrice he went to that country on more peaceable errands,
+during which, however, his life was continually in danger from
+assassins; and he commanded the force which compelled
+Edinburgh Castle to surrender in May 1573. In 1576 he was
+sent to Ireland as president of Munster, where his stern rule
+was very successful, and in 1578 he became lord justice to the
+Irish council, taking the chief control of affairs after the departure
+of Sir Henry Sidney. The rising of the earl of Desmond had
+just broken out when Sir William died in October 1579.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Drury&rsquo;s letters to Lord Burghley and others are invaluable for the
+story of the relations between England and Scotland at this time.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DRUSES,<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Druzes</span> (Arab. <i>Druz</i>), a people of mid-Syria (for
+the derivation of the name see History section below), distributed
+nowadays into three isolated groups, of which the most numerous
+inhabits Jebel Hauran (Jebel Druz), E. of Jordan (about 55,000);
+the second, the <i>cazas</i> of Shuf and Metn in Lebanon (about
+50,000); the third, the <i>cazas</i> of Hasbeya, Rasheya, W. al Ajem,
+Homs, Hamadiyeh and Selimiyeh in Anti-Lebanon and Hermon
+(about 45,000). The first group, which has been greatly increased
+by migrants from the second, since the establishment of the
+privileged Lebanon province (1861) under Christian auspices,
+lives apart from other peoples in semi-independence. The
+second is now confined to the southern Lebanon, and even there
+is greatly outnumbered by Maronites, who, in the whole &ldquo;Mountain,&rdquo;
+stand to Druses as 9 to 2. The third is counterbalanced
+everywhere by a large population of Moslem and Orthodox
+Syrians. The Hauran, therefore, has become the stronghold
+of the Druses, offering nowadays the best field for studying
+their peculiar customs and religion; and the group there still
+increases at the expense of the other groups, despite efforts on
+the part of the Ottoman government to check Druse migration
+by both conciliatory and repressive measures. The actual
+distinction of the Druses, as a racial unity, despite their dispersion,
+depends so exclusively on the peculiarity of their common
+religion, that it will be well at once to give an account of Druse
+creed and practice as they are understood to stand at the present
+day. How this religion may have grown up and come to be
+theirs will be considered later.</p>
+
+<p><i>Religion.</i>&mdash;Druse religion is a secret faith, and the following
+account is given with all reserves. There are many indications
+that a more primitive cult, containing elements of Nature
+worship, preceded it, and still survives in the popular practices
+of the more remote Druse districts, <i>e.g.</i> in the eastern Hauran.
+The <i>Muwahhidin</i> (Unitarians), as the Druses call themselves,
+believe that there is one and only one God, indefinable, incomprehensible,
+ineffable, passionless. He has made himself known
+to men by successive incarnations, of which the last was Hakim,
+the sixth Fatimite caliph. How many these incarnations have
+been is stated variously; but seventy, one for each period of
+the world, seems the best-attested number. Jesus appears to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page604" id="page604"></a>604</span>
+be accepted as one such incarnation, but not Mahomet, although
+it is agreed that, in his time, the &ldquo;Universal Intelligence&rdquo;
+(see later) was made flesh, in the person of Mikdad al-Aswad.
+No further incarnation can now take place: in Hakim a final
+appeal was made to mankind, and after the door of mercy had
+stood open to all for twenty-six years, it was finally and for ever
+closed. When the tribulation of the faithful has reached its
+height, Hakim will reappear to conquer the world and render
+his religion supreme. Druses, believed to be dispersed in China,
+will return to Syria. The combined body of the Faithful will
+take Mecca, and finally Jerusalem, and all the world will accept
+the Faith. The first of the creatures of God is the Universal
+Intelligence or Spirit, impersonated in Hamza, Hakim&rsquo;s vizier.
+This Spirit was the creator of all subordinate beings, and alone
+has immediate communion with the Deity. Next in rank, and
+equally supporting the throne of the Almighty, are four Ministering
+Spirits, the Soul, the Word, the Right Wing and the Left
+Wing, who, in Hakim&rsquo;s time, were embodied respectively in
+Ismael Darazi, Mahommed ibn Wahab, Selama ibn Abd al-Wahal
+and Baha ud-Din; and beneath these again are spiritual
+agents of various ranks. The material world is an emanation
+from, and a &ldquo;mirror&rdquo; of, the Divine Intelligence. The number
+of human beings admits neither of increase nor of decrease,
+and a regular process of metempsychosis goes on continually.
+The souls of the virtuous pass after death into ever new incarnations
+of greater perfection, till at last they reach a point at
+which they can be re-absorbed into the Deity itself; those of
+the wicked may be degraded to the level of camels or dogs. All
+previous religions are mere types of the true, and their sacred
+books and observances are to be interpreted allegorically. The
+Gospel and the Koran are both regarded as inspired books, but
+not as religious guides. The latter function is performed solely
+by the Druse Scriptures. As the admission of converts is no
+longer permitted, the faithful are enjoined to keep their doctrine
+secret from the profane; and in order that their allegiance may
+not bring them into danger, they are allowed (like Persian
+mystics) to make outward profession of whatever religion is
+dominant around them. To this latter indulgence is to be
+attributed the apparent indifferentism which leads to their
+joining Moslems in prayers and ablutions, or sprinkling themselves
+with holy water in Maronite churches. Obedience is required
+to the seven commandments of Hamza, the first and greatest
+of which enjoins truth in words (but only those of Druse speaking
+with Druse); the second, watchfulness over the safety of the
+brethren; the third, absolute renunciation of every other
+religion; the fourth, complete separation from all who are in
+error; the fifth, recognition of the unity of &ldquo;Our Lord&rdquo; in all
+ages; the sixth, complete resignation to his will; and the
+seventh, complete obedience to his orders. Prayer, however,
+is regarded as an impertinent interference with the Creator;
+while, at the same time, instead of the fatalistic predestination
+of Mahommedanism, the freedom of the human will is distinctly
+maintained. Not only is the charge of secrecy rigidly obeyed
+in regard to the alien world, but full initiation into the deeper
+mysteries of the creed is permitted only to a special class designated
+<i>Akils</i>, (Arabic <i>&lsquo;Akl</i>, intelligence), in contradistinction from
+whom all other members of the Druse community, whatever
+may be their position or attainments, are called <i>Jahel</i>, the
+Ignorant. About 15% of the adult population belong to the
+order of Akils. Admission is granted to any Druse of either
+sex who expresses willingness to conform to the laws of the
+society, and during a year of probation gives sufficient proof of
+sincerity and stability of purpose. There appears to be no
+formal distinction of rank among the various members; and
+though the amir, Beshir Shehab, used to appoint a sheikh of the
+Akils, the person thus distinguished obtained no primacy over
+his fellows. Exceptional influence depends upon exceptional
+sanctity or ability. All are required to abstain from tobacco
+and wine; the women used not to be allowed to wear gold or
+silver, or silk or brocade, but this rule is commonly broken now;
+and although neither celibacy nor retirement from the affairs
+of the world is either imperative or customary, unusual respect
+is shown to those who voluntarily submit themselves to ascetic
+discipline. While the Akils mingle frankly with the common
+people, and are remarkably free from clerical pretension, they
+are none the less careful to maintain their privileges. They
+are distinguished by the wearing of a white turban, emblematic
+of the purity of their life. Their food must be purchased with
+money lawfully acquired; and lest they should unwittingly
+partake of any that is ceremonially unclean, they require those
+Jahels, whose hospitality they share, to supply their wants from
+a store set apart for their exclusive use. The ideal Akil is grave,
+calm and dignified, with an infinite capacity of keeping a secret,
+and a devotion that knows no limits to the interests of his
+creed. On Thursday evening, the commencement of the weekly
+day of rest, the members of the order meet together in the
+various districts, probably for the reading of their sacred books
+and consultation on matters of ecclesiastical or political importance.
+Their meeting-houses, <i>khalwas</i>, are plain, unornamented
+edifices. These have property attached to them, the revenues
+of which are consecrated to the relief of the poor and the demands
+of hospitality. In the eastern Hauran, there are hill-top
+shrines containing each a black stone, on which rugs, &amp;c., are
+hung, and these seem to perpetuate features of pre-Islamic
+Arabian cult, including the sacrifice of animals, <i>e.g.</i> goats. They
+are held in reverence by the Bedouins. The women assemble
+in the <i>khalwas</i> at the same time as the men, a part of the space
+being fenced off for them by a semi-transparent black veil.
+Even while the Akils are assembled, strangers are readily enough
+admitted to the <i>khalwas</i>; but as long as these are present the
+ordinary ceremonies are neglected, and the Koran takes the
+place of the Druse Scriptures. It has been frequently asserted
+that the image of a calf is kept in a niche, and traces of phallic
+and gynaecocratic worship have been vaguely suspected;
+but there is no authentic information in support of either statement.
+The calf, if calf there be, is probably a symbol of the
+execrable heresy of Darazi, who is frequently styled the calf by
+his Orthodox opponents. Ignorance is the mother of suspicion
+as well as of superstition; and accordingly the Christian inhabitants
+of the Lebanon have long been persuaded that the
+Druses in their secret assemblies are guilty of the most nefarious
+practices. For this allegation, so frequently repeated by European
+writers, there seems to be little evidence; and it is certain
+that the sacred books of the religion contain moral teaching of a
+high order on the whole.</p>
+
+<p>As a formulated creed, the Druse system is not a thousand
+years old. In the year <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 996 (386 A.H.) Hakim Biamrillahi
+(<i>i.e.</i> he who judges by the command of God), sixth of the Fatimite
+caliphs (third in Egypt), began to reign; and during the next
+twenty-five years he indulged in a tyranny at once so terrible
+and so fantastic that little doubt can be entertained of his
+insanity. He believed that he held direct intercourse with the
+deity, or even that he was an incarnation of the divine intelligence;
+and in <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1016 (407 <span class="sc">a.h.</span>) his claims were made known
+in the mosque at Cairo, and supported by the testimony of
+Ismael Darazi. The people showed such bitter hostility to the
+new gospel that Darazi was compelled to seek safety in flight;
+but even in absence he was faithful to his god, and succeeded
+in winning over certain ignorant inhabitants of Lebanon. According
+to the Druses, this great conversion took place in <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1019
+(410 <span class="sc">a.h.</span>). Meanwhile the endeavours of the caliph to get
+his divinity acknowledged by the people of Cairo continued.
+The advocacy of Hasan ibn Haidara Fergani was without
+avail; but in 1017 (408 <span class="sc">a.h.</span>) the new religion found a more
+successful apostle in the person of Hamza ibn Ali ibn Ahmed,
+a Persian mystic, felt-maker by trade, who became Hakim&rsquo;s
+vizier, gave form and substance to his creed, and by an ingenious
+adaptation of its various dogmas to the prejudices of existing
+sects, finally enlisted an extensive body of adherents. In 1020
+(411 A.H.) the caliph was assassinated by contrivance of his
+sister Sitt ul-Mulk; but it was given out by Hamza that he had
+only withdrawn for a season, and his followers were encouraged to
+look forward with confidence to his triumphant return. Darazi,
+who had acted independently in his apostolate, was branded
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page605" id="page605"></a>605</span>
+by Hamza as a heretic, and thus, by a curious anomaly, he is
+actually held in detestation by the very sect which perhaps
+bears his name. The propagation of the faith in accordance
+with Hamza&rsquo;s initiation was undertaken by Ismael ibn Mahommed
+Tamimi, Mahommed ibn Wahab, Abul-Khair Selama ibn
+Abd al-Wahal ibn Samurri, and Moktana Baha ud-Din, the
+last of whom became known by his writings from Constantinople
+to the borders of India. In two letters addressed to the emperors
+Constantine VIII. and Michael the Paphlagonian he
+endeavoured to prove that the Christian Messiah reappeared
+in the person of Hamza.</p>
+
+<p>It is possible, even probable, that the segregation of the
+Druses as a people dates only from the adoption of Hamza&rsquo;s
+creed. But when it is recalled that other inhabitants of the
+same mountain system, <i>e.g.</i> the Maronites, the Ansarieh, the
+Metawali and the &ldquo;Isma&lsquo;ilites,&rdquo; also profess creeds which, like
+the Druse system, differ from Sunni Islam in the important
+feature of admitting incarnations of the Deity, it is impossible
+not to suspect that Hamza&rsquo;s emissaries only gave definition and
+form to beliefs long established in this part of the world. Many
+of the fundamental ideas of Druse theology belong to a common
+West Asiatic stock; but the peculiar history of the Mountain
+is no doubt responsible for beliefs, held elsewhere by different
+peoples, being combined there in a single creed. Some allowance,
+too, must be made for the probability that Hamza&rsquo;s system owed
+something to doctrines Christian and other, with which the metropolitan
+position of Cairo brought Fatimite society into contact.</p>
+
+<p><i>History</i>&mdash;There is good reason to regard the Druses as, racially,
+a mixture of refugee stocks, in which the Arab largely predominates,
+grafted on to an original mountain population of Aramaic
+blood and Incarnationist tendencies. The latter is represented
+more purely by the Maronites (<i>q.v.</i>). The native tradition
+regards an immigration of Hira Arabs into S. Lebanon, under
+Khalid ibn Walid in the 9th century, as the beginning of Druse
+distinctiveness and power; but it also accepts Turkoman and
+Kurdish elements in the original Druse state. About the same
+time, or a little later (in the reign of Saladin), it believes that
+Hermon was colonized by a population of 15,000 Hira and
+Yemenite Arabs, who had sojourned awhile in Hauran. The
+name Druse is met with first in Benjamin of Tudela (c. <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1170),
+and its origin has been much disputed. Some authorities see
+in it a descriptive epithet, derived from Arabic <i>darasa</i> (those
+who <i>read</i> the Book), or <i>darisa</i> (those in <i>possession</i> of Truth)
+or <i>durs</i> (the <i>clever</i> or <i>initiated</i>); but more connect it with the
+name of the first missionary, Ismael <i>Darazi</i>.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as we begin to know anything of the Druses they were
+living in a feudal state of society, as village communities under
+<i>sheikhs</i>, themselves generally subordinate to one or more amirs.
+In the time of the first crusades the main power was in the hands
+of the Arslan family, which, however, suffered so severely in
+wars with the Franks, that it was superseded by the Tnuhs, who,
+holding Beirut and nearly all the Phoenician coast, came into
+conflict with the sultans of Egypt. One of these latter, Malik
+Ashraf, about <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1300, forced outward compliance with Sunni
+Islam on the Mountain, after defeating the Druses at Ain Sofar.
+Meanwhile, however, the <i>Maan</i> family, lately immigrant from
+N. Arabia, was growing in power, and throwing in its lot with the
+Osmanli invaders in the reign of Selim I., it was promoted to the
+supreme amirate about 1517. Fakr ud-Din Maan II. increased
+Druse dominion until it included all the N. Syrian region from
+the edge of the Antioch plain to Acre, with part of the eastern
+desert, dominated by his castle at Tadmor (Palmyra), and the
+important towns of Latakia, Tripoli, Beirut and Saida; and
+forming further ambitious designs, he intrigued with Christians
+and broke with the Turks. In 1614 the pasha of Damascus
+moved against him with a large force, and compelled him to fly
+from Syria. He sought the courts of Tuscany and Naples and
+tried to enlist Frank sympathies, inventing (probably) the
+curious myth, so often credited since, that the Druses are of
+crusading origin and owe their name to the counts of Dreux.<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+He landed again at Saida in 1619 and recovered his old position.
+But in 1633 Kuchuk Ahmed Pasha was sent against him with
+a large army, and succeeded in capturing him with his sons.
+The family was sent to Constantinople, and two years later
+strangled. The dynasty struggled on till the end of the century,
+amid civil war, in which the parties seem to have been divided
+by the earlier Arab factions of Kaisites (Qaisites) and Yemenites,
+the Maan belonging to the latter.</p>
+
+<p>The Shehab family, originally Hira Arabs, which had governed
+Hauran under the early caliphs of Damascus, and thereafter
+held power in Hermon, intermarried with the Maan; and in the
+latter&rsquo;s day of weakness sided with the Kaisi faction and obtained
+the supreme amirate of the Mountain. But it appears never to
+have professed the Druse creed, remaining Sunnite. Haidar
+Shehab, third of the line, inflicted a notable defeat on the pasha of
+Saida (capital of an Ottoman eyalet since 1688) and the Yemenite
+Druses at Ain Dara, near Zahleh, in 1711, and proceeded to
+consolidate Shehab power, breaking up the old feudal society
+and substituting for the sheikhs <i>mukatajis</i> (tax-contractors),
+who had penal jurisdiction. The Yemenite Druses thereupon
+emigrated in large numbers to the Hauran, and laid the foundation
+of Druse power there. The Turks recognized the <i>status quo</i>,
+and made terms with the Shehab amir in 1748; but his power
+was none too well secured against the opposition of the Kurdish
+<i>Jumblat</i> family, even though he was supported by the <i>Talhuk</i>,
+<i>Abd al-Malik</i> and <i>Yezbeki</i> families; and it appears that some
+members of the Shehab joined the Maronite faith in the middle
+of the 18th century, causing a suspicion of secret apostasy to
+fall on all the family.</p>
+
+<p>It is said that the amir Beshir, who succeeded about 1786, was
+himself a crypto-Christian. This remarkable man, who ruled
+the Mountain for fifty-four years, maintained his power by taking
+the side of one rebel pasha after another, betraying each in turn,
+and cultivating relations with European admirals. His earliest
+ally was Ahmed &ldquo;Jezzar,&rdquo; who established himself in Acre in
+contumacious independence late in the 18th century. Beshir
+supported Jezzar against Napoleon in 1799 and earned the
+friendship of Sir Sidney Smith. Falling out with Jezzar, Beshir
+fled to Cairo in 1805, attached himself to Mehemet Ali, and
+returned to take up the reins. Once more chased out by the
+Turks, he was again in the Mountain in 1823, allied with Abdallah,
+on whom Jezzar&rsquo;s mantle had ultimately fallen at Acre, and
+maintaining friendly relations with the &ldquo;English Princess,&rdquo;
+Lady Hester Stanhope. He now finally worsted the Jumblat.
+The invasion of Syria by Mehemet Ali in 1831 caused Beshir to
+desert Abdallah and throw in his lot with Ibrahim Pasha; but
+he was not cordially followed by the Druses in general, and had
+good excuse for revolt in 1839, and intrigue with the British
+admiral in 1840. Ibrahim, however, by his possession of Druse
+hostages, restrained the amir, and after the bombardment of
+Acre, the Turks called him to account for his record of rebellion
+and treachery. He fled to Malta on a British ship, but was
+induced to go to Constantinople, where he died in 1851.</p>
+
+<p>His successor, Beshir al-Kassim, openly joined the Maronites,
+and instigating these against the malcontents of his own people,
+brought enmities, which had been growing for a century, to a
+head, and initiated a devastating internecine warfare which was
+to continue for twenty years. The state of the Lebanon went
+from bad to worse, and at last, in January 1842, the Turkish
+government appointed Omar Pasha as administrator of the
+Druses and Maronites, with a council of four chiefs from each
+party; but the pasha, attempting to effect a disarming, was
+besieged in November in the castle of Beit ed-Din by the Druses
+under Shibli el-Arrian. At the instigation of the European
+powers he was recalled in December, and the Druses and Maronites
+were placed under separate <i>kaimakams</i> (governors), who,
+it was stipulated, were not to be of the family of Shehab. Disturbances
+again broke out in 1845, the native <i>mukatajis</i> refusing
+to obey the <i>kaimakams</i>. The Maronites flew to arms, but with
+the assistance of the Turks their opponents carried the day.
+A superficial pacification effected by Shekib Effendi, the Ottoman
+commissioner, lasted only till his departure; and the Porte
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page606" id="page606"></a>606</span>
+was obliged to despatch a force of 12,000 men to the Lebanon.
+Forty of the chiefs were seized, the people was nominally disarmed,
+and in 1846 a new constitution was inaugurated, by
+which the <i>kaimakam</i> was to be assisted by two Druses, two
+Maronites, four Greeks, two Turks and one Metawali. All,
+however, was in vain: the conflict was continued through 1858,
+1859 and 1860; and the disturbance culminated in the famous
+Damascus massacre (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Syria</a></span>). The European powers now
+determined to interfere; and, by a protocol of the 3rd of May
+1860, it was decided that the Lebanon should be occupied by a
+force of 20,000 men, of whom half were to be French. A body
+of troops was accordingly landed on the 16th of August under
+General Beaufort d&rsquo;Hautpoul; and Fuad Pasha, who had been
+appointed Turkish commissioner with full powers, proceeded
+to bring the leaders of the massacres to justice. The French
+occupation continued till the 5th of June 1861, and the French
+and English squadrons cruised on the coast for several months
+after. In accordance with the recommendation of the European
+powers the Porte determined to appoint a Christian governor
+not belonging to the district, and independent of the pasha of
+Beirut, to hold office for three years. The choice fell on Daud
+Pasha, an Armenian Catholic, who was installed on the 4th of
+July. In spite of many difficulties, and especially the ambitious
+conduct of the Maronite Jussuf Karam, he succeeded in restoring
+order; and by the formation of a military force from the inhabitants
+of the Lebanon he rendered unnecessary the presence
+of the Turkish soldiery.</p>
+
+<p>The privileged province of Lebanon (<i>q.v.</i>) was finally constituted
+by the Organic Statute of the 6th of September 1864,
+and the subsequent history of the Lebanon Druses is one of
+gradual withdrawal from the jurisdiction of that state, in which
+they see their ancient independence irretrievably compromised,
+and their religion subordinated to Christian supremacy. Many
+now emigrate, when occasion offers, to America.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, the Hauran, the old seat of the Shehab family
+and Hermon Druses, had been steadily receiving a Druse influx,
+since the day of Ain Dara (see above). Towards the close of the
+18th century some 600 families left Lebanon for the Hauran,
+in discontent with the rule of the Shehab dynasty, and their
+place and property were taken by 1500 families driven out of
+Jebel Ansarieh by Topal Ali in 1811. The Hauran Druses
+increased by the middle of the 19th century to 7000 souls. They
+had successfully resisted Ibrahim, the Egyptian, in 1839 in the
+Lija, and asserted complete independence of the Turks, living
+under a theocratic government directed by the chief Akil in
+Suweda. A great effort, made by Kibrisli Pasha in 1852 to
+subdue the Hauran, came to nothing. In 1879 the population
+numbered 20,000, and by a murderous raid attracted the attention
+of Midhat Pasha, then vali of the province of Syria. After
+experiencing one disaster he defeated their forces and imposed a
+<i>kaimakam</i>, at first drawn from the Talhuks, but subsequently
+chosen from the Atrash family of Kunawat. But the Druses
+still refused to pay taxes, to serve in the Ottoman army, or to
+recognize the <i>kaimakam</i>, and maintained their contumacy under
+the lead of the Jumblat, till 1896; when, as the result of a
+military expedition under Tahir Pasha and a great defeat at
+Ijun, a compromise was arrived at, under which the Druses
+agreed to pay taxes, but to serve in their own territory only as a
+frontier guard. The government was put into the hands of a
+mutessarif resident at Sheikh Saad, under whom are <i>kaimakams</i>
+at Suweda and Salkhad. Since that epoch there has been
+comparative peace between the Druses and the government,
+largely because the latter, having learned wisdom, leaves the
+people very much to itself, maintaining only a small garrison of
+regular troops, and enlisting Druse police for service in Jebel
+Druz itself. The Druses are allowed to carry on their feuds
+with the Bedouins of the E. Desert as they will, so long as they
+do not disturb western districts. With the recent opening out
+of the W. Hauran by railway, the Druse sheikhs are beginning
+to acquire commercial ambitions, and to desire peace.</p>
+
+<p>The Hauran Druses are a vigorous, independent folk, with a
+well-deserved reputation for courage, very astute, and hospitable
+to Europeans, especially the British, with whom they have an
+old tradition of friendship. But, like most persecuted but semi-independent
+peoples, they are both cruel, and, by our standards,
+treacherous. They are a handsome race, the women being often
+beautiful. The latter no longer carry the head-horn which used
+to support the veil dropped over the face out of doors. But
+their dress is still black with the exception of red slippers, and
+the veil is never abandoned, not even, it is said, during sleep.
+An English lady, who has been much among them, states that
+the Druse women of the Hauran never unveiled before her.
+The men wear a <i>tarbush</i> with white roll, a black under-robe
+with white girdle, a short loose jacket, and when necessary an
+<i>aba</i> or parti-coloured cloak over all. They go habitually armed
+with scimitar and half-moon axe, besides gun or rifle.</p>
+
+<p>Polygamy is forbidden. Marriage retains certain traces of
+the original system of capture; but Druse women enjoy much
+consideration, and are comparatively well educated, dignified
+and free in their bearing in spite of their close veiling. As has
+been stated above, they join the men in religious functions.
+Divorce is easy and can be initiated by the woman; but remarriage
+of the pair can only be effected by the good offices
+of a proxy (as in Moslem societies, after a third divorce). Burial
+takes place in family mausoleums, walled up after each interment;
+but Akils are buried in their own houses. The body is laid on its
+side, with its face to the south (Mecca).</p>
+
+<p>Education is widely spread, and there is a considerable religious
+literature, much of which is known in Europe. A copy of the
+<i>Book of the Testimonies to the Mysteries of the Unity</i>, consisting
+of seventy treatises in four folio volumes, was found in the
+house of the chief Akil at Bakhlin, and presented in 1700 to
+Louis XIV. by Nusralla ibn Gilda, a Syrian doctor. Other
+manuscripts are to be found at Rome in the Vatican, at Oxford
+in the Bodleian, at Vienna, at Leiden, at Upsala and at Munich;
+and Dr J. L. Porter got possession of seven standard works of
+Druse theology while at Damascus. The Munich collection was
+presented to the king of Bavaria by Clot Bey, the chief physician
+in the Egyptian army during its occupation of Syria; and for a
+number of the other manuscripts we are indebted to the elder
+Niebuhr. A history of the Druse nation by the amir Haidar
+Shehab is quoted by Urquhart.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;Adler, &ldquo;Druze Catechism,&rdquo; in <i>Museum Cuficum
+Borgianum</i> (1782); Silvestre de Sacy, <i>Exposé de la religion des Druses</i>
+(1838); Ph. Wolff, <i>Reise in das gelobte Land</i>, and <i>Die Drusen und ihre
+Vorläufer</i> (1842); C. H. Churchill, <i>Ten Years&rsquo; Residence in Mount
+Lebanon</i> (3 vols., 1853); G. W. Chasseaud, <i>The Druzes of the Lebanon</i>
+(1855); E. G. Ray, <i>Voyage dans le Haouran, exécuté pendant les
+années 1857 et 1858</i>; C. H. Churchill, <i>The Druzes and Maronites
+under the Turkish Rule from 1840 to 1860</i> (London, 1862); H. Guys,
+<i>Le Théogonie des Druses</i> (1863), and <i>La Nation Druse</i> (1864);
+M. von Oppenheim, <i>Vom Mittelmeer</i>, &amp;c. (1899); Gertrude L. Bell,
+<i>The Desert and the Sown</i> (1907).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(D. G. H.; G. Be.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Sophisticated Druses still sometimes claim connexion with
+Rosicrucians, and a special relation to Scottish freemasons.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DRUSIUS<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">van den Driesche</span>), <b>JOHANNES</b> (1550-1616),
+Protestant divine, distinguished specially as an Orientalist and
+exegete, was born at Oudenarde, in Flanders, on the 28th of June
+1550. Being designed for the church, he studied Greek and
+Latin at Ghent, and philosophy at Louvain; but his father
+having been outlawed for his religion, and deprived of his estate,
+retired to England, where the son followed him in 1567. He
+found an admirable teacher of Hebrew in Chevalier, the celebrated
+Orientalist, with whom he resided for some time at
+Cambridge. In 1572 he became professor of Oriental languages
+at Oxford. Upon the pacification of Ghent (1576) he returned
+with his father to their own country, and was appointed professor
+of Oriental languages at Leiden in the following year. In 1585
+he removed to Friesland, and was admitted professor of Hebrew
+in the university of Franeker, an office which he discharged with
+great honour till his death, which happened in February 1616.
+He acquired so extended a reputation as a professor that his
+class was frequented by students from all the Protestant countries
+in Europe. His works prove him to have been well skilled in
+Hebrew and in Jewish antiquities; and in 1600 the states-general
+employed him, at a salary of 400 florins a year, to write notes
+on the most difficult passages in the Old Testament; but this
+work was not published until after his death. As the friend of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page607" id="page607"></a>607</span>
+Arminius, he was charged by the orthodox and dominant party
+with unfairness in the execution of the task, and the last sixteen
+years of his life were therefore somewhat embittered by controversy.
+He carried on an extensive correspondence with the
+learned in different countries; for, besides letters in Hebrew,
+Greek and other languages, there were found amongst his papers
+upwards of 2000 written in Latin. He had a son, John, who
+died in England at the age of twenty-one, and was accounted
+a prodigy of learning. He had mastered Hebrew at the age of
+nine, and Scaliger said that he was a better Hebrew scholar than
+his father. He wrote a large number of letters in Hebrew,
+besides notes on the Proverbs of Solomon and other works.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Paquot states the number of the printed works and treatises of
+the elder Drusius at forty-eight, and of the unprinted at upwards
+of twenty. Of the former more than two-thirds were inserted in
+the collection entitled <i>Critici sacri, sive annolata doctissimorum
+virorum in Vetus et Novum Testamentum</i> (Amsterdam, 1698, in 9
+vols. folio, or London, 1660, in 10 vols. folio). Amongst the works
+of Drusius not to be found in this collection may be mentioned&mdash;(1)
+<i>Alphabetum Hebraicum vetus</i> (1584, 4to); (2) <i>Tabulae in grammaticam
+Chaldaicam ad usum juventutis</i> (1602, 8vo); (3) An edition
+of Sulpicius Severus (Franeker, 1807, 12mo); (4) <i>Opuscula quae ad
+grammaticam spectant omnia</i> (1609, 4to); (5) <i>Lacrymae in obitum
+J. Scaligeri</i> (1609, 4to); and (6) <i>Grammatica linguae sanctae nova</i>
+(1612, 4to).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DRUSUS, MARCUS LIVIUS,<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> Roman statesman, was colleague
+of Gaius Gracchus in the tribuneship, 122 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> The proposal
+of Gracchus (<i>q.v.</i>) to confer the full franchise on the Latins had
+been opposed not only by the senate, but also by the mob, who
+imagined that their own privileges would thereby be diminished.
+Drusus threatened to veto the proposal. Encouraged by this,
+the senatorial party put up Drusus to outbid Gracchus. Gracchus
+had proposed to found colonies outside Italy; Drusus provided
+twelve in Italy, to each of which 3000 citizens were to be sent.
+Gracchus had proposed to distribute allotments to the poorer
+citizens subject to a state rent-charge; Drusus promised them
+free of all charge, and further that they should be inalienable.
+In addition to the franchise, immunity from corporal punishment
+(even in the field) was promised the Latins. The absence of
+Gracchus, and the inefficiency of his representative at Rome,
+led to the acceptance of these proposals, which were never
+intended to be carried. Drusus himself declined all responsibility
+in connexion with carrying them out. He was rewarded
+for his services by the consulship (112), and the title of <i>patronus
+senatus</i>. He received Macedonia for his province, where he
+distinguished himself in a campaign against the Scordisci, whom
+he drove across the Danube, being the first Roman general who
+reached that river. It is possible that he is the Drusus mentioned
+by Plutarch as having died in 109, the year of his censorship.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Appian, <i>Bell. Civ.</i> i. 23; Plutarch, <i>Gaius Gracchus</i>, 8-11; Florus
+iii. 4; A. H. J. Greenidge, <i>Hist. of Rome</i>, vol. i. (1904).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>His son, <span class="sc">Marcus Livius Drusus</span>, became tribune of the
+people in 91 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> He was a thoroughgoing conservative, wealthy
+and generous, and a man of high integrity. With some of the
+more intelligent members of his party (such as Marcus Scaurus
+and L. Licinius Crassus the orator) he recognized the need of
+reform. At that time an agitation was going on for the transfer
+of the judicial functions from the equites to the senate; Drusus
+proposed as a compromise a measure which restored to the
+senate the office of judices, while its numbers were doubled by
+the admission of 300 equites. Further, a special commission
+was to be appointed to try and sentence all judices guilty of
+taking bribes. But the senate was lukewarm, and the equites,
+whose occupation was threatened, offered the most violent
+opposition. In order, therefore, to catch the popular votes,
+Drusus proposed the establishment of colonies in Italy and
+Sicily, and an increased distribution of corn at a reduced rate.
+By help of these riders the bill was carried. Drusus now sought
+a closer alliance with the Italians, promising them the long-coveted
+boon of the Roman franchise. The senate broke out
+into open opposition. His laws were abrogated as informal,
+and each party armed its adherents for the civil struggle which
+was now inevitable. Drusus was stabbed one evening as he was
+returning home. His assassin was never discovered.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Rome: <i>History</i>, ii. &ldquo;The Republic&rdquo; (Period C); also Appian,
+<i>Bell. Civ.</i> i. 35; Florus iii. 17; Diod. Sic. xxxvii. 10; Livy, <i>Epit.</i>
+70; Vell. Pat. ii. 13.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DRUSUS, NERO<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> <a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> <span class="bold">CLAUDIUS</span> (38-9 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>) Roman general,
+son of Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia Drusilla, stepson of
+Augustus and younger brother of the emperor Tiberius. Having
+held the office of quaestor and acted as praetor for his brother
+during the latter&rsquo;s absence in Gaul, he began (in 15 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>) the
+military career which has made his name famous. In conjunction
+with Tiberius, he carried on a successful campaign against the
+Raeti and Vindelici, who, although repulsed from Italy, continued
+to threaten the frontiers of Gaul. The credit of the decisive
+victory, however, must be assigned to Tiberius. Two of the
+<i>Odes</i> of Horace (iv. 4 and 14) were written to glorify the exploits
+of the brothers. In 13 Drusus was sent as governor to the
+newly organized province of the three Gauls, where considerable
+discontent had been aroused by the exactions of the Roman
+governor Licinius. Drusus made a fresh assessment for taxation
+purposes, and summoned the Gallic representatives to a meeting
+at Lugdunum to discuss their grievances. It was of great
+importance to pacify the Gauls, in order to have his hands free
+to deal with the German tribes, one of which, the Sugambri,
+on the right bank of the Rhine, had seized the opportunity,
+during the absence of Augustus, to cross the river (12). Drusus
+drove them back and pursued them through the island of the
+Batavi and the land of the Usipetes (Usipes, Usipii) to their
+own territory, which he devastated. Sailing down the Rhine,
+he subdued the Frisii and, in order to facilitate operations against
+the Chauci, dug a canal (Fossa Drusiana) leading from the
+Rhenus (Rhine) to the Isala (Yssel)<a name="fa2g" id="fa2g" href="#ft2g"><span class="sp">2</span></a> into the lacus Flevus (Zuidersee)
+and the German Ocean. Making his way along the Frisian
+coast, he conquered the island of Burchanis (<i>Borkum</i>), defeated
+the Bructeri in a naval engagement on the Amisia (<i>Ems</i>), and
+went on to the mouth of the Visurgis (<i>Weser</i>) to attack the Chauci.
+On the way back his vessels grounded on the shallows, and were
+only got off with the assistance of the Frisii. Winter being close
+at hand, the campaign was abandoned till the following spring,
+and Drusus returned to Rome with the honour of having been
+the first Roman general to reach the German Ocean.</p>
+
+<p>In his second campaign (11), Drusus defeated the Usipetes,
+threw a bridge over the Luppia (<i>Lippe</i>), attacked the Sugambri,
+and advanced through their territory and that of the Tencteri and
+Chatti as far as the Weser, where he gained a victory over the
+Cherusci. Lack of provisions, the approach of winter, and an
+inauspicious portent prevented him from crossing the Weser.
+While making his way back to the Rhine he fell into an ambuscade,
+but the carelessness of the enemy enabled him to inflict a
+crushing defeat upon them. In view of future operations, he
+built two castles, one at the junction of the Luppia and Aliso
+(<i>Alme</i>), the other in the territory of the Chatti on the Taunus,
+near Moguntiacum (<i>Mainz</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The third campaign (10) was of little importance. The Chatti
+had joined the Sugambri in revolt; and, after some insignificant
+successes, Drusus returned with Augustus and Tiberius to Rome,
+and was elected consul for the following year. In spite of
+unfavourable portents at Rome, he determined to enter upon his
+fourth and last campaign (9) without delay. He attacked and
+defeated the Chatti, Suebi, Marcomanni and Cherusci, crossed
+the Weser and penetrated as far as the Albis (<i>Elbe</i>). Here trophies
+were set up to mark the farthest point ever reached by a Roman
+army. Various measures were taken to secure the possession
+of the conquered territory: fortresses were erected along the Elbe,
+Weser and Maas (<i>Meuse</i>, <i>Mosa</i>); a flotilla was placed upon the
+Rhine and a dam built upon the right arm of its estuary to increase
+the flow of water into the canal mentioned above. Drusus
+was said to have been deterred from crossing the Elbe by the
+sudden appearance of a woman of supernatural size, who predicted
+his approaching end. On his return, probably between
+the Elbe and the Saale (<i>Sala</i>), his horse stumbled and threw him.
+His leg was fractured and he died thirty days after the accident,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page608" id="page608"></a>608</span>
+on the 14th of September. Suetonius mentions an absurd rumour
+that he had been poisoned by order of Augustus, because he had
+refused to obey the order for his recall. The body was carried to
+the winter quarters of the army, whence it was escorted by
+Tiberius to Rome, the procession being joined by Augustus at
+Ticinum (Pavia). Tiberius delivered an oration over the remains
+in the Forum, whence they were conveyed to the Campus
+Martius and cremated, and ashes being deposited in the mausoleum
+of Augustus.</p>
+
+<p>Drusus was one of the most distinguished men of his time.
+His agreeable manners, handsome person and brilliant military
+talents gained him the affection of the troops, while his sympathy
+with republican principles, endeared him to the people. It is
+not too much to say that, had he and his son lived long enough,
+they might have brought about the abolition of the monarchy.
+Although the successes of Drusus, resulting in the subjection
+of the German tribes from the Rhine to the Elbe, were too rapid
+to be lasting, they brought home the fact of the existence of
+the Romans to many who had never heard their name. For
+his victories he received the title of Germanicus. He married
+Antonia, the daughter of Marcus Antonius the triumvir, by whom
+he had three children: Germanicus, adopted by Tiberius;
+Claudius, afterwards emperor; and a daughter Livilla.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The chief ancient authorities for the life of Drusus are Dio Cassius,
+the epitomes of Livy, Suetonius (<i>Claudius</i>), Tacitus (portions of the
+<i>Annals</i>), Florus (whose chief source is Livy), Velleius Paterculus, and
+the <i>Consolatio ad Liviam</i>. The German campaigns were described
+in the last books of Livy and the lost <i>Bella Germaniae</i> of the elder
+Pliny. As would naturally be expected, they have produced an
+extensive literature in Germany, J. Asbach&rsquo;s &ldquo;Die Feldzüge des
+Nero Claudius Drusus&rdquo; (<i>Rhein. Jahrb.</i> lxxxv. 14-30) being especially
+recommended; see also Mommsen&rsquo;s <i>History of the Roman
+Provinces</i>, i.; Merivale, <i>History of the Romans under the Empire</i>,
+ch. 36; A. Stein in Pauly-Wissowa&rsquo;s <i>Realencyclopädie</i> (1899), where
+other authorities are given; J. C. Tarver, <i>Tiberius the Tyrant</i>
+(1902).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Originally Decimus.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2g" id="ft2g" href="#fa2g"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The district extending from Westervoort to Doesborgh.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DRUSUS CAESAR<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> (c. 15 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>-<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 23), commonly called Drusus
+junior, to distinguish him from his uncle Nero Claudius Drusus,
+was the only son of the emperor Tiberius by his first wife Vipsania
+Agrippina. After having held several curule offices, he was
+consul elect in <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 14, the year of Augustus&rsquo;s death. His father,
+on his accession to the throne, immediately sent him to put down
+a mutiny of the troops in Pannonia, a task which he successfully
+accomplished (Tacitus, <i>Annals</i>, i. 24-30). As governor of Illyricum
+(17), he set the Germanic tribes against one another, and
+encouraged Catualda, chief of the Gothones, to drive out Marbod
+(Maroboduus), king of the Marcomanni. On his return Drusus
+was consul a second time (21) and in the following year received
+the tribunician authority from Tiberius, which practically indicated
+him as heir to the throne. Sejanus, who also aspired
+to the supreme power, determined to remove Drusus. He
+endeavoured to poison Tiberius&rsquo;s mind against him, seduced
+Drusus&rsquo;s wife and persuaded her to assist him in murdering her
+husband. Her physician Eudemus prepared and the eunuch
+Lygdus administered a slow poison, from the effects of which
+Drusus died after a lingering illness. Although Tiberius is said
+to have received the news of his death with indifference, there is
+no reason to suppose that he had any hand in it; indeed, he
+seems to have entertained a genuine affection for his son. Drusus
+was a man of violent passions, a drunkard and a debauchee,
+but not entirely devoid of better feelings, as is shown by his
+undoubtedly sincere grief at the death of Germanicus. The
+cunning and reserve which he exhibited on occasion were probably
+due to the instructions or influence of Tiberius (<i>Annals</i>,
+iii. 8), since he was himself naturally frank and open, and for this
+reason, notwithstanding his vices, more popular than his father.
+He revelled in bloody gladiatorial displays, and the sharpest
+swords used on such occasions were called &ldquo;Drusine.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Tacitus, <i>Annals</i>, i. 76, iv. 8-11; Dio Cassius lvii. 13, 14;
+Suetonius, <i>Tiberius</i>, 62; J. C. Tarver, <i>Tiberius the Tyrant</i> (1902).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DRYADES,<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Hamadryades</span>, in Greek mythology, nymphs
+of trees and woods. Each particular tree (<span class="grk" title="drus">&#948;&#961;&#8166;&#962;</span>) was the home of
+its own special Dryad, who was supposed to be born and to
+die with it (<span class="grk" title="hama">&#7941;&#956;&#945;</span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DRYANDER, JONAS<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> (1748-1810), Swedish botanist, was born
+in 1748. By his uncle, Dr Lars Montin, to whom his education
+was entrusted, he was sent to the university of Gothenburg,
+whence he removed to Lund. After taking his degree there in
+1776, he studied at Upsala under Linnaeus, and then became
+for a time tutor to a young Swedish nobleman. He next visited
+England, and, on the death of his friend Dr Daniel Charles
+Solander (1736-1782), succeeded him as librarian to Sir Joseph
+Banks. He was librarian to the Royal Society and also to the
+Linnean Society. Of the latter, in 1788, he was one of the
+founders, and, when it was incorporated by royal charter in 1802,
+he took a leading part in drawing up its laws and regulations.
+He was vice-president of the society till his death, which took
+place in London on the 19th of October 1810. Besides papers
+in the Transactions of the Linnean and other societies, Dryander
+published <i>Dissertatio gradualis fungos regno vegetabili vindicans</i>
+(Lund, 1776), and <i>Catalogus bibliothecae historico-naturalis
+Josephi Banks, Bart.</i> (London, 1796-1800, 5 vols.). He also
+edited the first and part of the second edition of W. Aiton&rsquo;s
+<i>Hortus Kewensis</i> and W. Roxburgh&rsquo;s <i>Plants of the Coast of
+Coromandel</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DRYBURGH ABBEY,<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> a monastic ruin in the extreme south-west
+of Berwickshire, Scotland, about 5 m. S.E. of Melrose, and
+1¼ m. E. of St Boswells station on the North British railway&rsquo;s
+Waverley route from Edinburgh to Carlisle. The name has been
+derived from the Gaelic <i>darach bruach</i>, &ldquo;oak bank,&rdquo; in allusion
+to the fact that the Druids once practised their rites here. The
+abbey occupies the spot where, about 522, St Modan, an Irish
+Culdee, established a sanctuary&mdash;a secluded position on a tongue
+of land washed on three sides by the Tweed. Founded in 1150
+by David I.&mdash;though it has also been ascribed to Hugh de
+Morville (d. 1162), lord of Lauderdale and constable of Scotland&mdash;it
+enjoyed great prosperity until 1322, when it was partially
+destroyed by the English under Edward II. It suffered again at
+the hands of Richard II. in 1385, and was reduced to ruin during
+the expedition of the earl of Hertford in 1545. After the Reformation
+the estate was erected into a temporal lordship and given
+(1604) by James VI. to John Erskine, 2nd earl of Mar. At a later
+date it was sold, but reverted to a branch of the Erskines in
+1786, when it was acquired by the 11th earl of Buchan. In 1700
+the abbey lands belonged to Thomas Haliburton, Scott&rsquo;s great-grandfather,
+and, but for an extravagant grand-uncle who became
+bankrupt and had to part with the property, they would have
+descended to Sir Walter by inheritance. &ldquo;We have nothing left
+of Dryburgh,&rdquo; he said, &ldquo;but the right of stretching our bones
+there.&rdquo; The style in general is Early English, but the west door
+and the restored entrance from the nave to the cloisters are fine
+examples of transitional Norman. Though in various stages of
+decay, nearly every one of the monastic buildings is represented
+by a fragment. Of the cruciform church&mdash;190 ft. long by 75
+broad at the transepts&mdash;there remain some of the outer walls,
+a segment of the choir, the east aisle of the north transept, the
+stumps of some of the pillars of the nave, the west gable, the
+south transept and its adjacent chapel of St Modan. The most
+beautiful of these relics is St Mary&rsquo;s aisle of the north transept,
+in which were buried Sir Walter Scott (1832), his wife, son, his
+son-in-law John Gibson Lockhart, and his ancestors, the Haliburtons
+of New Mains. Sir Walter&rsquo;s tomb is a plain block of
+polished Peterhead granite, inscribed only with his name and the
+dates of his birth and death. The next aisle is the burial-place
+of the Erskines of Shielhill and the Haigs of Bemersyde. On
+the south side of the church, at a lower level, stand the cloisters,
+about 100 ft. square, bounded on the west by the dungeons,
+on the south-west by the cellars and refectory, in the west wall
+of which is an exquisite ivy-clad rose window, and on the east
+by the chapter-house, on a still lower level. The chapter-house,
+a lofty building with vaulted roof, is the most complete structure
+of the group, and adjoining it on the south are, first the abbot&rsquo;s
+parlour and then the library, the three apartments communicating
+with each other, and constituting the oldest portion of the
+abbey. In the grounds are many venerable trees, a yew near the
+chapter-house being at least coeval with the abbey.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page609" id="page609"></a>609</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">DRYDEN, JOHN<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> (1631-1700), English poet, born on or about
+the 9th of August 1631, at Aldwinkle, in Northamptonshire,
+was of Cumberland stock, though his family had been settled
+for three generations in Northamptonshire, had acquired estates
+and a baronetcy, and intermarried with landed families in that
+county. His great-grandfather, who first carried the name south,
+and acquired by marriage the estate of Canons Ashby, is said
+to have known Erasmus, and to have been so proud of the great
+scholar&rsquo;s friendship that he gave the name of Erasmus to his
+eldest son. The name Erasmus was borne by the poet&rsquo;s father,
+the third son of Sir Erasmus Dryden. The leanings and connexions
+of the family were Puritan and anti-monarchical. Sir
+Erasmus Dryden went to prison rather than pay loan money to
+Charles I.; the poet&rsquo;s uncle, Sir John Dryden, and his father
+Erasmus, served on government commissions during the Commonwealth.
+His mother&rsquo;s family, the Pickerings, were still more
+prominent on the Puritan side. Sir Gilbert Pickering, his cousin,
+was chamberlain to the Protector, and was summoned to Cromwell&rsquo;s
+House of Lords in 1657. A trustworthy tradition asserts
+that John Dryden was born at the rectory of Aldwinkle All
+Saints, of which his maternal grandfather, Henry Pickering,
+was rector.</p>
+
+<p>Dryden&rsquo;s education was such as became a scion of these
+respectable families of squires and rectors, among whom the
+chance contact with Erasmus had left a certain tradition of
+scholarship. His father, whose own fortune, added to his wife&rsquo;s,
+was not large, procured for the poet, who was the eldest of
+fourteen children, admission to Westminster school as a king&rsquo;s
+scholar, under the famous Dr Busby. Some elegiac verses which
+Dryden wrote there on the death of a schoolfellow, Henry, Lord
+Hastings, son of the earl of Huntingdon, in 1649, were published
+in <i>Lacrymae Musarum</i>, among other elegies by &ldquo;divers persons
+of nobility and worth&rdquo; in commemoration of the same event.
+He appeared soon after again in print, among writers of commendatory
+verses to a friend of his, John Hoddesdon, who
+published a volume of <i>Epigrams</i> in 1650. Dryden&rsquo;s contribution
+is signed &ldquo;John Dryden of Trinity C.,&rdquo; as he had gone up from
+Westminster to Cambridge in May 1650. He was elected a
+scholar of Trinity on the Westminster foundation in October of
+the same year, and took his degree of B.A. in 1654. The only
+recorded incident of his college residence is some unexplained
+act of disobedience to the vice-master, for which he was &ldquo;put
+out of commons&rdquo; and &ldquo;gated&rdquo; for a fortnight. His father died
+in 1654, leaving him master of two-thirds of a small estate near
+Blakesley, worth about £60 a year. The next three years he is
+said to have spent at Cambridge. In any case they were spent
+somewhere in study; for his first considerable poem bears
+indisputable marks of scholarly habits, as well as of a command
+of verse that could not have been acquired without practice.</p>
+
+<p>The middle of 1657 is given as the date of his leaving the
+university to take up his residence in London. In one of his
+many subsequent literary quarrels, it was said by Shadwell that
+he had been clerk to Sir Gilbert Pickering, his cousin, who was
+chamberlain to Cromwell; and nothing is more likely than that
+he obtained some employment under his powerful cousin when
+he came to London. He is said to have lived at first in the house
+of his first publisher, Herringman, with whom he was connected
+till 1679, when Jacob Tonson began to publish his books. He
+first emerged from obscurity with his <i>Heroic Stanzas</i> (1659) to the
+memory of the Protector. That these stanzas should have made
+him a name as a poet does not appear surprising when we compare
+them with Waller&rsquo;s verses on the same occasion. Dryden took
+some time to consider them, and it was impossible that they
+should not give an impression of his intellectual strength. Donne
+was his model; it is obvious that both his ear and his imagination
+were saturated with Donne&rsquo;s elegiac strains when he wrote;
+yet when we look beneath the surface we find unmistakable
+traces that the pupil was not without decided theories that ran
+counter to the practice of the master. It is plainly not by
+accident that each stanza contains one clear-cut brilliant point.
+The poem is an academic exercise, and it seems to be animated
+by an under-current of strong contumacious protest against the
+irregularities tolerated by the authorities. Dryden had studied
+the ancient classics for himself, and their method of uniformity
+and elaborate finish commended itself to his robust and orderly
+mind. In itself the poem is a magnificent tribute to the memory
+of Cromwell.</p>
+
+<p>To those who regard the poet as a seer with a sacred mission,
+and refuse the name altogether to a literary manufacturer to
+order, it comes with a certain shock to find Dryden, the hereditary
+Puritan, the panegyrist of Cromwell, hailing the return of King
+Charles in <i>Astraea Redux</i> (1660), deploring his long absence,
+and proclaiming the despair with which he had seen &ldquo;the rebel
+thrive, the loyal crost.&rdquo; <i>A Panegyric on the Coronation</i> followed
+in 1661. From a literary point of view also, <i>Astraea Redux</i> is
+inferior to the <i>Heroic Stanzas</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Dryden was compelled to supplement his slender income by
+his writings. He naturally first thought of tragedy,&mdash;his own
+genius, as he has informed us, inclining him rather to that species
+of composition; and in the first year of the Restoration he wrote
+a tragedy on the fate of Henry, duke of Guise. But some friends
+advised him that its construction was not suited to the requirements
+of the stage, so he put it aside, and used only one scene
+of the original play later on, when he again attempted the subject
+with a more practised hand. Having failed to write a suitable
+tragedy, he next turned his attention to comedy, although, as
+he admitted, he had little natural turn for it. &ldquo;I confess,&rdquo;
+he said, in a short essay in his own defence, printed before <i>The
+Indian Emperor</i>, &ldquo;my chief endeavours are to delight the age
+in which I live. If the humour of this be for low comedy, small
+accidents and raillery, I will force my genius to obey it, though
+with more reputation I could write in verse. I know I am not
+so fitted by nature to write comedy; I want that gaiety of
+humour which is required to it. My conversation is slow and
+dull; my humour saturnine and reserved; in short, I am none
+of those who endeavour to break jests in company or make
+repartees. So that those who decry my comedies do me no
+injury, except it be in point of profit; reputation in them is the
+last thing to which I shall pretend.&rdquo; He was really as well as
+ostentatiously a playwright; the age demanded comedies, and
+he endeavoured to supply the kind of comedy that the age
+demanded. His first attempt was unsuccessful. Bustle, intrigue
+and coarsely humorous dialogue seemed to him to be part of the
+popular demand; and, looking about for a plot, he found something
+to suit him in a Spanish source, and wrote <i>The Wild
+Gallant</i>. The play was acted in February 1663, by Thomas
+Killigrew&rsquo;s company in Vere Street. It was not a success, and
+Pepys showed good judgment in pronouncing the play &ldquo;so
+poor a thing as ever I saw in my life.&rdquo; Dryden never learned
+moderation in his humour; there is a student&rsquo;s clumsiness and
+extravagance in his indecency; the plays of Etheredge, a man
+of the world, have not the uncouth riotousness of Dryden&rsquo;s.
+Of this he seems to have been conscious, for when the play was
+revived, in 1667, he complained in the epilogue of the difficulty
+of comic wit, and admitted the right of a common audience to
+judge of the wit&rsquo;s success. Dryden, indeed, took a lesson from
+the failure of <i>The Wild Gallant</i>; his next comedy, <i>The Rival
+Ladies</i>, also founded on a Spanish plot, produced before the end
+of 1663, and printed in the next year, was correctly described by
+Pepys as &ldquo;a very innocent and most pretty witty play,&rdquo; though
+there was much in it which the taste of our time would consider
+indelicate. But he never quite conquered his tendency to
+extravagance. <i>The Wild Gallant</i> was not the only victim. <i>The
+Assignation, or Love in a Nunnery</i>, produced in 1673, shared
+the same fate; and even as late as 1680, when he had had twenty
+years&rsquo; experience to guide him, <i>The Kind Keeper, or Mr Limberham</i>
+was prohibited, after three representations, as being too
+indecent for the stage. Dislike to indecency we are apt to think
+a somewhat ludicrous pretext to be made by Restoration playgoers,
+and probably there was some other reason for the sacrifice
+of <i>Limberham</i>; still there is a certain savageness in the spirit
+of Dryden&rsquo;s indecency which we do not find in his most licentious
+contemporaries. The undisciplined force of the man carried
+him to an excess from which more dexterous writers held back.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page610" id="page610"></a>610</span></p>
+
+<p>After the production of <i>The Rival Ladies</i> in 1663, Dryden
+assisted Sir Robert Howard in the composition of a tragedy in
+heroic verse, <i>The Indian Queen</i>, produced with great splendour
+in January 1664. He married Lady Elizabeth Howard, Sir
+Robert&rsquo;s sister and daughter of the 1st earl of Berkshire, on the
+1st of December 1663. Lady Elizabeth&rsquo;s reputation was somewhat
+compromised before this union, which was not a happy one,
+and there is some evidence for the scandal in a letter written by
+her before her marriage to Philip, 2nd earl of Chesterfield. <i>The
+Indian Queen</i> was a great success, one of the greatest since the
+reopening of the theatres. This was in all likelihood due much
+less to the heroic verse and the exclusion of comic scenes from
+the tragedy than to the magnificent scenic accessories&mdash;the
+battles and sacrifices on the stage, the spirits singing in the air,
+and the god of dreams ascending through a trap. The novelty
+of these Indian spectacles, as well as of the Indian characters,
+with the splendid Queen Zempoalla, acted by Mrs Marshall in
+a real Indian dress of feathers presented to her by Mrs Aphra
+Behn, as the centre of the play, was the chief secret of the success
+of <i>The Indian Queen</i>. These melodramatic properties were so
+marked a novelty that they could not fail to draw the town.
+Dryden was tempted to return to tragedy; he followed up
+<i>The Indian Queen</i> with <i>The Indian Emperor, or the Conquest of
+Mexico by the Spaniards</i>, which was acted in 1665, and also proved
+a success.</p>
+
+<p>But Dryden was not content with writing tragedies in rhymed
+verse. He took up the question of the propriety of rhyme in
+serious plays immediately after the success of <i>The Indian Queen</i>,
+in the preface to an edition (1664) of <i>The Rival Ladies</i>. In that
+first statement of his case, he considered the chief objection to
+the use of rhyme, and urged his chief argument in its favour.
+Rhyme was not natural, some people had said; to which he
+answers that it is as natural as blank verse, and that much of
+its unnaturalness is not the fault of the rhyme but of the writer,
+who has not sufficient command of language to rhyme easily.
+In favour of rhyme he has to say that it at once stimulates the
+imagination, and prevents it from being too discursive in its
+flights.</p>
+
+<p>During the Great Plague, when the theatres were closed, and
+Dryden was living at Charlton, Wiltshire, at the seat of his
+father-in-law, the earl of Berkshire, he occupied a considerable
+part of his time in thinking over the principles of dramatic composition,
+and threw his conclusions into the form of a dialogue,
+which he called an <i>Essay of Dramatick Poesie</i> and published in
+1668. The essay takes the form of a dialogue between Neander
+(Dryden), Eugenius (Charles, Lord Buckhurst, afterwards earl
+of Dorset), Crites (Sir R. Howard), and Lisideius (Sir C. Sedley),
+who is made responsible for the famous definition of a play as a
+&ldquo;just and lively image of human nature, representing its passions
+and humours, and the changes of fortune to which it is subject,
+for the delight and instruction of mankind.&rdquo; Dryden&rsquo;s form
+is of course borrowed from the ancients, and his main source
+is the critical work of Corneille in the prefaces and discourses
+contained in the edition of 1660, but he was well acquainted
+with the whole body of contemporary French and Spanish
+criticism. Crites maintains the superiority of the classical
+drama; Lisideius supports the exacting rules of French dramatic
+writing; Neander defends the English drama of the preceding
+generations, including, in a long speech, an examination of
+Ben Jonson&rsquo;s <i>Silent Woman</i>. Neander argues, however, that
+English drama has much to gain by the observance of exact
+methods of construction without abandoning entirely the liberty
+which English writers had always claimed. He then goes on to
+defend the use of rhyme in serious drama. Howard had argued
+against the use of rhyme in a &ldquo;preface&rdquo; to <i>Four New Plays</i>
+(1665), which had furnished the excuse for Dryden&rsquo;s essay.
+Howard replied to Dryden&rsquo;s essay in a preface to <i>The Duke of
+Lerma</i> (1668). Dryden at once replied in a masterpiece of
+sarcastic retort and vigorous reasoning, <i>A Defence of an Essay of
+Dramatique Poesie</i>, prefixed to the second edition (1668) of <i>The
+Indian Emperor</i>. It is the ablest and most complete statement of
+his views about the employment of rhymed couplets in tragedy.</p>
+
+<p>Before his return to town at the end of 1666, when the theatres
+(which had been closed during the disasters of 1665 and 1666)
+were reopened, Dryden wrote a poem on the Dutch war and the
+Great Fire entitled <i>Annus Mirabilis</i>. The poem is in quatrains,
+the metre of his <i>Heroic Stanzas</i> in praise of Cromwell, which
+Dryden chose, he tells us, &ldquo;because he had ever judged it more
+noble and of greater dignity both for the sound and number
+than any other verse in use amongst us.&rdquo; The preface to the
+poem contains an interesting discussion of what he calls &ldquo;wit-writing,&rdquo;
+introduced by the remark that &ldquo;the composition of all
+poems is or ought to be of wit.&rdquo; His description of the Great
+Fire is a famous specimen of this wit-writing, much more
+careless and daring, and much more difficult to sympathize
+with, than the graver conceits in his panegyric of the Protector.
+In <i>Annus Mirabilis</i> the poet apostrophizes the newly
+founded Royal Society, of which he had been elected a member
+in 1662.</p>
+
+<p>From the reopening of the theatres in 1666 till November
+1681, the date of his <i>Absalom and Achitophel</i>, Dryden produced
+nothing but plays. The stage was his chief source of income.
+<i>Secret Love, or the Maiden Queen</i>, a tragi-comedy, produced in
+March 1667, was based on an episode in the <i>Artamène, ou le
+Grand Cyrus</i> of Mlle de Scudéry, the historical original of the
+&ldquo;Maiden Queen&rdquo; being Christina, queen of Sweden. The prologue
+claims that the piece is written with pains and thought,
+by the exactest rules, with strict observance of the unities,
+and &ldquo;a mingled chime of Jonson&rsquo;s humour and of Corneille&rsquo;s
+rhyme&rdquo;; but it owed its success chiefly to the charm of Nell
+Gwyn&rsquo;s acting in the part of Florimel. It is noticeable that
+only the more passionate parts of the dialogue are rhymed,
+Dryden&rsquo;s theory apparently being that rhyme is then demanded
+for the elevation of the style. His next play, <i>Sir Martin Mar-all,
+or the Feigned Innocence</i>, an adaptation in prose of the duke
+of Newcastle&rsquo;s translation of Molière&rsquo;s <i>L&rsquo;Étourdi</i>, was produced
+at the Duke&rsquo;s theatre, without the author&rsquo;s name, in 1667. It
+was about this time that Dryden became a retained writer
+under contract for the King&rsquo;s theatre, receiving from it £300
+or £400 a year, till it was burnt down in 1672, and about £200
+for six years more till the beginning of 1678. His co-operation
+with Davenant in a new version (1667) of Shakespeare&rsquo;s <i>Tempest</i>&mdash;for
+his share in which Dryden can hardly be pardoned on the
+ground that the chief alterations were happy thoughts of Davenant&rsquo;s,
+seeing that he affirms he never worked at anything with
+more delight&mdash;must also be supposed to be anterior to the
+completion of his contract with the Theatre Royal. He was
+engaged to write three plays a year, and he contributed only
+ten plays during the ten years of his engagement, finally exhausting
+the patience of his partners by joining in the composition
+of a play for the rival house. In adapting <i>L&rsquo;Étourdi</i>,
+Dryden did not catch Molière&rsquo;s lightness of touch; his alterations
+go towards making the comedy into a farce. Perhaps all the
+more on this account <i>Sir Martin Mar-all</i> had a great run at
+the theatre in Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn Fields. There is always a certain
+coarseness in Dryden&rsquo;s humour, apart from the coarseness of
+his age,&mdash;a certain forcible roughness of touch which belongs
+to the character of the man. His <i>An Evening&rsquo;s Love, or the Mock
+Astrologer</i>, an adaptation from <i>Le Feint Astrologue</i> of the younger
+Corneille, produced at the King&rsquo;s theatre in 1668, seemed to
+Pepys &ldquo;very smutty, and nothing so good as <i>The Maiden Queen</i>
+or <i>The Indian Emperor</i> of Dryden&rsquo;s making.&rdquo; Evelyn thought
+it foolish and profane, and was grieved &ldquo;to see how the stage
+was degenerated and polluted by the licentious times.&rdquo; <i>Ladies
+à la Mode</i>, another of Dryden&rsquo;s contract comedies, produced in
+1668, was &ldquo;so mean a thing,&rdquo; Pepys says, that it was only once
+acted, and Dryden never published it. Of his other comedies,
+<i>Marriage à la Mode</i> (produced 1672), <i>The Assignation, or Love
+in a Nunnery</i> (1673), <i>The Kind Keeper, or Mr Limberham</i> (1678),
+only the first was moderately successful.</p>
+
+<p>While Dryden met with such indifferent success in his willing
+efforts to supply the demand of the age for low comedy, he
+struck upon a really popular and profitable vein in heroic
+tragedy. <i>Tyrannic Love, or the Royal Martyr</i>, a Roman play
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page611" id="page611"></a>611</span>
+dealing with the persecution of the Christians by Maximin, in
+which St Catherine is introduced, and with her some supernatural
+machinery, was produced in 1669. It is in rhymed couplets,
+but the author again did not trust solely for success to them;
+for, besides the magic incantations, the singing angels, and the
+view of Paradise, he made Nell Gwyn, who had stabbed herself
+as Valeria, start to life again as she was being carried off the
+stage, and speak a riotous epilogue, in violent contrast to the
+serious character of the play. <i>Almanzor and Almahide, or the
+Conquest of Granada</i>, a tragedy in two parts, was written in 1669
+to 1670. The historical background is taken chiefly from Mlle de
+Scudéry&rsquo;s romance of <i>Almahide</i>, but Dryden borrows freely from
+other books of hers and her contemporaries. This piece seems
+to have given the crowning touch of provocation to the wits,
+who had never ceased to ridicule the popular taste for these
+extravagant heroic plays. Dryden almost invited burlesque
+in his epilogue to the second part of <i>The Conquest of Granada</i>,
+in which he charged the comedy of the Elizabethan age with
+coarseness and mechanical humour, and its conceptions of
+love and honour with meanness, and claimed for his own time
+and his own plays an advance in these respects. <i>The Rehearsal</i>,
+written by the duke of Buckingham, with the assistance, it
+was said, of Samuel Butler, Martin Clifford, Thomas Sprat and
+others, and produced in 1671, was a severe and just punishment
+for this boast. Davenant was originally the hero, but on his
+death in 1668 the satire was turned upon Dryden, who is here
+unmercifully ridiculed under the name of Bayes, the name being
+justified by his appointment in 1670 as poet laureate and historiographer
+to the king (with a pension of £300 a year and a butt
+of canary wine). It is said that <i>The Rehearsal</i> was begun in
+1663 and ready for representation before the plague. But this
+probably only means that Buckingham and his friends had
+resolved to burlesque the absurdities of Davenant&rsquo;s operatic
+heroes in <i>The Siege of Rhodes</i>, and the extravagant heroics of
+<i>The Indian Queen</i>. Materials accumulated upon them as the
+fashion continued, and by the time Dryden had produced his
+<i>Tyrannic Love</i>, and his <i>Conquest of Granada</i>, he had so established
+himself as the chief offender as to become naturally the central
+figure of the burlesque. Later Dryden fully avenged himself
+on Buckingham by his portrait of Zimri in <i>Absalom and Achitophel</i>.
+His immediate reply is contained in the preface &ldquo;Of
+Heroic Plays&rdquo; and the &ldquo;Defence of the Epilogue,&rdquo; printed in
+the first edition (1672) of his <i>Conquest of Granada</i>. In these, so
+far from laughing with his censors, he addresses them from the
+eminence of success. &ldquo;But I have already swept the stakes;
+and, with the common good fortune of prosperous gamesters,
+can be content to sit quietly; to hear my fortune cursed by some,
+and my faults arraigned by others, and to suffer both without
+reply.&rdquo; Heroic verse, he assures them, is so established that few
+tragedies are likely henceforward to be written in any other
+metre. In the course of a year or two <i>The Conquest of Granada</i>
+was attacked also by Elkanah Settle, on whom Dryden revenged
+himself later, making him the &ldquo;Doeg&rdquo; of the second part of
+<i>Absalom and Achitophel</i>.</p>
+
+<p>His next tragedy, <i>Amboyna</i> (1673), an exhibition of certain
+atrocities committed by the Dutch on English merchants in
+the East Indies, put on the stage to inflame the public mind in
+view of the Dutch war, was written, with the exception of a few
+passages, in prose, and those passages in blank verse. An opera
+which he wrote in rhymed couplets, called <i>The State of Innocence,
+and Fall of Man</i>, an attempt to turn part of <i>Paradise Lost</i> into
+rhyme, as a proof of its superiority to blank verse, was prefaced
+by an &ldquo;Apology for Heroique Poetry and Poetique Licence,&rdquo;
+and entered at Stationers&rsquo; Hall in 1674, but it was never acted.
+The redeeming circumstance about the performance is the
+admiration professed by the adapter for his original, which he
+pronounces &ldquo;undoubtedly one of the greatest, most noble and
+most sublime poems which either this age or nation has produced.&rdquo;
+Dryden is said to have had the elder poet&rsquo;s leave &ldquo;to
+tag his verses.&rdquo; In <i>Aurengzebe</i>, which was Dryden&rsquo;s last, and
+also his best, rhymed tragedy, he borrowed from contemporary
+history, for the Great Mogul was still living. In the prologue
+he confessed that he had grown weary of his long-loved mistress
+rhyme and retracted, with characteristic frankness, his disparaging
+contrast of the Elizabethan with his own age. But the stings
+of <i>The Rehearsal</i> had stimulated him to do his utmost to justify
+his devotion to his mistress, and he claims that <i>Aurengzebe</i> is
+&ldquo;the most correct&rdquo; of his plays. It was entered at Stationers&rsquo;
+Hall and probably acted in 1675, and published in the following
+year.</p>
+
+<p>After the production of <i>Aurengzebe</i> he seems to have rested
+for an interval from writing, enabled to do so, probably by an
+additional pension of £100 granted to him by the king. During
+this interval he would seem to have reconsidered the principles
+of dramatic composition, and to have made a particular study of
+the works of Shakespeare. The fruits of this appeared in <i>All
+for Love, or the World Well Lost</i>, a version of the story of Antony
+and Cleopatra, produced in 1678, which must be regarded as
+a very remarkable departure for a man of his age, and a wonderful
+proof of undiminished openness and plasticity of mind. In his
+previous writings on dramatic theory, Dryden, while admiring
+the rhyme of the French dramatists as an advance in art, did
+not give unqualified praise to the regularity of their plots; he
+was disposed to allow the irregular structure of the Elizabethan
+dramatists, as being more favourable to variety both of action
+and of character. But now, in frank imitation of Shakespeare,
+he abandoned rhyme, and, if we might judge from <i>All for Love</i>,
+and the precepts laid down in his &ldquo;Grounds of Criticism in
+Tragedy,&rdquo; prefixed to <i>Troilus and Cressida</i> (1679), the chief
+point in which he aimed at excelling the Elizabethans was in
+giving greater unity to his plot. He upheld still the superiority
+of Shakespeare to the French dramatists in the delineation of
+character, but he thought that the scope of the action might be
+restricted, and the parts bound more closely together with
+advantage. <i>All for Love</i> and <i>Antony and Cleopatra</i> are two
+excellent plays for the comparison of the two methods. Dryden
+gave all his strength to <i>All for Love</i>, writing the play for himself,
+as he said, and not for the public. Carrying out the idea expressed
+in the title, he represents the two lovers as being more
+entirely under the dominion of love than Shakespeare&rsquo;s Antony
+and Cleopatra. Shakespeare&rsquo;s Antony is moved by other impulses
+than the passion for Cleopatra; it is his master motive,
+but it has to maintain a struggle for supremacy; &ldquo;Roman
+thoughts&rdquo; strike in upon him even in the very height of the
+enjoyment of his mistress&rsquo;s love, he chafes under the yoke, and
+breaks away from her of his own impulse at the call of spontaneously
+reawakened ambition. Dryden&rsquo;s Antony is so deeply sunk
+in love that no other impulse has power to stir him; it takes
+much persuasion and skilful artifice to detach him from Cleopatra
+even in thought, and his soul returns to her violently before the
+rupture has been completed. On the other hand, Dryden&rsquo;s
+Cleopatra is so completely enslaved by love for Antony that she
+is incapable of using the calculated caprices and meretricious
+coquetries which Shakespeare&rsquo;s Cleopatra deliberately practises
+as the highest art of love, the surest way of maintaining her
+empire over her great captain&rsquo;s heart. It is with difficulty that
+Dryden&rsquo;s Cleopatra will agree, on the earnest solicitation of a
+wily counsellor, to feign a liking for Dolabella to excite Antony&rsquo;s
+jealousy, and she cannot keep up the pretence through a few
+sentences. The characters of the two lovers are thus very much
+contracted, indeed almost overwhelmed, beneath the pressure of
+the one ruling motive. And as Dryden thus introduces a greater
+regularity of character into the drama, so he also very much
+contracts the action, in order to give probability to this temporary
+subjugation of individual character. The action of Dryden&rsquo;s
+play takes place wholly in Alexandria, within the compass of
+a few days; it does not, like Shakespeare&rsquo;s, extend over several
+years, and present incessant changes of scene. Dryden chooses,
+as it were, a fragment of a historical action, a single moment
+during which motives play within a narrow circle, the culminating
+point in the relations between his two personages. He devotes
+his whole play, also, to those relations; only what bears upon
+them is admitted. In Shakespeare&rsquo;s play we get a certain
+historical perspective, in which the love of Antony and Cleopatra
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page612" id="page612"></a>612</span>
+appears in its true proportions beneath the firmament that
+overhangs human affairs. In Dryden&rsquo;s play this love is our
+universe; all the other concerns of the world retire into a
+shadowy, indistinct background. If we rise from a comparison
+of the plays with an impression that the Elizabethan drama is a
+higher type of drama, taking Dryden&rsquo;s own definition of the
+word as &ldquo;a just and lively image of human nature,&rdquo; we rise also
+with an impression of Dryden&rsquo;s power such as we get from
+nothing else that he had written since his <i>Heroic Stanzas</i>, twenty
+years before.</p>
+
+<p>It was twelve years before Dryden produced another tragedy
+worthy of the power shown in <i>All for Love</i>. <i>Don Sebastian</i> was
+acted and published in 1690. In the interval, to sum up briefly
+Dryden&rsquo;s work as a dramatist, he wrote <i>Oedipus</i> (pr. 1679) and
+<i>The Duke of Guise</i> (pr. 1683) in conjunction with Nathaniel Lee;
+<i>Troilus and Cressida</i> (1679); <i>The Spanish Friar</i> (1681); <i>Albion
+and Albanius</i>, an opera (1685); <i>Amphitryon</i> (1690). In <i>Troilus
+and Cressida</i> he follows Shakespeare closely in the plot, but the
+dialogue is rewritten throughout, and not for the better. The
+versification and the language of the first and the third acts of
+<i>Oedipus</i>, which with the general plan of the play were Dryden&rsquo;s
+contribution to the joint work, bear marked evidence of his
+recent study of Shakespeare. The <i>Duke of Guise</i> provided an
+obvious parallel with contemporary English politics. Henry III.
+was identified with Charles II., and Monmouth with the duke.
+The lord chamberlain refused to license it until the political
+situation was less disturbed. The plot of <i>Don Sebastian</i> is more
+intricate than that of <i>All for Love</i>. It has also more of the
+characteristics of his heroic dramas; the extravagance of
+sentiment and the suddenness of impulse remind us occasionally
+of <i>The Indian Emperor</i>; but the characters are much more
+elaborately studied than in Dryden&rsquo;s earlier plays, and the verse
+is sinewy and powerful. It would be difficult to say whether <i>Don
+Sebastian</i> or <i>All for Love</i> is his best play; they share the palm
+between them. Dryden&rsquo;s subsequent plays are not remarkable.
+Their titles and dates are&mdash;<i>King Arthur</i>, an opera (1691), for
+which Purcell wrote the music; <i>Cleomenes</i> (1692); <i>Love
+Triumphant</i> (1694).</p>
+
+<p>Soon after Dryden&rsquo;s abandonment of heroic couplets in tragedy,
+he found new and more congenial work for his favourite instrument
+in satire. As usual the idea was not original to Dryden,
+though he struck in with his majestic step and energy divine,
+and immediately took the lead. The pioneer was Mulgrave in
+his <i>Essay on Satire</i>, an attack on Rochester and the court,
+which was circulated in MS. in 1679. Dryden himself was
+suspected of the authorship, and it is not impossible that he gave
+some help in revising it; but it is not likely that he attacked
+the king on whom he was dependent for the greater part of his
+income, and Mulgrave in a note to his <i>Art of Poetry</i> in 1717
+expressly asserts Dryden&rsquo;s ignorance. Dryden, however, was
+attacked in Rose Street, Covent Garden, and severely cudgelled
+by a company of ruffians who were generally supposed to have
+been hired by Rochester. In the same year Oldham&rsquo;s satire on
+the Jesuits had immense popularity, chiefly owing to the excitement
+about the Popish plot. Dryden took the field as a satirist
+towards the close of 1681, on the side of the court, at the moment
+when Shaftesbury, baffled in his efforts to exclude the duke of
+York from the throne as a papist, and secure the succession of
+the duke of Monmouth, was waiting his trial for high treason.
+<i>Absalom and Achitophel</i> produced a great stir. Nine editions
+were sold in rapid succession in the course of a year. There was
+no compunction in Dryden&rsquo;s ridicule and invective. Delicate
+wit was not one of Dryden&rsquo;s gifts; the motions of his weapon
+were sweeping, and the blows hard and trenchant. The advantage
+he had gained by his recent studies of character was fully
+used in his portraits of Shaftesbury and Buckingham, Achitophel
+and Zimri. In these portraits he shows considerable art in the
+introduction of redeeming traits to the general outline of
+malignity and depravity. It is not impossible that the fact
+that his pension had not been paid since the beginning of 1680
+weighed with him in writing this satire to gain the favour of the
+court. In a play produced in 1681, <i>The Spanish Friar</i>, he had
+written on the other side, gratifying the popular feeling by
+attacking the Roman Catholic priesthood.</p>
+
+<p>Three other satires followed <i>Absalom and Achitophel</i>, one of
+them hardly inferior in point of literary power. <i>The Medall</i>; a
+<i>Satyre against Sedition</i> (March 1682) was written in ridicule of
+the medal struck to commemorate Shaftesbury&rsquo;s acquittal.
+Then Dryden had to take vengeance on the literary champions
+of the Whig party who had opened upon him with all their
+artillery. Their leader, Shadwell, had attacked him in <i>The
+Medal of John Bayes</i>, which Dryden answered in October 1682
+by <i>Mac Flecknoe, or a Satyr upon the True-Blew Protestant Poet,
+T.S.</i> This satire, in which Shadwell filled the title-rôle, served
+as the model of the <i>Dunciad</i>. To the second part of <i>Absalom
+and Achitophel</i> (November 1682), written chiefly by Nahum Tate,
+he contributed a long passage of invective against Robert
+Ferguson, one of Monmouth&rsquo;s chief advisers, Elkanah Settle,
+Shadwell and others. <i>Religio Laici</i>, which appeared in the same
+month, though nominally an exposition of a layman&rsquo;s creed,
+and deservedly admired as such, was not without a political
+purpose. It attacked the Papists, but declared the &ldquo;fanatics&rdquo;
+to be still more dangerous.</p>
+
+<p>Dryden&rsquo;s next poem in heroic couplets was in a different strain.
+On the accession of James, in 1685, he became a Roman Catholic.
+There has been much discussion as to whether this conversion
+was or was not sincere. It can only be said that the coincidence
+between his change of faith and his change of patron was suspicious,
+and that Dryden&rsquo;s character for consistency is certainly
+not of a kind to quench suspicion. The force of the coincidence
+cannot be removed by such pleas as that his wife had been a
+Roman Catholic for several years, or that he was converted by
+his son, who was converted at Cambridge, even if there were
+any evidence for these statements. Scott defended Dryden&rsquo;s conversion,&mdash;as
+Macaulay denounced it, from party motives. It is
+worth while, however, to notice that in his earlier defence of the
+English Church he exhibits a desire for the definite guidance of a
+presumably infallible creed, and the case for the Roman Church
+brought forward at the time may have appeared convincing to a
+mind singularly open to new impressions. At the same time
+nothing can be clearer than that Dryden always regarded his
+literary powers as a means of subsistence, and had little scruple
+about accepting a brief on any side. <i>The Hind and the Panther</i>,
+published in 1687, is an ingenious argument for Roman Catholicism,
+put into the mouth of &ldquo;a milk-white hind, immortal and
+unchanged.&rdquo; There is considerable beauty in the picture of this
+tender creature, and its enemies in the forest are not spared.
+One can understand the admiration that the poem received
+when such allegories were in fashion. It was the chief cause
+of the veneration with which Dryden was regarded by Pope,
+who, himself educated in the Roman Catholic faith, was taken
+as a boy of twelve to see the veteran poet in his chair of honour
+and authority at Wills&rsquo;s coffee-house. It was also very open to
+ridicule, and was treated in this spirit by Prior and Montagu, the
+future earl of Halifax, in <i>The Hind and the Panther transversed
+to the story of the Country Mouse and the City Mouse</i>. Dryden&rsquo;s
+other literary services to James were a savage reply to Stillingfleet&mdash;who
+had attacked two papers published by the king
+immediately after his accession, one said to have been written
+by his late brother in advocacy of the Church of Rome, the
+other by his late wife explaining the reasons for her conversion&mdash;and
+a translation of a life of Xavier in prose. He had written
+also a panegyric of Charles, <i>Threnodia Augustalis</i>, and a poem
+in honour of the birth of James II.&rsquo;s heir, under the title of
+<i>Britannia rediviva</i> (1688).</p>
+
+<p>Dryden did not abjure his new faith on the Revolution, and
+so lost his office and pension as laureate and historiographer
+royal. For this act of constancy he deserves credit, if the new
+powers would have considered his services worth having after
+his frequent apostasies. His rival Shadwell reigned in his stead.
+Dryden was once more thrown mainly upon his pen for support.
+He turned again to the stage and wrote the plays already enumerated.
+A great feature in the last decade of his life was his
+translations from the classics. <i>Ovid&rsquo;s Epistles translated</i> appeared
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page613" id="page613"></a>613</span>
+in 1680; and numerous translations from Virgil, Horace,
+Ovid, Lucretius and Theocritus appeared in the four volumes
+of <i>Miscellany Poems</i>&mdash;<i>Miscellany Poems</i> (1684), <i>Sylvae</i> (1685),
+<i>Examen poeticum</i> (1693), <i>The Annual Miscellany</i> (1694 by the
+&ldquo;most eminent hands&rdquo;); in 1693 was published the verse
+translation of the <i>Satires</i> of Juvenal and of Persius by &ldquo;Mr
+Dryden and several other eminent hands,&rdquo; which contained his
+&ldquo;Discourse concerning the Original and Progress of Satire&rdquo;;
+and in 1697 Jacob Tonson published his most important translation,
+<i>The Works of Virgil</i>.  The book, which was the result of
+three years&rsquo; labour, was a vigorous, rather than a close, rendering
+of Virgil into the style of Dryden. Among other notable poems
+of this period are the two &ldquo;Songs for St Cecilia&rsquo;s Day,&rdquo; written
+for a London musical society for 1687 and 1697, and published
+separately. The second of these is the famous ode on &ldquo;Alexander&rsquo;s
+Feast.&rdquo; The well-known paraphrase of <i>Veni, Creator
+Spiritus</i> was posthumously printed, and his &ldquo;Ode to the memory
+of Anne Killigrew,&rdquo; called by Dr Johnson the noblest ode in the
+language, was written in 1686.</p>
+
+<p>His next work was to render some of Chaucer&rsquo;s and Boccaccio&rsquo;s
+tales and Ovid&rsquo;s <i>Metamorphoses</i> into his own verse. These translations
+appeared in November 1699, a few months before his
+death, and are known by the title of <i>Fables, Ancient and Modern</i>.
+The preface, which is an admirable example of Dryden&rsquo;s prose,
+contains an excellent appreciation of Chaucer, and, incidentally,
+an answer to Jeremy Collier&rsquo;s attack on the stage. Thus
+a large portion of the closing years of Dryden&rsquo;s life was spent
+in translating for bread. He had a windfall of 500 guineas from
+Lord Abingdon for a poem on the death of his wife in 1691,
+and he received liberal presents from his cousin John Driden
+and from the duke of Ormonde, but generally he was in considerable
+pecuniary straits. Besides, his three sons held various
+posts in the service of the pope at Rome, and he could not
+well be on good terms with both courts. However, he was not
+molested in London by the government, and in private he was
+treated with the respect due to his old age and his admitted
+position as the greatest of living English poets. He held a small
+court at Wills&rsquo;s coffee-house, where he spent his evenings;
+here he had a chair by the fire in winter and by the window in
+summer; Congreve, Vanbrugh and Addison were among his
+admirers, and here Pope saw the old poet of whom he was to be
+the most brilliant disciple. He died at his house in Gerrard
+Street, London, on the 1st of May 1700 and was buried on the
+13th of the month in Westminster Abbey. Dryden&rsquo;s portrait,
+by Sir G. Kneller, is in the National Portrait Gallery.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;<i>The Comedies, Tragedies and Operas written by
+John Dryden, Esq.</i> (2 vols., 1701) was published by Tonson, who
+also issued the poet&rsquo;s <i>Dramatick Works</i> (6 vols., 1717), edited
+by Congreve.  <i>Poems on Various Occasions and Translations from
+Several Authors</i> (1701), also published by Tonson, was very incomplete,
+and although other editions followed there was no satisfactory collection
+until the edition of the <i>Works</i> (18 vols., 1808, 2nd ed. 1821)
+by Sir Walter Scott, who supplied historical and critical notes with a
+life of the author. This, as revised and corrected by G. Saintsbury
+(18 vols., Edinburgh, 1882-1893), remains the standard edition.
+<i>His Critical and Miscellaneous Prose Works</i> (4 vols., 1800) were
+edited by Edmund Malone, who collected industriously the materials
+for a life of Dryden. Convenient partial modern editions are the
+<i>Poetical Works</i> (Globe edition, 1870) edited by W. D. Christie with
+an excellent &ldquo;life&rdquo;; <i>The Best Plays of John Dryden</i> (Mermaid
+series, 2 vols.), edited by G. Saintsbury; and <i>Essays of John Dryden</i>
+(2 vols., 1900, Oxford), edited by W. P. Ker. Besides the critical
+and biographical matter in these editions see Dr Johnson&rsquo;s <i>Lives
+of the Poets; Dryden</i> (English Men of Letters series, 1881), by G.
+Saintsbury; A. Beljame, <i>Le Public et les hommes de lettres en Angleterre
+1660-1744</i> (2nd ed. Paris, 1897); A. W. Ward, <i>History of
+English Dramatic Literature</i> (new ed. 1899), vol. iii. pp. 346-392;
+J. Churton Collins, <i>Essays and Studies</i>; W. J. Courthope, <i>History
+of English Poetry</i>, vol. iv. (1903), chap, xiv., and L. N. Chase,
+<i>The English Heroic Play</i> (New York, 1903). See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">English
+Literature</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. M.;  M. Br.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DRYOPITHECUS<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="drys">&#948;&#961;&#8166;&#962;</span>, oak, <span class="grk" title="pithêkos">&#960;&#943;&#952;&#951;&#954;&#959;&#962;</span>, ape, &ldquo;the ape of the
+oak-woods&rdquo;), the name of an extinct ape or monkey from
+Miocene deposits of France, believed to be allied to the baboons,
+but perhaps with some affinity to the higher apes.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DRY ROT,<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> a fungoid disease in timber which occasions the
+destruction of its fibres, and reduces it eventually to a mass of dry
+dust. It is produced most readily in a warm, moist, stagnant
+atmosphere, while common or wet rot is the result of the exposure
+of wood to repeated changes of climatic conditions. The most
+formidable of the dry rot fungi is the species <i>Merulius lacrymans</i>,
+which is particularly destructive of coniferous wood; other
+species are <i>Polyporus hybridus</i>, which thrives in oak-built ships,
+and <i>P. destructor</i> and <i>Thelephora puteana</i>, found in a variety of
+wooden structures.</p>
+
+<p>The felling of trees when void of fresh sap, as a means of obviating
+the rotting of timber, is a practice of very ancient origin.
+Vitruvius directs (ii. cap. 9) that, to secure good timber, trees
+should be cut to the pith, so as to allow of the escape of their
+sap, which by dying in the wood would injure its quality; also
+that felling should take place only from early autumn until the
+end of winter. The supposed superior quality of wood cut in
+winter, and the early practice in England of felling oak timber at
+that season, may be inferred from a statute of James I., which
+enacted &ldquo;that no person or persons shall fell, or cause to be felled,
+any oaken trees meet to be barked, when bark is worth 2s. a cart-load
+(timber for the needful building and reparation of houses,
+ships or mills only excepted), but between the first day of April
+and last day of June, not even for the king&rsquo;s use, out of barking
+time, except for building or repairing his Majesty&rsquo;s houses or
+ships.&rdquo; In giving testimony before a committee of the House
+of Commons in March 1771, Mr Barnard of Deptford expressed
+it as his opinion that to secure durable timber for shipbuilding,
+trees should be barked in spring and not felled till the succeeding
+winter. In France, so long ago as 1669, a royal decree limited
+the felling of timber from the 1st of October to the 15th of April;
+and, in an order issued to the commissioners of forests, Napoleon
+I. directed that the felling of naval timber should take place only
+from November 1 to March 15, and during the decrease of the
+moon, on account of the rapid decay of timber, through the
+fermentation of its sap, if cut at other seasons. The burying
+of wood in water, which dissolves out or alters its putrescible
+constituents, has long been practised as a means of seasoning.
+The old &ldquo;Resistance&rdquo; frigate, which went down in Malta
+harbour, remained under water for some months, and on being
+raised was found to be entirely freed from the dry rot fungus that
+had previously covered her; similarly, in the ship &ldquo;Eden,&rdquo;
+the progress of rot was completely arrested by 18 months&rsquo;
+submergence in Plymouth Sound, so that after remaining a
+year at home in excellent condition she was sent out to the
+East Indies. It was an ancient practice in England to place
+timber for thrashing-floors and oak planks for wainscotting in
+running water to season them. Whale and other oils have been
+recommended for the preservation of wood; and in 1737 a
+patent for the employment of hot oil was taken out by a
+Mr Emerson.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For the modern processes of preserving timber see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Timber</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DUALISM<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> (from rare Lat. <i>dualis</i>, containing two, from <i>duo</i>),
+a philosophical term applied to all theories which attempt to
+explain facts by reference to two coexistent principles. The
+term plays an important part in metaphysical, ethical and
+theological speculation.</p>
+
+<p><i>In Metaphysics.</i>&mdash;Metaphysical dualism postulates the eternal
+coexistence of mind and matter, as opposed to monism
+both idealistic and materialistic. Two forms of this dualism
+are held. On the one hand it is said that mind and matter
+are absolutely heterogeneous, and, therefore, that any causal
+relation between them is <i>ex hypothesi</i> impossible. On the other
+hand is a hypothetical dualism, according to which it is held
+that mind cannot bridge over the chasm so far as to <i>know</i> matter
+<i>in itself</i>, though it is compelled by its own laws of cause and
+effect to postulate matter as the origin, if not the motive cause,
+of its sensations. It follows that, for the thinking mind, matter
+is a necessary hypothesis. Hence the theory is a kind of monism,
+inasmuch as it confessedly does not assert the existence of matter
+save as an intellectual postulate for the thinking mind. Matter,
+in other words, must be assumed to exist, though mind cannot
+know it <i>in itself</i>. From this question there emerges a second
+and more difficult problem. Consciousness, it is held, is of two
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page614" id="page614"></a>614</span>
+main kinds, sensation and reason. Sensation alone is insufficient
+to explain all our intellectual phenomena; all sensation is
+momentary and individual (cf. Empiricism). How then are we
+to account for memory and the principles of necessity, similarity,
+universality? It is argued that there must be in the mind an
+enduring, primary faculty whereby we retain, compare and
+group the presentations of sense. This faculty is <i>a priori</i>,
+transcendental, and entirely separate from all the data of experience
+and sense-perception. Here then we have a dualism
+within experience. The mind is not to be regarded as a sensitized
+film which automatically records the impressions of the senses.
+It contains within itself this modifying critical faculty which
+reacts upon and arranges the sense-given presentations.</p>
+
+<p><i>In Ethics and Theology.</i>&mdash;In the domain of morals, dualism
+postulates the separate existence of Good and Evil, as principles
+of existence. In theology the appearance of dualism is sporadic
+and has not the fundamental, determining importance which it
+has in metaphysics. It is a result rather than a starting-point.
+The old Zoroastrianism, and those Christian sects (<i>e.g.</i> Manichaeism)
+which were influenced by it, postulate two contending
+deities Ormuzd and Ahriman (Good and Evil), which war
+against one another in influencing the conduct of men. So, in
+Christianity, the existence of Satan as an evil influence, antagonistic
+to God, involves a kind of dualism. But generally speaking
+this dualism is permissive, inasmuch as it is always held that God
+will triumph over Satan in His own time. So in Zoroastrianism
+the dualism is not ultimate, for Ahriman and Ormuzd are
+represented as the twin sons of Zervana Akarana, <i>i.e.</i> limitless
+time, wherein both will be finally absorbed. The postulate of an
+Evil Being arises from the difficulty, at all times acutely felt by
+a certain type of mind, of reconciling the existence of evil with
+the divine attributes of perfect goodness, full knowledge and
+infinite power. John Stuart Mill (<i>Essay on Religion</i>) preferred
+to disbelieve in the omnipotence of God rather than forgo the
+belief in His goodness. It follows from such a view that Satan
+is not the creation of God, but rather a power coeval in origin,
+over whose activity God has no absolute control.</p>
+
+<p><i>In Theology.</i>&mdash;Dualism is also used in a special theological
+sense to describe a doctrine of the Nestorian heresy. According
+to this doctrine the personality of Christ is twofold; the divine
+Logos dwells as a distinct personality in the man Jesus Christ,
+the union of the two natures being analogous to the relation
+between the believer and the indwelling Holy Spirit.</p>
+
+<p><i>History of the Doctrine.</i>&mdash;The earliest European thinkers
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ionian School of Philosophy</a></span>) endeavoured to reduce
+all the facts of the universe to a single material origin, such as
+Fire, Water, Air. It is only gradually that there appears any
+recognition of a spiritual principle exercising a modifying or
+causal influence over inert matter. Anaxagoras was the first
+to postulate the existence of Reason (<span class="grk" title="nous">&#957;&#959;&#8166;&#962;</span>) as the source of
+change and progress. Yet even he did not conceive this Reason
+as incorporeal; it was in reality only the most highly rarefied
+form of matter in existence. In Plato for the first time we find
+a truly dualistic conception of the universe. Asserting that
+Ideas alone really exist, he yet found it necessary to postulate
+a second principle of not-being, the groundwork of sensuous
+existence and of imperfection and evil. Herein he identified
+metaphysics and ethics, combining the good with the truly
+existent and evil with the non-existent. Aristotle rebels against
+this conception and substitutes the idea of <span class="grk" title="prôtê hylê">&#960;&#961;&#974;&#964;&#951; &#8021;&#955;&#951;</span> and development.
+Nevertheless he does not escape from the dualism of
+Form and Matter, <span class="grk" title="nous">&#957;&#959;&#8166;&#962;</span> and <span class="grk" title="hylê">&#8021;&#955;&#951;</span>. The scholastic philosophers
+naturally held dualistic views resulting from their extreme
+devotion to formalism. This blind dualism found its natural
+consequence in the revolt of the Renaissance thinkers, Bruno
+and Paracelsus, who asserted the unity of mind and matter in
+all existence and were the precursors of the more intelligent
+monism of Leibnitz and the scientific metaphysics of his successors.
+The birth of modern physical science on the other
+hand in the investigations of Bacon and Descartes obscured the
+metaphysical issue by the predominance of the mechanical
+principles of natural philosophy. They attempted to explain
+the fundamental problems of existence by the unaided evidence
+of the new natural science. Thus Descartes maintained the
+absolute dualism of the <i>res cogitans</i> and the <i>res extensa</i>. Spinoza
+realized the flaw in the division and preferred to postulate
+behind mind and matter a single substance (<i>unica substantia</i>)
+while Leibnitz explained the universe as a harmony of spiritual
+or semispiritual principles. Kant practically abandons the
+problem. He never really establishes a relation between pure
+reason and things-in-themselves (<i>Dinge an sich</i>), but rather seeks
+refuge in a dualism within consciousness, the transcendental
+and the empirical. Since Kant there are, therefore, two streams
+of dualism, dealing, one with the radical problem of the relation
+between mind and matter, the other with the relation between
+the pure rational and the empirical elements within consciousness.
+To the first problem there is one obvious and conclusive answer,
+namely that matter in itself is inherently unthinkable and comes
+within the vision of the mind only as an intellectual presentation.
+It follows that philosophy is in a sense both dualist and monist;
+it is a cosmic dualism inasmuch as it admits the possible existence
+of matter as a hypothesis, though it denies the possibility of any
+true knowledge of it, and is hence in regard of the only possible
+knowledge an idealistic monism. It is a self-destructive dualism,
+a confessedly one-sided monism, agnostic as to the fundamental
+problem. To the second problem there are two main answers,
+that of Associationism which denies to the mind any <i>a priori</i>
+existence and asserts that sensation is the only source of knowledge,
+and that which admits the existence of both transcendental
+and empirical knowledge.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DUALLA,<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> one of the principal negro peoples of Cameroon
+estuary, West Africa. When the Germans established themselves
+in that region, the Dualla were under many petty chiefs, whose
+domains were usually restricted to one village. Over these were
+two greater chiefs, Bell (Mbeli) and Akwa, representing the
+principal families of the tribe. The Dualla are physically a
+fine race. They are proud of their racial purity, and it was
+formerly usual for all half-caste children to be strangled at birth.
+The Dualla tattoo themselves, the women the whole body, the
+men the face only. They also pull out their eyelashes, which
+they believe prevent sharp sight. The monarchical system is
+more developed among the Dualla than any other of the peoples
+of Cameroon. The kings, many of whom have grown rich through
+trade, retain part of their former power, subject to the German
+government. The Dualla, who are laborious, industrious and
+capable of great physical endurance, are great traders and are
+proportionately prosperous. The average price for a wife among
+the Dualla is from £90 to £120; but sometimes a great deal more
+is paid. Girls are usually betrothed young and may be divorced
+if sterile. The penalty for adultery is a fine imposed on the
+seducer; if he cannot pay he becomes the husband&rsquo;s slave.
+Cannibalism as a religious rite was formerly common among
+the Dualla. All accessions to power were preceded by a sacrifice,
+a king having no authority till his hands were stained with blood.
+The religion is fetish blended with ancestor-worship, and certain
+secret societies exist among them which seem to have a religious
+connexion. The dead are buried within the hut, which is abandoned
+shortly afterwards; slaves were formerly buried with
+men of importance. Missionary efforts have yielded many
+converts, and some churches have been built. Many of the
+natives can read. The Dualla are in possession of an interesting
+code, in accordance with which messages can be sent and even
+conversations maintained by means of drums, or rather gongs,
+giving two notes. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cameroon</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DU BARRY, MARIE JEANNE BÉCU,<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> Comtesse (1746-1793),
+French adventuress, mistress of Louis XV., was the
+natural daughter of a poor woman of Vaucouleurs, and was
+born there on the 19th of August 1746. Placed in a convent in
+Paris at an early age, she received a very slight education,
+learning little but the catechism and drawing; and at the age
+of sixteen entered a milliner&rsquo;s shop in the rue St Honoré. Subsequently
+she lived as a courtesan under the name of Mdlle Lange.
+Her great personal charms led the adventurer Jean, comte du
+Barry, to take her into his house in order to make it more
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page615" id="page615"></a>615</span>
+attractive to the dupes whose money he won by gambling. Her
+success surpassing his expectations, his hopes took a higher
+flight, and through Lebel, valet de chambre of Louis XV., and
+the duc de Richelieu, he succeeded in installing her as mistress
+of the king. In order to present her at court it was necessary to
+find a title for her, and as Count Jean du Barry was married
+himself his brother Guillaume offered himself as nominal
+husband. The comtesse du Barry was presented at court on
+the 22nd of April 1769, and became official mistress of the king.
+Her influence over the monarch was absolute until his death,
+and courtiers and ministers were in favour or disgrace with him
+in exact accordance with her wishes. The duc de Choiseul, who
+refused to acknowledge her, was disgraced in 1771; and the
+duc d&rsquo;Aiguillon, who had the reputation of being her lover,
+took his place, and in concert with her governed the monarch.
+Louis XV. built for her the magnificent mansion of Luciennes.
+At his death in 1774 an order of his successor banished her to
+the abbey of Pont-aux-Dames, near Meaux, but, the queen
+interceding for her, the king in the following year gave her
+permission to reside at Luciennes with a pension. Here she led
+a retired life with the comte de Cossé-Brissac, and was visited
+there by Benjamin Franklin and the emperor Joseph II., among
+many other distinguished men. Having gone to England in 1792
+to endeavour to raise money on her jewels, she was on her return
+accused before the Revolutionary Tribunal of having dissipated
+the treasures of the state, conspired against the republic, and
+worn, in London, &ldquo;mourning for the tyrant.&rdquo; She was condemned
+to death on the 7th of December 1793, and beheaded
+the same evening. Her contemporaries, scorning her low birth
+rather than her vices, attributed to her a malicious political rôle
+of which she was at heart incapable, and have done scant justice
+to her quick wit, her frank but gracious manners, and her seductive
+beauty. The volume of <i>Lettres et Anecdotes</i> (1779) which
+bears her name was not written by her.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See E. and J. de Goncourt, <i>La du Barry</i> (Paris, 1880); C. Vatel,
+<i>Histoire de Madame du Barry</i> (1882-1883), based on sources; R.
+Douglas, <i>The Life and Times of Madame du Barry</i> (London, 1896).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DU BARTAS, GUILLAUME DE SALUSTE,<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> <span class="sc">Seigneur</span> (1544-1590),
+French poet, was born near Auch in 1544. He was
+employed by Henry IV. of France in England, Denmark and
+Scotland; and he commanded a troop of horse in Gascony,
+under the marshal de Martingan. He was a convinced Huguenot,
+and cherished the idea of writing a great religious epic in which
+biblical characters and Christian sentiment were to supplant
+the pagan <i>mise en scène</i> then in fashion. His first epic, <i>Judith</i>,
+appeared in a volume entitled <i>La Muse chrétienne</i> (Bordeaux,
+1573). This was followed five years later by his principal work,
+<i>La Sepmaine</i>, a poem on the creation of the world. This work
+was held by admirers of du Bartas to put him on a level with
+Ronsard, and thirty editions of it were printed within six years
+after its appearance. Its religious tone and fanciful style made
+it a great favourite in England, where the author was called the
+&ldquo;divine&rdquo; du Bartas, and placed on an equality with Ariosto.
+Spenser, Hall and Ben Jonson, all speak in the highest terms of
+what seems to us a most uninteresting poem. King James VI.
+of Scotland tried his &ldquo;prentice hand&rdquo; at the translation of du
+Bartas&rsquo;s poem <i>L&rsquo;Uranie</i>, and the compliment was returned by
+the French writer, who translated, as <i>La Lepanthe</i>, James&rsquo;s poem
+on the battle of Lepanto. Du Bartas began the publication of
+the <i>Seconde Semaine</i> in 1584. He aimed at a great epic which
+should stretch from the story of the creation to the coming of
+the Messiah. Of this great scheme he only executed a part,
+marked by a certain elevation of style, but he did not succeed in
+acclimatizing the religious epic in France. The work is spoiled
+by a constant tendency to moralize, and is filled with the indiscriminate
+information that passed under the name of science
+in the 16th century. Du Bartas, perhaps more than any other
+writer, brought the Ronsardist tradition into dispute. He
+introduced many unwieldy compounds foreign to the genius
+of the French language, and in his borrowings from old French,
+from provincial dialects and from Latin, he failed to show the
+sure instinct and prudence of Ronsard and du Bellay. He was
+also guilty of reduplicating the first syllables of words, producing
+such expressions as <i>pépétiller</i>, <i>sousouflantes</i>. Du Bartas died
+in July 1590 in Paris from wounds received at the battle of
+Ivry.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Joshua Sylvester translated the <i>Sepmaine</i> in 1598; other English
+translations from du Bartas are <i>The Historie of Judith ...</i> (1584),
+by Thomas Hudson; of portions of the &ldquo;Weeks&rdquo; (1625) by William
+Lisle (1569-1637), the Anglo-Saxon scholar; <i>Urania</i> (1589), by
+Robert Ashley (1565-1641); and Sir Philip Sidney (see Florio&rsquo;s
+dedication of the second book of his translation of Montaigne to
+Lady Rich) wrote a translation of the first &ldquo;Week,&rdquo; which is lost.
+The <i>&OElig;uvres complètes</i> of du Bartas were printed at Paris (1579),
+Paris and Bordeaux (1611). See also G. Pellissier, <i>La Vie et les &oelig;uvres
+de du Bartas</i> (1883).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DUBAWNT,<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Doobaunt</span> (Indian <i>Toobaung</i>, <i>i.e.</i> turbid), a
+river of Mackenzie and Keewatin districts, Canada. It rises in
+Wholdaia (or Daly) Lake, in 104° 20&prime; W. and 60° 15&prime; N., and
+flows northward to its confluence with the Thelon river, and
+thence eastward to Chesterfield Inlet, an arm of Hudson Bay.
+It passes through numerous lake-expansions, including Dubawnt
+Lake, with an area of 1700 sq. m. and an altitude of 500 ft. above
+the sea; Aberdeen, altitude 130 ft.; and Baker, 30 ft. From
+the head of Wholdaia Lake to the head of Chesterfield Inlet is
+750 m. and thence to the west coast of Hudson Bay 125 m. The
+river is shallow, and banks and bed are chiefly composed of
+boulders; grassy slopes, however, occur at intervals along its
+banks, especially on the shores of Dubawnt Lake, and are the
+feeding grounds of large bands of cariboo. Discovered in 1770
+by Samuel Hearne, the Dubawnt was explored by J. B. Tyrrell
+in 1893, and the Thelon by David Hanbury in 1899.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Annual Report of the Geological Survey of Canada for 1896
+(printed 1898).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DUBBO,<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> a municipal town of Lincoln county, New South
+Wales, Australia, on the Macquarie river, 278 m. by rail N.W. of
+Sydney. Pop. (1901) 3409. It is a flourishing manufacturing
+town in a pastoral district, in part also cultivated. Coal and
+copper are found in the neighbourhood.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DU BELLAY, GUILLAUME,<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> <span class="sc">Sieur de Langey</span> (1491-1543),
+French soldier and diplomat, was born at the château of Glatigny,
+near Montmirail, in 1491. His father, Louis du Bellay-Langey
+was a younger son of the Angevin family of du Bellay, which
+from the 14th century was distinguished in the service of the
+dukes of Anjou and afterwards of the kings of France; and
+Louis had six sons, who were among the best servants of Francis I.
+Guillaume, the eldest, is one of the most remarkable figures of
+the time; a brave soldier, a humanist and a historian, he was
+above all the most able diplomat at the command of Francis I.,
+prodigiously active, and excelling in secret negotiations. He
+entered the military service at an early age, was taken prisoner
+at Pavia (1525) and shared the captivity of Francis I. His skill
+and devotion attached him to the king. His missions to Spain,
+Italy, England and Germany were innumerable; sent three
+times to England in 1529-1530, he was occupied with the execution
+of the treaty of Cambrai and also with the question of
+Henry VIII.&rsquo;s divorce, and with the help of his brother Jean,
+then bishop of Paris, he obtained a decision favourable to Henry
+VIII. from the Sorbonne (July 2, 1530). From 1532 to 1536,
+though he went three times to England, he was principally
+employed in uniting the German princes against Charles V.;
+in May 1532 he signed the treaty of Scheyern with the dukes
+of Bavaria, the landgrave of Hesse, and the elector of Saxony,
+and in January 1534 the treaty of Augsburg. During the war
+of 1537 Francis I. sent him on missions to Piedmont; he was
+governor of Turin from December 1537 till the end of 1539, and
+subsequently replacing Marshal d&rsquo;Annebaut as governor of the
+whole of Piedmont, he displayed great capacity in organization.
+But at the end of 1542, overwhelmed by work, he was compelled
+to return to France, and died near Lyons on the 9th of January
+1543. Rabelais, an eye-witness, has left a moving story of his
+death (<i>Pantagruel</i>, iii. ch. 21, and iv. ch. 27). He was buried
+in the cathedral of Le Mans, where a monument was erected
+to his memory, with the inscription, &ldquo;Ci gît Langey, dont la
+plume et l&rsquo;épée Ont surmonté Cicéron et Pompée&rdquo;; Charles V.
+is said to have remarked that Langey, by his own unaided efforts,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page616" id="page616"></a>616</span>
+did more mischief and thwarted more schemes than all the
+French together.</p>
+
+<p>Guillaume du Bellay was the devoted protector of freedom
+of thought; without actually joining the reformers, he defended
+the innovators against their fanatical opponents. In 1534-1535
+he even tried, unsuccessfully, to bring about a meeting
+between Francis I. and Melanchthon; and in 1541 he intervened
+in favour of the Vaudois. Rabelais was the most famous of his
+clients, and followed him to Piedmont from 1540 to 1542.
+Guillaume was himself a valuable historian, and a clear and
+precise writer. He imitated Livy in his <i>Ogdoades</i>, a history of
+the rivalry between Francis I. and the emperor from 1521, of
+which, though he had no time to finish it, important fragments
+remain, inserted by his brother Martin du Bellay (d. 1559) in
+his <i>Mémoires</i> (1569). The celebrated <i>Instructions</i>, reprinted as
+<i>Traité de la discipline militaire</i> in 1554 and 1592, was formerly
+attributed to him, but it has been proved that he could not have
+written it (see Bayle, <i>Dict. Hist.</i> i. 502, and Jähns, <i>Geschichte der
+Kriegswissenschaften</i>, i. 498 seq.); this work, however, is of the
+highest value for the study of the military art of the 16th century;
+in 1550 an Italian, in 1567 a Spanish, and in 1594 and 1619
+German translations were published.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also the edition of Martin du Bellay&rsquo;s <i>Mémoires</i> by Michaud
+and Poujoulat (1838), and Bourrilly&rsquo;s <i>Fragments de la première
+Ogdoade</i> (Paris, 1905). There is an excellent study of Guillaume
+du Bellay by V. L. Bourrilly (Paris, 1905).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. I.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DU BELLAY, JEAN<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> (c. 1493-1560), French cardinal and
+diplomat, younger brother of Guillaume du Bellay, appears as
+bishop of Bayonne in 1526, member of the privy council in 1530,
+and bishop of Paris in 1532. Supple and clever, he was well
+fitted for a diplomatic career, and carried out several missions
+in England (1527-1534) and Rome (1534-1536). In 1535 he
+received his cardinal&rsquo;s hat; in 1536-1537 he was nominated
+&ldquo;lieutenant-general&rdquo; to the king at Paris and in the Île de
+France, and was entrusted with the organization of the defence
+against the imperialists. When Guillaume du Bellay went to
+Piedmont, Jean was put in charge of the negotiations with the
+German Protestants, principally through the humanist Johann
+Sturm and the historian Johann Sleidan. In the last years of the
+reign of Francis I., cardinal du Bellay was in favour with the
+duchesse d&rsquo;Étampes, and received a number of benefices&mdash;the
+bishopric of Limoges (1541), archbishopric of Bordeaux (1544),
+bishopric of Le Mans (1546); but his influence in the council was
+supplanted by that of Cardinal de Tournon. Under Henry II.,
+being involved in the disgrace of all the servants of Francis I., he
+was sent to Rome (1547), and he obtained eight votes in the conclave
+which followed the death of Pope Paul III. After three quiet
+years passed in retirement in France (1550-1553), he was charged
+with a new mission to Pope Julius III. and took with him to Rome
+his young cousin the poet Joachim du Bellay (<i>q.v.</i>). He lived
+in Rome thenceforth in great state. In 1555 he was nominated
+bishop of Ostia and dean of the Sacred College, an appointment
+which was disapproved of by Henry II. and brought him into
+fresh disgrace, lasting till his death in Rome on the 16th of
+February 1560. Less resolute and reliable than his brother
+Guillaume, the cardinal had brilliant qualities, and an open and
+free mind. He was on the side of toleration and protected the
+reformers. Budaeus was his friend, Rabelais his faithful secretary
+and doctor; men of letters, like Étienne Dolet, and the poet
+Salmon Macrin, were indebted to him for assistance. An orator
+and writer of Latin verse, he left three books of graceful Latin
+poems (printed with Salmon Macrin&rsquo;s <i>Odes</i>, 1546, by R. Estienne),
+and some other compositions, including <i>Francisci Francorum
+regis epistola apologetica</i> (1542). His voluminous correspondence,
+mostly in MS., is remarkable for its <i>verve</i> and picturesque
+quality.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;The Bibliothèque Nationale at Paris has numerous
+unpublished letters of Jean du Bellay. See also Ribier, <i>Lettres
+et mémoires d&rsquo;estat</i> (Paris, 1666); V. L. Bourrilly and P. de Vaissière,
+<i>Ambassade de Jean du Bellay en Angleterre</i>, vol. i. (Paris, 1905);
+marquis de la Jonquière, <i>Le Cardinal du Bellay</i> (Alençon, 1887);
+Heulhard, <i>Rabelais, ses voyages en Italie</i> (Paris, 1891); Chamard,
+<i>Joachim du Bellay</i> (Lille, 1900); V. L. Bourrilly, <i>Guillaume du
+Bellay</i> (Paris, 1905); &ldquo;Jean du Bellay, les protestants et la Sorbonne&rdquo;
+in the <i>Bulletin du Protestantisme français</i> (1903, 1904); and &ldquo;Jean
+Sleidan et le Cardinal du Bellay,&rdquo; in the <i>Bulletin, &amp;c.</i> (1901, 1906).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. I.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DU BELLAY, JOACHIM<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> (c. 1522-1560), French poet and
+critic, member of the Pléiade, was born<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> at the château of La
+Turmelière, not far from Liré, near Angers, being the son of Jean
+du Bellay, seigneur de Gonnor, cousin-german of the cardinal
+Jean du Bellay and of Guillaume du Bellay. Both his parents
+died while he was still a child, and he was left to the guardianship
+of his elder brother, René du Bellay, who neglected his education,
+leaving him to run wild at La Turmelière. When he was twenty-three,
+however, he received permission to go to Poitiers to study
+law, no doubt with a view to his obtaining perferment through
+his kinsman the Cardinal Jean du Bellay. At Poitiers he came
+in contact with the humanist Marc Antoine Muret, and with
+Jean Salmon Macrin (1490-1557), a Latin poet famous in his
+day. There too he probably met Jacques Peletier du Mans, who
+had published a translation of the <i>Ars poëtica</i> of Horace, with a
+preface in which much of the programme advocated later by the
+Pléiade is to be found in outline.</p>
+
+<p>It was probably in 1547 that du Bellay met Ronsard in an
+inn on the way to Poitiers, an event which may justly be regarded
+as the starting-point of the French school of Renaissance poetry.
+The two had much in common, and immediately became fast
+friends. Du Bellay returned with Ronsard to Paris to join the
+circle of students of the humanities attached to Jean Daurat
+(<i>q.v.</i>) at the Collège de Coqueret. While Ronsard and Antoine de
+Baïf were most influenced by Greek models, du Bellay was more
+especially a Latinist, and perhaps his preference for a language
+so nearly connected with his own had some part in determining
+the more national and familiar note of his poetry. In 1548
+appeared the <i>Art poétique</i> of Thomas Sibilet, who enunciated
+many of the ideas that Ronsard and his followers had at heart,
+though with essential differences in the point of view, since he
+held up as models Clément Marot and his disciples. Ronsard
+and his friends dissented violently from Sibilet on this and other
+points, and they doubtless felt a natural resentment at finding
+their ideas forestalled and, moreover, inadequately presented.
+The famous manifesto of the Pléiade, the <i>Deffence et illustration
+de la langue françoyse</i> (1549), was at once a complement and a
+refutation of Sibilet&rsquo;s treatise. This book was the expression
+of the literary principles of the Pléiade as a whole, but although
+Ronsard was the chosen leader, its redaction was entrusted to
+du Bellay. To obtain a clear view of the reforms aimed at by
+the Pléiade, the <i>Deffence</i> should be further considered in connexion
+with Ronsard&rsquo;s <i>Abrégé d&rsquo;art poétique</i> and his preface to
+the <i>Franciade</i>. Du Bellay maintained that the French language
+as it was then constituted was too poor to serve as a medium
+for the higher forms of poetry, but he contended that by proper
+cultivation it might be brought on a level with the classical
+tongues. He condemned those who despaired of their mother
+tongue, and used Latin for their more serious and ambitious
+work. For translations from the ancients he would substitute
+imitations. Not only were the forms of classical poetry to be
+imitated, but a separate poetic language and style, distinct from
+those employed in prose, were to be used. The French language
+was to be enriched by a development of its internal resources and
+by discreet borrowing from the Latin and Greek. Both du Bellay
+and Ronsard laid stress on the necessity of prudence in these
+borrowings, and both repudiated the charge of wishing to latinize
+their mother tongue. The book was a spirited defence of poetry
+and of the possibilities of the French language; it was also a
+declaration of war on those writers who held less heroic views.</p>
+
+<p>The violent attacks made by du Bellay on Marot and his
+followers, and on Sibilet, did not go unanswered. Sibilet replied
+in the preface to his translation (1549) of the <i>Iphigenia</i> of Euripides;
+Guillaume des Autels, a Lyonnese poet, reproached
+du Bellay with ingratitude to his predecessors, and showed the
+weakness of his argument for imitation as opposed to translation
+in a digression in his <i>Réplique aux furieuses défenses de Louis
+Meigret</i> (Lyons, 1550); Barthélemy Aneau, regent of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page617" id="page617"></a>617</span>
+Collège de la Trinité at Lyons, attacked him in his <i>Quintil Horatian</i>
+(Lyons, 1551), the authorship of which was commonly attributed
+to Charles Fontaine. Aneau pointed out the obvious inconsistency
+of inculcating imitation of the ancients and depreciating
+native poets in a work professing to be a defence of the French
+language. Du Bellay replied to his various assailants in a preface
+to the second edition (1550) of his sonnet sequence <i>Olive</i>, with
+which he also published two polemical poems, the <i>Musagnaeomachie</i>,
+and an ode addressed to Ronsard, <i>Contre les envieux
+poètes</i>. <i>Olive</i>, a collection of love-sonnets written in close
+imitation of Petrarch, first appeared in 1549. With it were
+printed thirteen odes entitled <i>Vers lyriques</i>. Olive has been
+supposed to be an anagram for the name of a Mlle Viole, but
+there is little evidence of real passion in the poems, and they
+may perhaps be regarded as a Petrarcan exercise, especially
+as, in the second edition, the dedication to his lady is exchanged
+for one to Marguerite de Valois, sister of Henry II. Du Bellay
+did not actually introduce the sonnet into French poetry, but
+he acclimatized it; and when the fashion of sonneteering became
+a mania he was one of the first to ridicule its excesses.</p>
+
+<p>About this time du Bellay had a serious illness of two years&rsquo;
+duration, from which dates the beginning of his deafness. He had
+further anxieties in the guardianship of his nephew. The boy
+died in 1553, and Joachim, who had up to this time borne the
+title of sieur de Liré, became seigneur of Gonnor. In 1549 he had
+published a <i>Recueil de poësies</i> dedicated to the Princess Marguerite.
+This was followed in 1552 by a version of the fourth book of
+the <i>Aeneid</i>, with other translations and some occasional poems.
+In the next year he went to Rome as one of the secretaries of
+Cardinal du Bellay. To the beginning of his four and a half years&rsquo;
+residence in Italy belong the forty-seven sonnets of his <i>Antiquités
+de Rome</i>, which were rendered into English by Edmund Spenser
+(<i>The Ruins of Rome</i>, 1591). These sonnets were more personal
+and less imitative than the <i>Olive</i> sequence, and struck a note
+which was revived in later French literature by Volney and
+Chateaubriand. His stay in Rome was, however, a real exile.
+His duties were those of an intendant. He had to meet the
+cardinal&rsquo;s creditors and to find money for the expenses of the
+household. Nevertheless he found many friends among Italian
+scholars, and formed a close friendship with another exiled poet
+whose circumstances were similar to his own, Olivier de Magny.
+Towards the end of his sojourn in Rome he fell violently in love
+with a Roman lady called Faustine, who appears in his poetry
+as Columba and Columbelle. This passion finds its clearest
+expression in the Latin poems. Faustine was guarded by an
+old and jealous husband, and du Bellay&rsquo;s eventual conquest
+may have had something to do with his departure for Paris at
+the end of August 1557. In the next year he published the poems
+he had brought back with him from Rome, the Latin <i>Poemata</i>,
+the <i>Antiquités de Rome</i>, the <i>Jeux rustiques</i>, and the 191 sonnets
+of the <i>Regrets</i>, the greater number of which were written in Italy.
+The <i>Regrets</i> show that he had advanced far beyond the theories of
+the <i>Deffence</i>. The simplicity and tenderness specially characteristic
+of du Bellay appear in the sonnets telling of his unlucky passion
+for Faustine, and of his nostalgia for the banks of the Loire.
+Among them are some satirical sonnets describing Roman
+manners, and the later ones written after his return to Paris
+are often appeals for patronage. His intimate relations with
+Ronsard were not renewed; but he formed a close friendship
+with the scholar Jean de Morel, whose house was the centre of a
+learned society. In 1559 du Bellay published at Poitiers <i>La
+Nouvelle Manière de faire son profit des lettres</i>, a satirical epistle
+translated from the Latin of Adrien Turnèbe, and with it <i>Le Poète
+courtisan</i>, which introduced the formal satire into French poetry.
+These were published under the pseudonym of J. Quintil du
+Troussay, and the courtier-poet was generally supposed to be
+Melin de Saint-Gelais, with whom du Bellay had always, however,
+been on friendly terms.</p>
+
+<p>A long and eloquent <i>Discours au roi</i> (detailing the duties of a
+prince, and translated from a Latin original written by Michel
+de l&rsquo;Hôpital, now lost) was dedicated to Francis II. in 1559,
+and is said to have secured for the poet a tardy pension. In
+Paris he was still in the employ of the cardinal, who delegated
+to him the lay patronage which he still retained in the diocese.
+In the exercise of these functions Joachim quarrelled with
+Eustache du Bellay, bishop of Paris, who prejudiced his relations
+with the cardinal, less cordial since the publication of the outspoken
+<i>Regrets</i>. His chief patron, Marguerite de Valois, to whom
+he was sincerely attached, had gone to Savoy. Du Bellay&rsquo;s health
+was weak; his deafness seriously hindered his official duties;
+and on the 1st of January 1560 he died. There is no evidence that
+he was in priest&rsquo;s orders, but he was a clerk, and as such held
+various preferments. He had at one time been a canon of Notre
+Dame of Paris, and was accordingly buried in the cathedral.
+The statement that he was nominated archbishop of Bordeaux
+during the last year of life is unauthenticated by documentary
+evidence and is in itself extremely improbable.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;The best edition of the works of J. du Bellay is
+<i>&OElig;uvres françaises</i> (2 vols., 1866-1867), edited with introduction and
+notes by C. Marty-Laveaux in his <i>Pléiade française</i>. His <i>&OElig;uvres
+choisies</i> were published by L. Becq de Fouquières in 1876. The chief
+source of his biography is his own poetry, especially the Latin elegy
+addressed to Jean de Morel, &ldquo;<i>Elegia ad Janum Morellum Ebredunensem,
+Pyladem suum</i>,&rdquo; printed with a volume of <i>Xenia</i> (Paris, 1569).
+A study of his life and writings by H. Chamard, forming vol. viii.
+of the <i>Travaux et mémoires de l&rsquo;université de Lille</i> (Lille, 1900), contains
+all the available information and corrects many common errors. See
+also Sainte-Beuve, <i>Tableau de la poésie française au XVI^{e} siècle</i>
+(1828); <i>La Défense et illust. de la langue française</i> (1905), with biographical
+and critical introduction by Léon Séché, who also wrote
+<i>Joachim du Bellay, documents nouveaux et inédits</i> (1880), and published
+in 1903 the first volume of a new edition of the <i>&OElig;uvres;
+Lettres de Joachim du Bellay</i> (1884), edited by P. de Nolhac; G.
+Wyndham, <i>Ronsard and La Pléiade</i> (1906); H. Belloc, <i>Avril</i> (1905);
+A. Tilley, <i>The Literature of the French Renaissance</i> (2 vols., 1904).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For the date of his birth, commonly given as 1525, see H.
+Chamard, <i>Joachim du Bellay</i> (Lille, 1900).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DUBLIN,<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> a county of Ireland in the province of Leinster,
+bounded N. by Co. Meath, E. by the Irish Sea, S. by Wicklow,
+and W. by Kildare and Meath. With the exception of Louth
+and Carlow, Dublin is the smallest county in Ireland, having an
+area of 218,873 acres, or about 342 sq. m. The northern portion
+is flat, and the soil good, particularly on the borders of Meath;
+but on the southern side the land rises into elevations of considerable
+height. The mountains are chiefly covered with heath,
+except where a subsidence in the ground affords a nucleus for
+the formation of bog, with which about 2000 acres are covered.
+There are also a few small tracts of bog in the northern part of
+the county. The mountain district is well adapted for timber.
+The northern coast of the county from Balbriggan to Howth
+has generally a sandy shore, and affords only the small harbours
+of Balbriggan and Skerries. In the promontory of Howth, the
+coast suddenly assumes a bolder aspect; and between the town
+of Howth and the rocky islet of Ireland&rsquo;s Eye an unsuccessful
+artificial harbour was constructed. Kingstown harbour on the
+south side of Dublin Bay superseded this, and is by far the best
+in the county. Dalkey Island, about 22 acres in extent, lies
+about midway between Kingstown harbour and the beautiful
+bay of Killiney. North of Howth lies Lambay Island, about 600
+acres in area. Shell fish, especially lobsters, are taken here in
+abundance. Small islets lie farther north off Skerries; the most
+interesting of which is that known as Inispatrick, reputed as the
+first landing-place of St Patrick, and having the ruins of a church
+said to be the saint&rsquo;s first foundation, though it shares this
+reputation with other sites. Ireland&rsquo;s Eye, off Howth, is a very
+picturesque rock with about 54 acres of grass land. It has
+afforded great room for geological disquisition. The chief river
+in the county is the Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow mountains
+about 12 m. S.W. of Dublin, and, after running about 50 m.,
+empties itself into Dublin Bay. The course of the river is so
+tortuous that 40 m. may be traversed and only 10 gained in
+direction. The scenery along the banks of the Liffey is remarkably
+beautiful. The mountains which occupy the southern
+border of the county are the extremities of the great group
+belonging to the adjacent county Wicklow. The principal
+summits are the group containing Glendoo (1919 ft.) and Two
+Rock (1699 ft.) within the county, and the border group of
+Kippure, reaching in that summit a height of 2475 ft. The
+grandest features of these hills are the great natural ravines
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page618" id="page618"></a>618</span>
+which open in them, the most extraordinary being the Scalp
+through which the traveller passes from Dublin to Wicklow.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Geology.</i>&mdash;On the north a Silurian upland stretches, falling to the
+sea at Balbriggan, where fossiliferous strata contain contemporaneous
+volcanic rocks. A limestone of Bala age comes out under shales and
+andesites in the promontory of Portrane, and rocks of the same
+series occur in the bold island of Lambay, associated with a large
+mass of dark green porphyritic andesite (the &ldquo;Lambay porphyry&rdquo;).
+Silurian rocks reappear at Tallaght in the south-west, where the
+granite of Leinster rises through them, forming a moorland 2000 ft.
+in height only a few miles south of Dublin. Old Red Sandstone,
+seen at Donabate and Newcastle, leads up into Carboniferous Limestone,
+which is often darkened by mud and even shaly (&ldquo;calpy&rdquo;
+type). This rock produces a fairly level country, both north and
+south of the valley of the Liffey, although the beds are greatly
+folded. Beds of a higher Carboniferous zone are retained in synclinals
+near Rush. The rugged peninsula of Howth, connected
+by a raised bench with the mainland, is formed of old quartzites
+and shales, crushed and folded, and probably of Cambrian age.
+The rocks of the county show many signs of ice-action, and boulder-clays
+and drift-gravels cover the lowland, the latter being banked up
+on the mountain-slopes to heights of 1200 ft. or more. Much of this
+glacial material has been imported from the area of the Irish Sea.
+Lead-ore has been mined at the granite-contact at Ballycorus.</p>
+
+<p><i>Industries.</i>&mdash;The extension of Dublin city and its suburbs has no
+doubt had its influence on the decrease of acreage under both tillage
+and pasture. Oats and potatoes are the principal crops, but live
+stock, especially cattle, receives greater attention. A large proportion
+of holdings are of the smallest, nearly one-half of those
+beneath fifteen acres being also beneath one acre. The manufactures
+of the county are mainly confined to the city and suburbs, but there
+is manufacture of cotton hosiery at Balbriggan. The haddock,
+herring and other fisheries, both deep-sea and coastal, are important,
+and Kingstown is the headquarters of the fishery district. The
+salmon fishery district of Dublin also affords considerable employment.
+As containing the metropolis of Ireland, the communications
+of the county are naturally good, several important railways and
+two canals converging upon the city of Dublin, under the head of
+which they are considered.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Population and Administration.</i>&mdash;The population (148,210 in
+1891; 157,568 in 1901) shows a regular increase, which, however,
+is not consistent from year to year. About 70% are Roman
+Catholics, the Protestant Episcopalians (24%) standing next.
+The chief towns, apart from the capital, are Balbriggan (pop.
+2236), Blackrock (8719), Dalkey (3398), Killiney and Ballybrack
+(2744), Pembroke (25,799), Rathmines and Rathgar (32,602),
+and the important port of Kingstown (17,377). These are urban
+districts. Skerries, Howth and Rush are small maritime towns.
+There are nine baronies in the county, which, including the city
+of Dublin, are divided into 100 parishes, all within the Protestant
+and Roman Catholic dioceses of Dublin. Assizes are held in
+Dublin, and quarter sessions also in the capital, and at Balbriggan,
+Kilmainham, Kingstown and Swords. Previous to the
+union with Great Britain, this county returned ten representatives
+to the Irish Parliament,&mdash;two for the county, two for the city,
+two for the university, and two for each of the boroughs of
+Swords and Newcastle. The county parliamentary divisions are
+now two, north and south, each returning one member. The
+city of Dublin constitutes a separate county.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;Dublin is among the counties generally considered
+to have been formed by King John, and comprised the chief
+portion of country within the English pale. The limits of the
+county, however, were uncertain, and underwent many changes
+before they were fixed. As late as the 17th century the mountainous
+country south of Dublin offered a retreat to the lawless,
+and it was not until 1606 that the boundaries of the county
+received definition in this direction, along with the formation
+of the county Wicklow. Although so near the seat of government
+67,142 acres of profitable land were forfeited in the Rebellion of
+1641 and 34,536 acres in the Revolution of 1688. In 1867 the
+most formidable of the Fenian risings took place near the village
+of Tallaght, about 7 m. from the city. The rebels, who numbered
+from 500 to 700, were found wandering at dawn, some by a small
+force of constabulary who, having in vain called upon them to
+yield, fired and wounded five of them; but the great bulk of
+them were overtaken by the troops under Lord Strathnairn,
+who captured them with ease and marched them into the city.
+There are numerous antiquities in the county. Raths or encampments
+are frequent, and those at Raheny, Coolock, Lucan,
+with the large specimen at Shankill or Rathmichael near the
+Scalp pass may be mentioned. Cromlechs occur in Phoenix
+Park, Dublin, at Howth, and elsewhere. There are fine round
+towers at Swords, Lusk and Clondalkin, and there is the stump
+of one at Rathmichael.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DUBLIN,<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> a city, county of a city, parliamentary borough
+and seaport, and the metropolis of Ireland, in the province of
+Leinster. It lies at the head of a bay of the Irish Sea, to which
+it gives name, about midway on the eastern coast of the island,
+334 m. W.N.W. of London by the Holyhead route, and 70 m. W.
+of Holyhead on the coast of Anglesey, Wales. (For map, see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ireland</a></span>.) Its population in 1901 was 290,638.</p>
+
+<p><i>Site, Streets and Buildings.</i>&mdash;Dublin lies on the great central
+limestone district which stretches across the island from the Irish
+Sea to the Atlantic Ocean, and occupies both banks of the river
+Liffey. Its situation is justly admired. The populous shores
+of the bay are exceedingly picturesque. To the north and west
+the country is comparatively level, the central plain of Ireland
+here reaching to the coast, but to the south the foothills of the
+Wicklow Mountains practically touch the confines of Greater
+Dublin, affording comprehensive views of the physical position
+of the city, and forming a background to some of the finest
+streets. The municipal boundary lies generally a little outside
+the so-called Circular Road, which may be taken as encircling
+the city proper, with a few breaks. It bears this name on both
+the north and south sides of the river. As the city is approached
+from the bay, the river Liffey, which divides the city from west
+to east roughly into two equal parts, is seen to be lined with a
+fine series of quays. At its mouth, on the north side, is the
+North Wall quay, where the principal steamers lie, and in this
+vicinity are the docks. At the opposite (western) end of the
+city, the Phoenix Park may be taken as a convenient landmark.
+Between this and North Wall the river is crossed by twelve
+bridges, which, in order from west to east, are these:&mdash;Sarah
+Bridge, the bridge of the North Wall extension railway; King&rsquo;s,
+commemorating a visit of George IV.; Victoria or Barrack;
+Queen&rsquo;s; Whitworth, of interest as occupying the site where a
+bridge has stood since the 12th century; Richmond, Grattan
+and Wellington; O&rsquo;Connell, Butt and a swivel bridge carrying
+a loop railway. Of these O&rsquo;Connell bridge (formerly known as
+Carlisle) is the principal, as it connects the chief thoroughfare
+on the north side, namely Sackville (or O&rsquo;Connell) Street, with
+Great Brunswick Street and others on the south. Sackville
+Street, which gains in appearance from its remarkable breadth,
+contains the principal hotels, and the post office, with a fine
+Ionic portico, founded in 1815. At the crossing of Henry Street
+and Earl Street is the Nelson pillar, a beautiful monument 134 ft.
+in height, consisting of a fluted Doric column, raised on a massive
+pedestal, and crowned by a statue of the admiral. At the southern
+end of the street is Daniel O&rsquo;Connell&rsquo;s monument, almost completed
+by John Henry Foley before his death, and erected in
+1882. In Rutland Square, at the northern end, is the Rotunda,
+containing public rooms for meetings, and adjoining it, the
+Rotunda hospital with its Doric façade.</p>
+
+<p>From the north end of Sackville Street, several large thoroughfares
+radiate through the northern part of the city, ultimately
+joining the Circular Road at various points. To the west there
+are the Broadstone station, Dominion Street, and beyond this
+the large workhouse, prison, asylum and other district buildings,
+while the Royal barracks front the river behind Albert Quay.
+Two other notable buildings face the river on the north bank.
+Between Whitworth and Richmond bridges stands the &ldquo;Four
+Courts&rdquo; (law courts), on the site of the ancient Dominican
+monastery of St Saviour. It was erected between 1786 and 1796,
+and is adjoined by other court buildings, the public record office,
+containing a vast collection, and the police offices. Below the
+lowest bridge on the river, and therefore in the neighbourhood
+of the shipping quarter, is the customs house (1781-1791),
+considered one of the chief ornaments of the city. It presents
+four fronts, that facing the river being of Portland stone, in the
+Doric order, while the rest are of granite. The centre is crowned
+by a dome, surmounted by a statue of Hope. This building
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page619" id="page619"></a>619</span>
+provides offices for the Local Government Board, Boards of
+Trade and of Public Works and other bodies.</p>
+
+<p>It is, however, to the south of the river that the most interesting
+buildings are found. Crossing O&rsquo;Connell bridge, the short
+Westmoreland Street strikes into a thoroughfare which traverses
+the entire city parallel with the river, and is known successively
+(from west to east) as James, Thomas, High, Castle, Dame,
+College and Great Brunswick streets. At the end of Westmoreland
+Street a fine group of buildings is seen&mdash;Trinity College
+on the left and the Bank of Ireland on the right. Barely half a
+mile westward down Dame Street, rises the Castle, and 300 yds.
+beyond this again is the cathedral of Christ Church. These,
+with the second cathedral of St Patrick, are more conveniently
+described in the inverse order.</p>
+
+<p>The cathedral of Christ Church, or Holy Trinity, the older
+of the two Protestant cathedrals in the possession of which
+Dublin is remarkable, was founded by Sigtryg, a
+Christianized king of the Danes of Dublin, in 1038,
+<span class="sidenote">Christ Church.</span>
+but dates its elevation to a deanery and chapter from
+1541. It was restored in 1870-1877 by G. E. Street at the charge
+of Mr Henry Roe, a merchant of Dublin, who also presented
+the Synod House. The restoration involved the complete rebuilding
+of the choir and the south side of the nave, but the
+model of the ancient building was followed with great care.
+The crypt embodies remains of the founder&rsquo;s work; the rest
+is Transitional Norman and Early English in style. Among the
+monuments is that of Strongbow, the invader of Ireland, to
+whom the earlier part of the superstructure (1170) is due. Here
+the tenants of the church lands were accustomed to pay their
+rents. The monument was injured by the fall of one of the
+cathedral walls, but was repaired. By its side is a smaller tomb,
+ascribed to Strongbow&rsquo;s son, whom his father killed for showing
+cowardice in battle. Synods were occasionally held in this
+church, and parliaments also, before the Commons&rsquo; Hall was
+destroyed in 1566 by an accidental explosion of gunpowder.
+Here also the pretender Lambert Simnel was crowned.</p>
+
+<p>A short distance south from Christ Church, through the
+squalid quarter of Nicholas and Patrick streets, stands the
+other Protestant cathedral dedicated to St Patrick,
+the foundation of which was an attempt to supersede
+<span class="sidenote">St Patrick&rsquo;s.</span>
+the older foundation of Christ Church, owing to jealousies,
+both ecclesiastical and political, arising out of the Anglo-Norman
+invasion. It was founded about 1190 by John Comyn,
+archbishop of Dublin; but there was a church dedicated to the
+same saint before. It was burnt about two hundred years
+later, but was raised from its ruins with increased splendour.
+At the Reformation it was deprived of its status as a cathedral,
+and the building was used for some of the purposes of the courts
+of justice. Edward VI. contemplated its change into a university,
+but the project was defeated. In the succeeding reign
+of Mary, St Patrick&rsquo;s was restored to its primary destination.
+The installations of the knights of St Patrick, the first of which
+took place in 1783, were originally held here, and some of their
+insignia are preserved in the choir. This cathedral contains the
+monuments of several illustrious persons, amongst which the
+most celebrated are those of Swift (dean of this cathedral), of
+Mrs Hester Johnson, immortalized under the name of &ldquo;Stella&rdquo;;
+of Archbishop Marsh; of the first earl of Cork; and of Duke
+Schomberg, who fell at the battle of the Boyne. The tablet over
+Schomberg&rsquo;s grave contains what Macaulay called a &ldquo;furious
+libel,&rdquo; though it only states that the duke&rsquo;s relatives refused
+the expense of the tablet. In the cathedral may be seen the
+chain ball which killed General St Ruth at the battle of Aughrim,
+and the spurs which he wore. The cathedral was restored by
+Sir Benjamin Lee Guinness (1864), whom a fine statue by John
+Henry Foley commemorates, and the work was resumed by his
+son Lord Iveagh in 1900. Attached to the cathedral is Marsh&rsquo;s
+library, incorporated in 1707, by a request of Primate Marsh,
+archbishop of Armagh. It contains a good number of theological
+works and of manuscripts, and is open to the public; but is
+deficient in modern publications.</p>
+
+<p>Dublin Castle stands high, and occupies about ten acres of
+ground, but excepting St Patrick&rsquo;s Hall, the apartments are
+small, and the building is of a motley and unimposing appearance,
+with the exception of the chapel (a Gothic building
+<span class="sidenote">The Castle.</span>
+of the early 19th century) and great tower. The castle
+was originally built in the first two decades of the
+13th century; and there are portions of this period, but nearly
+the whole is of the 16th century and later. In St Patrick&rsquo;s hall
+where the knights of St Patrick are invested, are the banners
+of that order. Opposite the castle is the city hall (1779), in the
+possession of the corporation, with statues in the central hall of
+George III., of Grattan (a superb work by Sir Francis Chantry),
+of Daniel O&rsquo;Connell, and of Thomas Drummond by John Hogan
+and several others.</p>
+
+<p>The Bank of Ireland (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Architecture</a></span>, fig. 85) occupies
+five acres, and was formerly the House of Parliament. There
+are three fronts; the principal, towards College
+Green, is a colonnade of the Ionic order, with façade
+<span class="sidenote">Bank of Ireland.</span>
+and two projecting wings; it connects with the
+western portico by a colonnade of the same order, forming the
+quadrant of a circle. The eastern front, which was the entrance
+of the House of Lords, is, by their special wish, of the Corinthian
+order, made conformable with the rest of the building not without
+difficulty to the architect. The House of Lords contains tapestry
+dating from 1733, and remains in its original condition, but the
+octagonal House of Commons was demolished by the bank
+directors, and replaced with a cash-office. The building was
+begun in 1729, but the fronts date from the end of the century;
+the remodelling took place in 1803.</p>
+
+<p>Trinity College, or Dublin University, fronts the street with
+a Palladian façade (1759), with two good statues by Foley, of
+Goldsmith and Burke. Above the gateway is a hall
+called the Regent House. The first quadrangle,
+<span class="sidenote">Trinity College.</span>
+Parliament Square, contains the chapel (1798), with
+a Corinthian portico, the public theatre or examination hall
+(1787), containing portraits of Queen Elizabeth, Molyneux,
+Burke, Bishop Berkeley and other celebrities, and the wain-scotted
+dining hall, also containing portraits. A beautiful
+modern campanile (1853), erected by Lord John George Beresford,
+archbishop of Armagh and chancellor of the university, occupies
+the centre of the square. Library Square takes its name from
+the library, which is one of the four scheduled in the Copyright
+Act as entitled to receive a copy of every volume published in
+the United Kingdom. There is a notable collection of early
+Irish manuscripts, including the magnificently ornamented
+Book of Kells, containing the gospels. The building was begun
+in 1712. In this square are the oldest buildings of the foundation,
+dating in part from the close of the 17th century, and the modern
+Graduates&rsquo; Memorial buildings (1904). These contain a theatre,
+library and reading-room, the rooms of the college societies
+and others. The schools form a fine modern pile (1856), and
+other buildings are the provost&rsquo;s house (1760), printing house
+(1760), museum (1857) and the medical school buildings, in three
+blocks, one of the best schools in the kingdom. Other buildings
+of the 20th century include chemical laboratories. The College
+Park and Fellows&rsquo; Garden are of considerable beauty. In the
+former most of the recreations of the students take place; but
+the college also supports a well-known rowing-club. The college
+observatory is at Dunsink, about 5 m. north-west of Dublin;
+it is amply furnished with astronomical instruments. It was
+endowed by Dr Francis Andrews, provost of Trinity College,
+was erected in 1785, and in 1791 was placed by statute under
+the management of the royal astronomer of Ireland, whose
+official residence is here. The magnetic observatory of Dublin
+was erected in the years 1837-1838 in the gardens attached to
+Trinity College, at the expense of the university. A normal
+climatological station was established in the Fellows&rsquo; Garden in
+1904. The botanic garden is at Ball&rsquo;s Bridge, 1 m. S.E. of the
+college.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The alternative title of Dublin University or Trinity College,
+Dublin (commonly abbreviated T.C.D.), is explained by the fact that
+the university consists of only one college, that of &ldquo;the Holy and
+Undivided Trinity.&rdquo; This was founded under charter from Queen
+Elizabeth in 1591, and is the greatest foundation of its kind in the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page620" id="page620"></a>620</span>
+country. The corporation consists of a provost, 7 senior fellows,
+25 junior fellows and 70 scholars. A vacancy among the fellows is
+filled up by the provost and a select number of the fellows, after
+examination comprised in five principal courses, mathematics,
+experimental science, classics, mental and moral science and Hebrew.
+Fellowships are held for life. Until the year 1840 the fellows were
+bound to celibacy, but that restriction was then removed. All except
+five (medical and law fellows) were bound to take Holy Orders until
+1872. The scholars on the foundation (or &ldquo;of the House&rdquo;) are
+chosen from among the undergraduates, for merit in classics, mathematics
+or experimental science. The pecuniary advantages attaching
+to scholarship (£20 Irish, free commons, and rooms at half the charge
+made to other students) last for four years. Students after an
+examination are admitted as fellow-commoners, pensioners or sizars.
+Fellow-commoners, who have decreased in numbers in modern times,
+pay higher fees than the ordinary undergraduates or pensioners, and
+have certain advantages of precedence, including the right of dining
+at the fellows&rsquo; table. Sizarships are awarded on examination to
+students of limited means, and carry certain relaxations of fees.
+They were formerly given on the nomination of fellows. Noblemen,
+noblemen&rsquo;s sons and baronets (<i>nobilis, filius nobilis, eques</i>) have the
+privilege of forming a separate order with peculiar advantages, on the
+payment of additional charges. The mode of admission to the university
+is in all cases by examination. Various exhibitions and prizes are
+awarded both in connexion with the entrance of students and at
+subsequent stages of the course of instruction, which normally lasts
+four years. There are three terms in each year&mdash;Michaelmas (beginning
+the Academic year), Hilary and Trinity. The undergraduate is
+called in his first year a junior freshman, in his second a senior
+freshman, in his third a junior sophister, and in his fourth a senior
+sophister. The usual arts and scientific courses are provided, and
+there are four professional schools&mdash;divinity, law, physic and
+engineering. The undergraduate has certain examinations in each
+year, and four &ldquo;commencements&rdquo; are held every year for the
+purpose of conferring degrees. Freedom is offered to students who
+wish to be transferred from Oxford, Cambridge, or certain colonial
+universities to Trinity College, by the recognition of terms kept in the
+former institutions as part of the necessary course at Trinity College.
+In 1903 it was decided to bestow degrees on women, and in 1904
+to establish women&rsquo;s scholarships. The funds of the college, arising
+from lands and the fees of students, are managed solely by the
+provost and seven senior fellows, who form a board, to which and
+to the academic council the whole government of the university,
+both in its executive and its legislative branches, is committed.
+The council consists of the provost and sixteen members of the
+senate elected by the fellows, professors, &amp;c; the senate consists
+of the chancellor or his deputy and doctors and masters who keep
+their names on the books. The average number of students on the
+books is about 1300. By an act passed in 1873, known as Fawcett&rsquo;s
+Act, all tests were abolished, and the prizes and honours of all
+grades hitherto reserved for Protestants of the Established Church
+were thrown open to all. The university returns two members to
+parliament. (See <i>Dublin University Calendar</i>, annual.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>There remain to be mentioned the following buildings in
+Dublin. The permanent building of the International Exhibition
+of 1865 adjoins the pleasure ground of St Stephen&rsquo;s Green.
+This building was occupied by the Royal University of Ireland
+until its dissolution under the Irish Universities Act 1908, which
+provided for a new university at Dublin, to which the building
+was transferred under the act (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ireland</a></span>: <i>Education</i>). The
+new university is called the National University of Ireland.
+At the same time a new college was founded under the name of
+University College. The Royal University replaced the Queen&rsquo;s
+University under the University Act (Ireland) in 1879. No
+teaching was carried on, but examinations were held and degrees
+conferred, both on men and on women. On the west side of St
+Stephen&rsquo;s Green is the Catholic University (1854), which is under
+the Jesuit Fathers and affiliated to the Royal University.
+Between Trinity College and St Stephen&rsquo;s Green, a large group
+of buildings includes the Royal Dublin Society, founded in
+1683 to develop agriculture and the useful arts, with a library
+and gallery of statuary; the Science and Arts Museum, and the
+National Library, the former with a noteworthy collection of
+Irish antiquities; the Museum of Natural History, with a splendid
+collection of Irish fauna; and the National Gallery of Ireland,
+founded in 1853. Here was once a residence of the duke of
+Leinster, and the buildings surround the open space of Leinster
+Lawn. Educational foundations include the Royal College
+of Physicians, of Surgeons and of Science; the Royal Irish
+Academy, with an unequalled collection of national antiquities,
+including manuscripts and a library; and the Royal Hibernian
+Academy of painting, sculpture and architecture. In 1904 the
+formation of a municipally supported gallery of modern art
+(mainly due to the initiative and generosity of Mr Hugh Lane)
+was signalized by an exhibition including the pictures intended
+to constitute the nucleus of the gallery. In 1905 King Edward
+VII. laid the foundation stone of a college of science on a site
+in the vicinity of Leinster Lawn. The full scheme for the occupation
+of the site included, not only the college, but also offices
+for the Board of Works and the Department of Agriculture.
+The famous Dublin Horse and Agricultural Shows are held at
+Ball&rsquo;s Bridge in April, August and December.</p>
+
+<p>The most notable churches apart from the cathedrals are
+Roman Catholic and principally modern. The lofty church of the
+Augustinians in Thomas Street; St Mary&rsquo;s, the pro-cathedral,
+in Marlborough Street, with Grecian ornamentation within,
+and a Doric portico; St Paul&rsquo;s on Arran Quay, in the Ionic
+style; and the striking St Francis Xavier in Gardiner Street,
+also Ionic, are all noteworthy, and the last is one of the finest
+modern churches in Ireland. Among theatres Dublin has, in
+the Royal, a handsome building which replaced the old Theatre
+Royal, burnt down in 1880. Clubs, which are numerous, are
+chiefly found in the neighbourhood of Sackville Street; and
+there should further be mentioned the Rotunda, at the corner
+of Great Britain Street and Sackville Street, a beautiful building
+of its kind, belonging to the adjacent hospital, and used for
+concerts and other entertainments, while its gardens are used
+for agricultural shows.</p>
+
+<p><i>Suburbs.</i>&mdash;To the west of the city lies the Phoenix Park. Here,
+besides the viceregal demesne and lodge and the magazine, are
+a zoological garden, a people&rsquo;s garden, the Wellington monument,
+two barracks, the Hibernian military school, the &ldquo;Fifteen Acres,&rdquo;
+a natural amphitheatre (of much greater extent than its name
+implies) used as a review ground, and a racecourse. The
+amenities of Phoenix Park were enhanced in 1905 by the purchase
+for the crown of land extending along the Liffey from Island
+bridge to Chapelizod, which might otherwise have been built over.
+To the south lies Kilmainham. Here is the royal hospital for
+pensioners and maimed soldiers. Close by is Kilmainham prison.
+To the west the valley of the Liffey affords pleasant scenery,
+with the well-known grounds called the &ldquo;Strawberry Beds&rdquo;
+on the north bank. In this direction lies Chapelizod, said to
+take its name from that Iseult whom Tennyson, Matthew Arnold
+and Wagner made a heroine; beyond which is Lucan connected
+with the city by tramway. Northward lies Clondalkin, with its
+round tower, marking the site of the important early see of
+Cluain Dolcain; Glasnevin, with famous botanical gardens;
+Finglas, with a ruined church of early foundation, and an Irish
+cross; and Clontarf, a favoured resort on the bay, with its
+modern castle and many residences of the wealthy classes in the
+vicinity. South of the city are Rathmines, a populous suburb,
+near which, at the &ldquo;Bloody Fields,&rdquo; English colonists were
+murdered by the natives in 1209; and Donnybrook, celebrated
+for its former fair. Rathmines, Monkstown, Clontarf, Dalkey
+and Killiney, with the neighbourhood of Kingstown and Pembroke,
+are the most favoured residential districts. Howth,
+Malahide and Sutton to the north, and Bray to the south, are
+favoured seaside watering-places outside the radius of actual
+suburbs.</p>
+
+<p><i>Communications.</i>&mdash;The direct route to Dublin from London and
+other parts of England is by the Holyhead route, controlled by
+the London &amp; North Western railway with steamers to the port
+of Dublin itself, while the company also works in conjunction
+with the mail steamers of the City of Dublin Steam Packet
+Company to the outlying port of Kingstown, 7 m. S.E. Passenger
+steamers, however, also serve Liverpool, Heysham, Bristol, the
+south coast ports of England and London; Edinburgh and
+Glasgow, and other ports of Great Britain. The railways leaving
+Dublin are the following: the Great Northern, with its terminus
+in Amiens Street, with suburban lines, and a main line running
+north to Drogheda, Dundalk and Belfast, with ramifications
+through the northern countries; the Great Southern &amp; Western
+(Kingsbridge terminus) to Kilkenny, Athlone and Cork; the
+Midland Great Western (Broadstone terminus), to Cavan, Sligo
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page621" id="page621"></a>621</span>
+and Galway; the Dublin &amp; South-Eastern (Harcourt Street
+and Westland Row for Kingstown); and there is the North Wall
+station of the London &amp; North-Western, with the line known
+as the North Wall extension, connecting with the other main
+lines. The internal communications of the city are excellent,
+electric tramways traversing the principal streets, and connecting
+all the principal suburbs.</p>
+
+<p><i>Trade.</i>&mdash;Dublin was for long stigmatized as lacking, for so
+large a city, in the proper signs of commercial enterprise. A
+certain spirit of foolish pride was said to exist which sought
+to disown trade; and the tendency to be poor and genteel in
+the civil service, at the bar, in the constabulary, in the army,
+in professional life, rather than prosperous in business, was one
+of the most unfortunate and strongly marked characteristics of
+Dublin society. This was attributable to the lingering yet
+potent influence of an unhappy past was held by some; while
+others attributed the weakness to the viceregal office and the
+effects of a sham court. About the time of the Revolution, the
+woollen trade flourished in Dublin, and the produce attained
+great celebrity. The cheapness of labour attracted capitalists,
+who started extensive factories in that quarter of the town
+known even now as the Liberties. This quarter was inhabited
+altogether by workers in wool, and as the city was small, the
+aristocracy lived close by in noble mansions which are now miserable
+memorials of past prosperity. About 1700 the English
+legislature prevailed on William III. to assent to laws which
+directly crushed the Irish trade. All exportation except to
+England was peremptorily forbidden, and the woollen manufacture
+soon decayed. But at the close of the 18th century
+there were 5000 persons at work in the looms of the Liberties.
+About 1715 parliament favoured the manufacture of linen, and
+the Linen Hall was built. The cotton trade was soon afterwards
+introduced; and silk manufacture was begun by the Huguenots,
+who had settled in Dublin in considerable numbers after the
+revocation of the edict of Nantes. Acts favourable to these
+enterprises were passed, and they flourished apace. But the
+old <span class="correction" title="amended from jealously">jealousy</span> arose in the reign of George I., and in the reign of
+George III. an act was passed which tended directly to the ruin
+of the manufacture. The linen shared the same fate. Dublin
+poplins, however, keep their reputation. However adverse
+influences may have been combated, Dublin yet produces little
+for export save whisky and porter, the latter from the famous
+Guinness brewery and others; but a considerable export trade,
+principally in agricultural produce, passes through Dublin from
+the country. The total annual export trade may be valued at
+about £120,000, while imports exceed in value £3,000,000. To
+the manufacturing industries of the city there should be added
+mineral water works, foundries and shipbuilding.</p>
+
+<p>By continual dredging a great depth of water is kept available
+in the harbour. The Dublin Port and Docks Board, which was
+created in 1898 and consists of the mayor and six
+members of the corporation, with other members
+<span class="sidenote">Harbour.</span>
+representing the trading and shipping interests, undertook
+considerable works of improvement at the beginning of the
+20th century. These improvements, <i>inter alia</i>, enabled vessels
+drawing up to 23 ft. to lie alongside the extensive quays which
+border the Liffey, at low tide. The extensive Alexandra tidal
+basin, on the north side of the Liffey, admits vessels of similar
+capacity. The Custom House Works on the north side have about
+17 ft. of water. With docks named after them are connected
+the Royal and Grand Canals, passing respectively to north and
+south of the city, the one penetrating the great central plain of
+Ireland on the north, the other following the course of the Liffey,
+doing the same on the south, and both joining the river Shannon.
+The docks attached to the canals, and certain other smaller
+docks, are owned by companies, and tolls are levied on vessels
+entering these, but not those entering the docks under the Board.</p>
+
+<p><i>Government.</i>&mdash;Dublin was formerly represented by two
+members in the imperial parliament, but in 1885 the parliamentary
+borough was divided into the four divisions of College
+Green, Harbour, St Stephen&rsquo;s Green and St Patrick&rsquo;s, each
+returning one member. The lord-lieutenant of Ireland occupies
+Dublin Castle and the Viceregal Lodge in Phoenix Park. Dublin
+is thus the seat of the viceregal court. It is also the seat of the
+Irish courts of law and equity. In connexion with these it may
+be noted that in 1904 a special court was established for children.
+On the constitution of Dublin as a county borough in 1898, the
+positions and duties of its corporation were left practically
+unaltered. The corporation consists of a lord mayor, 20 aldermen
+and 60 councillors, representing 20 wards. The income of the
+body arises from rents on property, customs and taxes. Under an
+act passed in 1875 the corporation has the right to forward every
+year three names of persons suitable for the office of high sheriff
+to the viceroy, one of which shall be selected by him. The
+corporation has neither control over the police nor any judicial
+duties, excepting as regards a court of conscience dealing with
+debts under 40s. (Irish); while the lord mayor holds a court
+for debts over 40s., and for the settlement of cases between
+masters and servants. The lord mayor is clerk of the markets
+and supervises weights and measures and deals with cases of
+adulteration. Besides the usual duties of local government,
+and the connexion with the port and docks boards already
+explained, there should be noticed the connexion of the corporation
+with such bodies as those controlling the city technical
+schools, the Royal Irish Academy of Music, and the gallery of
+modern art. The corporation has shown some concern for the
+housing of the poor, and an extensive scheme taken up in 1904
+included the provision of cottage dwellings in the suburbs, as at
+Clontarf, besides improvements within the city itself. In 1905
+a home on the model of the Rowton Houses in London, provided
+by Lord Iveagh, was opened in Bride Road. A competent
+fire-brigade is maintained by the corporation. The city coroner
+is a corporate officer. The city hall, used as municipal offices, has
+already been mentioned; the official residence of the lord mayor
+is the Mansion House, Dawson Street. The Dublin metropolitan
+police is a force peculiar to the city, the remainder of Ireland being
+protected civilly by the Royal Irish Constabulary. A large
+military force is usually maintained in the city of Dublin,
+which is the headquarters of the military district of Dublin and
+of the staff of Ireland (<i>q.v.</i>). The troops are accommodated in
+several large barracks in various parts of the city.</p>
+
+<p><i>Charities.</i>&mdash;The number of charitable institutions is large.
+The hospital and Free School of King Charles I., commonly
+called the Blue Coat hospital, was founded in 1670. It is devoted
+to the education and maintenance of the sons of citizens in
+poor circumstances. Before the Irish Parliament Houses were
+erected the parliament met in the school building. Among
+hospitals those of special general interest are the Steevens,
+the oldest in the city, founded under the will of Dr Richard
+Steevens in 1720; the Mater Misericordiae (1861), which includes
+a laboratory and museum, and is managed by the Sisters of
+Mercy, but relieves sufferers independently of their creed; the
+Rotunda lying-in hospital (1756); the Royal hospital for incurables,
+Donnybrook, which was founded in 1744 by the Dublin
+Musical Society; and the Royal Victoria Eye and Ear hospital,
+Adelaide Road, which amalgamated (1904) two similar institutions.
+Lunatics are maintained in St Patrick&rsquo;s hospital, founded
+in 1745, pursuant to the will of Dean Swift, and conducted by
+governors appointed under the charter of incorporation. The
+Richmond lunatic asylum, erected near the House of Industry,
+and placed under the care of officers appointed by government,
+receives patients from a district consisting of the counties of
+Dublin, Louth, Meath and Wicklow, each of these contributing
+towards its expenses in proportion to the number of patients
+sent in. Besides these public establishments for the custody of
+lunatics, there are in the vicinity of Dublin various private
+asylums. The principal institution for blind men (and also those
+afflicted by gout) is Simpson&rsquo;s hospital (1780), founded by a
+merchant of Dublin; while blind women are maintained at
+the Molyneux asylum (1815). An institution for the maintenance
+and education of children born deaf and dumb is maintained
+at Claremont, near Glasnevin (1816). The plan of the Royal
+hospital, for old and maimed soldiers, was first suggested by the
+earl of Essex, when lord-lieutenant, and carried into effect
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page622" id="page622"></a>622</span>
+through the repeated applications of the duke of Ormond to
+Charles II. The site chosen for it was that of the ancient priory
+of Kilmainham, founded by Strongbow for Knights Templars.
+The building, completed in 1684, according to a plan of Sir
+Christopher Wren, is an oblong, three sides of which are dwelling-rooms,
+connected by covered corridors. The fourth contains the
+chapel, the dining-hall, and the apartments of the master, who
+is always the commander of the forces for the time being. The
+Royal Hibernian military school in Phoenix Park (1765) provides
+for soldiers&rsquo; orphan sons. The Drummond Institution, Chapelizod,
+for the orphan daughters of soldiers, was established in 1864 by
+John Drummond, alderman, who left £20,000 to found the asylum.
+The Hibernian Marine Society for the maintenance of seamen&rsquo;s
+sons was established in the city in 1766, but now has buildings at
+Clontarf. The Roman Catholic Church has charge of a number
+of special charities, some of them educational and some for the
+relief of suffering.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;The name of Dublin signifies the &ldquo;Black pool.&rdquo;
+The early history is mainly legendary. It is recorded that the
+inhabitants of Leinster were defeated by the people of Dublin
+in the year 291. Christianity was introduced by St Patrick
+about 450. In the 9th century the Danes attacked Dublin and
+took it. The first Norseman who may be reckoned as king was
+Thorkel I. (832), though the Danes had appeared in the country
+as early as the close of the previous century. Thorkel established
+himself strongly at Armagh. In 1014 Brian Boroihme, king of
+Munster, attacked the enemy and fought the battle of Clontarf,
+in which he and his son and 11,000 of his followers fell. The Irish,
+however, won the battle, but the Danes reoccupied the city.
+Constant struggles with the Irish resulted in intermissions of
+the Danish supremacy from 1052 to 1072, at various intervals
+between 1075 and 1118 and from 1124 to 1136. The Danes were
+finally ousted by the Anglo-Normans in 1171. In 1172 Henry II.
+landed at Waterford, and came to Dublin and held his court there
+in a pavilion of wickerwork where the Irish chiefs were entertained
+with great pomp, and alliances entered into with them. Previous
+to his departure for England, Henry bestowed the government
+on Hugh de Lacy, having granted by charter &ldquo;to his subjects
+of Bristol his city of Dublin to inhabit, and to hold of him and
+his heirs for ever, with all the liberties and free customs which
+his subjects of Bristol then enjoyed at Bristol and through
+all England.&rdquo; In 1176 Strongbow, earl of Pembroke, and chief
+leader of the Anglo-Norman forces, died in Dublin of a mortification
+in one of his feet, and was buried in Christ Church Cathedral,
+where his monument remains well preserved. A fresh charter
+was granted in 1207 by King John to the inhabitants of Dublin,
+who had not yet made their peace with the neighbourhood, but,
+like the settlers in other towns, were at constant feud with the
+native Irish; so that two years after the date of this charter,
+whilst the citizens of Dublin were celebrating Easter at Cullenswood,
+they were set upon by the Irish of the neighbouring
+mountains, and 500 of them killed. The scene of slaughter is
+still called the Bloody Fields, and Easter Monday denominated
+Black Monday. On each succeeding anniversary of that day,
+with the prevalent desire of perpetuating a feud, the citizens
+marched out to Cullenswood with banners displayed&mdash;&ldquo;a terror
+to the native Irish.&rdquo; In 1216 Magna Carta, a copy of which is
+to be found in the Red Book of the Exchequer, was granted
+to the Irish by Henry III. In 1217 the fee farm of the city was
+granted to the citizens at a rent of 200 marks per annum; and
+about this period many monastic buildings were founded. In
+1227 the same monarch confirmed the charter of John fixing
+the city boundaries and the jurisdiction of its magistrates.</p>
+
+<p>During the invasion of Ireland by Edward Bruce in 1315
+some of the suburbs of Dublin were burnt to prevent them
+from falling into his hand. The inroad of Bruce had been countenanced
+by the native Irish ecclesiastics, whose sentiments were
+recorded in a statement addressed to Pope John XXII. Some
+notion of the defence made against Bruce&rsquo;s invasion may be
+gained from the fact that the churches were torn down to supply
+stones for the building of the city walls. Bruce had seized
+Greencastle on his march; but the natives re-took the town,
+and brought to Dublin the governor who had yielded to Bruce.
+He was starved to death.</p>
+
+<p>Richard II. erected Dublin into a marquisate in favour of
+Robert de Vere, whom he also created duke of Ireland. The same
+monarch entered Dublin in 1394 with 30,000 bowmen and 4000
+cavalry, bringing with him the crown jewels; but after holding
+a parliament and making much courtly display before the native
+chieftains, on several of whom he conferred knighthood, he
+returned to England. Five years later, enriched with the spoils of
+his uncle, John of Gaunt, Richard returned to Ireland, landing at
+Waterford, whence he marched through the counties of Kilkenny
+and Wicklow, and subsequently arrived in Dublin, where he
+remained a fortnight, sumptuously entertained by the provost, as
+the chief magistrate of the city was then called, till intelligence
+of the invasion of his kingdom by Bolingbroke recalled him to
+England.</p>
+
+<p>In 1534 Lord Thomas Fitzgerald, better known as Silken
+Thomas (so called because of a fantastic fringe worn in the helmet
+of his followers), a young man of rash courage and good abilities,
+son of the Lord Deputy Kildare, believing his father, who was
+imprisoned in the Tower of London, to have been beheaded,
+organized a rebellion against the English Government, and
+marched with his followers from the mansion of the earls of
+Kildare in Thomas Court, through Dame&rsquo;s Gate to St Mary&rsquo;s
+Abbey, where, in the council chamber, he proclaimed himself
+a rebel. On his appearing before the wall with a powerful force,
+the citizens were induced through fear to give admission to a
+detachment of his troops to besiege the castle; but, on hearing
+that he had met with a reverse in another quarter, they suddenly
+closed their gates and detained his men as prisoners. He then
+attacked the city itself; but, finding it too strong to be seized
+by a <i>coup de main</i>, he raised the siege on condition of having
+his captured soldiers exchanged for the children of some of the
+principal citizens who had fallen into his hands. After much
+vicissitude of fortune, Lord Thomas and others concerned in this
+rebellion were executed at Tyburn in 1536.</p>
+
+<p>At the outbreak of civil war in 1641, a conspiracy of the
+Irish septs, under the direction of Roger Moore, to seize Dublin
+Castle, was disclosed by one Owen Connolly on the eve of the day
+on which the attempt was to have been made, and the city was
+thus preserved for the king&rsquo;s party; but the Irish outside began
+an indiscriminate extermination of the Protestant population.
+In 1646 Dublin was besieged, but without success, by the Irish
+army of 16,000 foot and 1600 horse, under the guidance of the
+Pope&rsquo;s nuncio Rinuccini and others, banded together &ldquo;to
+restore and establish in Ireland the exercise of the Roman
+Catholic religion.&rdquo; The city had been put in an efficient state of
+defence by the marquess of Ormonde, then lord-lieutenant; but
+in the following year, to prevent it falling into the hands of the
+Irish, he surrendered it on conditions to Colonel Jones, commander
+of the Parliamentary forces. In 1649 Ormonde was
+totally defeated at the battle of Baggotrath, near Old Rathmines,
+in an attempt to recover possession. The same year Cromwell
+landed in Dublin, as commander-in-chief under the parliament,
+with 9000 foot and 4000 horse, and proceeded thence on his
+career of conquest.</p>
+
+<p>When James II. landed in Ireland in 1689 to assert his right
+to the British throne, he held a parliament in Dublin, which
+passed acts of attainder against upwards of 3000 Protestants.
+The governor of the city, Colonel Luttrell, at the same time issued
+a proclamation ordering all Protestants not housekeepers, excepting
+those following some trade, to depart from the city within
+24 hours, under pain of death or imprisonment, and in various
+ways restricting those who were allowed to remain. In the
+hope of relieving his financial difficulties, the king erected a mint,
+where money was coined of the &ldquo;worst kind of old brass, guns
+and the refuse of metals, melted down together,&rdquo; of the nominal
+value of £1,568,800, with which his troops were paid, and tradesmen
+were compelled to receive it under penalty of being hanged
+in case of refusal. Under these regulations the entire coinage
+was put into circulation. After his defeat at the battle of the
+Boyne, James returned to Dublin, but left it again before
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page623" id="page623"></a>623</span>
+daybreak the next day; and William III. advancing by slow
+marches, on his arrival encamped at Finglas, with upwards of
+30,000 men, and the following day proceeded in state to St
+Patrick&rsquo;s cathedral to return thanks for his victory.</p>
+
+<p>In 1783 a convention of delegates from all the volunteer corps
+in Ireland assembled in Dublin for the purpose of procuring a
+reform in parliament; but the House of Commons refused to
+entertain the proposition, and the convention separated without
+coming to any practical result. In May 1798 the breaking out of
+a conspiracy planned by the United Irishmen to seize the city
+was prevented by the capture of Lord Edward Fitzgerald, son
+of the duke of Leinster and husband of the celebrated &ldquo;Pamela.&rdquo;
+Lord Edward died in prison of the wounds received in the
+encounter which preceded his capture. In 1803 an insurrection
+headed by Robert Emmett, a young barrister of much promise,
+broke out, but was immediately quelled, with the loss of some
+lives in the tumult, and the death of its leaders on the scaffold.
+In 1848 William Smith O&rsquo;Brien, M.P. for Limerick, raised a
+rebellion in Tipperary, and the lower classes in Dublin were
+greatly agitated. Owing, however, to timely and judicious
+disposition of the military and police forces the city was saved
+from much bloodshed. In 1867 the most serious of modern
+conspiracies, that known as the Fenian organization, came to
+light. The reality of it was proved by a ship being found laden
+with gunpowder in the Liverpool docks, and another with £5000
+and 2000 pike-heads in Dublin. The Habeas Corpus Act was
+suspended at one sitting by both Houses of Parliament and
+about 960 arrests were made in Dublin in a few hours. Dublin
+castle was fortified; and the citizens lived in a state of terror
+for several weeks together. For later history, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ireland</a></span>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See W. Harris, <i>History and Antiquities of the City of Dublin</i> (Dublin,
+1766); Sir J. T. Gilbert, <i>History of the City of Dublin</i> (Dublin, 1859).
+The history of the Norsemen in Dublin has been dealt with by a Norwegian
+writer, L. J. Vogt, <i>Dublin som Norsk By</i> (Christiania, 1896).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 8, Slice 7, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 8 SL 7 ***
+
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+</body>
+</html>
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 8, Slice 7, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 8, Slice 7
+       "Drama" to "Dublin"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: June 11, 2010 [EBook #32783]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 8 SL 7 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subsctipts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Letters topped by Macron are represented as [=x].
+
+(5) Letters with a dot below are represented as [x.].
+
+(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    Article DRAMA: "Incomparably the most important of recent additions
+      to the literary drama is Thomas Hardy's vast panorama of the
+      Napoleonic wars, entitled The Dynasts (1904-1908)." 'Incomparably'
+      amended from 'Imcomparably'.
+
+    Article DRAVIDIAN: "Their languages form an isolated group, and it
+      has not been possible to prove a connexion with any other family of
+      languages." 'form' amended from 'from'.
+
+    Article DRAWING: "The same analogy may be observed between two of
+      the senses in which the French verb tirer is frequently employed."
+      'French' amended from 'Frech'.
+
+    Article DRAWING: "Although the modern Italians have both traire and
+      trarre, they use delineare still in the sense of artistic drawing,
+      and also adombrare." 'in' amended from 'is'.
+
+    Article DREDGE and DREDGING: "... the illustration of the
+      geographical distribution of marine animals, and the more accurate
+      determination of the fossils of the Pliocene period."
+      'illustration' amended from 'illlustration'.
+
+    Article DRENTE: "... and in 1818 the Society of Charity
+      (Maatschappij van Weldadigheid) was formed with Count van den Bosch
+      at its head." 'Weldadigheid' amended from 'Weldadigkeid'.
+
+    Article DRENTE: "In later times forest culture was added, and the
+      Gerard Adriaan van Swieten schools of forestry, agriculture and
+      horticulture were established by Major van Swieten in memory of his
+      son." 'Swieten' amended from 'Sweiten'.
+
+    Article DREW: "From 1861 to 1892 she had the management of the Arch
+      Street theatre in Philadelphia." 'From' amended from 'Fom'.
+
+    Article DRIFT: "Thus it is possible to speak of a snow-drift, an
+      accumulation driven by the wind; of a ship drifting out of its
+      course; of the drift of a speech, i.e. its general tendency."
+      'accumulation' amended from 'accumlation'.
+
+    Article DUBLIN: "But the old jealousy arose in the reign of George
+      I., and in the reign of George III." 'jealousy' amended from
+      'jealously'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+           VOLUME VIII, SLICE VII
+
+              Drama to Dublin
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  DRAMA (part)                DRONFIELD
+  DRAMBURG                    DROPSY
+  DRAMMEN                     DROPWORT
+  DRANE, AUGUSTA THEODOSIA    DROSHKY
+  DRAPER, JOHN WILLIAM        DROSTE-HULSHOFF, ANNETTE ELISABETH
+  DRAPER                      DROSTE-VISCHERING, CLEMENS AUGUST
+  DRAUGHT                     DROUAIS, JEAN GERMAIN
+  DRAUGHTS                    DROUET, JEAN BAPTISTE
+  DRAUPADI                    DROWNING AND LIFE SAVING
+  DRAVE                       DROYSEN, JOHANN GUSTAV
+  DRAVIDIAN                   DROZ, ANTOINE GUSTAVE
+  DRAWBACK                    DROZ, FRANCOIS-XAVIER JOSEPH
+  DRAWING                     DRUG (district of British India)
+  DRAWING AND QUARTERIN       DRUG (medicine)
+  DRAWING-ROOM                DRUIDISM
+  DRAYTON, MICHAEL            DRUIDS, ORDER OF
+  DREAM                       DRUM
+  DREDGE and DREDGING         DRUMMOND, HENRY (1786-1860)
+  DRELINCOURT, CHARLES        DRUMMOND, HENRY (1851-1897)
+  DRENTE                      DRUMMOND, THOMAS
+  DRESDEN                     DRUMMOND, WILLIAM
+  DRESS                       DRUNKENNESS
+  DRESSER                     DRURY, SIR WILLIAM
+  DREUX                       DRUSES
+  DREW                        DRUSIUS JOHANNES
+  DREW, SAMUEL                DRUSUS, MARCUS LIVIUS
+  DREWENZ                     DRUSUS, NERO CLAUDIUS
+  DREXEL, ANTHONY JOSEPH      DRUSUS CAESAR
+  DREYFUS, ALFRED             DRYADES
+  DRIBURG                     DRYANDER, JONAS
+  DRIFFIELD                   DRYBURGH ABBEY
+  DRIFT                       DRYDEN, JOHN
+  DRILL                       DRYOPITHECUS
+  DRINKING VESSELS            DRY ROT
+  DRIPSTONE                   DUALISM
+  DRISLER, HENRY              DUALLA
+  DRIVER, SAMUEL ROLLES       DU BARRY, MARIE JEANNE BECU
+  DRIVING                     DU BARTAS, GUILLAUME DE SALUSTE
+  DROGHEDA                    DUBAWNT
+  DROIT                       DUBBO
+  DROITWICH                   DU BELLAY, GUILLAUME
+  DROME                       DU BELLAY, JEAN
+  DROMEDARY                   DU BELLAY, JOACHIM
+  DROMORE                     DUBLIN (county of Ireland)
+  DROMOS                      DUBLIN (city of Ireland)
+  DRONE
+
+
+
+
+DRAMA. (Continued from Volume 8 Slice 6.)
+
+
+10. MEDIEVAL DRAMA
+
+  Ecclesiastical and monastic literary drama.
+
+  Hrosvitha.
+
+While the scattered and persecuted strollers thus kept alive something
+of the popularity, if not of the loftier traditions, of their art,
+neither, on the other hand, was there an utter absence of written
+compositions to bridge the gap between ancient and modern dramatic
+literature. In the midst of the condemnation with which the Christian
+Church visited the stage, its professors and votaries, we find
+individual ecclesiastics resorting in their writings to both the tragic
+and the comic form of the ancient drama. These isolated productions,
+which include the [Greek: Christos paschon] (_Passion of Christ_)
+formerly attributed to St Gregory Nazianzen, and the _Querolus_, long
+fathered upon Plautus himself, were doubtless mostly written for
+educational purposes--whether Euripides and Lycophron, or Menander,
+Plautus and Terence, served as the outward models. The same was probably
+the design of the famous "comedies" of Hrosvitha, the Benedictine nun of
+Gandersheim, in Eastphalian Saxony, which associate themselves in the
+history of Christian literature with the spiritual revival of the 10th
+century in the days of Otto the Great. While avowedly imitated in form
+from the comedies of Terence, these religious exercises derive their
+themes--martyrdoms,[1] and miraculous or otherwise startling
+conversions[2]--from the legends of Christian saints. Thus, from perhaps
+the 9th to the 12th centuries, Germany and France, and through the
+latter, by means of the Norman Conquest, England, became acquainted with
+what may be called the literary monastic drama. It was no doubt
+occasionally performed by the children under the care of monks or nuns,
+or by the religious themselves; an exhibition of the former kind was
+that of the _Play of St Katharine_, acted at Dunstable about the year
+1110 in "copes" by the scholars of the Norman Geoffrey, afterwards abbot
+of St Albans. Nothing is known concerning it except the fact of its
+performance, which was certainly not regarded as a novelty.
+
+
+  The joculatores, jongleurs, minstrels.
+
+These efforts of the cloister came in time to blend themselves with more
+popular forms of the early medieval drama. The natural agents in the
+transmission of these popular forms were those _mimes_, whom, while the
+representatives of more elaborate developments, the "pantomimes" in
+particular, had inevitably succumbed, the Roman drama had left surviving
+it, unextinguished and unextinguishable. Above all, it is necessary to
+point out how in the long interval now in question--the "dark ages,"
+which may, from the present point of view, be reckoned from about the
+6th to the 11th century--the Latin and the Teutonic elements of what may
+be broadly designated as medieval "minstrelsy," more or less
+imperceptibly, coalesced. The traditions of the disestablished and
+disendowed _mimus_ combined with the "occupation" of the Teutonic
+_scop_, who as a professional personage does not occur in the earliest
+Teutonic poetry, but on the other hand is very distinctly traceable
+under this name or that of the "gleeman," in Anglo-Saxon literature,
+before it fell under the control of the Christian Church. Her influence
+and that of docile rulers, both in England and in the far wider area of
+the Frank empire, gradually prevailed even over the inherited goodwill
+which neither Alfred nor even Charles the Great had denied to the
+composite growth in which _mimus_ and _scop_ alike had a share.
+
+How far the _joculatores_--which in the early middle ages came to be the
+name most widely given to these irresponsible transmitters of a great
+artistic trust--kept alive the usage of entertainments more essentially
+dramatic than the minor varieties of their performances, we cannot say.
+In different countries these entertainers suited themselves to different
+tastes, and with the rise of native literatures to different literary
+tendencies. The literature of the _troubadours_ of Provence, which
+communicated itself to Spain and Italy, came only into isolated contact
+with the beginnings of the religious drama; in northern France the
+_jongleurs_, as the _joculatores_ were now called, were confounded with
+the _trouveres_, who, to the accompaniment of _vielle_ or harp, sang the
+_chansons de geste_ commemorative of deeds of war. As appointed servants
+of particular households they were here, and afterwards in England,
+called _menestrels_ (from _ministeriales_) or _minstrels_. Such a
+_histrio_ or _mimus_ (as he is called) was Taillefer, who rode first
+into the fight at Hastings, singing his songs of Roland and Charlemagne,
+and tossing his sword in the air and catching it again. In England such
+accomplished minstrels easily outshone the less versatile gleemen of
+pre-Norman times, and one or two of them appeared as landholders in
+Domesday Book, and many enjoyed the favour of the Norman, Angevin and
+Plantagenet kings. But here, as elsewhere, the humbler members of the
+craft spent their lives in strolling from castle to convent, from
+village-green to city-street, and there exhibiting their skill as
+dancers, tumblers, jugglers proper, and as masquers and conductors of
+bears and other dumb contributors to popular wonder and merriment. Their
+only chance of survival finally came to lie in organization under the
+protection of powerful nobles; but when, in the 15th century in England,
+companies of players issued forth from towns and villages, the
+profession, in so far as its members had not secured preference, saw
+itself threatened with ruin.
+
+
+  Survivals and adaptations of pagan festive ceremonies and usages.
+
+In any attempt to explain the transmission of dramatic elements from
+pagan to Christian times, and the influence exercised by this
+transmission upon the beginnings of the medieval drama, account should
+finally be taken of the pertinacious survival of popular festive rites
+and ceremonies. From the days of Gregory the Great, i.e. from the end of
+the 6th century onwards, the Western Church tolerated and even attracted
+to her own festivals popular customs, significant of rejoicing, which
+were in truth relics of heathen ritual. Such were the Mithraic feast of
+the 25th of December, or the egg of Eostre-tide, and a multitude of
+Celtic or Teutonic agricultural ceremonies. These rites, originally
+symbolical of propitiation or of weather-magic, were of a semi-dramatic
+nature--such as the dipping of the neck of corn in water, sprinkling
+holy drops upon persons or animals, processions of beasts or men in
+beast-masks, dressing trees with flowers, and the like, but above all
+ceremonial dances, often in disguise. The sword-dance, recorded by
+Tacitus, of which an important feature was the symbolic threat of death
+to a victim, endured (though it is rarely mentioned) to the later middle
+ages. By this time it had attracted to itself a variety of additional
+features, and of characters familiar as pace-eggers, mummers,
+morris-dancers (probably of distinct origin), who continually enlarged
+the scope of their performances, especially as regarded their comic
+element. The dramatic "expulsion of death," or winter, by the
+destruction of a lay-figure--common through western Europe about the 8th
+century--seems connected with a more elaborate rite, in which a
+disguised performer (who perhaps originally represented summer) was
+slain and afterwards revived (the _Pfingstl_, Jack in the Green, or
+Green Knight). This representation, after acquiring a comic complexion,
+was annexed by the character dancers, who about the 15th century took to
+adding still livelier incidents from songs treating of popular heroes,
+such as St George and Robin Hood; which latter found a place in the
+festivities of May Day with their central figure, the May Queen. The
+earliest ceremonial observances of this sort were clearly connected with
+pastoral and agricultural life; but the inhabitants of the towns also
+came to have a share in them; and so, as will be seen later, did the
+clergy. They were in particular responsible for the buffooneries of the
+feast of fools (or asses), which enjoyed the greatest popularity in
+France (though protests against it are on record from the 11th century
+onwards to the 17th), but was well known from London to Constantinople.
+This riotous New Year's celebration was probably derived from the
+ancient Kalend feasts, which may have bequeathed to it both the
+hobby-horse and the lord, or bishop, of misrule. In the 16th century the
+feast of fools was combined with the elaborate festivities of courts and
+cities during the twelve Christmas feast-days--the season when
+throughout the previous two centuries the "mummers" especially
+flourished, who in their disguisings and "_viseres_" began as dancers
+gesticulating in dumb-show, but ultimately developed into actors proper.
+
+
+  The liturgy the main source of the medieval religious drama.
+
+  Tropes.
+
+Thus the literary and the professional element, as well as that of
+popular festive usages, had survived to become tributaries to the main
+stream of the early Christian drama, which had its direct source in the
+liturgy of the Church itself. The service of the Mass contains in itself
+dramatic elements, and combines with the reading out of portions of
+Scripture by the priest--its "epical" part--a "lyrical" part in the
+anthems and responses of the congregation. At a very early
+period--certainly already in the 5th century--it was usual on special
+occasions to increase the attractions of public worship by living
+pictures, illustrating the Gospel narrative and accompanied by songs;
+and thus a certain amount of action gradually introduced itself into the
+service. The insertion, before or after sung portions of the service, of
+tropes, originally one or more verses of texts, usually serving as
+introits and in connexion with the gospel of the day, and recited by the
+two halves of the choir, naturally led to dialogue chanting; and this
+was frequently accompanied by illustrative fragments of action, such as
+drawing down the veil from before the altar.
+
+
+  The liturgical mystery.
+
+This practice of interpolations in the offices of the church, which is
+attested by texts from the 9th century onwards (the so-called
+"Winchester tropes" belong to the 10th and 11th), progressed, till on
+the great festivals of the church the epical part of the liturgy was
+systematically connected with spectacular and in some measure mimical
+adjuncts, the lyrical accompaniment being of course retained. Thus the
+_liturgical mystery_--the earliest form of the Christian drama--was
+gradually called into existence. This had certainly been accomplished as
+early as the 10th century, when on great ecclesiastical festivals it was
+customary for the priests to perform in the churches these offices (as
+they were called). The whole Easter story, from the burial to Emmaus,
+was thus presented, the Maries and the angel adding their lyrical
+_planctus_; while the surroundings of the Nativity--the Shepherds, the
+Innocents, &c.--were linked with the Shepherds of Epiphany by a
+recitation of "Prophets," including Vergil and the Sibyl. Before long,
+from the 11th century onwards, _mysteries_, as they were called, were
+produced in France on scriptural subjects unconnected with the great
+Church festivals--such as the Wise and Foolish Virgins, Adam (with the
+fall of Lucifer), Daniel, Lazarus, &c. Compositions on the last-named
+two themes remain from the hand of one of the very earliest of medieval
+play-writers, Hilarius, who may have been an Englishman, and who
+certainly studied under Abelard. He also wrote a "miracle" of St
+Nicholas, one of the most widely popular of medieval saints. Into the
+pieces founded on the Scripture narrative outside characters and
+incidents were occasionally introduced, by way of diverting the
+audience.
+
+
+  The collective mystery.
+
+These mysteries and miracles being as yet represented by the clergy
+only, the language in which they were usually written is Latin--in many
+varieties of verse with occasional prose; but already in the 11th
+century the further step was taken of composing these texts in the
+vernacular--the earliest example being the mystery of the Resurrection.
+In time a whole series of mysteries was joined together; a process which
+was at first roughly and then more elaborately pursued in France and
+elsewhere, and finally resulted in the _collective mystery_--merely a
+scholars' term of course, but one to which the principal examples of the
+English mystery-drama correspond.
+
+
+  Mysteries, miracles, and morals distinguished.
+
+The productions of the medieval religious drama it is usual technically
+to divide into three classes. The _mysteries_ proper deal with
+scriptural events only, their purpose being to set forth, with the aid
+of the prophetic or preparatory history of the Old Testament, and more
+especially of the fulfilling events of the New, the central mystery of
+the Redemption of the world, as accomplished by the Nativity, the
+Passion and the Resurrection. But in fact these were not kept
+distinctly apart from the _miracle-plays_, or _miracles_, which are
+strictly speaking concerned with the legends of the saints of the
+church; and in England the name _mysteries_ was not in use. Of these
+species the miracles must more especially have been fed from the
+resources of the monastic literary drama. Thirdly, the _moralities_, or
+_moral-plays_, teach and illustrate the same truths--not, however, by
+direct representation of scriptural or legendary events and personages,
+but allegorically, their characters being personified virtues or
+qualities. Of the moralities the Norman _trouveres_ had been the
+inventors; and doubtless this innovation connects itself with the
+endeavour, which in France had almost proved victorious by the end of
+the 13th century, to emancipate dramatic performances from the control
+of the church.
+
+
+  The clergy and the religious drama.
+
+The attitude of the clergy towards the dramatic performances which had
+arisen out of the elaboration of the services of the church, but soon
+admitted elements from other sources, was not, and could not be,
+uniform. As the plays grew longer, their paraphernalia more extensive,
+and their spectators more numerous, they began to be represented outside
+as well as inside the churches, at first in the churchyards, and the use
+of the vulgar tongue came to be gradually preferred. A Beverley
+Resurrection play (1220 c.) and some others are bilingual. Miracles were
+less dependent on this connexion with the church services than mysteries
+proper; and lay associations, gilds, and schools in particular, soon
+began to act plays in honour of their patron saints in or near their own
+halls. Lastly, as scenes and characters of a more or less trivial
+description were admitted even into the plays acted or superintended by
+the clergy, as some of these characters came to be depended on by the
+audiences for conventional extravagance or fun, every new Herod seeking
+to out-Herod his predecessor, and the devils and their chief asserting
+themselves as indispensable favourites, the comic element in the
+religious drama increased; and that drama itself, even where it remained
+associated with the church, grew more and more profane. The endeavour to
+sanctify the popular tastes to religious uses, which connects itself
+with the institution of the great festival of Corpus Christi (1264,
+confirmed 1311), when the symbol of the mystery of the Incarnation was
+borne in solemn procession, led to the closer union of the dramatic
+exhibitions (hence often called _processus_) with this and other
+religious feasts; but it neither limited their range nor controlled
+their development.
+
+
+  Progress of the medieval drama in Europe.
+
+It is impossible to condense into a few sentences the extremely varied
+history of the processes of transformation undergone by the medieval
+drama in Europe during the two centuries--from about 1200 to about
+1400--in which it ran a course of its own, and during the succeeding
+period, in which it was only partially affected by the influence of the
+Renaissance. A few typical phenomena may, however, be noted in the case
+of the drama of each of the several chief countries of the West; where
+the vernacular successfully supplanted Latin as the ordinary medium of
+dramatic speech, where song was effectually ousted by recitation and
+dialogue, and where finally, though the emancipation was on this head
+nowhere absolute, the religious drama gave place to the secular.
+
+
+  France.
+
+In France, where dramatic performances had never fallen entirely into
+the hands of the clergy, the progress was speediest and most decided
+towards forms approaching those of the modern drama. The earliest play
+in the French tongue, however, the 12th-century _Adam_, supposed to have
+been written by a Norman in England (as is a fragmentary _Resurrection_
+of much the same date), still reveals its connexion with the liturgical
+drama. Jean Bodel of Arras' miracle-play of _St Nicolas_ (before 1205)
+is already the production of a secular author, probably designed for the
+edification of some civic confraternity to which he belonged, and has
+some realistic features. On the other hand, the _Theophilus_ of Rutebeuf
+(d. c. 1280) treats its Faust-like theme, with which we meet again in
+Low-German dramatic literature two centuries later, in a rather lifeless
+form but in a highly religious spirit, and belongs to the cycle of
+miracles of the Virgin of which examples abound throughout this period.
+Easter or Passion plays were fully established in popular acceptance in
+Paris as well as in other towns of France by the end of the 14th
+century; and in 1402 the _Confrerie de la Passion_, who at first devoted
+themselves exclusively to the performance of this species, obtained a
+royal privilege for the purpose. These series of religious plays were
+both extensive and elaborate; perhaps the most notable series (c. 1450)
+is that by Arnoul Greban, who died as a canon of Le Mans, his native
+town. Its revision, by Jean Michel, containing much illustrative detail
+(first performed at Angers in 1486), was very popular. Still more
+elaborate is the Rouen Christmas mystery of 1474, and the celebrated
+_Mystere du vieil testament_, produced at Abbeville in 1458, and
+performed at Paris in 1500. Most of the Provencal Christmas and Passion
+plays date from the 14th century, as well as a miracle of St Agnes. The
+miracles of saints were popular in all parts of France, and the
+diversity of local colouring naturally imparted to these productions
+contributed materially to the growth of the early French drama. The
+miracles of Ste Genevieve and St Denis came directly home to the
+inhabitants of Paris, as that of St Martin to the citizens of Tours;
+while the early victories of St Louis over the English might claim a
+national significance for the dramatic celebration of his deeds. The
+local saints of Provence were in their turn honoured by miracles dating
+from the 15th and 16th centuries.
+
+It is less easy to trace the origins of the comic medieval drama in
+France, connected as they are with an extraordinary variety of
+associations for professional, pious and pleasurable purposes. The _ludi
+inhonesti_ in which the students of a Paris college (Navarre) were in
+1315 debarred from engaging cannot be proved to have been dramatic
+performances; the earliest known secular plays presented by university
+students in France were moralities, performed in 1426 and 1431. These
+plays, depicting conflicts between opposing influences--and at bottom
+the struggle between good and evil in the human soul--become more
+frequent from about this time onwards. Now it is (at Rennes in 1439) the
+contention between _Bien-avise_ and _Mal-avise_ (who at the close find
+themselves respectively in charge of _Bonne-fin_ and _Male-fin_); now,
+one between _l'homme juste_ and _l'homme mondain_; now, the contrasted
+story of _Les Enfants de Maintenant_, who, however, is no abstraction,
+but an honest baker with a wife called Mignotte. Political and social
+problems are likewise treated; and the _Mystere du Concile de Bale_--an
+historical morality--dates back to 1432. But thought is taken even more
+largely of the sufferings of the people than of the controversies of the
+Church; and in 1507 we even meet with a hygienic or abstinence morality
+(by N. de la Chesnaye) in which "Banquet" enters into a conspiracy with
+"Apoplexy," "Epilepsy" and the whole regiment of diseases.
+
+Long before this development of an artificial species had been
+consummated--from the beginning of the 14th century onwards--the famous
+fraternity or professional union of the Basoche (clerks of the Parlement
+and the Chatelet) had been entrusted with the conduct of popular
+festivals at Paris, in which, as of right, they took a prominent
+personal share; and from a date unknown they had performed plays. But
+after the _Confrerie de la Passion_ had been allowed to monopolize the
+religious drama, the _basochiens_ had confined themselves to the
+presentment of moralities and of farces (from Italian _farsa_, Latin
+_farcita_), in which political satire had as a matter of course when
+possible found a place. A third association, calling themselves the
+_Enfans sans souci_, had, apparently also early in the 15th century,
+acquired celebrity by their performances of short comic plays called
+soties--in which, as it would seem, at first allegorical figures
+ironically "played the fool," but which were probably before long not
+very carefully kept distinct from the farces of the Basoche, and were
+like these on occasion made to serve the purposes of State or of Church.
+Other confraternities and associations readily took a leaf out of the
+book of these devil-may-care good-fellows, and interwove their religious
+and moral plays with comic scenes and characters from actual life, thus
+becoming more and more free and secular in their dramatic methods, and
+unconsciously preparing the transition to the regular drama.
+
+The earliest example of a serious secular play known to have been
+written in the French tongue is the _Estoire de Griseldis_ (1393); which
+is in the style of the miracles of the Virgin, but is largely indebted
+to Petrarch. The _Mystere du siege d'Orleans_, on the other hand,
+written about half a century later, in the epic tediousness of its
+manner comes near to a chronicle history, and interests us chiefly as
+the earliest of many efforts to bring Joan of Arc on the stage. Jacques
+Milet's celebrated mystery of the _Destruction de Troye la grant_ (1452)
+seems to have been addressed to readers and not to hearers only. The
+beginnings of the French regular comic drama are again more difficult to
+extract from the copious literature of farces and soties, which, after
+mingling actual types with abstract and allegorical figures, gradually
+came to exclude all but the concrete personages; moreover, the large
+majority of these productions in their extant form belong to a later
+period than that now under consideration. But there is ample evidence
+that the most famous of all medieval farces, the immortal _Maistre
+Pierre Pathelin_ (otherwise _L'Avocat Pathelin_), was written before
+1470 and acted by the _basochiens_; and we may conclude that this
+delightful story of the biter bit, and the profession outwitted,
+typifies a multitude of similar comic episodes of real life, dramatized
+for the delectation of clerks, lawyers and students, and of all lovers
+of laughter.
+
+
+  The Netherlands.
+
+In the neighbouring Netherlands many Easter and Christmas mysteries are
+noted from the middle of the 15th century, attesting the enduring
+popularity of these religious plays; and with them the celebrated series
+of the Seven Joys of Maria--of which the first is the Annunciation and
+the seventh the Ascension. To about the same date belongs the small
+group of the so-called _abele spelen_ (as who should say plays easily
+managed), chiefly on chivalrous themes. Though allegorical figures are
+already to be found in the Netherlands miracles of Mary, the species of
+the moralities was specially cultivated during the great Burgundian
+period of this century by the chambers or lodges of the _Rederijkers_
+(rhetoricians)--the well-known civic associations which devoted
+themselves to the cultivation of learned poetry and took an active share
+in the festivals that formed one of the most characteristic features of
+the life of the Low Countries. Among these moralities was that of
+_Elckerlijk_ (printed 1495 and presumably by Peter Dorlandus), which
+there is good reason for regarding as the original of one of the finest
+of English moralities, _Everyman_.
+
+
+  Italy.
+
+In Italy the liturgical drama must have run its course as elsewhere; but
+the traces of it are few, and confined to the north-east. The collective
+mystery, so common in other Western countries, is in Italian literature
+represented by a single example only--a _Passione di Gesu Cristo_,
+performed at Revello in Saluzzo in the 15th century; though there are
+some traces of other cyclic dramas of the kind. The Italian religious
+plays, called _figure_ when on Old, _vangeli_ when on New, Testament
+subjects, and differing from those of northern Europe chiefly by the
+less degree of coarseness in their comic characters, seem largely to
+have sprung out of the development of the processional element in the
+festivals of the Church. Besides such processions as that of the Three
+Kings at Epiphany in Milan, there were the penitential processions and
+songs (_laude_), which at Assisi, Perugia and elsewhere already
+contained a dramatic element; and at Siena, Florence and other centres
+these again developed into the so-called (_sacre_) _rappresentazioni_,
+which became the most usual name for this kind of entertainment. Such a
+piece was the _San Giovanni e San Paolo_ (1489), by Lorenzo the
+Magnificent--the prince who afterwards sought to reform the Italian
+stage by paganizing it; another was the _Santa Teodora_, by Luigi Pulci
+(d. 1487); _San Giovanni Gualberto_ (of Florence) treats the religious
+experience of a latter-day saint; _Rosana e Ulimento_ is a love-story
+with a Christian moral. Passion plays were performed at Rome in the
+Coliseum by the _Compagnia del Gonfalone_; but there is no evidence on
+this head before the end of the 15th century. In general, the
+spectacular magnificence of Italian theatrical displays accorded with
+the growing pomp of the processions both ecclesiastical and lay--called
+_trionfi_ already in the days of Dante; while the religious drama
+gradually acquired an artificial character and elaboration of form
+assimilating it to the classical attempts, to be noted below, which gave
+rise to the regular Italian drama. The poetry of the Troubadours, which
+had come from Provence into Italy, here frequently took a dramatic form,
+and may have suggested some of his earlier poetic experiments to
+Petrarch.
+
+It was a matter of course that remnants of the ancient popular dramatic
+entertainments should have survived in particular abundance on Italian
+soil. They were to be recognized in the improvised farces performed at
+the courts, in the churches (_farse spirituali_), and among the people;
+the Roman carnival had preserved its wagon-plays, and various links
+remained to connect the modern comic drama of the Italians with the
+_Atellanes_ and _mimes_ of their ancestors. But the more notable later
+comic developments, which belong to the 16th century, will be more
+appropriately noticed below. Moralities proper had not flourished in
+Italy, where the love of the concrete has always been dominant in
+popular taste; more numerous are examples of scenes, largely
+mythological, in which the influence of the Renaissance is already
+perceptible, of eclogues, and of allegorical festival-plays of various
+sorts.
+
+
+  Spain.
+
+In Spain hardly a monument of the medieval religious drama has been
+preserved. There is manuscript evidence of the 11th century attesting
+the early addition of dramatic elements to the Easter office; and a
+Spanish fragment of the Three Kings Epiphany play, dating from the 12th
+century, is, like the French _Adam_, one of the very earliest examples
+of the medieval drama in the vernacular. But that religious plays were
+performed in Spain is clear from the permission granted by Alphonso X.
+of Castile (d. 1284) to the clergy to represent them, while prohibiting
+the performance by them of _juegos de escarnio_ (mocking plays). The
+earliest Spanish plays which we possess belong to the end of the 15th or
+beginning of the 16th century, and already show humanistic influence. In
+1472 the couplets of _Mingo Revulgo_ (i.e. Domingo Vulgus, the common
+people), and about the same time another dialogue by the same author,
+offer examples of a sort resembling the Italian _contrasti_ (see below).
+
+
+  Germany.
+
+The German religious plays in the vernacular, the earliest of which date
+from the 14th and 15th centuries, and were produced at Trier,
+Wolfenbuttel, Innsbruck, Vienna, Berlin, &c., were of a simple kind; but
+in some of them, though they were written by clerks, there are traces of
+the minstrels' hands. The earliest complete Christmas play in German,
+contained in a 14th-century St Gallen MS., has nothing in it to suggest
+a Latin original. On the other hand, the play of _The Wise and the
+Foolish Virgins_, in a Thuringian MS. thought to be as early as 1328, a
+piece of remarkable dignity, was evidently based on a Latin play. Other
+festivals besides Christmas were celebrated by plays; but down to the
+Reformation Easter enjoyed a preference. In the same century
+miracle-plays began to be performed, in honour of St Catherine, St
+Dorothea and other saints. But all these productions seem to belong to a
+period when the drama was still under ecclesiastical control. Gradually,
+as the liturgical drama returned to the simpler forms from which it had
+so surprisingly expanded, and ultimately died out, the religious plays
+performed outside the churches expanded more freely; and the type of
+mystery associated with the name of the Frankfort canon Baldemar von
+Peterweil communicated itself, with other examples, to the receptive
+region of the south-west. The Corpus Christi plays, or (as they were here
+called) _Frohnleichnamsspiele_, are notable, since that of Innsbruck
+(1391) is probably the earliest extant example of its class. The number
+of non-scriptural religious plays in Germany was much smaller than that
+in France; but it may be noted that (in accordance with a long-enduring
+popular notion) the theme of the last judgment was common in Germany in
+the latter part of the middle ages. Of this theme _Antichrist_ may be
+regarded as an episode, though in 1469 an _Antichrist_ appears to have
+occupied at Frankfort four days in its performance. The earlier (12th
+century) _Antichrist_ is a production quite unique of its kind; this
+political protest breathes the Ghibelline spirit of the reign (Frederick
+Barbarossa's) in which it was composed.
+
+Though many of the early German plays contain an element of the
+moralities, there were few representative German examples of the
+species. The academical instinct, or some other influence, kept the more
+elaborate productions on the whole apart from the drolleries of the
+professional strollers (_fahrende Leute_), whose Shrove-Tuesday plays
+(_Fastnachtsspiele_) and cognate productions reproduced the practical
+fun of common life. Occasionally, no doubt, as in the Lubeck
+_Fastnachtsspiel_ of the Five Virtues, the two species may have more or
+less closely approached to one another. When, in the course of the 15th
+century, Hans Rosenplut, called Schnepperer--or Hans Schnepperer, called
+Rosenplut--the predecessor of Hans Sachs, first gave a more enduring
+form to the popular Shrove-Tuesday plays, a connexion was already
+establishing itself between the dramatic amusements of the people and
+the literary efforts of the "master-singers" of the towns. But, while
+the main productivity of the writers of moralities and cognate
+productions--a species particularly suited to German latitudes--falls
+into the periods of Renaissance and Reformation, the religious drama
+proper survived far beyond either in Catholic Germany, and, in fact, was
+not suppressed in Bavaria and Tirol till the end of the 18th century.[3]
+
+
+  Sweden, Carpathian lands, &c.
+
+It may be added that the performance of miracle-plays is traceable in
+Sweden in the latter half of the 14th century; and that the German
+clerks and laymen who immigrated into the Carpathian lands, and into
+Galicia in particular, in the later middle ages, brought with them their
+religious plays together with other elements of culture. This fact is
+the more striking, inasmuch as, though Czech Easter plays were performed
+about the end of the 14th century, we hear of none among the Magyars, or
+among their neighbours of the Eastern empire.
+
+
+  Religious drama in England.
+
+  Cornish miracle-plays.
+
+Coming now to the English religious drama, we find that from its extant
+literature a fair general idea may be derived of the character of these
+medieval productions. The _miracle-plays_, _miracles_ or _plays_ (these
+being the terms used in England) of which we hear in London in the 12th
+century were probably written in Latin and acted by ecclesiastics; but
+already in the following century mention is made--in the way of
+prohibition--of plays acted by professional players. (Isolated
+moralities of the 12th century are not to be regarded as popular
+productions.) In England as elsewhere, the clergy either sought to
+retain their control over the religious plays, which continued to be
+occasionally acted in churches even after the Reformation, or else
+reprobated them with or without qualifications. In Cornwall miracles in
+the native Cymric dialect were performed at an early date; but those
+which have been preserved are apparently copies of English (with the
+occasional use of French) originals; they were represented, unlike the
+English plays, in the open country, in extensive amphitheatres
+constructed for the purpose--one of which, at St Just near Penzance, has
+recently been restored.
+
+
+  Localities of the performance of miracle-plays.
+
+  The York, Towneley, Chester and Coventry plays.
+
+The flourishing period of English miracle-plays begins with the practice
+of their performance by trading-companies in the towns, though these
+bodies were by no means possessed of any special privileges for the
+purpose. Of this practice Chester is said to have set the example
+(1268-1276); it was followed in the course of the 13th and 14th
+centuries by many other towns, while in yet others traces of such
+performances are not to be found till the 15th, or even the 16th. These
+towns with their neighbourhoods include, starting from East Anglia,
+where the religious drama was particularly at home, Wymondham, Norwich,
+Sleaford, Lincoln, Leeds, Wakefield, Beverley, York, Newcastle-on-Tyne,
+with a deviation across the border to Edinburgh and Aberdeen. In the
+north-west they are found at Kendal, Lancaster, Preston, Chester;
+whence they may be supposed to have migrated to Dublin. In the west they
+are noticeable at Shrewsbury, Worcester and Tewkesbury; in the Midlands
+at Coventry and Leicester; in the east at Cambridge and Bassingbourne,
+Heybridge and Manningtree; to which places have to be added Reading,
+Winchester, Canterbury, Bethesda and London, in which last the
+performers were the parish-clerks. Four collections, in addition to some
+single examples of such plays, have come down to us, the _York_ plays,
+the so-called _Towneley_ plays, which were probably acted at the fairs
+of Widkirk, near Wakefield, and those bearing the names of _Chester_ and
+of _Coventry_. Their dates, in the forms in which they have come down to
+us, are more or less uncertain; that of the _York_ may on the whole be
+concluded to be earlier than that of the _Towneley_, which were probably
+put together about the middle of the 14th century; the _Chester_ may be
+ascribed to the close of the 14th or the earlier part of the 15th; the
+body of the _Coventry_ probably belongs to the 15th or 16th. Many of the
+individual plays in these collections were doubtless founded on French
+originals; others are taken direct from Scripture, from the apocryphal
+gospels, or from the legends of the saints. Their characteristic feature
+is the combination of a whole series of plays into one _collective_
+whole, exhibiting the entire course of Bible history from the creation
+to the day of judgment. For this combination it is unnecessary to
+suppose that they were generally indebted to foreign examples, though
+there are several remarkable coincidences between the Chester plays and
+the French _Mystere du vieil testament_. Indeed, the oldest of the
+series--the _York_ plays--exhibits a fairly close parallel to the scheme
+of the _Cursor mundi_, an epic poem of Northumbrian origin, which early
+in the 14th century had set an example of treatment that unmistakably
+influenced the collective mysteries as a whole. Among the isolated plays
+of the same type which have come down to us may be mentioned _The
+Harrowing of Hell_ (the Saviour's descent into hell), an East-Midland
+production which professes to tell of "a strif of Jesu and of Satan" and
+is probably the earliest dramatic, or all but dramatic, work in English
+that has been preserved; and several belonging to a series known as the
+_Digby Mysteries_, including _Parfre's Candlemas Day_ (the massacre of
+the Innocents), and the very interesting miracle of _Mary Magdalene_. Of
+the so-called "Paternoster" and "Creed" plays (which exhibit the
+miraculous powers of portions of the Church service) no example remains,
+though of some we have an account; the Croxton _Play of the Sacrament_,
+the MS. of which is preserved at Dublin, and which seems to date from
+the latter half of the 15th century, exhibits the triumph of the holy
+wafer over wicked Jewish wiles.
+
+
+  English collective mysteries.
+
+To return to the collective mysteries, as they present themselves to us
+in the chief extant series. "The manner of these plays," we read in a
+description of those at Chester, dating from the close of the 16th
+century, "were:--Every company had his pageant, which pageants were a
+high scaffold with two rooms, a higher and a lower, upon four wheels. In
+the lower they apparelled themselves, and in the higher room they
+played, being all open at the top, that all beholders might hear and see
+them. The places where they played them was in every street. They began
+first at the abbey gates, and when the first pageant was played, it was
+wheeled to the high cross before the mayor, and so to every street, and
+so every street had a pageant playing before them at one time till all
+the pageants appointed for the day were played; and when one pageant was
+near ended, word was brought from street to street, that so they might
+come in place thereof, exceedingly orderly, and all the streets have
+their pageants afore them all at one time playing together; to see which
+plays was great resort, and also scaffolds and stages made in the
+streets in those places where they determined to play their pageants."
+
+Each play, then, was performed by the representative of a particular
+trade or company, after whom it was called the fishers', glovers', &c.,
+_pageant_; while a general prologue was spoken by a herald. As a rule
+the movable stage sufficed for the action, though we find horsemen
+riding up to the scaffold, and Herod instructed to "rage in the pagond
+and in the strete also." There is no probability that the stage was, as
+in France, divided into three platforms with a dark cavern at the side
+of the lowest, appropriated respectively to the Heavenly Father and his
+angels, to saints and glorified men, to mere men, and to souls in hell.
+But the last-named locality was frequently displayed in the English
+miracles, with or without fire in its mouth. The costumes were in part
+conventional,--divine and saintly personages being distinguished by gilt
+hair and beards, Herod being clad as a Saracen, the demons wearing
+hideous heads, the souls black and white coats according to their kind,
+and the angels gold skins and wings.
+
+
+  Character of the Plays.
+
+Doubtless these performances abounded in what seem to us ludicrous
+features; and, though their main purpose was serious, they were not in
+England at least intended to be devoid of fun. But many of the features
+in question are in truth only homely and _naif_, and the simplicity of
+feeling which they exhibit is at times pathetic rather than laughable.
+The occasional grossness is due to an absence of refinement of taste
+rather than to an obliquity of moral sentiment. These features the four
+series have more or less in common, still there are certain obvious
+distinctions between them. The _York_ plays (48), which were performed
+at Corpus Christi, are comparatively free from the tendency to
+jocularity and vulgarity observable in the _Towneley_; several of the
+plays concerned with the New Testament and early Christian story are,
+however, in substance common to both series. The _Towneley Plays_ or
+_Wakefield Mysteries_ (32) were undoubtedly composed by the friars of
+Widkirk or Nostel; but they are of a popular character; and, while
+somewhat over-free in tone, are superior in vivacity and humour to both
+the later collections. The _Chester Plays_ (25) were undoubtedly
+indebted both to the _Mystere du vieil testament_ and to earlier French
+mysteries; they are less popular in character than the earlier two
+cycles, and on the whole undistinguished by original power of pathos or
+humour. There is, on the other hand, a notable inner completeness in
+this series, which includes a play of _Antichrist_, devoid of course of
+any modern application. While these plays were performed at Whitsuntide,
+the _Coventry Plays_ (42) were Corpus Christi performances. Though there
+is no proof that the extant series were composed by the Grey Friars,
+they reveal a considerable knowledge of ecclesiastical literature. For
+the rest, they are far more effectively written than the _Chester
+Plays_, and occasionally rise to real dramatic force. In the _Coventry_
+series there is already to be observed an element of abstract figures,
+which connects them with a different species of the medieval drama.
+
+
+  Moralities.
+
+  The Devil and the Vice.
+
+The _moralities_ corresponded to the love for allegory which manifests
+itself in so many periods of English literature, and which, while
+dominating the whole field of medieval literature, was nowhere more
+assiduously and effectively cultivated than in England. It is necessary
+to bear this in mind, in order to understand what to us seems so
+strange, the popularity of the moral-plays, which indeed never equalled
+that of the miracles, but sufficed to maintain the former species till
+it received a fresh impulse from the connexion established between it
+and the "new learning," together with the new political and religious
+ideas and questions, of the Reformation age. Moreover, a specially
+popular element was supplied to these plays, which in manner of
+representation differed in no essential point from the miracles, in a
+character borrowed from the latter, and, in the moralities, usually
+provided with a companion whose task it was to lighten the weight of
+such abstractions as Sapience and Justice. These were the Devil and his
+attendant the _Vice_, of whom the latter seems to have been of native
+origin, and, as he was usually dressed in a fool's habit, was probably
+suggested by the familiar custom of keeping an attendant fool at court
+or in great houses. The Vice had many _aliases_ (_Shift_, _Ambidexter_,
+_Sin_, _Fraud_, _Iniquity_, &c.), but his usual duty is to torment and
+tease the Devil his master for the edification and diversion of the
+audience. He was gradually blended with the domestic fool, who survived
+in the regular drama. There are other concrete elements in the
+moralities; for typical figures are often fitted with concrete names,
+and thus all but converted into concrete human personages.
+
+
+  Groups of English moralities.
+
+The earlier English moralities[4]--from the reign of Henry VI. to that
+of Henry VII.--usually allegorize the conflict between good and evil in
+the mind and life of man, without any side-intention of theological
+controversy. Such also is still essentially the purpose of the extant
+morality by Henry VIII.'s poet, the witty Skelton.[5] _Everyman_ (pr. c.
+1529), perhaps the most perfect example of its class, with which the
+present generation has fortunately become familiar, contains passages
+certainly designed to enforce the specific teaching of Rome. But its
+Dutch original was written at least a generation earlier, and could have
+no controversial intention. On the other hand, R. Wever's _Lusty
+Juventus_ breathes the spirit of the dogmatic reformation of the reign
+of Edward VI. Theological controversy largely occupies the moralities of
+the earlier part of Elizabeth's reign,[6] and connects itself with
+political feeling in a famous morality, Sir David Lyndsay's _Satire of
+the Three Estaitis_, written and acted (at Cupar, in 1539) on the other
+side of the border, where such efforts as the religious drama proper had
+made had been extinguished by the Reformation. Only a single English
+political morality proper remains to us, which belongs to the beginning
+of the reign of Elizabeth.[7] Another series connects itself with the
+ideas of the Renaissance rather than the Reformation, treating of
+intellectual progress rather than of moral conduct;[8] this extends from
+the reign of Henry VIII. to that of his younger daughter. Besides these,
+there remain some Elizabethan moralities which have no special
+theological or scientific purpose, and which are none the less lively in
+consequence.[9]
+
+
+  Transition from the morality to the regular drama.
+
+  Heywood's interludes.
+
+The transition from the morality to the regular drama in England was
+effected, on the one hand, by the intermixture of historical personages
+with abstractions--as in Bishop Bale's _Kyng Johan_ (c. 1548)--which
+easily led over to the _chronicle history_; on the other, by the
+introduction of types of real life by the side of abstract figures. This
+latter tendency, of which instances occur in earlier plays, is
+observable in several of the 16th-century moralities;[10] but before
+most of these were written, a further step in advance had been taken by
+a man of genius, John Heywood (b. c. 1500, d. between 1577 and 1587),
+whose "interludes"[11] were short farces in the French manner. The term
+"interludes" was by no means new, but had been applied by friend and foe
+to religious plays, and plays (including moralities) in general, already
+in the 14th century. But it conveniently serves to designate a species
+which marks a distinct stage in the history of the modern drama.
+Heywood's interludes dealt entirely with real--very real--men and women.
+Orthodox and conservative, he had at the same time a keen eye for the
+vices as well as the follies of his age, and not the least for those of
+the clerical profession. Other writers, such as T. Ingeland,[12] took
+the same direction; and the allegory of abstractions was thus undermined
+on the stage, very much as in didactic literature the ground had been
+cut from under its feet by the _Ship of Fooles_. Thus the interludes
+facilitated the advent of comedy, without having superseded the earlier
+form. Both moralities and miracle-plays survived into the Elizabethan
+age after the regular drama had already begun its course.
+
+
+  Pageants.
+
+Such, in barest outline, was the progress of dramatic entertainments in
+the principal countries of Europe, before the revival of classical
+studies brought about a return to the examples of the classical drama,
+or before this return had distinctly asserted itself. It must not,
+however, be forgotten that from an early period in England as elsewhere
+had flourished a species of entertainments, not properly speaking
+dramatic, but largely contributing to form and foster a taste for
+dramatic spectacles. The _pageants_--as they were called in
+England--were the successors of those _ridings_ from which, when they
+gladdened "Chepe," Chaucer's idle apprentice would not keep away; but
+they had advanced in splendour and ingenuity of device under the
+influence of Flemish and other foreign examples. Costumed figures
+represented before gaping citizens the heroes of mythology and history,
+and the abstractions of moral, patriotic, or municipal allegory; and the
+city of London clung with special fervour to these exhibitions, which
+the Elizabethan drama was neither able nor--as represented by most of
+its poets who composed devices and short texts for these and similar
+shows--willing to oust from popular favour. Some of the greatest and
+some of the least of English dramatists were the ministers of pageantry;
+and perhaps it would have been an advantage for the future of the
+theatre if the legitimate drama and the _Triumphs of Old Drapery_ had
+been more jealously kept apart. With the reign of Henry VIII. there also
+set in a varied succession of entertainments at court and in the houses
+of the great nobles, which may be said to have lasted through the Tudor
+and early Stuart periods; but it would be an endless task to attempt to
+discriminate the dramatic elements contained in these productions. The
+"mask," stated to have been introduced from Italy into England as a new
+diversion in 1512-1513, at first merely added a fresh element of
+"disguising" to those already in use; as a quasi-dramatic species
+("mask" or "masque") capable of a great literary development it hardly
+asserted itself till quite the end of the 16th century.
+
+
+11. THE MODERN NATIONAL DRAMA
+
+  Influence of the Renaissance.
+
+The literary influence which finally transformed the growths noticed
+above into the national dramas of the several countries of Europe, was
+that of the Renaissance. Among the remains of classical antiquity which
+were studied, translated and imitated, those of the drama necessarily
+held a prominent place. Never altogether lost sight of, they now became
+subjects of devoted research and models for more or less exact
+imitation, first in Greek or Latin, then in modern tongues; and these
+essentially literary endeavours came into more or less direct contact
+with, and acquired more or less control over, dramatic performances and
+entertainments already in existence. This process it will be most
+convenient to pursue _seriatim_, in connexion with the rise and progress
+of the several dramatic literatures of the West. For no sooner had the
+stream of the modern drama, whose source and contributories have been
+described, been brought back into the ancient bed, than its flow
+diverged into a number of national currents, unequal in impetus and
+strength, and varying in accordance with their manifold surroundings.
+And even of these it is only possible to survey the most productive or
+important.
+
+
+(a) _Italy._
+
+  The modern Italian drama.
+
+The priority in this as in most of the other aspects of the Renaissance
+belongs to Italy. In ultimate achievement the Italian drama fell short
+of the fulness of the results obtained elsewhere--a surprising fact when
+it is considered, not only that the Italian language had the
+vantage-ground of closest relationship to the Latin, but that the genius
+of the Italian people has at all times led it to love the drama. The
+cause is doubtless to be sought in the lack, noticeable in Italian
+national life during a long period, and more especially during the
+troubled days of division and strife coinciding with the rise and
+earlier promise of Italian dramatic literature, of those loftiest and
+most potent impulses of popular feeling to which a national drama owes
+so much of its strength. This deficiency was due partly to the
+peculiarities of the Italian character, partly to the political and
+ecclesiastical experiences which Italy was fated to undergo. The
+Italians were alike strangers to the enthusiasm of patriotism, which was
+as the breath in the nostrils of the English Elizabethan age, and to the
+religious devotion which identified Spain with the spirit of the
+Catholic revival. The clear-sightedness of the Italians had something to
+do with this, for they were too intelligent to believe in their tyrants,
+and too free from illusions to deliver up their minds to their priests.
+Finally, the chilling and enervating effects of a pressure of foreign
+domination, such as no Western people with a history and a civilization
+like those of Italy has ever experienced, contributed to paralyse for
+many generations the higher efforts of the dramatic art. No basis was
+permanently found for a really national tragedy; while literary comedy,
+after turning from the direct imitation of Latin models to a more
+popular form, lost itself in an abandoned immorality of tone and in
+reckless insolence of invective against particular classes of society.
+Though its productivity long continued, the poetic drama more and more
+concentrated its efforts upon subordinate or subsidiary species,
+artificial in origin and decorative in purpose, and surrendered its
+substance to the overpowering aids of music, dancing and spectacle. Only
+a single form of the Italian drama, improvised comedy, remained truly
+national; and this was of its nature dissociated from higher literary
+effort. The revival of Italian tragedy in later times is due partly to
+the imitation of French models, partly to the endeavour of a brilliant
+genius to infuse into his art the historical and political spirit.
+Comedy likewise attained to new growths of considerable significance,
+when it was sought to accommodate its popular forms to the
+representation of real life in a wider range, and again to render it
+more poetical in accordance with the tendencies of modern romanticism.
+
+The regular Italian drama, in both its tragic and its comic branches,
+began with a reproduction, in the Latin language, of classical
+models--the first step, as it was to prove, towards the transformation
+of the medieval into the modern drama, and the birth of modern dramatic
+literature. But the process was both tentative and tedious, and must
+have died away but for the pomp and circumstance with which some of the
+patrons of the Renaissance at Florence, Rome and elsewhere surrounded
+these manifestations of a fashionable taste, and for the patriotic
+inspiration which from the first induced Italian writers to dramatize
+themes of national historic interest. Greek tragedy had been long
+forgotten, and one or two indications in the earlier part of the 16th
+century of Italian interest in the Greek drama, chiefly due to the
+printing presses, may be passed by.[13] To the later middle ages
+classical tragedy meant Seneca, and even his plays remained unremembered
+till the study of them was revived by the Paduan judge Lovato de' Lovati
+(Lupatus, d. 1309). Of the comedies of Plautus three-fifths were not
+rediscovered till 1429; and though Terence was much read in the schools,
+he found no dramatic imitators, _pour le bon motif_ or otherwise, since
+Hrosvitha.
+
+Thus the first medieval follower of Seneca, Albertino Mussato
+(1261-1330) may in a sense be called the father of modern dramatic
+literature. Born at Padua, to which city all his services were given, he
+in 1315 brought out his _Eccerinis_, a Latin tragedy very near to the
+confines of epic poetry, intended to warn the Paduans against the
+designs of Can Grande della Scala by the example of the tyrant Ezzelino.
+Other tragedies of much the same type followed during the ensuing
+century; such as L. da Fabiano's _De casu Caesenae_ (1377) a sort of
+chronicle history in Latin prose on Cardinal Albornoz' capture of
+Caesena.[14] Purely classical themes were treated in the _Achilleis_ of
+A. de' Loschi of Vicenza (d. 1441), formerly attributed to Mussato,
+several passages of which are taken verbally from Seneca; in the
+celebrated _Progne_ of the Venetian Gregorio Cornaro, which is dated
+1428-1429, and in later Latin productions included among the
+translations and imitations of Greek and Latin tragedies and comedies by
+Bishop Martirano (d. 1557), the friend of Pope Leo X.,[15] and the
+efforts of Pomponius Laetus and his followers, who, with the aid of
+Cardinal Raffaele Riario (1451-1521), sought to revive the ancient
+theatre, with all its classical associations, at Rome.
+
+In this general movement Latin comedy had quickly followed suit, and, as
+just indicated, it is almost impossible, when we reach the height of the
+Italian Renaissance under the Medici at Florence and at Rome in
+particular, to review the progress of either species apart from that of
+the other. If we possessed the lost _Philologia_ of Petrarch, of which,
+as of a juvenile work, he declared himself ashamed, this would be the
+earliest of extant humanistic comedies. As it is, this position is held
+by _Paulus_, a Latin comedy of life on the classic model, by the
+orthodox P. P. Vergerio (1370-1444); which was followed by many
+others.[16]
+
+
+  Italian tragedy in the 16th century.
+
+Early in the 16th century, tragedy began to be written in the native
+tongue; but it retained from the first, and never wholly lost, the
+impress of its origin. Whatever the source of its subjects--which,
+though mostly of classical origin, were occasionally derived from native
+romance, or even due to invention--they were all treated with a
+predilection for the horrible, inspired by the example of Seneca, though
+no doubt encouraged by a perennial national taste. The chorus,
+stationary on the stage as in old Roman tragedy, was not reduced to a
+merely occasional appearance between the acts till the beginning of the
+17th century, or ousted altogether from the tragic drama till the
+earlier half of the 18th. Thus the changes undergone by Italian tragedy
+were for a long series of generations chiefly confined to the form of
+versification and the choice of themes; nor was it, at all events till
+the last century of the course which it has hitherto run, more than the
+aftergrowth of an aftergrowth. The honour of having been the earliest
+tragedy in Italian seems to belong to A. da Pistoia's _Pamfila_ (1499),
+of which the subject was taken from Boccaccio, introduced by the ghost
+of Seneca, and marred in the taking. Carretto's _Sofonisba_, which
+hardly rises above the art of a chronicle history, though provided with
+a chorus, followed in 1502. But the play usually associated with the
+beginning of Italian tragedy--that with which "th' Italian scene first
+learned to glow"--was another _Sofonisba_, acted before Leo X. in 1515,
+and written in blank hendecasyllables instead of the _ottava_ and _terza
+rima_ of the earlier tragedians (retaining, however, the lyric measures
+of the chorus), by G. G. Trissino, who was employed as nuncio by that
+pope. Other tragedies of the former half of the 16th century, largely
+inspired by Trissino's example, were the _Rosmunda_ of Rucellai, a
+nephew of Lorenzo the Magnificent (1516); Martelli's _Tullia_,
+Alamanni's _Antigone_ (1532); the _Canace_ of Sperone Speroni, the
+envious _Mopsus_ of Tasso, who, like Guarini, took Sperone's elaborate
+style for his model; the _Orazia_, the earliest dramatic treatment of
+this famous subject by the notorious Aretino (1549); and the nine
+tragedies of G. B. Giraldi (Cinthio) of Ferrara, among which
+_L'Orbecche_ (1541) is accounted the best and the bloodiest. Cinthio,
+the author of those _Hecatommithi_ to which Shakespeare was indebted for
+so many of his subjects, was (supposing him to have invented these) the
+first Italian who was the author of the fables of his own dramas; he
+introduced some novelties into dramatic construction, separating the
+prologue and probably also the epilogue from the action, and has by some
+been regarded as the inventor of the pastoral drama. But his style was
+arid. In the latter half of the 16th century may be mentioned the
+_Didone_ and the _Marianna_ of L. Dolce, the translator of Euripides and
+Seneca (1565); A. Leonico's _Il Soldato_ (1550); the _Adriana_ (acted
+before 1561 or 1586) of L. Groto, which treats the story of _Romeo and
+Juliet_; Tasso's _Torrismondo_ (1587); the _Tancredi_ of Asinari (1588);
+and the _Merope_ of Torelli (1593), the last who employed the stationary
+chorus (_coro fisso_) on the Italian stage. Leonico's _Soldato_ is
+noticeable as supposed to have given rise to the _tragedia cittadina_,
+or domestic tragedy, of which there are few examples in the Italian
+drama, and De Velo's _Tamar_ (1586) as written in prose. Subjects of
+modern historical interest were in this period treated only in isolated
+instances.[17]
+
+
+  Italian tragedy in the 17th and 18th centuries.
+
+  Maffei.
+
+  Metastasio.
+
+  Alfieri.
+
+The tragedians of the 17th century continued to pursue the beaten track,
+marked out already in the 16th by rigid prescription. In course of time,
+however, they sought by the introduction of musical airs to compromise
+with the danger with which their art was threatened of being (in
+Voltaire's phrase) extinguished by the beautiful monster, the opera, now
+rapidly gaining ground in the country of its origin. (See OPERA.) To
+Count P. Bonarelli (1589-1659), the author of _Solimano_, is on the
+other hand ascribed the first disuse of the chorus in Italian tragedy.
+The innovation of the use of rhyme attempted in the learned
+Pallavicino's _Erminigildo_ (1655), and defended by him in a discourse
+prefixed to the play, was unable to achieve a permanent success in Italy
+any more than in England; its chief representative was afterwards
+Martelli (d. 1727), whose rhymed Alexandrian verse (_Martelliano_),
+though on one occasion used in comedy by Goldoni, failed to commend
+itself to the popular taste. By the end of the 17th century Italian
+tragedy seemed destined to expire, and the great tragic actor Cotta had
+withdrawn in disgust at the apathy of the public towards the higher
+forms of the drama. The 18th century was, however, to witness a change,
+the beginnings of which are attributed to the institution of the Academy
+of the Arcadians at Rome (1690). The principal efforts of the new school
+of writers and critics were directed to the abolition of the chorus, and
+to a general increase of freedom in treatment. Before long the marquis
+S. Maffei with his _Merope_ (first printed 1713) achieved one of the
+most brilliant successes recorded in the history of dramatic literature.
+This play, which is devoid of any love-story, long continued to be
+considered the masterpiece of Italian tragedy; Voltaire, who declared it
+"worthy of the most glorious days of Athens," adapted it for the French
+stage, and it inspired a celebrated production of the English drama.[18]
+It was followed by a tragedy full of horrors,[19] noticeable as having
+given rise to the first Italian dramatic _parody_; and by the highly
+esteemed productions of Granelli (d. 1769) and his contemporary
+Bettinelli. P. T. Metastasio (1698-1782), who had early begun his career
+as a dramatist by a strict adherence to the precepts of Aristotle,
+gained celebrity by his contributions to the operatic drama at Naples,
+Venice and Vienna (where he held office as _poeta cesareo_, whose
+function was to arrange the court entertainments). But his _libretti_
+have a poetic value of their own;[20] and Voltaire pronounced much of
+him worthy of Corneille and of Racine, when at their best. The influence
+of Voltaire had now come to predominate over the Italian drama; and, in
+accordance with the spirit of the times, greater freedom prevailed in
+the choice of tragic themes. Thus the greatest of Italian tragic poets.
+Count V. Alfieri (1749-1803), found his path prepared for him. Alfieri's
+grand and impassioned treatment of his subjects caused his faultiness of
+form, which he never altogether overcame, to be forgotten. His themes
+were partly classical;[21] but the spirit of a love of freedom which his
+creations[22] breathe was the herald of the national ideas of the
+future. Spurning the usages of French tragedy, his plays, which abound
+in soliloquies, owe part of their effect to an impassioned force of
+declamation, part to those "points" by which Italian acting seems
+pre-eminently capable of thrilling an audience. He has much besides the
+subjects of two of his dramas[23] in common with Schiller, but his
+amazon-muse (as Schlegel called her) was not schooled into serenity,
+like the muse of the German poet. Among his numerous plays (21),
+_Merope_ and _Saul_, and perhaps _Mirra_, are accounted his
+masterpieces.
+
+
+  Tragedians since Alfieri.
+
+The political colouring given by Alfieri to Italian tragedy reappears in
+the plays of U. Foscolo and A. Manzoni, both of whom are under the
+influence of the romantic school of modern literature; and to these
+names must be added those of S. Pellico and G. B. Niccolini (1785-1861),
+Paolo Giacometti (b. 1816) and others, whose dramas[24] treat largely
+national themes familiar to all students of modern history and
+literature. In their hands Italian tragedy upon the whole adhered to its
+love of strong situations and passionate declamation. Since the
+successful efforts of G. Modena (1804-1861) renovated the tragic stage
+in Italy, the art of tragic acting long stood at a higher level in this
+than in almost any other European country; in Adelaide Ristori (Marchesa
+del Grillo) the tragic stage lost one of the greatest of modern
+actresses; and Ernesto Rossi (1827-1896) and Tommaso Salvini long
+remained rivals in the noblest forms of tragedy.
+
+
+  Italian comedy; popular forms.
+
+  Commedia dell' arte.
+
+  Masked comedy.
+
+In comedy, the efforts of the scholars of the Italian Renaissance for a
+time went side by side with the progress of the popular entertainments
+noticed above. While the _contrasti_ of the close of the 15th and of the
+16th century were disputations between pairs of abstract or allegorical
+figures, in the _frottola_ human types take the place of abstractions,
+and more than two characters appear. The _farsa_ (a name used of a wide
+variety of entertainments) was still under medieval influences, and in
+this popular form Alione of Asti (soon after 1500) was specially
+productive. To these popular diversions a new literary as well as social
+significance was given by the Neapolitan court-poet Sannazaro (c. 1492);
+about the same time a _capitano valoroso_, Venturino of Pesara, first
+brought on the modern stage the _capitano glorioso_ or _spavente_, the
+military braggart, who owed his origin both to Plautus[25] and to the
+Spanish officers who abounded in the Italy of those days. The popular
+character-comedy, a relic of the ancient _Atellanae_, likewise took a
+new lease of life--and this in a double form. The _improvised_ comedy
+(_commedia a soggetto_) was now as a rule performed by professional
+actors, members of a _craft_, and was thence called the _commedia dell'
+arte_, which is said to have been invented by Francesco (called
+Terenziano) Cherea, the favourite player of Leo X. Its scenes, still
+unwritten except in skeleton (_scenario_), were connected together by
+the ligatures or links (_lazzi_) of the _arlecchino_, the descendant of
+the ancient Roman _sannio_ (whence our _zany_). Harlequin's summit of
+glory was probably reached early in the 17th century, when he was
+ennobled in the person of Cecchino by the emperor Matthias; of
+Cecchino's successors, Zaccagnino and Truffaldino, we read that "they
+shut the door in Italy to good harlequins." Distinct from this growth is
+that of the _masked_ comedy, the action of which was chiefly carried on
+by certain typical figures in masks, speaking in local dialects,[26]
+but which was not improvised, and indeed from the nature of the case
+hardly could have been. Its inventor was A. Beolco of Padua, who called
+himself Ruzzante (joker), and is memorable under that name as the first
+actor-playwright--a combination of extreme significance for the history
+of the modern stage. He published six comedies in various dialects,
+including the Greek of the day (1530). This was the masked comedy to
+which the Italians so tenaciously clung, and in which, as all their own
+and imitable by no other nation, they took so great a pride that even
+Goldoni was unable to overthrow it. Improvisation and burlesque, alike
+abominable to comedy proper, were inseparable from the species.
+
+
+  Early Italian regular comedy.
+
+Meanwhile, the Latin imitations of Roman, varied by occasional
+translations of Greek, comedies early led to the production of Italian
+translations, several of which were performed at Ferrara in the last
+quarter of the 15th century, whence they spread to Milan, Pavia and
+other towns of the north. Contemporaneously, imitations of Latin comedy
+made their appearance, for the most part in rhymed verse; most of them
+applying classical treatment to subjects derived from Boccaccio's and
+other _novelle_, some still mere adaptations of ancient models. In these
+circumstances it is all but idle to assign the honour of having been
+"the first Italian comedy"--and thus the first comedy in modern dramatic
+literature--to any particular play. Boiardo's _Timone_ (before 1494),
+for which this distinction was frequently claimed, is to a large extent
+founded on a dialogue of Lucian's; and, since some of its personages are
+abstractions, and Olympus is domesticated on an upper stage, it cannot
+be regarded as more than a transition from the moralities. A. Ricci's _I
+Tre Tiranni_ (before 1530) seems still to belong to the same
+transitional species. Among the earlier imitators of Latin comedy in the
+vernacular may be noted G. Visconti, one of the poets patronized by
+Ludovico il Moro at Milan;[27] the Florentines G. B. Araldo, J. Nardi,
+the historian,[28] and D. Gianotti.[29] The step--very important had it
+been adopted consistently or with a view to consistency--of substituting
+prose for verse as the diction of comedy, is sometimes attributed to
+Ariosto; but, though his first two comedies were originally written in
+prose, the experiment was not new, nor did he persist in its adoption.
+Caretto's _I Sei Contenti_ dates from the end of the 15th century, and
+Publio Filippo's _Formicone_, taken from Apuleius, followed quite early
+in the 16th. Machiavelli, as will be seen, wrote comedies both in prose
+and in verse.
+
+But, whoever wrote the first Italian comedy, Ludovico Ariosto was the
+first master of the species. All but the first two of his comedies,
+belonging as they do to the field of _commedia erudita_, or scholarly
+comedy, are in blank verse, to which he gave a singular mobility by the
+dactylic ending of the line (_sdrucciolo_). Ariosto's models were the
+masterpieces of the _palliata_, and his morals those of his age, which
+emulated those of the worst days of ancient Rome or Byzantium in
+looseness, and surpassed them in effrontery. He chose his subjects
+accordingly; but his dramatic genius displayed itself in the effective
+drawing of character,[30] and more especially in the skilful management
+of complicated intrigues.[31] Such, with an additional brilliancy of wit
+and lasciviousness of tone, are likewise the characteristics of
+Machiavelli's famous prose comedy, the _Mandragola_ (_The Magic
+Draught_);[32] and at the height of their success, of the plays of P.
+Aretino,[33] especially the prose _Marescalco_ (1526-1527) whose name,
+it has been said, ought to be written in asterisks. It may be added that
+the plays of Ariosto and his followers were represented with magnificent
+scenery and settings. Other dramatists of the 16th century were B.
+Accolti, whose _Virginia_ (prob. before 1513) treats the story from
+Boccaccio which reappears in _All's Well that Ends Well_; G. Cecchi, F.
+d'Ambra, A. F. Grazzini, N. Secco or Secchi and L. Dolce--all writers of
+romantic comedy of intrigue in verse or prose.
+
+
+  The pastoral drama.
+
+During the same century the "pastoral drama" flourished in Italy. The
+origin of this peculiar species--which was the bucolic idyll in a
+dramatic form, and which freely lent itself to the introduction of both
+mythological and allegorical elements--was purely literary, and arose
+directly out of the classical studies and tastes of the Renaissance. It
+was very far removed from the genuine peasant plays which flourished in
+Venetia and Tuscany early in the 16th century. The earliest example of
+the artificial, but in some of its productions exquisite, growth in
+question was the renowned scholar A. Politian's _Orfeo_ (1472), which
+begins like an idyll and ends like a tragedy. Intended to be performed
+with music--for the pastoral drama is the parent of the opera--this
+beautiful work tells its story simply. N. da Correggio's (1450-1508)
+_Cefalo_, or _Aurora_, and others followed, before in 1554 A. Beccari
+produced, as totally new of its kind, his Arcadian pastoral drama _Il
+Sagrifizio_, in which the comic element predominates. But an epoch in
+the history of the species is marked by the _Aminta_ of Tasso (1573), in
+whose Arcadia is allegorically mirrored the Ferrara court. Adorned by
+choral lyrics of great beauty, it presents an allegorical treatment of a
+social and moral problem; and since the conception of the characters,
+all of whom think and speak of nothing but love, is artificial, the
+charm of the poem lies not in the interest of its action, but in the
+passion and sweetness of its sentiment. This work was the model of many
+others, and the pastoral drama reached its height of popularity in the
+famous _Pastor fido_ (written before 1590) of G. B. Guarini, which,
+while founded on a tragic love-story, introduces into its complicated
+plot a comic element, partly with a satirical intention. It is one of
+those exceptional works which, by circumstance as well as by merit, have
+become the property of the world's literature at large. Thus, both in
+Italian and in other literatures, the pastoral drama became a distinct
+species, characterized, like the great body of modern pastoral poetry in
+general, by a tendency either towards the artificial or towards the
+burlesque. Its artificiality affected the entire growth of Italian
+comedy, including the _commedia dell' arte_, and impressed itself in an
+intensified form upon the opera. The foremost Italian masters of the
+last-named species, so far as it can claim to be included in the poetic
+drama, were A. Zeno (1668-1750) and P. Metastasio.
+
+
+  Comedy in the 17th and 18th centuries.
+
+  Goldoni.
+
+  Gozzi.
+
+The comic dramatists of the 17th century are grouped as followers of the
+classical and of the romantic school, G. B. della Porta (q.v.) and G. A.
+Cicognini (whom Goldoni describes as full of whining pathos and
+commonplace drollery, but as still possessing a great power to interest)
+being regarded as the leading representatives of the former. But neither
+of these largely intermixed groups of writers could, with all its
+fertility, prevail against the competition, on the one hand of the
+musical drama, and on the other of the popular farcical entertainments
+and those introduced in imitation of Spanish examples. Italian comedy
+had fallen into decay, when its reform was undertaken by the wonderful
+theatrical genius of C. Goldoni. One of the most fertile and rapid of
+playwrights (of his 150 comedies 16 were written and acted in a single
+year), he at the same time pursued definite aims as a dramatist.
+Disgusted with the conventional buffoonery, and ashamed of the rampant
+immorality of the Italian comic stage, he drew his characters from real
+life, whether of his native city (Venice)[34] or of society at large,
+and sought to enforce virtuous and pathetic sentiments without
+neglecting the essential objects of his art. Happy and various in his
+choice of themes, and dipping deep into a popular life with which he had
+a genuine sympathy, he produced, besides comedies of general human
+character,[35] plays on subjects drawn from literary biography[36] or
+from fiction.[37] Goldoni, whose style was considered defective by the
+purists whom Italy has at no time lacked, met with a severe critic and a
+temporarily successful rival in Count C. Gozzi (1722-1806), who sought
+to rescue the comic drama from its association with the actual life of
+the middle classes, and to infuse a new spirit into the figures of the
+old masked comedy by the invention of a new species. His themes were
+taken from Neapolitan[38] and Oriental[39] fairy tales, to which he
+accommodated some of the standing figures upon which Goldoni had made
+war. This attempt at mingling fancy and humour--occasionally of a
+directly satirical turn[40]--was in harmony with the tendencies of the
+modern romantic school; and Gozzi's efforts, which though successful
+found hardly any imitators in Italy, have a family resemblance to those
+of Tieck and of some more recent writers whose art wings its flight,
+through the windows, "over the hills and far away."
+
+
+  Comedians after Goldoni.
+
+During the latter part of the 18th and the early years of the 19th
+century comedy continued to follow the course marked out by its
+acknowledged master Goldoni, under the influence of the sentimental
+drama of France and other countries. Abati Andrea Villi, the marquis
+Albergati Capacelli, Antonio Simone Sografi (1760-1825), Federici, and
+Pietro Napoli Signorelli (1731-1815), the historian of the drama, are
+mentioned among the writers of this school; to the 19th century belong
+Count Giraud, Marchisio (who took his subjects especially from
+commercial life), and Nota, a fertile writer, among whose plays are
+three treating the lives of poets. Of still more recent date are L. B.
+Bon and A. Brofferio. At the same time, the comedy of dialect to which
+the example of Goldoni had given sanction in Venice, flourished there as
+well as in the mutually remote spheres of Piedmont and Naples. Quite
+modern developments must remain unnoticed here; but the fact cannot be
+ignored that they signally illustrate the perennial vitality of the
+modern drama in the home of its beginnings. A new realistic style set
+fully in about the middle of the 18th century with P. Ferrari and A.
+Torelli; and though an historical reaction towards classical and
+medieval themes is associated with the names of P. Cossa and G. Giacosa,
+modernism reasserted itself through P. Bracco and other dramatists. It
+should be noted that the influence of great actors, more especially
+Ermete Novelli and Eleanora Duse, must be credited with a large share of
+the success with which the Italian stage has held its own even against
+the foreign influences to which it gave room. And it would seem as if
+even the paradoxical endeavour of the poet Gabrielle d' Annunzio to
+lyricize the drama by ignoring action as its essence were a problem for
+the solution of which the stage can furnish unexpected conditions of its
+own. In any event, both Italian tragedy and Italian comedy have survived
+periods of a seemingly hopeless decline; and the fear has vanished that
+either the opera or the ballet might succeed in ousting from the
+national stage the legitimate forms of the national drama.
+
+
+(b) _Greece._
+
+  Modern Greek and Dalmatian drama.
+
+The dramatic literature of the later Hellenes is a creation of the
+literary movement which preceded their noble struggle for independence,
+or which may be said to form part of that struggle. After beginning with
+dramatic dialogues of a patriotic tendency, it took a step in advance
+with the tragedies of J. R. Nerulos[41] (1778-1850), whose name belongs
+to the political as well as to the literary history of his country. His
+comedies--especially one directed against the excesses of
+journalism[42]--largely contributed to open a literary life for the
+modern Greek tongue. Among the earlier patriotic Greek dramatists of the
+19th century are T. Alkaeos, J. Zampelios (whose tragic style was
+influenced by that of Alfieri),[43] S. K. Karydis and A. Valaoritis. A.
+Zoiros[44] is noteworthy as having introduced the use of prose into
+Greek tragedy, while preserving to it that association with sentiments
+and aspirations which will probably long continue to pervade the chief
+productions of modern Greek literature. The love of the theatre is
+ineradicable from Attic as it is from Italian soil; and the tendencies
+of the young dramatic literature of Hellas which is not wholly absorbed
+in the effort to keep abreast of recent modern developments, seem to
+justify the hope that a worthy future awaits it.
+
+Under Italian influence an interesting dramatic growth attained to some
+vitality in the Dalmatian lands about the beginning of the 16th century,
+where the religious drama, whose days were passing away in Italy, found
+favour with a people with a scant popular literature of its own. At
+Ragusa Italian literary influence had been spread by the followers of
+Petrarch from the later years of the 15th century; here several
+Servo-Croatian writers produced religious plays in the manner of the
+Italian _rappresentazioni_; and a gifted poet, Martin Drzic, composed,
+besides religious plays and farces, a species of pastoral which enjoyed
+much favour.
+
+
+(c) _Spain._
+
+Spain is the only country of modern Europe which shares with England the
+honour of having achieved, at a relatively early date, the creation of a
+genuinely national form of the regular drama. So proper to Spain was the
+form of the drama which she produced and perfected, that to it the term
+_romantic_ has been specifically applied, though so restricted a use of
+the epithet is clearly unjustifiable. The influences which from the
+Romance peoples--in whom Christian and Germanic elements mingled with
+the legacy of Roman law, learning and culture--spread to the Germanic
+nations were represented with the most signal force and fulness in the
+institutions of chivalry,--to which, in the words of Scott, "it was
+peculiar to blend military valour with the strongest passions which
+actuate the human mind, the feelings of devotion and those of love."
+These feelings, in their combined operation upon the national character,
+and in their reflection in the national literature, were not confined to
+Spain; but nowhere did they so long or so late continue to animate the
+moral life of a nation.
+
+Outward causes contributed to this result. For centuries after the
+crusades had become a mere memory, Spain was a battle-ground between the
+Cross and the Crescent. And it was just at the time when the Renaissance
+was establishing new starting-points for the literary progress of
+Europe, that Christian Spain rose to the height of Catholic as well as
+national self-consciousness by the expulsion of the Moors and the
+conquest of the New World. From their rulers or rivals of so many
+centuries the Spaniards derived that rich, if not very varied, glow of
+colour which became permanently distinctive of their national life, and
+more especially of its literary and artistic expressions; they also
+perhaps derived from the same source a not less characteristically
+refined treatment of the passion of love. The ideas of Spanish
+chivalry--more especially religious devotion and a punctilious sense of
+personal honour--asserted themselves (according to a process often
+observable in the history of civilization) with peculiar distinctness in
+literature and art, after the period of great achievements to which they
+had contributed in other fields had come to an end. The ripest glories
+of the Spanish drama belong to an age of national decay--mindful, it is
+true, of the ideas of a greater past. The chivalrous enthusiasm
+pervading so many of the masterpieces of its literature is indeed a
+distinctive feature of the Spanish nation in all, even in the least
+hopeful, periods of its later history; and the religious ardour breathed
+by these works, though associating itself with what is called the
+Catholic Reaction, is in truth only a manifestation of the spirit which
+informed the noblest part of the Reformation movement itself. The
+Spanish drama neither sought nor could seek to emancipate itself from
+views and forms of religious life more than ever sacred to the Spanish
+people since the glorious days of Ferdinand and Isabella; and it is not
+so much in the beginnings as in the great age of Spanish dramatic
+literature that it seems most difficult to distinguish between what is
+to be termed a religious and what a secular play. After Spain had thus,
+the first after England among modern European countries, fully unfolded
+that incomparably richest expression of national life and sentiment in
+an artistic form--a truly national dramatic literature,--the terrible
+decay of her greatness and prosperity gradually impaired the strength of
+a brilliant but, of its nature, dependent growth. In the absence of high
+original genius the Spanish dramatists began to turn to foreign models,
+though little supported in such attempts by popular sympathy; and it is
+only in more recent times that the Spanish drama has sought to reproduce
+the ancient forms from whose masterpieces the nation had never become
+estranged, while accommodating them to tastes and tendencies shared by
+later Spanish literature with that of Europe at large.
+
+
+  Early efforts.
+
+  Gil Vicente.
+
+The earlier dramatic efforts of Spanish literature may without
+inconvenience be briefly dismissed. The reputed author of the _Coplas de
+Mingo Revulgo_ (R. Cota the elder) likewise composed the first act of a
+story of intrigue and character, purely dramatic but not intended for
+representation. This tragic comedy of _Calisto and Meliboea_, which was
+completed (in 21 acts) by 1499, afterwards became famous under the name
+of _Celestina_; it was frequently imitated and translated, and was
+adapted for the Spanish stage by R. de Zepeda in 1582. But the father of
+the Spanish drama was J. de la Enzina, whose _representaciones_ under
+the name of "eclogues" were dramatic dialogues of a religious or
+pastoral character. His attempts were imitated more especially by the
+Portuguese Gil Vicente, whose writings for the stage appear to be
+included in the period 1502-1536, and who wrote both in Spanish and in
+his native tongue. A further impulse came, as was natural, from
+Spaniards resident in Italy, and especially from B. de Torres Naharro,
+who in 1517 published, as the chief among the "firstlings of his genius"
+(_Propaladia_), a series of eight _comedias_--a term generally applied
+in Spanish literature to any kind of drama. He claimed some knowledge of
+the theory of the ancient drama, divided his plays into _jornadas_[45]
+(to correspond to acts), and opened them with an _introyto_ (prologue).
+Very various in their subjects, and occasionally odd in form,[46] they
+were gross as well as audacious in tone, and were soon prohibited by the
+Inquisition. The church remained unwilling to renounce her control over
+such dramatic exhibitions as she permitted, and sought to suppress the
+few plays on not strictly religious subjects which appeared in the early
+part of the reign of Charles I. Though the universities produced both
+translations from the classical drama and modern Latin plays, these
+exercised very little general effect. Juan Perez' (Petreius') posthumous
+Latin comedies were mainly versions of Ariosto.[47]
+
+
+  Lope de Rueda and his followers.
+
+  Classical dramas.
+
+Thus the foundation of the Spanish national theatre was reserved for a
+man of the people. Cervantes has vividly sketched the humble resources
+which were at the command of Lope de Rueda, a mechanic of Seville, who
+with his friend the bookseller Timoneda, and two brother authors and
+actors in his strolling company, succeeded in bringing dramatic
+entertainments out of the churches and palaces into the public places of
+the towns, where they were produced on temporary scaffolds. The manager
+carried about his properties in a corn-sack; and the "comedies" were
+still only "dialogues, and a species of eclogues between two or three
+shepherds and a shepherdess," enlivened at times by intermezzos of
+favourite comic figures, such as the negress or the Biscayan, "played
+with inconceivable talent and truthfulness by Lope." One of his plays at
+least,[48] and one of Timoneda's,[49] seem to have been taken from an
+Italian source; others mingled modern themes with classical
+apparitions,[50] one of Timoneda's was (perhaps again through the
+Italian) from Plautus.[51] Others of a slighter description were called
+_pasos_,--a species afterwards termed _entremeses_ and resembling the
+modern French _proverbes_. With these popular efforts of Lope de Rueda
+and his friends a considerable dramatic activity began in the years
+1560-1590 in several Spanish cities, and before the close of this period
+permanent theatres began to be fitted up at Madrid. Yet Spanish dramatic
+literature might still have been led to follow Italian into an imitation
+of classical models. Two plays by G. Bermudez (1577), called by their
+learned author "the first Spanish tragedies," treating the national
+subject of Inez de Castro, but divided into five acts, composed in
+various metres, and introducing a chorus; a _Dido_ (c. 1580) by C. de
+Virues (who claimed to have first divided dramas into three _jornadas_);
+and the tragedies of L. L. de Argensola (acted 1585, and praised in _Don
+Quixote_) alike represent this tendency.
+
+
+  Cervantes.
+
+Such were the alternatives which had opened for the Spanish drama, when
+at last, about the same time as that of the English, its future was
+determined by writers of original genius. The first of these was the
+immortal Cervantes, who, however, failed to anticipate by his earlier
+plays (1584-1588) the great (though to him unproductive) success of his
+famous romance. In his endeavour to give a poetic character to the drama
+he fell upon the expedient of introducing personified abstractions
+speaking a "divine" or elevated language--a device which was for a time
+favourably received. But these plays exhibit a neglect or ignorance of
+the laws of dramatic construction; their action is episodical; and it is
+from the realism of these episodes (especially in the _Numancia_, which
+is crowded with both figures and incidents), and from the power and flow
+of the declamation, that their effect must have been derived. When in
+his later years (1615) Cervantes returned to dramatic composition, the
+style and form of the national drama had been definitively settled by a
+large number of writers, the brilliant success of whose acknowledged
+chief may previously have diverted Cervantes from his labours for the
+theatre. His influence upon the general progress of dramatic literature
+is, however, to be sought, not only in his plays, but also in those
+_novelas exemplares_--incomparable alike in their clearness and their
+terseness of narrative--to which more than one drama is indebted for its
+plot, and for much of its dialogue to boot.
+
+
+  Lope de Vega.
+
+Lope de Vega, one of the most astonishing geniuses the world has known,
+permanently established the national forms of the Spanish drama. Some of
+these were in their beginnings taken over by him from ruder
+predecessors; some were cultivated with equal or even superior success
+by subsequent authors; but in variety, as in fertility of dramatic
+production, he has no rivals. His fertility, which was such that he
+wrote about 1500 plays, besides 300 dramatic works classed as _autos
+sacramentales_ and _entremeses_, and a vast series of other literary
+compositions, has indisputably prejudiced his reputation with those to
+whom he is but a name and a number. Yet as a dramatist Lope more fully
+exemplifies the capabilities of the Spanish theatre than any of his
+successors, though as a poet Calderon may deserve the palm. Nor would it
+be possible to imagine a truer representative of the Spain of his age
+than a poet who, after suffering the hardships of poverty and exile, and
+the pangs of passion, sailed against the foes of the faith in the
+Invincible Armada, subsequently became a member of the Holy Inquisition
+and of the order of St Francis, and after having been decorated by the
+pope with the cross of Malta and a theological doctorate, honoured by
+the nobility, and idolized by the nation, ended with the names of Jesus
+and Mary on his lips. From the plays of such a writer we may best learn
+the manners and the sentiments, the ideas of religion and honour, of the
+Spain of the Philippine age, the age when she was most prominent in the
+eyes of Europe and most glorious in her own. For, with all its
+inventiveness and vigour, the genius of Lope primarily set itself the
+task of pleasing his public,--the very spirit of whose inner as well as
+outer life is accordingly mirrored in his dramatic works. In them we
+have, in the words of Lope's French translator Baret, "the movement, the
+clamour, the conflict of unforeseen intrigues suitable to unreflecting
+spectators; perpetual flatteries addressed to an unextinguishable
+national pride; the painting of passions dear to a people never tired of
+admiring itself; the absolute sway of the point of honour; the
+deification of revenge; the adoration of symbols; buffoonery and
+burlesque, everywhere beloved of the multitude, but here never defiled
+by obscenities, for this people has a sense of delicacy, and the
+foundation of its character is nobility; lastly, the flow of proverbs
+which at times escape from the _gracioso_" (the comic servant
+domesticated in the Spanish drama by Lope)--"the commonplace literature
+of those who possess no other."
+
+
+  Comedias de capa y espada.
+
+  Heroicas.
+
+  Comedias de santos.
+
+  Autos sacramentales.
+
+  Entremeses.
+
+The plays of Lope, and those of the national Spanish drama in general,
+are divided into classes which it is naturally not always easy, and
+which there is no reason to suppose him always to have intended, to keep
+distinct from one another. After in his early youth composing eclogues,
+pastoral plays, and allegorical moralities in the old style, he began
+his theatrical activity at Madrid about 1590, and the plays which he
+thenceforth produced have been distributed under the following heads.
+The _comedias_, all of which are in verse, include (1) the so-called _c.
+de capa y espada_--not comedies proper, but dramas in which the
+principal personages are taken from the class of society that wears
+cloak and sword. Gallantry is their main theme, an interesting and
+complicated, but well-constructed and perspicuous intrigue their chief
+feature; and this is usually accompanied by an underplot in which the
+_gracioso_ plays his part. Their titles are frequently taken from the
+old proverbs or proverbial phrases of the people[52] upon the theme
+suggested, by which the plays often (as G. H. Lewes admirably expresses
+it) constitute a kind of gloss (_glosa_) in action. This is the
+favourite species of the national Spanish theatre; and to the plots of
+the plays belonging to it the drama of other nations owes a debt almost
+incalculable in extent. (2) The _c. heroicas_ are distinguished by some
+of their personages being of royal or very high rank, and by their
+themes being often historical and largely[53] (though not
+invariably[54]) taken from the national annals, or founded on
+contemporary or recent events.[55] Hence they exhibit a greater gravity
+of tone; but in other respects there is no difference between them and
+the cloak-and-sword comedies with which they share the element of comic
+underplots. Occasionally Lope condescended in the opposite direction, to
+(3) plays of which the scene is laid in common life, but for which no
+special name appears to have existed.[56] Meanwhile, both he and his
+successors were too devoted sons of the church not to acknowledge in
+some sort her claim to influence the national drama. This claim she had
+never relinquished, even when she could no longer retain an absolute
+control over the stage. For a time, indeed, she was able to reassert
+even this; for the exhibition of all secular plays was in 1598
+prohibited by the dying Philip II., and remained so for two years; and
+Lope with his usual facility proceeded to supply religious plays of
+various kinds. After a few dramas on scriptural subjects he turned to
+the legends of the saints; and the _comedias de santos_, of which he
+wrote a great number, became an accepted later Spanish variety of the
+miracle-play. True, however, to the popular instincts of his genius, he
+threw himself with special zeal and success into the composition of
+another kind of religious plays--a development of the Corpus Christi
+pageants, in honour of which all the theatres had to close their doors
+for a month. These were the famous _autos sacramentales_ (i.e. solemn
+"acts" or proceedings in honour of the Sacrament), which were performed
+in the open air by actors who had filled the cars of the sacred
+procession. Of these Lope wrote about 400. These entertainments were
+arranged on a fixed scheme, comprising a prologue in dialogue between
+two or more actors in character (_loa_), a farce (_entremes_), and the
+_auto_ proper, an allegorical scene of religious purport, as an example
+of which Ticknor cites the _Bridge of the World_,--in which the Prince
+of Darkness in vain seeks to defend the bridge against the Knight of the
+Cross, who finally leads the Soul of Man in triumph across it. Not all
+the _entremeses_ of Lope and others were, however, composed for
+insertion in these _autos_. This long-lived popular species, together
+with the old kind of dramatic dialogue called _eclogues_, completes the
+list of the varieties of his dramatic works.
+
+
+  The school of Lope.
+
+The example of Lope was followed by a large number of writers, and Spain
+thus rapidly became possessed of a dramatic literature almost
+unparalleled in quantity--for in fertility also Lope was but the first
+among many. Among the writers of Lope's school, his friend G. de Castro
+(1569-1631) must not be passed by, for his _Cid_[57] was the basis of
+Corneille's; nor J. P. de Montalban, "the first-born of Lope's genius,"
+the extravagance of whose imagination, like that of Lee, culminated in
+madness. Soon after him died (1639) Juan Ruiz de Alarcon, in whose
+plays, as contrasted with those of Lope, has been recognized the
+distinctive element of a moral purpose. To G. Tellez, called Tirso de
+Molina (d. 1648), no similar praise seems due; but the frivolous gaiety
+of the inventor of the complete character of Don Juan was accompanied by
+ingenuity in the construction of his excellent[58] though at times
+"sensational"[59] plots. F. de Rojas Zorrilla (b. 1607), who was largely
+plundered by the French dramatists of the latter half of the century,
+survived Molina for about a generation. In vain scholars of strictly
+classical tastes protested in essays in prose and verse against the
+ascendancy of the popular drama; the prohibition of Philip II. had been
+recalled two years after his death and was never renewed; and the
+activity of the theatre spread through the towns and villages of the
+land, everywhere under the controlling influence of the school of
+writers who had established so complete a harmony between the drama and
+the tastes and tendencies of the people.
+
+
+  Calderon.
+
+The glories of Spanish dramatic literature reached their height in P.
+Calderon de la Barca, though in the history of the Spanish theatre he
+holds only the second place. He elaborated some of the forms of the
+national drama, but brought about no changes of moment in any of them.
+Even the brilliancy of his style, glittering with a constant
+reproduction of the same family of tropes, and the variety of his
+melodious versification, are mere intensifications of the poetic
+qualities of Lope, while in their moral and religious sentiments, and
+their general views of history and society, there is no difference
+between the two. Like Lope, Calderon was a soldier in his youth and an
+ecclesiastic in his later years; like his senior, he suited himself to
+the tastes of both court and people, and applied his genius with equal
+facility to the treatment of religious and of secular themes. In
+fertility Calderon was inferior to Lope (for he wrote not many more than
+100 plays); but he surpasses the elder poet in richness of style, and
+more especially in fire of imagination. In his _autos_ (of which he is
+said to have left not less than 73), Calderon probably attained to his
+most distinctive excellence; some of these appear to take a wide range
+of allegorical invention,[60] while they uniformly possess great beauty
+of poetical detail. Other of his most famous or interesting pieces are
+_comedias de santos_.[61] In his secular plays he treats as wide a
+variety of subjects as Lope, but it is not a dissimilar variety; nor
+would it be easy to decide whether a poet so uniformly admirable within
+his limits has achieved greater success in romantic historical
+tragedy,[62] in the comedy of amorous intrigue,[63] or in a dramatic
+work combining fancy and artificiality in such a degree that it has been
+diversely described as a romantic caprice and as a philosophical
+poem.[64]
+
+
+  Contemporaries of Calderon.
+
+  Moreto and the comedia de figuron.
+
+During the life of the second great master of the Spanish drama there
+was little apparent abatement in the productivity of its literature;
+while the _autos_ continued to flourish in Madrid and elsewhere, till in
+1765 (shortly before the expulsion of the Jesuits from Spain) their
+public representation was prohibited by royal decree. In the world of
+fashion, the opera had reached Spain already during Calderon's lifetime,
+together with other French influences, and the great dramatist had
+himself written one or two of his plays for performance with music. But
+the regular national drama continued to command popular favour, and with
+A. Moreto may be said to have actually taken a step in advance. While he
+wrote in all the forms established by Lope and cultivated by Calderon,
+his manner seems most nearly to approach the masterpieces of French and
+later English comedy of character; he was the earliest writer of the
+_comedias de figuron_, in which the most prominent personage is (in
+Congreve's phrase) "a character of affectation," in other words, the
+Spanish fop of real life.[65] His masterpiece, a favourite of many
+stages, is one of the most graceful and pleasing of modern
+comedies--simple but interesting in plot, and true to nature, with
+something like Shakespearian truth.[66] Other writers trod more closely
+in the footsteps of the masters without effecting any noticeable changes
+in the form of the Spanish drama; even the _saynete_ (tit-bit), which
+owes its name to Benavente (fl. 1645), was only a kind of _entremes_.
+The Spanish drama in all its forms retained its command over the nation,
+because they were alike popular in origin and character; nor is there
+any other example of so complete an adaptation of a national art to the
+national taste and sentiment in its ethics and aesthetics, in the nature
+of the plots of the plays (whatever their origin), in the motives of
+their actions, in the conduct and tone and in the very costume of their
+characters.
+
+
+  Decay of the national Spanish drama.
+
+  The French school of the 18th century.
+
+  Other later dramatists.
+
+National as it was, and because of this very quality, the Spanish drama
+was fated to share the lot of the people it so fully represented. At the
+end of the 17th century, when the Spanish throne at last became the
+declared apple of discord among the governments of Europe, the Spanish
+people lay, in the words of an historian of its later days, "like a
+corpse, incapable of feeling its own impotence." That national art to
+which it had so faithfully clung had fallen into decline and decay with
+the spirit of Spain itself. By the time of the close of the great war,
+the theatre had sunk into a mere amusement of the populace, which during
+the greater part of the 18th century, while allowing the old masters the
+measure of favour which accords with traditional esteem, continued to
+uphold the representatives of the old drama in its degeneracy--authors on
+the level of their audiences. But the Spanish court was now French, and
+in the drama, even more than in any other form of art, France was the
+arbiter of taste in Europe. With the restoration of peace accordingly
+began isolated attempts to impose the French canons of dramatic theory,
+and to follow the example of French dramatic practice; and in the middle
+of the century these endeavours assumed more definite form. Montiano's
+bloodless tragedy of _Virginia_ (1750), which was never acted, was
+accompanied by a discourse endeavouring to reconcile the doctrines of the
+author with the practice of the old Spanish dramatists; the play itself
+was in blank verse (a metre never used by Calderon, though occasionally
+by Lope), instead of the old national ballad-measures (the
+romance-measure with assonance and the rhymed _redondilla_ quatrain)
+preferred by the old masters among the variety of metres employed by
+them. The earliest Spanish comedy in the French form (a translation only,
+though written in the national metre)[67] (1751), and the first original
+Spanish comedy on the same model, Nicolas Moratin's _Petimetra_
+(_Petite-Maitresse_), printed in 1726 with a critical dissertation,
+likewise remained unacted. In 1770, however, the same author's
+_Hormesinda_, an historic drama on a national theme and in the national
+metre, but adhering to the French rules, appeared on the stage; and
+similar attempts followed in tragedy by the same writer and others
+(including Ayala, who ventured in 1775 to compete with Cervantes on the
+theme of Numantia), and in comedy by Iriarte and Jovellanos (afterwards
+minister under Godoy), who produced a sentimental comedy in Diderot's
+manner.[68] But these endeavours failed to effect any change in the
+popular theatre, which was with more success raised from its deepest
+degradation by R. de la Cruz, a fertile author of light pieces of genuine
+humour, especially _saynetes_, depicting the manners of the middle and
+lower classes. In literary circles Garcia de la Huerta's voluminous
+collection of the old plays (1785) gave a new impulse to dramatic
+productivity, and the conflict continued between representatives of the
+old school, such as Luciano Francisco Comella (1716-1779) and of the new,
+such as the younger Moratin, whose comedies--of which the last and most
+successful[69] was in prose--raised him to the foremost position among
+the dramatists of his age. In tragedy N. de Cienfuegos likewise showed
+some originality. After, however, the troubles of the French domination
+and the war had come to an end, the precepts and examples of the new
+school failed to reassert themselves.
+
+Already in 1815 an active critical controversy was carried on by Buhl de
+Faber against the efforts of J. Faber and Alcala Galiano to uphold the
+principles of classicism; and with the aid of the eminent actor Maiquez
+the old romantic masterpieces were easily reinstated in the public
+favour, which as a matter of fact they had never forfeited. The Spanish
+dramatists of the 19th century, after passing, as in the instance of F.
+Martinez de la Rosa and Breton de los Herreros, from the system of
+French comedy to the manner of the national drama, appear either to have
+stood under the influence of the French romantic school, or to have
+returned once more to the old Spanish models. Among the former class A.
+Gil y Zarate, of the latter J. Zorrilla, are mentioned as specially
+prominent. The most renowned Spanish dramatist at the opening of the
+20th century was the veteran politician and man of letters J. Echegaray.
+
+Meanwhile, the old religious performances are not wholly extinct in
+Spain, and the relics of the solemn pageantry with which they were
+associated may long continue to survive there, as in the case of the
+_pasos_, which claim to have been exhibited in Holy Week at Seville for
+at least three centuries. As to the theatre itself, there can be no fear
+either that the imitation of foreign examples will satisfy Spanish
+dramatists--especially when, like the author of _Dona Perfecta_ (Perez
+Galdos), they have excellent home material of their own for
+adaptation,--or that the Spanish public itself, with fine actors and
+actresses still upholding the lofty traditions of the national drama,
+will remain too fatigued to consume the drama unless bit by bit--in the
+shape of _zarzuelas_ and similar one-act confections. Whatever may be
+the future of one of the noblest of modern dramatic literatures, it may
+confidently be predicted that, so long as Spain is Spain, her theatre
+will not be permanently either denationalized or degraded.
+
+
+(d) _Portugal._
+
+  The Portuguese drama.
+
+The Portuguese drama in its earlier phases, especially before in the
+latter part of the 14th century the nation completely achieved its
+independence, seems to have followed much the same course as the
+Spanish; and the religious drama in all its prevailing forms and direct
+outgrowths retained its popularity even by the side of the products of
+the Renaissance. In the later period of that movement translations of
+classical dramas into the vernacular were stimulated by the cosmopolitan
+example of George Buchanan, who for a time held a post in the university
+of Coimbra; to this class of play Teive's _Johannes_ (1553) may be
+supposed to have belonged. In the next generation Antonio Ferreira[70]
+and others still wrote comedies more or less on the classical model. But
+the rather vague title of "the Plautus of Portugal" is accorded to an
+earlier comic writer, the celebrated Gil Vicente, who died about 1536,
+after, it is stated, producing forty-two plays. He was the founder of
+popular Portuguese comedy, and his plays were called _autos_, or by the
+common name of _praticas_.[71] Among his most gifted successors are
+mentioned A. Ribeiro, called _Chiado_ (the mocking-bird), who died in
+1590;[72] his brother Jeronymo, B. Dias, A. Pires, J. Pinto, H. Lopes
+and others. The dramatic efforts of the illustrious poet Luis de Camoes
+(Camoens) are relatively of slight importance; they consist of one of
+the many modern versions of the _Amphitruo_, and of two other comedies,
+of which the earlier (_Filodemo_) was acted at Goa in 1553, the subjects
+having a romantic colour.[73] Of greater importance were the
+contributions to dramatic literature of F. de Sa de Miranda, who, being
+well acquainted with both Spanish and Italian life, sought early in his
+career to domesticate the Italian comedy of intrigue on the Portuguese
+stage;[74] but he failed to carry with him the public taste, which
+preferred the _autos_ of Gil Vicente. The followers of Miranda were,
+however, more successful than he had been himself, among them the
+already-mentioned Antonio Ferreira; the prose plays of Jorge Ferreira de
+Vasconcellos, which bear some resemblance to the Spanish _Celestina_,
+are valuable as pictures of contemporary manners in city and court.[75]
+
+The later Portuguese dramatic literature seems also to have passed
+through phases corresponding to those of the Spanish, though with
+special features of its own. In the 18th century Alcino Mycenio
+(1728-1770), known as Domingos dos Reis Quito in everyday life, in which
+his avocation was that of Allan Ramsay, was remarkably successful with a
+series of plays,[76] including of course an _Inez de Castro_, which in a
+subsequent adaptation by J. B. Gomes long held the national stage.
+Another dramatist, of both merit and higher aspirations, was Lycidas
+Cynthio (_alias_ Manoel de Figueiredo, 1725-1801).[77] But the romantic
+movement was very late in coming to Portugal. Curiously enough, one of
+its chief representatives, the viscount da Almeida Garrett, exhibited
+his sympathy with French, revolutionary and anti-English ideas by a
+tragedy on the subject of Cato;[78] but his later works were mainly on
+national subjects.[79] The expansive tendencies of later Portuguese
+dramatic literature are illustrated by the translations of A. F. de
+Castilho, who even ventured upon Goethe's _Faust_ (1872). Among
+19th-century dramatists are to be noted Pereira da Cunha, R. Cordeiro,
+E. Biester, L. Palmeirin, and Garrett's disciple F. G. de Amorim, by
+whom both political and social themes have been freely treated. The
+reaction against romanticism observable in Portuguese poetic literature
+can hardly fail to affect (or perhaps has already affected) the growth
+of the national drama; for the receptive qualities of both are not less
+striking than the productive.
+
+
+(e) _France._
+
+  The French regular drama.
+
+France was the only country, besides Italy, in which classical tragedy
+was naturalized. In 1531 the Benedictine Barthelemy of Loches printed a
+_Christus Xylonicus_; and a very notable impulse was given both to the
+translation and to the imitation of ancient models by a series of
+efforts made in the university of Paris and other French places of
+learning. The most successful of these attempts was the _Johannes
+Baptistes_ of George Buchanan, who taught in Paris for five years and at
+a rather later date resided at Bordeaux, where in 1540 he composed this
+celebrated tragedy (afterwards translated into four or five modern
+languages), in which it is now ascertained that he had in view the trial
+and condemnation of Sir Thomas More. He also wrote _Jephthah_, and
+translated into Latin the _Medea_ and _Alcestis_ of Euripides. At a
+rather later date the great scholar M. A. Muret (Muretus) produced his
+_Julius Caesar_, a work perhaps superior in correctness to Buchanan's
+tragic masterpiece, but inferior to it in likeness to life. About the
+same time the enthusiasm of the Paris classicists showed itself in
+several translations of Sophoclean and Euripidean tragedies into French
+verse.[80]
+
+
+  Jodelle.
+
+Thus the beginnings of the regular drama in France, which, without
+absolutely determining, potently swayed its entire course, came to
+connect themselves directly with the great literary movement of the
+Renaissance. Du Bellay sounded the note of attack which converted that
+movement in France into an endeavour to transform the national
+literature; and in Ronsard the classical school of poetry put forward
+its conquering hero and sovereign lawgiver. Among the disciples who
+gathered round Ronsard, and with him formed the "Pleiad" of French
+literature, Etienne Jodelle, the reformer of the French theatre, soon
+held a distinguished place. The stage of this period left ample room for
+the enterprise of this youthful writer. The popularity of the old
+entertainments had reached its height when Louis XII., in his conflict
+with Pope Julius II., had not scrupled to call in the aid of Pierre
+Gringoire (Gringon), and when the _Mere sotte_ had mockingly masqueraded
+in the petticoats of Holy Church. In the reign of Francis I. the
+Inquisition, and on occasion the king himself, had to some extent
+succeeded in repressing the audacity of the actors, whose follies were
+at the same time an utter abomination in the eyes of the Huguenots. For
+a time the very mysteries of the Brethren of the Passion had been
+prohibited; while the moralities and farces had sunk to an almost
+contemptible level. Yet to this reign belong the contributions to
+farce-literature of three writers so distinguished as Rabelais
+(non-extant), Clement Marot and Queen Margaret of Navarre. Meanwhile
+isolated translations of Italian[81] as well as classical dramas had in
+literature begun the movement which Jodelle now transferred to the stage
+itself. His tragedy _Cleopatre captive_ was produced there on the same
+day as his comedy _L'Eugene_, in 1552, his _Didon se sacrifiant_
+following in 1558. Thus at a time when a national theatre was perhaps
+impossible in a country distracted by civil and religious conflicts,
+whose monarchy had not yet welded together a number of provinces
+attached each to its own traditions, and whose population, especially in
+the capital, was enervated by frivolity or enslaved by fanaticism, was
+born that long-lived artificial growth, the so-called classical tragedy
+of France. For French comedy, though subjected to the same influences as
+tragedy, had a national basis upon which to proceed, and its history is
+partly that of a modification of old popular forms.
+
+
+  French tragedy in the 16th century.
+
+The history of French tragedy begins with the _Cleopatre captive_, in
+the representation of which the author, together with other members of
+the "Pleiad," took part. It is a tragedy in the manner of Seneca, devoid
+of action and provided with a ghost and a chorus. Though mainly written
+in the five-foot Iambic couplet, it already contains passages in the
+Alexandrine metre, which soon afterwards J. de La Peruse by his _Medee_
+(pr. 1556) established in French tragedy, and which Jodelle employed in
+his _Didon_. Numerous tragedies followed in the same style by various
+authors, among whom Gabriel Bounyn produced the first French regular
+tragedy on a subject neither Greek nor Roman,[82] and the brothers de la
+Taille,[83] and J. Grevin,[84] distinguished themselves by their style.
+In the reign of Charles IX. a vain attempt was made by Nicolas Filleul
+to introduce the pastoral style of the Italians into French tragedy;[85]
+and the Brotherhood of the Passion was intermingling with pastoral plays
+its still continued reproductions of the old entertainments, and the
+religious drama making its expiring efforts, among which T. Le Coq's
+interesting mystery of _Cain_ (1580) should be noted. Beza's _Abraham
+sacrifiant_ (1550), J. de Coignac's _Goliath_ (dedicated to Edward VI.),
+Rivandeau's _Haman_ (1561), belong to a group of Biblical tragedies,
+inspired by Calvinist influences. But these more and more approached to
+the examples of the classical school, which, in spite of all
+difficulties and rivalries, prevailed. Among its followers Montchretien
+exhibited unusual vigour of rhetoric,[86] and in R. Garnier French
+tragedy reached the greatest height in nobility and dignity of style, as
+well as in the exhibition of dramatic passion, to which it attained
+before Corneille. In his tragedies[87] choruses are still interspersed
+among the long Alexandrine tirades of the dialogue.
+
+
+  Comedy under Italian influence.
+
+During this period comedy had likewise been influenced by classical
+models; but the distance was less between the national farces and
+Terence, than between the mysteries and moralities, and Seneca and the
+Greeks. _L'Eugene_ differs little in style from the more elaborate of
+the old farces; and while it satirizes the foibles of the clergy without
+any appreciable abatement of the old licence, its theme is the favourite
+burden of the French comic theatre in all times--_le cocuage_. The
+examples, however, which directly facilitated the productivity of the
+French comic dramatists of this period, among whom Jean de la Taille was
+the first to attempt a regular comedy in prose,[88] were those of the
+Italian stage, which in 1576 established a permanent colony in France,
+destined to survive there till the close of the 17th century, by which
+time it had adopted the French language, and was ready to coalesce with
+French actors, without, however, relinquishing all remembrance of its
+origin. R. Belleau, a member of the "Pleiad," produced a comedy in which
+the type (already approached by Jodelle) of the swaggering captain
+appears,[89] J. Grevin copied Italian intrigue, characters and
+manners;[90] O. de Turnebe (d. 1581) borrowed the title of one Italian
+play[91] and perhaps parts of the plots of others; the Florentine F.
+d'Amboise (d. 1558) produced versions of two Italian comedies;[92] and
+the foremost French comic poet of the century, P. de Larivey, likewise
+an Italian born (of the name of Pietro Giunto), openly professed to
+imitate the poets of his native country. His plays are more or less
+literal translations of L. Dolce,[93] Secchi[94] and other Italian
+dramatists; and this lively and witty author, to whom Moliere owes much,
+thus connects two of the most important and successful growths of the
+modern comic drama.
+
+The close conjunction between the history of a living dramatic
+literature and that of the theatre can least of all be ignored in the
+case of France, where the actor's art has gone through so ample an
+evolution, and where the theatre has so long and continuously formed an
+important part of the national life. By the middle of the 16th century
+not only had theatrical representations, now quite emancipated from
+clerical control, here and there already become matters of speculation
+and business, but the acting profession was beginning to organize itself
+as such; strolling companies of actors had become a more or less
+frequent experience; and the attitude of the church and of civic
+respectability were once more coming to be systematically hostile to the
+stage and its representatives.
+
+
+  French tragedy and comedy in the 17th century before Corneille.
+
+Before, however, either tragedy or comedy in France entered into the
+period of their history when genius was to illuminate both of them with
+creations of undying merit, and before the theatre had associated itself
+enduringly with the artistic and literary divisions of court and society
+and the people at large, the country had passed through a new phase of
+the national life. When the troubles and terrors of the great civil and
+religious wars of the 16th century were over at last, they were found to
+have produced a reaction towards culture and refinement which spread
+from certain spheres of society whose influence was for a time
+prevailing. The seal had been set upon the results of the Renaissance by
+Malherbe, the father of French style. The masses meanwhile continued to
+solace or distract their weariness and their sufferings with the help of
+the accredited ministers of that half-cynical gaiety which has always
+lighted up the darkest hours of French popular life. In the troublous
+days preceding Richelieu's definitive accession to power (1624), the
+_tabarinades_--a kind of street dialogue recalling the earliest days of
+the popular drama--had made the Pont-Neuf the favourite theatre of the
+Parisian populace. Meanwhile the influence of Spain, which Henry IV. had
+overcome in politics, had throughout his reign and afterwards been
+predominant in other spheres, and not the least in that of literature.
+The _stilo culto_, of which Gongora was the native Spanish, Marino the
+Italian, and Lyly the English representative, asserted its dominion over
+the favourite authors of French society; the pastoral romance of Honore
+d'Urfe--the text-book of pseudo-pastoral gallantry--was the parent of
+the romances of the Scuderys, de La Calprenede and Mme de La Fayette;
+the Hotel de Rambouillet was in its glory; the true (not the false)
+_precieuses_ sat on the heights of intellectual society; and J. L. G. de
+Balzac (ridiculed in the earliest French dramatic parody)[95] and
+Voiture were the dictators of its literature. Much of the French drama
+of this age is of the same kind as its romance-literature, like which it
+fell under the polite castigation of Boileau's satire. Heroic love
+(quite a technical passion), "fertile in tender sentiments," seized hold
+of the theatre as well as of the romances; and La Calprenede, G. de
+Scudery[96] and his sister and others were equally fashionable in both
+species. The Gascon Cyrano de Bergerac, though not altogether
+insignificant as a dramatist,[97] gained his chief literary reputation
+by a Rabelaisian fiction. Meanwhile, Spanish and Italian models
+continued to influence both branches of the drama. Everybody knew by
+heart Gongora's version of the story of "young Pyramus and his love
+Thisbe," as dramatized by Th. Viaud (1590-1626); and the sentiment of
+Tristan[98] (1601-1655) overpowered Herod on the stage, and drew tears
+from Cardinal Richelieu in the audience. J. Mairet was noted for
+superior vigour.[99] P. Du Ryer's style is described as, while otherwise
+superior to that of his contemporaries, Italian in its defects. A
+mixture of the forms of classical comedy with elements of Spanish and of
+the Italian pastoral was attempted with great temporary success by A.
+Hardy, a playwright who thanked Heaven that he knew the precepts of his
+art while preferring to follow the demands of his trade. The mixture of
+styles begun by him was carried on by the marquis de Racan,[100] J. de
+Rotrou and others; and among these comedies of intrigue in the Spanish
+manner the earliest efforts of Corneille himself[101] are to be classed.
+Rotrou's noteworthier productions[102] are later in date than the event
+which marks an epoch in the history of the French drama, the appearance
+of Corneille's _Cid_ (1636).
+
+
+  Corneille.
+
+P. Corneille is justly revered as the first, and in some respects the
+unequalled, great master of French tragedy, whatever may have been
+unsound in his theories, or defective in his practice. The attempts of
+his predecessors had been without life, because they lacked really
+tragic characters and the play of really tragic passions; while their
+style had been either pedantically imitative or a medley of plagiarisms.
+He conquered tragedy at once for the national theatre and for the
+national literature--and this, not by a long tentative process of
+production, but by a few masterpieces, which may be held to be
+comprehended within the ten years 1636 to 1646; for in his many later
+tragedies he never again proved fully equal to himself. The French
+tragedy, of which the great age begins with the _Cid_, _Horace_,
+_Cinna_, _Polyeucte_ and _Rodogune_, was not, whatever it professed to
+be, a copy of the classical tragedy of Greeks or Romans, or an imitation
+of the Italian imitations of these; nor, though in his later tragedies
+Corneille depended less and less upon characters, and more and more,
+after the fashion of the Spaniards, upon situations, and even upon
+spectacle, were the forms of the Spanish drama able to assert their
+dominion over the French tragic stage. The mould of French tragedy was
+cast by Corneille; but the creative power of his genius was unable to
+fill it with more than a few examples. His range of passions and
+characters was limited; he preferred, he said, the reproach of having
+made his women too heroic to that of having made his men effeminate. His
+actions inclined too much to the exhibition of conflicts political
+rather than broadly ethical in their significance. The defects of his
+style are of less moment; but in this, as in other respects, he was,
+with all his strength and brilliancy, not one of those rarest of artists
+who are at the same time the example and the despair of their
+successors. The _examens_ which he printed of all his plays up to 1660
+show how much self-criticism (though it may not always be as in this
+case conscious) contributes to the true fertility of genius.
+
+In comedy also Corneille begins the first great original epoch of French
+dramatic literature; for it was to him that Moliere owed the inspiration
+of the tone and style which he made those of the higher forms of French
+comedy. But _Le Menteur_ (the parent, with its sequel, of a numerous
+dramatic progeny[103]) was itself derived from a Spanish original,[104]
+which it did not (as was the case with the _Cid_) transform into
+something new. French tragi-comedy Corneille can hardly be said to have
+invented;[105] and of the mongrel growths of sentimental comedy and of
+domestic drama or _drame_, he rather suggested than exemplified the
+conditions.
+
+
+  Racine.
+
+The tragic art of Racine supplements rather than surpasses that of his
+older contemporary. His works reflect the serene and settled formality
+of an age in which the sun of monarchy shone with an effulgence no
+clouds seemed capable of obscuring, and in which the life of a nation
+seemed reducible to the surroundings of a court. The tone of the poetic
+literature of such an age is not necessarily unreal, because the range
+of its ideas is limited, and because its forms seem to exist by an
+immutable authority. That Racine should permanently hold the position
+which belongs to him in French dramatic literature is due to the fact
+that to him it was given to present these forms--the forms approved by
+his age--in what may reasonably be called perfection; and, from the
+point of view of workmanship, Sophocles could not have achieved more.
+What his plays contain is another question. They suit themselves so well
+to the successive phases in the life of Louis XIV., that Madame de
+Sevigne described Racine as having in his later years loved God as he
+had formerly loved his mistresses; and this sally at all events
+indicates the range of passions which inspired his tragic muse. His
+heroes are all of one type--that of a gracious gloriousness; his
+heroines vary in their fortunes, but they are all the "trophies of
+love,"[106] with the exception of the scriptural figures, which stand
+apart from the rest.[107] T. Corneille, Campistron, Joseph Duche
+(1668-1704), Antoin de Lafosse (c. 1653-1708) and Quinault were mere
+followers of one or both of the great masters of tragedy, though the
+last named achieved a reputation of his own in the bastard species of
+the opera.
+
+
+  Characteristics of French classical tragedy.
+
+The type of French tragedy thus established, like everything else which
+formed part of the "age of Louis XIV.," proclaimed itself as the
+definitively settled model of its kind, and was accepted as such by a
+submissive world. Proud of its self-imposed fetters, French tragedy
+dictatorially denied the liberty of which it had deprived itself to the
+art of which it claimed to furnish the highest examples. Yet, though
+calling itself classical, it had not caught the essential spirit of the
+tragedy of the Greeks. The elevation of tone which characterizes the
+serious drama of the age of Louis XIV. is a true elevation, but its
+heights do not lose themselves in a sphere peopled by the myths of a
+national religion, still less in the region of great thoughts which ask
+Heaven to stoop to the aspirations and the failures of man. The
+personages of this drama are conventional like its themes, but the
+convention is with itself only; Orestes and Iphigenia have not brought
+with them the cries of the stern goddesses and the flame on the altar of
+Artemis; their passions like their speech are cadenced by a modern
+measure. In construction, the simplicity and regularity of the ancient
+models are stereotyped into a rigid etiquette by the exigencies of the
+court-theatre, which is but an apartment of the palace. The unities of
+time and place, with the Greeks mere rules of convenience, French
+tragedy imposes upon itself as a permanent yoke. The Euripidean prologue
+is judiciously exchanged for the exposition of the first act, and the
+lyrical element essential to Greek tragedy is easily suppressed in its
+would-be copy; lyrical passages still occur in some of Corneille's early
+masterpieces,[108] but the chorus is consistently banished, to reappear
+only in Racine's latest works[109] as a scholastic experiment
+appropriate to a conventual atmosphere. Its uses for explanation and
+comment are served by the expedient, which in its turn becomes
+conventional, of the conversations with _confidants_ and _confidantes_,
+which more than sufficiently supply the foil of general sentiments. The
+epical element is allowed full play in narrative passages, more
+especially in those which relate parts of the catastrophe,[110] and,
+while preserving the stage intact from realisms, suit themselves to the
+generally rhetorical character of this species of the tragic drama. This
+character impressed itself more and more upon the tragic art of a
+rhetorical nation in an age when the loftiest themes were in the pulpit
+receiving the most artistic oratorical treatment, and developed in the
+style of French classical tragedy the qualities which cause it to become
+something between prose and poetry--or to appear (in the phrase of a
+French critic) like prose in full dress. The force of this description
+is borne out by the fact that the distinction between the versification
+of French tragedy and that of French comedy seems at times
+imperceptible.
+
+
+  Voltaire.
+
+The universal genius of Voltaire found it necessary to shine in all
+branches of literature, and in tragedy to surpass predecessors whom his
+own authority declared to have surpassed the efforts of the Attic muse.
+He succeeded in impressing the world with the belief that his
+innovations had imparted a fresh vitality to French tragedy; in truth,
+however, they represent no essential advance in art, but rather
+augmented the rhetorical tendency which paralyses true dramatic life.
+Such life as his plays possess lies in their political and social
+sentiments, their invective against tyranny,[111] and their exposure of
+fanaticism.[112] In other respects his versatility was barren of
+enduring results. He might take his themes from French history,[113] or
+from Chinese,[114] or Egyptian,[115] or Syrian,[116] from the days of
+the Epigoni[117] or from those of the Crusades;[118] he might appreciate
+Shakespeare, with a more or less partial comprehension of his strength,
+and condescendingly borrow from and improve the barbarian.[119] But he
+added nothing to French tragedy where it was weakest--in character; and
+where it was strongest--in diction--he never equalled Corneille in fire
+or Racine in refinement. While the criticism to which French tragedy in
+this age at last began to be subjected has left unimpaired the real
+titles to immortality of its great masters, the French theatre itself
+has all but buried in respectful oblivion the dramatic works bearing the
+name of Voltaire--a name persistently belittled, but second to none in
+the history of modern progress and of modern civilization.
+
+
+  French classical tragedy in its decline.
+
+As it is of relatively little interest to note the ramifications of an
+art in its decline, the contrasts need not be pursued among the
+contemporaries of Voltaire, between his imitator Bernard Joseph Saurin
+(1706-1781), Saurin's royalist rival de Belloy, Racine's imitator
+Lagrange-Chancel and Voltaire's own would-be rival, the "terrible"
+Crebillon the elder, who professed to vindicate to French tragedy,
+already mistress of the heavens through Corneille, and of the earth
+through Racine, Pluto's supplementary realm, but who, though thus
+essaying to carry tragedy lower, failed to carry it farther. In the
+latter part of the 18th century French classical tragedy as a literary
+growth was dying a slow death, however numerous might be the leaves
+which sprouted from the decaying tree. Its form had been permanently
+fixed; and even Shakespeare, as manipulated by Ducis[120]--an author
+whose tastes were better than his times--failed to bring about a change.
+"It is a Moor, not a Frenchman, who has written this play," cried a
+spectator of Ducis' _Othello_ (1791); but Talma's conviction was almost
+as strong as his capacity was great for convincing his public; and he
+certainly did much to prepare the influence which Shakespeare was
+gradually to assert over the French drama, and which was aided by
+translations, more especially that of Pierre Letourneur (1736-1788),
+which had attracted the sympathy of Diderot and the execrations of the
+aged Voltaire.[121] Meanwhile, the command which classical French
+tragedy continued to assert over the stage was due in part, no doubt, to
+the love of Roman drapery--not always abundant, but always in the grand
+style--which characterized the Revolution, and which was by the
+Revolution handed down to the Empire. It was likewise, and more
+signally, due to the great actors who freed the tragic stage from much
+of its artificiality and animated it by their genius. No great artist
+has ever more generously estimated the labours of a predecessor than
+Talma judged those of Le Kain; but it was Talma himself whose genius was
+pre-eminently fitted to reproduce the great figures of antiquity in the
+mimic world, which, like the world outside, both required and possessed
+its Caesar. He, like Rachel after him, reconciled French classical
+tragedy with nature; and it is upon the art of great original actors
+such as these that the theatrical future of this form of the drama in
+France depends. Mere whims of fashion--even when inspired by political
+feeling--will not waft back to it a real popularity; nor will occasional
+literary aftergrowths, however meritorious, such as the admirable
+_Lucrece_ of F. Ponsard and the attempts of even more recent writers,
+suffice to re-establish a living union between it and the progress of
+the national literature.
+
+
+  Comedy.
+
+  Moliere.
+
+The rival influences under which classical tragedy has after a long
+struggle virtually become a thing of the past in French literature are
+also to be traced in the history of French comedy, which under the
+co-operation of other influences produced a wide variety of growths. The
+germs of most of these--though not of all--are to be found in the works
+of the most versatile, the most sure-footed, and, in some respects, the
+most consummate master of the comic drama whom the world has
+known--Moliere. What Moliere found in existence was a comedy of
+intrigue, derived from Spanish or Italian examples, and the elements of
+a comedy of character, in French and more especially in Italian farce
+and ballet-pantomime. Corneille's _Menteur_ had pointed the way to a
+fuller combination of character with intrigue, and in this direction
+Moliere's genius exercised the height of its creative powers. After
+beginning with farces, he produced in the earliest of his plays (from
+1652), of which more than fragments remain, comedies of intrigue which
+are at the same time marvellously lively pictures of manners, and then
+proceeded, with the _Ecole des maris_ (1661), to begin a long series of
+masterpieces of comedy of character. Yet even these, the chief of which
+are altogether unrivalled in dramatic literature, do not exhaust the
+variety of his productions. To define the range of his art is as
+difficult as to express in words the essence of his genius. For though
+he has been copied ever since he wrote, neither his spirit nor his
+manner has descended in full to any of his copyists, whole schools of
+whom have missed elements of both. A Moliere can only be judged in his
+relations to the history of comedy at large. He was indeed the inheritor
+of many forms and styles--remaining a stranger to those of Old Attic
+comedy only, rooted as it was in the political life of a free imperial
+city; though even the rich extravagances of Aristophanes' burlesque was
+not left wholly unreproduced by him. Moliere is both a satirist and a
+humorist; he displays at times the sentiments of a loyal courtier, at
+others that gay spirit of opposition which is all but indispensable to a
+popular French wit. His comedies offer elaborate and subtle--even
+tender--pictures of human character in its eternal types, lively
+sketches of social follies and literary extravagances, and broad appeals
+to the ordinary sources of vulgar merriment. Light and perspicuous in
+construction, he is master of the delicate play of irony, the
+penetrating force of wit, and the expansive gaiety of frolicsome fun.
+Faithful to the canons of artistic taste, and under the sure guidance of
+true natural humour, his style suits itself to every species attempted
+by him. His morality is the reverse of rigid, but its aberrations are
+not those of prurience, nor its laws those of pretence; and, wholly free
+as he was from the didactic aim which is foreign to all true dramatic
+representation, the services rendered by him to his art are not the less
+services rendered to society, concerning which the laughter of genuine
+comedy tells the truth. He raised the comedy of character out of the
+lower sphere of caricature, and in his greatest creations subordinated
+to the highest ends of all dramatic composition the plots he so
+skilfully built, and the pictures of the manners he so faithfully
+reproduced.
+
+
+  Moliere's contemporaries and successors.
+
+Even among the French comic dramatists of this age there must have been
+many who "were not aware" that Moliere was its greatest poet. For though
+he had made the true path luminous to them, their efforts were still
+often of a tentative kind, and one was reviving _Pathelin_ while another
+was translating the _Andria_. A more unique attempt was made in one of
+the very few really modern versions of an Aristophanic comedy, which
+deserves to be called an original copy--the _Plaideurs_ of Racine. The
+tragic poets Quinault and Campistron likewise wrote comedies, one[122]
+or more of which furnished materials to contemporary English
+dramatists, as did one of the felicitous plays in which Boursault
+introduced Mercury and Aesop into the theatrical _salon_.[123] Antoine
+Montfleury (1640-1685), Baron and Dancourt, who were actors like
+Moliere, likewise wrote comedies. But if the mantle of Moliere can be
+said to have fallen upon any of his contemporaries or successors, this
+honour must be ascribed to J. F. Regnard, who imitated the great master
+in both themes and characters,[124] while the skilfulness of his plots,
+and his gaiety of the treatment even of subjects tempting into the
+by-path of sentimental comedy,[125] entitle him to be regarded as a
+comic poet of original genius. With him C. R. Dufresny occasionally
+collaborated.
+
+In the next generation (that of Voltaire) comedy gradually--but only
+gradually--surrendered for a time the very essence of its vitality to
+the seductions of a hybrid species, which disguised its identity under
+more than a single name. A. R. le Sage, who as a comic dramatist at
+first followed successfully in the footsteps of Moliere, proved himself
+on the stage as well as in picturesque fiction a keen observer and
+inimitable satirist of human life.[126] The light texture of the playful
+and elegant art of J. B. L. Gresset was shown on the stage in a
+character comedy of merit;[127] and in a comedy which reveals something
+of his pointed wit, A. Piron produced something like a new type of
+enduring ridiculousness.[128] P. C. de Marivaux, the French _Spectator_,
+is usually supposed to have formed the connecting link between the "old"
+French comedy and the "new" and bastard variety. Yet, though his minute
+analysis of the tender passion excited the scorn of Voltaire, it should
+not be overlooked that in _marivaudage_ proper the wit holds the balance
+to the sentiment, and that in some of this frequently misjudged writer's
+earlier and most delightful plays the elegance and gaiety of diction are
+as irresistible as the pathetic sentiment, which is in fact rather an
+ingredient in his comedy than the pervading characteristic of it.[129]
+Some of the comedies of P. H. Destouches no doubt have a serious basis,
+and in his later plays he comes near to a kind of drama in which the
+comic purpose has been virtually submerged.[130] The writer who is
+actually to be credited with the transition to sentimental comedy, and
+who was fully conscious of the change which he was helping to effect,
+was Nivelle de La Chaussee, in whose hands French comedy became a
+champion of the sanctity of marriage, and reproduced the sentiments--in
+one instance even the characters--of Richardson.[131] To his play _La
+Fausse Antipathie_ the author supplied a _critique_, amounting to an
+apology for the new species of which it was designed as an example.
+
+The new species known as _comedie larmoyante_ was now fairly in the
+ascendant; and it would be easy to show how even Voltaire, who had
+deprecated the innovation, had to yield to a power greater than his own,
+and introduced the sentimental element into some of his comedies.[132]
+The further step, by which _comedie larmoyante_ was transformed into
+_tragedie bourgeoise_, from which the comic element was to all intents
+and purposes extruded, was taken by a great French writer, D. Diderot;
+to whose influence it was largely due that the species which had
+attained to this consummation for more than a generation ruled supreme
+in the dramatic literature of Europe. But the final impulse, as Diderot
+himself virtually acknowledged in the _entretiens_ subjoined by him to
+his _Fils naturel_ (1757), had been given by a far humbler citizen of
+the world of letters, the author of _The London Merchant_. Diderot's own
+plays were a literary rather than a theatrical success. _Le Fils naturel
+ou les epreuves de la vertu_ was not publicly performed till 1771, and
+then only in deference to the determination of a single actor of the
+Francais (Mole); nor was the performance of it repeated. Diderot's
+second play, _Le Pere de famille_, printed in 1758 with a _Discours sur
+la poesie dramatique_, went through a few public performances in 1761;
+and a later revival was unsuccessful. But "at a distance," as was well
+said, the effect of Diderot's endeavours, the earlier in particular, was
+extremely great, and Lessing, though very critical as to particular
+points, greatly helped to spread it. Diderot had for the first time
+consciously sought to proclaim the theatre an agency of social reform,
+and to entrust to it as its task the propagation of the gospel of
+philanthropy. Though the execution of his dramatic works fell far short
+of his aims; though Madame de Stael was not far wrong in denouncing them
+as exhibiting not nature itself, but "the affectation of nature," yet
+they contained, in a measure almost unequalled in the history of the
+modern drama, the fermenting element which never seems to subside. Their
+author announced them as examples of a third dramatic form--the _genre
+serieux_--which he declared to be the consummation of the dramatic art.
+Making war upon the frigid artificiality of classical tragedy, he
+banished verse from the new species. The effect of these plays was
+intended to spring from their truth to nature--a truth such as no
+spectator could mistake, and which should bring home its moral teachings
+to the business as well as the bosoms of all. The theatre was to become
+a real and realistic school of the principles of society and of the
+conduct of life--it was, in other words, to usurp functions with which
+it has no concern, and to essay the direct reformation of mankind. The
+idea was neither new nor just; but its speciousness will probably
+continue to commend it to many enthusiastic minds, whensoever and in
+whatsoever shape it is revived.
+
+
+  The comedy of the Revolution and the first empire.
+
+  Vaudevilles, etc.
+
+From this point the history of the French drama becomes that of a
+conflict between an enfeebled artistic school and a tendency which is
+hardly to be dignified by the name of a school at all. Among the
+successful dramatists following on Diderot may be mentioned the critical
+and versatile J. F. Marmontel, and more especially M. J. Sedaine, who
+though chiefly working for the opera, produced two comedies of
+acknowledged merit.[133] P. A. C. de Beaumarchais (1732-1799), who for
+his early sentimental plays,[134] in which he imitated Diderot, invented
+the appellation _drame_--so convenient in its vagueness that it became
+the accepted name of the hybrid species to which they belonged--in two
+works of a very different kind, the famous _Barbier de Seville_ and the
+still more famous _Mariage de Figaro_, boldly carried comedy back into
+its old Spanish atmosphere of intrigue; but, while surpassing all his
+predecessors in the skill with which he constructed his frivolous plots,
+he drew his characters with a lightness and sureness of touch peculiar
+to himself, animated his dialogue with an unparalleled brilliancy of
+wit, and seasoned action as well as dialogue with a political and social
+meaning, which caused his epigrams to become proverbs, and which marks
+his _Figaro_ as a herald of the Revolution. Such plays as these were ill
+suited to the rule of the despot whose vigilance could not overlook
+their significance. The comedy of the empire is, in the hands of Collin
+d'Harleville, Louis Picard (1769-1828), A. Duval, Etienne and others,
+mainly a harmless comedy of manners; nor was the attempted innovation of
+N. Lemercier--who was fain to invent a new species, that of historical
+comedy--more than a flattering self-delusion. The theatre had its share
+in all the movements and changes which ensued in France; though the most
+important revolution which the drama itself was to undergo was not one
+of wholly native origin. Those branches of the drama which belong
+specifically to the history of the opera, or which associate themselves
+with it, are here passed by. Among them was the _vaudeville_ (from Val
+de Vire in Calvados), which began as an interspersion of pantomime with
+the airs of popular songs, and which, after the Italian masks had been
+removed from it, was cultivated by Ponsard and Marmontel, while Sedaine
+wrote a didactic poem on the subject (1756). Sedaine was the father of
+the _opera-comique_ proper;[135] Marmontel,[136] as well as
+Rousseau,[137] likewise composed _operettes_--a smaller sort of opera,
+at first of the pastoral variety; and these flexible species easily
+entered into combination. The melodrama proper, of which the invention
+is also attributed to Rousseau,[138] in its latter development became
+merely a drama accentuated by music, though usually in little need of
+any accentuation.
+
+
+  The stage.
+
+  Transition to the romantic school.
+
+The chief home of the regular drama, however, demanded efforts of
+another kind. At the Theatre Francais, or Comedie Francaise, whose
+history as that of a single company of actors had begun in 1680, the
+party-strife of the times made itself audible; and the most prominent
+tragic poet of the Revolution, M. J. de Chenier, a disciple of Voltaire
+in dramatic poetry as well as in political philosophy, wrote for the
+national stage the historical drama--with a political moral[139]--in
+which in the memorable year 1789 the actor Talma achieved his first
+complete triumph. But the victorious Revolution proclaimed among other
+liberties that of the theatres in Paris, of which soon not less than 50
+were open. In 1807 the empire restricted the number to 9, and reinstated
+the Theatre Francais in sole possession (or nearly such) of the right of
+performing the classic drama. No writer of note was, however, tempted or
+inspired by the rewards and other encouragements offered by Napoleon to
+produce such a classic tragedy as the emperor would have willingly
+stamped from out of the earth. The tragedies of C. Delavigne represent
+the transition from the expiring efforts of the classical to the
+ambitious beginnings of the romantic school of the French drama.
+
+
+  The romantic school.
+
+Of modern romantic drama in France it must suffice to say that it
+derives some of its characteristics from the general movement of
+romanticism which in various ways and at various points of time
+transformed nearly every modern European literature, others from the
+rhetorical tendency which is a French national feature. Victor Hugo was
+the founder whom it followed in a spirit of high emprise to success upon
+success, his own being the most conspicuous of all;[140] A. Dumas the
+elder its unshrinking middleman. The marvellous fire and grandeur of
+genius of the former, always in extremes but often most sublime at the
+height of danger, was nowhere more signally such than in the drama;
+Dumas was a Briareus, working, however, with many hands besides his own.
+Together with them may, with more or less precision, be classed in the
+romantic school of dramatists A. de Vigny[141] and George Sand,[142]
+neither of whom, however, attained to the highest rank in the drama, and
+Jules Sandeau;[143] A. de Musset, whose originality pervades all his
+plays, but whose later works, more especially in his prose "proverbs"
+and pieces of a similar kind, have a flavour of a delicacy altogether
+indescribable;[144] perhaps also P. Merimee (1803-1870), who invented
+not only Spanish dramas but a Spanish dramatist, and who was never more
+audacious than when he seemed most _naif_.[145]
+
+
+  Modern schools.
+
+The romantic school was not destined to exercise a permanent control
+over French public taste; but it can hardly be said to have been
+overthrown by the brief classical revival begun by F. Ponsard, and
+continued, though in closer contact with modern ideas, both by him[146]
+and by E. Augier, a dramatist who gradually attained to an extraordinary
+effectiveness in the self-restrained treatment of social as well as of
+historical themes.[147] While the theatrical fecundity and the
+remarkable constructive ability of E. Scribe[148] supplied a long series
+of productions attesting the rapid growth of the playwright's mastery
+over the secrets of his craft the name of his competitors is legion.
+Among them may be mentioned, if only as the authors of two of the most
+successful plays of the historical species produced in the century, two
+writers of great eminence--C. Delavigne[149] and E. Legouve.[150] Later
+developments of the drama bore the impress of a period of social decay,
+prepared to probe its own sufferings, while glad at times to take refuge
+in the gaiety traditional in France in her more light-hearted days, but
+which even then had not yet deserted either French social life or the
+theatre which reflected it. After a fashion which would have startled
+even Diderot, while recalling his efforts in the earnestness of its
+endeavour to arouse moral interests to which the theatre had long been a
+stranger, A. Dumas the younger set himself to reform society by means of
+the stage.[151] But the technical skill which he and contemporary
+dramatists displayed in the execution of their self-imposed task was
+such as had been undreamt of by Diderot. O. Feuillet, more eminent as a
+novelist than on the stage, applied himself, though with the aid of
+fewer prefaces, to the solution of the same or similar problems; while
+the extraordinary versatility of V. Sardou and his unfailing
+constructive skill was applied by him to almost every kind of serious,
+or serio-comic, drama--even the most solid of all.[152] In the same
+period, while E. Pailleron revived some of the most characteristic
+tendencies of the best French satirical comedy in ridiculing the pompous
+pretentiousness of learning for its own sake,[153] the light-hearted
+gaiety of E. Labiche changed into something not altogether similar in
+the productions of the comic muse of L. Halevy and H. Meilhac, ranging
+from the licence of the musical burlesque which was the congenial
+delight of the later days of the Second Empire to a species of comedy in
+which the ingredients of bitterness and even of sadness found a
+place.[154]
+
+
+  Tendencies of the drama and of the theatre in France.
+
+Dramatic criticism in France has had a material share in the maintenance
+of a deep as well as wide national interest in the preservation of a high
+standard of excellence both in the performance of plays and in the plays
+themselves. Among its modern representatives the foremost place would
+probably be by common consent allowed to F. Sarcey, whose Monday
+theatrical _feuilleton_ in the _Temps_ was long awaited week by week as
+an oracle of dramaturgy. But he was only the first among equals, and the
+successor and the predecessor of writers who have at least sought to be
+equal to a function of real public importance. For it seems hardly within
+the range of probability to suppose that the theatre will for many a
+generation to come lose the hold which it has established over the
+intellectual and moral sympathies of nearly the whole of the educated--to
+say nothing of a great part of the half-educated--population of France.
+This does not, of course, imply that the creative activity of French
+dramatic literature is certain to endure. Since the great changes set in
+which were consequent upon the disastrous war of 1870, French dramatic
+literature has reflected more than one phase of national sentiment and
+opinion, and has represented the aspirations, the sympathies and the
+philosophy of life of more than one class in the community. Thus it has
+had its episodes of reaction in the midst of an onward flow of which it
+would be difficult to predict the end. The tendency of what can only
+vaguely be described as the naturalistic school of writers has
+corresponded to that even more prominent in the dramatic literatures of
+certain other European nations; but it must be allowed that a new poetic
+will have to be constructed if the freedom of development which the
+dramatic, like all other arts, is entitled to claim is to be reconciled
+to laws deducible from the whole previous history of the drama. The
+reaction towards earlier forms has asserted itself in various
+ways--through the poetic plays of the later years of F. Coppee; in the
+success (notable for reasons other than artistic) of Vicomte H. de
+Bornier's first tragedy; and of late more especially in the
+dramas--highly original and truly romantic in both form and treatment--of
+E. Rostand.
+
+The art of acting is not altogether dependent upon the measure of
+contemporary literary productivity, even in France, where the connexion
+between dramatic literature and the stage has perhaps been more
+continuously intimate than in many other countries. Talma and Mlle Mars
+flourished in one of the most barren ages of the French literary drama;
+and though this cannot be asserted of the two most brilliant stars of
+the French 19th century tragic stage, Rachel and Sarah Bernhardt, or of
+their comic contemporaries from Frederick-Lemaitre down to types less
+unique than the "Talma of the boulevards," the constantly accumulating
+experience of the successive schools of acting in France may here ensure
+to the art a future not less notable than its past. Moreover, the French
+theatre has long been, and is more than ever likely to continue, an
+affair of the state as well as of the nation; and the judicious policy
+of not leaving the chief theatres at the mercy of shifting fashion and
+the base demands of idleness and sensuality will remain the surest
+guarantee for the maintenance of a high standard both in principle and
+in practice. So long as France continues to maintain her ascendancy over
+other nations in matters of taste, and in much else that adorns,
+brightens and quickens social life, the predominant influence of the
+French theatre over the theatres of other nations is likewise assured.
+But dramatic literature is becoming international to a degree hardly
+dreamt of half a century ago; and the distinctive development of the
+French theatre cannot fail to be affected by the success or failure of
+the national drama in retaining and developing its own most
+characteristic qualities. Its history shows periods of marvellously
+rapid advance, of hardly less swift decline, and of frequent though at
+times fitful recovery. Its future may be equally varied; but it will
+remain not less dependent on the conditions which in every people,
+ancient or modern, have proved to be indispensable to national vigour
+and vitality.     (A. W. W.)
+
+_Recent French Drama._--The last twenty-five years of the 19th century
+witnessed an important change in the constructive methods, as well as in
+the moral tendencies, of the French playwrights. Of the two leading
+dramatists who reigned supreme over the _haute comedie_ in 1875, one,
+Emile Augier, had almost ended his career, but the other, Alexandre
+Dumas, was to maintain his ascendancy for many years longer. Sardou's
+fertility of invention, and extraordinary cleverness at manipulating a
+complicated intrigue, were also greatly admired, and much was expected
+from Edouard Pailleron's brilliant and--as it seemed--inexhaustible wit
+in satirizing the whims and weaknesses of high-born and highly-cultured
+society. Alexandre Dumas had created and still monopolized the problem
+play, of which _Le Demi-monde_, _Le Fils naturel_, _La Question
+d'argent_, _Les Idees de Madame Aubray_, _La Femme de Claude_, _Monsieur
+Alphonse_, _La Visite de noces_, _L'Etrangere_, _Francillon_ and
+_Denise_ may be mentioned as the most characteristic specimens. The
+problem play is the presentation of a particular case, with a view to a
+general conclusion on some important question of human conduct. This
+afforded the author, who was, in his way, a moralist and a reformer,
+excellent opportunities for humorous discussions and the display of that
+familiar eloquence which was his greatest gift and most effective
+faculty. Among other subjects, the social position of women had an
+all-powerful attraction for his mind, and many of his later plays were
+written with the object of placing in strong relief the remarkable
+inequality of the sexes, both as regards freedom of action and
+responsibility, in modern marriage. Like all the dramatists of his time,
+he adhered to Scribe's mode of play-writing--a mixture of the _drame
+bourgeois_, as initiated by Diderot, and the comedy of character and
+manners, long in vogue--from the days of Moliere, Regnard, Destouches
+and Marivaux, down to the beginning of the 19th century. In his prefaces
+Dumas often undertook the defence of the system which, in his
+estimation, was best calculated to serve the purpose of the artist, the
+humorist and the moralist--a dramatist being, as he conceived, a
+combination of the three.
+
+Though the majority of French playgoers continued to side with him, and
+to cling to the time-honoured theatrical beliefs, a few young men were
+beginning to murmur against the too elaborate mechanism and artificial
+logic. Scribe and his successors, whose plays were a combination of
+comedy and drama, were wont to devote the first act to a brilliant and
+witty presentation of personages, then to crowd the following scenes
+with incidents, until the action was brought to a climax about the end
+of the fourth act, invariably concluding, in the fifth, with an
+optimistic _denouement_, just before midnight, the time appointed by
+police regulations for the closing of playhouses. At the same time a
+more serious and far-reaching criticism was levelled at the very
+principles on which the conception of human life was then dependent. A
+new philosophy, based on scientific research, had been gradually gaining
+ground and penetrating the French mind. A host of bold writers had been
+trying, with considerable firmness and continuity of purpose, to start a
+new kind of fiction, writing in perfect accordance with the determinist
+theories of Auguste Comte, Darwin and Taine. The long-disputed success
+of the Naturalistic School carried everything before it during the years
+1875-1885, and its triumphant leaders were tempted to make the best of
+their advantage by annexing a new province and establishing a footing on
+the stage. In this they failed signally, either when they were assisted
+by professional dramatists or when left to their own resources. It
+became evident that Naturalism, to be made acceptable on the stage,
+would have to undergo a special process of transformation and be handled
+in a peculiar way. Henry Becque succeeded in embodying the new theories
+in two plays, which at first met with very indifferent success, but were
+revived at a later period, and finally obtained permanent recognition in
+the French theatre--even with the acquiescence of the most learned
+critics, when they discovered, or fancied they discovered, that Becque's
+comedies agreed, in the main, with Moliere's conception of dramatic art.
+In _Les Corbeaux_ and _La Parisienne_ the plot is very simple; the
+episodes are incidents taken from ordinary life. No extraneous character
+is introduced to discuss moral and social theories, or to acquaint us
+with the psychology of the real _dramatis personae_, or to suggest
+humorous observations about the progress of the dramatic action. The
+characters are left to tell their own tale in their own words, which are
+sometimes very comical, sometimes very repulsive, but purport to be
+always true to nature. Human will, which was the soul and mainspring of
+French tragedy in the 17th century, and played such a paramount part in
+the _drame bourgeois_ and the _haute comedie_ of the 19th, appears in M.
+Becque's plays to have fallen from its former exalted position and to
+have ceased to be a free agent. It is a mere passive instrument to our
+inner desires and instincts and appetites, which, in their turn, obey
+natural laws. Thus, in Becque's comedies, as in the old Greek drama,
+destiny, not man, is the chief actor, the real but unseen protagonist.
+
+Becque was not a prolific writer, and when he died, in 1899, it was
+remarked that he had spent the last ten years of his life in comparative
+inactivity. But during these years his young and ardent disciples had
+spared no effort in putting their master's theories to the test. It had
+occurred to a gifted and enterprising actor-manager, named Andre
+Antoine, that the time had come for trying dramatic experiments in a
+continued and methodical manner. For this purpose he gathered around him
+a number of young authors, and produced their plays before a select
+audience of subscribers, who had paid in advance for their
+season-tickets. The entertainment was a strictly private one. In this
+way Antoine made himself independent of the censors, and at the same
+time was no longer obliged to consider the requirements of the average
+playgoer, as is the case with ordinary managers, anxious, above all
+things, to secure long runs. At the Theatre Libre the most successful
+play was not to be performed for more than three nights.
+
+The reform attempted was to consist in the elimination of what was
+contrary to nature in Dumas's and Augier's comedies: of the _intrigue
+parallele_ or underplot, of the over-numerous and improbable incidents
+which followed the first act and taxed the spectator's memory to the
+verge of fatigue; and, lastly, of the conventional _denouement_ for
+which there was no justification. A true study of character was to take
+the place of Sardou's complicated fabrications and Dumas's problem
+plays. The authors would present the spectator with a fragment of life,
+but would force no conclusion upon him at the termination of the play.
+The reformation in histrionic art was to proceed apace. The actors and
+actresses of the preceding period had striven to give full effect to
+certain witty utterances of the author, or to preserve and to develop
+their own personal peculiarities or oddities. Antoine and his
+fellow-artists did their best to make the public realize, in every word
+and every gesture, the characteristic features and ruling passions of
+the men and women they were supposed to represent.
+
+It was in the early autumn of 1887 that the Theatre Libre opened its
+doors for the first time. It struggled on for eight years amidst
+unfailing curiosity, but not without encountering some adverse, or even
+derisive, criticism from a considerable portion of the public and the
+press. The Theatre Libre brought under public notice such men as George
+Courteline and George Ancey, who gave respectively, in _Bonbouroche_ and
+_La Dupe_, specimens of a comic vein called the "_comique cruel_."
+Fabre, in _L'Argent_, approached if not surpassed his master, Henry
+Becque. Brieux, in _Blanchette_, gave promise of talent, which he has
+since in a great measure justified. In _Les Fossiles_ and _L'Envers
+d'une sainte_, by Francois de Curel, were found evidences of dramatic
+vigour and concentrated energy, allied with a remarkable gift for the
+minute analysis of feeling. Antoine's activity was not exclusively
+confined to the efforts of the French Naturalistic School; he included
+the Norwegian drama in his programme, and successively produced several
+of Ibsen's plays. They received a large amount of attention from the
+critics, the views then expressed ranging from the wildest enthusiasm to
+the bitterest irony. Francisque Sarcey was decidedly hostile, and Jules
+Lemaitre, who ranked next to him in authority, ventured to suggest that
+Ibsen's ideas were nothing better than long-discarded social and
+literary paradoxes, borrowed from Pierre Leroux through George Sand, and
+returned to the French market as novelties. Ibsen was not understood by
+the French public at large, though his influence could be clearly traced
+on thoughtful men like Paul Hervieu and Francois de Curel.
+
+The authors of the Theatre Libre were sadly wanting in tact and
+patience. They went at once to extremes, and, while trying to free
+themselves from an obsolete form of drama, fell into a state of anarchy.
+If a too elaborate plot is a fault, no plot at all is an absurdity. The
+old school had been severely taken to task for devoting the first act to
+the delineation of character, and the delineation of character was now
+found to have extended over the whole play; and worse still, most of
+these young men seemed to find pleasure in importing a low vocabulary on
+to the stage; they made it their special object to place before the
+spectator revolting pictures of the grossest immorality. In this they
+were supported by a knot of noisy and unwise admirers, whose misplaced
+approval largely contributed towards bringing an otherwise useful and
+interesting undertaking into disrepute. The result was that after the
+lapse of eight years the little group collected round Antoine had lost
+in cohesion and spirit, that it was both less hopeful and less compact
+than it had been at the outset of the campaign. But some authors who had
+kept aloof from the movement were not slow in reaping the moral and
+intellectual profit of these tentative experiments. Among them must be
+cited George de Porto-Riche, Henri Lavedan, Paul Hervieu, Maurice Donnay
+and Jules Lemaitre. Alone among the authors of the Theatre Libre, E.
+Brieux secured an assured position on the regular stage. Instead of
+attacking the vices and follies of his times, he has made a name by
+satirizing the weak points or the wrong application of certain
+fundamental principles by which modern institutions are supported. He
+mocked at universal suffrage in _L'Engrenage_, at art in _Menages
+d'artistes_, at popular instruction in _Blanchette_, at charity in _Les
+Bienfaiteurs_, at science in _L'Evasion_, and then at law in _La Robe
+rouge_. Of _Les Trois Filles de M. Dupont_, one is an old maid with a
+strong bent towards mysticism, another is a star in the demi-monde, and
+the third is married. Neither religion, nor free love, nor marriage has
+made one of the three happy. The strange fact about Brieux is that he
+propounds his uncomfortable ideas with an incredible amount of dash and
+spirit.
+
+All the plays written by the above-mentioned authors, and by those who
+follow in their steps, have been said to constitute the "new comedy."
+But one may question the advisability of applying the same name to
+literary works which present so little, if any, family likeness. It was
+tacitly agreed to remove the intricacies of the plot and the forced
+_denouement_. But no one will trace in those plays the uniformity of
+moral purpose which would justify us in comprising them under the same
+head, as products of the same school. Then, before the Naturalistic, or
+half-Naturalistic, School had attained to a practical result or taken a
+definite shape, a wave of Romanticism swept over the French public, and
+in a measure brought back the old artistic and literary dogmas
+propounded by Victor Hugo and the generation of 1830. Signs of a revival
+in French dramatic poetry were not lacking. The success of _La Fille de
+Roland_, by the Vicomte de Bornier, was restricted to the more
+cultivated classes, but the vogue of Jean Richepin's _Chemineau_ was at
+once general and lasting. _Cyrano de Bergerac_, produced in the last
+days of 1897, brought a world-wide reputation to its young author,
+Edmond Rostand. This play combines sparkling wit and brilliancy of
+imagination with delightful touches of pathos and delicate tenderness.
+It was assumed that Rostand was endowed to an extraordinary degree both
+with theatrical genius and the poetic faculty. _L'Aiglon_ fell short of
+this too favourable judgment. It is more a dramatic poem than a real
+drama, and the author handles history with the same childish
+incompetence and inaccuracy as Hugo did in _Cromwell_, in _Ruy Blas_ and
+_Hernani_. The persistent approbation of the public seemed, however, to
+indicate a growing taste for poetry, even when unsupported by dramatic
+interest--a curious symptom among the least poetical of modern European
+races.
+
+To sum up, the French, as regards the present condition of their drama,
+were confronted with two alternative movements. Naturalism, furthered by
+science and philosophy, was contending against traditions three
+centuries old, and seemed unable to crystallize into masterly works;
+while romantic drama, founded on vague and exploded theories, had become
+embodied in productions of real artistic beauty, which have been warmly
+welcomed by the general playgoer. It should nevertheless be noted that
+in _Cyrano_ and _L'Aiglon_ human will, which was the main-spring of
+Corneille's tragedy and Hugo's drama, tried to reassert itself, but was
+baffled by circumstance, and had to submit to inexorable laws. This
+showed that the victorious school would have to reckon with the
+doctrines of the defeated party, and suggested that a determinist
+theatre might be the ultimate outcome of a compromise. (A. FI.)
+
+
+(f) _English Drama._
+
+Among the nations of Germanic descent the English alone succeeded,
+mainly through the influence of the Renaissance movement, in
+transforming the later growths of the medieval drama into the beginnings
+of a great and enduring national dramatic literature, second neither in
+volume nor in splendour to any other in the records of the world. And,
+although in England, as elsewhere, the preparatory process had been
+continuing for some generations, its consummation coincided with one of
+the greatest epochs of English national history, and indeed forms one of
+the chief glories of that epoch itself; so that, in thinking or speaking
+of the Elizabethan age and the Elizabethan drama, the one can scarcely
+be thought or spoken of without the other.
+
+
+  Beginnings of the regular drama.
+
+It is of course conceivable that the regular drama, or drama proper,
+might in England have been called into life without the direct influence
+of classical examples. Already in the reign of Edward VI. the spirit of
+the Reformation had (with the aid of a newly awakened desire for the
+study of history, which was no doubt largely due to Italian examples)
+quickened the relatively inanimate species of the morality into the
+beginning of a new development.[155] But though the _Kyng Johan_ of Bale
+(much as this author abhorred the chronicles as written by
+ecclesiastics) came very near to the chronicle histories, there is no
+proof whatever that the work, long hidden away for very good reasons,
+actually served as a transition to the new species; and Bale's
+production was entirely unknown to the particular chronicle history
+which treated the same subject. Before the earliest example of this
+transitional species was produced, English tragedy had directly
+connected its beginnings with classical models.
+
+
+  Imitation of classical examples.
+
+Much in the same way, nothing could have been more natural and in
+accordance with the previous sluggish evolution of the English drama
+than that a gradual transition, however complete in the end, should have
+been effected from the moralities to comedy. It was not, however, John
+Heywood himself who was to accomplish any such transition; possibly, he
+was himself the author of the morality _Genus humanum_ performed at the
+coronation feast of Queen Mary, whose council speedily forbade the
+performance of interludes without the queen's licence. Nor are we able
+to conjecture the nature of the pieces bearing this name composed by
+Richard Farrant, afterwards the master of the Children of St George's at
+Windsor, or of William Hunnis, master under Queen Elizabeth of the
+Children of the Chapel Royal. But the process of transition is visible
+in productions, also called interludes, but charged with serious
+purpose, such as T. Ingeland's noteworthy _Disobedient Child_ (before
+1560), and plays in which the element of abstractions is perceptibly
+yielding to that of real personages, or in which the characters are for
+the most part historical or the main element in the action belongs to
+the sphere of romantic narrative.[156] The demonstration would, however,
+be alien to the purpose of indicating the main conditions of the growth
+of the English drama. The immediate origin of the earliest extant
+English comedy must, like that of the first English tragedy, be sought,
+not in the development of any popular literary or theatrical
+antecedents, but in the imitation, more or less direct, of classical
+models. This cardinal fact, unmistakable though it is, has frequently
+been ignored or obscured by writers intent upon investigating the
+_origines_ of our drama, and to this day remains without adequate
+acknowledgment in most of the literary histories accessible to the great
+body of students.
+
+It is true that in tracing the entrance of the drama into the national
+literature there is no reason for seeking to distinguish very narrowly
+between the several tributaries to the main stream which fertilized this
+as well as other fields under Renaissance culture. The universities then
+still remained, and for a time became more prominently than ever, the
+leading agents of education in all its existent stages; and it is a
+patent fact that no influence could have been so strong upon the
+Elizabethan dramatists as that to which they had been subjected during
+the university life through which the large majority of them had passed.
+The corporate life of the universities, and the enthusiasms (habitually
+unanimous) of their undergraduates and younger graduates, communicated
+this influence, as it were automatically, to the students, and to the
+learned societies themselves, of the Inns of Court. In the Tudor, as
+afterwards in the early Stuart, times, these Inns were at once the
+seminaries of loyalty, and the obvious resort for the supply of young
+men of spirit desirous of honouring a learned court by contributing to
+its choicer amusements. Thus, whether we trace them in the universities,
+in the "bowers" or halls of the lawyers, or in the palaces of the
+sovereign, the beginnings of the English academical drama, which in
+later Elizabethan and Jacobean literature cannot claim to be more than a
+subordinate species of the national drama, in an earlier period served
+as the actual link between classical tragedy and comedy and the
+surviving native growths, and supplied the actual impulse towards the
+beginnings of English tragedy and comedy.
+
+
+  The earlier academical drama.
+
+The academical drama of the early years of Elizabeth's reign and of the
+preceding part of the Tudor period--including the school-drama in the
+narrower sense of the term and other performances of academical
+origin--consisted, apart from actual reproductions of classical plays in
+original Latin or in Latin versions of the Greek, in adaptations of
+Latin originals, or of Latin or English plays directly modelled on
+classical examples. A notable series of plays of this kind was performed
+in the hall of Christ Church, Oxford, from the first year of Edward VI.
+onward, when N. Grimald's _Archipropheta_, treating in classic form the
+story of St John the Baptist, but introducing the Vice and comic scenes,
+was brought out.[157] Others were J. Calfhill's _Progne_ and R.
+Edwardes' _Palaemon and Arcyte_ (both 1566), and, from about 1580
+onwards, a succession of Latin plays by William Gager, beginning with
+the tragedy _Meleager_, and including, with other tragedies,[158] a
+comedy _Rivales_. Yet another comedy, acted at Christ Church, and
+extolled in 1591 by Harington for "harmless mirth," was the _Bellum
+grammaticale_, or Civil War between Nouns and Verbs, which may have been
+a revision of a comedy written by Bale's friend, R. Radcliff, in 1538,
+but of which in any case the ultimate origin was a celebrated Italian
+allegorical treatise.[159] In Cambridge, as is not surprising, the
+activity of the early academical friends and favourers of the drama was
+even more marked. At St John's College, where Bishop Watson's Latin
+tragedy called _Absolom_ was produced within the years 1534 and 1544,
+plays were, according to Ascham, repeatedly performed about the middle
+of the century; at Christ's a controversial drama in the Lutheran
+interest called _Pammachius_, of which Gardiner complained to the privy
+council, and which seems afterwards to have been translated by Bale, was
+acted in 1544; and at Trinity there was a long series of performances
+which began with Christopherson's _Jephtha_ about 1546, and consisted
+partly of reproductions of classical works,[160] partly of plays and
+"shows" unnamed; while on one occasion at all events, in 1559, "two
+English plays" were produced. In 1560 was acted, doubtless in the
+original Latin, and not in Palsgrave's English translation (1540) for
+schoolboys, the celebrated "comedy" of _Acolastus_, by W. Gnaphaeus, on
+the story of the Prodigal Son. The long series of Trinity plays
+interspersed with occasional plays at King's (where Udall's _Ezechias_
+was produced in English in 1564), at St John's (where T. Legge's
+_Richardus III._ was first acted in 1573), and, as will be seen below,
+at Christ's, continued, with few noticeable breaks, up to the time when
+the Elizabethan drama was in full activity.[161] Among the "academical"
+plays not traceable to any particular university source may be
+mentioned, as acted at court so early as the end of 1565 or the
+beginning of 1566, the Latin _Sapientia Solomonis_, which generally
+follows the biblical narrative, but introduces a comic element in the
+sayings of the popular Marcolph, who here appears as a court fool.
+
+
+  Influence of Seneca.
+
+It was under the direct influence of the Renaissance, viewed primarily,
+in England as elsewhere, as a revival of classical studies, and in
+connexion with the growing taste in university and cognate circles of
+society, and at a court which prided itself on its love and patronage of
+learning, that English tragedy and comedy took their actual beginnings.
+Those of comedy, as it would seem, preceded those of tragedy by a few
+years. Already in Queen Mary's reign, translation was found the readiest
+form of expression offering itself to literary scholarship; and Italian
+examples helped to commend Seneca, the most modern of the ancient
+tragedians, and the imitator of the most human among the masters of
+Attic tragedy, as a favourite subject for such exercises. In the very
+year of Elizabeth's accession--seven years after Jodelle had brought out
+the earliest French tragedy--a group of English university scholars
+began to put forth a series of translations of the ten tragedies of
+Seneca, which one of them, T. Newton, in 1581 collected into a single
+volume. The earliest of these versions was that of the _Troades_ (1559)
+by Jasper Heywood, a son of the author of the _Interludes_. He also
+published the _Thyestes_ (1560) and the _Hercules Furens_ (1561); the
+names of his fellow-translators were A. Neville, T. Nuce, J. Studley and
+the T. Newton aforesaid. These translations, which occasionally include
+original interpolations ("additions," a term which was to become a
+technical one in English dramaturgy), are in no instance in blank verse,
+the favourite metre of the dialogue being the couplets of
+fourteen-syllable lines best known through Chapman's _Homer_.
+
+
+  Earliest English tragedies.
+
+The authority of Seneca, once established in the English literary world,
+maintained itself there long after English drama had emancipated itself
+from the task of imitating this pallid model, and, occasionally,
+Seneca's own prototype, Euripides.[162] Nor can it be doubted that some
+translation of the Latin tragic poet had at one time or another passed
+through Shakespeare's own hands. But what is of present importance is
+that to the direct influence of Seneca is to be ascribed the composition
+of the first English tragedy which we possess. Of _Gorboduc_ (afterwards
+re-named _Ferrex and Porrex_), first acted on the 18th of January 1562
+by the members of the Inner Temple before Queen Elizabeth, the first
+three acts are stated to have been written by T. Norton; the rest of the
+play (if not more) was the work of T. Sackville, afterwards Lord
+Buckhurst and earl of Dorset, whom Jasper Heywood praised for his
+sonnets, but who is better known for his leading share in The _Mirror
+for Magistrates_. Though the subject of _Gorboduc_ is a British legend,
+and though the action is neither copied nor adapted from any treated by
+Seneca, yet the resemblance between this tragedy and the _Thebais_ is
+too strong to be fortuitous. In all formal matters--chorus, messengers,
+&c.--_Gorboduc_ adheres to the usage of classical tragedy; but the
+authors show no respect for the unities of time or place. Strong in
+construction, the tragedy is--like its model, Seneca--weak in
+characterization. The dialogue, it should be noticed, is in blank verse;
+and the device of the _dumb-show_, in which the contents of each act are
+in succession set forth in pantomime only, is employed at once to
+instruct and to stimulate the spectator.
+
+The nearly contemporary _Apius and Virginia_ (c. 1563), though it takes
+its subject--destined to become a perennial one on the modern
+stage--from Roman story; the _Historie of Horestes_ (pr. 1567); and T.
+Preston's _Cambises King of Percia_ (1569-1570), are somewhat rougher in
+form, and, the first and last of them at all events, more violent in
+diction, than _Gorboduc_. They still contain elements of the moralities
+(above all the Vice) and none of the formal features of classical
+tragedy. But a _Julyus Sesyar_ seems to have been performed, in
+precisely the same circumstances as _Gorboduc_, so early as 1562; and,
+four years later, G. Gascoigne, the author of the satire _The Steele
+Glass_, produced with the aid of two associates (F. Kinwelmersh and Sir
+Christopher Yelverton, who wrote an epilogue), _Jocasta_, a virtual
+translation of L. Dolce's _Giocasta_, which was an adaptation, probably,
+of R. Winter's Latin translation of the _Phoenissae_ of Euripides.[163]
+Between the years 1567 and 1580 a large proportion of the plays
+presented at court by choir- or school-boys, and by various companies of
+actors, were taken from Greek legend or Roman history; as was R.
+Edwardes' _Damon and Pithias_ (perhaps as early as 1564-1565), which
+already shades off from tragedy into what soon came to be called
+tragi-comedy.[164] Simultaneously with the influence, exercised directly
+or indirectly, of classical literature, that of Italian, both dramatic
+and narrative, with its marked tendency to treat native themes, asserted
+itself, and, while diversifying the current of early English tragedy,
+infused into it a long-abiding element of passion. There are sufficient
+grounds for concluding that a play on the subject of _Romeo and Juliet_,
+which L. da Porto and M. Bandello had treated in prose narrative--that
+of the latter having through a French version formed itself into an
+English poem--was seen on an English stage in or before 1562. _Gismonde
+of Salerne_, a play founded on Boccaccio, was acted before Queen
+Elizabeth at the Inner Temple in 1568, nearly a generation before it was
+published, rewritten in blank verse by R. Wilmot, one of the performers,
+then in holy orders; G. Whetstone's _Promos and Cassandra_, founded on
+G. Cinthio (from which came the plot of _Measure for Measure_),
+followed, printed in 1578; and there were other "casts of Italian
+devices" belonging to this age, in which the choice of a striking theme
+still seemed the chief preoccupation of English tragic poets.
+
+From the double danger which threatened English tragedy in the days of
+its infancy--that it would congeal on the wintry heights of classical
+themes, or dissolve its vigour in the glowing heat of a passion fiercer
+than that of the Italians--_Ingleso Italianato e un diavolo
+incarnato_--it was preserved more than by any other cause by its happy
+association with the traditions of the national history. An exceptional
+position might seem to be in this respect occupied by T. Hughes'
+interesting tragedy _The Misfortunes of Arthur_ (1587). But the author
+of this play--in certain portions of whose framework there were
+associated with him seven other members of Gray's Inn, including Francis
+Bacon, and which was presented before Queen Elizabeth like
+_Gorboduc_--in truth followed the example of the authors of that work
+both in choice of theme, in details of form, and in a general though far
+from servile imitation of the manner of Seneca; nor does he represent
+any very material advance upon the first English tragedy.
+
+
+  Chronicle histories.
+
+Fortunately, at the very time when from such beginnings as those just
+described the English tragic drama was to set forth upon a course in
+which it was to achieve so much, a new sphere of activity suggested
+itself. And in this, after a few more or less tentative efforts, English
+dramatists very speedily came to feel at home. In their direct
+dramatization of passages or portions of English history (in which the
+doings and sufferings of King Arthur could only by courtesy or poetic
+licence be included) classical models would be of scant service, while
+Italian examples of the treatment of national historical subjects,
+having to deal with material so wholly different, could not be followed
+with advantage. The native species of the _chronicle history_, which
+designedly assumed this name in order to make clear its origin and
+purpose, essayed nothing more or less than a dramatic version of an
+existing chronicle. Obviously, while the transition from half
+historical, half epical narrative often implied carrying over into the
+new form some of the features of the old, it was only when the subject
+matter had been remoulded and recast that a true dramatic action could
+result. But the _histories_ to be found among the plays of Shakespeare
+and one or two other Elizabethans are true dramas, and it would be
+inconvenient to include these in the transitional species of those known
+as _chronicle histories_. Among these ruder compositions, which
+intermixed the blank verse introduced on the Stage by _Gorboduc_ with
+prose, and freely combined or placed side by side tragic and comic
+ingredients, we have but few distinct examples. One of these is _The
+Famous Victories of Henry the Fifth_, known to have been acted before
+1588; in which both the verse and the prose are frequently of a very
+rude sort, while it is neither divided into acts or scenes nor, in
+general, constructed with any measure of dramatic skill. But its vigour
+and freshness are considerable, and in many passages we recognize
+familiar situations and favourite figures in later masterpieces of the
+English historical drama. The second is _The Troublesome Raigne of King
+John_, in two parts (printed in 1591), an epical narrative transferred
+to the stage, neither a didactic effort like Bale's, nor a living drama
+like Shakespeare's, but a far from contemptible treatment of its
+historical theme. _The True Chronicle History of King Leir_ (acted in
+1593) in form resembles the above, though it is not properly on a
+national subject (its story is taken from Geoffrey of Monmouth); but,
+with all its defects, it seems only to await the touch of the master's
+hand to become a tragedy of supreme effectiveness. A yet further step
+was taken in the _Tragedy of Sir Thomas More_ (c. 1590)--in which
+Shakespeare's hand has been thought traceable, and which deserves its
+designation of "tragedy" not so much on account of the relative nearness
+of the historical subject to the date of its dramatic treatment, as
+because of the tragic responsibility of character here already clearly
+worked out.
+
+
+  Earliest comedies.
+
+Such had been the beginnings of tragedy in England up to the time when
+the genius of English dramatists was impelled by the spirit that
+dominates a great creative epoch of literature to seize the form ready
+to their hands. The birth of English comedy, at all times a process of
+less labour and eased by an always ready popular responsiveness to the
+most tentative efforts of art, had slightly preceded that of her serious
+sister. As has been seen from the brief review given above of the early
+history of the English academical drama, isolated Latin comedies had
+been performed in the original or in English versions as early as the
+reign of Henry VIII.--perhaps even earlier; while the morality and its
+direct descendant, the interlude, pointed the way towards popular
+treatment in the vernacular of actions and characters equally well
+suited for the diversion of Roman, Italian and English audiences. Thus
+there was no innovation in the adaptation by N. Udal (q.v.) of the
+_Miles Gloriosus_ of Plautus under the title of _Ralph Roister Doister_,
+which may claim to be the earliest extant English comedy. It has a
+genuinely popular vein of humour, and the names fit the characters after
+a fashion familiar to the moralities. The second English comedy--in the
+opinion of at least one high authority our first--is _Misogonus_, which
+was certainly written as early as 1560. Its scene is laid in Italy; but
+the Vice, commonly called "Cacurgus," is both by himself and others
+frequently designated as "Will Summer," in allusion to Henry VIII.'s
+celebrated jester. _Gammer Gurton's Needle_, long regarded as the
+earliest of all _English_ comedies, was printed in 1575, as acted "not
+long ago in Christ's College, Cambridge." Its authorship was till
+recently attributed to John Still (afterwards bishop of Bath and Wells),
+who was a resident M.A. at Christ's, when a play was performed there in
+1566. But the evidence of his authorship is inconclusive, and the play
+"made by Mr. S., Master of Arts," may be by William Stevenson, or by
+some other contemporary. This comedy is slighter in plot and coarser in
+diction than _Ralph Roister Doister_, but by no means unamusing.
+
+In the main, however, early English comedy, while occasionally
+introducing characters and scenes of thoroughly native origin and
+complexion (e.g. Grim, the Collier of Croydon),[165] was content to
+borrow its themes from classical or Italian sources.[166] G. Gascoigne's
+_Supposes_ (acted at Gray's Inn in 1566) is a translation of _I
+Suppositi_ of Ariosto, remarkable for the flowing facility of its
+prose. While, on the one hand, the mixture of tragic with comic motives,
+which was to become so distinctive a feature of the Elizabethan drama,
+was already leading in the direction of tragi-comedy, the precedent of
+the Italian pastoral drama encouraged the introduction of figures and
+stories derived from classical mythology; and the rapid and diversified
+influence of Italian comedy, in close touch with Italian prose fiction,
+seemed likely to affect and quicken continuously the growth of the
+lighter branch of the English drama.
+
+
+  Conditions of the early Elizabethan drama.
+
+Out of such promises as these the glories of English drama were ripened
+by the warmth and light of the great Elizabethan age--of which the
+beginnings may fairly be reckoned from the third decennium of the reign
+to which it owes its name. The queen's steady love of dramatic
+entertainments could not of itself have led, though it undoubtedly
+contributed, to such a result. Against the attacks which a nascent
+puritanism was already directing against the stage by the hands of J.
+Northbrooke,[167] the repentant playwright S. Gosson,[168] P.
+Stubbes,[169] and others,[170] were to be set not only the frugal favour
+of royalty and the more liberal patronage of great nobles,[171] but the
+fact that literary authorities were already weighing the endeavours of
+the English drama in the balance of respectful criticism, and that in
+the abstract at least the claims of both tragedy and comedy were upheld
+by those who shrank from the desipience of idle pastimes. It is
+noticeable that this period in the history of the English theatre
+coincides with the beginning of the remarkable series of visits made to
+Germany by companies of English comedians, which did not come to an end
+till the period immediately before the Thirty Years' War, and were
+occasionally resumed after its close. As at home the popularity of the
+stage increased, the functions of playwright and actor, whether combined
+or not, began to hold out a reasonable promise of personal gain. Nor,
+above all, was that higher impulse which leads men of talent and genius
+to attempt forms of art in harmony with the tastes and tendencies of
+their times wanting to the group of writers who can be remembered by no
+nobler name than that of Shakespeare's predecessors.
+
+
+  The predecessors of Shakespeare.
+
+The lives of all of these are, of course, in part contemporary with the
+life of Shakespeare himself; nor was there any substantial difference in
+the circumstances under which most of them, and he, led their lives as
+dramatic authors. A distinction was manifestly kept up between poets and
+playwrights. Of the contempt entertained for the actor's profession some
+fell to the share of the dramatist; "even Lodge," says C. M. Ingleby,
+"who had indeed never trod the stage, but had written several plays, and
+had no reason to be ashamed of his antecedents, speaks of the vocation
+of the play-maker as sharing the odium attaching to the actor." Among
+the dramatists themselves good fellowship and literary partnership only
+at times asserted themselves as stronger than the tendency to mutual
+jealousy and abuse; of all chapters of dramatic history, the annals of
+the early Elizabethan stage perhaps least resemble those of Arcadia.
+
+
+  History of the Elizabethan stage.
+
+Moreover, the theatre had hardly found its strength as a powerful
+element in the national life, when it was involved in a bitter
+controversy, with which it had originally no connexion, on behalf of an
+ally whose sympathy with it can only have been of a very limited kind.
+The Marprelate controversy, into which, among leading playwrights, Lyly
+and Nashe were drawn, in 1589 led to a stoppage of stage-plays which
+proved only temporary; but the general result of the attempt to make the
+stage a vehicle of political abuse and invective was beyond a doubt to
+coarsen and degrade both plays and players. Scurrilous attempts and
+rough repression continued during the years 1590-1593; and the true
+remedy was at last applied, when from about 1594, the chief London
+actors became divided into two great rival companies--the lord
+chamberlain's and the lord admiral's--which alone received licences.
+Instead of half a dozen or more companies whose jealousies communicated
+themselves to the playwrights belonging to them, there were now, besides
+the Children of the Chapel, two established bodies of actors, directed
+by steady and, in the full sense of the word, respectable men. To the
+lord chamberlain's company, which, after being settled at "the Theater"
+(opened as early as 1576 or 1577), moved to Blackfriars, purchased by
+James Burbage, in 1596, and to the Globe on the Bankside in 1599,
+Shakespeare and Richard Burbage, the greatest of the Elizabethan actors,
+belonged; the lord admiral's was managed by Philip Henslowe, the author
+of the _Diary_, and Edward Alleyn, the founder of Dulwich College, and
+was ultimately, in 1600, settled at the Fortune. In these and other
+houses were performed the plays of the Elizabethan dramatists, with few
+adventitious aids, the performance being crowded into a brief afternoon,
+when it is obvious that only the idler sections of the population could
+attend. No woman might appear at a playhouse, unless masked; on the
+stage, down to the Restoration, women's parts continued to be acted by
+boys.
+
+It is futile to take no account of such outward circumstances as these
+and many which cannot here be noted in surveying the progress of the
+literature of the Elizabethan drama. Like that of the Restoration--and
+like that of the present day--it was necessarily influenced in its
+method and spirit of treatment by the conditions and restrictions which
+governed the place and circumstances of the performance of plays,
+including the construction of theatre and stage, as well as by the
+social composition of its audiences, which the local accommodation, not
+less than the entertainment, provided for them had to take into account.
+But to these things a mere allusion must suffice. It may safely be said,
+at the same time, that no dramatic literature which has any claim to
+rank beside the Elizabethan--not that of Athens nor those of modern
+Italy and Spain, nor those of France and Germany in their classic
+periods--had to contend against such odds; a mighty inherent strength
+alone ensured to it the vitality which it so triumphantly asserted, and
+which enabled it to run so unequalled a course.
+
+
+  Lyly.
+
+  Kyd.
+
+  Marlowe.
+
+  Peele.
+
+  Greene.
+
+Among Shakespeare's predecessors, John Lyly, whose plays were all
+written for the Children of the Chapel and the Children of St Paul's,
+holds a position apart in English dramatic literature. The euphuism, to
+which his famous romance gave its name, likewise distinguishes his
+mythological,[172] quasi-historical,[173] allegorical,[174] and
+satirical[175] comedies. But his real service to the progress of English
+drama is to be sought neither in his choice of subjects nor in his
+imagery--though to his fondness for fairylore and for the whole
+phantasmagoria of legend, classical as well as romantic, his
+contemporaries, and Shakespeare in particular, were indebted for a
+stimulative precedent, and though in his _Endimion_ at all events he
+excites curiosity by an allegorical treatment of contemporary characters
+and events. It does not even lie in the songs interspersed in his plays,
+though none of his predecessors had in the slightest degree anticipated
+the lyric grace which distinguishes some of these incidental efforts. It
+consists in his adoption of Gascoigne's innovation of writing plays in
+prose; and in his having, though under the fetters of an affected and
+pretentious style, given the first example of brisk and vivacious
+dialogue--an example to which even such successors as Shakespeare and
+Jonson were indebted. Thomas Kyd, the author of the _Spanish Tragedy_
+(preceded or followed by the first part of _Jeronimo_), and probably of
+several plays whose author was unnamed, possesses some of the
+characteristics, but none of the genius, of the greatest tragic
+dramatist who preceded Shakespeare. No slighter tribute than this is
+assuredly the due of Christopher Marlowe, whose violent end prematurely
+closed a poetic career of dazzling brilliancy. His earliest play,
+_Tamburlaine the Great_, in which the use of blank verse was introduced
+upon the English public stage, while full of the "high astounding terms"
+of an extravagant and often bombastic diction, is already marked by the
+passion which was the poet's most characteristic feature, and which was
+to find expression so luxuriantly beautiful in his _Doctor Faustus,_ and
+so surpassingly violent in his _Jew of Malta_. His masterpiece, _Edward
+II._, is a tragedy of singular pathos and of a dramatic power
+unapproached by any of his contemporaries. George Peele was a far more
+versatile writer even as a dramatist; but, though his plays contain
+passages of exquisite beauty, not one of them is worthy to be ranked by
+the side of Marlowe's _Edward II._, compared with which, if indeed not
+absolutely, Peele's _Chronicle of Edward I._ still stands on the level
+of the species to which its title and character alike assign it. His
+finest play is undoubtedly _David and Bethsabe_, which resembles _Edward
+I._ in construction, but far surpasses it in beauty of language and
+versification, besides treating its subject with greatly superior
+dignity. If the difference between Peele and Shakespeare is still, in
+many respects besides that of genius, an immeasurable one, we seem to
+come into something like a Shakespearian atmosphere in more than one
+passage of the plays of the unfortunate Robert Greene--unfortunate
+perhaps in nothing more enduringly than in the proof which he left
+behind him of his supercilious jealousy of Shakespeare. Greene's genius,
+most conspicuous in plays treating English life and scenes, could,
+notwithstanding his academic self-sufficiency, at times free itself from
+the pedantry apt to beset the flight of Peele's and at times even of
+Marlowe's muse; and his most delightful work[176] seems to breathe
+something of the air, sweet and fresh like no other, which blows over an
+English countryside. Thomas Lodge, whose dramatic, and much less of
+course his literary activity, is measured by the only play that we know
+to have been wholly his;[177] Thomas Nashe, the redoubtable pamphleteer
+and the father of the English picaresque novel;[178] Henry Chettle, who
+worked the chords of both pity[179] and terror[180] with equal vigour,
+and Anthony Munday, better remembered for his city pageants than for his
+plays, are among the other more important writers of the early
+Elizabethan drama, though not all of them can strictly speaking be
+called predecessors of Shakespeare. It is not possible here to enumerate
+the more interesting of the anonymous plays which belong to this
+"pre-Shakespearian" period of the Elizabethan drama; but many of them
+are by intrinsic merit as well as for special causes deserving of the
+attention of the student.
+
+
+  Common characteristics of the early Elizabethans.
+
+The common characteristics of nearly all these dramatists and plays were
+in accordance with those of the great age to which they belonged.
+Stirring times called for stirring themes, such as those of "Mahomet,
+Scipio and Tamerlane"; and these again for a corresponding vigour of
+treatment. Neatness and symmetry of construction were neglected for
+fulness and variety of matter. Novelty and grandeur of subject seemed
+well matched by a swelling amplitude and often reckless extravagance of
+diction. As if from an inner necessity, the balance of rhymed couplets
+gave way to the impetuous march of blank verse; "strong lines" were as
+inevitably called for as strong situations and strong characters.
+Although the chief of these poets are marked off from one another by the
+individual genius which impressed itself upon both the form and the
+matter of their works, yet the stamp of the age is upon them all.
+Writing for the stage only, of which some of them possessed a personal
+experience and from which none of them held aloof, they acquired an
+instinctive insight into the laws of dramatic cause and effect, and
+infused a warm vitality into the dramatic literature which they
+produced, so to speak, for immediate consumption. On the other hand, the
+same cause made rapidity of workmanship indispensable to a successful
+playwright. _How_ a play was produced, how many hands had been at work
+upon it, what loans and what spoliations had been made in the process,
+were considerations of less moment than the question _whether_ it was
+produced, and whether it succeeded. His harness--frequently double or
+triple--was inseparable from the lusty Pegasus of the early English
+drama, and its genius toiled, to borrow the phrase of the Attic
+comedian, "like an Arcadian mercenary."
+
+
+  Progress of tragedy and comedy before Shakespeare.
+
+This period of the English drama, though it is far from being one of
+crude effort, could not therefore yet be one of full consummation. In
+tragedy the advance which had been made in the choice of great themes,
+in knitting closer the connection between the theatre and the national
+history, in vindicating to passion its right to adequate expression, was
+already enormous. In comedy the advance had been less decisive and less
+independent; much had been gained in reaching greater freedom of form
+and something in enlarging the range of subjects; but artificiality had
+proved a snare in the one direction, while the licence of the comic
+stage, upheld by favourite "clowns," such as Kemp or Tarlton, had not
+succumbed before less elastic demands. The way of escaping from the
+dilemma had, however, been already recognized to lie in the construction
+of suitable plots, for which a full storehouse was open in the popular
+traditions preserved in national ballads, and in the growing literature
+of translated foreign fiction, or of native imitations of it. Meanwhile,
+the aberration of the comic stage to political and religious
+controversy, which it could never hope to treat with Attic freedom in a
+country provided with a strong monarchy and a dogmatic religion, seemed
+likely to extinguish the promise of the beginnings of English romantic
+comedy.
+
+
+  Shakespeare.
+
+These were the circumstances under which the greatest of dramatists
+began to devote his genius to the theatre. Shakespeare's career as a
+writer of plays can have differed little in its beginnings from those of
+his contemporaries and rivals. Before or while he was proceeding from
+the re-touching and re-writing of the plays of others to original
+dramatic composition, the most gifted of those whom we have termed his
+predecessors had passed away. He had been decried as an actor before he
+was known as an author; and after living through days of darkness for
+the theatre, if not for himself, attained, before the close of the
+century, to the beginnings of his prosperity and the beginnings of his
+fame. But if we call him fortunate, it is not because of such rewards as
+these. As a poet, Shakespeare was no doubt happy in his times, which
+intensified the strength of the national character, expanded the
+activities of the national mind, and were able to add their stimulus
+even to such a creative power as his. He was happy in the antecedents of
+the form of literature which commended itself to his choice, and in the
+opportunities which it offered in so many directions for an advance to
+heights yet undiscovered and unknown. What he actually accomplished was
+due to his genius, whose achievements are immeasurable like itself. His
+influence upon the progress of English drama divides itself in very
+unequal proportions into a direct and an indirect influence. To the
+former alone reference can here be made.
+
+
+  Shakespeare and the national historical drama.
+
+Already the first editors of Shakespeare's works in a collected form
+recognized so marked a distinction between his plays taken from English
+history and those treating other historical subjects (whether ancient or
+modern) that, while they included the latter among the tragedies at
+large, they grouped the former as _histories_ by themselves. These
+_histories_ are in their literary genesis a development of the
+_chronicle histories_ of Shakespeare's predecessors and contemporaries,
+the taste for which had greatly increased towards the beginning of his
+own career as a dramatist, in accordance with the general progress of
+national life and sentiment in this epoch. Though it cannot be assumed
+that Shakespeare composed his several dramas from English history in the
+sequence of the chronology of their themes, his genius gave to the
+entire series an inner harmony, and a continuity corresponding to that
+which is distinctive of the national life, such as not unnaturally
+inspired certain commentators with the wish to prove it a symmetrically
+constructed whole. He thus brought this peculiarly national species to a
+perfection which made it difficult, if not impossible, for his later
+contemporaries and successors to make more than an occasional addition
+to his series. None of them was, however, found able or ready to take up
+the thread where Shakespeare had left it, after perfunctorily attaching
+the present to the past by a work (probably not all his own) which must
+be regarded as the end rather than the crown of the series of his
+_histories_.[181] But to furnish such supplements accorded little with
+the tastes and tendencies of the later Elizabethans; and with the
+exception of an isolated work,[182] the national historical drama in
+Shakespeare reached at once its perfection and its close. The ruder form
+of the old chronicle history for a time survived the advance made upon
+it; but the efforts in this field of T. Heywood,[183] S. Rowley,[184]
+and others are, from a literary point of view, anachronisms.
+
+Of Shakespeare's other plays the several groups exercised a more direct
+influence upon the general progress of our dramatic literature. His
+Roman tragedies, though following their authorities with much the same
+fidelity as that of the English _histories_, even more effectively
+taught the great lesson of free dramatic treatment of historic themes,
+and thus pre-eminently became the perennial models of the modern
+historic drama. His tragedies on other subjects, which necessarily
+admitted of a more absolute freedom of treatment, established themselves
+as the examples for all time of the highest kind of tragedy. Where else
+is exhibited with the same fulness the struggle between will and
+obstacle, character and circumstance? Where is mirrored with equal power
+and variety the working of those passions in the mastery of which over
+man lies his doom? Here, above all, Shakespeare as compared with his
+predecessors, as well as with his successors, "_is_ that nature which
+they paint and draw." He threw open to modern tragedy a range of
+hitherto unknown breadth and depth and height, and emancipated the
+national drama in its noblest forms from limits to which it could never
+again restrict itself without a consciousness of having renounced its
+enfranchisement. Happily for the variety of his creative genius on the
+English stage, no divorce had been proclaimed between the serious and
+the comic, and no division of species had been established such as he
+himself ridicules as pedantic when it professes to be exhaustive. The
+comedies of Shakespeare accordingly refuse to be tabulated in deference
+to any method of classification deserving to be called precise; and
+several of them are comedies only according to a purely technical use of
+the term. In those in which the instinct of reader or spectator
+recognizes the comic interest to be supreme, it is still of its nature
+incidental to the progress of the action; for the criticism seems just,
+as well as in agreement with what we can conclude as to Shakespeare's
+process of construction, that among all his comedies not more than a
+single one[185] is in both design and effect a comedy of character
+proper. Thus in this direction, while the unparalleled wealth of his
+invention renewed or created a whole gallery of types, he left much to
+be done by his successors; while the truest secrets of his comic art,
+which interweaves fancy with observation, draws wisdom from the lips of
+fools, and imbues with character what all other hands would have left
+shadowy, monstrous or trivial, are among the things inimitable belonging
+to the individuality of his poetic genius.
+
+
+  His style and its influence.
+
+The influences of Shakespeare's diction and versification upon those of
+the English drama in general can hardly be overrated, though it would be
+next to impossible to state them definitely. In these points,
+Shakespeare's manner as a writer was progressive; and this progress has
+been deemed sufficiently well traceable in his plays to be used as an
+aid in seeking to determine their chronological sequence. The general
+laws of this progress accord with those of the natural advance of
+creative genius; artificiality gives way to freedom, and freedom in its
+turn submits to a greater degree of regularity and care. In
+versification as in diction the earliest and the latest period of
+Shakespeare's dramatic writing are more easily recognizable than what
+lies between and may be called the _normal_ period, the plays belonging
+to which in form most resemble one another, and are least affected by
+distinguishable peculiarities--such as the rhymes and intentionally
+euphuistic colouring of style which characterize the earliest, or the
+feminine endings of the lines and the more condensed manner of
+expression common to the latest of his plays. But, such distinctions
+apart, there can be no doubt but that in verse and in prose alike,
+Shakespeare's style, so far as it admitted of reproduction, is itself to
+be regarded as the _norm_ of that of the Elizabethan drama; that in it
+the prose form of English comedy possesses its first accepted model; and
+that in it the chosen metre of the English versified drama established
+itself as irremovable unless at the risk of an artificial experiment.
+
+
+  Influence of his method of construction.
+
+The assertion may seem paradoxical, that it is by their construction
+that Shakespeare's plays exerted the most palpable influence upon the
+English drama, as well as upon the modern drama of the Germanic nations
+in general, and upon such forms of the Romance drama as have been in
+more recent times based upon it. For it was not in construction that his
+greatest strength lay, or that the individuality of his genius could
+raise him above the conditions under which he worked in common with his
+immediate predecessors and contemporaries. Yet the fact that he accepted
+these conditions, while producing works of matchless strength and of
+unequalled fidelity to the demands of nature and art, established them
+as inseparable from the Shakespearian drama--to use a term which is
+perhaps unavoidable but has been often misapplied. The great and
+irresistible demand on the part of Shakespeare's public was for
+_incident_--a demand which of itself necessitated a method of
+construction different from that of the Greek drama, or of those
+modelled more or less closely upon it. To no other reason is to be
+ascribed the circumstance that Shakespeare so constantly combined two
+actions in the course of a single play, not merely supplementing the one
+by means of the other as a bye- or under-plot. In no respect is the
+progress of his technical skill as a dramatist more apparent,--a
+proposition which a comparison of plays clearly ascribable to successive
+periods of his life must be left to prove.
+
+
+  His characters.
+
+Should it, however, be sought to express in one word the greatest debt of
+the drama to Shakespeare, this word must be the same as that which
+expresses his supreme gift as a dramatist. It is in _characterization_--in
+the drawing of characters ranging through almost every type of humanity
+which furnishes a fit subject for the tragic or the comic art--that he
+remains absolutely unapproached; and it was in this direction that he
+pointed the way which the English drama could not henceforth desert
+without becoming untrue to itself. It may have been a mere error of
+judgment which afterwards held him to have been surpassed by others in
+particular fields of characterization (setting him down, forsooth, as
+supremely excellent in male, but not in female, characters). But it was a
+sure sign of decay when English writers began to shrink from following him
+in the endeavour to make the drama a mirror of humanity, and when, in
+self-condemned arrogance, they thrust unreality back upon a stage which he
+had animated with the warm breath of life, where Juliet had blossomed like
+a flower of spring, and where Othello's noble nature had suffered and
+sinned.
+
+
+  Forms of the later Elizabethan drama.
+
+  The pastoral drama.
+
+By the numerous body of poets who, contemporary with Shakespeare or in
+the next generation, cultivated the wide field of the national drama,
+every form commending itself to the tastes and sympathies of the
+national genius was essayed. None were neglected except those from which
+the spirit of English literature had been estranged by the Reformation,
+and those which had from the first been artificial importations of the
+Renaissance. The mystery could not in England, as in Spain, produce such
+an aftergrowth as the _auto_, and the confines of the religious drama
+were only now and then tentatively touched.[186] The direct imitations
+of classical examples were, except perhaps in the continued efforts of
+the academical drama, few and feeble. Chapman, while resorting to use of
+narrative in tragedy and perhaps otherwise indebted to ancient models,
+was no follower of them in essentials. S. Daniel (1562-1619) may be
+regarded as a belated disciple of Seneca,[187] while experiments like W.
+Alexander's (afterwards earl of Stirling) _Monarchicke Tragedies_[188]
+(1603-1605) are the mere isolated efforts of a student, and more
+exclusively so than Milton's imposing _Samson Agonistes_, which belongs
+to a later date (1677). At the opposite end of the dramatic scale, the
+light gaiety of the Italian and French farce could not establish itself
+on the English popular stage without more substantial adjuncts; the
+Englishman's festive digestion long continued robust, and he liked his
+amusements solid. In the pastoral drama and the mask, however, many
+English dramatists found special opportunities for the exercise of their
+lyrical gifts and of their inventive powers. The former could never
+become other than an exotic, so long as it retained the artificial
+character of its origin. Shakespeare had accordingly only blended
+elements derived from it into the action of his romantic comedies. In
+more or less isolated works Jonson, Fletcher, Daniel, Randolph, and
+others sought to rival Tasso and Guarini--Jonson[189] coming nearest to
+nationalizing an essentially foreign growth by the fresh simplicity of
+his treatment, Fletcher[190] bearing away the palm for beauty of poetic
+execution; Daniel being distinguished by simpler beauties of style in
+both verse and prose.[191]
+
+
+  The mask.
+
+The mask (or masque) was a more elastic kind of composition, mixing in
+varying proportions its constituent elements of declamation and
+dialogue, music and dancing, decoration and scenery. In its least
+elaborate literary form--which, of course, externally was the most
+elaborate--it closely approached the pageant; in other instances the
+distinctness of its characters or the fulness of the action introduced
+into its scheme, brought it nearer to the regular drama. A frequent
+ornament of Queen Elizabeth's progresses, it was cultivated with
+increased assiduity in the reign of James I., and in that of his
+successor outshone, by the favour it enjoyed with court and nobility,
+the attractions of the regular drama itself. Most of the later
+Elizabethan dramatists contributed to this species, upon which
+Shakespeare expended the resources of his fancy only incidentally in the
+course of his dramas; but by far the most successful writer of masks was
+Ben Jonson, of whose numerous compositions of this kind many hold a
+permanent place in English poetic literature, and "next" whom, in his
+own judgment, "only Fletcher and Chapman could write a mask." From a
+poetic point of view, however, they were at least rivalled by Dekker and
+Ford; in productivity and favour T. Campion, who was equally eminent as
+poet and as musician, seems for a time to have excelled. Inasmuch,
+however, as the history of the mask in England is to a great extent that
+of "painting and carpentry" and of Inigo Jones, and as, moreover, this
+kind of piece, while admitting dramatic elements, is of its nature
+occasional, it need not further be pursued here. The _Microcosmus_ of T.
+Nabbes (printed 1637), which is very like a morality, seems to have been
+the first mask brought upon the public stage. It was the performance of
+a mask by Queen Henrietta Maria and her ladies at Whitehall which had
+some years previously (1632) been thought to have supplied to the
+invective of _Histrio-Mastix_ against the stage the occasion for
+disloyal innuendo; and it was for the performance of a mask in a great
+nobleman's castle that Milton--a Puritan of a very different cast--not
+long afterwards (1634) wrote one of the loftiest and loveliest of
+English poems. _Comus_ has been judged and condemned as a
+drama--unjustly, for the dramatic qualities of a mask are not essential
+to it as a species. Yet its history in England remains inseparably
+connected with that of the Elizabethan drama. In later times the mask
+merged into the opera, or continued a humble life of its own apart from
+contact with higher literary effort. It is strange that later English
+poets should have done so little to restore to its nobler uses, and to
+invest with a new significance, a form so capable of further development
+as the poetic mask.
+
+
+  The later Elizabethan drama.
+
+The annals of English drama proper in the period reaching from the
+closing years of Elizabeth to the outbreak of the great Revolution
+include, together with numerous names relatively insignificant, many
+illustrious in the history of our poetic literature. Among Shakespeare's
+contemporaries and successors there is, however, but one who by the
+energy of his genius, not less than by the circumstances of his literary
+career, reached undisputed primacy among his fellows. Ben Jonson, to
+whom in his latter days a whole generation of younger writers did filial
+homage as to their veteran chief, was alone in full truth the founder of
+a school or family of dramatists. Yet his pre-eminence did not (whatever
+he or his followers may have thought) extend to both branches of the
+regular drama. In tragedy he fell short of the highest success; the
+weight of his learning lay too heavily upon his efforts to draw from
+deeper sources than those which had sufficed for Shakespeare. Such as
+they are, his tragic works[192] stand almost, though not quite, alone in
+this period as examples of sustained effort in historic tragedy proper.
+G. Chapman treated stirring themes, more especially from modern French
+history,[193] always with vigour, and at times with genuine
+effectiveness; but, though rich in beauties of detail, he failed in this
+branch of the drama to follow Shakespeare even at a distance in the
+supreme art of fully developing a character by means of the action.
+Mention has been made above of Ford's isolated effort in the direction
+of historic tragedy, as well as of excursions into the still popular
+domain of the chronicle history by T. Heywood, Dekker and others, which
+cannot be regarded as anything more than retrogressions. With the great
+body of the English dramatists of this and of the next period, tragedy
+had passed into a phase where its interest depended mainly upon plot and
+incident. The romantic tragedies and tragi-comedies which crowd English
+literature in this period constitute together a growth of at first sight
+astonishing exuberance, and in mere externals of theme--ranging as these
+plays do from Byzantium to ancient Britain, and from the Caesars of
+ancient Rome to the tyrants of the Renaissance--of equally astonishing
+variety. The sources from which these subjects were derived had been
+perennially augmenting. Besides Italian, Spanish and French fiction,
+original or translated, besides British legend in its Romance dress, and
+English fiction in its humbler or in its more ambitious and artificial
+forms, the contemporary foreign drama, especially the Spanish, offered
+opportunities for resort. To the English, as to the French and Italian
+drama, of both this and the following century, the prolific dramatists
+clustering round Lope de Vega and Calderon, and the native or
+naturalized fictions from which they drew their materials supplied a
+whole arsenal of plots, incidents and situations--among others to
+Middleton, to Webster, and most signally to Beaumont and Fletcher. And,
+in addition to these resources, a new field of supply was at hand since
+English dramatists had begun to regard events and episodes of domestic
+life as fit subjects for tragic treatment. Domestic tragedy of this
+description was indeed no novelty on the English stage; Shakespeare
+himself may have retouched with his master-hand more than one effort of
+this kind;[194] but T. Heywood may be set down as the first who achieved
+any work of considerable literary value of this class,[195] to which
+some of the plays of T. Dekker, T. Middleton, and others likewise more
+or less belong. Yet, in contrast to this wide variety of sources, and
+consequent apparent variety of themes, the number of _motives_
+employed--at least as a rule--in the tragic drama of this period was
+comparatively small and limited. Hence it is that, notwithstanding the
+diversity of subjects among the tragic dramas of such writers as
+Marston, Webster, Fletcher, Ford and Shirley, an impression of sameness
+is left upon us by a connected perusal of these works. Scheming
+ambition, conjugal jealousy, absolute female devotion, unbridled
+masculine passion--such are the motives which constantly recur in the
+Decameron of our later Elizabethan drama. And this impression is
+heightened by the want of moderation, by the extravagance of passion,
+which these dramatists so habitually exhibit in the treatment of their
+favourite themes. All the tragic poets of this period are not equally
+amenable to this charge; in J. Webster,[196] master as he is of the
+effects of the horrible, and in J. Ford,[197] surpassingly seductive in
+his sweetness, the monotony of exaggerated passion is broken by those
+marvellously sudden and subtle touches through which their tragic genius
+creates its most thrilling effects. Nor will the tendency to excess of
+passion which F. Beaumont and J. Fletcher undoubtedly exhibit be
+confounded with their distinctive power of sustaining tenderly pathetic
+characters and irresistibly moving situations in a degree unequalled by
+any of their contemporaries--a power seconded by a beauty of diction and
+softness of versification which for a time raised them to the highest
+pinnacle of popular esteem, and which entitles them in their
+conjunction, and Fletcher as an independent worker, to an enduring
+pre-eminence among their fellows. In their morals Beaumont and Fletcher
+are not above the level of their age. The manliness of sentiment and
+occasionally greater width of outlook which ennoble the rhetorical
+genius of P. Massinger, and the gift of poetic illustration which
+entitles J. Shirley to be remembered not merely as the latest and the
+most fertile of this group of dramatists, have less direct bearing upon
+the general character of the tragic art of the period. The common
+features of the romantic tragedy of this age are sufficiently marked;
+but they leave unobscured the distinctive features in its individual
+writers of which a discerning criticism has been able to take note.
+
+In comedy, on the other hand, the genius and the insight of Jonson
+pointed the way to a steady and legitimate advance. His theory of
+"humours" (which found the most palpable expression in two of his
+earliest plays[198]), if translated into the ordinary language of
+dramatic art, signifies the paramount importance in the comic drama of
+the presentation of distinctive human types. As such it survived by name
+into the Restoration age[199] and cannot be said to have ever died out.
+In the actual reproduction of humanity in its infinite but never, in his
+hands, alien variety, it was impossible that Shakespeare should be
+excelled by Jonson; but in the consciousness with which he recognized
+and indicated the highest sphere of a comic dramatist's labours, he
+rendered to the drama a direct service which the greater master had left
+unperformed. By the rest of his contemporaries and his successors, some
+of whom, such as R. Brome, were content avowedly to follow in his
+footsteps, Jonson was only occasionally rivalled in individual instances
+of comic creations; in the entirety of its achievements his genius as a
+comic dramatist remained unapproached. The favourite types of Jonsonian
+comedy, to which Dekker, J. Marston and Chapman had, though to no large
+extent, added others of their own, were elaborated with incessant zeal
+and remarkable effect by their contemporaries and successors. It was
+after a very different fashion from that in which the Roman comedians
+reiterated the ordinary types of the New Attic comedy, that the
+inexhaustible _verve_ of T. Middleton, the buoyant productivity of
+Fletcher, the observant humour of N. Field, and the artistic
+versatility of Shirley--not to mention many later and not necessarily
+minor names[200]--mirrored in innumerable pictures of contemporary life
+the undying follies and foibles of mankind. As comedians of manners more
+than one of these surpassed the old master, not indeed in distinctness
+and correctness--the fruits of the most painstaking genius that ever
+fitted a learned sock to the representation of the living realities of
+life--but in a lightness not incompatible with sureness of touch; while
+in the construction of plots the access of abundant new materials, and
+the greater elasticity in treatment resulting from accumulated
+experience, enabled them to advance from success to success. Thus the
+comic dramatic literature from Jonson to Shirley is unsurpassed as a
+comedy of manners, while as a comedy of character it at least defies
+comparison with any other national literary growth preceding or
+contemporaneous with it. Though the younger generation, of which W.
+Cartwright may be taken as an example, was unequal in originality or
+force to its predecessors, yet so little exhausted was the vitality of
+the species, that its traditions survived the _interregnum_ of the
+Revolution, and connected themselves more closely than is sometimes
+assumed with later growths of English comedy.
+
+
+  The later academical drama.
+
+Such was also the case with a special growth which had continued side by
+side, but in growing frequency of contact, with the progress of the
+national drama. The academical drama of the later Elizabethan period and
+of the first two Stuart reigns by no means fell off either in activity
+or in variety from that of the preceding generations. At Oxford, after
+an apparent break of several years--though in the course of these one or
+two new plays, including a _Tancred_ by Sir Henry Wotton at Queen's,
+seem to have been produced--a long succession of English plays, some in
+Latin doubtless from time to time intervening, were performed, from the
+early years of the 17th century onwards to the dark days of the national
+theatre and beyond. The production of these plays was distributed among
+several colleges, among which the most conspicuously active were Christ
+Church and St John's, where a whole series of festal performances took
+place under the collective title of _The Christmas Prince_ (i.e. master
+of the Christmas revels). They included a wide variety of pieces, from
+the treatment by an author unnamed of the story of "Ovid's owne
+Narcissus" (1602) and S. Daniel's _Queen's Arcadia_ (1606) to Barten
+Holiday's _Technogamia_ (1618), a complicated allegory on the relations
+between the arts and sciences quite in the manner of the moralities;
+interspersed by romantic dramas of the ordinary contemporary type by T.
+Goffe (1591-1629), W. Cartwright, J. Maine (1604-1672) and others. At
+Cambridge the list of Latin and English academical plays, performed in
+the latter half of Elizabeth's reign at Trinity, St John's, Queen's and
+a few other colleges, contains several examples in each language which
+for one reason or another possess a special interest. Thus E. Forsett's
+_Pedantius_, probably acted at Trinity in 1581, ridicules a personage
+who lived very near the rose--the redoubtable Gabriel Harvey;[201] a
+_Laelia_, acted at Queen's in 1590 and again in 1598, resembles _Twelfth
+Night_ in part of its plot; while in _Silvanus_, performed in 1596,
+probably at St John's, there are certain striking similarities to _As
+You Like It_. These are in Latin, as are the comedies _Hispanus_
+(containing some curious allusions to the Armada, Drake and Dr Lopez)
+and _Machiavellus_, acted at St John's in 1597.[202] By far the most
+interesting of the English plays of the later Cambridge series, and, it
+may be averred, of the remains of the English academical drama as a
+whole, are the Parnassus Plays (q.v.), successively produced at St
+John's in 1598-1602, which illustrate with much truthfulness as well as
+fancy the relations between university life and the outside world,
+including the world of letters and of the stage. Upon a different, but
+also a very notable, aspect of English university life--the relations
+between town and gown--a partisan light is thrown by _Club-Law_, acted
+at Clare in 1599--and in G. Ruggle's celebrated Latin comedy of
+_Ignoramus_, twice acted by members of Clare at Trinity in 1615 before
+King James I. On one of these occasions were also produced in English T.
+Tomkis' comedy _Albumazar_ (a play absurdly attributed to Shakespeare),
+and Phineas Fletcher's _Sicelides_, a "piscatory" (i.e. a pastoral drama
+in which the place of the shepherds is taken by fishermen). Latin and
+English plays continued to be brought out in Cambridge till the year of
+the outbreak of the Civil War, T. Randolph and A. Cowley[203] being
+among the authors of some of the latest so produced; and with the
+Restoration the usage recommenced, the _Adelphi_ of Terence and other
+Latin comedies being performed as they had been a century earlier. A
+complete survey and classification of the English academical drama, for
+which the materials are at last being collected and compared, will prove
+of an importance which is only beginning to be recognized to the future
+historian of the English drama.
+
+
+  The stage.
+
+To return to the general current of that drama. The rivals against which
+it had to contend in the times with which its greatest epoch came to an
+end have in their turn been noticed. From the masks and triumphs at
+court and at the houses of the nobility, with their Olympuses and
+Parnassuses built by Inigo Jones, and filled with goddesses and nymphs
+clad in the gorgeous costumes designed by his inventive hand, to the
+city pageants and shows by land and water--from the tilts and
+tournaments at Whitehall to the more philosophical devices at the Inns
+of Court and the academical plays at the universities--down even to the
+brief but thrilling theatrical excitements of Bartholomew Fair and the
+"Ninevitical motions" of the puppets--in all these ways the various
+sections of the theatrical public were tempted aside. Foreign
+performers--French and Spanish actors, and even French actresses--paid
+visits to London. But the national drama held its ground. The art of
+acting maintained itself at least on the level to which it had been
+brought by Shakespeare's associates and contemporaries, Burbage and
+Heminge, Alleyn, Lewin, Taylor, and others "of the older sort." The
+profession of actor came to be more generally than of old separated from
+that of playwright, though they were still (as in the case of Field)
+occasionally combined. But this rather led to an increased appreciation
+of the artistic merit of actors who valued the dignity of their own
+profession and whose co-operation the authors learnt to esteem as of
+independent significance. The stage was purged from the barbarism of the
+old school of clowns. Women's parts were still acted by boys, many of
+whom attained to considerable celebrity; and a practice was thus
+continued which must assuredly have placed the English theatre at a
+considerable disadvantage as compared with the Spanish (where it never
+obtained), and which may, while it has been held to have facilitated
+freedom of fancy, more certainly encouraged the extreme licence of
+expression cherished by the dramatists. The arrangement of the stage,
+which facilitated a rapid succession of scenes without any necessity for
+their being organically connected with one another, remained essentially
+what it had been in Shakespeare's days; though the primitive expedients
+for indicating locality had begun to be occasionally exchanged for
+scenery more or less appropriate to the place of action. Costume was
+apparently cultivated with much greater care; and the English stage of
+this period had probably gone a not inconsiderable way in a direction to
+which it is obviously in the interests of the dramatic art to set some
+bounds, if it is to depend for its popular success upon its qualities as
+such, and upon the interpretation of its agents upon the stage. At the
+same time, the drama had begun largely to avail itself of adventitious
+aids to favour. The system of prologues and epilogues, and of
+dedications to published plays, was more uniformly employed than it had
+been by Shakespeare as the conventional method of recommending authors
+and actors to the favour of individual patrons, and to that of their
+chief patron, the public.
+
+
+  The drama and Puritanism.
+
+  Closing of the theatres.
+
+Up to the outbreak of the Civil War the drama in all its forms continued
+to enjoy the favour or good-will of the court, although a close
+supervision was exercised over all attempts to make the stage the
+vehicle of political references or allusions. The regular official agent
+of this supervision was the master of the revels; but under James I. a
+special ordinance, in harmony with the king's ideas concerning the
+dignity of the throne, was passed "against representing any modern
+Christian king in plays on the stage." The theatre could hardly expect
+to be allowed a liberty of speech in reference to matters of state
+denied to the public at large; and occasional attempts to indulge in the
+freedom of criticism dear to the spirit of comedy met with more or less
+decisive repression and punishment.[204] But the sympathies of the
+dramatists were so entirely on the side of the court that the real
+difficulties against which the theatre had to contend came from a
+directly opposite quarter. With the growth of Puritanism the feeling of
+hostility to the stage increased in a large part of the population, well
+represented by the civic authorities of the capital. This hostility
+found many ways of expressing itself. The attempts to suppress the
+Blackfriars theatre (1619, 1631, 1633) proved abortive; but the
+representation of stage-plays continued to be prohibited on Sundays, and
+during the prevalence of the plague in London in 1637 was temporarily
+suspended altogether. The desire of the Puritans of the more pronounced
+type openly aimed at a permanent closing of the theatres. The war
+between them and the dramatists was accordingly of a life-and-death
+kind. On the one hand, the drama heaped its bitterest and often coarsest
+attacks upon whatever savoured of the Puritan spirit; gibes, taunts,
+caricatures in ridicule and aspersion of Puritans and Puritanism make up
+a great part of the comic literature of the later Elizabethan drama and
+of its aftergrowth in the reigns of the first two Stuarts. This feeling
+of hostility, to which Shakespeare was no stranger,[205] though he
+cannot be connected with the authorship of one of its earliest and
+coarsest expressions,[206] rose into a spirit of open defiance in some
+of the masterpieces of Ben Jonson;[207] and the comedies of his
+contemporaries and successors[208] abound in caricatured reproductions
+of the more common or more extravagant types of Puritan life. On the
+other hand, the moral defects, the looseness of tone, the mockery of
+ties sanctioned by law and consecrated by religion, the tendency to
+treat middle-class life as the hunting-ground for the diversions of the
+upper classes, which degraded so much of the dramatic literature of the
+age, intensified the Puritan opposition to all and any stage plays. A
+patient endeavour to reform instead of suppressing the drama was not to
+be looked for from such adversaries, should they ever possess the means
+of carrying out their views; and whenever Puritanism should victoriously
+assert itself in the state, the stage was doomed. Among the attacks
+directed against it in its careless heyday of prosperity Prynne's
+_Histrio-Mastix_ (1632), while it involved its author in shamefully
+cruel persecution, did not remain wholly without effect upon the tone of
+the dramatic literature of the subsequent period; but the quarrel
+between Puritanism and the theatre was too old and too deep to end in
+any but one way, so soon as the latter was deprived of its protectors.
+The Civil War began in August 1642; and early in the following month was
+published the ordinance of the Lords and Commons, which, after a brief
+and solemn preamble, commanded "that while these sad causes and
+set-times of humiliation do continue, public stage plays shall cease and
+be forborne." Many actors and playwrights followed the fortunes of the
+royal cause in the field; some may have gone into a more or less
+voluntary exile; upon those who lingered on in the familiar haunts the
+hand of power lay heavy; and, though there seems reason to believe that
+dramatic entertainments of one kind or another continued to be
+occasionally presented, stringent ordinances gave summary powers to
+magistrates against any players found engaged in such proceedings
+(1647), and bade them treat all stage-players as rogues, and pull down
+all stage galleries, seats and boxes (1648). A few dramatic works were
+published in this period;[209] while at fairs about the country were
+acted farces called "drolls," consisting of the most vulgar scenes to be
+found in popular plays. Thus, the life of the drama was not absolutely
+extinguished; and its darkest day proved briefer than perhaps either its
+friends or its foes could have supposed.
+
+
+  Revival of the drama.
+
+Already "in Oliver's time" private performances took place from time to
+time at noblemen's houses and (though not undisturbed) in the old haunt
+of the drama, the Red Bull. In 1656 the ingenuity of Sir William
+Davenant whose name (though not really so significant in the dramatic as
+in another field of English literature) is memorable as connecting
+together two distinct periods in it, ventured on a bolder step in the
+production of a quasi-dramatic entertainment "of declamation and music";
+and in the following year he brought out with scenery and music a piece
+which was afterwards in an enlarged form acted and printed as the first
+part of his opera, _The Siege of Rhodes_. This entertainment he
+afterwards removed from the private house where it had been produced to
+the Cockpit, where he soon ventured upon the performance of regular
+plays written by himself. Thus, under the cover of two sister arts,
+whose aid was in the sequel to prove by no means altogether beneficial
+to its progress, the English drama had boldly anticipated the
+Restoration, and was no longer hiding its head when that much-desired
+event was actually brought about. Soon after Charles II.'s entry into
+London, two theatrical companies are known to have been acting in the
+capital. For these companies patents were soon granted, under the names
+of "the Duke (of York)'s" and "the King's Servants," to Davenant and one
+of the brothers Killigrew respectively--the former from 1662 acting at
+Lincoln's Inn Fields, then at Dorset Garden in Salisbury Court, the
+latter from 1663 at the Theatre Royal near Drury Lane. These companies
+were united from 1682, a royal licence being granted in 1695 to a rival
+company which performed in Lincoln's Inn Fields, and which migrated to
+Covent Garden in 1733. Meanwhile, Vanbrugh had in 1705 built the theatre
+in the Haymarket; and a theatre in Goodman's Fields--afterwards rendered
+famous by the first appearance of Garrick--led a fitful existence from
+1729 to 1733. The act of 1737 deprived the crown of the power of
+licensing any more theatres; so that the history of the English stage
+for a long period was confined to a restricted area. The rule which
+prevailed after the Restoration, that neither of the rival companies
+should ever attempt a play produced by the other, operated beneficially
+both upon the activity of dramatic authorship and upon the progress of
+the art of acting, which was not exposed to the full effects of that
+deplorable spirit of personal rivalry which too often leads even most
+intelligent actors to attempt parts for which they have no special
+qualification. There can be little doubt that the actor's art has rarely
+flourished more in England than in the days of T. Betterton and his
+contemporaries, among whose names those of Hart, Mohun, Kynaston, Nokes,
+Mrs Barry, Mrs Betterton, Mrs Bracegirdle and Mrs Eleanor Gwyn have,
+together with many others, survived in various connexions among the
+memories of the Restoration age. No higher praise has ever been given to
+an actor than that which Addison bestowed upon Betterton, in describing
+his performance of _Othello_ as a proof that Shakespeare could not have
+written the most striking passages of the character otherwise than he
+has done.
+
+
+  The Irish stage.
+
+It may here be noticed that the fortunes of the Irish theatre in general
+followed those of the English, of which of course it was merely a
+branch. Of native dramatic compositions in earlier times not a trace
+remains in Ireland; and the drama was introduced into that country as an
+English exotic--apparently already in the reign of Henry VIII., and more
+largely in that of Elizabeth. The first theatre in Dublin was built in
+1635; but in 1641 it was closed, and even after the Restoration the
+Irish stage continued in a precarious condition till near the end of the
+century. About that time an extraordinarily strong taste for the theatre
+took possession of Irish society, and during the greater part of the
+18th century the Dublin stage rivalled the English in the brilliancy of
+its stars. Betterton's rival, R. Wilks, Garrick's predecessor in the
+homage paid to Shakespeare, Macklin, and his competitor for favour, the
+"silver-tongued" Barry, were alike products of the Irish stage, as were
+Mrs Woffington and other well-known actresses. Nor should it be
+forgotten that three of the foremost English writers of comedy in its
+later days, Congreve, Farquhar and Sheridan, were Irish, the first by
+education, and the latter two by birth also.
+
+
+  The later Stuart drama.
+
+Already in the period preceding the outbreak of the Civil War the
+English drama had perceptibly sunk from the height to which it had been
+raised by the great Elizabethans. When it had once more recovered
+possession of that arena with which no living drama can dispense, it
+would have been futile to demand that the dramatists should return
+altogether into the ancient paths, unaffected by the influences, native
+or foreign, in operation around them. But there was no reason why the
+new drama should not, like the Elizabethan, have been true in spirit to
+the higher purposes of the dramatic art, to the nobler tendencies of the
+national life, and to the demands of moral law. Because the later Stuart
+drama as a whole proved untrue to these, and, while following its own
+courses, never more than partially returned from the aberrations to
+which it condemned itself, its history is that of a decay which the
+indisputable brilliancy, borrowed or original, of many of its
+productions is incapable of concealing.
+
+
+  Tragedy.
+
+Owing in part to the influence of the French theatre, which by this time
+had taken the place of the Spanish as the ruling drama of Europe, the
+separation between tragedy and comedy is clearly marked in
+post-Restoration plays. Comic scenes are still occasionally introduced
+into tragedies by some dramatists who adhered more closely to the
+Elizabethan models (such as Otway and Crowne), but the practice fell
+into disuse; while the endeavour to elevate comedy by pathetic scenes
+and motives is one of the characteristic marks of the beginning of
+another period in English dramatic literature. The successive phases
+through which English tragedy passed in the later Stuart times cannot be
+always kept distinct from one another; and the guidance offered by the
+theories put forth by some of the dramatists in support of their
+practice is often delusive. Following the example of Corneille, Dryden
+and his contemporaries and successors were fond of proclaiming their
+adherence to this or that principle of dramatic construction or form,
+and of upholding, with much show of dialectical acumen, maxims derived
+by them from French or other sources, or elaborated with modifications
+and variations of their own, but usually amounting to little more than
+what Scott calls "certain romantic whimsical imitations of the dramatic
+art." Students of the drama will find much entertainment and much
+instruction in these prefaces, apologies, dialogues and treatises. They
+will acknowledge that Dryden's incomparable vigour does not desert him
+either in the exposing or in the upholding of fallacies, while _le bon
+sens_, which he hardly ever fails to exhibit, and which is a more
+eclectic gift than common-sense, serves as a sure guide to the best
+intelligence of his age. Even Rymer,[210] usually regarded as having
+touched the nadir of dramatic criticism, will be found to be not wholly
+without grains of salt. But Restoration tragedy itself must not be
+studied by the light of Restoration criticism. So long as any dramatic
+power remained in the tragic poets--and it is absent from none of the
+chief among them from Dryden to Rowe--the struggle between fashion
+(disguised as theory) and instinct (tending in the direction of the
+Elizabethan traditions) could never wholly determine itself in favour of
+the former.
+
+Lord Orrery, in deference, as he declares, to the expressed tastes of
+his sovereign King Charles II. himself, was the first to set up the
+standard of _heroic plays_.[211] This new species of tragedy (for such
+it professed to be) commended itself by its novel choice of themes, to a
+large extent supplied by recent French romance--the _romans de longue
+haleine_ of the Scuderys and their contemporaries--and by French plays
+treating similar themes. It likewise borrowed from France that garb of
+rhyme which the English drama had so long abandoned, and which now
+reappeared in the heroic couplet. But the themes which to readers of
+novels might seem of their nature inexhaustible could not long suffice
+to satisfy the more capricious appetite of theatrical audiences; and the
+form, in the application which it was more or less sought to enforce for
+it, was doomed to remain an exotic. In conjunction with his
+brother-in-law Sir R. Howard,[212] and afterwards more confidently by
+himself,[213] Dryden threw the incomparable vigour and brilliancy of his
+genius into the scale, which soon rose to the full height of fashionable
+popularity. At first he claimed for English tragedy the right to combine
+her native inheritance of freedom with these valuable foreign
+acquisitions.[214] Nor was he dismayed by the ridicule which the
+celebrated burlesque (by the duke of Buckingham and others) of _The
+Rehearsal_ (1671) cast upon heroic plays, without discriminating between
+them and such other materials for ridicule as the contemporary drama
+supplied to its facetious authors, but returned[215] to the defence of a
+species which he was himself in the end to abandon.[216] The desire for
+change proved stronger than the love of consistency--which in Dryden was
+never more than theoretical. After summoning tragedy to rival the
+freedom (without disdaining the machinery) of opera--with whose birth
+its own revival was as a matter of fact simultaneous--he came to
+recognize in characterization the truest secret of the master-spirit of
+the Elizabethan drama,[217] and after audaciously, but in one instance
+not altogether unhappily, essaying to rival Shakespeare on his own
+ground,[218] produced under the influence of the same views at least one
+work of striking merit.[219] But he was already growing weary of the
+stage itself as well as of the rhymed heroic drama; and, though he put
+an end to the species to which he had given temporary vitality, he
+failed effectively to point the way to a more legitimate development of
+English tragedy. Among the other tragic poets of this period, N. Lee, in
+the outward form of his dramas, accommodated his practice to that of
+Dryden, with whom he occasionally co-operated as a dramatist, and like
+whom he allowed political partisanship to intrude upon the stage.[220]
+His rhetorical genius was not devoid of genuine energy, nor is he to be
+regarded as a mere imitator. T. Otway, the most gifted tragic poet of
+the younger generation contemporary with Dryden, inherited something of
+the spirit of the Elizabethan drama; he possessed a real gift of tragic
+pathos and melting tenderness; but his genius had a worse alloy than
+stageyness, and, though he was often happy in his novel choice of
+themes, his most successful efforts fail to satisfy tests supplementary
+to that of the stage.[221] Among dramatists who contributed to the vogue
+of the "heroic" play may be mentioned J. Bankes, J. Weston, C. Hopkins,
+E. Cooke, R. Gould, S. Pordage, T. Rymer and Elkanah Settle. The
+productivity of J. Crowne (d. c. 1703)[222] covers part of the earlier
+period as well as of the later, to which properly belong T. Southerne, a
+writer gifted with much pathetic power, but probably chiefly indebted
+for his long-lived popularity to his skill in the discovery of
+"sensational" plots; and Lord Lansdowne ("Granville the polite") (c.
+1667-1735). Congreve, by virtue of a single long celebrated but not
+really remarkable tragedy,[223] and N. Rowe, may be further singled out
+from the list of the tragic dramatists of this period, many of whom
+were, like their comic contemporaries, mere translators or adapters from
+the French. The tragedies of Rowe, whose direct services to the study of
+Shakespeare deserve remembrance, indicate with singular distinctness the
+transition from the fuller declamatory style of Dryden to the calmer and
+thinner manner of Addison.[224] In tragedy (as to a more marked degree
+in comedy) the excesses (both of style and subject) of the past period
+of the English drama had produced an inevitable reaction; decorum was
+asserting its claims on the stage as in society; and French tragedy had
+set the example of sacrificing what passion--and what vigour--it
+retained in favour of qualities more acceptable to the "reformed" court
+of Louis XIV. Addison, in allowing his _Cato_ to take its chance upon
+the stage, when a moment of political excitement (April 1713) ensured to
+it an extraordinary success, to which no feature in it corresponds,
+except an unusual number of lines predestined to become familiar
+quotations, unconsciously sealed the doom of English national tragedy.
+The "first reasonable English tragedy," as Voltaire called it, had been
+produced, and the oscillations of the tragic drama of the Restoration
+were at an end.
+
+
+  Comedy.
+
+English comedy in this period displayed no similar desire to cut itself
+off from the native soil, though it freely borrowed the materials for
+its plots and many of its figures from Spanish, and afterwards more
+generally from French, originals. The spirit of the old romantic comedy
+had long since fled; the graceful artificialities of the pastoral drama,
+even the light texture of the mask, ill suited the demands of an age
+which made no secret to itself of the grossness of its sensuality. With
+a few unimportant exceptions, such poetic elements as admitted of being
+combined with the poetic drama were absorbed by the opera and the
+ballet. No new species of the comic drama formed itself, though towards
+the close of the period may be noticed the beginnings of modern English
+farce. Political and religious partisanship, generally in accordance
+with the dominant reaction against Puritanism, were allowed to find
+expression in the directest and coarsest forms upon the stage, and to
+hasten the necessity for a more systematic control than even the times
+before the Revolution had found requisite. At the same time the
+unblushing indecency which the Restoration had spread through court and
+capital had established its dominion over the comic stage, corrupting
+the manners, and with them the morals, of its dramatists, and forbidding
+them, at the risk of seeming dull, to be anything but improper. Much of
+this found its way even into the epilogues, which, together with the
+prologues, proved so important an adjunct of the Restoration drama.
+These influences determine the general character of what is with a more
+than chronological meaning termed the comedy of the Restoration. In
+construction, the national love of fulness and solidity of dramatic
+treatment induced its authors to alter what they borrowed from foreign
+sources, adding to complicated Spanish plots characters of native
+English directness, and supplementing single French plots by the
+addition of others.[225] At the same time, the higher efforts of French
+comedy of character, as well as the refinement of expression in the list
+of their models, notably in Moliere, were alike seasoned to suit the
+coarser appetites and grosser palates of English patrons. The English
+comic writers often succeeded in strengthening the borrowed texture of
+their plays, but they never added comic humour without at the same time
+adding coarseness of their own. Such were the productions of Sir George
+Etheredge, Sir Charles Sedley, and the "mob of gentlemen who wrote with
+ease"; nor was there any signal difference between their productions and
+those of a playwright-actor such as J. Lacy (d. 1681), and a
+professional dramatist of undoubted ability such as J. Crowne. Such,
+though often displaying the brilliancy of a genius which even where it
+sank could never wholly abandon its prerogative, were, it must be
+confessed, the comedies of Dryden himself. On the other hand, the lowest
+literary deeps of the Restoration drama were sounded by T. D'Urfey,
+while of its moral degradation the "divine Astraea," the "unspeakable"
+Mrs Aphra Behn, has an indefeasible title to be considered the most
+faithful representative. T. Shadwell, fated, like the tragic poet
+Elkanah Settle, to be chiefly remembered as a victim of Dryden's satire,
+deserves more honourable mention. Like J. Wilson, whose plays seem to
+class him with the pre-Restoration dramatists, Shadwell had caught
+something not only of the art, but also of the spirit, of Ben Jonson;
+but in most of his works he was, like the rest of his earlier
+contemporaries, and like the brilliant group which succeeded them,
+content to take his moral tone from the reckless society for which, or
+in deference to the tastes of which, he wrote.[226] The absence of a
+moral sense, which, together with a grossness of expression often
+defying exaggeration, characterizes English comic dramatists from the
+days of Dryden to those of Congreve, is the main cause of their failure
+to satisfy the demands which are legitimately to be made upon their art.
+They essayed to draw character as well as to paint manners, but they
+rarely proved equal to the former and higher task; and, while choosing
+the means which most readily commended their plays to the favour of
+their immediate public, they achieved but little as interpreters of
+those essential distinctions which their art is capable of
+illustrating.[227] Within these limits, though occasionally passing
+beyond them, and always with the same deference to the immoral tone
+which seemed to have become an indispensable adjunct of the comic style,
+even the greatest comic authors of this age moved. W. Wycherley was a
+comic dramatist of real power, who drew his characters with vigour and
+distinctness, and constructed his plots and chose his language with
+natural ease. He lacks gaiety of spirit, and his wit is of a cynical
+turn. But, while he ruthlessly uncloaks the vices of his age, his own
+moral tone is affected by their influence in as marked a degree as that
+of the most light-hearted of his contemporaries.[228] The most brilliant
+of these was indisputably W. Congreve, who is not only one of the very
+wittiest of English writers, but equally excels in the graceful ease of
+his dialogue, and draws his characters and constructs his plots with the
+same masterly skill. His chief fault as a dramatist is one of
+excess--the brilliancy of the dialogue, whoever be the speaker,
+overpowers the distinction between the "humours" of his personages.
+Though he is less brutal in expression than "manly" Wycherley, and less
+coarse than the lively Sir J. Vanbrugh, licentiousness in him as in them
+corrupts the spirit of his comic art; but of his best though not most
+successful play[229] it must be allowed that the issue of the main plot
+is on the side of virtue. G. Farquhar, whose morality is on a par with
+that of the other members of this group, is inferior to them in
+brilliancy; but as pictures of manners in a wider sphere of life than
+that which contemporary comedy usually chose to illustrate, two of his
+plays deserve to be noticed, in which we already seem to be entering the
+atmosphere of the 18th-century novel.[230] His influence upon Lessing is
+a remarkable fact in the international history of dramatic literature.
+
+
+  Sentimental comedy.
+
+The improvement which now begins to manifest itself in the moral tone
+and spirit of English comedy is partly due to the reaction against the
+reaction of the Restoration, partly to the punishment which the excesses
+of the comic stage had brought upon it in the invective of Jeremy
+Collier[231] (1698), of all the assaults the theatre in England has had
+to undergo the best-founded, and that which produced the most
+perceptible results. The comic poets, who had always been more or less
+conscious of their sins, and had at all events not defended them by the
+ingenious sophistries which it has pleased later literary criticism to
+suggest on their behalf, now began with uneasy merriment to allude in
+their prologues to the reformation which had come over the spirit of the
+town. Writers like Mrs Centlivre became anxious to reclaim their
+offenders with much emphasis in the fifth act; and Colley Cibber--whose
+_Apology for his Life_ furnishes a useful view of this and the
+subsequent period of the history of the stage, with which he was
+connected as author, manager and actor (excelling in this capacity as
+representative of those fools with which he peopled the comic
+stage)[232]--may be credited with having first deliberately made the
+pathetic treatment of a moral sentiment the basis of the action of a
+comic drama. But he cannot be said to have consistently pursued the vein
+which in his _Careless Husband_ (1704) he had essayed. His _Non-Juror_
+is a political adaptation of _Tartuffe_; and his almost equally
+celebrated _Provoked Husband_ only supplied a happy ending to Vanbrugh's
+unfinished play. Sir R. Steele, in accordance with his general
+tendencies as a writer, pursued a still more definite moral purpose in
+his comedies; but his genius perhaps lacked the sustained vigour
+necessary for a dramatist, and his humour naturally sought the aid of
+pathos. From partial[233] he passed to more complete[234] experiment;
+and thus these two writers, who transplanted to the comic stage a
+tendency towards the treatment of domestic themes noticeable in such
+writers of Restoration tragedy as Southerne and Rowe, became the
+founders of _sentimental comedy_, a species which exercised a most
+depressing influence upon the progress of English drama, and helped to
+hasten the decline of its comic branch. With _Cato_ English tragedy
+committed suicide, though its pale ghost survived; with _The Conscious
+Lovers_ English comedy sank for long into the tearful embraces of
+artificiality and weakness.
+
+
+  The drama and stage in the period before Garrick.
+
+  Garrick.
+
+During the 18th century the productions of dramatic literature were
+still as a rule legitimately designed to meet the demands of the stage,
+from which its higher efforts afterwards to so large an extent became
+dissociated. The goodwill of most sections of the public continued to be
+steadily accorded to a theatre which had ceased to defy the accepted
+laws and traditions of morality; and the opposition still aroused by it
+was confined to a small minority of thinkers, though these included some
+who were far from being puritans. John Dennis was not thought to have
+the worst of the controversy, when he defended the stage against the
+attack of an opponent far above him in stature--the great mystic William
+Law[235]--and to John Wesley himself it seemed that "a great deal more
+might be said in defence of seeing a serious tragedy" than of taking
+part in the amusements of bear-baiting and cock-fighting. On the other
+hand, the demands of the stage and those of its patrons and of the
+public of the "Augustan" age, and of that which succeeded it, were, in
+general, fast bound by the trammels of a taste with which a revival of
+the poetic drama long remained irreconcilable. There is every reason to
+conclude that the art of acting progressed in the same direction of
+artificiality, and became stereotyped in forms corresponding to the
+"chant" which represented tragic declamation in a series of actors
+ending with Quin and Macklin. In the latter must be recognized features
+of a precursor, but it was reserved to the genius of Garrick, whose
+theatrical career extended from 1741 to 1776, to open a new era in his
+art. His unparalleled success was due in the first instance to his
+incomparable natural gifts; yet these were indisputably enhanced by a
+careful and continued literary training, and ennobled by a purpose
+which prompted him to essay the noblest, as he was capable of performing
+the most various, range of English theatrical characters. By devoting
+himself as actor and manager with special zeal to the production of
+Shakespeare, Garrick permanently popularized on the national stage the
+greatest creations of English drama, and indirectly helped to seal the
+doom of what survived of the tendency to maintain in the most ambitious
+walks of dramatic literature the nerveless traditions of the
+pseudo-classical school. A generation of celebrated actors and
+actresses, many of whom live for us in the drastic epigrams of
+Churchill's _Rosciad_ (1761), were his helpmates or his rivals; but
+their fame has paled, while his is destined to endure as that of one of
+the typical masters of his art.
+
+
+  Decline of tragedy.
+
+The contrast between the tragedy of the 18th century and those plays of
+Shakespeare and one or two other Elizabethans which already before
+Garrick were known to the English stage, was weakened by the mutilated
+form in which the old masterpieces generally, if not always, made their
+appearance there. Even so, however, there are perhaps few instances in
+theatrical history in which so unequal a competition was so long
+sustained. In the hands of the tragic poets of the age of Pope, as well
+as that of Johnson, tragedy had hopelessly stiffened into the forms of
+its accepted French models. Direct reproductions of these continued, as
+in Ambrose Philips's and Charles Johnson's (1679-1748) translations from
+Racine, and Aaron Hill's from Voltaire. Among other tragic dramatists of
+the earlier part of the century may be mentioned J. Hughes, who, after
+assisting Addison in his _Cato_, produced at least one praiseworthy
+tragedy of his own;[236] E. Fenton, a joint translator of "Pope's
+_Homer_" and the author of one extremely successful drama on a theme of
+singularly enduring interest,[237] and L. Theobald the first hero of the
+_Dunciad_, who, besides translations of Greek dramas, produced a few
+more or less original plays, one of which he was daring enough to father
+upon Shakespeare.[238] A more distinguished name is that of J. Thomson,
+whose unlucky _Sophonisba_ and subsequent tragedies are, however, barely
+remembered by the side of his poems (_The Seasons_, &c.). The literary
+genius of E. Young, on the other hand, possessed vigour and variety
+enough to distinguish his tragedies from the ordinary level of Augustan
+plays; in one of them he seems to challenge comparison in the treatment
+of his theme with a very different rival,[239] but by his main
+characteristics as a dramatist he belongs to the school of his
+contemporaries. The endeavour of G. Lillo, in his _London Merchant, or
+George Barnwell_ (1731), to bring the tragic lessons of terror and pity
+directly home to his fellow-citizens exercised an extraordinarily
+widespread as well as enduring effect on the history of the 18th-century
+drama. At home, they gave birth to the new, or, more properly speaking,
+to the revived, species of domestic tragedy, which connects itself more
+or less closely with a notable epoch in the history of English
+prose-fiction as well as of English painting. Abroad, this play--whose
+success was of the kind which nothing can kill--supplied the text to the
+teachings of Diderot, as well as an example to his own dramatic
+attempts; and through Diderot the impulse communicated itself to
+Lessing, and long exercised a great effect upon the literature of the
+German stage. At the same time, it must be allowed that Lillo's
+pedestrian muse failed in the end to satisfy higher artistic demands
+than those met in his most popular play, while in another[240] she was
+less consciously guilty of an aberration towards that "tragedy of
+destiny," which, in the modern drama at least, obscures the ethical
+character of all tragic actions. "Classical" tragedy in the generation
+of Dr Johnson pursued the even tenor of its way, the dictator himself
+treading with solemn footfall in the accustomed path,[241] and W. Mason
+making the futile attempt to produce a close imitation of Greek
+models.[242] The best-remembered tragedy of the century, Home's
+_Douglas_ (1757), was the production of an author whose famous kinsman,
+David Hume (though no friend of the contemporary English stage), had
+advised him "to read Shakespeare, but to get Racine and Voltaire by
+heart." The indisputable merits of the play cannot blind us to the fact
+that _Douglas_ is the offspring of _Merope_.
+
+
+  English opera.
+
+While thus no high creative talent arose to revive the poetic genius of
+English tragedy, comedy, which had to contend against the same rivals,
+naturally met the demands of the conflict with greater buoyancy. The
+history of the most formidable of those rivals, Music, forms no part of
+this sketch; but the points of contact between its progress and the
+history of dramatic literature cannot be altogether left out of sight.
+H. Purcell's endeavours to unite English music to the words of English
+poets were now a thing of the past; analogous attempts in the direction
+of musical dialogue, which have been insufficiently noticed, had
+likewise proved transitory; and the isolated efforts of Addison[243] and
+others to recover the operatic stage for the native tongue had proved
+powerless. Italian texts, which had first made their entrance piecemeal,
+in the end asserted themselves in their entirety; and the marvellously
+assimilative genius of Handel completed the triumphs of a form of art
+which no longer had any connexion with the English drama, and which
+reached the height of its fashionable popularity about the time when
+Garrick began to adorn the national stage. In one form, however, the
+English opera was preserved as a pleasing species of the popular drama.
+The pastoral drama had (in 1725) produced an isolated aftergrowth in
+Allan Ramsay's _Gentle Shepherd_, which, with genuine freshness and
+humour, but without a trace of burlesque, transferred to the scenery of
+the Pentland Hills the lovely tale of Florizel and Perdita. The dramatic
+form of this poem is only an accident, but it doubtless suggested an
+experiment of a different kind to the most playful of London wits. Gay's
+"Newgate Pastoral" of _The Beggar's Opera_ (1728), in which the amusing
+text of a burlesque farce was interspersed with songs set to popular
+airs, caught the fancy of the town by this novel combination, and became
+the ancestor of a series of agreeable productions, none of which,
+however, not even its own continuation, _Polly_ (amazingly successful in
+book form, after its production was forbidden by the lord chamberlain),
+have ever rivalled it in success or celebrity. Among these may be
+mentioned the pieces of I. Bickerstaffe[244] and C. Dibdin.[245] The
+opera in England, as elsewhere, thus absorbed what vitality remained to
+the pastoral drama, while to the ballet and the pantomime (whose glories
+in England began at Covent Garden in 1733, and to whose popularity even
+Garrick was obliged to defer) was left (in the 18th century at all
+events) the inheritance of the external attractions of the mask and the
+pageant.
+
+
+  Comedy. Burlesque.
+
+  The Licensing Act.
+
+In the face of such various rivalries it is not strange that comedy,
+instead of adhering to the narrow path which Steele and others had
+marked out for her, should have permitted herself some vagaries of her
+own. Gay's example pointed the way to a fatally facile form of the comic
+art; and burlesque began to contribute its influence to the decline of
+comedy. In an age when party-government was severely straining the
+capabilities of its system, dramatic satire had not far to look for a
+source of effective seasonings. The audacity of H. Fielding, whose
+regular comedies (original or adapted) have secured no enduring
+remembrance, but whose love of parody was afterwards to suggest to him
+the theme of the first of the novels which have made his name immortal,
+accordingly ventured in two extravaganzas[246] (so we should call them
+in these days) upon a larger admixture of political with literary and
+other satire. A third attempt[247] (which never reached the stage)
+furnished the offended minister, Sir Robert Walpole, with the desired
+occasion for placing a curb upon the licence of the theatre, such as
+had already been advocated by a representative of its old civic
+adversaries. The famous act of 1737 asserted no new principle, but
+converted into legal power the customary authority hither exercised by
+the lord chamberlain (to whom it had descended from the master of the
+revels). The regular censorship which this act established has not
+appreciably affected the literary progress of the English drama, and the
+objections which have been raised against it seem to have addressed
+themselves to practice rather than to principle. The liberty of the
+stage is a question differing in its conditions from that of the liberty
+of speech in general, or even from that of the liberty of the press; and
+occasional lapses of official judgment weigh lightly in the balance
+against the obvious advantages of a system which in a free country needs
+only the vigilance of public opinion to prevent its abuse. The policy of
+the restraint which the act of 1737 put upon the number of playhouses is
+a different, but has long become an obsolete, question.[248]
+
+
+  Comedy in the latter half of the 18th century.
+
+Brought back into its accustomed grooves, English comedy seemed inclined
+to leave to farce the domain of healthy ridicule, and to coalesce with
+domestic tragedy in the attempt to make the stage a vehicle of homespun
+didactic morality. Farce had now become a genuine English species, and
+has as such retained its vitality through all the subsequent fortunes of
+the stage; it was actively cultivated by Garrick as both actor and
+author; and he undoubtedly had more than a hand in the very best farce
+of this age, which is ascribed to clerical authorship.[249] S. Foote,
+whose comedies[250] and farces are distinguished both by wit and by
+variety of characters (though it was an absurd misapplication of a great
+name to call him the English Aristophanes), introduced into comic acting
+the abuse of personal mimicry, for the exhibition of which he
+ingeniously invented a series of entertainments, the parents of a long
+progeny of imitations. Meanwhile, the domestic drama of the sentimental
+kind achieved, though not immediately, a success only inferior to that
+of _The London Merchant_, in _The Gamester_ of E. Moore, to which
+Garrick seems to have directly contributed;[251] and sentimental comedy
+courted sympathetic applause in the works of A. Murphy, the single
+comedy of W. Whitehead,[252] and the earliest of H. Kelly.[153] It
+cannot be said that this species was extinguished, as it is sometimes
+assumed to have been, by O. Goldsmith; but he certainly published a
+direct protest against it between the production of his admirable
+character-comedy of _The Good-Natured Man_, and his delightfully brisk
+and fresh _She Stoops to Conquer_, which, after startling critical
+propriety from its self-conceit, taught comedy no longer to fear being
+true to herself. The most successful efforts of the elder G. Colman[254]
+had in them something of the spirit of genuine comedy, besides a finish
+which, however playwrights may shut their eyes to the fact, is one of
+the qualities which ensure a long life to a play. And in the
+masterpieces of R. B. Sheridan some of the happiest features of the
+comedy of Congreve were revived, together with its too uniform
+brilliancy of dialogue, but without its indecency of tone. The varnish
+of the age is indeed upon the style, and the hollowness of its morality
+in much of the sentiment (even where that sentiment is meant for the
+audience) of _The Rivals_ and _The School for Scandal_; but in tact of
+construction, in distinctness of characters, and in pungency of social
+satire, they are to be ranked among the glories of English comedy.
+Something in Sheridan's style, but quite without his brilliancy, is the
+most successful play[255] of the unfortunate General Burgoyne. R.
+Cumberland, who too consciously endeavoured to excel both in sentimental
+morality and in comic characterization, in which he was devoid of depth,
+closes the list of authors of higher pretensions who wrote for the
+theatre.[256] Like him, Mrs Cowley[257] ("Anna Matilda"), T.
+Holcroft,[258] and G. Colman the younger,[259] all writers of popular
+comedies, as well as the prolific J. O'Keefe (1746-1833), who
+contributed to nearly every species of the comic drama, survived into
+the 19th century. To an earlier date belong the favourite burlesques of
+O'Keefe's countryman K. O'Hara[260] (d. 1782), good examples of a
+species the further history of which may be left aside. In the hands of
+at least one later writer, J. R. Planche, it proved capable of
+satisfying a more refined taste than his successors have habitually
+consulted.
+
+
+  The English drama of the 19th century.
+
+The decline of dramatic composition of the higher class, perceptible in
+the history of the English theatre about the beginning of the 19th
+century, was justly attributed by Sir Walter Scott to the wearing out of
+the French model that had been so long wrought upon; but when he
+asserted that the new impulse which was sought in the dramatic
+literature of Germany was derived from some of its worst, instead of
+from its noblest, productions--from Kotzebue rather than from Lessing,
+Schiller and Goethe--he showed a very imperfect acquaintance with a
+complicated literary movement which was obliquely reflected in the
+stage-plays of Iffland and his contemporaries. The change which was
+coming over English literature was in truth of a wider and deeper nature
+than it was possible for even one of its chief representatives to
+perceive. As that literature freed itself from the fetters so long worn
+by it as indispensable ornaments, and threw aside the veil which had so
+long obscured both the full glory of its past and the lofty capabilities
+of its future, it could not resort except tentatively to a form which
+like the dramatic is bound by a hundred bonds to the life of the age
+itself. Soon, the poems with which Scott and Byron, and the unrivalled
+prose fictions with which Scott, both satisfied and stimulated the
+imaginative demands of the public, diverted the attention of the
+cultivated classes from dramatic literature, which was unable to escape,
+with the light foot of verse or prose fiction, into "the new, the
+romantic land." New themes, new ideas, new forms occupied a new
+generation of writers and readers; nor did the drama readily lend itself
+as a vessel into which to pour so many fermenting elements. In Byron the
+impressions produced upon a mind not less open to impulses from without
+than subjective in its way of recasting them, called forth a series of
+dramatic attempts betraying a more or less wilful ignorance of the
+demands of dramatic compositions; his beautiful _Manfred_, partly
+suggested by Goethe's _Faust_, and his powerful _Cain_, have but the
+form of plays; his tragedies on Italian historical subjects show some
+resemblance in their political rhetoric to the contemporary works of
+Alfieri; his _Sardanapalus_, autobiographically interesting, fails to
+meet the demands of the stage; his _Werner_ (of which the authorship has
+been ascribed to the duchess of Devonshire) is a hastily dramatized
+sensation novel. To Coleridge (1772-1834), who gave to English
+literature a splendidly loose translation of Schiller's _Wallenstein_,
+the same poet's _Robbers_ (to which Wordsworth's only dramatic attempt,
+the _Borderers_, is likewise indebted) had probably suggested the
+subject of his tragedy of _Osorio_, afterwards acted under the title of
+_Remorse_. Far superior to this is his later drama of _Zapolya_, a
+genuine homage to Shakespeare, out of the themes of two of whose plays
+it is gracefully woven. Scott, who in his earlier days had translated
+Goethe's _Gutz von Berlichingen_, gained no reputation by his own
+dramatic compositions. W. S. Landor, apart from those _Imaginary
+Conversations_ upon which he best loved to expend powers of observation
+and characterization such as have been given to few playwrights, cast
+in a formally dramatic mould studies of character of which the value is
+far from being confined to their wealth in beauties of detail. Of these
+the magnificent, but in construction altogether undramatic, _Count
+Julian_, is the most noteworthy. Shelley's _The Cenci_, on the other
+hand, is not only a poem of great beauty, but a drama of true power,
+abnormally revolting indeed in theme, but singularly pure and delicate
+in treatment. A humbler niche in the temple of dramatic literature
+belongs to some of the plays of C. R. Maturin,[261] Sir T. N.
+Talfourd,[262] and Dean Milman.[263]
+
+Divorced, except for passing moments, from the stage, English dramatic
+literature could during much the greater part of the 19th century hardly
+be regarded as a connected national growth; though, already in the last
+decades of the Victorian age, the revival of public interest in the
+theatre co-operated with a gradual change in poetic taste to awaken the
+hope of a future living reunion. Among English poets who lived in this
+period, Sir Henry Taylor probably approached nearest to the objective
+treatment and the amplitude of style characteristic of the Elizabethan
+drama.[264] R. H. Horne, long an almost solitary survivor of the
+romantic school, was able in at least one memorable dramatic attempt to
+revive something of the early Elizabethan spirit.[265] Of the chief
+poets of the age, Tennyson only in his later years addressed himself to
+a form of composition little suited to his genius, though the very fact
+of the homage paid by him to the national forms of the historic drama
+and of romantic comedy could not fail to ennoble the contemporary
+stage.[266] Matthew Arnold's stately revival of the traditions of
+classical tragedy proper, on the other hand, deliberately excluded
+itself from any such contact;[267] while Longfellow's refined literary
+culture and graceful facility of form made ready use of a quasi-dramatic
+medieval vesture.[268] William Morris's single "morality," too, cannot
+be regarded as a contribution to dramatic literature proper.[269] Of
+very different importance are the excursions into dramatic composition
+of Robert Browning, whose place in the living inheritance of the English
+drama has in one instance at least been not unsuccessfully vindicated by
+a later age, and some of whose greatest gifts are beyond a doubt
+displayed in his dramatic work;[270] and the sustained endeavours of A.
+C. Swinburne, after adding a flower of exquisite beauty to the wreath
+which the lovers of the Attic muse have laid at her feet, to enrich the
+national historic drama by a trilogy instinct with the ardent eloquence
+of passion.[271] Until a date too near the times in which we live to
+admit of its being fixed with precision, most of the English writers who
+sought to preserve a connexion between their dramatic productions and
+the demands of the stage addressed themselves to the theatrical rather
+than the literary public--for the distinction, in those times at all
+events, was by no means without a difference. The modestly simple and
+judiciously concentrated efforts of Joanna Baillie deserve a respectful
+remembrance in the records of literature as well as of the stage, though
+the day has passed when the theory which suggested her _Plays on the
+Passions_ could find acceptance among critics, or her exemplifications
+of it satisfy the demands of playgoers. Sheridan Knowles, on the other
+hand, composed his conventional semblances of genuine tragedy and comedy
+with a thorough knowledge of stage effect, and some of them can hardly
+yet be said to have vanished from the stage.[272] The first Lord Lytton,
+though his plays were for the most part of a lighter texture, showed
+even more artificiality of sentiment in their conception and execution;
+but the romantic touch which he imparted to at least one of them
+accounts for its long-lived popularity. Among later Victorian
+playwrights T. W. Robertson brought back a breath of naturalness into
+the acted comic drama; Tom Taylor, rivalling Lope in fertility, made
+little pretence to original invention, but adapted with an instinct that
+rarely failed him, and materially helped to keep the theatrical
+diversions of his age sound and pure; an endeavour in which he had the
+co-operation of Charles Reade and that of most of those who competed
+with them for the favour of generations of playgoers more easily
+contented than their successors. The one deplorable aspect of this age
+of the English drama was to be found neither in the sphere of tragedy
+nor in that of comedy--nor even in that of farce. It was presented in
+the low depths of contemporary burlesque, which had degenerated from the
+graceful extravaganza of J. R. Planche into witless and tasteless
+emptiness.
+
+Curiously enough, it was at this point that something like real
+originality--discovering a new sub-species of its own--first began, with
+the aid of a sister-art, to renovate the English popular comic stage. At
+the beginning of the 19th century the greatest tragic actress of the
+English theatre, Mrs Siddons, had passed her prime; and before its
+second decade had closed, not only she (1812) but her brother John
+Kemble (1817), the representative of a grand style of acting which later
+generations might conceivably find overpowering, had withdrawn from the
+boards. Mrs Siddons was soon followed into retirement by her successor
+Miss O'Neill (1819); while Kemble's brilliant later rival, Edmund Kean,
+an actor the intuitions of whose genius seem to have supplied, so far as
+intuition ever can supply, the absence of a consecutive self-culture,
+remained on the stage till his death in 1833. Young, Macready, and
+others handed down some of the traditions of the older school of acting
+to the very few artists who remained to suggest its semblance to a later
+generation. Even these--among them S. Phelps, whose special merit it was
+to present to a later age, accustomed to elaborate theatrical
+environments, dramatic masterpieces as dependent upon themselves and
+adequate interpretation; and the foremost English actress of the earlier
+Victorian age, Helen Faucit (Lady Martin)--were unable to leave a school
+of acting behind them. Still less was this possible to Charles Kean the
+younger, with whom the decorative production of Shakespearian plays
+really had its beginning; or even to Sir Henry Irving, an actor of
+genius, but also an irrepressible and almost eccentric theatrical
+personality, whose great service to the English drama was his faith in
+its masterpieces. The comic stage was fortunate in an ampler
+aftergrowth, from generation to generation, of the successors of the old
+actors who live for us all in the reminiscences of Charles Lamb; nor
+were the links suddenly snapped which bound the humours of the present
+to those of the past. In the first decade of the 20th century a
+generation still survived which could recall, with many other similar
+joys, the brilliant levity of Charles Mathews the younger; the not less
+irresistible stolidity of J. B. Buckstone; the solemn fooling of H.
+Compton (1805-1877); the subtle humours of J. L. Toole, and the frolic
+charm of Marie Wilton (Lady Bancroft), the most original comic actress
+of her time. (A. W. W.)
+
+_Recent English Drama._--In England the whole mechanism of theatrical
+life had undergone a radical change in the middle decades of the 19th
+century. At the root of this change lay the immense growth of population
+and the enormously increased facilities of communication between London
+and the provinces. Similar causes came into operation, of course, in
+France, Germany and Austria, but were much less distinctly felt, because
+the numerous and important subventioned theatres of these countries
+remained more or less unaffected by economic influences. Free trade in
+theatricals (subject only to certain licensing regulations and to a
+court censorship of new plays) was established in England by an act of
+1843, which abolished the long moribund monopoly of the "legitimate
+drama" claimed by the "Patent Theatres" of Drury Lane and Covent Garden.
+The drama was thus formally subjected to the operation of the law of
+supply and demand, like any other article of commerce, and managers were
+left, unaided and unhampered by any subvention or privilege, to cater to
+the tastes of a huge and growing community. Theatres very soon
+multiplied, competition grew ever keener, and the long run, with its
+accompaniments of ostentatious decoration and lavish advertisement,
+became the one object of managerial effort. This process of evolution
+may be said to have begun in the second quarter of the 19th century and
+completed itself in the 3rd. The system which obtains to-day, almost
+unforeseen in 1825, was in full operation in 1875. The repertory
+theatre, with its constant changes of programme, maintained on the
+continent partly by subventions, partly by the mere force of artistic
+tradition, had become in England a faint and far-off memory. There was
+not a single theatre in London at which plays, old and new, were not
+selected and mounted solely with a view to their continuous performance
+for as many nights as possible, anything short of fifty nights
+constituting an ignominious and probably ruinous failure. It was found,
+too, that those theatres were most successful which were devoted
+exclusively to exploiting the talent of an individual actor. Thus when
+the fourth quarter of the century opened, the long "run" and the
+actor-manager were in firm possession of the field.
+
+The outlook was in many ways far from encouraging. It was not quite so
+black, indeed, as it had been in the late 'fifties and early 'sixties,
+when the "legitimate" enterprises of Phelps at Sadler's Wells and
+Charles Kean at the Princess's had failed to hold their ground, and when
+modern comedy and drama were represented almost exclusively by
+adaptations from the French. There had been a slight stirring of
+originality in the series of comedies produced by T. W. Robertson at the
+Prince of Wales's theatre, where, under the management of Bancroft
+(q.v.) a new school of mounting and acting, minutely faithful (in theory
+at any rate) to everyday reality, had come into existence. But the hopes
+of a revival of English comedy seemed to have died with Robertson's
+death. One of his followers, James Albery, possessed both imagination
+and wit, but had not the strength of character to do justice to his
+talent, and sank into a mere adapter. In the plays of another disciple,
+H. J. Byron, the Robertsonian or "cup-and-saucer" school declined upon
+sheer inanity. Of the numerous plays signed by Tom Taylor some were
+original in substance, but all were cast in the machine-made French
+mould. Wilkie Collins, in dramatizing some of his novels, produced
+somewhat crude anticipations of the modern "problem play." The literary
+talent of W. S. Gilbert displayed itself in a group of comedies both in
+verse and prose; but Gilbert saw life from too peculiar an angle to
+represent it otherwise than fantastically. The Robertsonian impulse
+seemed to have died utterly away, leaving behind it only five or six
+very insubstantial comedies and a subdued, unrhetorical method in
+acting. This method the Bancrofts proceeded to apply, during the
+'seventies, to revivals of stage classics, such as _The School for
+Scandal_, _Money_ and _Masks and Faces_, and to adaptations from the
+French of Sardou.
+
+While the modern drama appeared to have relapsed into a comatose
+condition, poetic and romantic drama was giving some signs of life. At
+the Lyceum in 1871 Henry Irving had leapt into fame by means of his
+performance of Mathias in _The Bells_, an adaptation from the French of
+Erckmann-Chatrian. He followed this up by an admirably picturesque
+performance of the title-part in _Charles I._ by W. G. Wills. In the
+autumn of 1874 the great success of Irving's Hamlet was hailed as the
+prelude to a revival of tragic acting. As a matter of fact, it was the
+prelude to a long series of remarkable achievements in romantic drama
+and melodrama. Irving's lack of physical and vocal resources prevented
+him from scaling the heights of tragedy, and his Othello, Macbeth, and
+Lear could not be ranked among his successes; but he was admirable in
+such parts as Richard III., Shylock, Iago and Wolsey, while in
+melodramatic parts, such as Louis XI. and the hero and villain of _The
+Lyons Mail_, he was unsurpassed. Mephistopheles in a version of _Faust_
+(1885), perhaps the greatest popular success of his career, added
+nothing to his reputation for artistic intelligence; but on the other
+hand his Becket in Tennyson's play of that name (1893) was one of his
+most masterly efforts. His management of the Lyceum (1878-1899) did so
+much to raise the status of the actor and to restore the prestige of
+poetic drama, that the knighthood conferred upon him in 1895 was felt to
+be no more than an appropriate recognition of his services. But his
+managerial career had scarcely any significance for the living English
+drama. He seldom experimented with a new play, and, of the few which he
+did produce, only _The Cup_ and _Becket_ by Lord Tennyson have the
+remotest chance of being remembered.
+
+To trace the history of the new English drama, then, we must go back to
+the Prince of Wales's theatre. Even while it seemed that French comedy
+of the school of Scribe was resuming its baneful predominance, the seeds
+of a new order of things were slowly germinating. _Diplomacy_, an
+adaptation of Sardou's _Dora_, produced in 1878, brought together on the
+Prince of Wales's stage Mr and Mrs Bancroft, Mr and Mrs Kendal, John
+Clayton and Arthur Cecil--in other words, the future managers of the
+Haymarket, the St James's and the Court theatres, which were destined to
+see the first real stirrings of a literary revival. Mr and Mrs Kendal,
+who, in conjunction with John Hare, managed the St James's theatre from
+1879 to 1888, produced A. W. Pinero's first play of any consequence,
+_The Money-Spinner_ (1881), and afterwards _The Squire_ (1882) and _The
+Hobby Horse_ (1887). The Bancrofts, who, after entirely rebuilding the
+Haymarket theatre, managed it from 1880 till their retirement in 1885,
+produced in 1883 Pinero's _Lords and Commons_; and Messrs Clayton and
+Cecil produced at the Court theatre between 1885 and 1887 his three
+brilliant farces, _The Magistrate_, _The Schoolmistress_ and _Dandy
+Dick_, which, with the sentimental comedy, _Sweet Lavender_, produced at
+Terry's theatre in 1888, assured his position as an original and fertile
+dramatic humorist of no small literary power. It is to be noted,
+however, that Pinero was almost the only original playwright represented
+under the Bancroft, Hare-Kendal and Clayton-Cecil managements, which
+relied for the rest upon adaptations and revivals. Adaptations of French
+vaudevilles were the staple productions of Charles Wyndham's management
+at the Criterion from its beginning in 1876 until 1893, when he first
+produced an original play of any importance. When Herbert Beerbohm Tree
+went into management at the Haymarket in 1887, he still relied largely
+on plays of foreign origin. George Alexander's first managerial ventures
+(Avenue theatre, 1890) were two adaptations from the French. Until well
+on in the 'eighties, indeed, adaptation from the French was held the
+normal occupation of the British playwright, and original composition a
+mere episode. Robertson, Byron, Albery, Gilbert, Tom Taylor, Charles
+Reade, Herman Merivale, G. W. Godfrey, all produced numerous
+adaptations; Sydney Grundy was for twenty years occupied almost
+exclusively in this class of work; Pinero himself has adapted more than
+one French play. The 'eighties, then, may on the whole be regarded as
+showing a very gradual decline in the predominance of France on the
+English stage, and an equally slow revival of originality, so far as
+comedy and drama were concerned, manifesting itself mainly in the plays
+of Pinero.
+
+The reaction against French influence, however, was no less apparent in
+the domain of melodrama and operetta than in that of comedy and drama.
+Until well on in the 'seventies, D'Ennery and his disciples, adapted and
+imitated by Dion Boucicault and others, ruled the melodramatic stage.
+The reaction asserted itself in two quarters--in the East End at the
+Grecian theatre, and in the West End at the Princess's. In _The World_,
+produced at Drury Lane in 1880, Paul Meritt (d. 1895) and Henry Pettitt
+(d. 1893) brought to the West End the "Grecian" type of popular drama;
+and at Drury Lane it survived in the elaborately spectacular form
+imparted to it by Sir Augustus Harris, who managed that theatre from
+1879 till his death in 1896. The production of G. R. Sims's _Lights o'
+London_ at the Princess's in 1881, under Wilson Barrett's management,
+also marked a new departure. This style of melodrama was chiefly
+cultivated at the Adelphi theatre, from 1882 until the end of the
+century, when it died out there as a regular institution, apparently
+because a host of suburban theatres drew away its audiences. Of all
+these English melodramas, only one, _The Silver King_, by Henry Arthur
+Jones (Princess's, 1882), could for a moment compare in invention or
+technical skill with the French dramas they supplanted. The fact
+remains, however, that even on this lowest level of dramatic art the
+current of the time set decisively towards home-made pictures of English
+life, however crude and puerile.
+
+For twenty-five years, from 1865 to 1890, the English stage was overrun
+with French operettas of the school of Offenbach. Hastily adapted by
+slovenly hacks, their librettos (often witty in the original) became
+incredible farragos of metreless doggrel and punning ineptitude. The
+great majority of them are now so utterly forgotten that it is hard to
+realize how, in their heyday, they swarmed on every hand in London and
+the provinces. The reaction began in 1875 with the performance at the
+Royalty theatre of _Trial by Jury_, by W. S. Gilbert and Arthur
+Sullivan. This was the prelude to that brilliant series of witty and
+melodious extravaganzas which began with _The Sorcerer_ at the Opera
+Comique theatre in 1877, but was mainly associated with the Savoy
+theatre, opened by R. D'Oyly Carte (d. 1901) in 1881. Little by little
+the Gilbert and Sullivan operettas (of which the most famous, perhaps,
+were _H.M.S. Pinafore_, 1878, _Patience_, 1881, and _The Mikado_, 1885)
+undermined the popularity of the French opera-bouffes, and at the same
+time that of the indigenous "burlesques" which, graceful enough in the
+hands of their inventor J. R. Planche, had become mere incoherent
+jumbles of buffoonery, devoid alike of dramatic ingenuity and of
+literary form. When, early in the 'nineties, the collaboration between
+Gilbert and Sullivan became intermittent, and the vogue of the Savoy
+somewhat declined, a new class of extravaganza arose, under the
+designation of "musical comedy" or "musical farce." It first took form
+in a piece called _In Town_, by Messrs "Adrian Ross" and Osmond Carr
+(Prince of Wales's theatre, 1892), and rapidly became very popular. In
+these plays the scene and costumes are almost always modern though
+sometimes exotic, and the prose dialogue, setting forth an attenuated
+and entirely negligible plot, is frequently interrupted by musical
+numbers. The lyrics are often very clever pieces of rhyming, totally
+different from the inane doggrel of the old opera-bouffes and
+burlesques. In other respects there is little to be said for the
+literary or intellectual quality of "musical farce"; but, being an
+entirely English (or Anglo-American) product, it falls into line with
+the other indications we have noted of the general decline--one might
+almost say extinction--of French influence on the English stage.
+
+To what causes are we to trace this gradual disuse of adaptation? In the
+domain of modern comedy and drama, to two causes acting simultaneously:
+the decline in France of the method of Scribe, which produced
+"well-made," exportable plays, more or less suited to any climate and
+environment; and the rise in England of a generation of playwrights more
+original, thoughtful and able than their predecessors. It is not at all
+to be taken for granted that the falling off in the supply of exportable
+plays meant a decline in the absolute merit of French drama. The
+historian of the future may very possibly regard the movement in France,
+no less than the movement in England, as a step in advance, and may even
+see in the two movements co-ordinate manifestations of one tendency. Be
+this as it may, the fact is certain that as the playwrights of the
+Second Empire gradually died off, and were succeeded by the authors of
+the "new comedy," plays which would bear transplantation became ever
+fewer and farther between. Of recent years Henri Bernstein, author of
+_Le Voleur_ and _Samson_, has been almost the only French dramatist
+whose works have found a ready and steady market in England. Attempts to
+acclimatize French poetical drama--_Pour la Couronne_, _Le Chemineau_,
+_Cyrano de Bergerac_--were all more or less unsuccessful.
+
+Having noted the decline of adaptation, we may now trace a stage farther
+the development of the English drama. The first stage, already surveyed,
+ends with the production of _Sweet Lavender_ in 1888. Up to this point
+its author, Pinero (b. 1855), stood practically alone, and had won his
+chief successes as a humorist. Henry Arthur Jones (b. 1851) was known as
+little more than an able melodramatist, though in one play, _Saints and
+Sinners_ (1884), he had made some attempt at a serious study of
+provincial life. R. C. Carton (b. 1856) had written, in collaboration,
+one or two plays of slight account. Sydney Grundy (b. 1848) had produced
+scarcely any original work. The second stage may be taken as extending
+from 1889 to 1893. On the 24th of April 1889 John Hare opened the new
+Garrick theatre with _The Profligate_, by Pinero--an unripe and
+superficial piece of work in many ways, but still a great advance, both
+in ambition and achievement, upon any original work the stage had seen
+for many a year.
+
+With all its faults, it may be said that _The Profligate_ notably
+enlarged at one stroke the domain open to the English dramatist. And it
+did not stand alone. The same year saw the production of two plays by H.
+A. Jones, _Wealth_ and _The Middleman_, in which a distinct effort
+towards a serious criticism of life was observable, and of two plays by
+Sydney Grundy, _A Fool's Paradise_ and _A White Lie_, which, though very
+French in method, were at least original in substance. Jones during the
+next two years made a steady advance with _Judah_ (1890), _The Dancing
+Girl_ and _The Crusaders_ (1891). Pinero in these years was putting
+forth less than his whole strength in _The Cabinet Minister_ (1890),
+_Lady Bountiful_ and _The Times_ (1891), and _The Amazons_ (March 1893).
+But meanwhile new talents were coming forward. The management of George
+Alexander, which opened at the Avenue theatre in 1890, but was
+transferred in the following year to the St James's, brought prominently
+to the front R. C. Carton, Haddon Chambers and Oscar Wilde. Carton's two
+sentimental comedies, _Sunlight and Shadow_ (1890) and _Liberty Hall_
+(1892), showed excellent workmanship, but did not yet reveal his true
+originality as a humorist. Haddon Chambers's work (notably _The Idler_,
+1891) was as yet sufficiently commonplace; but in _Lady Windermere's
+Fan_ (1892) Oscar Wilde showed himself at his first attempt a brilliant
+and accomplished dramatist. Wilde's subsequent plays, _A Woman of No
+Importance_ (1893) and _An Ideal Husband_ and _The Importance of being
+Earnest_ (1895), though marred by mannerism and insincerity, did much to
+promote the movement we are here tracing.
+
+As the production of _The Profligate_ marked the opening of the second
+period in the revival of English drama, so the production of the same
+author's _The Second Mrs Tanqueray_ is very clearly the starting-point
+of the third period. Before attempting to trace its course we may do
+well to glance at certain conditions which probably influenced it.
+
+In the first place, economic conditions. The Bancroft-Robertson movement
+at the old Prince of Wales's, between 1865 and 1870, was of even more
+importance from an economic than from a literary point of view. By
+making their little theatre a luxurious place of resort, and faithfully
+imitating in their productions the accent, costume and furniture of
+upper and upper-middle class life, the Bancrofts had initiated a
+reconciliation between society and the stage. Throughout the middle
+decades of the century it was the constant complaint of the managers
+that the world of wealth and fashion could not be tempted to the
+theatre. The Bancroft management changed all that. It was at the Prince
+of Wales's that half-guinea stalls were first introduced; and these
+stalls were always filled. As other theatres adopted the same policy of
+upholstery, both on and off the stage, fashion extended its complaisance
+to them as well. In yet another way the reconciliation was promoted--by
+the ever-increasing tendency of young men and women of good birth and
+education to seek a career upon the English stage. The theatre, in
+short, became at this period one of the favourite amusements of
+fashionable (though scarcely of intellectual) society in London. It is
+often contended that the influence of the sensual and cynical stall
+audience is a pernicious one. In some ways, no doubt, it is detrimental;
+but there is another side to the case. Even the cynicism of society
+marks an intellectual advance upon the sheer rusticity which prevailed
+during the middle years of the 19th century and accepted without a
+murmur plays (original and adapted) which bore no sort of relation to
+life. In a celebrated essay published in 1879, Matthew Arnold (whose
+occasional dramatic criticisms were very influential in intellectual
+circles) dwelt on the sufficiently obvious fact that the result of
+giving English names and costumes to French characters was to make their
+sayings and doings utterly unreal and "fantastic." During the years of
+French ascendancy, audiences had quite forgotten that it was possible
+for the stage to be other than "fantastic" in this sense. They no
+longer thought of comparing the mimic world with the real world, but
+were content with what may be called abstract humour and pathos, often
+of the crudest quality. The cultivation of external realism, coinciding
+with, and in part occasioning, the return of society to the playhouse,
+gradually led to a demand for some approach to plausibility in character
+and action as well as in costume and decoration. The stage ceased to be
+entirely "fantastic," and began to essay, however imperfectly, the
+representation, the criticism of life. It cannot be denied that the
+influence of society tended to narrow the outlook of English dramatists
+and to trivialize their tone of thought. But this was a passing phase of
+development; and cleverly trivial representations of reality are, after
+all, to be preferred to brainless concoctions of sheer emptiness.
+
+Quite as important, from the economic point of view, as the
+reconciliation of society to the stage, was the reorganization of the
+mechanism of theatrical life in the provinces which took place between
+1865 and 1875. From the Restoration to the middle of the 19th century
+the system of "stock companies" had been universal. Every great town in
+the three kingdoms had its established theatre with a resident company,
+playing the "legitimate" repertory, and competing, often by illegitimate
+means, for the possession of new London successes. The smaller towns,
+and even villages, were grouped into local "circuits," each served by
+one manager with his troupe of strollers. The "circuits" supplied actors
+to the resident stock companies, and the stock companies served as
+nurseries to the patent theatres in London. Metropolitan "stars"
+travelled from one country theatre to another, generally alone,
+sometimes with one or two subordinates in their train, and were
+"supported," as the phrase went, by the stock company of each theatre.
+Under this system, scenery, costumes and appointments were often
+grotesquely inadequate, and performances almost always rough and
+unfinished. On the other hand, the constant practice in a great number
+and variety of characters afforded valuable training for actors, and
+developed many remarkable talents. As a source of revenue to authors,
+the provinces were practically negligible. Stageright was unprotected by
+law; and even if it had been protected, it is doubtful whether authors
+could have got any considerable fees out of country managers, whose
+precarious ventures usually left them a small enough margin of profit.
+
+The spread of railways throughout the country gradually put an end to
+this system. The "circuits" disappeared early in the 'fifties, the stock
+companies survived until about the middle of the 'seventies. As soon as
+it was found easy to transport whole companies, and even great
+quantities of scenery, from theatre to theatre throughout the length and
+breadth of Great Britain, it became apparent that the rough makeshifts
+of the stock company system were doomed. Here again we can trace to the
+old Prince of Wales's theatre the first distinct impulse towards the new
+order of things. Robertson's comedies not only encouraged but absolutely
+required a style of art, in mounting, stage-management and acting, not
+to be found in the country theatres. To entrust them to the stock
+companies was well-nigh impossible. On the other hand, to quote Sir
+Squire Bancroft, "perhaps no play was ever better suited than _Caste_ to
+a travelling company; the parts being few, the scenery and dresses quite
+simple, and consequently the expenses very much reduced." In 1867, then,
+a company was organized and rehearsed in London to carry round the
+provincial theatres as exact a reproduction as possible of the London
+performance of _Caste_ and Robertson's other comedies. The smoothness of
+the representation, the delicacy of the interplay among the characters,
+were new to provincial audiences, and the success was remarkable. About
+the same time the whole Haymarket company, under Buckstone's management,
+began to make frequent rounds of the country theatres; and other
+"touring combinations" were soon organized. It is manifest that the
+"combination" system and the stock company system cannot long coexist,
+for a manager cannot afford to keep a stock company idle while a London
+combination is occupying his theatre. The stock companies, therefore,
+soon dwindled away, and were probably quite extinct before the end of
+the 'seventies. Under the present system, no sooner is a play an
+established success in London than it is reproduced in one, two or three
+exact copies and sent round the provincial theatres (and the numerous
+suburban theatres which have sprung up since 1895), Company A serving
+first-class towns, Company B the second-class towns, and so forth. The
+process is very like that of taking plaster casts of a statue, and the
+provincial companies often stand to their London originals very much in
+the relation of plaster to marble. Even the London scenery is faithfully
+reproduced in material of extra strength, to stand the wear-and-tear of
+constant removal. The result is that, instead of the square pegs in
+round holes of the old stock company system, provincial audiences now
+see pegs carefully adjusted to the particular holes they occupy, and
+often incapable of fitting any other. Instead of the rough performances
+of old, they are now accustomed to performances of a mechanical and
+soulless smoothness.
+
+In some ways the gain in this respect is undeniable, in other ways the
+loss is great. The provinces are no longer, in any effective sense, a
+nursery of fresh talents for the London theatres, for the art acquired
+in touring combinations is that of mimicry rather than of acting.
+Moreover, provincial playgoers have lost all personal interest and pride
+in their local theatres, which have no longer any individuality of their
+own, but serve as a mere frame for the presentation of a series of
+ready-made London pictures. Christmas pantomime is the only theatrical
+product that has any really local flavour in it, and even this is often
+only a second-hand London production, touched up with a few topical
+allusions. Again, the railways which bring London productions to the
+country take country playgoers by the thousand to London. The wealthier
+classes, in the Lancashire, Yorkshire and Midland towns at any rate, do
+almost all their theatre-going in London, or during the autumn months
+when the leading London companies go on tour. Thus the better class of
+comedy and drama has a hard fight to maintain itself in the provinces,
+and the companies devoted to melodrama and musical farce enjoy an
+ominous preponderance of popularity.
+
+On the whole, however--and this is the main point to be observed with
+regard to the literary development of the drama--the economic movement
+of the five- and twenty years between 1865 and 1890 was enormously to
+the advantage of the dramatic author. A London success meant a long
+series of full houses at high prices, on which he took a handsome
+percentage. The provinces, in which a popular playwright would often
+have three or four plays going the rounds simultaneously, became a
+steady source of income. And, finally, it was found possible, even
+before international copyright came into force, to protect stageright in
+the United States, so that about the beginning of the 'eighties large
+receipts began to pour in from America. Thus successful dramatists,
+instead of living from hand to mouth, like their predecessors of the
+previous generation, found themselves in comfortable and even opulent
+circumstances. They had leisure for reading, thought and careful
+composition, and they could afford to gratify their ambition with an
+occasional artistic experiment. Failure might mean a momentary loss of
+prestige, but it would not spell ruin. A distinctly progressive spirit,
+then, began to animate the leading English dramatists--a spirit which
+found intelligent sympathy in such managers as John Hare, George
+Alexander, Beerbohm Tree and Charles Wyndham. Nor must it be forgotten
+that, though the laws of literary property, internal and international,
+remained far from perfect, it was found possible to print and publish
+plays without incurring loss of stageright either at home or in America.
+The playwrights of the present generation have accordingly a motive for
+giving literary form and polish to their work which was quite
+inoperative with their predecessors, whose productions were either kept
+jealously in manuscript or printed only in miserable and totally
+unreadable stage editions. It is no small stimulus to ambition to know
+that even if a play prove to be in advance of the standards of taste or
+thought among the public to which it is originally presented, it will
+not perish utterly, but will, if it have any inherent vitality, continue
+to live as literature.
+
+
+  Influence of foreign drama.
+
+Having now summed up the economic conditions which made for progress,
+let us glance at certain intellectual influences which tended in the
+same direction. The establishment of the Theatre Libre in Paris, towards
+the close of 1887, unquestionably marked the beginning of a period of
+restless experiment throughout the theatrical world of Europe. A.
+Antoine and his supporters were in open rebellion against the artificial
+methods of Scribe and the Second Empire playwrights. Their effort was to
+transfer to the stage the realism, the so-called "naturalism," which had
+been dominant in French fiction since 1870 or earlier; and this
+naturalism was doubtless, in its turn, the outcome of the scientific
+movement of the century. New methods (or ideals) of observation, and new
+views as to the history and destiny of the race, could not fail to
+produce a profound effect upon art; and though the modern theatre is a
+cumbrous contrivance, slow to adjust its orientation to the winds of the
+spirit, even it at last began to revolve, like a rusty windmill, so as
+to fill its sails in the main current of the intellectual atmosphere.
+Within three or four years of its inception, Antoine's experiment had
+been imitated in Germany, England and America. The "Freie Buhne" of
+Berlin came into existence in 1889, the Independent Theatre of London in
+1891. Similar enterprises were set on foot in Munich and other cities.
+In America several less formal experiments of a like nature were
+attempted, chiefly in Boston and New York. Nor must it be forgotten that
+in Paris itself the Theatre Libre did not stand alone. Many other
+_theatres a cote_ sprang up, under such titles as "Theatre d'Art,"
+"Theatre Moderne," "Theatre de l'Avenir Dramatique." The most important
+and least ephemeral was the "Theatre de l'OEuvre," founded in 1893 by
+Alex. Lugne-Poe, which represented mainly, though not exclusively, the
+symbolist reaction against naturalism.
+
+The impulse which led to the establishment of the Theatre Libre was, in
+the first instance, entirely French. If any foreign influence helped to
+shape its course, it was that of the great Russian novelists. Tolstoi's
+_Puissance des tenebres_ was the only "exotic" play announced in
+Antoine's opening manifesto. But the whole movement was soon to receive
+a potent stimulus from the Norwegian poet Henrik Ibsen.
+
+Ibsen's early romantic plays had been known in Germany since 1875. In
+1878 _Pillars of Society_ and in 1880 _A Doll's House_ achieved wide
+popularity, and held the German stage side by side with _A Bankruptcy_,
+by Bjurnstjerne Bjurnson. But these plays had little influence on the
+German drama. Their methods were, indeed, not essentially different from
+those of the French school of the Second Empire, which were then
+dominant in Germany as well as everywhere else. It was _Ghosts_ (acted
+in Augsburg and Meiningen 1886, in Berlin 1887) that gave the impulse
+which, coalescing with the kindred impulse from the French Theatre
+Libre, was destined in the course of a few years to create a new
+dramatic literature in Germany. During the middle decades of the century
+Germany had produced some dramatists of solid and even remarkable
+talent, such as Friedrich Hebbel, Heinrich Laube, Karl Gutzkow and
+Gustav Freytag. Even the generation which held the stage after 1870, and
+included Paul Heyse, Paul Lindau and Adolf Wilbrandt, with numerous
+writers of light comedy and farce, such as E. Wichert, O. Blumenthal, G.
+von Moser, A. L'Arronge and F. von Schunthan, had produced a good many
+works of some merit. But, in the main, French artificiality and
+frivolity predominated on the German stage. In point of native talent
+and originality, the Austrian popular playwright Ludwig Anzengruber was
+well ahead of his North German contemporaries. It was in 1889, with the
+establishment of the Berlin Freie Buhne, that the reaction definitely
+set in. In Berlin, as afterwards in London, _Ghosts_ was the first play
+produced on the outpost stage, but it was followed in Berlin by a very
+rapid development of native talent. Less than a month after the
+performance of Ibsen's play, Gerhart Hauptmann came to the front with
+_Vor Sonnenaufgang_, an immature piece of almost unrelieved Zolaism,
+which he soon followed up, however, with much more important works. In
+_Das Friedensfest_ (1890) and _Einsame Menschen_ (1891) he transferred
+his allegiance from Zola to Ibsen. His true originality first manifested
+itself in _Die Weber_ (1892); and subsequently he produced plays in
+several different styles, all bearing the stamp of a potent
+individuality. His most popular productions have been the dramatic poems
+_Hannele_ and _Die versunkene Glocke_, the low-life comedy _Der
+Biberpelz_, and the low-life tragedy _Fuhrmann Henschel_. Other
+remarkable playwrights belonging to the Freie Buhne group are Max Halbe
+(b. 1865), author of _Jugend_ and _Mutter Erde_, and Otto Erich
+Hartleben (b. 1864), author of _Hanna Jagert_ and _Rosenmontag_. These
+young men, however, so quickly gained the ear of the general public,
+that the need for a special "free stage" was no longer felt, and the
+Freie Buhne, having done its work, ceased to exist. Unlike the French
+Theatre Libre and the English Independent theatre, it had been supported
+from the outset by the most influential critics, and had won the day
+almost without a battle. The productions of the new school soon made
+their way even into some of the subventioned theatres; but it was the
+unsubventioned Deutsches Theater of Berlin that most vigorously
+continued the tradition of the Freie Buhne. One or two playwrights of
+the new generation, however, did not actually belong to the Freie Buhne
+group. Hermann Sudermann produced his first play, _Die Ehre_, in 1888,
+and his most famous work, _Heimat_, in 1892. In him the influence of
+Ibsen is very clearly perceptible; while Arthur Schnitzler of Vienna,
+author of _Liebelei_, may rather be said to derive his inspiration from
+the Parisian "new comedy." Originality, verging sometimes on
+abnormality, distinguishes the work of Frank Wedekind (b. 1864), author
+of _Erdgeist_ and _Fruhlingserwachen_. Hugo von Hofmannsthal (b. 1874),
+in his _Elektra_ and _Odipus_, rehandles classic themes in the light of
+modern anthropology and psychology.
+
+The promoters of the Theatre Libre had probably never heard of Ibsen
+when they established that institution, but three years later his fame
+had reached France, and _Les Revenants_ was produced by the Theatre
+Libre (29th May 1890). Within the next two or three years almost all his
+modern plays were acted in Paris, most of them either by the Theatre
+Libre or by L'OEuvre. Close upon the heels of the Ibsen influence
+followed another, less potent, but by no means negligible. The exquisite
+tragic symbolism of Maurice Maeterlinck began to find numerous admirers
+about 1890. In 1891 his one-act play _L'Intruse_ was acted; in 1893,
+_Pelleas et Melisande_. By this time, too, the reverberation of the
+impulse which the Theatre Libre had given to the Freie Buhne began to be
+felt in France. In 1893 Hauptmann's _Die Weber_ was acted in Paris, and,
+being frequently repeated, made a deep and lasting impression.
+
+The English analogue to the Theatre Libre, the Independent theatre,
+opened its first season (March 13, 1891) with a performance of _Ghosts_.
+This was not, however, the first introduction of Ibsen to the English
+stage. On the 7th of June 1889 (six weeks after the production of _The
+Profligate_) _A Doll's House_ was acted at the Novelty theatre, and ran
+for three weeks, amid a storm of critical controversy. In the same year
+_Pillars of Society_ was presented in London. In 1891 and 1892 _A Doll's
+House_ was frequently acted; _Rosmersholm_ was produced in 1891, and
+again in 1893; in May and June 1891 _Hedda Gabler_ had a run of several
+weeks; and early in 1893 _The Master Builder_ enjoyed a similar passing
+vogue. During these years, then, Ibsen was very much "in the air" in
+England, as well as in France and Germany. The Independent theatre, in
+the meantime, under the management of J. T. Grein, found but scanty
+material to deal with. It presented translations of Zola's _Therese
+Raquin_, and of _A Visit_, by the Danish dramatist Edward Brandes; but
+it brought to the front only one English author of any note, in the
+person of George Bernard Shaw, whose "didactic realistic play,"
+_Widowers' Houses_, it produced in December 1892.
+
+None the less is it true that the ferment of fresh energy, which between
+1887 and 1893 had created a new dramatic literature both in France and
+in Germany, was distinctly felt in England as well. England did not take
+at all kindly to it. The productions of Ibsen's plays, in particular,
+were received with an outcry of reprobation. A great part of this
+clamour was due to sheer misunderstanding; but some of it, no doubt,
+arose from genuine and deep-seated distaste. As for the dramatists of
+recognized standing, they one and all, both from policy and from
+conviction, adopted a hostile attitude towards Ibsen, expressing at most
+a theoretical respect overborne by practical dislike. Yet his influence
+permeated the atmosphere. He had revealed possibilities of technical
+stagecraft and psychological delineation that, once realized, were not
+to be banished from the mind of the thoughtful playwright. They haunted
+him in spite of himself. Still subtler was the influence exerted over
+the critics and the more intelligent public. Deeply and genuinely as
+many of them disliked Ibsen's works, they found, when they returned to
+the old-fashioned play, the adapted frivolity or the homegrown
+sentimentalism, that they disliked this still more. On every side, then,
+there was an instinctive or deliberate reaching forward towards
+something new; and once again it was Pinero who ventured the decisive
+step.
+
+On the 27th of May 1893 _The Second Mrs Tanqueray_ was produced at the
+St James's theatre. With _The Second Mrs Tanqueray_ the English acted
+drama ceased to be a merely insular product, and took rank in the
+literature of Europe. Here was a play which, whatever its faults, was
+obviously comparable with the plays of Dumas, of Sudermann, of Bjurnson,
+of Echegaray. It might be better than some of these plays, worse than
+others; but it stood on the same artistic level. The fact that such a
+play could not only be produced, but could brilliantly succeed, on the
+London stage gave a potent stimulus to progress. It encouraged ambition
+in authors, enterprise in managers. What _Hernani_ was to the romantic
+movement of the 'thirties, and _La Dame aux camelias_ to the realistic
+movement of the 'fifties, _The Second Mrs Tanqueray_ was to the movement
+of the 'nineties towards the serious stage-portraiture of English social
+life. All the forces which we have been tracing--Robertsonian realism of
+externals, the leisure for thought and experiment involved in vastly
+improved financial conditions, the substitution in France of a simpler,
+subtler technique for the outworn artifices of the Scribe school, and
+the electric thrill communicated to the whole theatrical life of Europe
+by contact with the genius of Ibsen--all these slowly converging forces
+coalesced to produce, in _The Second Mrs Tanqueray_, an epoch-marking
+play.
+
+Pinero followed up _Mrs Tanqueray_ with a remarkable series of
+plays--_The Notorious Mrs Ebbsmith_, _The Benefit of the Doubt_, _The
+Princess and the Butterfly_, _Trelawny of the "Wells_," _The Gay Lord
+Quex_, _Iris_, _Letty_, _His House in Order_ and _The Thunderbolt_--all
+of which show marked originality of conception and intellectual force.
+In January 1893 Charles Wyndham initiated a new policy at the Criterion
+theatre, and produced an original play, _The Bauble-Shop_, by Henry
+Arthur Jones. It belonged very distinctly to the pre-Tanqueray order of
+things; but the same author's _The Case of Rebellious Susan_, in the
+following year, showed an almost startlingly sudden access of talent,
+which was well maintained in such later works as _Michael and his Lost
+Angel_ (1896), that admirable comedy _The Liars_ (1897), and _Mrs Dane's
+Defence_ (1900). Sydney Grundy produced after 1893 by far his most
+important original works, _The Greatest of These_ (1896) and _The Debt
+of Honour_ (1900). R. C. Carton, breaking away from the somewhat
+laboured sentimentalism of his earlier manner, produced several light
+comedies of thoroughly original humour and of excellent literary
+workmanship--_Lord and Lady Algy_, _Wheels within Wheels_, _Lady
+Huntworth's Experiment_, _Mr Hopkinson_ and _Mr Preedy and the
+Countess_. Haddon Chambers, in _The Tyranny of Tears_ (1899) and _The
+Awakening_ (1901), produced two plays of a merit scarcely foreshadowed
+in his earlier efforts.
+
+What was of more importance, a new generation of playwrights came to the
+front. Its most notable representatives were J. M. Barrie, who displayed
+his inexhaustible gift of humorous observation and invention in _Quality
+Street_ (1902), _The Admirable Crichton_ (1903), _Little Mary_ (1903),
+_Peter Pan_ (1904), _Alice Sit-by-the-Fire_ (1905) and _What Every Woman
+Knows_ (1908); Mrs Craigie ("John Oliver Hobbes"), who produced in _The
+Ambassador_ (1898) a comedy of fine accomplishment; and H. V. Esmond,
+Alfred Sutro, Hubert Henry Davies, W. S. Maugham, Rudolf Besier, Roy
+Horniman and J. B. Fagan.
+
+Meanwhile, the efforts to relieve the drama from the pressure of the
+long-run system had not been confined to the Independent theatre.
+Several other enterprises of a like nature had proved more or less
+short-lived; but the Stage Society, founded in 1900, was conducted with
+more energy and perseverance, and became a real force in the dramatic
+world. After two seasons devoted mainly to Bernard Shaw, Ibsen,
+Maeterlinck and Hauptmann, it produced in its third season _The Marrying
+of Ann Leete_, by Granville Barker (b. 1877), who had developed in its
+service his remarkable gifts as a producer of plays. A year or two
+later, Barker staged for another organization, the New Century theatre,
+Professor Gilbert Murray's rendering of the _Hippolytus_ of Euripides;
+and it was partly the success of this production that suggested the
+Vedrenne-Barker partnership at the Court theatre, which, between 1904
+and 1907, gave an extraordinary impulse to the intellectual life of the
+theatre. Adopting the "short-run" system, as a compromise between the
+long-run and the repertory systems, the Vedrenne-Barker management made
+the plays of Bernard Shaw (both old and new) for the first time really
+popular. Of the plays already published _You Never Can Tell_ and _Man
+and Superman_ were the most successful; of the new plays, _John Bull's
+Other Island_, _Major Barbara_ and _The Doctor's Dilemma_. But though
+Shaw was the mainstay of the enterprise, it gave opportunities to
+several other writers, the most notable being John Galsworthy (b. 1867),
+author of _The Silver Box_ and _Strife_, St John Hankin (1869-1909),
+author of _The Return of the Prodigal_ and _The Charity that began at
+Home_, and Granville Barker himself, whose plays _The Voysey
+Inheritance_ and _Waste_ (1907) were among the most important products
+of this movement. It should also be noted that the production of the
+_Hippolytus_ was followed up by the production of the _Trojan Women_,
+the _Electra_ and the _Medea_ of Euripides, all translated by Gilbert
+Murray.
+
+The impulse to which were due the Independent theatre, the Stage Society
+and the Vedrenne-Barker management, combined with local influences to
+bring about the foundation in Dublin of the Irish National theatre. Its
+moving spirit was the poet W. B. Yeats (b. 1865), who wrote for it
+_Cathleen-ni-Hoolihan_, _The Hour-Glass_, _The King's Threshold_ and one
+or two other plays. Lady Gregory, Padraic Collum, Boyle and other
+authors also contributed to the repertory of this admirable little
+theatre; but its most notable products were the plays of J. M. Synge
+(1871-1909), whose _Riders to the Sea_, _Well of the Saints_ and
+_Playboy of the Western World_ showed a fine and original dramatic
+faculty combined with extraordinary beauty of style.
+
+Both in Manchester and in Glasgow endeavours have been made, with
+considerable success, to counteract the evils of the touring system, by
+the establishment of resident companies acting the better class of
+modern plays on a "short-run" plan, similar to that of the
+Vedrenne-Barker management. The Manchester enterprise was to some extent
+subsidized by Miss E. Horniman, and may therefore claim to be the first
+endowed theatre in England. The need for endowment on a much larger
+scale was, however, strongly advocated in the early years of the 20th
+century by the more progressive supporters of English drama, and in 1908
+found a place in the scheme for a Shakespeare National theatre, which
+was then superimposed on the earlier proposal for a memorial
+commemorating the Shakespeare tercentenary, organized by an influential
+committee under the chairmanship of the Lord Mayor of London. The scheme
+involved the raising of L500,000, half to be devoted to the requisite
+site and building, while the remainder would be invested so as to
+furnish an annual subvention.
+
+It remains to say a few words of the English literary drama, as opposed
+to the acted drama. The two classes are not nearly so distinct as they
+once were; but plays continue to be produced from time to time which are
+wholly unfitted for the theatre, and others which, though they may be
+experimentally placed on the stage, make their appeal rather to the
+reading public. Tennyson had essayed in his old age an art which is
+scarcely to be mastered after the energy of youth has passed. He
+continued to the last to occupy himself more or less with drama, and all
+his plays, except _Harold_, found their way to the stage. _The Cup_ and
+_Becket_, as we have seen, met with a certain success, but _The Promise
+of May_ (1882), an essay in contemporary drama, was a disastrous
+failure, while _The Falcon_ (1879) and _The Foresters_ (acted by an
+American company in 1893) made little impression. Lord Tennyson was
+certainly not lacking in dramatic faculty, but he worked in an outworn
+form which he had no longer the strength to renovate. Swinburne
+continued now and then to cast his creations in the dramatic mould, but
+it cannot be said that his dramas attained either the vitality or the
+popularity of his lyrical poems. _Mary Stuart_ (1881) brought his Marian
+trilogy to a close. In _Locrine_ he produced a tragedy in heroic
+couplets--a thing probably unattempted since the age of Dryden. _The
+Sisters_ is a tragedy of modern date with a medieval drama inserted by
+way of interlude. _Rosamund, Queen of the Lombards_ (1899), perhaps
+approached more nearly than any of his former works to the concentration
+essential to drama. It may be doubted, however, whether his copious and
+ebullient style could ever really subject itself to the trammels of
+dramatic form. Of other dramas on the Elizabethan model, the most
+notable, perhaps, were the works of two ladies who adopt the pseudonym
+of "Michael Field"; _Callirrhoe_ (1884), _Brutus Ultor_ (1887), and many
+other dramas, show considerable power of imagination and expression, but
+are burdened by a deliberate artificiality both of technique and style.
+Alfred Austin put forth several volumes in dramatic form, such as
+_Savonarola_ (1881), _Prince Lucifer_ (1887), _England's Darling_
+(1896), _Flodden Field_ (1905). They are laudable in intention and
+fluent in utterance. Notable additions to the purely literary drama were
+made by Robert Bridges in his _Prometheus_ (1883), _Nero_ (1885), _The
+Feast of Bacchus_ (1889), and other solid plays in verse, full of
+science and skill, but less charming than his lyrical poems. Sir Lewis
+Morris made a dramatic experiment in _Gycia_, but was not encouraged to
+repeat it.
+
+From the outset of his career, John Davidson (1857-1909) was haunted by
+the conviction that he was a born dramatist; but his earlier plays, such
+as _Smith: a Tragedy_ (1886), _Bruce: a Chronicle Play_ (1884) and
+_Scaramouch in Naxos_ (1888), contained more poetry than drama; and his
+later pieces, such as _Self's the Man_ (1901), _The Theatrocrat_ (1905)
+and the _Triumph of Mammon_ (1907), showed a species of turbulent
+imagination, but became more and more fantastic and impracticable.
+Stephen Phillips (b. 1867), on the other hand, having had some
+experience as an actor, wrote always with the stage in view. In his
+first play, _Paolo and Francesca_ (1899; produced in 1902), he succeeded
+in combining great beauty of diction with intense dramatic power and
+vitality. The same may be said of _Herod_ (1900); but in _Ulysses_
+(1902) and _Nero_ (1906) a great falling-off in constructive power was
+only partially redeemed by the fine inspiration of individual passages.
+
+The collaboration of Robert Louis Stevenson with William Ernest Henley
+produced a short series of interesting experiments in drama, two of
+which, _Beau Austin_ (1883) and _Admiral Guinea_ (1884), had more than a
+merely experimental value. The former was an emotional comedy, treating
+with rare distinction of touch a difficult, almost an impossible,
+subject; the latter was a nautical melodrama, raised by force of
+imagination and diction into the region of literature. Incomparably the
+most important of recent additions to the literary drama is Thomas
+Hardy's vast panorama of the Napoleonic wars, entitled _The Dynasts_
+(1904-1908). It is rather an epic in dialogue than a play; but however
+we may classify it we cannot but recognize its extraordinary
+intellectual and imaginative powers.
+
+_United States._--American dramatists have shown on their own account a
+progressive tendency, quite as marked as that which we have been tracing
+in England. Down to about 1890 the influence of France had been even
+more predominant in America than in England. The only American dramatist
+of eminence, Bronson Howard (1842-1908), was a disciple, though a very
+able one, of the French school. A certain stirring of native
+originality manifested itself during the 'eighties, when a series of
+semi-improvised farces, associated with the names of two actor-managers,
+Harrigan and Hart, depicted low life in New York with real observation,
+though in a crude and formless manner. About the same time a native
+style of popular melodrama began to make its appearance--a play of
+conventional and negligible plot, which attracted by reason of one or
+more faithfully observed character-types, generally taken from country
+life. _The Old Homestead_, written by Denman Thompson, who himself acted
+in it, was the most popular play of this class. Rude as it was, it
+distinctly foreshadowed that faithfulness to the external aspects, at
+any rate, of everyday life, in which lies the strength of the native
+American drama. It was at a sort of free theatre in Boston that James A.
+Herne (1840-1901) produced in 1891 his realistic drama of modern life,
+_Margaret Fleming_, which did a great deal to awaken the interest of
+literary America in the theatrical movement. Herne, an actor and a most
+accomplished stage-manager, next produced a drama of rural life in New
+England, _Shore Acres_ (1892), which made an immense popular success. It
+was a play of the _Old Homestead_ type, but very much more coherent and
+artistic. His next play, _Griffith Davenport_ (1898), founded on a
+novel, was a drama of life in Virginia during the Civil War, admirable
+in its strength and quiet sincerity; while in his last work, _Sag
+Harbour_ (1900), Herne returned to the study of rustic character, this
+time in Long Island. Herne showed human nature in its more obvious and
+straightforward aspects, making no attempt at psychological subtlety;
+but within his own limits he was an admirable craftsman. The same
+preoccupation with local colour is manifest in the plays of Augustus M.
+Thomas, a writer of genuine humour and originality. His localism
+announces itself in the very titles of his most popular
+plays--_Alabama_, _In Mizzoura_, _Arizona_. He also made a striking
+success in _The Witching Hour_, a play dealing with the phenomena of
+hypnotism and suggestion. Clyde Fitch (1865-1909), an immensely prolific
+playwright of indubitable ability, after becoming known by some
+experiments in quasi-historic drama (notably _Nathan Hale_, 1898;
+_Barbara Frietchie_, 1899), devoted himself mainly to social drama on
+the French model, in which his most notable efforts have been _The
+Climbers_ (1900), _The Truth_ (1906), and _The Girl with the Green Eyes_
+(1902). In popular drama, with elaborate scenic illustration, William
+Gillette (b. 1856), David Belasco (b. 1859) and Charles Klein (b. 1867)
+have done notable work. William Vaughn Moody (b. 1869) produced in _The
+Great Divide_ (1907) a play of somewhat higher artistic pretensions;
+Eugene Walter in _Paid in Full_ (1908) and _The Easiest Way_ (1909)
+dealt vigorously with characteristic themes of modern life; and Edward
+Sheldon produced in _Salvation Nell_ a slum drama of very striking
+realism. The poetic side of drama was mainly represented by Percy
+Mackaye (b. 1875), whose _Jeanne d'Arc_ (1906) and _Sappho and Phaon_
+showed a high ambition and no small literary power. On the whole it may
+be said that, though the financial conditions of the American stage are
+even more unfortunate than those which prevail in England, they have
+failed to check a very strong movement towards nationalism in drama.
+Season by season, America writes more of her own plays, good or bad, and
+becomes less dependent on imported work, whether French or English. (W.
+A.)
+
+
+(g) _German Drama._
+
+The history of the German drama differs widely from that of the English,
+though a close contact is observable between them at an early point, and
+again at relatively recent points, in their annals. The dramatic
+literature of Germany, though in its beginnings intimately connected
+with the great national movement of the Reformation, soon devoted its
+efforts to a sterile imitation of foreign models; while the popular
+stage, persistently suiting itself to a robust but gross taste, likewise
+largely due to the influence of foreign examples, seemed destined to a
+hopeless decay. The literary and the acted drama were thus estranged
+from one another during a period of extraordinary length; nor was it
+till the middle of the 18th century that, with the opening of a more
+hopeful era for the life and literature of the nation, the reunion of
+dramatic literature and the stage began to accomplish itself. Before the
+end of the same century the progress of the German drama in its turn
+began to influence that of other nations, and by the widely
+comprehensive character of its literature, as well as by the activity of
+its stage, to invite a steadily increasing interest.
+
+
+  The Latin drama in Germany.
+
+  The Jesuit drama.
+
+It should be premised that in its beginnings the modern German drama
+might have seemed likely to be influenced even more largely than the
+English or the French by the copious imitation of classical models which
+marked the periods of the Renaissance and the Reformation; but here the
+impulse of originality was wanting to bring about a speedy and gradually
+a complete emancipation, and imitative reproduction continued in an all
+but endless series. The first German (and indeed the earliest
+transalpine) writer to follow in the footsteps of the modern Latin drama
+of the Italians was the famous Strassburg humanist Jacob Wimpheling
+(1450-1528), whose comedy of _Stylpho_ (1480), an attack upon the
+ignorance of the pluralist beneficed clergy, marks a kind of epoch in
+the history of German dramatic effort. It was succeeded by many other
+Latin plays of various kinds, among which may be mentioned J.
+Kerckmeister's _Codrus_ (1485), satirizing pedantic schoolmasters; a
+series of historical dramas in a moralizing vein, partly on the Turkish
+peril, as well as of comedies, by Jacob Locher (1471-1528); two plays by
+the great Johann Reuchlin, of which the so-called _Henno_ went through
+more than thirty editions; and the _Ludus Dianae_, with another play
+likewise in honour of the emperor Maximilian I., by the celebrated
+Viennese scholar Conrad Celtes (1459-1508). Sebastian Brant's _Hercules
+in Bivio_ (1512) is lost; but Wilibald Pirckheimer's _Eckius dedolatus_
+(1520) survives as a dramatic contribution to Luther's controversy with
+one of his most active opponents. The _Acolastus_ (1525) of W. Gnaphaeus
+(_alias_ Fullonius, his native name was de Volder) should also be
+mentioned in the present connexion, as, though a Dutchman by birth, he
+spent most of his literary life in Germany. This Terentian version of
+the parable of the Prodigal Son was printed in an almost endless number
+of editions, as well as in various versions in modern tongues, among
+which reference has already been made to the English, for the use of
+schools, by J. Palsgrave (1540). Macropedius (Langhveldt) belongs wholly
+to the Low Countries. In Germany the stream of these compositions
+continued to flow almost without abatement throughout the earlier half
+of the 16th century; but in the days of the Reformation it takes a turn
+to scriptural subjects, and during the latter part of the century
+remains on the whole faithful to this preference.[273] These Latin plays
+may be called school-dramas in the most precise sense; for they were
+both performed in the schools and read in class with commentaries
+specially composed for them; nor was it except very reluctantly that in
+this age the vernacular drama was allowed to intrude into scholastic
+circles. It should be noticed that the Jesuit order, which afterwards
+proved so keenly alive to the influence which dramatic performances
+exercise over the youthful mind, only very gradually abandoned the
+principle, formally sanctioned in their _Ratio studiorum_, that the
+acting of plays (these being always in the Latin tongue) should only
+rarely be permitted in their seminaries. The flourishing period of the
+Jesuit drama begins with the spread of the order in the west and
+south-west of the Empire in the last decade of the 16th century, and
+then continues, through the vicissitudes of good and evil, with a
+curious intermixture of Latin and German plays, during the whole of the
+17th and the better part of the 18th. These productions, which ranged in
+their subjects from biblical and classical story to themes of
+contemporary history (such as the relief of Vienna by Sobiesky and the
+peace of Ryswick), seem generally to bear the mark of their
+authorship--that of teachers appointed by their superiors to execute
+this among other tasks allotted to them; but, as it seems unnecessary to
+return to this special growth, it may be added that the extraordinary
+productiveness of the Jesuit dramatists, and the steadiness of
+self-repetition which is equally characteristic of them, should warn us
+against underrating its influence upon a considerable proportion of the
+nation's educational life during a long succession of generations.
+
+
+  Beginnings of the vernacular German drama.
+
+  Hans Sachs.
+
+  The English comedians.
+
+  Separation between the stage and literature.
+
+While the scholars of the German Renaissance, who became so largely the
+agents of the Reformation, eagerly dramatized scriptural subjects in the
+Latin, and sometimes (as in the case of Luther's protege P. Rebhun[274])
+in the native tongue, the same influence made itself felt in another
+sphere of dramatic activity. Towards the close of the middle ages, as
+has been seen, dramatic performances had in Germany, as in England,
+largely fallen into the hands of the civic gilds, and the composition of
+plays was more especially cultivated by the master-singers of Nuremberg
+and other towns. It was thus that, under the influence of the
+Reformation, and of the impulse given by Luther and others to the use of
+High German as the popular literary tongue, Hans Sachs, the immortal
+shoemaker of Nuremberg, seemed destined to become the father of the
+popular German drama. In his plays, "spiritual," "secular," and
+_Fastnachtsspiele_ alike, the interest indeed lies in the dialogue
+rather than in the action, nor do they display any attempt at
+development of character. In their subjects, whether derived from
+Scripture or from popular legend and fiction,[275] there is no novelty,
+and in their treatment no originality. But the healthy vigour and fresh
+humour of this marvellously fertile author, and his innate sympathy with
+the views and sentiments of the burgher class to which he belonged, were
+elements of genuine promise--a promise which the event was signally to
+disappoint. Though the manner of Hans Sachs found a few followers, and
+is recognizable in the German popular drama even of the beginning of the
+17th century, the literature of the Reformation, of which his works may
+claim to form part, was soon absorbed in labours of a very different
+kind. The stage, after admitting novelties introduced from Italy or
+(under Jesuit supervision) from Spain, was subjected to another and
+enduring influence. Among the foreign actors of various nations who
+flitted through the innumerable courts of the empire, or found a
+temporary home there, special prominence was acquired, towards the close
+of the 16th and in the early years of the 17th century, by the "English
+comedians," who appeared at Cassel, Wolfenbuttel, Berlin, Dresden,
+Cologne, &c. Through these players a number of early English dramas
+found their way into Germany, where they were performed in more or less
+imperfect versions, and called forth imitations by native authors. Duke
+Henry Julius of Brunswick-Luneburg[276] (1564-1613) and Jacob Ayrer (a
+citizen of Nuremberg, where he died, 1605) represent the endeavours of
+the early German drama to suit its still uncouth forms to themes
+suggested by English examples; and in their works, and in those of
+contemporary playwrights, there reappears no small part of what we may
+conclude to have been the "English comedians'" _repertoire_.[277] (The
+converse influence of German themes brought home with them by the
+English actors, or set in motion by their strolling ubiquity, cannot
+have been equal in extent, though Shakespeare himself may have derived
+the idea of one of his plots[278] from such a source). But, though
+welcome to both princes and people, the exertions of these foreign
+comedians, and of the native imitators who soon arose in the earliest
+professional companies of actors known in Germany, instead of bringing
+about a union between the stage and literature, led to a directly
+opposite result. The popularity of these strollers was owing partly to
+the (very real) blood and other horrors with which their plays were
+deluged, partly to the buffoonery with which they seasoned, and the
+various tricks and feats with which they diversified, their
+performances. The representatives of the English clowns had learnt much
+on their way from their brethren in the Netherlands, where in this
+period the art of grotesque acting greatly flourished. Nor were the aids
+of other arts neglected,--to this day in Germany professors of the
+"equestrian drama" are known by the popular appellation of "English
+riders." From these true descendants of the mimes, then, the
+professional actors in Germany inherited a variety of tricks and
+traditions; and soon the favourite figures of the popular comic stage
+became conventional, and were stereotyped by the use of masks. Among
+these an acknowledged supremacy was acquired by the native _Hans Wurst_
+(Jack Pudding)--of whose name Luther disavowed the invention, and who is
+known already to Hans Sachs--the privileged buffoon, and for a long
+series of generations the real lord and master, of the German stage. If
+that stage, with its grossness and ribaldry, seemed likely to become
+permanently estranged from the tastes and sympathies of the educated
+classes, the fault was by no means entirely its own and that of its
+patron the populace. The times were evil times for a national effort of
+any kind; and poetic literature was in all its branches passing into the
+hands of scholars who were often pedants, and whose language was a
+jargon of learned affectations. Thus things continued, till the awful
+visitation of the Thirty Years' War cast a general blight upon the
+national life, and the traditions of the popular theatre were left to
+the guardianship of the marionettes (_Puppenspiele_)!
+
+
+  The literary drama of the 17th century.
+
+When, in the midst of that war, German poets once more began to essay
+the dramatic form, the national drama was left outside their range of
+vision. M. Opitz, who holds an honoured place in the history of the
+German language and literature, in this branch of his labours contented
+himself with translations of classical dramas and of Italian
+pastorals--among the latter one of Rinuccini's _Daphne_, with which the
+history of the opera in Germany begins. A. Gryphius, though as a comic
+dramatist lacking neither vigour nor variety, and acquainted with
+Shakespearian[279] as well as Latin and Italian examples, chiefly
+devoted himself to the imitation of Latin, earlier French, and Dutch
+tragedy, the rhetorical dialogue of which he effectively reproduced in
+the Alexandrine metre.[280] Neither the turgid dramas of D. C. von
+Lohenstein (1665-1684), for whose _Cleopatra_ the honour of having been
+the first German tragedy has been claimed, nor even the much healthier
+comedies of Chr. Weise (1642-1708) were brought upon the stage; while
+the religious plays of J. Klay (1616-1656) are mere recitations
+connected with the Italian growth of the _oratorio_. The frigid
+allegories commemorative of contemporary events, with which the learned
+from time to time supplied the theatre, and the pastoral dramas with
+which the idyllic poets of Nuremberg--"the shepherds of the
+Pegnitz"--after the close of the war gratified the peaceful longings of
+their fellow-citizens, were alike mere scholastic efforts. These indeed
+continued in the universities and _gymnasia_ to keep alive the love of
+both dramatic composition and dramatic representation, and to encourage
+the theatrical taste which led so many students into the professional
+companies. But neither these dramatic exercises nor the _ludi Caesarei_
+in which the Jesuits at Vienna revived the pomp and pageantry, and the
+mixture of classical and Christian symbolism, of the Italian
+Renaissance, had any influence upon the progress of the popular drama.
+
+
+  The stage before its reform.
+
+The history of the German stage remains to about the second decennium of
+the 18th century one of the most melancholy, as it is in its way one of
+the most instructive, chapters of theatrical history. Ignored by the
+world of letters, the actors in return deliberately sought to emancipate
+their art from all dependence upon literary material. Improvisation
+reigned supreme, not only in farce, where _Hans Wurst_, with the aid of
+Italian examples, never ceased to charm his public, but in the serious
+drama likewise (in which, however, he also played his part) in those
+_Haupt- und Staatsactionen_ (high-matter-of-state-dramas), the plots of
+which were taken from the old stores of the English comedians, from the
+religious drama and its sources, and from the profane history of all
+times. The hero of this period is "Magister" J. Velthen (or Veltheim),
+who at the head of a company of players for a time entered the service
+of the Saxon court, and, by reproducing comedies of Moliere and other
+writers, sought to restrain the licence which he had himself carried
+beyond all earlier precedent, but who had to fall back into the old ways
+and the old life. His career exhibits the climax of the efforts of the
+art of acting to stand alone; after his death (c. 1693) chaos ensues.
+The strolling companies, which now included actresses, continued to
+foster the popular love of the stage, and even under its most degraded
+form to uphold its national character against the rivalry of the opera,
+and that of the Italian _commedia dell' arte_. From the latter was
+borrowed Harlequin, with whom _Hans Wurst_ was blended, and who became a
+standing figure in every kind of popular play.[281] He established his
+sway more especially at Vienna, where from about 1712 the first
+permanent German theatre was maintained. But for the actors in general
+there was little permanence, and amidst miseries of all sorts, and under
+the growing ban of clerical intolerance, the popular stage seemed
+destined to hopeless decay. A certain vitality of growth seems, under
+clerical guidance, to have characterized the plays of the people in
+Bavaria and parts of Austria.
+
+
+  F. K. Neuber, Gottsched, and the Leipzig school.
+
+  Ekhof
+
+The first endeavours to reform what had thus apparently passed beyond
+all reach of recovery were neither wholly nor generally successful; but
+this does not diminish the honour due to two names which should never be
+mentioned without respect in connexion with the history of the drama.
+Friederike Karoline Neuber's (1697-1760) biography is the story of a
+long-continued effort which, notwithstanding errors and weaknesses, and
+though, so far as her personal fortunes were concerned, it ended in
+failure, may almost be described as heroic. As directress of a company
+of actors which from 1727 had its headquarters at Leipzig (hence the new
+school of acting is called the Leipzig school), she resolved to put an
+end to the formlessness of the existing stage, to separate tragedy and
+comedy, and to extinguish Harlequin. In this endeavour she was supported
+by the Leipzig professor J. Chr. Gottsched, who induced her to establish
+French tragedy and comedy as the sole models of the regular drama.
+Literature and the stage thus for the first time joined hands, and no
+temporary mischance or personal misunderstanding can obscure the
+enduring significance of the union. Not only were the abuses of a
+century swept away from a representative theatre, but a large number of
+literary works, designed for the stage, were produced on it. It is true
+that they were but versions or imitations from the French (or in the
+case of Gottsched's _Dying Cato_ from the French and English),[282] and
+that at the moment of the regeneration of the German drama new fetters
+were thus imposed upon it, and upon the art of acting at the same time.
+But the impulse had been given, and the beginning made. On the one hand,
+men of letters began to subject their dramatic compositions to the test
+of performance; the tragedies and comedies of J. E. Schlegel, the
+artificial and sentimental comedies of Chr. F. Gellert and others,
+together with the vigorous popular comedies of the Danish dramatist
+Holberg, were brought into competition with translations from the
+French. On the other hand, the Leipzig school exercised a continuous
+effect upon the progress of the art of acting, and before long K. Ekhof
+began a career which made his art a fit subject for the critical study
+of scholars, and his profession one to be esteemed by honourable men.
+
+
+  Lessing.
+
+Among the authors contributing to Mme. Neuber's Leipzig enterprise had
+been a young student destined to complete, after a very different
+fashion and with very different aims, the work which she and Gottsched
+had begun. The critical genius of G. E. Lessing is peerless in its
+comprehensiveness, as in its keenness and depth; but if there was any
+branch of literature and art which by study and practice he made
+pre-eminently his own, it was that of the drama. As bearing upon the
+progress of the German theatre, his services to its literature, both
+critical and creative, can only be described as inestimable. The
+_Hamburgische Dramaturgie_, a series of criticisms of plays and (in its
+earlier numbers) of actors, was undertaken in furtherance of the attempt
+to establish at Hamburg the first national German theatre (1767-1769).
+This fact alone would invest these papers with a high significance; for,
+though the theatrical enterprise proved abortive, it established the
+principle upon which the progress of the theatre in all countries
+depends--that for the dramatic art the immediate theatrical public is no
+sufficient court of appeal. But the direct effect of the _Dramaturgie_
+was to complete the task which Lessing had in previous writings begun,
+and to overthrow the dominion of the arbitrary French rules and the
+French models established by Gottsched. Lessing vindicated its real laws
+to the drama, made clear the difference between the Greeks and their
+would-be representatives, and established the claims of Shakespeare as
+the modern master of both tragedy and comedy. His own dramatic
+productivity was cautious, tentative, progressive. His first step was,
+by his _Miss Sara Sampson_ (1755), to oppose the realism of the English
+domestic drama to the artificiality of the accepted French models, in
+the forms of which Chr. F. Weisse (1726-1804) was seeking to treat the
+subjects of Shakespearian plays.[283] Then, in his _Minna von Barnhelm_
+(1767), which owed something to Farquhar, he essayed a national comedy
+drawn from real life, and appealing to patriotic sentiments as well as
+to broad human sympathies. It was written in prose (like _Miss Sara
+Sampson_), but in form held a judicious mean between French and English
+examples.
+
+
+  Efforts of the theatre and of literature.
+
+The note sounded by the criticisms of Lessing met with a ready response,
+and the productivity displayed by the nascent dramatic literature of
+Germany is astonishing, both in the efforts inspired by his teachings
+and in those which continued to controvert or which aspired to transcend
+them. On the stage, Harlequin and his surroundings proved by no means
+easy to suppress, more especially at Vienna, the favourite home of
+frivolous amusement; but even here a reform was gradually effected, and,
+under the intelligent rule of the emperor Joseph II., a national stage
+grew into being. The mantle of Ekhof fell upon the shoulders of his
+eager younger rival, F. L. Schruder, who was the first to domesticate
+Shakespeare upon the German stage. In dramatic literature few of
+Lessing's earlier contemporaries produced any works of permanent value,
+unless the religious dramas of F. G. Klopstock--a species in which he
+had been preceded by J. J. Bodmer--and the patriotic _Bardietten_ of the
+same author be excepted. S. Gessner, J. W. L. Gleim, and G. K. Pfeffel
+(1736-1809) composed pastoral plays. But a far more potent stimulus
+prompted the efforts of the younger generation. The translation of
+Shakespeare, begun in 1762 by C. M. Wieland, whose own plays possess no
+special significance, and completed in 1775 by Eschenburg, which
+furnished the text for many of Lessing's criticisms, helps to mark an
+epoch in German literature. Under the influence of Shakespeare, or of
+their conceptions of his genius, arose a youthful group of writers who,
+while worshipping their idol as the representative of nature, displayed
+but slight anxiety to harmonize their imitations of him with the demands
+of art. The notorious _Ugolino_ of H. W. von Gerstenberg seemed a
+premonitory sign that the coming flood might merely rush back to the
+extravagances and horrors of the old popular stage; and it was with a
+sense of this danger in prospect that Lessing in his third important
+drama, the prose tragedy _Emilia Galotti_ (1772), set the example of a
+work of incomparable nicety in its adaptation of means to end. But
+successful as it proved, it could not stay the excesses of the _Sturm
+und Drang_ period which now set in. Lessing's last drama, _Nathan der
+Weise_ (1779), was not measured to the standard of the contemporary
+stage; but it was to exercise its influence in the progress of time--not
+only by causing a reaction in tragedy from prose to blank verse (first
+essayed in J. W. von Brawe's _Brutus_, 1770), but by ennobling and
+elevating by its moral and intellectual grandeur the branch of
+literature to which in form it belongs.
+
+
+  The Sturm und Drang.
+
+Meanwhile the young geniuses of the _Sturm und Drang_ had gone forth, as
+worshippers rather than followers of Shakespeare, to conquer new worlds.
+The name of this group of writers, more remarkable for their collective
+significance than for their individual achievements, was derived from a
+drama by one of the most prolific of their number, M. F. von
+Klinger;[284] other members of the fraternity were J. A. Leisewitz[285]
+(1752-1806), M. R. Lenz[286] and F. Muller[287] the "painter." The
+youthful genius of the greatest of German poets was itself under the
+influences of this period, when it produced the first of its
+masterpieces. But Goethe's _Gutz von Berlichingen_ (1773), both by the
+choice and treatment of its national theme, and by the incomparable
+freshness and originality of its style, holds a position of its own in
+German dramatic literature. Though its defiant irregularity of form
+prevented its complete success upon the stage, yet its influence is far
+from being represented by the series of mostly feeble imitations to
+which it gave rise. The _Ritterdramen_ (plays of chivalry) had their day
+like similar fashions in drama or romance; but the permanent effect of
+_Gutz_ was, that it crushed as with an iron hand the last remnants of
+theatrical conventionality (those of costume and scenery included), and
+extinguished with them the lingering respect for rules and traditions of
+dramatic composition which even Lessing had treated with consideration.
+Its highest significance, however, lies in its having been the first
+great dramatic work of a great national poet, and having definitively
+associated the national drama with the poetic glories of the national
+literature.
+
+
+  Goethe.
+
+  Schiller.
+
+Thus, in the classical period of that literature, of which Goethe and
+Schiller were the ruling stars, the drama had a full share of the
+loftiest of its achievements. Of these, the dramatic works of Goethe
+vary so widely in form and character, and connect themselves so
+intimately with the different phases of the development of his own
+self-directed poetic genius, that it was impossible for any of them to
+become the starting-points of any general growths in the history of the
+German drama. His way of composition was, moreover, so peculiar to
+himself--conception often preceding execution by many years, part being
+added to part under the influence of new sentiments and ideas and views
+of art, flexibly followed by changes of form--that the history of his
+dramas cannot be severed from his general poetic and personal biography.
+His _Clavigo_ and _Stella_, which succeeded _Gutz_, are domestic dramas
+in prose; but neither by these, nor by the series of charming pastorals
+and operas which he composed for the Weimar court, could any influence
+be exercised upon the progress of the national drama. In the first
+conception of his _Faust_, he had indeed sought the suggestion of his
+theme partly in popular legend, partly in a domestic motive familiar to
+the authors of the _Sturm und Drang_ (the story of Gretchen); the later
+additions to the First Part, and the Second Part generally, are the
+results of metaphysical and critical studies and meditations belonging
+to wholly different spheres of thought and experience. The dramatic
+unity of the whole is thus, at the most, external only; and the standard
+of judgment to be applied to this wondrous poem is not one of dramatic
+criticism. _Egmont_, originally designed as a companion to _Gutz_, was
+not completed till many years later; there are few dramas more effective
+in parts, but the idea of a historic play is lost in the elaboration of
+the most graceful of love episodes. In _Iphigenia_ and _Tasso_, Goethe
+exhibited the perfection of form of which his classical period had
+enabled him to acquire the mastery; but the sphere of the action of the
+former (perfect though it is as a dramatic action), and the nature of
+that of the latter, are equally remote from the demands of the popular
+stage. Schiller's genius, unlike Goethe's, was naturally and
+consistently suited to the claims of the theatre. His juvenile works,
+_The Robbers_, _Fiesco_, _Kabale und Liebe_, vibrating under the
+influence of an age of social revolution, combined in their prose form
+the truthful expression of passion with a considerable admixture of
+extravagance. But, with true insight into the demands of his art, and
+with unequalled single-mindedness and self-devotion to it, Schiller
+gradually emancipated himself from his earlier style; and with his
+earliest tragedy in verse, _Don Carlos_, the first period of his
+dramatic authorship ends, and the promise of the second announces
+itself. The works which belong to this--from the _Wallenstein_ trilogy
+to _Tell_--are the acknowledged masterpieces of the German poetic drama,
+treating historic themes reconstructed by conscious dramatic
+workmanship, and clothing their dialogue in a noble vestment of
+rhetorical verse. The plays of Schiller are the living embodiment of the
+theory of tragedy elaborated by Hegel, according to which its proper
+theme is the divine, or, in other words, the moving ethical, element in
+human action. In one of his later plays, _The Bride of Messina_,
+Schiller attempted a new use of the chorus of Greek tragedy; but the
+endeavour was a splendid error, and destined to exercise no lasting
+effect. The reaction against Schiller's ascendancy began with writers
+who could not reconcile themselves with the cosmopolitan and
+non-national elements in his genius, and is still represented by eminent
+critics; but the future must be left to settle the contention.
+
+
+  The popular stage.
+
+Schiller's later dramas had gradually conquered the stage, over which
+his juvenile works had in this time triumphantly passed, but on which
+his _Don Carlos_ had met with a cold welcome. For a long time, however,
+its favourites were authors of a very different order, who suited
+themselves to the demands of a public tolerably indifferent to the
+literary progress of the drama. After popular tastes had oscillated
+between the imitators of _Gotz_ and those of _Emilia Galotti_, they
+entered into a more settled phase, as the establishment of standing
+theatres at the courts and in the large towns increased the demand for
+good "acting" plays. Famous actors, such as Schruder and A. W. Iffland,
+sought by translations or compositions of their own to meet the popular
+likings, which largely took the direction of that irrepressible
+favourite of theatrical audiences, the sentimental domestic drama.[288]
+But the most successful purveyor of such wares was an author who, though
+not himself an actor, understood the theatre with a professional
+instinct--August von Kotzebue. His productivity ranged from the domestic
+drama and comedy of all kinds to attempts to rival Schiller and
+Shakespeare in verse; and though his popularity (which ultimately proved
+his doom) brought upon him the bitterest attacks of the romantic school
+and other literary authorities, his self-conceit is not astonishing, and
+the time has come for saying that there is some exaggeration in the
+contempt which has been lavished upon him by posterity.[289] Nor should
+it be forgotten that German literature had so far failed to furnish the
+comic stage with any successors to _Minna von Barnhelm_; for Goethe's
+efforts to dramatize characteristic events or figures of the
+Revolutionary age[290] must be dismissed as failures, not from a
+theatrical point of view only. The joint efforts of Goethe and Schiller
+for the Weimar stage, important in many respects for the history of the
+German drama, at the same time reveal the want of a national dramatic
+literature sufficient to supply the needs of a theatre endeavouring to
+satisfy the demands of art.
+
+
+  The romantic school.
+
+Meanwhile the so-called romantic school of German literature was
+likewise beginning to extend its labours to original dramatic
+composition. From the universality of sympathies proclaimed by this
+school, to whose leaders Germany owed its classical translation of
+Shakespeare,[291] and an introduction to the dramatic literatures of so
+many ages and nations,[292] a variety of new dramatic impulses might be
+expected; while much might be hoped for the future of the national drama
+(especially in its mixed and comic species) from the alliance between
+poetry and real life which they preached, and which some of them sought
+personally to exemplify. But in practice universality presented itself
+as peculiarity or even as eccentricity; and in the end the divorce
+between poetry and real life was announced as authoritatively as their
+union had been. Outside this school, the youthful talent of Th. Kurner,
+whose early promise as a dramatist[293] might perhaps have ripened into
+a fulness enabling him not unworthily to occupy the seat left vacant by
+his father's friend Schiller, was extinguished by a patriotic death. The
+efforts of M. von Collin (1779-1824) in the direction of the historical
+drama remained isolated attempts. But of the leaders of the romantic
+school, A. W.[294] and F. von Schlegel[295] contented themselves with
+frigid classicalities; and L. Tieck, in the strange alembic of his
+_Phantasus_, melted legend and fairy-tale, novel and drama,[296] poetry
+and satire, into a compound, enjoyable indeed, but hardly so in its
+entirety, or in many of its parts, to any but the literary mind.
+
+
+  Later dramatists.
+
+F. de La Motte Fouque infused a spirit of poetry into the chivalry
+drama. Klemens Brentano was a fantastic dramatist unsuited to the stage.
+Here a feeble outgrowth of the romanticists, the "destiny dramatists" Z.
+Werner[297]--the most original of the group--A. Mullner,[298] and Baron
+C. E. v. Houwald,[299] achieved a temporary _furore_; and it was with an
+attempt in the same direction[300] that the Austrian dramatist F.
+Grillparzer began his long career. He is assuredly, what he pronounced
+himself to be, the foremost of the later dramatic poets of Germany,
+unless that tribute be thought due to the genius of H. von Kleist, who
+in his short life produced, besides other works, a romantic drama[301]
+and a rustic comedy[302] of genuine merit, and an historical tragedy of
+singular originality and power.[303] Grillparzer's long series of plays
+includes poetic dramas on classical themes[304] and historical subjects
+from Austrian history,[305] or treated from an Austrian point of view.
+The romantic school, which through Tieck had satirized the drama of the
+_bourgeoisie_ and its offshoots, was in its turn satirized by Count A.
+von Platen-Hallermund's admirable imitations of Aristophanic
+comedy.[306] Among the objects of his banter were the popular playwright
+E. Raupach, and K. Immermann, a true poet, who is, however, less
+generally remembered as a dramatist. F. Hebbel[307] is justly ranked
+high among the foremost later dramatic poets of his country, few of whom
+equal him in intensity. The eminent lyrical (especially ballad) poet L.
+Uhland left behind him a large number of dramatic fragments, but little
+or nothing really complete. Other names of literary mark are those of C.
+D. Grabbe, J. Mosen, O. Ludwig[308] (1813-1865), a dramatist of great
+power, and "F. Halm" (Baron von Munch-Bellinghausen) (1806-1871), and,
+among writers of a more modern school, K. Gutzkow,[309] G.
+Freytag,[310] and H. Laube.[311] L. Anzengruber, a writer of real genius
+though restricted range, imparted a new significance to the Austrian
+popular drama,[312] formerly so commonplace in the hands of F. Raimund
+and J. Nestroy.
+
+
+  The German stage of the latter half of the 19th century.
+
+During the long period of transition which may be said to have ended
+with the establishment of the new German empire, the German stage in
+some measure anticipated the developments which more spacious times were
+to witness in the German drama. The traditions of the national theatre
+contemporary with the great epoch of the national literature were kept
+alive by a succession of eminent actors--such as the nephews of Ludwig
+Devrient, himself an artist of the greatest originality, whose most
+conspicuous success, though nature had fitted him for Shakespeare, was
+achieved in Schiller's earliest play.[313] Among the younger generation
+of Devrients the most striking personality was that of Emil; his elder
+brother Karl August, husband of Wilhelmine Schruder-Devrient, the
+brilliant star of the operatic stage, and their son Friedrich, were also
+popular actors; yet another brother, Eduard, is more widely remembered
+as the historian of the German stage. Partly by reason of the number and
+variety of its centres of intellectual and artistic life, Germany was
+long enabled both to cherish the few masterpieces of its own drama, and,
+with the aid of a language well adapted for translation, to give
+admittance to the dramatic masterpieces of other nations also, and to
+Shakespeare in particular, without going far in the search for
+theatrical novelty or effect. But a change came over the spirit of
+German theatrical management with the endeavours of H. Laube, from about
+the middle of the century onwards, at Vienna (and Leipzig), which
+avowedly placed the demands of the theatre as such above those of
+literary merit or even of national sentiment. In a less combative
+spirit, F. Dingelstedt, both at Munich, which under King Maximilian he
+had made a kindly nurse of German culture, and, after his efforts there
+had come to an untimely end,[314] at Weimar and at Vienna, raised the
+theatre to a very high level of artistic achievement. The most memorable
+event in the annals of his managements was the production on the Weimar
+stage of the series of Shakespeare's _histories_. At a rather later
+period, of which the height extended from 1874 to 1890, the company of
+actors in the service, and under the personal direction, of Duke George
+of Saxe-Meiningen, created a great effect by their performances both in
+and outside Germany--not so much by their artistic improvements in
+scenery and decoration, as by the extraordinary perfection of their
+_ensemble_. But no dramaturgic achievement in the century could compare
+in grandeur either of conception or of execution with Richard Wagner's
+Bayreuth performances, where, for the first time in the history of the
+modern stage, the artistic instinct ruled supreme in all the conditions
+of the work and its presentment. Though the _Ring of the Nibelungs_ and
+its successors belong to opera rather than drama proper, the importance
+of their production (1876) should be overlooked by no student of the
+dramatic art. Potent as has been the influence of foreign dramatic
+literatures--whether French or Scandinavian--and that of a movement
+which has been common to them all, and from which the German was perhaps
+the least likely to exclude itself, the most notable feature in the
+recent history of the German drama has been its quick response to wholly
+new demands, which, though the attempt was made with some persistence,
+could no longer be met without an effort to span the widths and sound
+the depths of a more spacious and more self-conscious era.[315]
+
+
+h. _Dutch Drama._
+
+Among other modern European dramas the Dutch is interesting both in its
+beginnings, which to all intents and purposes form part of those of the
+German, and because of the special influence of the so-called chambers
+of the _rederykers_ (rhetoricians), from the early years of the 15th
+century onwards, which bear some resemblance to the associations of the
+master-singers in contemporary higher Germany. The earliest of their
+efforts, which so effectively tempered the despotism of both church and
+state, seem to have been of a dramatic kind; and a manifold variety of
+allegories, moralities and comic entertainments (_esbatementen_ or
+comedies, _kluiten_ and _factien_ or farces) enhanced the attractions of
+those popular pageants in which the Netherlands surpassed all other
+countries of the North. The Low Countries responded more largely to the
+impulse of the Renaissance than, with some local exceptions, any other
+of the Germanic lands. They necessarily had a considerable share in the
+cultivation of the modern Latin drama; and, while the author of
+_Acolastus_ may be claimed as its own by the country of his adoption as
+well as by that of his birth, G. M. Macropedius (Langhveldt) (c.
+1475-1508), who may be regarded as the foremost Latin dramatist of his
+age, was born and died at Hertogenbosch or in its immediate vicinity.
+Macropedius, who belonged to the fraternity of the Common Life, was a
+writer of great realistic power as well as of remarkable literary
+versatility.[316] The art of acting flourished in the Low Countries even
+during the troubles of the great revolt; but the birth of the regular
+drama was delayed till the advent of quieter times. Dutch dramatic
+literature begins, under the influence of the classical studies
+cherished in the seats of learning founded before and after the close of
+the war, with the classical tragedies of S. Koster (c. 1585-c. 1650).
+The romantic dramas and farces of Gerbrand Bredero (1585-1618) and the
+tragedies of P. Hooft (1581-1647) belong to the same period; but its
+foremost dramatic poet was J. van den Vondel, who from an imitation of
+classical models passed to more original forms of dramatic composition,
+including a patriotic play and a dramatic treatment of part of what was
+to form the theme of _Paradise Lost_.[317] But Vondel had no successor
+of equal mark. The older form of Dutch tragedy--in which the chorus
+still appeared--was, especially under the influence of the critic A.
+Pels, exchanged for a close imitation of the French models, Corneille
+and Racine; nor was the attempt to create a national comedy successful.
+Thus no national Dutch drama was permanently called into life.
+
+
+i. _Scandinavian Drama._
+
+  Denmark.
+
+  The modern Norwegian drama.
+
+Still more distinctly, the dramatic literature of the Scandinavian
+peoples springs from foreign growths. In Denmark, where the beginnings
+of the drama in the plays of the schoolmaster Chr. Hansen recall the
+mixture of religious and farcical elements in contemporary German
+efforts, the drama in the latter half of the 16th century remained
+essentially scholastic, and treated scriptural or classical subjects,
+chiefly in the Latin tongue. J. Ranch (1539-1607) and H. S. Sthen were
+authors of this type. But often in the course of the 17th century,
+German and French had become the tongues of Danish literature and of the
+Danish theatre; in the 18th Denmark could boast a comic dramatist of
+thorough originality and of a wholly national cast. L. Holberg, one of
+the most noteworthy comic poets of modern literature, not only marks an
+epoch in the dramatic literature of his native land, but he contributed
+to overthrow the trivialities of the German stage in its worst period,
+which he satirized with merciless humour,[318] and set an example, never
+surpassed, of a series of comedies[319] deriving their types from
+popular life and ridiculing with healthy directness those vices and
+follies which are the proper theme of the most widely effective species
+of the comic drama. Among his followers, P. A. Heiberg is specially
+noted. Under the influence of the Romantic school, whose influence has
+nowhere proved so long-lived as in the Scandinavian north, A.
+Ohlenschlager began a new era of Danish literature. His productivity,
+which belongs partly to his native and partly to German literary
+history, turned from foreign[320] to native themes; and other writers
+followed him in his endeavours to revive the figures of Northern heroic
+legend. But these themes have in their turn given way in the
+Scandinavian theatre to subjects coming nearer home to the popular
+consciousness, and treated with a direct appeal to the common experience
+of human life, and with a searching insight into the actual motives of
+human action. The most remarkable movement to be noted in the history of
+the Scandinavian drama, and one of the most widely effective of those
+which mark the more recent history of the Western drama in general, had
+its origin in Norway. Two Norwegian dramatists, H. Ibsen and Bjurnsterne
+Bjurnson, standing as it were side by side, though by no means always
+judging eye to eye, have vitally influenced the whole course of modern
+dramatic literature in the direction of a fearlessly candid and close
+delineation of human nature. The lesser of the pair in inventive genius,
+and in the power of exhibiting with scornful defiance the conflict
+between soul and circumstance, but the stronger by virtue of the
+conviction of hope which lies at the root of achievement, is
+Bjurnson.[321] Ibsen's long career as a dramatist exhibits a succession
+of many changes, but at no point any failure in the self-trust of his
+genius. His early masterpieces were dramatic only in form.[322] His
+world-drama of _Emperor and Galilean_ was still unsuited to a stage
+rarely trodden to much purpose by idealists of Julian's type. The
+beginnings of his real and revolutionary significance as a dramatist
+date from the production of his first plays of contemporary life, the
+admirable satirical comedy _The Pillars of Society_ (1877), the subtle
+domestic drama _A Doll's House_ (1879), and the powerful but repellent
+_Ghosts_ (1881),[323] which last, with the effects of its appearance,
+modern dramatic literature may even to this day be said to have failed
+altogether to assimilate. Ibsen's later prose comedies--(verse, he
+writes, has immensely damaged the art of acting, and a tragedy in
+iambics belongs to the species Dodo)--for the most part written during
+an exile which accounts for the note of isolation so audible in many of
+them, succeeded one another at regular biennial intervals, growing more
+and more abrupt in form, cruel in method, and intense in elemental
+dramatic force. The prophet at last spoke to a listening world, but
+without the amplitude, the grace and the wholeheartedness which are
+necessary for subduing it. But it may be long before the art which he
+had chosen as the vehicle of his comments on human life and society
+altogether ceases to show the impress of his genius.
+
+
+j. _Drama of the Slav Peoples._
+
+  Polish.
+
+As to the history of the Slav drama, only a few hints can be here given.
+Its origins have not yet--at least in works accessible to Western
+students--been authoritatively traced. The Russian drama in its earliest
+or religious beginnings is stated to have been introduced from Poland
+early in the 12th century; and, again, it would seem that, when the
+influence of the Renaissance touched the east of Europe, the religious
+drama was cultivated in Poland in the 16th, but did not find its way
+into Russia till the 17th century. It is probable that the species was,
+like so many other elements of culture, imported into the Carpathian
+lands in the 15th or 16th century from Germany. How far indigenous
+growths, such as the Russian popular puppet-show called _vertep_, which
+about the middle of the 17th century began to treat secular and popular
+themes, helped to foster dramatic tendencies and tastes, cannot here be
+estimated. The regular drama of eastern Europe is to all intents and
+purposes of Western origin. Thus, the history of the Polish drama may be
+fairly dated as beginning with the reign of the last king of Poland,
+Stanislaus II. Augustus, who in 1765 solemnly opened a national theatre
+at Warsaw. This institution was carried on till the fatal year 1794, and
+saw the production of a considerable number of Polish plays, mostly
+translated or adapted, but in part original--as in the case of one or
+two of those from the active pen of the secretary to the educational
+commission, Zablonski. But it was not till after the last partition
+that, paradoxically though not wholly out of accordance with the history
+of the relations between political and literary history, the attempts of
+W. Bogulawski and J. N. Kaminski to establish and carry on a Polish
+national theatre were crowned with success. Its literary mainstay was a
+gifted Franco-Pole, Count Alexander Fredro (1793-1876), who in the
+period between the Napoleonic revival and the long exodus fathered a
+long-lived species of modern Polish comedy, French in origin (for Fredro
+was a true disciple of Moliere), and wholly out of contact with the
+sentiment that survived in the ashes of a doomed nation.[324] His
+complaint as to the exiguity of the Polish literary public--a brace of
+theatres and a bookseller's handcart--may have been premature; but a
+national drama was most certainly impossible in a denationalised and
+dismembered land, in whose historic capital the theatre in which Polish
+plays continued to be produced seemed garrisoned by Cossack officers.
+
+
+  Russian.
+
+Much in the same way, though with a characteristic difference, the
+Russian regular drama had its origin in the cadet corps at St
+Petersburg, a pupil of which, A. Sumarokov (1718-1777), has been
+regarded as the founder of the modern Russian theatre. As a tragic poet
+he seems to have imitated Racine and Voltaire, though treating themes
+from the national history, among others the famous dramatic subject of
+the False Demetrius. He also translated _Hamlet_. As a comic dramatist
+he is stated to have been less popular than as a tragedian; yet it is in
+comedy that he would seem to have had the most noteworthy successors.
+Among these it is impossible to pass by the empress Catherine II., whose
+comedies seem to have been satirical sketches of the follies and foibles
+of her subjects, and who in one comedy as well as in a tragedy had the
+courage to imitate Shakespeare. Comedy aiming at social satire long
+continued to temper the conditions of Russian society, and had
+representatives of mark in such writers as A. N. Ostrovsky of Moscow and
+Griboyedov, the author of _Gore et uma_.
+
+In any survey of the Slav drama that of the Czech peoples, whose
+national consciousness has so fully reawakened, must not be overlooked.
+A Czech theatre was called into life at Prague as early as the 18th
+century; and in the 19th its demands, centring in a sense of
+nationality, were met by J. N. Stepinek (1783-1844), W. C. Klicpera
+(1792-1859) and J. C. Tyl (1808-1856); and later writers continued to
+make use of the stage for a propaganda of historical as well as
+political significance.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The following works treat the general theory of the
+  drama and the dramatic art, together with the principles of dramaturgy
+  and of the art of acting. Works which have reference to the drama of a
+  particular period or of a particular nation only are mentioned
+  separately. Works which deal with special authors only have been
+  intentionally omitted in this bibliography, as being mentioned in the
+  articles in the several authors.
+
+  Aristotle's _Poetics_ (text and transl. by S. H. Butcher, London,
+  1895; transl. by T. Twining, London, 1812; see also Donaldson's
+  _Theatre of the Greeks_); H. Baumgart, _Aristoteles, Lessing, u.
+  Goethe. Uber das ethische u. asthetische Princip der Tragudie_
+  (Leipzig, 1877); H. A. Bulthaupt, _Dramaturgie des Schauspiels_ (4
+  vols., Oldenburg u. Leipzig, 1893-1902); L. Campbell, _Tragic Drama in
+  Aeschylus, Sophocles and Shakespeare_ (London, 1904); P. Corneille,
+  _Discours du poeme dramatique--de la tragedie--des trois unites,
+  OEuvres_, vol. i. (Paris, 1862); W. L. Courtney, _The Idea of Tragedy
+  in Ancient and Modern Drama_ (Westminster, 1900); Diderot, _De la
+  poesie dramatique_. _Entretiens sur le Fils Naturel, OEuvres
+  completes_, vii. (Paris, 1875); J. Dryden, _Essay of Dramatic Poesy_
+  and other critical essays (_Essays of J. Dryden_, ed. W. P. Ker, 2
+  vols., Oxford, 1900); G. Freytag, _Die Technik des Dramas_ (5th ed.,
+  Leipzig, 1886); G. W. F. Hegel, _Vorlesungen uber Asthetik_, ed. H. G.
+  Hotho, bd. 3, chap. iii. c. _Die dramatische Poesie_ (Werke, x. 3;
+  Berlin, 1838); G. Larroumet, _Etudes d'histoire et de critique
+  dramatiques_, 2 ser. (Paris, 1892-1899); G. E. Lessing, _Hamburgische
+  Dramaturgie_. _Erlautert von F. Schroter u. R. Thiele_ (Halle, 1877);
+  _Materialien zu Lessing's Hamburgische Dramaturgie, von W. Cosack_
+  (Paderborn, 1876); G. H. Lewes, _On Actors and the Art of Acting_
+  (London, 1875); Sir T. Martin, _Essays on the Drama_ (London, 1874);
+  K. Mantzius, _History of Theatrical Art in Ancient and Modern Times_,
+  transl. by L. von Cossel (London, 1903, &c.); G. Meredith, _Essay on
+  Comedy_ (Westminster, 1897); R. Prolss, _Katechismus der Dramaturgie_
+  (Leipzig, 1877); H. T. Rotscher, _Die Kunst der dramatischen
+  Darstellung_ (3 vols., Berlin, 1841-1846); _Jahrbucher fur dramatische
+  Kunst u. Literatur_ (Berlin and Frankfort, 1848-1849); P. de
+  Saint-Victor, _Les Deux Masques, tragedie--comedie_ (3rd ed., 3 vols.,
+  Paris, 1881, &c.); Saint-Marc Girardin, _Cours de litterature
+  dramatique_ (7th ed., 5 vols., Paris, 1868); A. W. von Schlegel,
+  _Lectures on Dramatic Art and Literature_ (Eng. transl., London,
+  1846); Sir W. Scott, _Essays on Chivalry, Romance and the Drama_
+  (including his article "Drama" written for the Supplement to the 4th
+  edition of the _Ency. Brit._, and reprinted in the 5th, 6th, 7th and
+  8th editions); F. T. Vischer, _Asthetik_, vol. iv. (Stuttgart, 1857).
+
+  The fullest general history of the drama extant is J. L. Klein's
+  _Geschichte des Dramas_, 13 vols. and index (Leipzig, 1865-1886). See
+  also, for encyclopaedic information, W. Davenport Adams, _A Dictionary
+  of the Drama_, vol. i. (London, 1904); C. M. E. Bequet, _Encyclopedie
+  de l'art dramatique_ (Paris, 1886); A. Pougin, _Dictionnaire
+  historique et pittoresque du theatre et des arts qui s'y rattachent_
+  (Paris, 1885).
+
+  The drama of the Eastern nations is generally treated in:--A. P.
+  Brozzi, _Teatri e spettacoli dei popoli orientali Ebrei, Arabi,
+  Persani, Indiani, Cinesi, Giapponesi e Giavanesi_ (Milan, 1887); Comte
+  J. A. de Gobineau, _Les Religions et les philosophies dans l'Asie
+  centrale_ (2nd ed., Paris, 1866).
+
+  The following works deal with the Indian drama:--M. Schuyler,
+  _Bibliography of the Sanskrit Drama_ (Columbia Univ., Indo-Iranian,
+  ser. iii., New York, 1906); H. H. Wilson, _Select Specimens of the
+  Theatre of the Hindus_, transl. from the original Sanskrit (with
+  introduction on the dramatic system of the Hindus), 3rd ed., 2 vols.
+  (London, 1871); S. Levi, _Le Theatre indien_ (supplements Wilson)
+  (Paris, 1891).
+
+  For Chinese:--Tscheng-Ki-Tong, _Le Theatre des Chinois_ (Paris, 1886);
+  see also H. A. Giles, _History of Chinese Literature_ (London, 1901).
+
+  For Japanese:--C. Florenz, _Gesch. d. japan. Litteratur_, vol. i. 1
+  (Leipzig, 1905); see also F. Brinkley, _Japan, its History, Arts and
+  Literature_, vol. iii. (Boston and Tokyo, 1901).
+
+  For Persian:--A. Chodzko, _Theatre persan. Choix de teazies ou drames,
+  traduits pour la premiere fois du persan par A. Chodzko_ (Paris,
+  1878); E. Montet, _Le Theatre en Perse_ (Geneva, 1888); Sir L. Pelly,
+  _The Miracle Play of Hasan and Husain, collected from oral tradition;
+  revised with explanatory notes by A. N. Wollaston_ (2 vols., London,
+  1879).
+
+  Of works treating of the ancient Greek and Roman drama only a small
+  selection can be given here. In the case of the Greek drama, the chief
+  histories of literature--such as G. Bernhardy's, K. O. Muller's (Eng.
+  tr. by Sir G. C. Lewis, with continuation by J. W. Donaldson) and G.
+  Murray's--and general histories--such as Grote's, Thirlwall's,
+  Curtius's, &c.--should also be consulted; and for the administration
+  and finance of the Attic theatre, Boeckh's _Public Economy of Athens_,
+  Eng. tr. (London, 1842). Much useful information will be found in _A
+  Companion to Greek Studies_, ed. by L. Whibley (Cambridge, 1905). The
+  standard collective edition of the ancient Greek dramatic poets is the
+  _Poetae scenici Graeci_, ed. C. W. Dindorf (5th ed., Leipzig, 1869),
+  and that of the Comic poets A. Meineke's _Historia critica comicorum
+  Graecorum. Cum fragmentis_ (5 vols., Berlin, 1839-1857). Aristotle's
+  _Poetics_, cited above, will of course be consulted for the theory of
+  the Greek drama in particular; and much valuable critical matter will
+  be found in passages of Bentley's _Phalaris_ (1699), which are
+  reprinted in Donaldson's _Theatre of the Greeks_. The following later
+  works, some of which treat of the ancient classical drama in general,
+  may be noted:--E. A. Chaignet, _La Tragedie grecque_ (Paris, 1877); J.
+  Denys, _Histoire de la comedie grecque_ (2 vols., Paris, 1886); J. W.
+  Donaldson, _The Theatre of the Greeks_ (7th ed., London, 1860); Du
+  Meril, _Histoire de la comedie. Periode primitive_ (Paris, 1864);
+  _Histoire de la comedie ancienne_ (Paris, 1869); A. E. Haigh, _The
+  Tragic Drama of the Greeks_ (Oxford, 1896); _The Attic Theatre_
+  (Oxford, 1898); G. Korting, _Gesch. des Theaters in seinen Beziehungen
+  zur Kunstentwickelung der dramatischen Dichtkunst_, Bd. i. _Gesch. des
+  griechischen u. romischen Theaters_ (Paderborn, 1897); R. G. Moulton,
+  _The Ancient Classical Drama_ (Oxford, 1898); M. Patin, _Etude sur les
+  tragiques grecs_ (3 vols., Paris, 1861); C. M. Rapp, _Gesch. des
+  griechischen Schauspiels vom Standpunkt der dramatischen Kunst_
+  (Tubingen, 1862); H. Weil, _Etudes sur le drame antique_ (Paris,
+  1897); F. G. Welcker, "Die griechischen Tragodien, mit Rucksicht auf
+  den epischen Cyklus" (_Rhein. Mus._ Suppl. ii.) 3 pts. (Bonn,
+  1839-1841).
+
+  In addition to the works of individual Roman dramatists, and critical
+  writings concerning them, see _Scaenicae Romanorum poesis fragmenta_,
+  2 vols. (I. Tragic, II. Comic) ed. by O. Ribbeck (3rd ed. Leipzig,
+  1897-1898). W. S. Teuffel's _History of Roman Literature_, Eng. tr. (2
+  vols., London, 1891-1892), and M. Schanz' _Gesch. der romischen
+  Litteratur bis Justinian_ (2 vols., Munich, 1890-1892), may be
+  consulted for a complete view of the course of the Roman drama. For
+  its later developments consult Dean Merivale's _History of the Romans
+  under the Empire_, and S. Dill's _Roman Society in the Last Days of
+  the Western Empire_ (London, 1898). See also L. Friedlander,
+  _Darstellungen aus der Sittengeschichte Roms_, 6th ed., vol. ii.
+  (Leipzig, 1889); M. Meyer, _Etude sur le theatre latin_ (Paris, 1847);
+  O. Ribbeck, _Die rumische Tragudie im Zeitalter der Republik_
+  (Leipzig, 1875).
+
+  The following works treat of the medieval drama, religious or secular,
+  of its origins and of usages connected with it:--H. Anz, _Die
+  lateinischen Magierspiele_ (Leipzig, 1905); E. K. Chambers, _The
+  Medieval Stage_ (2 vols., Oxford, 1903), with full bibliography; E. de
+  Coussemaker, _Drames liturgiques du moyen age_ (Paris, 1861); du
+  Meril, _Theatri liturgici quae Latina supersunt monumenta_ (Caen and
+  Paris, 1849); C. A. Hase, _Miracle Plays and Sacred Dramas_ (Eng.
+  tr.), (London, 1880); Hilarius, _Versus et ludi_, ed.
+  Champollion-Figeac (Paris, 1838); R. Froning, _Das Drama des
+  Mittelalters_ (3 vols., Stuttgart, 1891, &c.); Edwin Norris, _Ancient
+  Cornish Drama_ (ed. and tr. 2 vols., 1859); W. Hone, _Ancient
+  Mysteries Described_ (London, 1823); A. von Keller, _Fastnachtsspiele
+  aus dem 15. Jahrhundert_ (Stuttgart, 1858); C. Magnin, _Les Origines
+  du theatre moderne_, vol. i. only (Paris, 1838); F. J. Mone,
+  _Schauspiele des Mittelalters_ (2 vols., Karlsruhe, 1846); A. Reiners,
+  _Die Tropen-, Prosen-, u. Prafations-Gesange_ (Luxemburg, 1884); J. de
+  Rothschild, _Le Mistere du Viel Testament_, ed. J. de Rothschild (6
+  vols., Paris, 1878-1891); M. Sepet, _Le Drame chretien au moyen age_
+  (Paris, 1878); _Origines catholiques du theatre moderne_. _Les drames
+  liturgiques_ (Paris, 1901); T. Wright, _Early Mysteries and other
+  Latin Poems of the 12th and 13th Centuries_ (London, 1838); C. A. G.
+  von Zezschwitz, _Das mittelalterliche Drama_ (Leipzig, 1881).
+
+  For French medieval drama in particular:--L. Cledat, _Le Theatre en
+  France au moyen age_ (Paris, 1896); E. Fournier, _Le Theatre francais
+  avant la Renaissance_ (Paris, 1872); _Miracles de Notre Dame par
+  personnages_, ed. G. Paris and U. Robert (8 vols., Paris, 1876-1893);
+  L. J. N. Monmerque and F. Michel, _Theatre francais au moyen age_
+  (Paris, 1839); L. Petit de Julleville, _Histoire du theatre en France
+  au moyen age_ (5 vols., Paris, 1880-1886); E. L. N. Viollet-le-Duc,
+  _Ancien Theatre francais_ (10 vols., Paris, 1854-1857).
+
+  For the medieval Italian in particular:--A. d'Ancona, _Sacre
+  rappresentazioni dei secoli XIV., XV. e XVI._ (Florence, 1872).
+
+  For medieval English in particular:--Ahn, _English Mysteries and
+  Miracle Plays_ (Treves, 1867); S. W. Clarke, _The Miracle Play in
+  England_ (London, 1897); F. W. Fairholt, _Lord Mayors' Pageants_, 2
+  vols. (Percy Soc.) (London, 1843-1844); A. W. Pollard, _English
+  Miracle Plays, Moralities and Interludes_ (3rd ed., Oxford 1898);
+  _Chester Plays_ ed. T. Wright, 2 vols. (Shakespeare Soc.) (London,
+  1843), re-ed. by H. Deimling (part only) (E.E.T.S.) (London, 1893);
+  _Coventry Plays, Ludus Coventriae_, ed. J. O. Halliwell (-Phillipps)
+  (Shakespeare Soc.) (London, 1841); _Coventry Plays_. _Dissertation on
+  the pageants or mysteries at Coventry_, by T. Sharp (Coventry, 1825);
+  _Digby Plays_, ed. F. J. Furnivall (E.E.T.S.) (London, 1896);
+  _Towneley Mysteries_, ed. G. England and A. W. Pollard (E.E.T.S.)
+  (London, 1897); _York Plays_, ed. L. T. Smith (Oxford, 1885).
+
+  For the German in particular:--F. J. Mone, _Altteutsche Schauspiele_
+  (Quedlinburg, 1841); H. Reidt, _Das geistliche Schauspiel des
+  Mittelalters in Deutschland_ (Frankfort, 1868); E. Wilken, _Gesch. der
+  geistlichen Spiele in Deutschland_ (Guttingen, 1872).
+
+  The revival of the classical drama in the Renaissance age is treated
+  in P. Bahlmann's _Die Erneuerer des antiken Dramas und ihre ersten
+  dramatischen Versuche_, 1314-1478 (Munster, 1896); A. Chassang's _Des
+  essais dramatiques imites de l'antiquite au XIV^e et XV^e siecle_
+  (Paris, 1852); and in V. de Amitis' _L'Imitazione latina nella
+  commedia del XVI. secolo_ (Pisa, 1871).
+
+  Both the medieval and portions of the later drama are treated in W.
+  Cloetta, _Beitrage zur Litteraturgeschichte des Mittelalters und der
+  Renaissance_ (2 vols., Halle, 1890-1892); W. Creizenach, _Geschichte
+  des neueren Dramas_, vols. i.-iii. (Halle, 1893-1903); R. Prulss,
+  _Geschichte des neueren Dramas_ (3 vols., Leipzig, 1881-1883). See
+  also L.-V. Gofflot, _Le Theatre au college, du moyen age a nos jours_,
+  Preface par Jules Claretie (Paris, 1907).
+
+  The history of the modern Italian drama, in its various stages, is
+  treated by A. d'Ancona, _Origini del teatro italiano_ (2nd ed., 2
+  vols., Turin, 1891); J. Dornis, _Le Theatre italien contemporain_
+  (Paris, 1904); H. Lyonnet, _Le Theatre en Italie_ (Paris, 1900); L.
+  Riccoboni, _Histoire du theatre italien_ (2 vols., Rome, 1728-1731);
+  J. C. Walker, _Historical Memoir on Italian Tragedy_ (London, 1799).
+  See also A. Gaspary, _History of Early Italian Literature_, transl. by
+  H. Oelsner (London, 1901).
+
+  Some information as to the modern Greek drama is given in R. Nicolai,
+  _Geschichte der neugriechischen Literatur_ (Leipzig, 1876).
+
+  Modern Spanish drama:--M. A. Fee, _Etudes sur l'ancien theatre
+  espagnol_ (Paris 1873); A. Gassier, _Le Theatre espagnol_ (Paris,
+  1898); G. H. Lewes, _The Spanish Drama_ (London, 1846); H. Lyonnet,
+  _Le Theatre en Espagne_ (Paris, 1897); A. Schaffer, _Gesch. des
+  spanischen Nationaldramas_ (2 vols., Leipzig, 1890); L. de
+  Viel-Castel, _Essai sur le theatre espagnol_ (2 vols., Paris, 1882).
+  See also G. Ticknor, _History of Spanish Literature_ (3 vols., London,
+  1863).
+
+  Modern Portuguese:--H. Lyonnet, _Le Theatre au Portugal_ (Paris,
+  1898); see also K. von Reinhardstoettner's _Portugiesische
+  Literaturgeschichte_ (Sammlung Guschen) (Leipzig, 1904), which
+  contains a useful bibliography.
+
+  Regular French drama (tragedy and comedy):--F. Brunetiere, _Les
+  Epoques du theatre francais_, 1636-1850 (Paris, 1892); E. Chasles,
+  _La Comedie en France au XVI^e siecle_ (Paris, 1862); E. Faguet, _La
+  Tragedie francaise au XVI^e siecle_ (Paris, 1883); A. Filon, _The
+  Modern French Drama_ (London, 1898); V. Fournel, _Le Theatre au XVII^e
+  siecle_ (Paris, 1892); E. Fournier, _Le Theatre francais au XVI^e et
+  au XVII^e siecle_ (2 vols., Paris, s.d.); F. Hawkins, _Annals of the
+  French Stage_ (London, 1884); H. Lucas, _Hist. philosophique et
+  litteraire du theatre francais depuis son origine_ (3 vols., Paris);
+  Parfait, _Hist. du theatre francais_ (15 vols., Paris, 1745-1749); L.
+  Petit de Julleville, _Le theatre en France depuis ses origines jusqu'a
+  nos jours_ (Paris, 1899); E. Rigal, _Le theatre francais avant la
+  periode classique_ (Paris, 1901); E. Roy, _Etudes sur le theatre
+  francais du XV^e et du XVI^e siecle_ (Dijon, 1901).
+
+  The connexion between the Italian and French theatre in the 17th
+  century is traced in L. Moland, _Moliere et la comedie italienne_ (2nd
+  ed., Paris, 1867). See also J. C. Demogeot's, H. von Laun's and
+  Saintsbury's histories of French Literature.
+
+  Of the ample literature concerned with the modern English drama the
+  following works may be specially mentioned, as dealing with the entire
+  range of the English drama, or with more than one of its periods:--D.
+  E. Baker, _Biographia dramatica_ (continued to 1811 by J. Reed and S.
+  Jones) (3 vols., London, 1812); J. P. Collier, _History of English
+  Dramatic Poetry_, new ed. (3 vols., London, 1879); C. Dibdin, _A
+  complete History of the English Stage_ (5 vols., London, 1800); J. J.
+  Jusserand, _Le Theatre en Angleterre_ (2nd ed., Paris, 1881); G.
+  Langbaine, _Lives and Characters of the English Dramatic Poets_
+  (London, 1699); _The Poetical Register: or lives and characters of the
+  English dramatick poets_ (London, 1719); C. M. Rapp, _Studien uber das
+  englische Theater_, 2 parts (Tubingen, 1862); "G. S. B.", _Study of
+  the Prologue and Epilogue in English Literature_ (London, 1884); _The
+  Thespian Dictionary: or dramatic biography of the 18th century_
+  (London, 1802); A. W. Ward, _History of English Dramatic Literature to
+  the Death of Queen Anne_ (2nd ed., 3 vols., London, 1899); see also
+  the histories of English Literature or Poetry, by Warton, Taine, ten
+  Brinck, Courthope, Saintsbury, &c.
+
+  The following works contain the most complete lists of English
+  plays:--W. W. Greg, _A List of English Plays written before 1643 and
+  published before 1700_ (Bibliogr. Soc.) (London, 1900); J. O.
+  Halliwell (-Phillipps), _Dictionary of Old English Plays_ (London,
+  1860); W. C. Hazlitt, _A Manual for the Collector and Amateur of Old
+  English Plays_ (London, 1892); R. W. Lowe, _Bibliographical Account of
+  English Dramatic Literature_ (London, 1888) is a valuable handbook for
+  the whole of English theatrical literature and matters connected with
+  it. The unique work of Genest, _Some Account of the English Stage from
+  1660-1830_ (10 vols., Bath, 1832), includes, with a chronological
+  series of plays acted on the English stage, notices of unacted plays,
+  and critical remarks on plays and actors. "A Compleat List" of English
+  dramatic poets and plays to 1747 was published with T. Whincop's
+  _Scanderbeg_ in that year.
+
+  The following are the principal collections of English plays--_Ancient
+  British Drama_, ed. Sir W. Scott (3 vols., London, 1810); _Modern
+  British Drama_, ed. Sir W. Scott (5 vols., London, 1811); W. Bang,
+  _Materialien zur Kunde des alteren englischen Dramas_ (Louvain, 1902,
+  &c.); A. H. Bullen, _Collection of Old English Plays_ (4 vols.,
+  London, 1882); R. Dodsley, _A Select Collection of Old Plays_, 4th ed.
+  by W. C. Hazlitt (15 vols., London, 1874-1876); _Dramatists of the
+  Restoration_ (14 vols., Edinburgh, 1872-1879); _Early English
+  Dramatists_, ed. J. S. Farmer (London, 1905, &c.); C. M. Gayley,
+  _Representative English Comedies_ (vol. i., New York, 1903); T.
+  Hawkins, _Origin of the English Drama_ (3 vols., Oxford, 1773); Mrs
+  Inchbald, _British Theatre_, new ed. (20 vols., London, 1824), _Modern
+  Theatre_ (10 vols., London, 1811), _Collection of Farces and
+  Afterpieces_ (7 vols., London, 1815); Malone Society publications
+  (London, 1907, &c.); J. M. Manly, _Specimens of the Pre-Shakespearean
+  Drama_ (3 vols., London, 1897); _Mermaid Series of Old Dramatists_,
+  ed. Havelock Ellis (London, 1887. &c.); _Old English Drama_ (2 vols.,
+  London, 1825); _Pearson's Reprints of Elizabethan and Jacobean Plays_
+  (London, 1871, &c.).
+
+  The following deal with the Elizabethan and Jacobean drama in
+  especial:--W. Creizenach, _Die Schauspiele der englischen Komudianten_
+  (Berlin, 1895); J. W. Cunliffe, _The Influence of Seneca on
+  Elizabethan Tragedy_ (London, 1893); F. G. Fleay, _A Chronicle History
+  of the London Stage, 1559-1642_ (London, 1890), _A Biographical
+  Chronicle of the English Drama, 1559-1642_ (London, 1891); W. C.
+  Hazlitt, _The English Drama and Stage under the Tudor and Stuart
+  Princes, 1543-1664_ (London, 1869); W. Hazlitt, _Dramatic Literature
+  of the Age of Elizabeth_ (Works, ed. A. R. Waller, vol. v.) (London,
+  1902); A. F. von Schack, _Die englischen Dramatiker vor, neben, und
+  nach Shakespeare_ (Stuttgart, 1893); J. A. Symonds, _Shakspere's
+  Predecessors in the English Drama_ (London, 1884).
+
+  As to the Latin academical drama of the Elizabethan age see G. B.
+  Churchill and W. Keller, "Die latein. Universitats-Dramen Englands in
+  der Zeit d. Kunigin Elizabeth" in _Jahrbuch der deutschen
+  Shakespeare-Gesellschaft_. For a short bibliography of the Oxford
+  academical drama, 1547-1663, see the introduction to Miss M. L. Lee's
+  edition of _Narcissus_ (London, 1893). A list of Oxford plays will
+  also be found in _Notes and Queries_, ser. vii., vol. ii. For a list
+  of Cambridge plays from 1534 to 1671, the writer of this article is
+  indebted to Prof. G. C. Moore-Smith of the university of Sheffield.
+
+  For an account of the Mask see R. Brotanek, _Die englischen
+  Maskenspiele_ (Vienna and Leipzig, 1902); H. A. Evans, _English
+  Masques_ (London, 1897); W. W. Greg, _A List of Masques, Pageants,
+  &c._ (Bibliogr. Soc.) (London, 1902).
+
+  As to early London theatres see T. F. Ordish, _Early London Theatres_
+  (London, 1894).
+
+  Some information as to puppet-plays, &c., will be found in Henry
+  Morley's _Memoirs of Bartholomew Fair_ (London, 1859).
+
+  Among earlier critical essays on the Elizabethan and Stuart drama
+  should be mentioned those of Sir Philip Sidney, G. Puttenham and W.
+  Webbe, T. Rymer and Dryden. For recent essays and notes on the
+  Elizabethan drama in general, see, besides the essays of Coleridge,
+  Lamb (including the introductory remarks in the _Specimens_), Hazlitt,
+  &c., and the remarkable series of articles in the _Retrospective
+  Review_ (1820-1828), the Publications and Transactions of the Old and
+  New Shakespeare Societies (1841, &c.; 1874, &c.), which also contain
+  reprints of early works of great importance for the history of the
+  Elizabethan drama and stage, such as Henslowe's _Diary_, &c., the
+  _Jahrbuch der deutschen Shakespeare-Gesellschaft_ (1865, &c.), as well
+  as the German journals _Anglia_, _Englische Studien_, &c., and the
+  _Modern Language Review_ (Cambridge).
+
+  The later English drama from the reopening of the theatres (1660) is
+  treated in L. N. Chase, _The English Heroic Play_ (New York, 1903); C.
+  Cibber, _Apology for the Life of C. Cibber_, written by himself, new
+  ed. by R. W. Lowe (2 vols., London, 1889), who has also edited
+  Churchill's _Rosciad_ and _Apology_ (London, 1891); J. Doran, _Their
+  Majesties' Servants: annals of the English Stage_ (3 vols., London,
+  1888); A. Filon, _Le Theatre anglais: hier, aujourd'hui, demain_
+  (Paris, 1896); W. Hazlitt, _A View of the English Stage_ (_Works_, ed.
+  A. R. Waller, vol. viii.) (London, 1903); W. Nicholson, _The Struggle
+  for a Free Stage in London_ (Westminster, 1907).
+
+  The following treat of the modern German drama in particular
+  periods:--R. Prulss, _Gesch. der deutschen Schauspielkunst von den
+  Anfangen bis 1850_ (Leipzig, 1900); R. E. Prutz, _Vorlesungen uber die
+  Geschichte des deutschen Theaters_ (Berlin, 1847); R. Froning, _Das
+  Drama der Reformationszeit_ (Stuttgart, 1900); C. Heine, _Das
+  Schauspiel der deutschen Wanderbuhne vor Gottsched_ (Halle, 1889); J.
+  Minor, _Die Schicksalstragodie in ihren Hauptvertretern_ (Frankfort,
+  1883); M. Martersteig, _Das deutsche Theater im XIX^ten Jahrh._
+  (Leipzig, 1904). See also G. G. Gervinus, _Geschichte der deutschen
+  Dichtung_ (5th ed., 5 vols., Leipzig, 1871-1874); and the literary
+  histories of K. Goedeke (_Grundriss_), A. Koberstein, &c. A special
+  aspect of the drama in modern Germany is dealt with in P. Bahlmann,
+  _Die lateinischen Dramen von Wimpheling's Stylpho bis zur Mitte des
+  XVI^ten Jahrhunderts, 1480-1550_ (Munster, 1893), and the same
+  author's _Jesuiten-Dramen der niederrheinischen Ordensprovinz_
+  (Leipzig, 1896).
+
+  The standard history of the modern German stage is Eduard Devrient,
+  _Gesch. der deutschen Schauspielkunst_ (2 vols., Leipzig, 1848-1861);
+  see also R. Prulss, _Gesch. der deutschen Schauspielkunst von den
+  Anfangen bis 1850_ (Leipzig, 1900); O. G. Fluggen, _Biographisches
+  Buhnen-Lexikon der deutschen Theater_ (Munich, 1892).
+
+  A good account of the history of the Dutch drama is F. von Hellwald's
+  _Geschichte des hollandischen Theaters_ (Rotterdam, 1874). See also
+  the authorities under J. van den Vondel.
+
+  Information concerning the Danish drama will be found in the
+  autobiographies of Holberg, Ohlenschlager and Andersen; see also vol.
+  i. of G. Brandes's _Main Currents in Nineteenth Century Literature_
+  (Eng. tr., London, 1901). As to the modern Norwegian drama see the
+  same writer's _Ibsen-Bjornson Studies_ (Eng. tr., London, 1899); also
+  E. Tissot, _Le Drame norvegien_ (Paris, 1893).
+
+  The Russian drama is treated in P. O. Morozov's _Istoria Russkago
+  Teatra_ (_History of the Russian Theatre_), vol. i. (St Petersburg,
+  1889); see also P. de Corvin, _Le Theatre en Russie_ (Paris, 1890). A.
+  Bruckner, _Geschichte der russischen Literatur_ (Leipzig, 1905), may
+  be consulted with advantage. Information as to the dramatic portions
+  of other Slav literatures will be found in A. Pipin and V. Spasovich's
+  _Istoria Slavianskikh Literatur_ (_History of Slavonic Literatures_),
+  German translation by T. Pech (2 vols., Leipzig, 1880-1884).
+       (A. W. W.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _Gallicanus_, part ii.; _Sapientia_.
+
+  [2] _Gallicanus_, part i.; _Callimachus_; _Abraham_; _Paphnutius_.
+
+  [3] The passion-play of Oberammergau, familiar in its present
+    artistic form to so many visitors, was instituted under special
+    circumstances in the days of the Thirty Years' War (1634). Various
+    reasons account for its having been allowed to survive.
+
+  [4] To the earliest group belong _The Castle of Perseverance_;
+    _Wisdom who is Christ_; _Mankind_; to the second, or early Tudor
+    group, Medwell, _Nature_; _The World and the Child_; _Hycke-Scorner_,
+    &c.
+
+  [5] _Magnyfycence_.
+
+  [6] _New Custome_; N. Woodes, _The Conflict of Conscience_, &c.
+
+  [7] _Albyon Knight_.
+
+  [8] Rastell, _Nature of the Four Elements_; Redford, _Wit and
+    Science_; _The Trial of Treasure_; _The Marriage of Wit and Science_.
+
+  [9] _The Marriage of Wit and Wisdom_; _The Contention between
+    Liberality and Prodigality_.
+
+  [10] _Jack Juggler_; _Tom Tiler and his Wife_, &c.
+
+  [11] _The Four P's_, &c.
+
+  [12] _The Disobedient Child_ (c. 1560).
+
+  [13] The [Greek: Christos paschon], an artificial Byzantine product,
+    probably of the 11th century, glorifying the Virgin in Euripidean
+    verse, was not known to the Western world till 1542.
+
+  [14] Of G. Manzini della Motta's Latin tragedy on the fall of Antonio
+    della Scala only a chorus remains. He died after 1389. Probably to
+    the earlier half of the century belongs the Latin prose drama
+    _Columpnarium_, the story of which, though it ends happily, resembles
+    that of _The Cenci_. Later plays in Latin of the historic type are
+    the extant Landivio de' Nobili's _De captivitate Ducis Jacobi_ (the
+    _condottiere_ Jacopo Piccinino, d. 1464); C. Verardi's _Historia
+    Baetica_ (the expulsion of the Moors from Granada) (1492), and the
+    game author's _Ferdinandus_ (of Aragon) _Servatus_, which is called a
+    tragi-comedy because it is neither tragic nor comic. The Florentine L.
+    Dali's _Hiempsal_ (1441-1442) remains in MS. A few tragedies on
+    sacred subjects were produced in Italy during the last quarter of the
+    15th century, and a little later. Such were the religious dramas
+    written for his pupils by P. Domizio, on which Politian cast
+    contempt; and the tragedies, following ancient models, of T. da Prato
+    of Treviso, B. Campagna of Verona, _De passione Redemptoris_; and G.
+    F. Conti, author of _Theandrothanatos_ and numerous vanished plays.
+
+  [15] _Imber aureus_ (Danae), &c.
+
+  [16] L. Bruni's _Poliscena_ (c. 1395); Sicco Polentone's (1370-1463)
+    jovial _Lusus ebriorum_ s. _De lege bibia_; the papal secretary P.
+    Candido Decembrio's (1399-1477) non-extant _Aphrodisia_; L. B.
+    Alberti's _Philodoxios_ (1424); Ugolino Pisani of Parma's (d. before
+    1462) _Philogenia_ and _Confutatio coquinaria_ (a merry students'
+    play); the _Fraudiphila_ of A. Tridentino, also of Parma, who died
+    after 1470 and perhaps served Pius II.; Eneo Silvio de' Piccolomini's
+    own verse comedy, _Chrisis_, likewise in MS., written in 1444; P.
+    Domizio's _Lucinia_, acted in the palace of Lorenzo de' Medici in
+    1478, &c.
+
+  [17] Mondella, _Isifile_ (1582); Fuligni, _Bragadino_ (1589).
+
+  [18] Home, _Douglas_.
+
+  [19] Lazzaroni, _Ulisse il giovane_ (1719).
+
+  [20] _Didone abbandonata_, _Siroe_, _Semiramide_, _Artaserse_,
+    _Demetris_, &c.
+
+  [21] _Cleopatra_, _Antigone_, _Octavia_, _Mirope_, &c.
+
+  [22] e.g. _Bruto I._ and _II._
+
+  [23] _Filippo_; _Maria Stuarda_.
+
+  [24] Pellico, _Francesca da Rimini_; Niccolini, _Giovanni da
+    Procida_; _Beatrice Cenci_; Giacometti, _Cola di Rienzi_
+    (Giacometti's masterpiece was _La Marte civile_).
+
+  [25] Pyrogopolinices in the _Miles Gloriosus_.
+
+  [26] The masked characters, each of which spoke the dialect of the
+    place he represented, were (according to Baretti) _Pantalone_, a
+    Venetian merchant; _Dottore_, a Bolognese physician; _Spaviento_, a
+    Neapolitan braggadocio; _Pullicinella_, a wag of Apulia;
+    _Giangurgulo_ and _Coviello_, clowns of Calabria; _Gelfomino_, a
+    Roman beau; _Brighella_, a Ferrarese pimp; and _Arlecchino_, a
+    blundering servant of Bergamo. Besides these and a few other such
+    personages (of whom four at least appeared in each play), there were
+    the _Amorosos_ or _Innamoratos_, men or women (the latter not before
+    1560, up to which time actresses were unknown in Italy) with serious
+    parts, and _Smeraldina_, _Colombina_, _Spilletta_, and other
+    _servettas_ or waiting-maids. All these spoke Tuscan or Roman, and
+    wore no masks.
+
+  [27] _Pasitea_.
+
+  [28] _Amicizia_.
+
+  [29] _Milesia_.
+
+  [30] _La Lena_; _Il Negromante_.
+
+  [31] _La Cassaria_; _I Suppositi_.
+
+  [32] Of Machiavelli's other comedies, two are prose adaptations from
+    Plautus and Terence, _La Clizia_ (Casina) and _Andria_; of the two
+    others, simply called _Commedie_, and in verse, his authorship seems
+    doubtful.
+
+  [33] _La Cortigiana_, _La Talanta_, _Il Ipocrito_, _Il Filosofo_.
+
+  [34] _Momolo Cortesan_ (_Jerome the Accomplished Man_); _La Bottega
+    del caffe_, &c.
+
+  [35] _La Vedova scaltra_ (_The Cunning Widow_); _La Putta onorata_
+    (_The Respectable Girl_); _La Buona Figlia_; _La B. Sposa_; _La B.
+    Famiglia_; _La B. Madre_ (the last of which was unsuccessful;
+    "goodness," says Goldoni, "never displeases, but the public weary of
+    every thing"), &c.; and _Il Burbero benefico_, called in its original
+    French version _Le Bourru bienfaisant_.
+
+  [36] _Moliere_; _Terenzio_; _Tasso_.
+
+  [37] _Pamela_; _Pamela Maritata_; _Il Filosofo Inglese_ (_Mr
+    Spectator_).
+
+  [38] _L' Amore delle tre melarancie_ (_The Three Lemons_); _Il
+    Corvo_.
+
+  [39] _Turandot_; _Zobeide_.
+
+  [40] _L' Amore delle tre m._ (against Goldoni); _L' Angellino
+    Belverde_ (_The Small Green Bird_), (against Helvetius, Rousseau and
+    Voltaire).
+
+  [41] _Aspasia_; _Polyxena_.
+
+  [42] _Ephemeridophobos_.
+
+  [43] _Timoleon_; _Konstantinos Palaeologos_; _Rhigas of Pherae_.
+
+  [44] _The Three Hundred_, or _The Character of the Ancient Hellene_
+    (Leonidas); _The Death of the Orator_ (Demosthenes); _A Scion of
+    Timoleon_, &c.
+
+  [45] The term is the same as that used in the old French collective
+    mysteries (_journees_).
+
+  [46] In some of his plays (_Comedia Serafina_; _C. Tinelaria_) there
+    is a mixture of languages even stranger than that of dialects in the
+    Italian masked comedy.
+
+  [47] _Necromanticus_, _Lena_, _Decepti_, _Suppositi_.
+
+  [48] _Los Enganos_ (_Gli Ingannati_).
+
+  [49] _Cornelia_ (_Il Negromante_).
+
+  [50] Lope, _Armelina_ (Medea and Neptune as _deus ex machina_--si
+    modo machina adfuisset).
+
+  [51] _Menennos_.
+
+  [52] _El Azero de Madrid_ (_The Steel Water of Madrid_); _Dineros son
+    Calidad_ (= _The Dog in the Manger_), &c.
+
+  [53] _La Estrella de Sevilla_ (_The Star of Seville_, i.e. Sancho the
+    Brave); _El Nuevo Mundo_ (Columbus), &c.
+
+  [54] _Roma Abrasada_ (_R. in Ashes_--Nero).
+
+  [55] _Arauco domado_ (_The Conquest of Arauco_, 1560).
+
+  [56] _La Moza de cantaro_ (_The Water-maid_).
+
+  [57] _Las Mocedades_ (_The Youthful Adventures_) _del Cid_.
+
+  [58] _Don Gil de las calzas verdes_ (_D. G. in the Green Breeches_).
+
+  [59] _El Burlador de Sevilla y Convivado de piedra_ (_The Deceiver of
+    Seville_, i.e. Don Juan, _and the Stone Guest_).
+
+  [60] _El Divino Orfeo_, &c.
+
+  [61] _El Magico prodigioso_; _El Purgatorio de San Patricio_; _La
+    Devocion de la Cruz_.
+
+  [62] _El Principe constante_ (Don Ferdinand of Portugal).
+
+  [63] _La Dama duende_ (_The Fairy Lady_).
+
+  [64] _Vida es sueno_ (_Life is a Dream_).
+
+  [65] _El Lindo Don Diego_ (_Pretty Don Diego_).
+
+  [66] _Desden con el desden_ (_Disdain against Disdain_).
+
+  [67] Luzan, _La Razon contra la mode_ (La Chaussee, _Le Prejuge a la
+    mode_).
+
+  [68] _El Delinquente honrado (The Honoured Culprit)._
+
+  [69] _El Si de las ninas (The Young Maidens' Consent)._
+
+  [70] _O cioso_ (_The Jealous Man_), &c. His _Inez de Castro_ is a
+    tragedy with choruses, partly founded on the Spanish play of J.
+    Bermudez.
+
+  [71] _Don Duardos_, _Amadis_, &c.
+
+  [72] _Auto das Regateiras_ (_The Market-women_), _Pratica de
+    compadres_ (_The Gossips_), &c.
+
+  [73] _Emphatri[)o]es_, _Filodemo_, _Seleuco_.
+
+  [74] _Os Estrangeiros_, _Os Vilhalpandos_ (_The Impostors_).
+
+  [75] _Eufrosina_, _Ulyssipo_ (Lisbon), _Aulegrafia_.
+
+  [76] _Astarte_, _Hermione_, _Megara_.
+
+  [77] These assumptions of names remind us that we are in the period
+    of the "_Arcadias_."
+
+  [78] _Cat[=a]o_.
+
+  [79] _Manoel de Sousa_, &c.
+
+  [80] _Antigone_ and _Electra_; _Hecuba_; and _Iphigenia in Aulis_.
+    The _Andria_ was also translated, and in 1540 Ronsard translated the
+    _Plutus_ of Aristophanes.
+
+  [81] Trissino, _Sofonisba_, by de Saint-Gelais.
+
+  [82] _La Soltane_ (1561).
+
+  [83] _Daire (Darius)._
+
+  [84] _La Mort de Cesar._
+
+  [85] _Achille_ (1563).
+
+  [86] _Les Lacenes_; _Marie Stuart or L'Ecossaise_.
+
+  [87] _La Juive_, &c.
+
+  [88] _Les Corivaux_ (1573).
+
+  [89] _La Reconnue_ (Le Capitaine Rodomont).
+
+  [90] _Les Esbahis._
+
+  [91] _Les Contens_ (S. Parabosco, _I Contenti_).
+
+  [92] _Les Neapolitaines_; _Les Desesperades de l'amour_.
+
+  [93] _Le Laquais (Il Ragazzo)._
+
+  [94] _Les Tromperies (Gli Inganni)._
+
+  [95] "L. du Peschier" (de Barry), _La Comedie des comedies_.
+
+  [96] _L'Amour tyrannique._
+
+  [97] _Agrippine_, _Le Pedant joue_.
+
+  [98] _Marianne._
+
+  [99] _Sophonisbe._
+
+  [100] _Les Bergeries._
+
+  [101] _Melite_; _Clitandre_, &c.
+
+  [102] _Le Veritable Saint Genest_; _Venceslas_.
+
+  [103] Steele, _The Lying Lover_; Foote, _The Liar_; Goldoni, _Il
+    Bugiardo_.
+
+  [104] Ruiz de Alarcon, _La Verdad sospechosa._
+
+  [105] _L'Illusion comique_ is antithetically mixed.
+
+  [106] _Andromaque_; _Phedre_; _Berenice_, &c.
+
+  [107] _Esther_; _Athalie_.
+
+  [108] _Le Cid_; _Polyeucte_.
+
+  [109] _Esther_; _Athalie_.
+
+  [110] Corneille, _Rodogune_; Racine, _Phedre_.
+
+  [111] _Brutus_; _La Mort de Cesar_; _Semiramis_.
+
+  [112] _OEdipe_; _Le Fanatisme_ (_Mahomet_).
+
+  [113] _Adelaide du Guesclin_.
+
+  [114] _L'Orphelin de la Chine_.
+
+  [115] _Tanis et Zelide_.
+
+  [116] _Les Guebres_.
+
+  [117] _Olimpie_.
+
+  [118] _Tancrede_.
+
+  [119] _La Mort de Cesar_; _Zaire_ (_Othello_).
+
+  [120] _Hamlet_; _Le Roi Lear_, &c.
+
+  [121] The lectures delivered by the late Professor A. Beljame at
+    Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1905-1906 may be mentioned as valuable
+    contributions to our knowledge of the growth of Shakespeare's
+    influence in France.
+
+  [122] Quinault, _L'Amour indiscret_ (Newcastle and Dryden's _Sir
+    Martin Mar-all_).
+
+  [123] _Le Mercure galant_; _Esope a la ville_; _Esope a la cour_
+    (Vanbrugh, _Aesop_).
+
+  [124] _Le Bal_ (_M. de Pourceaugnac_); Geronte in _Le Legataire
+    universel_ (Argan in _Le Malade imaginaire_); _La Critique du L._
+    (_La C. de l'ecole des femmes_).
+
+  [125] _Le Joueur_; _Le Legataire universel_.
+
+  [126] _Crispin rival de son maitre_; _Turcaret_.
+
+  [127] _Le Mechant_.
+
+  [128] _La Metromanie_.
+
+  [129] _Le Jeu de l'amour et du hasard_; _Le Legs_; _La Surprise de
+    l'amour_; _Les Fausses Confidences_; _L'Epreuve_.
+
+  [130] _Le Philosophe marie_; _Le Glorieux_; _Le Dissipateur_.
+
+  [131] _La Fausse Antipathie_; _Le Prejuge a la mode_; _L'Ecole des
+    amis_; _Meluside_; _Pamela_. _L'Ecole des meres_ was the play which
+    Frederick the Great described as turning the stage into a _bureau
+    general de la fadeur_.
+
+  [132] See especially _Nanine_, founded on the original _Pamela_.
+
+  [133] _Le Philosophe sans le savoir_; _La Gageure imprevue_.
+
+  [134] e.g. _Eugenie_ (the original of Goethe's _Clavigo_) and _Les
+    Deux Amis_, or _Le Negociant de Lyon_.
+
+  [135] _Richard Coeur de Lion_, &c.
+
+  [136] _Zemire et Azor_; _Jeannot et Jeannette_.
+
+  [137] _Les Muses galantes_; _Le Devin du village_.
+
+  [138] _Pygmalion_.
+
+  [139] _Charles IX, ou l'ecole des rois_.
+
+  [140] _Hernani_ (1839); _Le Roi s'amuse_; _Ruy Blas_; _Les
+    Burgraves_, &c. Even in _Torquemada_, the fruit of its author's old
+    age, and full of bombast, the original power has not altogether gone
+    out.
+
+  [141] _Chatterton_.
+
+  [142] _Francois le champi_; _Claudie_.
+
+  [143] _Le Gendre de M. Poirier_.
+
+  [144] _On ne badine pas avec l'amour_, as interpreted by Delaunay,
+    must always remain the most exquisite type of this inimitable
+    _genre_.
+
+  [145] _Theatre de Clara Gazul_. _La Famille Carvajal_, one of these
+    pieces, treats the same story as that of _The Cenci_.
+
+  [146] _Lucrece_ (1843); _L'Honneur et l'argent_; _Charlotte Corday_.
+
+  [147] _La Cigue_; _L'Aventuriere_; _Gabrielle_; _Le Fils de Giboyer_,
+    &c.
+
+  [148] _Valerie_; _Bertrand et Raton_; _Le Verre d'eau_, &c.
+
+  [149] _Louis XI._
+
+  [150] _Adrienne Lecouvreur_.
+
+  [151] _La Dame aux camelias_; _Le Demi-monde_; _Le Supplice d'une
+    femme_; _Les Idees de Mme Aubray_; _L'Etrangere_; _Francillon_.
+
+  [152] _Les Pattes de mouche_; _Nos bons villageois_; _Patrie_.
+
+  [153] _Le Monde ou l'on s'ennuie_.
+
+  [154] _Frou-frou_.
+
+  [155] As has been already seen, Sir David Lyndsay's celebrated
+    _Satyre of the Three Estaits_, a dramatic manifesto in favour of the
+    Reformation, is in form a morality pure and simple.
+
+  [156] _Tom Tiler and his Wife_ (1578); _A Knack to know a Knave_ (c.
+    1594); _Sir Clyomon and Sir Clamydes_ (misattributed to G. Peele),
+    (printed 1599).
+
+  [157] An earlier drama by him, _Christus redivivus_, is said to have
+    been printed at Cologne.
+
+  [158] _Oedipus_; _Dido_; _Ulysses redux_.
+
+  [159] By A. Guarna.
+
+  [160] _Pax_; _Troas_; _Menaechmi_; _Oedipus_; _Mostellaria_;
+    _Hecuba_; _Amphytruo_; _Medea_. These fall between 1546 and 1560. The
+    date and place of the production of William Goldingham of Trinity
+    Hall's _Herodes_, some time after 1567, are unknown.
+
+  [161] The date and place of performance of the Latin _Fatum
+    Vortigerni_ are unknown; but it was not improbably produced at a
+    later time than Shakespeare's _Richard II._, which it seems in
+    certain points to resemble.
+
+  [162] Latin "academical" plays directly imitated from Seneca, but of
+    unknown date, are _Solymannidae_ (or the story of Solyman II. and his
+    son Mustapha), and _Tomumbeius_ (Tuman Bey, sultan of Egypt, 1516);
+    yet others exhibit his influence.
+
+  [163] _"Supposes" and "Jocasta,"_ ed. J. W. Cunliffe.
+
+  [164] His _Palamon and Arcyte_ (produced in Christ Church hall,
+    Oxford, in 1566) is not preserved; or we should be able to compare
+    with _The Two Noble Kinsmen_ this early dramatic treatment of a
+    singularly fine theme.
+
+  [165] _The History of the Collier._
+
+  [166] _A Historie of Error_ (1577), one of the many imitations of the
+    _Menaechmi_, may have been the foundation of the _Comedy of Errors_.
+    In the previous year was printed the old _Taming of a Shrew_, founded
+    on a novel of G. F. Straparola. Part of the plot of Shakespeare's
+    _Taming of the Shrew_ may have been suggested by _The Supposes_.
+
+  [167] _Treatise wherein Dicing, Dauncing, Vaine Playes or Enterluds
+    ... are reproved_, &c. (1577).
+
+  [168] _The School of Abuse._
+
+  [169] _The Anatomy of Abuses._
+
+  [170] H. Denham, G. Whetstone (the author of _Promos and Cassandra_),
+    W. Rankine.
+
+  [171] It may be mentioned that the practice of companies of players,
+    of one kind or another, being taken into the service of members of
+    the royal family, or of great nobles, dates from much earlier times
+    than the reign of Elizabeth. So far back as 1400/1 the corporation of
+    Shrewsbury paid rewards to the _histriones_ of Prince Henry and of
+    the earl of Stafford, and in 1408/9 reference is made to the players
+    of the earl and countess of Arundel, of Lord Powys, of Lord Talbot
+    and of Lord Furnival.
+
+  [172] _The Woman in the Moone_; _Sapho and Phao_.
+
+  [173] _Alexander and Campaspe._
+
+  [174] _Endimion_; _Mydas_.
+
+  [175] _Gallathea._
+
+  [176] _Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay._
+
+  [177] _The Wounds of Civil War._ With Greene he wrote _A
+    Looking-Glass for London_.
+
+  [178] _Summer's Last Will and Testament_ is his sole entire extant
+    play. _Dido, Queen of Carthage_, is by him and Marlowe.
+
+  [179] _Patient Grissil_ (with Dekker and Haughton).
+
+  [180] _Hoffman, or A Revenge for a Father._
+
+  [181] _Henry VIII._
+
+  [182] Ford, _Perkin Warbeck_.
+
+  [183] _Edward IV._; _If You Know Not Me_, &c.
+
+  [184] _Henry VIII._
+
+  [185] _The Merry Wives of Windsor._
+
+  [186] Massinger, _The Virgin Martyr_; Shirley, _St Patrick for
+    Ireland_.
+
+  [187] _Cleopatra_; _Philotas_.
+
+  [188] _Darius_; _Croesus_; _Julius Caesar_; _The Alexandraean
+    Tragedy_.
+
+  [189] _The Sad Shepherd_.
+
+  [190] _The Faithful Shepherdess._
+
+  [191] _The Queen's Arcadia._
+
+  [192] _Sejanus his Fall_; _Catiline his Conspiracy_.
+
+  [193] _Bussy d'Ambois_; _The Revenge of B. d'A._; _The Conspiracy of
+    Byron_; _The Tragedy of B._; _Chabot, Admiral of France_ (with
+    Shirley).
+
+  [194] _Arden of Faversham_; _A Yorkshire Tragedy_.
+
+  [195] _A Woman killed with Kindness_; _The English Traveller_.
+
+  [196] _Vittoria Coromboni_; _The Duchess of Malfi_.
+
+  [197] _'Tis Pity She's a Whore_; _The Broken Heart_.
+
+  [198] _Every Man in his Humour_; _Every Man out of his Humour_.
+
+  [199] Shadwell, _The Humorists_.
+
+  [200] It is impossible in a summary survey to seek to discriminate by
+    any kind of evidence the respective shares in many Elizabethan plays,
+    and the respective credit due to them, of the joint writers. Yet some
+    such inquiry is necessary before judging the claims to remembrance of
+    highly-gifted dramatists such as William Rowley, his namesake Samuel,
+    John Day, and not a few others.
+
+  [201] The Latin comedy _Victoria_ by Abraham Fraunce of St John's was
+    written some time before 1583, and dedicated to Sir Philip Sidney;
+    but there is no evidence to show that it was ever acted.
+
+  [202] (Bishop) Hacket's _Loyola_ was acted at Trinity in 1623.
+
+  [203] _Naufragium joculare--The Guardian_ (rewritten later as _The
+    Cutter of Coleman Street_).
+
+  [204] Chapman, Marston (and Jonson), _Eastward Hoe_ (1605);
+    Middleton, _A Game at Chess_ (1624); Shirley and Chapman, _The Ball_
+    (1632); Massinger(?), _The Spanish Viceroy_ (1634).
+
+  [205] _Twelfth Night._
+
+  [206] _The Puritan, or the Widow of Watling Street_, by "W. S."
+    (Wentworth Smith?).
+
+  [207] _The Alchemist_; _Bartholomew Fair_.
+
+  [208] Chapman, _An Humorous Day's Mirth_; Marston, _The Dutch
+    Courtesan_; Middleton, _The Family of Love_.
+
+  [209] Among these was Sir Richard Fanshawe's English version of the
+    _Pastor fido_ (1646); after his death were published his translations
+    of two plays by A. de Mendoza.
+
+  [210] _A Short View of Tragedy_ (1693).
+
+  [211] _The Black Prince_; _Tryphon_; _Herod the Great_; _Altemira._
+
+  [212] _The Indian Queen._
+
+  [213] _The Indian Emperor_; _Tyrannic Love_; _The Conquest of
+    Granada._
+
+  [214] _Essay of Dramatic Poesy._
+
+  [215] _Essay of Heroic Plays._
+
+  [216] A direct satirical invective against rhymed tragedy of the
+    "heroic" type is to be found in Arrowsmith's comedy _Reformation_
+    (1673).
+
+  [217] _The Grounds of Criticism in Tragedy._
+
+  [218] _All for Love (Antony and Cleopatra)._
+
+  [219] _Don Sebastian._
+
+  [220] _The Rival Queens_; _Lucius Junius Brutus_; _The Massacre of
+    Paris._
+
+  [221] _Don Carlos_; _The Orphan_; _Venice Preserved._
+
+  [222] _Oroonoko_; _The Fatal Marriage._
+
+  [223] _The Mourning Bride._
+
+  [224] _The Fair Penitent_; _Jane Shore._
+
+  [225] A notable influence was exercised upon English comedy as well
+    as upon other branches of literature by C. de Saint-Evremond, a
+    soldier and man of fashion who was possessed of great intellectual
+    ability and of a charming style. Though during his long exile in
+    England--from 1670 to his death--he never learned English, his
+    critical works included _Remarks on English Comedy_ (1677), and one
+    of his own comedies, the celebrated _Sir Politick Would-be_,
+    professed to be composed "_a la maniere angloise_."
+
+  [226] _Epsom Wells_; _The Squire of Alsatia_; _The Volunteers._
+
+  [227] A dramatic curiosity of a rare kind would be _The Female
+    Rebellion_ (1682), which has been, on evidence rather striking at
+    first sight, attributed to Sir Thomas Browne. It is more likely to
+    have been by his son.
+
+  [228] _The Country Wife_; _The Plain-Dealer._
+
+  [229] _The Double Dealer._
+
+  [230] _The Recruiting Officer_; _The Beaux' Stratagem._
+
+  [231] _A Short View of the Immorality and Profaneness of the English
+    Stage._
+
+  [232] Sir Novelty Fashion (Lord Foppington), &c.
+
+  [233] _The Lying Lover_; _The Tender Husband._
+
+  [234] _The Conscious Lovers._
+
+  [235] _The Absolute Unlawfulness of Stage Entertainments fully
+    Demonstrated_; _The Stage defended_, &c. (1726).
+
+  [236] _The Siege of Damascus._
+
+  [237] _Mariamne._
+
+  [238] _The Double Falsehood._
+
+  [239] _The Revenge (Othello)._
+
+  [240] _Fatal Curiosity._
+
+  [241] _Irene_ (1749); _The Patriot_ attributed to Johnson, is by
+    Joseph Simpson.
+
+  [242] _Elfrida_; _Caractacus_.
+
+  [243] _Rosamunda._
+
+  [244] _Love in a Village_, &c.
+
+  [245] _The Waterman_, &c.
+
+  [246] _Pasquin_; _The Historical Register for 1736._
+
+  [247] _The Golden Rump._
+
+  [248] The first dramatic performance licensed by the lord chamberlain
+    after the passing of the act was appropriately entitled _The Nest of
+    Plays_, and consisted of three comedies named respectively _The
+    Prodigal Reformed_, _In Happy Constancy_ and _The Trial of Conjugal
+    Love_. It is a curious fact that in the first decade of the reign of
+    George III. a severe control of the theatre was very actively exerted
+    after a positive as well as a negative fashion--objectionable
+    passages being ruthlessly suppressed and plays actually written and
+    licensed for the purpose of upholding the existing regime.
+
+  [249] J. Townley, _High Life Below Stairs_ (1759).
+
+  [250] _The Minor_; _Taste_; _The Author_, &c.
+
+  [251] This celebrated play was at first persistently attributed to
+    Miss Elizabeth Carter.
+
+  [252] _The School for Lovers._
+
+  [253] _False Delicacy._
+
+  [254] _The Jealous Wife_; _The Clandestine Marriage._
+
+  [255] _The Heiress._
+
+  [256] _The West Indian_; _The Jew._
+
+  [257] _The Belle's Stratagem_; _A Bold Stroke for a Husband_, &c.
+
+  [258] _The Road to Ruin_, &c.
+
+  [259] _John Bull_; _The Heir at Law_, &c.
+
+  [260] _Midas_; _The Golden Pippin._
+
+  [261] _Bertram._
+
+  [262] _Ion._
+
+  [263] _Fazio._
+
+  [264] _Philip van Artevelde._
+
+  [265] _The Death of Marlowe._
+
+  [266] _Becket_; _The Cup._
+
+  [267] _Merope._
+
+  [268] _The Golden Legend._
+
+  [269] _Love is Enough._
+
+  [270] _Strafford_; _The Blot on the Scutcheon._
+
+  [271] _Atalanta in Calydon_; _Bothwell_; _Chastelard_; _Mary Stuart._
+
+  [272] _Virginius_; _The Hunchback._
+
+  [273] A drama entitled _Speculum vitae humanae_ is mentioned as
+    produced by Archduke Ferdinand of the Tirol in 1584.
+
+  [274] _Susanna_ (_Geistliches Spiel_) (1536), &c. Sixt Birk also
+    brought out a play on the story of _Susanna_, which he had previously
+    treated in a Latin form, in the vernacular (1552).
+
+  [275] _Siegfried_; _Eulenspiegel_, &c.
+
+  [276] _Susanna_; _Vincentius Ladislaus_, &c.
+
+  [277] _Mahomet_; _Edward III._; _Hamlet_; _Romeo and Juliet_, &c.
+
+  [278] _The Tempest_ (Ayrer, _Comedia v. d. schonen Sidea_).
+
+  [279] _Herr Peter Squenz_ (_Pyramus and Thisbe_);
+    _Horribilicribrifax_ (Pistol?).
+
+  [280] His son, Christian Gryphius, was author of a curious dramatic
+    summary (or _revue_) of German history, both literary and political;
+    but the title of this school-drama is far too long for quotation.
+
+  [281] One of his _aliases_ was _Pickelharnig_. In 1702 the electress
+    Sophia is found requesting Leibniz to see whether a more satisfactory
+    specimen of this class cannot be procured from Berlin than is at
+    present to be found at Hanover.
+
+  [282] Deschamps and Addison.
+
+  [283] _Richard III._; _Romeo and Juliet_.
+
+  [284] _Die Zwillinge_ (_The Twins_); _Die Soldaten_, &c.
+
+  [285] _Julius von Tarent._
+
+  [286] _Der Hofmeister_ (_The Governor_), &c.
+
+  [287] _Genoveva_, &c.
+
+  [288] Iffland's best play is _Die Jager_ (1785), which recently still
+    held the stage. From Mannheim he in 1796 passed to Berlin by desire
+    of King Frederick William II., who thus atoned for the hardships
+    which he had allowed the pietistic tyranny of his minister Wollner to
+    inflict upon the Prussian stage as a whole.
+
+  [289] _Die deutschen Kleinstadter_ is his most celebrated comedy and
+    _Menschenhass und Reue_ one of the most successful of his sentimental
+    dramas. According to one classification he wrote 163 plays with a
+    moral tendency, 5 with an immoral, and 48 doubtful.
+
+  [290] _Der Groosskophta_ (Cagliostro); _Der Burgergeneral_.
+
+  [291] A. W. von Schlegel and Tieck's (1797-1833).
+
+  [292] A. W. von Schlegel, _Lectures on Dramatic Art and Literature_,
+    &c.
+
+  [293] _Zriny_, &c.
+
+  [294] _Ion._
+
+  [295] _Alarcos._
+
+  [296] _Kaiser Octavianus_; _Der gestiefelte Kater_ (_Puss in Boots_),
+    &c.
+
+  [297] _Der 24. Februar_ (produced on the Weimar stage with Goethe's
+   sanction).
+
+  [298] _Der 29. Februar_; _Die Schuld_ (_Guilt_).
+
+  [299] _Das Bild_ (_The Picture_); _Der Leuchtthurm_ (_The
+    Lighthouse_).
+
+  [300] _Die Ahnfrau_ (_The Ancestress_).
+
+  [301] _Das Kathchen_ (_Kate_) _von Heilbronn_.
+
+  [302] _Der zerbrochene Krug_ (_The Broken Pitcher_).
+
+  [303] _Prinz Friedrich von Homburg._
+
+  [304] _Sappho_, _Medea_, &c.
+
+  [305] _Konig Ottokar's Gluck und Ende_ (_Fortune and Fall_); _Der
+    Bruderzwist_ (_Fraternal Feud_) _in Habsburg_.
+
+  [306] _Die verhangnissvolle Gabel_ (_The Fatal Fork_); _Der
+    romantische Oedipus_.
+
+  [307] _Die Nibelungen_; _Judith_, &c.
+
+  [308] _Der Erbforster._
+
+  [309] _Uriel Acosta_; _Der Kunigslieutenant._
+
+  [310] _Die Valentine._
+
+  [311] _Die Karlsschuler._
+
+  [312] _Der Pfarrer von Kirchfeld_; _Der Meineidbauer_; _Die
+    Kreuzelschreiber_; _Das vierte Gebot_.
+
+  [313] _The Robbers_ (Franz Moor). His next most famous part was Lear.
+
+  [314] In connexion with the production in 1855 of "F. Halm's"
+    _Fechter von Ravenna_, of which the authorship was claimed by a
+    half-demented schoolmaster.
+
+  [315] As to more recent developments of German theatrical literature
+    see the article GERMAN LITERATURE, and the remarks on the influence
+    of foreign works in the section on _Recent English Drama_ above.
+
+  [316] _Aluta_; _Asotus_; _Hecastus_, &c.
+
+  [317] _Gysbrecht van Aemstel_; _Lucifer_.
+
+  [318] _Ulysses of Ithaca._
+
+  [319] _The Politician-Tinman_; _Jean de France or Hans Franzen; The
+    Lying-In_, &c.
+
+  [320] _Aladdin_; _Corregio._
+
+  [321] _Maria Stuart_; _A Bankruptcy_; _Leonarda._
+
+  [322] _Brand_; _Peer Gynt._
+
+  [323] _Samfundets Stuttere_; _Et Dukkehjem_; _Gengangere._
+
+  [324] _Pan Jowialski_; _Oludki i Poeta_ (_The Misanthrope and the
+    Poet_).
+
+
+
+
+DRAMBURG, a town of Germany in the kingdom of Prussia, on the Drage, a
+tributary of the Oder, 50 m. E. of Stettin, on the railway
+Ruhnow-Neustettin. Pop. 5800. It contains an Evangelical church, a
+gymnasium, a hospital and various administrative offices, and carries on
+cotton and woollen weaving, tanning, brewing and distilling.
+
+
+
+
+DRAMMEN, a seaport of Norway, in Buskerud and Jarlsberg-Laurvik _amter_
+(counties), at the head of Drammen Fjord, a western arm of Christiania
+Fjord, 33 m. by rail S. W. from Christiania. Pop. (1900) 23,093. Its
+situation, at the mouth of the broad Drammen river, between lofty hills,
+is very beautiful. It is the junction of railways from Christiania to
+Haugsund, Kongsberg and Hunefos, and to Laurvik and Skien. The town is
+modern, having suffered from fires in 1866, 1870 and 1880. It consists
+of three parts: Bragernaes on the north, divided by the river from
+Strumsu and the port, Tangen, on the south. The prosperity of Drammen
+depends mainly on the timber trade; and saw-milling is an active
+industry, the logs being floated down the river from the upland
+forests. Timber and wood-pulp are exported (over half of each to Great
+Britain), with paper, ice and some cobalt and nickel ore. The chief
+imports are British coal and German machinery. Salmon are taken in the
+upper reaches of the Drammen.
+
+
+
+
+DRANE, AUGUSTA THEODOSIA (1823-1894), English writer, was born at
+Bromley, near Bow, on the 29th of December 1823. Brought up in the
+Anglican creed, she fell under the influence of Tractarian teaching at
+Torquay, and joined the Roman Catholic Church in 1850. She wrote, and
+published anonymously, an essay questioning the _Morality of
+Tractarianism_, which was attributed to John Henry Newman. In 1852,
+after a prolonged stay in Rome, she joined the third order of St
+Dominic, to which she belonged for over forty years. She was prioress
+(1872-1881) of the Stone convent in Staffordshire, where she died on the
+29th of April 1894. Her chief works in prose and verse are: _The History
+of Saint Dominic_ (1857; enlarged edition, 1891); _The Life of St
+Catherine of Siena_ (1880; 2nd ed., 1899); _Christian Schools and
+Scholars_ (1867); _The Knights of St John_ (1858); _Songs in the Night_
+(1876); and the _Three Chancellors_ (1859), a sketch of the lives of
+William of Wykeham, William of Waynflete and Sir Thomas More.
+
+  A complete list of her writings is given in the _Memoir of Mother
+  Francis Raphael, O.S.D., Augusta Theodosia Drane_, edited by B.
+  Wilberforce, O.P. (London, 1895).
+
+
+
+
+DRAPER, JOHN WILLIAM (1811-1882), American scientist, was born at St
+Helen's, near Liverpool, on the 5th of May 1811. He studied at Woodhouse
+Grove, at the University of London, and, after removing to America in
+1832, at the medical school of the University of Pennsylvania in
+1835-1836. In 1837 he was elected professor of chemistry in the
+University of the City of New York, and was a professor in its school of
+medicine in 1840-1850, president of that school in 1850-1873, and
+professor of chemistry until 1881. He died at Hastings, New York, on the
+4th of January 1882. He made important researches in photo-chemistry,
+made portrait photography possible by his improvements (1839) on
+Daguerre's process, and published a _Text-book on Chemistry_ (1846),
+_Text-book on Natural Philosophy_ (1847), _Text-book on Physiology_
+(1866), and _Scientific Memoirs_ (1878) on radiant energy. He is well
+known also as the author of _The History of the Intellectual Development
+of Europe_ (1862), applying the methods of physical science to history,
+a _History of the American Civil War_ (3 vols., 1867-1870), and a
+_History of the Conflict between Religion and Science_ (1874).
+
+His son, HENRY DRAPER (1837-1882), graduated at the University of New
+York in 1858, became professor of natural science there in 1860, and was
+professor of physiology (in the medical school) and dean of the faculty
+in 1866-1873. He succeeded his father as professor of chemistry, but
+only for a year, dying in New York on the 20th of November 1882. Henry
+Draper's most important contributions to science were made in
+spectroscopy; he ruled metal gratings in 1869-1870, made valuable
+spectrum photographs after 1871, and proved the presence of oxygen in
+the sun in a monograph of 1877. Edward C. Pickering carried on his study
+of stellar spectra with the funds of the Henry Draper Memorial at
+Harvard, endowed by his widow (_nee_ Mary Anna Palmer).
+
+  See accounts by George F. Barker in _Biographical Memoirs of the
+  National Academy of Science_, vols. 2 and 3 (Washington, 1886, 1888).
+
+
+
+
+DRAPER, one who deals in cloth or textiles generally. The Fr. _drap_,
+cloth, from which _drapier_ and Eng. "draper" are derived, is of obscure
+origin. It is possible that the Low Lat. _drappus_ or _trappus_ (the
+last form giving the Eng. "trappings") may be connected with words such
+as "drub," Ger. _treffen_, beat; the original sense would be fulled
+cloth. "Drab," dull, pale, brown, is also connected, its first meaning
+being a cloth of a natural undyed colour. The Drapers' Company is one of
+the great livery companies of the city of London. The fraternity is of
+very early origin. Henry Fitz-Alwyn (d. 1212?), the first mayor of
+London, is said to have been a draper. The first charter was granted in
+1364. The Drapers' Gild was one of the numerous subdivisions of the
+clothing trade, and appeared to have been confined to the retailing of
+woollen cloths, the linen-drapers forming in the 15th century a separate
+fraternity, which disappeared or was merged in the greater company. It
+is usual for drapers to combine the sale of "drapery," i.e. of textiles
+generally, with that of millinery, hosiery, &c. In _Wills_ v. _Adams_
+(reported in _The Times_, London, Nov. 20, 1908), the term "drapery" in
+a restrictive covenant was held not to include all goods that a draper
+might sell, such as furs or fur-lined goods.
+
+
+
+
+DRAUGHT (from the common Teutonic word "to draw"; cf. Ger. _Tracht_,
+load; the pronunciation led to the variant form "draft," now confined to
+certain specific meanings), the act or action of drawing, extending,
+pulling, &c. It is thus applied to animals used for drawing vehicles or
+loads, "draught oxen," &c., to the quantity of fish taken by one "drag"
+of a net, to a quantity of liquid taken or "drawn in" to the mouth, and
+to a current of air in a chimney, a room or other confined space. In
+furnaces the "draught" is "natural" when not increased artificially, or
+"forced" when increased by mechanical methods (see BOILER). The water a
+ship "draws," or her "draught," is the depth to which she sinks in the
+water as measured from her keel. The word was formerly used of a "move"
+in chess or similar games, and is thus, in the plural, the general
+English name of the game known also as "checkers" (see DRAUGHTS). The
+spelling "draft" is generally employed in the following usages. It is a
+common term for a written order "drawn on" a banker or other holder of
+funds for the payment of money to a third person; thus a cheque (q.v.)
+is a draft. A special form of draft is a "banker's draft," an
+instruction by one bank to another bank, or to a branch of the bank
+making the instruction, to pay a sum of money to the order of a certain
+specified person. Other meanings of "draft" are an outline, plan or
+sketch, or a preliminary drawing up of an instrument, measure, document,
+&c., which, after alteration and amendment, will be embodied in a final
+or formal shape; an allowance made by merchants or importers to those
+who sell by retail, to make up a loss incurred in weighing or measuring;
+and a detachment or body of troops "drawn off" for a specific purpose,
+usually a reinforcement from the depot or reserve units to those abroad
+or in the field. For the use of the term "draft" or "draught" in masonry
+and architecture see DRAFTED MASONRY.
+
+
+
+
+DRAUGHTS (from A.S. _dragan_, to draw), a game played with pieces (or
+"men") called draughtsmen on a board marked in squares of two alternate
+colours. The game is called Checkers in America, and is known to the
+French as _Les Dames_ and to the Germans as _Damenspiel_. Though the
+game is not mentioned in the _Complete Gamester_, nor the _Academie de
+jeux_, and is styled a "modern invention" by Strutt, yet a somewhat
+similar game was known to the Egyptians, some of the pieces used having
+been found in tombs at least as old as 1600 B.C., and part of Anect
+Hat-Shepsa's board and some of her men are to be seen in the Egyptian
+gallery of the British Museum. An Egyptian vase also shows a lion and an
+antelope playing at draughts, with five men each, the lion making the
+winning move and seizing the bag or purse that contains the stakes.
+Plato ascribes the invention of the game of [Greek: pessoi], or
+draughts, to Thoth, the Egyptian Hermes Trismegistus, and Homer
+represents Penelope's suitors as playing it (_Odyss._ i. 107). In one
+form of the game as played by the Greeks there were 25 squares, and each
+player had 5 men which were probably moved along the lines. In another
+there were 4 men and 16 squares with a "sacred enclosure," a square of
+the same size as the others, marked in the exact centre and bisected by
+one of the horizontal lines, which was known as the "sacred line." From
+the incident in the game of a piece hemmed in on this line by a rival
+piece having to be pushed forward as a last resort, arose the phrase "to
+move the man from the sacred line" as synonymous with being hard
+pressed. This and other phrases based on incidents in the game testify
+to the vogue the game enjoyed in ancient Greece. The Roman game of
+_Latrunculi_ was similar, but there were officers (kings in modern
+draughts) as well as men. When a player's pieces were all hemmed in he
+was stale-mated, to use a chess phrase (_ad incitas redactus est_), and
+lost the game. Other explanations of this phrase are, however, given
+(see _Les Jeux des anciens_, by Becq de Fouquieres). The fullest account
+of the Roman game is to be found in the _De laude Pisonis_, written by
+an anonymous contemporary of Nero (see CALPURNIUS, TITUS). Unfortunately
+the texts are full of obscurities, so that it is difficult to make any
+definite statements as to how the game was played.
+
+As early as the 11th century some form of the game was practised by the
+Norsemen, for in the Icelandic saga of Grettir the Strong the board and
+men are mentioned more than once.
+
+The history of the modern forms of the game starts with _El Ingenio o
+juego de marro, de punto o damas_, published by Torquemada at Valencia
+in 1547. Another Spaniard, Juan Garcia Canalejas, is said to have
+published in 1610 the first edition of his work, a better-known edition
+of which appeared in 1650. The third Spanish classic, that of Joseph
+Carlos Garcez, was printed in Madrid in 1684. It is noteworthy that in
+an illustration in Garcez's book the pieces depicted resemble somewhat
+some of those used by the Egyptians, and are not unlike the pawns used
+in chess.
+
+In 1668 Pierre Mallet had published the first French work on the game,
+and elementary though his knowledge of the game seems to have been, even
+in comparison with that of Canalejas or Garcez, the historical notes,
+rules and instructions which he gave, served as a basis for many later
+works. Mallet wrote on _Le Jeu de dames a la francaise_, which was
+almost identical with the modern English game. The old French game is,
+however, no longer practised in France, having been superseded by _Le
+Jeu de dames a la polonaise_. Manoury gives reasons for believing that
+the latter game originated in Paris about 1727.
+
+About 1736 a famous player named Laclef published the first book on
+Polish draughts, but the first important book on the game is Manoury's
+_Jeu de dames a la polonaise_, in the production of which it is said
+that the author had the assistance of Diderot and other
+_encyclopedistes_. This book, which appeared in 1787, was to the new
+game all that Mallet's was to the old French game, and until the
+appearance of Poirson Prugneaux's _Encyclopedie du jeu de dames_ in 1855
+it remained the standard authority on so-called Polish draughts. The
+Polish game early attained popularity in Holland, and in 1785 the
+standard Dutch work, Ephraim van Embden's _Verhandeling over het
+Damspel_, was produced. In German-speaking countries the progress of the
+new game was slower, and the works produced in the first half of the
+19th century generally treat of the older game as well as the Polish
+game. This is also the case with Petroff's book published in St
+Petersburg in 1827; and similarly Zongono's, which dates from 1832,
+deals with the new game and with the older Italian game.
+
+In 1694 Hyde wrote _Historia dami ludi seu latrinculorum_, in which he
+tried to prove the identity of draughts with _ludus latrinculorum_. This
+work is historical and descriptive, but contains nothing concerning the
+game as played in Great Britain. The authentic history of draughts in
+England commences with William Payne's _Introduction to the Game of
+Draughts_, the dedication of which was written by Samuel Johnson.
+Payne's games and problems were incorporated in a much more important
+work, namely Sturges's _Guide to the Game of Draughts_, which appeared
+in 1800 and has gone through a score of editions. About this time the
+game was much practised in both England and Scotland, but the first
+important production of the Scottish school was Drummond's _Scottish
+Draught Player_, the first part of which dates from 1838, additional
+volumes appearing in 1851-1853 and 1861. In 1852 Andrew Anderson
+published his _Game of Draughts Simplified_. A first edition had
+appeared in 1848, but the later print is the important one, as it
+standardized the laws of the game, fixed the nomenclature of the
+openings, introduced a better arrangement of the play, and, since
+Anderson was one of the finest players of the game, excelled in
+accuracy. In Anderson's time little was known about the openings
+commencing with any move other than 11-15, and it was not until more
+than thirty years later that the other openings received more adequate
+recognition. This was done in Robertson's _Guide to the Game of
+Draughts_, and perhaps better in Lees' _Guide_ (1892).
+
+Andrew Anderson was the first recognized British champion player of the
+game. He and Wyllie, better known as "the herd laddie," contested five
+matches for the honour, Anderson winning four to Wyllie's one. After his
+victory in 1847 Anderson retired from match play and the title fell to
+Wyllie, who made the game his profession and travelled all over the
+English-speaking world to play it. In 1872 he successfully defended his
+position against Martins, the English champion, and in 1874 against W.
+R. Barker, the American champion, but two years later he was beaten by
+Yates, a young American. On the latter's retirement from the game, the
+championship lapsed to Wyllie, who held it successfully until his defeat
+by Ferrie, the Scottish champion, in 1894. Two years later Ferrie was
+beaten in his turn by Richard Jordan of Edinburgh, who had just gained
+the Scottish championship; and the new holder defeated Stewart, who
+challenged him in 1897, and successfully defended his title against C.
+F. Barker, the American champion, to meet whom he visited Boston in 1900
+and played a drawn match.
+
+In 1884 the first international match between England and Scotland took
+place, and resulted in so decisive a victory for the northerners that
+the contest was not renewed for ten years. The matches played in 1894
+and 1899 also went strongly in favour of the Scots, but in 1903 the
+Englishmen gained their first victory.
+
+In 1905 a British team visited America and defeated a side representing
+the United States.
+
+The tournament for the Scottish championship has been held annually in
+Glasgow since 1893. The number and skill of the Scottish players have
+given this tournament its pre-eminence; but if the levelling up of the
+standards of play in Scotland and England continues, the competition
+which is held biennially by the English Draughts Association is likely
+to rank as a serious rival to the Glasgow tourney.
+
+_The English Game._--Draughts as played now in English-speaking
+countries is a game for two persons with a board and twenty-four
+men--twelve white and twelve black--which at starting are placed as
+follows: the black men on the squares numbered 1 to 12, and the white
+men on the squares numbered 21 to 32 on the diagram below. In printed
+diagrams the men are usually shown on the white squares for the sake of
+clearness, but in actual play the black squares are generally used now.
+In playing on the black squares the board must be placed with a black
+square in the left-hand corner. The game is played by moving a man
+forward, one square at a time except when making a capture, along the
+diagonals to the right or left. Thus a white man placed on square 18 in
+the diagram can move to 15 or 14. Each player moves alternately, black
+always moving first. If a player touch a piece he must move that piece
+and no other. If the piece cannot be moved, or if it is not the player's
+turn to move, he forfeits the game. As soon as a man reaches one of the
+squares farthest from his side of the board, he is "crowned" by having
+one of the unused or captured men of his own colour placed on him, and
+becomes a "king." A king has the power of moving and taking backwards as
+well as forwards.
+
+               BLACK.
+  +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+  |   | 1 |   | 2 |   | 3 |   | 4 |
+  +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+  | 5 |   | 6 |   | 7 |   | 8 |   |
+  +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+  |   | 9 |   |10 |   |11 |   |12 |
+  +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+  |13 |   |14 |   |15 |   |16 |   |
+  +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+  |   |17 |   |18 |   |19 |   |20 |
+  +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+  |21 |   |22 |   |23 |   |24 |   |
+  +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+  |   |25 |   |26 |   |27 |   |28 |
+  +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+  |29 |   |30 |   |31 |   |32 |   |
+  +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+               WHITE.
+
+If a man is on the square adjacent to an opponent's man, and there is an
+unoccupied square beyond, the unprotected man must be captured and
+removed from the board. Thus, if there is a white man on square 18, and
+a black man on square 14, square 9 being vacant, and white having to
+move, he jumps over 14 and remains on square 9, and the man on 14 is
+taken up.
+
+If two or more men are so placed that one square intervenes between
+each they may all be taken at one move. Thus if white having to move has
+a man on 28, and black men on 24, 16 and 8, the intermediate squares and
+square 3 being vacant, white could move from 28 to 3, touching 19 and 12
+en route, and take the men on 24, 16, and 8; but if there is a piece on
+7 and square 10 is vacant, the piece on 7 cannot be captured, for
+becoming a king ends the move.
+
+It is compulsory to take if possible. If a player can take a man (or a
+series of men) but makes a move that does not capture (or does not
+capture all that is possible), his adversary may allow the move to
+stand, or he may have the move retracted and compel the player to take,
+or he may allow the move to stand and remove the piece, that neglected
+to capture from the board (called "huffing"). "Huff and move" go
+together, i.e. the player who huffs then makes his move. When one player
+has lost all his pieces, or has all those left on the board blocked, he
+loses the game.
+
+The game is drawn when neither of the players has sufficient advantage
+in force or position to enable him to win.
+
+The losing game, or "first off the board," is a form of draughts not
+much practised now by expert draught players. The player wins who gets
+all his pieces taken first. There is no "huffing"; a player who can take
+must do so.
+
+  _Draughts Openings._--As there are seven possible first moves, with
+  seven possible replies to each, or forty-nine in all, there is an
+  abundant variety of openings; but as two of these (9-14, 21-17 and
+  10-14, 21-17) are obviously unsound, the number is really reduced to
+  forty-seven. Much difference of opinion exists regarding the relative
+  strength of the various openings. It was at one time generally held
+  that for the black side 11-15 was the best opening move.
+
+  Towards the end of the 19th century this view became much modified,
+  and though 11-15 still remained the favourite, it was recognized that
+  10-15, 9-14 and 11-16 were little, if at all, inferior; 10-14 and
+  12-16 were rightly rated as weaker than the four moves named above,
+  whilst 9-13, the favourite of the "unscientific" player, was found to
+  be weakest of all.
+
+  The white replies to 11-15 have gone through many vicissitudes. The
+  seven possible moves have each at different times figured as the
+  general favourite. Thus 24-19, which analysis proved to be the weakest
+  of the seven, was at one period described by the title of "Wyllie's
+  Invincible." In course of time it came to be regarded as decidedly
+  weak, and its name was altered to the less pretentious title of
+  "Second Double Corner." In the Scottish Tournament of 1894 this
+  opening was played between Ferrie and Stewart, and the latter won the
+  game with white, introducing new play which has stood the test of
+  analysis, and so rehabilitating the opening in public favour. The
+  21-17 reply to 11-15 was introduced by Wyllie, who was so successful
+  with it that it became known as the "Switcher." This opening perhaps
+  lacks the solid strength of some of the others, but it so abounds in
+  traps as to be well worthy of its name. The other five replies to
+  11-15, namely 24-20, 23-19, 23-18, 22-18 and 22-17, are productive of
+  games which give equal chances to both sides.
+
+  The favourite replies to 10-15 are 23-18, 22-18 and 21-17, but they do
+  not appear to be appreciably stronger than the others, with the
+  possible exception of 24-20.
+
+  In response to 11-16, 23-18 is held to give white a trifling
+  advantage, but it is more apparent than real. With the exception of
+  23-19, which is weak, the other replies are of equal strength, and are
+  only slightly, if at all, inferior to the more popular 23-18. 9-14 is
+  most frequently encountered by 22-18, but all white's replies are
+  good, except of course 21-17 which loses a man, and 23-18 which
+  weakens the centre of white's position.
+
+  Against 10-14 the most popular move is 22-17, which gives white an
+  advantage. Next in strength come 22-18 and 24-19. 23-18 is weak.
+
+  The strongest reply to 12-16 is 24-20. The others, except 23-19, which
+  is weak, give no initial advantage to either side.
+
+  As already mentioned, 9-13 is black's weakest opening move, both 22-18
+  and 24-19 giving white a distinct advantage. Nevertheless 9-13 is a
+  favourite debut with certain expert players, especially when playing
+  with inferior opponents.
+
+  The term "opening" is frequently applied in a more restricted sense
+  than that used above. When practically all games started with 11-15 it
+  was convenient to assign names to the more popular lines of play. Thus
+  11-15, 23-19, 8-11, 22-17, if followed by 11-16, was called the
+  "Glasgow"; if followed by 9-13, 17-14, the "Laird and Lady"; if by
+  3-8, the "Alma."
+
+  The variety possible in the opening is a fair reply to the objection
+  sometimes heard that the game does not afford sufficient scope for
+  variation. As a matter of fact a practically unlimited number of
+  different games might be played on any one opening.
+
+  The three following games are typical examples of the play arising
+  from three of the most frequently played openings:--
+
+        Game No. 1.--"Ayrshire Lassie" Opening.
+
+    a 11-15  25-18    10-15  22-17  b 15-18  24-6
+    a 24-20   3-8     23-19  13-22    24-20   2-9
+       8-11  26-22     6-10  26-17    18-27  17-10
+                   c}
+      28-24   5-9  d} 27-23  11-16    31-24   8-11
+
+       9-13  30-26     9-14  20-11    16-23   Drawn.
+      22-18   1-5     18-9    7-16    20-16  R. Jordan.
+      15-22  32-28     5-14  29-25    12-19
+
+  a. 11-15, 24-20 forms the "Ayrshire Lassie" opening, so named by
+  Wyllie. It is generally held to admit of unusual scope for the display
+  of critical and brilliant combinations.
+
+  b. 16-20, 25-22, 20-27, 31-24, 8-11, 17-13, 2-6, 21-17, 14-21, 22-17,
+  21-25, 17-14, 10-17, 19-1. Drawn. R. Jordan.
+
+                         (c)
+
+      26-23  28-19  20-16   7-11  14-10  15-10
+       9-14   2-6    6-10  19-24  26-23  23-18
+      18-9   20-11  16-11  11-18  10-7   10-15
+       5-14   8-24  10-15  24-27   4-8   20-16
+      29-25  27-20  11-7   18-15   7-3   15-22
+      11-16  10-15  14-18  27-31   8-12  16-7
+      20-11  31-26   7-3   22-18   3-7   Drawn.
+       7-16  15-19  18-23  31-27  27-24 A. B. Scott.
+      24-20  23-16   3-7   18-14   7-11     v.
+      15-24  12-19  23-30  30-26  24-20 R. Jordan.
+
+                         (d)
+
+      19-16   7-10  23-19  11-15  16-11  25-30
+      12-19   6-1   15-24  27-24  18-25  20-16
+      22-17   9-14  28-19  22-25  17-14  Drawn.
+      15-22  26-23   8-11  29-22  10-17 R. Jordan.
+      24-6   11-15  19-16  14-18  21-14
+
+            Game No. 2.--"Kelso-Cross" Opening.
+
+    a 10-15    8-12  13-22   5-9   14-18  22-25
+    a 23-18   25-21  26-17  20-16  17-14  29-22
+      12-16    1-6 d 19-26   2-7   10-17  17-26
+      21-17   32-27  30-23  24-19  21-14   5-1
+       9-13   12-16  15-22  15-24   6-10  26-30
+      17-14   27-23  24-19  23-19  14-9    1-5
+      16-19    7-10   9-14  24-27  10-14  30-26
+      24-20   14-7   19-12  31-24  19-15   5-9
+       6-9     3-10  11-15   9-13  14-17  26-23
+    b 27-24 c 22-17  28-24  24-20   9-5    Drawn.
+                                        R. Jordan.
+
+  a. These two moves form the "Kelso-Cross" opening.
+
+  b. 27-23 is also a strong line for white to adopt.
+
+  c. 30-25, 4-8, 18-14, 9-27, 22-18, 15-22, 24-15, 11-18, 20-4, 27-32,
+  26-17, 13-22, 4-8, 22-26, and black appears to have a winning
+  advantage. R. Jordan.
+
+  d. Taking the piece on 18 first seems to lose, thus:--
+
+    15-22  e 9-13  13-17   6-9    5-14
+    24-8    17-14  23-18  14-10  10-7   White
+     4-11   10-17  17-21   9-14   2-6   wins.
+    31-27   21-14  28-24  18-9    7-2   Dallas.
+
+  e. 2-7, 27-24, 22-26, 23-18, 26-31, 18-15, 11-18, 20-2, 9-13, 2-9,
+  5-14, 24-19, 13-22, 30-26. White wins.
+
+            Game No. 3.--"Dundee" Opening.
+
+      12-16    11-15  c 8-12   4-8    9-14   1-26
+      24-20    20-11   17-13  18-15  26-22  31-22
+       8-12     7-16    5-9    2-7   14-17  19-23
+      28-24    24-20   22-18  30-26  21-14  13-9
+       9-14  b 16-19   15-22  10-14  18-23  12-19
+      22-17    23-16   25-18  29-25  27-18   9-6
+       3-8     12-19   14-23  14-18   6-10   7-11
+    a 26-22    20-16   27-18  32-27  15-6   Drawn.
+                                         R. Jordan.
+
+  a. This move is the favourite at this point on account of its
+  "trappiness," but 25-22 is probably stronger, thus: 25-22, 16-19,
+  24-15, 11-25, 29-22, 8-11, 17-13, 11-16, 20-11, 7-16, and white can
+  with advantage continue by 27-24, 22-17, 23-19 or 22-18.
+
+  b. 15-19, 20-11, 8-15, 23-16, 12-19, 17-13, 5-9, 30-26, 4-8, 27-23,
+  8-12, 23-16, 12-19, 31-27, 1-5, 27-23, 19-24, 32-27, 24-31, 22-17.
+  White wins. C. F. Barker.
+
+    c 8-11  27-18  15-18  14-10  24-27   7-10
+     16-7   15-22  14-10  19-24  31-24  27-31
+      2-11  25-18   6-15  10-7   16-20  10-26
+     22-18  10-15  17-14  18-23   3-7   31-22
+     14-23  18-14  11-16   7-3   20-27  30-25
+               Drawn. R. Stewart v. R. Jordan.
+
+  Problem No. 1 is the simplest form of that known to draughts-players
+  as the "First Position." It is of more frequent occurrence in actual
+  play than any other end-game, and is, besides, typical of a class of
+  draughts problems which may be described as analytical, in
+  contradistinction to "strokes."
+
+       Problem No. 1, by Wm. Payne.
+                  BLACK.
+    +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+    |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
+    +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+    |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
+    +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+    |   |   |   |   |   |   |   | B |
+    +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+    |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
+    +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+    |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
+    +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+    |   |   |   |   |WW |   |   |   |
+    +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+    |   |   |   |   |   |WW |   |BB |
+    +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+    |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
+    +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+                  WHITE.
+
+         White to move and win.
+
+  Solution:--
+
+        27-32   18-15 15-11 11-15 28-32 19-24
+        28-24 2-28-24 12-16 19-24 27-31 White
+        23-18   32-28 28-32 32-28 15-19 wins.
+    3-a-24-28 1-24-20 16-19 24-27 31-26
+
+  a. 12-16 same as Var. I. at 5th move.
+
+  Var. I.
+
+    24-27   18-15 19-16 28-32  8-12  15-11
+    15-18 b 16-20 18-23  8-12 23-18 White
+    12-16   15-18 16-11 32-27 12-8  wins.
+    28-32   24-19 23-19 12-8  18-15
+    27-24   32-28 11-8  27-23  8-12
+
+  b. 24-28 same as Var. II. at 1st move.
+
+  Var. II. 12-16, 15-11, 16-19, 32-27, 28-32, 27-31, 32-28, 11-16,
+  19-23, 16-19. White wins.
+
+  Var. III. 24-19, 32-28, c 19-16, 28-24, 16-11, 24-20, 11-8, 18-15.
+  White wins.
+
+  c. 12-16, 28-32, 19-24 or 16-20, same as Var. II. at 5th and 9th moves
+  respectively. White wins.
+
+              Problem No. 2.
+                  BLACK.
+    +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+    |   | B |   |   |   | B |   |   |
+    +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+    | B |   |   |   | B |   | B |   |
+    +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+    |   |   |   | W |   | B |   |   |
+    +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+    | B |   | W |   |   |   | B |   |
+    +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+    |   | B |   | W |   |   |   | B |
+    +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+    | W |   | W |   |   |   | W |   |
+    +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+    |   |   |   | W |   | W |   |   |
+    +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+    |   |   | W |   |   |   | W |   |
+    +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+                  WHITE.
+
+          White to move and win.
+
+  Problem No. 2 is a fine example of another class of problems, namely,
+  "strokes." It is formed from the "Paisley" opening, thus:--
+
+    11-16  22-17  11-16  26-19   9-13   15-10
+    24-19   9-13  25-21   4-8   25-22  a 2-7
+     8-11  17-14   6-9   29-25   7-11
+    28-24  10-17  23-18  13-17  19-15
+    16-20  21-14  16-23  31-26  12-16
+
+  a. This forms the position on the diagram. The solution is as
+  follows:--
+
+    27-23  7-14  18-9   14-23  26-3
+    20-27  9-6    5-14  21-7   27-31
+    14-9   1-10  23-18   3-10   3-7
+
+  White wins. Jacques and Campbell.
+
+  _Other Varieties._--The forms of draughts practised on the European
+  continent differ in some respects from the English variety, chiefly in
+  respect of the power assigned to a man after "crowning." The game of
+  _Polish Draughts_ is played in France, Holland, Belgium and Poland,
+  where it has entirely superseded _Le Jeu de dames a la francaise_. It
+  is played on a board of 100 squares with 20 men a side. The men move
+  and capture as in English draughts, except that in capturing they move
+  either forward or backward. A crowned man becomes a queen, and can
+  move any number of squares along the diagonal. In her capture she
+  takes any unguarded man or queen in any diagonal she commands, leaping
+  over the captured man or queen and remaining on any unoccupied square
+  she chooses of the same diagonal, beyond the piece taken. But if there
+  is another unguarded man she is bound to choose the diagonal on which
+  it can be taken. For example (using an English draught-board) place a
+  queen on square 29 and adverse men at squares 22, 16, 24, 14. The
+  queen is bound to move from 29 to 11, 20, 27, and having made the
+  captures to remain at 9 or 5, whichever she prefers. The capturing
+  queen or man must take all the adverse pieces that are _en prise_, or
+  that become so by the uncovering of any square from which a piece has
+  been removed during the capture, e.g. white queen at square 7, black
+  at squares 10, 18, 19, 22 and 27, the queen captures at 10, 22, 27 and
+  19, and the piece at 22 being now removed, she must go to 15, take the
+  man at 18, and stay at 22, 25 or 29. In consequence of the intricacy
+  of some of these moves, it is customary to remove every captured piece
+  as it is taken. If a man arrives at a crowning square when taking, and
+  he can still continue to take, he must do so, and not stay on the
+  crowning square as at draughts. Passing a crowning square in taking
+  does not entitle him to be made a queen. In capturing, the player must
+  choose the direction by which he can take the greatest number of men
+  or queens, or he may be huffed. Numerical power is the criterion, e.g.
+  three men must be taken in preference to two queens. If the numbers
+  are equal and one force comprises more queens than the other, the
+  player may take whichever lot he chooses. This form of draughts,
+  played on a board of 144 squares with 30 men a side, is extensively
+  practised by British soldiers in India.
+
+  The German _Damenspiel_ is Polish draughts played on a board of the
+  same size and with the same number of men as in the English game. It
+  is sometimes called Minor Polish draughts, and is practised in Germany
+  and Russia.
+
+  The _Italian game_ differs from the English in two important
+  particulars--a man may not take a king, and when a player has the
+  option of capturing pieces in more than one way he must take in the
+  manner which captures most pieces. There is a difference too in the
+  placing of the board, the black square in the corner of the board
+  being at the player's right hand, but until a king is obtained the
+  differences from the English system are unimportant in practice.
+
+  In _Spanish draughts_ the board is set as for the Italian game. The
+  men move as in English draughts, but, in capturing, the largest
+  possible number of pieces must be taken, and the king has the same
+  powers as in the Polish game. The game does not differ essentially
+  from the English game until a king is obtained, and many games from
+  Spanish works will be found incorporated in English books. Sometimes
+  the game is played with 11 men and a king, or 10 men and 2 kings a
+  side, instead of the regulation 12 men.
+
+  _Turkish draughts_ differs widely from all other modern varieties of
+  the game. It is played on a board of 64 squares, all of which are used
+  in play. Each player has 16 pieces, which are not placed on the two
+  back rows of squares, as in chess, but on the second and third back
+  rows. The pieces do not move diagonally as in other forms of the game,
+  but straight forward or to the right or left horizontally. The king
+  has the same command of a horizontal or vertical row of squares that
+  the queen in Polish draughts has over a diagonal. Capturing is
+  compulsory, and the greatest possible number of pieces must be taken,
+  captured pieces being removed one at a time as taken.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Falkener's _Games Ancient and Oriental_; Lees' _Guide to
+  the Game of Draughts_; Drummond's _Scottish Draught Players_ (Kear's
+  reprint); Gould's _Memorable Matches_ and _Book of Problems_, &c. The
+  _Draughts World_ is the principal magazine devoted to the game. In
+  Dunne's _Draught Players' Guide and Companion_ a section is devoted to
+  the non-English varieties.     (J. M. M. D.; R. J.)
+
+
+
+
+DRAUPADI, in Hindu legend, the daughter of Drupada, king of Panchala,
+and wife of the five Pandava princes. She is an important character in
+the _Mahabharata_.
+
+
+
+
+DRAVE, or DRAVA (Ger. _Drau_, Hung. _Drava_, Lat. _Dravus_), one of the
+principal right-bank affluents of the Danube, flowing through Austria
+and Hungary. It rises below the Innichner Eck, near the Toblacher Feld
+in Tirol, at an altitude of a little over 4000 ft., runs eastward, and
+forms the longest longitudinal valley of the Alps. The Drave has a total
+length of 450 m., while the length of its Alpine valley to Marburg is
+150 m., and to its junction with the Mur 250 m. Owing to its great
+extent and easy accessibility the valley of the Drave was the principal
+road through which the invading peoples of the East, as the Huns, the
+Slavs and the Turks, penetrated the Alpine countries. The Drave flows
+through Carinthia and Styria, and enters Hungary near Friedau, where up
+to its confluence with the Danube, at Almas, 14 m. E. of Esseg, it forms
+the boundary between that country and Croatia-Slavonia. At its mouth the
+Drave attains a breadth of 1055 ft. and a depth of 20 ft. The Drave is
+navigable for rafts only from Villach, and for steamers from Barcs, a
+distance of 95 m. The principal affluents of the Drave are: on the left
+the Isel, the Gurk, the Lavant, and the largest of all, the Mur; and on
+the right the Gail and the Drann.
+
+
+
+
+DRAVIDIAN (Sanskrit _Dravida_), the name given to a collection of Indian
+peoples, and their family of languages[1] comprising all the principal
+forms of speech of Southern India. Their territory, which also includes
+the northern half of Ceylon, extends northwards up to an irregular line
+drawn from a point on the Arabian Sea about 100 m. below Goa along the
+Western Ghats as far as Kolhapur, thence north-east through Hyderabad,
+and farther eastwards to the Bay of Bengal. Farther to the north we find
+Dravidian dialects spoken by small tribes in the Central Provinces and
+Chota Nagpur, and even up to the banks of the Ganges in the Rajmahal
+hills. A Dravidian dialect is, finally, spoken by the Br[=a]h[=u][=i]s
+of Baluchistan in the far north-west. The various Dravidian languages,
+with the number of speakers returned at the census of 1901, are as
+follows:--
+
+  Tamil             17,494,901
+  Malay[=a]lam       6,022,131
+  Kanarese          10,368,515
+  Tulu                 535,210
+  Kodagu                39,191
+  Toda                     805
+  K[=o]ta                1,300
+  Kuru[chi]            609,721
+  Malto                 60,777
+  G[=o]nd[=i]        1,125,479
+  Kui                  494,099
+  Telugu            20,697,264
+  Br[=a]h[=u][=i]       48,589
+                    ----------
+  Total             57,497,982
+
+Of these Tamil and Malay[=a]lam can be considered as two dialects of one
+and the same language, which is, in its turn, closely related to
+Kanarese. Tulu, Kodagu, Toda and K[=o]ta can be described as lying
+between Tamil-Malay[=a]lam and Kanarese, though they are more nearly
+related to the latter than to the former. The same is the case with
+Kuru[chi] and Malto, while Kui and G[=o]nd[=i] gradually approach
+Telugu, which latter language seems to have branched off from the common
+stock at an early date. Finally, the Br[=a]h[=u][=i] dialect of
+Baluchistan has been so much influenced by other languages that it is no
+longer a pure Dravidian form of speech.
+
+The Dravidian languages have for ages been restricted to the territory
+they occupy at the present day. Moreover, they are gradually losing
+ground in the north, where they meet with Aryan forms of speech. If we
+compare the caste tables and the language tables in the Indian census of
+1901 we find that only 1,125,479 out of the 2,286,913 G[=o]nds returned
+were stated to speak the Dravidian G[=o]nd[=i]. Similarly only 1505 out
+of 17,187 K[=o]l[=a]ms entered their language as K[=o]l[=a]m[=i]. Such
+tribes are gradually becoming Hinduized. Their language adopts an
+ever-increasing Aryan element till it is quite superseded by Aryan
+speech. In the north-eastern part of the Dravidian territory, to the
+east of Chanda and Bhandara, the usual state of affairs is that
+Dravidian dialects are spoken in the hills while Aryan forms of speech
+prevail in the plains. The Dravidian Kui thus stands out as an isolated
+island in the sea of Aryan speech.
+
+This process has been going on from time immemorial. The Dravidians were
+already settled in India when the Aryans arrived from the north-west.
+The fair Aryans were at once struck by their dark hue, and named them
+accordingly _krisna tvac_, the black skin. In the course of time,
+however, the two races began to mix, and it is still possible to trace a
+Dravidian element in the Aryan languages of North India.
+
+The teaching of anthropology is to the same effect. Most speakers of
+Dravidian languages belong to a distinct anthropological type which is
+known as the Dravidian. "The Dravidian race," says Sir H. Risley, "the
+most primitive of the Indian types, occupies the oldest geological
+formation in India, the medley of forest-clad ranges, terraced plateaus,
+and undulating plains which stretches, roughly speaking, from the
+Vindhyas to Cape Comorin. On the east and west of the peninsular area
+the domain of the Dravidian is conterminous with the Ghats, while
+farther north it reaches on one side to the Aravallis and on the other
+to the Rajmahal hills."
+
+This territory is the proper home of the race. A strong Dravidian
+element can, however, also be traced in the population of northern
+India. In Kashmir and Punjab, where the Aryans had already settled in
+those prehistoric times when the Vedic hymns were composed, the
+prevailing type is the Aryan one. The same is the case in Rajputana.
+From the eastern frontier of the Punjab, on the other hand, and
+eastwards, a Dravidian element can be traced. This is the case in the
+valleys of the Ganges and the Jumna, where the Aryans only settled at a
+later period. Anthropologists also state that there is a Dravidian
+element in the population of western India, from Gujarat to Coorg.
+
+It is thus probable that Dravidian languages have once been spoken in
+many tracts which are now occupied by Aryan forms of speech. The
+existence of a Dravidian dialect in Baluchistan seems to show that
+Dravidian settlers have once lived in those parts. The tribe in
+question, the Br[=a]h[=u][=i]s, are, however, now Eranians and not
+Dravidians by race, and it is not probable that there has ever been a
+numerous Dravidian population in Baluchistan. The Br[=a]h[=u][=i]s are
+most likely the descendants of settlers from the south.
+
+There is no indication that the Dravidians have entered India from
+outside or superseded an older population. For all practical purposes
+they can accordingly be considered as the aborigines of the Deccan,
+whence they appear to have spread over part of northern India. Their
+languages form an isolated group, and it has not been possible to prove
+a connexion with any other family of languages. Such attempts have been
+made with reference to the Munda family, the Tibeto-Burman languages,
+and the dialects spoken by the aborigines of the Australian continent.
+The arguments adduced have not, however, proved to be sufficient, and
+only the Australian hypothesis can still lay claim to some probability.
+Till it has been more closely tested we must therefore consider the
+Dravidian family as an isolated group of languages, with several
+characteristic features of its own.
+
+  The pronunciation is described as soft and mellifluous. Abruptness and
+  hard combinations of sounds are avoided. There is, for example, a
+  distinct tendency to avoid pronouncing a short consonant at the end of
+  a word, a very short vowel being often added after it. Thus the
+  pronoun of the third person singular, which is _avan_, "he," in Tamil,
+  is pronounced _avanu_ in Kanarese; the Sanskrit word _v[=a]k_,
+  "speech," is borrowed in the form _v[=a]ku_ in Tamil; the word
+  _gurram_, "horse," is commonly pronounced _gurramu_ in Telugu, and so
+  on. Combinations of consonants are further avoided in many cases where
+  speakers of other languages do not experience any difficulty in
+  pronouncing them. This tendency is well illustrated by the changes
+  undergone by some borrowed words. Thus the Sanskrit word
+  _br[=a]hmana_, "a Brahmin," becomes _bar[=a]mana_ in Kanarese and
+  _pir[=a]mana_ in Tamil; the Sanskrit _Dramida_, "Dravidian," is
+  borrowed by Tamil under the form _Tir[=a]mida_. _Dramida_, which also
+  occurs as _Dravida_, is in its turn developed from an older _Damila_,
+  which is identical with the word _Tamir_, Tamil.
+
+  The forms _pir[=a]mana_ and _Tir[=a]mida_ in Tamil illustrate another
+  feature of Dravidian enunciation. There is a tendency in all of them,
+  and in Tamil and Malay[=a]lam it has become a law, against any word
+  being permitted to begin with a stopped voiced consonant (g, j, [d.],
+  d, b), the corresponding voiceless sounds (k, c, t, [t.], p,
+  respectively) being substituted. In the middle of a word or compound,
+  on the other hand, every consonant must be voiced. Thus the Sanskrit
+  word _danta_, "tooth," has been borrowed by Tamil in the form
+  _tandam_, and the Telugu _anna_, "elder brother," _tammulu_, "younger
+  brother," become when compounded _annadammulu_, "elder and younger
+  brothers."
+
+  There is no strongly marked accent on any one syllable, though there
+  is a slight stress upon the first one. In some dialects this
+  equilibrium between the different parts of a word is accompanied by a
+  tendency to approach to each other the sound of vowels in consecutive
+  syllables. This tendency, which has been called the "law of harmonic
+  sequence," is most apparent in Telugu, where the short _u_ of certain
+  suffixes is replaced by _i_ when the preceding syllable contains one
+  of the vowels _i_ (short and long) and _ei_. Compare the dative suffix
+  _ku_, _ki_, in _gurramu-ku_, "to a horse"; but _tammuni-ki_, "to a
+  younger brother." This tendency does not, however, play a prominent
+  role in the Dravidian languages.
+
+  Words are formed from roots and bases by means of suffixed formative
+  additions. The root itself generally remains unchanged throughout.
+  Thus from the Tamil base _per_, "great," we can form adjectives such
+  as _per-iya_ and _per-um_, "great"; verbs such as _per-u-gu_, "to
+  become increased"; _per-u-kku_, "to cause to increase," and so on.
+
+  Many bases can be used at will as nouns, as adjectives, and as verbs.
+  Thus the Tamil _kadu_ can mean "sharpness," "sharp," and "to be
+  sharp." Other bases are of course more restricted in their respective
+  spheres.
+
+  The inflection of words is effected by agglutination, i.e. various
+  additions are suffixed to the base in order to form what we would call
+  cases and tenses. Such additions have probably once been separate
+  words. Most of them are, however, now only used as suffixes. Thus from
+  the Tamil base _k[=o]n_, "king," we can form an accusative
+  _k[=o]n-ei_, a verb _k[=o]n-en_, "I am king," and so on.
+
+  Dravidian nouns are divided into two classes, which Tamil grammarians
+  called high-caste and casteless respectively. The former includes
+  those nouns which denote beings endowed with reason, the latter all
+  others. Gender is only distinguished in the former class, while all
+  casteless nouns are neuter. The gender of animals (which are
+  irrational) must accordingly be distinguished by using different words
+  for the male and the female, or else by adding words meaning male,
+  female, respectively, to the name of the animal--processes which do
+  not, strictly speaking, fall under the head of grammar.
+
+  There are two numbers, the singular and the plural. The latter is
+  formed by adding suffixes. It, however, often remains unmarked in the
+  case of casteless nouns.
+
+  Cases are formed by adding postpositions and suffixes, usually to a
+  modified form of the noun which is commonly called the oblique base.
+  Thus we have the Tamil _maram_, "tree"; _maratt-[=a]l_, "from a tree";
+  _maratt-u-kku_, "to a tree"; _v[=i]du_, "a house"; _v[=i]t[t.]-[=a]l_,
+  "from a house." The case terminations are the same in the singular and
+  in the plural. The genitive, which precedes the governing noun, is
+  often identical with the oblique base, or else it is formed by adding
+  suffixes.
+
+  The numeral system is decimal and higher numbers are counted in tens;
+  thus Tamil _pattu_, "ten"; _iru-badu_, "two tens," "twenty."
+
+  The personal pronoun of the first person in most dialects has a double
+  form in the plural, one including and the other excluding the person
+  addressed. Thus, Tamil _n[=a]m_, "we," i.e. I and you; _n[=a]ngal_,
+  "we," i.e. I and they.
+
+  There is no relative pronoun. Relative clauses are effected by using
+  relative participles. Thus in Telugu the sentence "the book which you
+  gave to me" must be translated _m[=i]ru n[=a]ku iccina pus-takamu_,
+  i.e. "you me-to given book." There are several such participles in
+  use. Thus from the Telugu verb _kot[t.]a_, "to strike," are formed
+  _kot[t.]-ut-unna_, "that strikes," _kot[t.]-i-na_, "that struck,"
+  _kot[t.][=e]_, "that would strike," "that usually strikes." By adding
+  pronouns, or the terminations of pronouns, to such forms, nouns are
+  derived which denote the person who performs the action. Thus from
+  Telugu _kot[t.][=e]_ and _v[=a]du_, "he," is formed
+  _kot[t.][=e]-v[=a]du_, "one who usually strikes." Such forms are used
+  as ordinary verbs, and the usual verbal forms of Dravidian languages
+  can broadly be described as such nouns of agency. Thus, the Telugu,
+  _kot[t.]in[=a]du_, "he struck," can be translated literally "a striker
+  in the past."
+
+  Verbal tenses distinguish the person and number of the subject by
+  adding abbreviated forms of the personal pronouns. Thus in Kanarese we
+  have _m[=a]did-enu_, "I did"; _m[=a]did-i_, "thou didst";
+  _m[=a]did-evu_, "we did"; _m[=a]did-aru_, "they did."
+
+  One of the most characteristic features of the Dravidian verb is the
+  existence of a separate negative conjugation. It usually has only one
+  tense and is formed by adding the personal terminations to a negative
+  base. Thus, Kanarese _m[=a]d-enu_, "I did not"; _m[=a]d-evu_, "we did
+  not"; _m[=a]d-aru_, "they did not."
+
+  The vocabulary has adopted numerous Aryan loan-words. This was a
+  necessary consequence of the early connexion with the superior Aryan
+  civilization.
+
+  The oldest Dravidian literature is largely indebted to the Aryans
+  though it goes back to a very early date. Tamil, Malay[=a]lam,
+  Kanarese and Telugu are the principal literary languages. The language
+  of literature in all of them differs considerably from the colloquial.
+  The oldest known specimen of a Dravidian language occurs in a Greek
+  play which is preserved in a papyrus of the 2nd century A.D. The exact
+  period to which the indigenous literature can be traced back, on the
+  other hand, has not been fixed with certainty.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Bishop R. Caldwell, _A Comparative Grammar of the
+  Dravidian or South-Indian Family of Languages_ (London, 1856; 2nd
+  edition, 1875); Dr Friedrich Muller, _Reise der usterreichischen
+  Fregatte Novara um die Erde in den Jahren 1857, 1858, 1859, unter den
+  Befehlen des Commodore B. von Wullerstorff-Urbair: Linguistischer
+  Theil._ (Wien, 1867, pp. 73 and ff.); Dr Friedrich Muller, _Grundriss
+  der Sprachwissenschaft_, vol. iii. (Wien, 1884), pp. 106 and ff.; G.
+  A. Grierson, _Linguistic Survey of India_, vol. iv. "Munda and
+  Dravidian Languages" (Calcutta, 1906), pp. 277 and ff. by Sten Konow.
+       (S. K.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] In Dravidian words a line above a vowel shows that it is long.
+    The dotted consonants t, d, and n are pronounced by striking the tip
+    of the tongue against the centre of the hard palate. The dotted l is
+    distinguished from l in a similar way. Its sound, however, differs in
+    the different districts. A Greek [chi] marks the sound of _ch_ in
+    "loch"; _s_ is the English _sh_; _c_ the _ch_ in "church"; and _ri_
+    is an _r_ which is used as a vowel. In the list of Dravidian
+    languages the names are spelt fully, with all the necessary
+    diacritical marks. In the rest of the article dots under consonants
+    have been omitted in these words.
+
+
+
+
+DRAWBACK, in commerce, the paying back of a duty previously paid upon
+the exportation of excisable articles or upon the re-exportation of
+foreign goods. The object of a drawback is to enable commodities which
+are subject to taxation to be exported and sold in a foreign country on
+the same terms as goods from countries where they are untaxed. It
+differs from a bounty in that the latter enables commodities to be sold
+abroad at less than their cost price; it may occur, however, under
+certain conditions that the giving of a drawback has an effect
+equivalent to that of a bounty, as in the case of the so-called sugar
+bounties in Germany (see SUGAR). The earlier tariffs contained elaborate
+tables of the drawbacks allowed on the exportation or re-exportation of
+commodities, but so far as the United Kingdom is concerned the system of
+"bonded warehouses" practically abolished drawbacks, as commodities can
+be warehoused (placed "in bond") until required for subsequent
+exportation.
+
+
+
+
+DRAWING, in art. Although the verb "to draw" has various meanings, the
+substantive _drawing_ is confined by usage to its artistic sense,
+delineation or design. The word "draw," from a root common to the
+Teutonic languages (Goth, _dragan_, O.H.G. _drahan_, Mod. Ger. _tragen_,
+which all have the sense of "carry," O. Norse _draga_, A.S. _drazan_,
+_drazen_, "draw," cf. Lat. _trahere_), means to pull or "drag" (a word
+of the same origin) as distinct from the action of pushing. It is thus
+used of traction generally, whether by men, animals or machines. The
+same idea is preserved in "drawing" as applied to the fine arts. We do
+not usually say, or think, that a sculptor is drawing when he is using
+his chisel, although he may be expressing or defining forms, nor that an
+engraver is drawing when he is pushing the burin with the palm of the
+hand, although the result may be the rendering of a design. But we do
+say that an artist is drawing when he uses the lead pencil, and here we
+have a motion bearing some resemblance to that of traction generally.
+The action of the artist in drawing the pencil point with his fingers
+along the paper is analogous, e.g., to that of a horse or man drawing a
+pole over soft ground and leaving a mark behind. The same analogy may be
+observed between two of the senses in which the French verb _tirer_ is
+frequently employed. This word, the origin of which is quite uncertain,
+was formerly used by good writers in the two senses of the verb to draw.
+Thus Lafontaine says, "Six forts chevaux _tiraient_ un coche"; and
+Caillieres wrote, "Il n'y a pas longtemps que je me suis fait _tirer_
+par Rigaud," meaning that Rigaud had drawn or painted his portrait. At
+the present day the verb _tirer_ has fallen into disuse amongst
+cultivated Frenchmen with regard to drawing and painting, but it is
+still universally used for all kinds of design and even for photography
+by the common people. The cultivated use it still for printing, as for
+example "cette gravure sera tiree a cent exemplaires," in the sense of
+pulling. A verb much more nearly related to the English verb _to draw_
+is the French _traire_ (Lat. _trahere_), which has _trait_ for its past
+participle. _Traire_ is now used exclusively for milking cows and other
+animals, and though the analogy between this and artistic drawing is not
+obvious at first, nevertheless there is a certain analogy of motion,
+since the hand passing down the teat draws the milk downwards. The word
+_trait_ is much more familiar in connexion with art as "les traits du
+visage," the natural markings of the face, and it is very often used in
+a figurative sense, as we say "traits of character." It is familiar in
+the English _portrait_, derived from _protrahere_. The ancient Romans
+used words which expressed more clearly the conception that drawing was
+done in line (_delineare_) or in shade (_adumbrare_), though there are
+reasons for believing that the words were often indiscriminately
+applied. Although the modern Italians have both _traire_ and _trarre_,
+they use _delineare_ still in the sense of artistic drawing, and also
+_adombrare_. The Greek verb [Greek: graphein] appears in English in
+"graphic" and in many compounds, such as photograph, &c. It is worth
+observing that the Greeks seem to have considered drawing and writing
+(q.v.) as essentially the same process, since they used the same word
+for both. This points to the early identity of the two arts when drawing
+was a kind of writing, and when such writing as men had learned to
+practise was essentially what we should call drawing, though of a rude
+and simple kind. Even in the present day picture writing is not
+unfrequently resorted to by travellers as a means of making themselves
+intelligible. There is also a kind of art which is writing in the modern
+sense and drawing at the same time, such as the work of the medieval
+illuminators in their manuscripts.     (X.)
+
+_The Art of Drawing._--Rather than attempt here a historical survey of
+the various so-called "styles" of drawing, or write a personal
+appreciation of them, it seems of greater use to give a logical account
+of drawing as an art, applicable to all times and countries. Reference
+to the teaching of drawing will be occasionally given rather to
+illustrate the argument than with a view to its being of practical use.
+
+At the outset a distinction must be made between drawing as a means of
+symbolic or literary expression and drawing as the direct and only means
+of expressing the beauty of form. If Pharaoh wants to have it known that
+a hundred ducks were consumed at one meal in his court, he employs a
+draughtsman to register the fact on a frieze by picturing a row of cooks
+occupied in preparing the hundred ducks. The artist in this case does
+not represent the scene as he must have known it in the kitchen, with
+all its variety of movement and composition (as an early Greek vase
+painter conceived the interior of a vase factory), but all he does and
+is required to do is to give the sufficient number of figures and ducks.
+The more uniform the figures the greater will be the effect of number.
+Drawing has been employed here to tell a story, and it succeeds in so
+far as it tells the spectator plainly what could be told, perhaps less
+conveniently, in words. It matters not whether the figures and objects
+be feelingly rendered and harmoniously composed. So, to-day, a child, or
+any one who has a simple trick of symbolizing figures and objects in
+nature, can describe any event or moral by this process, provided the
+plot be not too elaborate to be expressed by a scene, or series of
+scenes, enacted by dumb symbolic figures. It is plain that the amusing
+pictures in _Punch_ or _Fliegende Blatter_ would be none the more
+amusing if they were done by the hand of Michelangelo, nor would the
+mystic designs of Blake be more full of meaning if drawn by Rembrandt,
+for in neither case do these works depend upon any subtle rendering of
+the forms of nature for their success, but upon the dramatic or
+intellectual imagination of the man who conceived them. When the witty
+or ethical man is at the same time a master draughtsman his work has two
+values, the "literary" content and the beauty of his drawing of natural
+objects. But it must be borne in mind that these values are
+fundamentally distinct; so much so that the spectator who has no
+appreciation of the forms of nature enjoys the story told and remains
+blind to the qualities of draughtsmanship, whilst the lover of nature's
+forms may or may not trouble to unravel the literary plot but finds
+perfect satisfaction in the drawing. By far the greater part of
+illustration, and of artistic production generally, must be classed as
+symbolic art. Magazine stories to-day are sometimes illustrated even by
+photography, for the hand of the artist is not required. Symbolic art
+describes indirectly and in a necessarily limited scope what literature
+can do directly and with unlimited powers. The only content of symbolic
+drawing is its literary meaning; as drawing it may be quite worthless.
+
+Pure drawing, however, whether it represent a dramatic event or a
+knee-joint, has a content that cannot be expressed by words, and is not
+necessarily directed towards literary expression. Just as a fragment of
+good sculpture pleases the connoisseur without any reference either to
+the whole original or to its spiritual significance, fine drawing can
+appeal to the lover of nature independently of indirect considerations.
+
+What is the content of pure drawing? It is held by some that drawing or
+monochrome can suggest colour, and many people, some consciously, others
+unconsciously, attempt to represent in drawings the colours of figures
+and landscape. It seems a strange aberration to argue that by different
+intensities of the one colour various other colours can be suggested: it
+would not be more unreasonable to maintain that E flat and F could be
+suggested by striking the note G with varying strength. Now the
+draughtsman employs various intensities of his monochrome as light and
+shade by which to give roundness to his forms. But if on the same
+drawing he uses the same means in his attempt to express colour, a
+conflict would be at once set up between that which makes for form and
+that which would make for colour, and the result would generally be a
+confusion. Again, let one attempt to give red hair to a monochrome
+drawing of a man, and if the red be plain and unmistakable to all who
+are not the artist's accomplices, then the artist has succeeded;
+otherwise it is bootless to treat of colour and colour values (which of
+course must depend upon the existence of colour) in monochrome. Apart
+from theory, if we examine the drawings, etchings and monochromes of
+great artists, where do we find them attempting to give colour or colour
+values? The hundreds of costume studies by Rembrandt might have been
+done from white plaster models, and there are only a few exceptions
+where a man has, for instance, a black hat or cloak. But in these few
+instances the "colour" tone is applied with such discretion that the
+true representation of the form is scarcely, perhaps only theoretically,
+impaired: they certainly have gained nothing in colour value because no
+specific colour is manifest in them. In Rembrandt's, Claude's or
+Turner's drawings of landscapes the formation of the country, the
+architecture, &c., is expressed by line, light and shade, and enhanced
+by shadows cast from clouds and trees. If, in the drawings of masters,
+we should find objects darker or lighter than their position in the
+light would warrant, they have value (perhaps not quite a legitimate
+one) for balancing the composition as a flat pattern. They were never
+intended to suggest colour, nor do they. Yet, in spite of the failure to
+succeed, and contrary to logical argument and the practice of great
+draughtsmen, the student of most of the schools of Europe and America
+still persists in doing the hair dark, and, by attempting to give colour
+values to the clothes, breaks up the consistency of the whole. For the
+same reason that the sculptor uses uniformly coloured material in order
+that the natural light and shade may have full opportunity of making his
+forms manifest to the spectator, the draughtsman confines himself to
+giving light and shade only. If a monochrome has "colour tones," the
+effect is similar to that produced by a draped statue made out of
+variously coloured marbles--an inartistic jumble.
+
+As the immediate purpose and content of drawing there remains the
+representation of form only. Drawing is, therefore, essentially the same
+activity as sculpture, and has no additional scope. "Pupils," says
+Donatello, "I give you the whole art of sculpture when I tell you to
+draw" (cited by Holroyd, _Michel Angelo_, p. 2 95), and the only
+practical teaching of drawing might be summed up by the inversion of the
+above.
+
+Now if everything in nature--men, mountains or clouds--were as flat
+targets, i.e. two-dimensional, drawing could be legitimately reduced to
+a mechanical process,--to trace their contours upon a glass screen or
+even photograph them would be all that would be required. Indeed,
+provided the size of the drawing, the local colour and the texture be
+the same as those of the original, a complete illusion would be the
+result, in fact the proper end of one's labours. But the presence of the
+third dimension in all objects causes light and shade, which in their
+turn bring about radical changes of the local colour, even in uniformly
+coloured objects. Now since drawing cannot suggest colour, local or
+atmospherical, any attempt to effect an illusion by a monochrome is at
+once defeated. If the end of drawing were to approach imitation or
+illusion as nearly as possible, how is it that a mere "sketch" by a
+master draughtsman can be for itself as valuable as his highly finished
+drawing? And surely a masterly outline drawing of a figure or landscape
+does not pretend to be an illusion. If then the draughtsman does not,
+and cannot hope to imitate nature, he is compelled to state only his
+ideas of it, ideas of three-dimensional form. For this reason only
+drawing must be treated as an art, and not as a mechanical act of
+getting an illusion.
+
+[Illustration: (From a Greek vase in the British Museum (E. 46).
+
+FIG. 1.]
+
+[Illustration: (From _Bulletino arch. Napol_. (1843, tom. 1, tav. 7).
+
+FIG. 2.]
+
+[Illustration: (From a drawing by Michelangelo (1854, 5, 13, i.), Print
+Room, British Museum).
+
+FIG. 3.]
+
+It is interesting to trace in the history of an indigenous art the
+development of drawing that shall ultimately express ideas of
+three-dimensional form. Prof. Emanuel Loewy, in his _Rendering of Nature
+in Early Greek Art_, demonstrates how the early Greek sculpture (and
+that of all primitive peoples, children and ungifted artists) shows an
+aversion from depth. Their reliefs are of the flattest description,
+almost raised contours, and their figures in the round have at first
+only one aspect, or flat facade, so to speak, then three and four
+aspects, and finally at the date of Lysippus the figures are fully
+rounded out, and the members project at liberty in all directions. Then
+for the first time Greek sculpture showed a complete conception of the
+body's corporeity (_Kurperlichkeit_). The primitive artist, however well
+he may be _intellectually_ aware of the three dimensions of an object,
+does not fully apprehend its true aspect as offered to the eye from one
+point of view. Following this conclusion, it is easy to see also in the
+drawing of the early Greeks, children and so on, the same lack of idea
+of the third dimension. The figures on the vases of the "finest period"
+(about 475 B.C.), despite occasional foreshortenings, have, when
+considered as representations of solid forms, a papery appearance. They
+have not half the draughtsmanship shown by the latter period of the vase
+industry, where the figures, though careless, stereotyped and
+ill-composed, come forwards (to use Prof. Loewy's description of later
+sculpture), go backwards, twist and turn in space in a manner which
+cannot be excelled. The reproductions in figs. 1, 2, 3 will illustrate
+the development. The primitive draughtsman is at first bound by the
+silhouette. Later, he desires to fill out the interior, but this cannot
+be done without in great part modifying his contour lines, because they
+are generally merely indications of the disappearing and reappearing
+inner modelling, i.e. of the figure's third dimension. Finally, the
+draughtsman in full possession of a feeling for the corporeity of the
+object will determine his contour entirely from within, a procedure
+which is the exact opposite to that of his first beginnings. He
+conceives the length, breadth and depth of an object and all its parts
+as solid wholes. To him a body in violent foreshortening is as easy as a
+simple profile, and, though it may not be as attractive, it is perhaps
+more interesting because its contours are more bound up with, and
+dependent upon, the inner modelling; in other words, it has more depth.
+The draughtsman's idea of a form in nature is not a "flat idea," but one
+containing three dimensions. This idea he seeks to express either by
+line alone or by light and shade. If an artist has not a
+three-dimensional "grasp" of forms, and, like a child, confines himself
+to the primitive tracing of the silhouette, his compositions may be of
+excellent flat pattern, and equal to any of the designs of ancient
+carpets or early Greek vases; but in the light of the above argument,
+and when compared with the productions of mature draughtsmen of all ages
+and countries, they cannot be said to be complete drawings, any more
+than the early unifacial statues of the Greeks can be called true
+plastic, simply because in neither case has the artist yet reached the
+highest possible development of corporeous conception, by which truly to
+interpret the solid objects of nature as we know them, and as master
+draughtsmen see them.
+
+An attempt should be made to explain the psycho-physiological process
+that must take place in the mind of the real draughtsman. When we look
+at an object in nature we know its length and breadth by the flat image
+on the retina; we see also the light and shade, which at once gives us a
+correct idea of the object's depth or relief. But we do not, nor could
+we, have this idea from the flat image on the retina alone, i.e. from
+the mere perception of the light and shade: our knowledge of its depth
+is the result of experience, i.e. of our having from infancy remarked a
+certain dispensation of light and shade on, and peculiar to, every form
+we have touched or traversed, and so, by association and inference,
+being early enabled to have ideas of the depth of things by their
+various arrangements of lights and darks without having to touch or
+traverse them. Nevertheless the act (generally, but by no means always,
+an unconscious one) of visually touching a form must necessarily take
+place before we can apprehend the third dimension of a form. It is,
+then, by the combination of the ideas derived from pure vision and the
+ideas derived from touch that we know the length, breadth and depth of a
+solid form. We have shown that the art of drawing is not an imitation,
+but an expression of the artist's ideas of form; therefore all drawing
+of forms that merely reproduces the image on the retina, and leaves
+unconsulted the ideas of touch, is incomplete and primitive, because it
+does not express a conception of form which is the result of an
+association of the two senses; in other words, it does not contain an
+idea of the object's relief or solidity. And all teaching of drawing
+that does not impress upon the student the necessity of combining the
+sense of vision with that of touch is erroneous, for it is thereby
+limiting him to a mechanical task, viz. the tracing of the flat image on
+the retina, which could be equally well done by mechanical means, or by
+photography alone.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.]
+
+In most of the schools of Europe and America it is true that great
+stress is laid upon the importance of giving life-like relief to
+drawings, but the method by which the students are allowed to get the
+relief is by employing the sense of vision only. Tracing the silhouette
+of the figure as minutely as possible, they then fill it out with
+inner-modelling, which also is done by vision alone, for the lights and
+darks of the original are copied down as so many flat patterns fitted
+together and gradated like a child's puzzle, and are not used merely as
+indication by which to "feel" the depth of the object. Such a procedure
+is as if in drawing a brick of which three sides were visible, one were
+first to draw the entire contour (fig. 4, a), the subtle perspective of
+which he might get correct with some mechanical apparatus or by infinite
+mechanical pains, and then fill up the interior with its "shading" (fig.
+4, b). The method would be plainly laborious, unintelligent and
+unedifying, and in drawing the most complicated foreshortened forms of
+the human body it would seem still more illogical. That this principle
+of instruction does not help the student to grasp the three-dimensional
+character properly can be proved by the twenty-minute studies of the
+average student who in his fourth year has won a gold medal for an
+astounding piece of life-like stippling. They are still unintelligent
+contour tracings, as if of cardboard figures, with a few irrelevant
+patches of dark here and there within the silhouette.
+
+But high modelling that would make for illusion of reality is not the
+first aim of draughtsmanship, nor have the best draughtsmen employed it
+save by exception. Michelangelo, Ingres, Holbein and Rembrandt have
+shown us that it is possible to give sufficient relief with a mere
+outline drawing. Again, the desire for salience often blunts the
+student's sense of the real character of the forms he is rounding out.
+So his elaborately modelled portrait may look very "life-like," but when
+compared with the original it will generally be seen that the whole and
+each of the individual forms of the drawing lack the peculiar character
+of those of the original. It is by carefully watching for the character
+of each fresh variety in figure and feature that great draughtsmen have
+excelled, and not by "life-like" relief, or even a sophisticated
+exposition of anatomical details at the expense of character. Can it be
+seriously maintained that a masterly sudden grasp of true formal
+character can be developed in a student by a system in which he
+patiently spends many days and weeks in stippling into plastic
+appearance one drawing which has originally been "laid in" by a
+mechanical process?
+
+It has been shown that to attempt to make an illusion of nature is
+neither within the power of monochrome nor has been the chief aim of
+draughtsmen, but that the art of drawing consists in giving a plain
+statement of one's ideas, be they slight or studied, of the solid forms
+of nature. But the question may still be asked: Why is it that a
+rigorously accurate and finished drawing by a student or artist with
+_no_ such ideas or conception is not good drawing, containing as it must
+do all that can be seen in the original, missing only its complete
+illusion? Why, in a word, is not a photograph a work of art?
+
+The common explanation of the above important question is that the
+artist "selects and eliminates from the forms of nature." But surely
+this is the principle of the caricaturist and virtuoso? A beautiful
+drawing, however slight, is but the precipitate of the whole in the
+artist's mind. And a highly finished drawing by a master does not show
+even any apparent selection or elimination. The adoption of the
+principle of selection to differentiate art from mechanical reproduction
+is fundamentally vicious, and could be shown to be wholly inapplicable
+to the so-called formative arts. Nor could the theory of "selection" be
+used as a principle of teaching, for if to the first question the pupil
+would make, "What am I to select?" it were answered, "Only the important
+things," then the next question, "What are the important things?" could
+be answered only by saying, "That alone the real artist knows, but
+cannot teach." Certainly there are important things that can be taught
+the student in the initial stage of "laying-in" a figure, but _when_ to
+begin selecting or eliminating no teacher could tell him, simply because
+he must be aware that a true draughtsman can afford to eliminate nothing
+when the truth of the whole is at stake. The artist's conception and its
+expression may be slight or elaborate, but in neither case can selection
+or elimination take place, for a true conception must be founded upon
+the character of the whole, which is determined by the entire complex of
+all the parts.
+
+To explain the essential difference between art and mechanical drawing
+or mechanical reproduction, a more applicable theory must be found.
+Compare the art of telling a story. If, to describe an incident in the
+street you had the entire affair reenacted on the same spot, you would
+have but made a mechanical reproduction of it, leaving the spectator to
+simplify the affair, and construct his _own_ conception of it. You have
+not given _your_ ideas of the event, and so you have not made a work of
+art. So, if a man draws an object detail for detail by any mechanical
+process, or traces over its photograph, he has but reduplicated the
+real aspect of the object, and has failed to give the spectator a simple
+and intelligible idea of it. Starting out with the generous notion of
+giving all, that there may be "something for everyone," he has given
+nothing. He did not originally form an intelligible and simplified idea
+of the figure, so how can his drawing be expected to give one to others?
+
+But how can forms be made _more_ simple and intelligible than by
+reproducing their aspect with absolute accuracy? Our combined sense of
+vision and touch comprehends very easily certain elementary solid forms,
+the sphere, the cube, the pyramid and the cylinder. No forms but these,
+and their modifications, can be apprehended by the mind in one and the
+same act of vision. Every complex form, even so simple as that of a
+kidney, for instance, must be first broken up into its component parts
+before it can be fully apprehended or remembered. Analogously with the
+above, Prof. Wundt has shown how the mind can apprehend _as separate
+units_ any number, of marbles for instance, up to five, after which
+every number must be split up into lots of twos, threes, fours and
+fives, or twenties, thirties and so on, before it can realize the full
+content of that number in one and the same mental picture. So the only
+way to receive an intelligible idea of a complex form, such as a human
+figure, is first to discover in the figure itself, and then in all its
+parts, only modifications of the above elementary solid forms, and the
+drawing of a conception thus informed must needs be a very clear and
+intelligible one. The more the artist is capable and practised, the more
+clearly will he conceive and distinguish in nature each subtle
+modification of these elementary forms, their direction, their relation
+to, and their dependence upon one another. The only difference between a
+good draughtsman and a bad one is the degree of subtlety of his
+apprehension. Unless the draughtsman has seen some such clear forms in
+his original, his labour to produce a work of art will be grievous and
+fruitless. All good drawing is stamped with this kind of structural
+insight. The more the artist adheres to nature, and the more finished
+his drawing, the more will the lines and forms that he makes be, so to
+speak, _in excess_ of those of nature, or dull imitation or photography.
+It is not to be supposed that able draughtsmen work, or need ever have
+worked, consciously in this manner. It is, indeed, the virtue peculiar
+to the artist, as interpreter of form, that he instinctively comprehends
+the real elemental character of complex forms, whilst the majority of
+people (on the showing of their own drawings) entertain but confused or
+_no_ ideas of them. It is because a good drawing reduces the chaos of
+ideas supplied by the raw material of nature, to one intelligible manner
+of seeing it, that all lovers of nature welcome it with joy. It is this
+process of discovery and interpretation that marks the essential
+difference between art and mechanical drawing or reproduction. Art gives
+intelligible ideas of the forms of nature, mechanism attempts to
+reduplicate their aspects.
+
+There are some who hold that drawing is not exclusively a matter of
+interpreting form, but that great artists have their own "personalities"
+which they infuse into their work. They will ask, How is it otherwise to
+be explained that two equally good draughtsmen will invariably make
+different drawings of the same figure? Is it not for the same reason
+that one man will divide up a row of eight marbles into groups of four,
+and another into five and three? The subjectivity of experience governs
+the different conceptions that good draughtsmen will form of the same
+object. Accordingly as a draughtsman feels form so will he draw it, and
+it is only because our sense apparatuses are more or less similarly
+constituted that we can understand and appreciate one another's
+conceptions.
+
+But if the master draughtsman gives the true character of his model's
+form, why is it that his drawings are not pleasing to all alike? Whence
+the doubts and criticism that have been called forth by all original
+artists? If we first examine the attitude of the average man, artist or
+layman, towards nature, we can better explain his attitude towards works
+of art. The average man or artist has not a highly developed
+appreciation of form _per se_, whether it be the form of natural or
+manufactured objects. And it would seem that he is still less a
+disinterested spectator of the forms and features of his fellow beings
+and animals, their movements, their colour, their value in a room or
+landscape. He has sentimental, moral or intellectual preferences. In
+other words, he likes or dislikes only those faces or figures which
+hundreds of personal associations have taught him to like or dislike.
+The riding man's admiration for the look of a particular horse is based
+upon the fact that it looks like "a horse to go," and hence it is what
+he calls beautiful, while the artist, in the capacity of artist and not
+of sportsman, is not particular in his choice of horse-flesh, but finds
+each animal equally interesting for itself alone. Consequently in art
+any face, figure or object that does not come into the category of what
+the average man cares for is condemned by him even as it would be in
+real life, since he is no lover of form for form's sake, but provided
+the subject or moral be pleasing the quality of the draughtsmanship is
+of small account. The picture of a dwarf, or of an anatomy lesson, or of
+a group of ordinary bourgeois folk would not really please him, even
+though he were told that the work was by Velazquez, Rembrandt or Manet.
+We have only to listen to the common criticism of works of art to know
+that it is founded upon personal predilection only. We do not hear such
+personal criticism upon drawings of landscape, not because artists do
+them better, but because natural landscape has no interest for any one
+other than for its form, or, at least, people do not hold such definite
+personal likes or dislikes with regard to its various manifestations.
+But the artist, though his own personal predilections may, and generally
+do, lead him to work within that agreeable _milieu_, has, in the
+capacity of artist, no subjective prejudices; indeed, if he had them, he
+could not represent them by line, light and shade. He seeks always new
+varieties of form; hence his subjects, and his manner of posing them,
+are often unpleasing to the man who is busy with other affairs, and has
+no great experience of nature's forms. Let a good draughtsman make a
+successful likeness of the mother of some average man, and the latter
+will be delighted, but it by no means follows that he will delight in a
+drawing of the wife of the artist, though done by the same hand and with
+equal skill.
+
+If drawing is the art of giving one's ideas of the forms of nature, then
+all criticism of drawing must be based upon the question, "How far does
+such and such a work show an intimate knowledge of or intelligent
+visualization of the forms we know in nature?" and no other principle of
+judgment can be applicable to all drawing alike. Hence only those who
+have by natural endowment a clear sense of the forms of things, and who
+have made more than ordinary study of them, are in a position to apply
+to drawings the above criterion with any approach to infallibility. It
+is a fact that there are, and always have been, a certain number of
+people who agree perfectly in their appreciation of the works of certain
+draughtsmen of different times and countries, and who can state reasons
+for their appreciation in definite and almost identical terms, for it is
+based upon knowledge and experience. To such people all fine
+draughtsmanship owes its public fame, and its immortality lies in their
+safe keeping.
+
+It may be argued that each has a right to his own opinion about form and
+its representation, on the supposed ground that we all see form in
+different ways. But there is a fallacy in this argument. If we take the
+average man's drawing of any form more complex than a loaf of bread as a
+fair and only testimony of his power of visualization of forms, we must
+conclude that most of us see not differently, but _wrongly_, or rather
+confusedly and disconnectedly, and that some can visualize form scarcely
+at all. If this be true, the average person's sight and ability to judge
+drawing is seriously diminished. If, then, drawing can be judged and
+appreciated only by knowledge and experience of the forms of nature, no
+critical formula could be made out so as to enable a child or savage or
+ordinary civilized adult to estimate or enjoy it. If it be argued that
+drawings are to be judged from some abstract or symbolic point of view,
+independently of its subtle representation of form, then incompetent
+drawing might be as beautiful as the competent, which would be absurd.
+However, if the competent characterization of form were admitted as at
+least the first condition of beautiful drawing, it would follow that
+any abstract value it might have must be wholly dependent upon the
+manner in which form is represented, and so it would be superfluous to
+judge it by any standard other than the direct, definite and concrete
+one of form. Abstract beauty, since no one has yet defined it agreeably
+to all, is, apparently, with those who affect a feeling for it, a matter
+of individual taste, and therefore cannot be questioned. But the clear
+visualization of the forms of nature is based upon a special endowment
+and knowledge, and can be criticized by demonstration. People may differ
+in their tastes, but they may not, nor do they, differ upon questions of
+real knowledge. Drawing, as the activity of giving one's ideas of form,
+must therefore be judged not by taste but by knowledge.
+
+In view of the purpose and content of drawing as here demonstrated,
+there is no other principle of judgment that is relevant. Yet we often
+hear drawing judged by criteria which are founded upon no such concrete
+base but upon certain vague abstractions; or, again, upon a literary or
+moral base which could be applicable only to symbolic art.
+
+It is said that this or that draughtsman excels in "beauty of line." Now
+in spite of the labours of many painters and theorists, it cannot
+reasonably be held that one purely abstract line or curve is more
+beautiful than another, for the simple reason that people have no common
+ground upon which to establish the nature of abstract beauty. It may be,
+however, that even as certain simple forms are more easily apprehended
+than complex ones, there is the same distinction with regard to lines.
+If then an artist of clean vision sees in an object of reality such
+clear characteristic lines, he draws them not for their abstract beauty,
+but merely because by them alone can he express his idea of the form
+before him. The early Greek vase painters, and all great artists of
+primitive periods, being attracted only by the silhouette, became very
+subtle to observe nature's outlines in their most intelligible
+character, and to this capacity is due their "beauty of line," and not
+to any preconceived notion of an abstract line of perfect beauty, and
+nowhere will "beauty of line" be found on Greek vases, or elsewhere,
+that is not informed by, and does not express, a fine conception of
+nature's contours. So too in later three-dimensional drawing there is no
+beauty of line which does not intelligibly express not only the
+directions and angles of the main contour, but the inner modelling, i.e.
+the relief of the figure. It is only a superficial judgment that would
+prefer one drawing to another, even if both may be equally good, because
+the line of one is neat and the other "tormented." Contour being _in
+nature_ an ideal line between one form and another, it is illogical to
+treat it or criticize it in a _drawing_ as an actual and specific thing,
+apart from the forms that make it and are made by it. If an artist drew
+a dragon with deliberate disregard for animal construction, his drawing
+would be silly, and only by a profound knowledge of the forms of nature
+could it be made to have beautiful lines. Truth to nature is always
+originality, and it is the only originality worth the name.
+
+Again, some people judge one drawing as better than another in that it
+shows more "individuality" or "temperament." Now a man's individuality
+is, presumably, a vague feeling in our minds produced by the net result
+of the ways in which he sees, hears, loves, thinks and so on, so that we
+could not tell a man's individuality from any single one of his
+manifestations. With his entire work as an artist before us, i.e. his
+manner of seeing, we could do no more than infer, with the help of
+outside data, from the subjects he chooses, and the neatness or boldness
+of his line, something about his general character, and that with small
+degree of certainty. To regard a man's works of art, or indeed any of
+his manifestations, from this point of view, is, after all, nothing but
+a kind of inquisitive cheiromancy. Those who pretend to like the
+drawings of Watteau or Michelangelo "because they show more
+individuality" than the incompetent work of a beginner or poor artist
+cannot be skilled in their own business, because the lady who tells your
+character by your handwriting finds as much individuality in bad writing
+as in good,--sometimes even more. It may be entertaining to some to
+guess at the artist's character from his works by this process of
+inference and comparison, but it is unreasonable to imagine that
+"individuality," as such, can be made a serious criterion of aesthetic
+judgment. The only individuality a draughtsman can show directly by his
+drawing is his individual way of conceiving the forms of nature, and
+even this is immaterial provided the conception and drawing be good.
+
+A word or two are necessary upon "style," which unfortunate word has
+made much mystery in criticism. The great draughtsmen of every time and
+country are known by their own words, as well as their works, to have
+been infinitely respectful to the form of every detail in nature. Their
+drawings always recall to our minds reality as we ourselves have seen it
+(provided we have studied from nature and not from pictures). The
+drawing of a hand, for instance, by Hokusai, Ingres or Durer, revives in
+us our own impressions of the forms and aspects of real hands. In short
+there is manifest in all good drawings, whatever their difference of
+medium or superficial appearance, an entire dependence upon the forms of
+nature. Hence we cannot imagine that they were conceived and executed
+with the conscious effort to obtain some abstract style independent of
+the material treated. The style they plainly have can spring from this
+common quality, their truthful and well understood representation of
+forms. Style, then, is the expression of a clear understanding of the
+material from which the artist works. Unless a drawing shows this
+understanding it would be as impossible as it would be gratuitous to
+argue that it could have style. But it would seem that some people mean
+by style nothing more than the mere superficial appearance of the work.
+They would have a draughtsman draw "in the style of Holbein," but not
+"in the style" of Rembrandt. This kind of preference, as remarked above,
+is superficial, for it overlooks the main issue and purpose of drawing,
+viz. the representation, by any means whatever, of the artist's ideas of
+form. It is as though one should prefer a letter from Holbein to one
+from Rembrandt, though both were equally expressive, simply because
+Holbein's handwriting was prettier than Rembrandt's. Each draughtsman
+manifests a kind of handwriting peculiar to himself even in his most
+faithful rendering of form; and by this we can immediately recognize the
+artist; many, for instance Hogarth and some Japanese, seem to have let
+their quirks, full stops and so on, get the upper hand at the expense of
+serious, sensitive draughtsmanship.
+
+It is fair to suppose that all abstract principles of aesthetic
+judgment, such as beauty of line, personality, style, nobility of
+thought, romanticism, are merely pretexts set up by people who would
+still affect to admire the drawings of recognized masters when they have
+neither the knowledge of, nor the care for, the forms of nature by
+virtue of which alone these drawings are what they are, and by which
+alone they can be immediately appreciated.     (J. R. FO.)
+
+_Drawing-Office Work._--In modern engineering, few pieces of mechanism
+are ever produced in the shops until their design has been settled in
+the "drawing office," and embodied in suitable drawings showing general
+and detailed views. This is a broad statement to which there are
+exceptions, to be noted presently.
+
+Drawing-office work is divisible into four principal groups. First,
+there is the actual designing, by far the most difficult work, which is
+confined to relatively few well-paid men. The qualifications necessary
+for it are a good scientific, mathematical and engineering training, and
+a specialized experience gathered in the particular class of mechanism
+to which the designing relates. Second, there is the work of the rank
+and file who take instructions from the chiefs, and elaborate the
+smaller details and complete the drawings. Third, there are the tracers,
+either youths or girls, who copy drawings on tracing paper without
+necessarily understanding them. Fourth, there is a printing department
+in which phototypes are produced on sensitized paper from tracings.
+
+The character of the drawings used includes the general drawings, or
+those which show a mechanism complete; and the detailed drawings, which
+illustrate portions isolated from their connexions and relationships.
+The first are retained in the office for reference, and copies are only
+sent out to the men who have to assemble or erect and complete
+mechanisms. The second are distributed to the several shops and
+departments where sectional portions are being prepared, as pattern
+shop, smithy, turnery, machine shop, &c. General drawings are, as a
+rule, drawn to a small scale, ranging say from 1/8 in. to 1 in. to the
+foot; but details are either to actual size, or to a large scale, as
+from 1-1/2 in. to the foot or 3 in. or 6 in. to the foot.
+
+A large number of minutiae are omitted from general drawings, but in the
+detailed ones that are sent into the shops nothing is apparently too
+trivial for insertion. In this respect, however, there is much
+difference observable in the practice of different firms, and in the
+best practice of the present compared with that of former years. In the
+detailed drawings issued by many firms now, every tiny element and
+section is not only drawn to actual size, but also fully dimensioned,
+and the material to be used is specified in every case. This practice
+largely adds to the work of the drawing-office staff, but it pays.
+
+The present tendency therefore is to throw more responsibility than of
+old on the drawing-office staff, in harmony with the tendency towards
+greater centralization of authority. Much of detail that was formerly
+left to the decision of foremen and skilled hands is now determined by
+the drawing-office staff. Heterogeneity in details is thus avoided, and
+the drawings reflect accurately and fully the past as well as the
+present practice of the firm. To so great an extent is this the case
+that the preparation of the tools, appliances, templets, jigs and
+fixtures used in the shops is often now not permitted to be undertaken
+until proper drawings have been prepared for them, though formerly the
+foreman's own hand sketches generally sufficed. The practice of turret
+work has been contributory to this result. In many establishments now
+the designing of shop tools and fixtures is done in a department of the
+office specially set apart for that kind of work.
+
+The growing specialization of the engineer's work is reflected in the
+drawing office. Specialists are sought after, and receive the highest
+rates of pay. A man is required to be an expert in some one branch, as
+electric cranes or hydraulic machines, steel works plant, lathes, or
+heavy or light machine tools. The days are past in which all-round men
+were in request. In those firms which manufacture a large range of
+machinery, the drawing-office staff is separated into departments, each
+under its own chief, and there is seldom any transference of men from
+one to another.
+
+Although in the majority of instances designs and drawings are completed
+before the manufacture is undertaken, exceptions to this rule occur in
+connexion with the work of standardizing machines and motors, for
+repetitive and interchangeable manufacture on a large scale. Here it is
+so essential to secure the most minute economies in manufacture that the
+first articles made are of a more or less experimental character. Only
+after no further improvement seems for the time being possible are the
+drawings made or completed for standard use and reference. In some
+modern shops even standardized drawings are scarcely used, but their
+place is taken by the templets, jigs and fixtures which are employed by
+the workmen as their sole guides in machining and assembling parts. By
+the employment of these aids locations and dimensions are embodied and
+fixed absolutely for any number of similar parts; reference to drawings
+thus becomes unnecessary, and they therefore fall into disuse.
+
+The mechanical work of the drawing office is confined strictly to
+orthographic projections and sections of objects. Perspective views are
+of no value, though occasionally an object is sketched roughly in
+perspective as an aid to the rapid grasp of an idea. Drawings involve
+plans, elevations, and sectional views, in vertical and angular
+relations.
+
+There are a good many conventionalities adopted which have no
+correspondences in fact, with the object of saving the draughtsman's
+time; or else, as in the case of superposition of plans and sections, to
+show in one view what would otherwise require two drawings. Among the
+convenient conventionalities are the indications of toothed wheels by
+their pitch lines only, of screws by parallel lines and by diagonal
+shade lines; and of rivets, bolts and studs by their centres only. The
+adoption of this practice never leads to error.
+
+In the preliminary preparation of drawings in pencil no distinction is
+made between full or unbroken lines, and dotted or centre lines, and the
+actual outlines of the objects. These differences are made when the
+inking-in is being done. Indian or Chinese ink is used, because it does
+not run when colours are applied. There are conventional colours used to
+indicate different materials. But colouring is not adopted so much as
+formerly, because of the practice of making sun prints instead of the
+more expensive tracings for the multiplication of drawings. When
+tracings are coloured the colour is applied on the back instead of on
+the side where the ink lines are drawn.
+
+The economical importance of the printing department of the drawing
+office cannot be overestimated. Before its introduction drawings could
+only be reproduced by laborious tracing on paper or cloth, the first
+being flimsy, the second especially liable to absorb grease from the
+hands of the workmen. By the sun copying processes (see SUN COPYING) any
+number of prints can be taken from a single tracing. But even the fickle
+sun is being displaced by electricity, so that prints can be made by
+night as well as day, on cloudy days as well as on bright ones. Twenty
+minutes of bright sunshine is required for a print, but the electric
+light produces the same result within five minutes. Prints are blue,
+white or brown. The advantage of white is that they can be coloured. But
+the majority are blue (white lines on blue ground). All can be had on
+stout, thin or medium paper.
+
+An innovation in drawing-office equipment is that of vertical boards,
+displacing horizontal or sloping ones. They have the advantage that the
+draughtsman is able to avoid a bending posture at his work. The
+objection on the ground that the tee-square must be held up constantly
+with one hand is overcome by supporting and balancing it with cords and
+weights.     (J. G. H.)
+
+
+
+
+DRAWING AND QUARTERING, part of the penalty anciently ordained in
+England for treason. Until 1870 the full punishment for the crime was
+that the culprit be dragged on a hurdle to the place of execution; that
+he be hanged by the neck but not till he was dead; that he should be
+disembowelled or drawn and his entrails burned before his eyes; that his
+head be cut off and his body divided into four parts or quartered. This
+brutal penalty was first inflicted in 1284 on the Welsh prince David,
+and on Sir William Wallace a few years later. In Richard III.'s reign
+one Collingbourne, for writing the famous couplet "The Cat, the Rat and
+Lovel the Dog, Rule all England under the Hog," was executed on Tower
+Hill. Stow says, "After having been hanged, he was cut down immediately
+and his entrails were then extracted and thrown into the fire, and all
+this was so speedily done that when the executioners pulled out his
+heart he spoke and said 'Jesus, Jesus.'" Edward Marcus Despard and his
+six accomplices were in 1803 hanged, drawn and quartered for conspiring
+to assassinate George III. The sentence was last passed (though not
+carried out) upon the Fenians Burke and O'Brien in 1867. There is a
+tradition that Harrison the regicide, after being disembowelled, rose
+and boxed the ears of the executioner.
+
+
+
+
+DRAWING-ROOM (a shortened form of "with-drawing room," the longer form
+being usual in the 16th and 17th centuries), the English name generally
+employed for a room used in a dwelling-house for the reception of
+company. It originated in the setting apart of such a room, as the more
+private and exclusive preserve of the ladies of the household, to which
+they withdrew from the dining-room. The term "drawing-room" is also used
+in a special sense of the formal receptions or "courts" held by the
+British sovereign or his representative, at which ladies are presented,
+as distinguished from a "levee," at which men are presented.
+
+
+
+
+DRAYTON, MICHAEL (1563-1631), English poet, was born at Hartshill, near
+Atherstone, in Warwickshire in 1563. Even in childhood it was his great
+ambition to excel in writing verses. At the age of ten he was sent as
+page into some great family, and a little later he is supposed to have
+studied for some time at Oxford. Sir Henry Goodere of Powlesworth became
+his patron, and introduced him to the countess of Bedford, and for
+several years he was esquire to Sir Walter Aston. How the early part of
+his life was spent, however, we possess no means of ascertaining. It has
+been surmised that he served in the army abroad. In 1590 he seems to
+have come up to London, and to have settled there.
+
+In 1591 he produced his first book, _The Harmony of the Church_, a
+volume of spiritual poems, dedicated to Lady Devereux. The best piece in
+this is a version of the Song of Solomon, executed with considerable
+richness of expression. A singular and now incomprehensible fate befell
+the book; with the exception of forty copies, seized by the archbishop
+of Canterbury, the whole edition was destroyed by public order. It is
+probable that he had come up to town laden with poetic writings, for he
+published a vast amount within the next few years. In 1593 appeared
+_Idea: The Shepherd's Garland_, a collection of nine pastorals, in which
+he celebrated his own love-sorrows under the poetic name of Rowland. The
+circumstances of this passion appear more distinctly in the cycle of 64
+sonnets, published in 1594, under the title of _Idea's Mirror_, by which
+we learn that the lady lived by the river Ankor in Warwickshire. It
+appears that he failed to win his "Idea," and lived and died a bachelor.
+In 1593 appeared the first of Drayton's historical poems, _The Legend of
+Piers Gaveston_, and the next year saw the publication of _Matilda_, an
+epical poem in rhyme royal. It was about this time, too, that he brought
+out _Endimion and Phoebe_, a volume which he never republished, but
+which contains some interesting autobiographical matter, and
+acknowledgments of literary help from Lodge, if not from Spenser and
+Daniel also. In his _Fig for Momus_, Lodge has reciprocated these
+friendly courtesies. In 1596 Drayton published his long and important
+poem of _Mortimerades_, which deals with the Wars of the Roses, and is a
+very serious production in _ottava rima_. He afterwards enlarged and
+modified this poem, and republished it in 1603 under the title of _The
+Barons' Wars_. In 1596 also appeared another historical poem, _The
+Legend of Robert, Duke of Normandy_, with which _Piers Gaveston_ was
+reprinted. In 1597 appeared _England's Heroical Epistles_, a series of
+historical studies, in imitation of those of Ovid. These last poems,
+written in the heroic couplet, contain some of the finest passages in
+Drayton's writings.
+
+With the year 1597 the first half of the poet's literary life closes. He
+had become famous by this rapid production of volumes, and he rested on
+his oars. It would seem that he was much favoured at the court of
+Elizabeth, and he hoped that it would be the same with her successor.
+But when, in 1603, he addressed a poem of compliment to James I., on his
+accession, it was ridiculed, and his services rudely rejected. His
+bitterness of spirit found expression in a satire, _The Owl_, which he
+printed in 1604, although he had no talent in this kind of composition.
+Not much more entertaining was his scriptural narrative of _Moses in a
+Map of his Miracles_, a sort of epic in heroics printed the same year.
+In 1605 Drayton reprinted his most important works, that is to say, his
+historical poems and the _Idea_, in a single volume which ran through
+eight editions during his lifetime. He also collected his smaller
+pieces, hitherto unedited, in a volume undated, but probably published
+in 1605, under the title of _Poems Lyric and Pastoral_; these consisted
+of odes, eclogues, and a fantastic satire called _The Man in the Moon_.
+Some of the odes are extremely spirited. In this volume he printed for
+the first time the famous _Ballad of Agincourt_.
+
+He had adopted as early as 1598 the extraordinary resolution of
+celebrating all the points of topographical or antiquarian interest in
+the island of Great Britain, and on this laborious work he was engaged
+for many years. At last, in 1613, the first part of this vast work was
+published under the title of _Poly-Olbion_, eighteen books being
+produced, to which the learned Selden supplied notes. The success of
+this great work, which has since become so famous, was very small at
+first, and not until 1622 did Drayton succeed in finding a publisher
+willing to undertake the risk of bringing out twelve more books in a
+second part. This completed the survey of England, and the poet, who had
+hoped "to crown Scotland with flowers," and arrive at last at the
+Orcades, never crossed the Tweed. In 1627 he published another of his
+miscellaneous volumes, and this contains some of his most characteristic
+and exquisite writing. It consists of the following pieces: _The Battle
+of Agincourt_, an historical poem in _ottava rima_ (not to be confused
+with his ballad on the same subject), and _The Miseries of Queen
+Margaret_, written in the same verse and manner; _Nimphidia, the Court
+of Faery_, a most joyous and graceful little epic of fairyland; _The
+Quest of Cinthia_ and _The Shepherd's Sirena_, two lyrical pastorals;
+and finally _The Moon Calf_, a sort of satire. Of these _Nimphidia_ is
+perhaps the best thing Drayton ever wrote, except his famous ballad on
+the battle of Agincourt; it is quite unique of its kind and full of rare
+fantastic fancy.
+
+The last of Drayton's voluminous publications was _The Muses' Elizium_
+in 1630. He died in London on the 23rd of December 1631, was buried in
+Westminster Abbey, and had a monument placed over him by the countess of
+Dorset, with memorial lines attributed to Ben Jonson. Of the particulars
+of Drayton's life we know almost nothing but what he himself tells us;
+he enjoyed the friendship of some of the best men of the age. He
+corresponded familiarly with Drummond; Ben Jonson, William Browne,
+George Wither and others were among his friends. There is a tradition
+that he was a friend of Shakespeare, supported by a statement of John
+Ward, once vicar of Stratford-on-Avon, that "Shakespear, Drayton and Ben
+Jonson had a merry meeting, and it seems, drank too hard, for Shakespear
+died of a feavour there contracted." In one of his poems, an "elegy" or
+epistle to Mr Henry Reynolds, he has left some valuable criticisms on
+poets whom he had known. He was even engaged in the labour of the
+dramatists; at least he had a share, with Munday, Chettle and Wilson, in
+writing _Sir John Oldcastle_, which was printed in 1600. That he was a
+restless and discontented, as well as a worthy, man may be gathered from
+his own admissions.
+
+The works of Drayton are bulky, and, in spite of the high place that he
+holds in critical esteem, it cannot be pretended that he is much read.
+For this his ponderous style is much to blame. The _Poly-Olbion_, the
+most famous but far from the most successful of his writings, is tedious
+and barren in the extreme. It was, he tells us, a "Herculean toil" to
+him to compose it, and we are conscious of the effort. The metre in
+which it is composed, a couplet of alexandrines, like the French
+classical measure, is wholly unsuited to the English language, and
+becomes excessively wearisome to the reader, who forgets the learning
+and ingenuity of the poet in labouring through the harsh and overgrown
+lines. His historical poems, which he was constantly rewriting and
+improving, are much more interesting, and often rise to a true poetic
+eloquence. His pastorals are brilliant, but overladen with colour and
+sweet to insipidity. He is, with the one magnificent exception of "Since
+there's no help, come let us kiss and part," which was first printed in
+1619, an indifferent sonneteer. The poet with whom it is most natural to
+compare him is Daniel; he is more rough and vigorous, more varied and
+more daring than the latter, but Daniel surpasses him in grace, delicacy
+and judgment. In their elegies and epistles, however, the two writers
+frequently resemble each other. Drayton, however, approaches the very
+first poets of the Elizabethan era in his charming _Nimphidia_, a poem
+which inspired Herrick with his sweet fairy fancies and stands alone of
+its kind in English literature; while some of his odes and lyrics are
+inspired by noble feeling and virile imagination.
+
+  In 1748 a folio edition of Drayton's complete works was published
+  under the editorial supervision of William Oldys, and again in 1753
+  there appeared an issue in four volumes. But these were very
+  unintelligently and inaccurately prepared. A complete edition of
+  Drayton's works with variant readings was projected by Richard Hooper
+  in 1876, but was never carried to a conclusion; a volume of
+  selections, edited by A. H. Bullen, appeared in 1883. See especially
+  Oliver Elton, _Michael Drayton_ (1906). (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+DREAM (from a root _dreug_, connected with Germ. _trugen_, to deceive),
+the state of consciousness during sleep; it may also be defined as a
+hallucination or illusion peculiarly associated with the condition of
+sleep, but not necessarily confined to that state. In sleep the
+withdrawal of the mind from the external world is more complete and the
+objectivity of the dream images is usually unquestioned, whereas in the
+waking state the hallucination is usually recognized as such; we may,
+however, be conscious that we are dreaming, and thus in a measure be
+aware of the hallucinatory character of our percepts. The physiological
+nature of sleep (q.v.; see also MUSCLE AND NERVE) and of dreaming is
+obscure. As a rule the control over the voluntary muscles in dreams is
+slight; the sleep-walker is the exception and not the rule, and the
+motor activity represented in the dream is seldom realized in practice,
+largely, no doubt, because we are ignorant, under these circumstances,
+of the spatial relations of our bodies. Among the psychological problems
+raised by dreams are the condition of attention, which is variously
+regarded as altogether absent or as fixed, the extent of mental control,
+and the relation of ideas and motor impulses. There is present in all
+dreams a certain amount of dissociation of consciousness, or of
+obstructed association, which may manifest itself in the preliminary
+stage of drowsiness by such phenomena as the apparent transformation or
+inversion of the words of a book. We may distinguish two types of
+dreams, (a) representative or centrally initiated, (b) presentative or
+due to the stimulation of the end organs of sense. In both cases, the
+dream having once been initiated, we are concerned with a process of
+reasoning, i.e. the combination of ideas suggested by resemblances or
+other associative elements. The false reasoning of dreams is due in the
+first place to the absence, to a large extent, of the memory elements on
+which our ordinary reasoning depends, and, secondly, to the absence of
+sensory elements.
+
+_Objectivity of Dreams._--In waking life we distinguish ideas or mental
+images from real objects by the fact that we are able under normal
+circumstances to dismiss the former at will. In sleep, on the other
+hand, we have, in the first place, no real objects with which to compare
+the images, which therefore take on a character of reality comparable to
+the hallucination of waking life; moreover, powers of visualization and
+other faculties are enhanced in sleep, so that the strength of dream
+images considerably exceeds those of the mental images of the ordinary
+man; changes in powers of attention, volition and memory help to
+increase the hallucinatory force of the dream. In the second place, the
+ideas of our dreams are presented in the form of images, which we are
+unable to dismiss; we therefore mistake them for realities, exactly as
+the sufferer from delirium tremens in waking life is apt to regard his
+phantoms as real.
+
+_Relations of Dreaming and Sleep._--It has been maintained by Hamilton
+and others (see below, Modern Views) that dreams invariably accompany
+sleep, and that we always find ourselves dreaming when we are awakened.
+But even if it were true that dreams were invariably experienced at the
+moment of waking, this would not by any means establish the invariable
+concomitance of dreams and sleep of all sorts; at most it would show
+that imperfect sleep is a condition of dreaming; in the same way, dreams
+before wakening, known to have taken place either from the recollection
+of the dreamer or from the observation of another person, may clearly be
+due to imperfect wakening, followed by a deepening of sleep. It is,
+however, by no means true that awakening from sleep is invariably
+accompanied by a dream; in considering the question it must be
+recollected that it is complicated by the common experience of very
+rapid forgetfulness of even a vivid and complicated dream, only the fact
+of having dreamt remaining in the memory; it is clear that amnesia may
+go so far that even the fact of dreaming may be forgotten. On the whole,
+however, there appear to be no good grounds for the assertion that we
+always dream when we are asleep. On the other hand, there is no proof
+that partial awakening is a necessary condition of dreaming.
+
+_Representative Dreams._--Centrally initiated dreams may be due to a
+kind of automatic excitation of the cerebral regions, especially in the
+case of those clearly arising from the occupations or sensations of the
+day or the hours immediately preceding the dream. To the same cause we
+may attribute the recalling of images apparently long since forgotten.
+Some of these revivals of memory may be due to the fact that links of
+association which are insufficient to restore an idea to consciousness
+in the waking state may suffice to do so in sleep. Just as a good
+visualizer in his waking moments may call up an object never clearly
+seen and yet distinguish the parts, so in sleep, as L. F. A. Maury
+(1817-1892) and others have shown, an image may be more distinct in a
+dream than it was when originally presented (see also below, Memory).
+
+_Presentative Dreams._--The dreams due to real sensations, more or less
+metamorphosed, may arise (a) from the states of the internal organs, (b)
+from muscular states, (c) from subjective sensations due to the
+circulation, &c., or (d) from the ordinary cause of the action of
+external stimuli on the organs of sense.
+
+(a) The state of the stomach, heart, &c., has long been recognized as
+important in the causation of dreams (see below, Classical Views). The
+common sensation of flying seems to be due in many cases to the
+disturbance of these organs setting up sensations resembling those felt
+in rapidly ascending or descending, as in a swing or a lift. Indigestion
+is a frequent cause of nightmare--the term given to oppressive and
+horrible dreams--and bodily discomfort is sometimes translated into the
+moral region, giving rise to the dream that a murder has been committed.
+(b) Dreams of flying, &c., have also been attributed to the condition of
+the muscles during sleep; W. Wundt remarks that the movements of the
+body, such as breathing, extensions of the limbs and so on, must give
+rise to dream fancies; the awkward position of the limbs may also excite
+images. (c) Especially important, probably, for the dreams of the early
+part of the night are the retinal conditions to which are due the
+_illusions hypnagogiques_ of the preliminary drowsy stage; but probably
+Ladd goes too far in maintaining that entoptic stimuli, either intra- or
+extra-organic in origin, condition all dreams. _Illusions
+hypnagogiques_, termed popularly "faces in the dark," of which Maury has
+given a full account, are the not uncommon sensations experienced,
+usually visual and seen with both open and closed eyes, in the interval
+between retiring to rest and actually falling asleep; they are
+comparable to the crystal-gazing visions of waking moments; though
+mainly visual they may also affect other senses. Besides the eye the ear
+may supply material for dreams, when the circulation of the blood
+suggests rushing waters or similar ideas. (d) It is a matter of common
+observation that the temperature of the surface of the body determines
+in many cases the character of the dreams, the real circumstances, as
+might be expected from the general character of the dream state, being
+exaggerated. In the same way the pressure of bed-clothes, obstruction of
+the supply of air, &c., may serve as the starting-point of dreams. The
+common dream of being unclothed may perhaps be due to this cause, the
+sensations associated with clothing being absent or so far modified as
+to be unrecognizable. In the same way the absence of foot-gear may
+account for some dreams of flying. It is possible to test the influence
+of external stimuli by direct experiment; Maury made a number of trials
+with the aid of an assistant.
+
+_Rapidity of Dreams._--It has often been asserted that we dream with
+extreme rapidity; but this statement is by no means borne out by
+experiment. In a trial recorded by J. Claviere the beginning of the
+dream was accurately fixed by the sounding of an alarm clock, which
+rang, then was silent for 22 seconds, and then began to ring
+continuously; the dream scene was in a theatre, and he found by actual
+trial that the time required in ordinary life for the performance of the
+scenes during the interval of silence was about the same as in ordinary
+life. Spontaneous dreams seem to show a different state of things; it
+must be remembered that (1) dreams are commonly a succession of images,
+the number of which cannot be legitimately compared with the number of
+extra-organic stimuli which would correspond to them in ordinary life;
+the real comparison is with mental images; and (2) the rapidity of
+association varies enormously in ordinary waking life. No proof,
+therefore, that some dreams are slow can show that this mentation in
+others is not extremely rapid. The most commonly quoted case is one of
+Maury's; a bed-pole fell on his neck, and (so it is stated) he dreamt
+of the French Revolution, the scenes culminating in the fall of the
+guillotine on his neck; this has been held to show that (1) dreams are
+extremely rapid; and (2) we construct a dream story leading up to the
+external stimulus which is assumed to have originated the dream. But
+Maury's dream was not recorded till many years after it had occurred;
+there is nothing to show that the dream, in this as in other similar
+cases, was not in progress when the bed-pole fell, which thus by mere
+coincidence would have intervened at the psychological moment; Maury's
+memory on waking may have been to some extent hallucinatory. But there
+are records of waking states, not necessarily abnormal, in which
+time-perception is disturbed and brief incidents seem interminably long;
+on the other hand, it appears from the experiences of persons recovered
+from drowning that there is great rapidity of ideation before the
+extinction of consciousness; the same rapidity of thought has been
+observed in a fall from a bicycle.
+
+_Reason in Dreams._--Studies of dreams of normal individuals based on
+large collections of instances are singularly few in number; such as
+there are indicate great variations in the source of dream thoughts and
+images, in the coherence of the dream, and in the powers of memory. In
+ordinary life attention dominates the images presented; in dreams
+heterogeneous and disconnected elements are often combined; a
+resemblance need not even have been consciously recognized for the mind
+to combine two impressions in a dream; for example, an aching tooth may
+(according to the dream) be extracted, and found to resemble rocks on
+the sea-shore, which had not struck the waking mind as in any way like
+teeth. Incongruence and incoherence are not, however, a necessary
+characteristic of dreams, and individuals are found whose dream ideas
+and scenes show a power of reasoning and orderliness equal to that of a
+scene imagined or experienced in ordinary life. In some cases the
+reasoning power may attain a higher level than that of the ordinary
+conscious life. In a well-authenticated case Professor Hilprecht was
+able in a dream to solve a difficulty connected with two Babylonian
+inscriptions, which had not previously been recognized as complementary
+to each other; a point of peculiar interest is the dramatic form in
+which the information came to him--an old Babylonian priest appeared in
+his dream and gave him the clue to the problem (see also below,
+Personality).
+
+_Memory in Dreams._--Although prima facie the dream memory is
+fragmentary and far less complete than the waking memory, it is by no
+means uncommon to find a revival in sleep of early, apparently quite
+forgotten, experiences: more striking is the recollection in dreams of
+matters never supraliminally (see SUBLIMINAL SELF) apperceived at all.
+
+The relation between the memory in dreams and in the hypnotic trance is
+curious: suggestions given in the trance may be accepted and then
+forgotten or never remembered in ordinary life; this does not prevent
+them from reappearing occasionally in dreams; conversely dreams
+forgotten in ordinary life may be remembered in the hypnotic trance.
+These dream memories of other states of consciousness suggest that
+dreams are sometimes the product of a deeper stratum of the personality
+than comes into play in ordinary waking life. It must be remembered in
+this connexion that we judge of our dream consciousness by our waking
+recollections, not directly, and our recollection of our dreams is
+extraordinarily fragmentary; we do not know how far our dream memory
+really extends. Connected with memory of other states is the question of
+memory in dreams of previous dream states; occasionally a separate chain
+of memory, analogous to a secondary personality, seems to be formed. We
+may be also conscious that we have been dreaming, and subsequently,
+without intermediate waking, relate as a dream the dream previously
+experienced. In spite of the irrationality of dreams in general, it by
+no means follows that the earlier and later portions of a dream do not
+cohere; we may interpolate an episode and again take up the first
+motive, exactly as happens in real life. The strength of the dream
+memory is shown by the recurrence of images in dreams; a picture, the
+page of a book, or other image may be reproduced before our eyes several
+times in the course of a dream without the slightest alteration,
+although the waking consciousness would be quite incapable of such a
+feat of visualizing. In this connexion may be mentioned the phenomenon
+of redreaming; the same dream may recur either on the same or on
+different nights; this seems to be in many cases pathological or due to
+drugs, but may also occur under normal conditions.
+
+_Personality._--As a rule the personality of the dreamer is unchanged;
+but it also happens that the confusion of identity observed with regard
+to other objects embraces the dreamer himself; he imagines himself to be
+some one else; he is alternately actor and observer; he may see himself
+playing a part or may divest himself of his body and wander
+incorporeally. Ordinary dreams, however, do not go beyond a splitting of
+personality; we hold conversations, and are intensely surprised at the
+utterances of a dream figure, which, however, is merely an _alter ego_.
+As in the case of Hilprecht (see above) the information given by another
+part of the personality may not only appear but actually be novel.
+
+_Supernormal Dreams._--In addition to dreams in which there is a revival
+of memory or a rise into consciousness of facts previously only
+subliminally cognized, a certain number of dreams are on record in which
+telepathy (q.v.) seems to play a part; much of the evidence is, however,
+discounted by the possibility of hallucinatory memory. Another class of
+dreams (prodromic) is that in which the abnormal bodily states of the
+dreamer are brought to his knowledge in sleep, sometimes in a symbolical
+form; thus a dream of battle or sanguinary conflict may presage a
+haemorrhage. The increased power of suggestion which is the normal
+accompaniment of the hypnotic trance may make its appearance in dreams,
+and exercise either a curative influence or act capriciously in
+producing hysteria and the tropic changes known as "stigmata." We may
+meet with various forms of hyperaesthesia in dreams; quite apart from
+the recovery of sight by those who have lost it wholly or in part (see
+below, Dreams of the Blind), we find that the powers of the senses may
+undergo an intensification, and, e.g., the power of appreciating music
+be enormously enhanced in persons usually indifferent to it. Mention
+must also be made of the experience of R. L. Stevenson, who tells in
+_Across the Plains_ how by self-suggestion he was able to secure from
+his dreams the motives of some of his best romances.
+
+_Voluntary Action in Dreams._--Connected with dreams voluntarily
+influenced is the question of how far dreams once initiated are
+modifiable at the will of the dreamer. Some few observers, like F. W. H.
+Myers and Dr F. van Eeden, record that they can at longer or shorter
+intervals control their actions in their dreams, though usually to a
+less extent than their imagined actions in waking life. Dr van Eeden,
+for example, tells us that he has what he calls a "clear dream" once a
+month and is able to predetermine what he will do when he becomes aware
+that he is dreaming.
+
+_Dreams of Children._--Opinions differ widely as to the age at which
+children begin to dream; G. Compayre maintains that dreaming has been
+observed in the fourth month, but reflex action is always a possible
+explanation of the observed facts. S. de Sanctis found that in boys of
+eleven only one out of eight said that he dreamt seldom, as against four
+out of seven at the age of six; but we cannot exclude the possibility
+that dreams were frequent but forgotten. If correct, the observation
+suggests that dreams appear comparatively late. Individual cases of
+dreaming, or possibly of waking hallucination, are known as early as the
+age of two and a half years; according to de Sanctis dreams occur before
+the fifth year, but are seldom remembered; as a rule the conscious dream
+age begins with the fourth year; speech or movement, however, in earlier
+years, though they may be attributed to reflex action, are more probably
+due to dreams.
+
+_Dreams of the Old._--In normal individuals above the age of sixty-five
+de Sanctis found dreams were rare; atmospheric influences seem to be
+important elements in causing them; memory of them is weak; they are
+emotionally poor, and deal with long past scenes.
+
+_Dreams of Adults._--Any attempt to record or influence our dreams may
+be complicated by (a) direct suggestion, leading to the production of
+the phenomena for which we are looking, and (b) indirect suggestion
+leading to the more lively recollection of dreams in general and of
+certain dreams in particular. Consequently it cannot be assumed that the
+facts thus ascertained represent the normal conditions. According to F.
+Heerwagen's statistics women sleep more lightly and dream more than men;
+the frequency of dreams is proportional to their vividness; women who
+dream sleep longer than those who do not; dreams tend to become less
+frequent with advancing age. The total number of remembered dreams
+varies considerably with different observers, some attaining an average
+of ten per night. The senses mainly active in dreams are, according to
+one set of experiments, vision in 60%, hearing in 5%, taste in 3%, and
+smell in 1.5%, where the dreamers had looked at coloured papers before
+falling asleep; when taste or smell had been stimulated, the visual
+dreams fell to about 50%, and the sense stimulated was active twice as
+often as it would otherwise be; dreams in which motion was a prominent
+feature were 10% of the former class, 14% and 18% of the two latter.
+Experiments by J. Mourly Vold show even more distinctly the influence of
+suggestion both as to the form, visual or otherwise, and the content
+(colours and forms of objects) of dreams. According to most observers
+dreams are most vivid and frequent between the ages of 20 and 25, but H.
+Maudsley puts the maximum between 30 and 35. De Sanctis got replies from
+165 men and 55 women: the proportion between the sexes closely agrees
+with the results attained by Heerwagen and M. W. Calkins; 13% of men and
+33% of women said they always dreamt, 27% and 45% often, 50% and 13%
+rarely, and the remainder (precisely the same percentage for men and
+women--9.09) either did not dream or did not remember that they dreamt.
+Nearly twice as many women as men had vivid dreams; in the matter of
+complication of the dream experiences the sexes are about equal; daily
+life supplies more material in the dreams of men; nearly twice as many
+women as men remember their dreams clearly, a fact which hangs together
+to some extent with the vividness of the dreams, though it by no means
+follows that a vivid dream is well remembered. There are great
+variations in the emotional character of dreams; some observers report
+twice as many unpleasant dreams as the reverse; in other cases the
+emotions seem to be absent; others again have none but pleasing dreams.
+Individual experience also varies very largely as to the time when most
+dreams are experienced; in some cases the great majority are subsequent
+to 6.30 A.M.; others find that quite half occur before 4.0 A.M.
+
+_Dreams of the Neuropathic, Insane, Idiots, &c._--Much attention has
+been given to the dreams of hysterical subjects. It appears that their
+dreams are specially liable to exercise an influence over their waking
+life, perhaps because they do not distinguish them, any more than their
+waking hallucinations, from reality. P. Janet maintains that the cause
+of hysteria may be sought in a dream. The dreams of the hysterical have
+a tendency to recur. Epileptic subjects dream less than the hysterical,
+and their dreams are seldom of a terrifying nature; certain dreams seem
+to take the place of an epileptic attack. Dreaming seems to be rare in
+idiots. De Sanctis divides paranoiacs into three classes: (a) those with
+systematized delusions, (b) those with frequent hallucinations, and (c)
+degenerates;--the dreams of the first class resemble their delusions;
+the second class is distinguished by the complexity of its dreams; the
+third by their vividness, by their delusions of megalomania, and by
+their influence on daily life. Alcoholic subjects have vivid and
+terrifying dreams, characterized by the frequent appearance of animals
+in them, and delirium tremens may originate during sleep.
+
+_Dreams of the Blind, Deaf, &c._--As regards visual dreams the blind
+fall into three classes--(1) those who are blind from birth or become
+blind before the age of five; (2) those who become blind at the
+"critical age" from five to seven; (3) those who become blind after the
+age of seven. The dreams of the first class are non-visual; but in the
+dreams of Helen Keller there are traces of a visual content; the second
+class sometimes has visual dreams; the third class does not differ from
+normal persons, though visual dreams may fade away after many years of
+blindness. In the case of the partially blind the clearness of vision in
+a dream exceeds that of normal life when the partial loss of sight
+occurred in the sixth or later years. The education of Helen Keller is
+interesting from another point of view; after losing the senses of sight
+and hearing in infancy she began her education at seven years and was
+able to articulate at eleven; it is recorded that she "talked" in her
+dreams soon after. This accords with the experience of normal
+individuals who acquire a foreign language. Her extraordinary memory
+enables her to recall faintly some traces of the sunlit period of her
+life, but they hardly affect her dreams, so far as can be judged. The
+dreams of the blind, according to the records of F. Hitschmann, present
+some peculiarities; animals as well as man speak; toothache and bodily
+pains are perceived as such; impersonal dreaming, taking the form of a
+drama or reading aloud, is found; and he had a strong tendency to
+reproduce or create verse.
+
+_Dreams of Animals._--We are naturally reduced to inference in dealing
+with animals as with very young children; but various observations seem
+to show that dreams are common in older dogs, especially after hunting
+expeditions; in young dogs sleep seems to be quieter; dogs accustomed to
+the chase seem to dream more than other kinds.
+
+_Dreams among the Non-European Peoples._--In the lower stages of culture
+the dream is regarded as no less real and its personages as no less
+objective than those of the ordinary waking life; this is due in the
+main to the habit of mind of such peoples (see ANIMISM), but possibly in
+some measure also to the occurrence of veridical dreams (see TELEPATHY).
+In either case the savage explanation is animistic, and animism is
+commonly assumed to have been developed very largely as a result of
+theorising dreams. Two explanations of a dream are found among the lower
+races: (1) that the soul of the dreamer goes out, and visits his
+friends, living or dead, his old haunts or unfamiliar scenes and so on;
+or (2) that the souls of the dead and others come to visit him, either
+of their own motion or at divine command. In either of the latter cases
+or at a higher stage of culture when the dream is regarded as god-sent,
+though no longer explained in terms of animism, it is often regarded as
+oracular (see ORACLE), the explanation being sometimes symbolical,
+sometimes simple.
+
+There are two classes of dreams which have a special importance in the
+lower cultures: (1) the dream or vision of the initiation fast; and (2)
+the dream caused by the process known as incubation, which is often
+analogous to the initiation fast. In many parts of North America the
+individual Indian acquires a tutelary spirit, known as _manito_ or
+_nagual_, by his initiation dream or vision; the idea being perhaps that
+the spirit by the act of appearing shows its subjection to the will of
+the man. Similarly, the magician acquires his familiar in North America,
+Australia and elsewhere by dreaming of an animal. Incubation consists in
+retiring to sleep in a temple, sometimes on the top of a mountain or
+other unusual spot, in order to obtain a revelation through a dream.
+Fasting, continence and other observances are frequently prescribed as
+preliminaries. Certain classes of dreams have, especially in the middle
+ages, been attributed to the influence of evil spirits (see DEMONOLOGY).
+
+_Classical and Medieval Views of Dreams._--Side by side with the
+prevalent animistic view of dreams we find in antiquity and among the
+semi-civilized attempts at philosophical or physiological explanations
+of dreams. Democritus, from whom the Epicureans derived their theory,
+held the cause of them to be the simulacra or phantasms of corporeal
+objects which are constantly floating about the atmosphere and attack
+the soul in sleep--a view hardly distinguishable from animism.
+Aristotle, however, refers them to the impressions left by objects seen
+with the eyes of the body; he further remarks on the exaggeration of
+slight stimuli when they are incorporated into a dream; a small sound
+becomes a noise like thunder. Plato, too, connects dreaming with the
+normal waking operations of the mind; Pliny, on the other hand, admits
+this only for dreams which take place after meals, the remainder being
+supernatural. Cicero, however, takes the view that they are simply
+natural occurrences no more and no less than the mental operations and
+sensations of the waking state. The pathological side of dreams
+attracted the notice of physicians. Hippocrates was disposed to admit
+that some dreams might be divine, but held that others were premonitory
+of diseased states of the body. Galen took the same view in some of his
+speculations.
+
+Symbolical interpretations are combined with pathological no less than
+animistic interpretations of dreams; they are also extremely common
+among the lower classes in Europe at the present day, but in this case
+no consistent explanation of their importance for the divination of
+future events is usually discoverable. Among the Greeks Plato in the
+_Timaeus_ (ch. xlvi, xlvii) explains dreams as prophetic visions
+received by the lower appetitive soul through the liver; their
+interpretation requires intelligence. The Stoics seem to have held that
+dreams may be a divine revelation and more than one volume on the
+interpretation of dreams has come down to us, the most important being
+perhaps the [Greek: Oneirokritika] of Daldianus Artemidorus. We find
+parallels to this in a Mussulman work by Gabdorrachaman, translated by
+Pierre Vattier under the name of _Onirocrite mussulman_, and in the
+numerous books on the interpretation of dreams which circulate at the
+present day. In Siam dream books are found (_Intern. Archiv fur Anthr._
+viii 150); one of the functions of the Australian medicine man is to
+decide how a dream is to be interpreted.
+
+_Modern Views._--The doctrine of Descartes that existence depended upon
+thought naturally led his followers to maintain that the mind is always
+thinking and consequently that dreaming is continuous. Locke replied to
+this that men are not always conscious of dreaming, and it is hard to be
+conceived that the soul of the sleeping man should this moment be
+thinking, while the soul of the waking man cannot recollect in the next
+moment a jot of all those thoughts. That we always dream was maintained
+by Leibnitz, Kant, Sir W. Hamilton and others; the latter refutes the
+argument of Locke by the just observation that the somnambulist has
+certainly been conscious, but fails to recall the fact when he returns
+to the normal state.
+
+It has been commonly held by metaphysicians that the nature of dreams is
+explained by the suspension of volition during sleep; Dugald Stewart
+asserts that it is not wholly dormant but loses its hold on the
+faculties, and he thus accounts for the incoherence of dreams and the
+apparent reality of dream images.
+
+Cudworth, from the orderly sequence of dream combinations and their
+novelty, argues that the state arises, not from any "fortuitous dancings
+of the spirits," but from the "phantastical power of the soul."
+According to K. A. Scherner, dreaming is a decentralization of the
+movement of life; the ego becomes purely receptive and is merely the
+point around which the peripheral life plays in perfect freedom. Hobbes
+held that dreams all proceed from the agitation of the inward parts of a
+man's body, which, owing to their connexion with the brain, serve to
+keep the latter in motion. For Schopenhauer the cause of dreams is the
+stimulation of the brain by the internal regions of the organism through
+the sympathetic nervous system. These impressions the mind afterwards
+works up into quasi-realities by means of its forms of space, time,
+causality, &c.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For full lists of books and articles see J. M. Baldwin's
+_Dictionary of Philosophy_, bibliography volume (1906), and S. de
+Sanctis, _I Sogni_, also translated in German with additions as _Die
+Traume_. Important works are--Binz, _Uber den Traum_, Giessler _Aus den
+Tiefen des Traumlebens_, Maury, _Le Sommeil et les reves_, Radestock,
+_Schlaf und Traum_, Tessie, _Les Reves_, Spitta, _Schlaf und
+Traumzustande_. For super-normal dreams see F. W. H. Myers, _Human
+Personality_, vol i, and _Proc S P R_ viii 362. For voluntary dreams see
+_Proc. S P R_ iv 241, xvii. 112. On prophetic dreams see _Monist_, xi
+161, _Bull. Soc. Anth._ (Paris, 1901), 196, (1902), 228, _Rev. de
+synthese historique_ (1901), 151, &c. On incubation see Deubner, _De
+incubatione_, Maury, La Magie. On the dreams of American Indians see
+_Handbook of American Indians_ (Washington, 1907), s v "Dreams" and
+"Manito." On the interpretation of dreams see Freud, _Die Traumdeutung_.
+Other works are F. Greenwood, _Imagination in Dreams_, Hutchinson,
+_Dreams and their Meanings_.     (N. W. T.)
+
+
+
+
+DREDGE AND DREDGING. The word "dredge" is used in two senses. (1) From
+Mid. Eng. _dragie_, through Fr. _dragee_, from Gr. [Greek: tragemata],
+sweetmeats, it means a confection of sugar formed with seeds, bits of
+spice or medicinal agents. The word in this sense is obsolete, but
+survives in "dredger," a box with a perforated top used for sprinkling
+such a sugar-mixture, flour or other powdered substance. "Dredge" is
+also a local term for a mixed crop of oats and barley sown together
+("maslin" or "meslin," cf. Fr. _dragee_), and in mining is applied to
+ore of a mixed value. (2) Connected with "drag," or at least derived
+from the same root, dredge or dredger is a mechanical appliance for
+collecting together and drawing to the surface ("dredging") objects and
+material from the beds of rivers or the bottom of the sea. In the
+following account the operations of dredging in this sense are discussed
+(1) as involved in hydraulic engineering, (2) in connexion with the work
+of the naturalist in marine biology.
+
+
+1. HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING
+
+Dredging is the name given by engineers to the process of excavating
+materials under water, raising them to the surface and depositing them
+in barges, or delivering them through a shoot, a longitudinal conveyor,
+or pipes, to the place where it is desired to deposit them. It has long
+been useful in works of marine and hydraulic engineering, and has been
+brought in modern times to a state of high perfection.
+
+The employment of dredging plant and the selection of special appliances
+to be used in different localities and in varying circumstances require
+the exercise of sound judgment on the part of the engineer. In rivers
+and estuaries where the bottom is composed of light soils, and where the
+scour of the tide can be governed by training walls and other works
+constructed at reasonable expense, so as to keep the channel clear
+without dredging, it is manifest that dredging machinery with its large
+cost for working expenses and for annual upkeep should be as far as
+possible avoided. On the other hand, where the bottom consists of clay,
+rock or other hard substances, dredging must, in the first instance at
+any rate, be employed to deepen and widen the channel which it is sought
+to improve. In some instances, such as the river Mississippi, a deep
+channel has for many years been maintained by jetties, with occasional
+resort to dredging to preserve the required channel section and to
+hasten its enlargement. The bar of the river Mersey is 11 m. from land,
+and the cost of training works would be so great as to forbid their
+construction; but, by a capital expenditure of L120,000 and an annual
+expense of L20,000 for three years, the depth of water over the bar at
+low tide has been increased by dredging from 11 ft. to 27 ft., the
+channel being 1500 ft. wide.
+
+_"Bag and Spoon" Dredger._--The first employment of machinery for
+dredging is, like the discovery of the canal lock, claimed by Holland
+and Italy, in both of which countries it is believed to have been in use
+before it was introduced into Britain. The Dutch, at an early period,
+used what is termed the "bag and spoon" dredger for cleansing their
+canals. The "spoon" consisted of a ring of iron about 2 ft. in diameter
+flattened and steeled for about a third of its circumference and having
+a bag of strong leather attached to it by leathern thongs. The ring and
+bag were fixed to a pole which was lowered to the bottom from the side
+of a barge moored in the canal or river. The "spoon" was then dragged
+along the bottom by a rope made fast to the iron ring actuated by a
+windlass placed at the other end of the barge, the pole being prevented
+from rising by a hitched rope which caused the "spoon" to penetrate the
+bottom and fill the bag. When the "spoon" reached the end of the barge
+where the windlass was placed, the winding was still continued, and the
+suspended rope being nearly perpendicular the "bag" was raised to the
+gunwale of the barge and the excavated material emptied into the barge.
+The "bag" was then hauled back to the opposite end to be lowered for
+another supply. This system is still in use, but is only adaptable to a
+limited depth of water and a soft bottom; it has been largely used in
+canals and frequently in the Thames. At the Fosdyke Canal in
+Lincolnshire 135,000 tons were raised in the manner described. According
+to J. J. Webster (_Proc. Inst. C. E._ vol. 89), the first application
+of steam power for dredging operations was to a "spoon & bag" dredger
+for cleansing Sunderland harbour, the engine being made by Messrs
+Boulton & Watt of Soho, Birmingham.
+
+_Dredging by Bucket between Two Lighters._--Another plan of dredging,
+practised at an early period in rivers of considerable breadth, was to
+moor two barges, one on each side of the river. Between them was slung
+an iron dredging bucket, which was attached to both barges by chains
+wound on the barrels of a crab winch worked by six men in one barge and
+round a simple windlass worked by two men in the other barge. The
+bucket, being lowered at the side of the barge carrying the windlass,
+was drawn across the bottom of the river by the crab winch on the other
+barge; and having been raised and emptied, it was hauled across by the
+opposite windlass for repetition of the process. This process was in use
+in the River Tay until 1833.
+
+_Bucket Ladder Dredgers._--The earliest record of a bucket ladder
+dredger is contained in the first paper of the first volume (1836) of
+the _Transactions_ of the Institution of Civil Engineers. This machine
+was brought into use at the Hull Docks about 1782. The bucket chain was
+driven by two horses working a horse-gear on the deck of the vessel. The
+buckets were constructed of 5/8 in. bars of iron spaced 1/8 in. apart,
+and were 4 ft. long, 13 in. deep, 12 in. wide at the mouth and about 6
+in. wide at the bottom. This dredger raised about 30 tons per hour at
+the cost of 2-1/2d. per ton, which covered the wages of three men working
+the dredger, eight men working the lighters and the keep of three
+horses. A dredger of this kind and power would only work in ballast, mud
+or other soft material, but the machine was gradually improved and
+increased in capacity and power by different manufacturers until it
+became a very efficient machine in skilful hands, excavating and raising
+material from depths of 5 ft. to 60 ft. of water at a cost not very
+different from, and in many cases less than, that at which the same work
+could be performed on land. With the powerful dredgers now constructed,
+almost all materials, except solid rock or very large boulders, can be
+dredged with ease. Loose gravel is perhaps the most favourable material
+to work in, but a powerful dredger will readily break up and raise
+indurated beds of gravel, clay and boulders, and has even found its way
+through the surface of soft rock, though it will not penetrate very far
+into it. In some cases steel diggers alternating with the buckets on the
+bucket frame have been successfully employed. The construction of large
+steam dredgers is now carried on by many engineering firms. The main
+feature of the machine is the bucket ladder which is hung at the top end
+by eye straps to the frame of the vessel, and at the lower end by a
+chain reived in purchase blocks and connected to the hoisting gear, so
+that the ladder may be raised and lowered to suit the varying depths of
+water in which the dredger works. The upper tumbler for working the
+bucket chain is generally square or pentagonal in form and made of steel
+with loose steel wearing pieces securely bolted to it. The tumbler is
+securely keyed to the steel shaft which is connected by gearing and
+shafting to the steam engine, a friction block being inserted at a
+convenient point to prevent breakage should any hidden obstacle causing
+unusual strain be met with in the path of the buckets. The lower tumbler
+is similar in construction to the upper tumbler, but is usually
+pentagonal or hexagonal in shape. The buckets are generally made with
+steel backs to which the plating of the buckets is riveted; the cutting
+edge of the buckets consists of a strong steel bar suitably shaped and
+riveted to the body. The intermediate links are made of hammered iron or
+steel with removable steel bushes to take the wear of the connecting
+pins, which are also of steel. The hoisting gear may be driven either
+from the main engine by frictional gearing or by an independent set of
+engines. Six anchors and chains worked by powerful steam crabs are
+provided for regulating the position of the dredger in regard to its
+work.
+
+_Barge-loading Dredgers_ used formerly to be provided with two ladders,
+one on each side of the vessel, or contained in wells formed in the
+vessel near each side. Two ladders were adopted, partly to permit the
+dredger to excavate the material close to a quay or wall, and partly to
+enable one ladder to work while the other was being repaired. Bucket
+ladder dredgers are now, however, generally constructed with one central
+ladder working in a well; frequently the bucket ladder projects at
+either the head or stern of the vessel, to enable it to cut its own way
+through a shoal or bank, a construction which has been found very
+useful. In one modification of this method the bucket ladder is
+supported upon a traversing frame which slides along the fixed framing
+of the dredger and moves the bucket ladder forward as soon as it has
+been sufficiently lowered to clear the end of the well. In places where
+a large quantity of dredging has to be done, a stationary dredger with
+three or four large hopper barges proves generally to be the most
+economical kind of plant. It has, however, the disadvantage of requiring
+large capital expenditure, while the dredger and its attendant barges
+take up an amount of space which is sometimes inconvenient where traffic
+is large and the navigable width narrow. The principal improvements made
+in barge-loading dredgers have been the increase in the size of the
+buckets and the strength of the dredging gear, the application of more
+economical engines for working the machinery, and the use of frictional
+gearing for driving the ladder-hoisting gear. It is very important that
+the main drive be fitted with the friction blocks or clutches before
+alluded to.
+
+  Up to the year 1877 dredgers were seldom made with buckets of a
+  capacity exceeding 9 cub. ft., but since that time they have been
+  gradually increased in capacity. In the dredger "Melbourne,"
+  constructed by Messrs William Simons & Co. to the design and
+  specification of Messrs Coode, Son & Matthews, about the year 1886,
+  the buckets had a capacity of 22 cub. ft., the dredger being capable
+  of making 37 ft. of water. The driving power consists of two pairs of
+  surface-condensing engines, each of 250 i.h.p., having cylinders 20
+  in. and 40 in. in diameter respectively, with a 30 in. stroke, the
+  boiler pressure being 90 lb. per sq. in. The vessel is 200 ft. long
+  by 36 ft. wide and 11 ft. 6 in. deep, and is driven by twin screw
+  propellers. The gearing is arranged so that either pair of engines can
+  be employed for dredging. The speed under steam is 7 knots, and in
+  free-getting material 800 tons per hour can be dredged with ease. On
+  one occasion the dredger loaded 400 tons in 20 minutes. The speed of
+  the bucket chain is 83 lineal ft. per minute. The draught of the
+  dredger in working trim is 7 ft. forward and 9 ft. aft. The efficiency
+  of the machine, or the net work in raising materials compared with the
+  power exerted in the cylinders, is about 25%. The dredged material is
+  delivered into barges moored alongside. Contrasting favourably with
+  former experience, the "Melbourne" worked for the first six months
+  without a single breakage. She is fitted with very powerful mooring
+  winches, a detail which is of great importance to ensure efficiency in
+  working.
+
+  The "St Austell" (Plate I. fig. 3), a powerful barge-loading dredger
+  195 ft. long by 35 ft. 6 in. beam by 13 ft. deep, fitted with
+  twin-screw compound surface-condensing propelling engines of 1000
+  i.h.p., either set of engines being available for dredging, was
+  constructed for H.M. Dockyard, Devonport, by Messrs Wm. Simons & Co.
+  in 1896. This dredger loaded thirty-five 500-ton hopper barges in the
+  week ending April 2, 1898, dredging 17,500 tons of material in the
+  working time of 29 hours 5 minutes.
+
+  An instance of a still larger and more powerful dredger is the
+  "Develant," constructed by Messrs Wm. Simons & Co., for Nicolaiev,
+  South Russia. She is a bow-well, barge-loading, bucket ladder dredger,
+  with a length of 186 ft., a breadth, moulded, of 36 ft., and a depth,
+  moulded, of 13 ft. The bucket ladder is of sufficient length to dredge
+  36 ft. below the water level. The buckets are exceptionally large,
+  each having a capacity of 36 cub. ft., or fully two tons weight of
+  material, giving a lifting capacity of 1890 tons per hour. At the
+  dredging trials 2000 tons of spoil were lifted in one hour with an
+  expenditure of 250 i.h.p. The propelling power is supplied by one pair
+  of compound surface-condensing marine engines of 850 i.h.p., having
+  two cylindrical boilers constructed for a working pressure of 120 lb.
+  per sq. in. Each boiler is capable of supplying steam to either the
+  propelling or dredging machinery, thus allowing the vessel to always
+  have a boiler in reserve. On the trials a speed of 8-1/2 knots was
+  obtained. The bucket ladder, which weighs over 100 tons, exclusive of
+  dredgings, is raised and lowered by a set of independent engines. For
+  manoeuvring, powerful winches driven by independent engines are placed
+  at the bow and stern. The vessel is fitted throughout with electric
+  light, arc lamps being provided above the deck to enable dredging to
+  be carried on at night. Steam steering gear, a repairing shop, a
+  three-ton crane, and all the latest appliances are installed on board.
+
+  The "Derocheuse" (Plate II. fig. 12), constructed by Messrs Lobnitz &
+  Co., is a good example of the dredger fitted with their patent rock
+  cutters, as used on the Suez Canal. These rock cutters consist of
+  stamps passing down through the bottom of the dredger, slightly in
+  advance of the bucket chain, and are employed for breaking up rock in
+  front of the bucket ladder so that it may be raised by buckets
+  afterwards. This system of subaqueous rock cutting plant, on Messrs
+  Lobnitz's patent system, was effectively employed in deepening the
+  Manchester Ship Canal, and removed a considerable length of rock,
+  increasing the depth of water from 26 ft. to 28 ft. at a cost of about
+  9d. per cub. yd. A full and illustrated description of this plant, and
+  of a similar plant supplied to the Argentine Government, was published
+  in _Engineering_ of August 17, 1906. An illustration of a bucket of 54
+  cub. ft. capacity constructed by Messrs Lobnitz & Co. is given (Plate
+  II fig. 11), from which some idea of the size of dredging machinery as
+  developed in recent practice may be obtained. In regard to the depth
+  of water that can be obtained by dredging, it is interesting to note
+  that the dredger "Diver," constructed by Messrs. Hunter & English for
+  Mr Samuel Williams of London, is capable of working in 60 ft. of
+  water. In this vessel an ingenious arrangement was devised by Mr
+  Williams, by which part of the weight of the dredger was balanced
+  while the ladder itself could be drawn up through the bucket well and
+  placed upon the deck, enabling a long ladder to be used for a
+  comparatively short vessel. The "Tilbury" dredger, also constructed by
+  Messrs Hunter & English, was able to dredge to a depth of 45 ft. below
+  the surface of the water.
+
+_Hopper Barges._--To receive the materials excavated by barge-loading
+dredgers, steam hopper barges are now generally employed, capable of
+carrying 500 tons or more of excavation and of steaming loaded at a
+speed of about 9 m. per hour. These hopper barges are made with hinged
+flaps in their bottoms, which can be opened when the place of deposit is
+reached and the dredgings easily and quickly discharged.
+
+Good examples of these vessels are the two steam hopper barges built for
+the Conservators of the river Thames in 1898. The dimensions are: length
+190 ft., breadth 30 ft., depth 13 ft. 3 in., hopper capacity 900 tons.
+They are propelled by a set of triple expansion engines of 1200 i.h.p.,
+with two return-tube boilers having a working pressure of 160 lb.
+Special appliances are provided to work the hopper doors by steam power
+from independent engines placed at the forward end of the hopper. A
+steam windlass is fixed forward and a steam capstan aft. The vessels are
+fitted with cabins for the officers and crew. On their trial trip, the
+hoppers having their full load, a speed of 11 knots was obtained, the
+coal consumption being 1.44 lb. per i.h.p.
+
+_Methods of Dredging._--In river dredging two systems are pursued. One
+plan consists in excavating a series of longitudinal furrows parallel to
+the axis of the stream; the other in dredging cross furrows from side to
+side of the river. It is found that inequalities are left between the
+longitudinal furrows when that system is practised, which do not occur,
+to the same extent, in side or cross dredging; and cross dredging leaves
+a more uniform bottom. In either case the dredger is moored from the
+head and stern by chains about 250 fathoms in length. These chains in
+improved dredgers are wound round windlasses worked by the engine, so
+that the vessel can be moved ahead or astern by simply throwing them
+into or out of gear. In longitudinal dredging the vessel is worked
+forward by the head chain, while the buckets are at the same time
+performing the excavation, so that a longitudinal trench is made in the
+bottom of the river. After proceeding a certain length, the dredger is
+stopped and permitted to drop down and commence a new longitudinal
+furrow, parallel to the first one. In cross dredging, on the other hand,
+the vessel is supplied with four additional moorings, two on each side,
+and these chains are, like the head and stern chains, wound round
+barrels worked by steam power. In cross dredging we may suppose the
+vessel to be moored at one side of the channel to be excavated. The
+bucket frame is set in motion, but instead of the dredger being drawn
+forward by the head chain, she is drawn across the river by the
+starboard chains, and, having reached the extent of her work in that
+direction, she is then drawn a few feet forward by the head chain, and
+the bucket frame being still in motion the vessel is hauled across by
+the port chains to the side whence she started. By means of this
+transverse motion of the dredger a series of cross cuts is made; the
+dredger takes out the whole excavation from side to side to a uniform
+depth and leaves no protuberances such as are found to exist between the
+furrows in longitudinal dredging, even when it is executed with great
+care. The two systems will be understood by reference to fig. 1, where A
+and B are the head and stern moorings, and C, D, E and F the side
+moorings. The arc e f represents the course of the vessel in cross
+dredging; while in longitudinal dredging, as already explained, she is
+drawn forward towards A, and again dropped down to commence a new
+longitudinal furrow.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Diagram showing Moorings for Transverse
+Dredging.]
+
+_Hopper Dredgers._--In places where barge-loading dredgers are
+inconvenient, owing to confined space and interference with navigation,
+and where it is necessary to curtail capital expenditure, hopper
+dredgers are convenient and economical. These dredgers were first
+constructed by Messrs. Wm. Simons & Co. of Renfrew, who patented and
+constructed what they call the "Hopper Dredger," combining in itself the
+advantages of a dredger for raising material and a scow hopper vessel
+for conveying it to the place of discharge, both of which services are
+performed by the same engines and the same crew.
+
+The vessel for this type of dredger is made of sufficient length and
+floating capacity to contain its own dredgings, which it carries out to
+the depositing ground as soon as its hopper is full. Considerable time
+is of course occupied in slipping and recovering moorings, and conveying
+material to the depositing ground, but these disadvantages are in many
+instances counterbalanced by the fact that less capital is required for
+plant and that less room is taken up by the dredger. If the depositing
+ground is far away, the time available for dredging is much curtailed,
+but the four-screw hopper dredger constructed by Messrs Wm. Simons & Co.
+for Bristol has done good work at the cost of 5d. per ton, including
+wages, repairs, coals, grease, sundries and interest on the first cost
+of the plant, notwithstanding that the material has to be taken 10 m.
+from the Bristol Dock. She can lift 400 tons of stiff clay per hour from
+a depth of 36 ft. below the water line, and the power required varies
+from 120 i.h.p. to 150 i.h.p., according to the nature of the material.
+The speed is 9 knots, and 4 propellers are provided, two at the head and
+two at the stern, to enable the vessel to steam equally well either way,
+as the river Avon is too narrow to permit her to be turned round.
+
+  The hopper dredger "La Puissante" (Plate I. fig. 4), constructed by
+  Messrs Wm. Simons & Co. for the Suez Canal Co. for the improvement of
+  Port Said Roads, is a fine example of this class of dredger. She is
+  275 ft. long by 47 ft. beam by 19 ft. deep. The hopper capacity is
+  2000 tons, and the draught loaded 16 ft. 5 in. The maximum dredging
+  depth is 40 ft., and the minimum dredging depth is only limited by the
+  vessel's draught, she being able to cut her own way. The bucket ladder
+  works through the well in the stern and weighs with buckets 120 tons.
+  The buckets have each a capacity of 30 cub. ft. and raised on trial
+  1600 tons per hour. The dredger is propelled by two sets of
+  independent triple expansion surface-condensing engines of 1800 i.h.p.
+  combined, working with steam at 160 lb. pressure, supplied by two mild
+  steel multitubular boilers. Each set of engines is capable of driving
+  the buckets independently at speeds of 16 and 20 buckets per minute.
+  The bucket ladder is fitted with buffer springs at its upper end to
+  lessen the shock when working in a seaway. The dredger can deliver the
+  dredged material either into its own hopper or into barges lying on
+  either side. The vessel obtained a speed of 9-3/4 knots per hour on
+  trial. The coal consumption during 6 hours' steaming trial was 1.66
+  lb. per i.h.p. hour. Fig. 9 (Plate I.) shows a still larger hopper
+  dredger by the same constructors.
+
+_Dredgers fitted with Long Shoot or Shore Delivering Apparatus._--The
+first instance of dredgers being fitted with long shoots was in the Suez
+Canal. The soil in the lakes was very variable, the surface being
+generally loose mud which lay in some places in the sand, but frequently
+more or less on hard clay. Resort was had to shoots 230 ft. long,
+supported on pontoons connected with the hull of the dredger. The sand
+flowed away with a moderate supply of water to the shoots when they were
+fixed at an inclination of about 1 in 20, but when the sand was mixed
+with shells these formed a coating which prevented the stream of water
+from washing out the shoot, and even with an inclination of 1 in 10
+material could not be delivered. A pair of endless chains working down
+the long shoot overcame the difficulty, and also enabled hard clay in
+lumps to be dealt with. One dredger turned out about 2000 cub. yds. of
+thick clay in 15 hours, and when the clay was not hard it could deliver
+150,000 cub. yds. in a month for several consecutive months.
+
+Shore delivery has been successfully effected by raising the material by
+buckets in the ordinary way and delivering it into a vertical cylinder
+connected with floating jointed pipes through which the dredgings pass
+to the shore. This, of course, can only be done where the place of
+deposit is near the spot where the material is dredged. Two plans have
+been satisfactorily employed for this operation. At the Amsterdam Canal
+the stuff was discharged from the buckets into a vertical cylinder, and
+after being mingled with water by a revolving Woodford pump was sent off
+under a head of pressure of 4 or 5 ft. to the place of deposit in a
+semi-fluid state through pipes made of timber, hooped with iron. These
+wooden pipes were made in lengths of about 15 ft., connected with
+leather joints, and floated on the surface of the water. A somewhat
+similar process was also employed on the Suez Canal.
+
+  A dredger (Plate I. fig. 5), constructed by Messrs Hunter & English
+  for reclamation works on Lake Copais in Greece was fitted with
+  delivery belts running on rollers in steel lattice frames on each side
+  of the vessel supported by masts and ropes. It could deliver 100 cub.
+  metres per hour at 85 ft. from the centre of the dredger, at a cost of
+  1.82d. per cub. metre for working expenses, with coal at 45s. per ton,
+  including 0.66d. per cub. metre for renewal of belts, upon which the
+  wear and tear was heavy.
+
+  Another instance of the successful application of shore delivery
+  apparatus is that of a dredger for Lake Titicaca, Peru, constructed by
+  Messrs Hunter & English, which was fitted with long shoots on both
+  sides, conveying the dredged material about 100 ft. from the centre of
+  the dredger upon either side. The shoots were supported by shear-legs
+  and ropes, and were supplied with water from a centrifugal pump in the
+  engine room. This dredger could excavate and deliver 120 cub. yds. per
+  hour at a cost of 1.725d. per cub. yd. with coal costing 40s. per ton.
+  If coal had been available at the ordinary rate in England of 20s. per
+  ton, the cost of the dredging and delivery would have been 0.82d. per
+  cub. yd. for wages, coal, oil, &c., but not including the salary of
+  the superintendent.
+
+  An interesting example of a shore delivering dredger is a light
+  draught dredger constructed by Messrs Hunter & English for the Lakes
+  of Albufera at the mouth of the river Ebro in Spain (Plate I. fig. 6).
+  The conditions laid down for this dredger were that it should float in
+  18 in. of water and deliver the dredged material at 90 ft. from the
+  centre of its own hull. In order to meet these requirements the vessel
+  was made of steel plates 1/8 in. thick, and longitudinal girders from
+  end to end of the vessel, the upward strain of flotation being
+  conveyed to them from the skin plating by transverse bulkheads at
+  short intervals. The dredger was 94 ft. long, 25 ft. wide, and 3 ft.
+  deep, and the height of the top tumbler above the water was 25 ft.
+  When completed the dredger drew 17 in. of water. The dredgings were
+  delivered by the buckets upon an endless belt, driven from the main
+  compound surface-condensing engine, which ran over pulleys supported
+  upon a steel lattice girder, the outer end of which rested upon an
+  independent pontoon. This belt delivered the dredgings at 90 ft. from
+  the centre of the dredger round an arc of 180 deg. The dredger
+  delivered 125 cub. yds. per hour of compact clay at a cost of 1.16d.
+  per cub. yd. or 0.86d. per ton for wages, coal and stores. Another
+  method of delivering dredgings is that of pneumatic delivery,
+  introduced by Mr F. E. Duckham, of the Millwall Dock Co., by which the
+  dredgings are delivered into cylindrical tanks in the dredger, closed
+  by air-tight doors, and are expelled by compressed air either into the
+  sea or through long pipes to the land. The Millwall Dock dredger is
+  113 ft. long, with a beam of 17 ft. and a depth of 12 ft. The draught
+  loaded is 8 ft. It contains two cylindrical tanks, having a combined
+  capacity of 240 cub. yds., and is fitted with compound engines of
+  about 200 i.h.p., with a 20 in. air-compressing cylinder. The
+  discharge pipe is 15 in. diameter by 150 yds. long. The nozzles of the
+  air-injection pipes must not be too small, otherwise the compressed
+  air, instead of driving out the material, simply pierces holes through
+  it and escapes through the discharging pipe, carrying with it all the
+  liquid and thin material in the tanks. The cost of working the
+  Millwall Dock dredger is given by Mr Duckham at 1.75d. per cub. yd. of
+  mud lifted, conveyed and deposited on land 450 ft. from the
+  water-side, for working expenses only. This dredger is believed to be
+  the first machine constructed with a traversing ladder, as suggested
+  by Captain Gibson when dock-master of the Millwall Docks.
+
+_Blasting combined with Dredging._--In some cases it has been found that
+the bottom is too hard to be dredged until it has been to some extent
+loosened and broken up. Thus at Newry, John Rennie, after blasting the
+bottom in a depth of from 6 to 8 ft. at low water, removed the material
+by dredging at an expense of from 4s. to 5s. per cub. yd. The same
+process was adopted by Messrs Stevenson at the bar of the Erne at
+Ballyshannon, where, in a situation exposed to a heavy sea, large
+quantities of boulder stones were blasted, and afterwards raised by a
+dredger worked by hand at a cost of 10s. 6d. per cub. yd. Sir William
+Cubitt also largely employed blasting in connexion with dredging on the
+Severn (see _Proc. Inst. C.E._ vol. iv. p. 362). The cost of blasting
+and dredging the marl beds is given as being 4s. per cub. yd. A
+combination of blasting and dredging was employed in 1875 by John Fowler
+of Stockton at the river Tees. The chief novelty was in the barge upon
+which the machinery was fixed. It was 58 ft. by 28 ft. by 4 ft., and had
+eight legs which were let down when the barge was in position. The legs
+were then fixed to the barge, so that on the tide falling it became a
+fixed platform from which the drilling was done. Holes were bored and
+charged, and when the tide rose the legs were heaved up and the barge
+removed, after which the shots were discharged. There were 24 boring
+tubes on the barge, and that was the limit which could at any time be
+done in one tide. The area over which the blasting was done measured 500
+yds. in length by 200 in breadth, a small part being uncovered at low
+water. The depth obtained in mid-channel was 14 ft. at low water, the
+average depth of rock blasted being about 4 ft. 6 in. The holes, which
+were bored with the diamond drill, varied in depth from 7 to 9 ft., the
+distance between them being 10 ft. Dynamite in tin canisters fired by
+patent fuse was used as the explosive, the charges being 2 lb. and
+under. The rock is oolite shale of variable hardness, and the average
+time occupied in drilling holes 5 ft. deep was 12 minutes. The dredger
+raised the blasted rock. The cost for blasting, lifting and discharging
+at sea was about 4s. per cub. yd., including interest on dredging and
+other plant employed. The dredger sometimes worked a face of blasted
+material of from 7 to 8 ft. The quantity blasted was 110,000 cub. yds.,
+and the contract for blasting so as to be lifted by the dredger was 3s.
+1d. per cub. yd. A similar plan was adopted at Blyth Harbour (see _Proc.
+Inst. C.E._ vol. 81, p. 302). The cost of the explosives per cub. yd.
+was 1s. 4d., of boring 1s. 9d. per cub. yd., and of dredging 3s. per
+cub. yd., including repairs, but nothing for the use of plant. The whole
+cost worked out at 6s. 1d. per cub. yd. on the average.
+
+_Sand-pump Dredgers._--Perhaps the most important development which has
+taken place in dredging during recent years has been the employment of
+sand-pump dredgers, which are very useful for removing sandy bars where
+the particular object is to remove quickly a large quantity of sand or
+other soft material. They are, however, apt to make large holes, and are
+therefore not fitted for positions where it is necessary to finish off
+the dredging work to a uniform flat bottom, for which purpose bucket
+dredgers are better adapted. Pump dredgers are, however, admirable and
+economical machines for carrying out the work for which they are
+specially suited.
+
+  In the discussion upon Mr J. J. Webster's paper upon
+  "Dredging-Appliances" (_Proc. Inst. C.E._ vol. 89) at the Institution
+  of Civil Engineers in 1886, Sir John Coode stated that he had first
+  seen sand-pump dredgers at the mouth of the Maas in Holland. The
+  centrifugal pump was placed against the bulkheads in the after part of
+  the vessel, and the sand and water were delivered into a horizontal
+  breeches-piece leading into two pipes running along the full length of
+  the hopper. The difficulty of preventing the sand from running
+  overboard was entirely obviated by its being propelled by the pump
+  through these pipes, the bottoms of which were perforated by a series
+  of holes. In addition, there were a few small flap-doors fixed at
+  intervals, by means of which the men were able to regulate the
+  discharge. On being tested, the craft pumped into its hopper 400 tons
+  of sand in 22 minutes. The coamings round the well of the hoppers were
+  constructed with a dip, and when the hopper was full the water ran
+  over in a steady stream on either side. The proportion of sand
+  delivered into the hopper was about 20% of the total capacity of the
+  pump. The dredger was constructed by Messrs Smit of Kinderdijk, near
+  Rotterdam. In the same discussion Mr A. A. Langley, then engineer to
+  the Great Eastern railway, gave particulars of a sand pump upon the
+  Bazin system, which had been used successfully at Lowestoft. The boat
+  was 60 ft. long by 20 ft. wide, and the pump was 2 ft. in diameter,
+  with a two-bladed disk. The discharge pipe was 12 in. in diameter. The
+  pump raised 400 tons of sand, gravel and stones per hour as a maximum
+  quantity, the average quantity being about 200 tons per hour. The
+  depth dredged was from 7 ft. to 25 ft. The pump was driven by a
+  double-cylinder engine, having cylinders of 9 in. diameter by 10 in.
+  stroke, and making 120 revolutions per minute. An important
+  improvement was made by fitting the working faces of the pump with
+  india-rubber, which was very successful and largely reduced the wear
+  and tear. The cost of the dredging at Lowestoft was given by Mr
+  Langley at 2d. per ton, including delivery 2 m. out at sea. The
+  quantity dredged was about 200,000 tons per annum.
+
+  One of the earliest pumps to be applied to dredging purposes was the
+  Woodford, which consisted of a horizontal disk with two or more arms
+  working in a case somewhat similar to the ordinary centrifugal pump.
+  The disk was keyed to a vertical shaft which was driven from above by
+  means of belts or other gear coupled to an ordinary portable engine.
+  The pump within rested on the ground; the suction pipe was so arranged
+  that water was drawn in with the sand or mud, the proportions being
+  regulated to suit the quality of the material. The discharge pipe was
+  rectangular and carried a vertical shaft, the whole apparatus being
+  adjustable to suit different depths of water. This arrangement was
+  very effective, and has been used on many works. Burt & Freeman's sand
+  pump, a modification of the Woodford pump, was used in the
+  construction of the Amsterdam Ship Canal, for which it was designed.
+  The excavations from the canal had to be deposited on the banks some
+  distance away from the dredgers, and after being raised by the
+  ordinary bucket dredger, instead of being discharged into the barges,
+  they were led into a vertical chamber on the top side of the pump,
+  suitable arrangements being made for regulating the delivery. The pump
+  was 3-1/2 ft. in diameter, and made about 230 revolutions per minute.
+  The water was drawn up on the bottom side and mixed with the
+  descending mud on the top side, and the two were discharged into a
+  pipe 15 in. in diameter. The discharge pipe was a special feature, and
+  consisted of a series of wooden pipes jointed together with leather
+  hinges and floated on buoys from the dredger to the bank. In some
+  cases this pipe was 300 yds. long, and discharged the material 8 ft.
+  above the water level. Each dredger and pump was capable of
+  discharging an average of 1500 cub. yds. per day of 12 hours.
+  Schmidt's sand pump is claimed to be an improvement on the Burt &
+  Freeman pump. It consists of a revolving wheel 6 ft. in diameter, with
+  cutters revolving under a hood which just allows the water to pass
+  underneath. To the top side of the hood a 20 in. suction pipe from an
+  ordinary centrifugal pump is attached. The pump is driven by two 16
+  in. by 20 in. cylinders, at 134 revolutions per minute, the boiler
+  pressure being 95 lb. per sq. in. This apparatus is capable of
+  excavating sticky blue clayey mud, and will deliver the material at
+  500 to 650 yds. distance. The best results are obtained when the
+  mixture of mud and water is as 1 to 6.5. The average quantity
+  excavated per diem by the apparatus is 1300 cub. yds., the maximum
+  quantity being 2500 cub. yds.
+
+  Kennard's sand pump is entirely different from the pumps already
+  described, and is a direct application of the ordinary lift pump. A
+  wrought iron box has a suction pipe fitted at the bottom, rising about
+  half way up the inside of the box; on the top of the box is fitted the
+  actual pump and the flap valves. The apparatus is lowered by chains,
+  and the pump lowered from above. As soon as the box is filled with
+  sand it is raised, the catches holding up the bottom released, and the
+  contents discharged into a punt.
+
+  Sand-pump dredgers, designed and arranged by Mr Darnton Hutton, were
+  extensively used on the Amsterdam Ship Canal. A centrifugal pump with
+  a fan 4 ft. in diameter was employed, the suction and delivery pipes,
+  each 18 in. in diameter, being attached to an open wrought-iron
+  framework. The machine was suspended between guides fixed to the end
+  of the vessel, which was fitted with tackle for raising, lowering and
+  adjusting the machine. The vessel was fitted with a steam engine and
+  boiler for working and manipulating the pumps and the heavy side
+  chains for the guidance of the dredger. The engine was 70 h.p., and
+  the total cost of one dredger was L8000. The number of hands required
+  for working this sand-pump dredger was one captain, one engineer, one
+  stoker and four sailors. Each machine was capable of raising about
+  1300 tons of material per day, the engines working at 60 and the pump
+  at 180 revolutions per minute. The sand was delivered into barges
+  alongside the dredger. The cost of raising the material and depositing
+  it in barges was about 1d. per ton when the sand pumps were working,
+  but upon the year's work the cost was 2.4d. per cub. yd. for working
+  expenses and repairs, and 1.24d. per cub. yd. for interest and
+  depreciation at 10% upon the cost of the plant, making a total cost
+  for dredging of 3.64d. per cub. yd. The cost for transport was 3.588d.
+  per cub. yd., making a total cost for dredging and transport of
+  7.234d. per cub. yd. Dredging and transport on the same works by an
+  ordinary bucket dredger and barges cost 8.328d. per cub. yd.
+
+  Two of the largest and most successful instances of sand-pump dredgers
+  are the "Brancker" and the "G. B. Crow," belonging to the Mersey
+  Docks and Harbour Board. Mr A. G. Lyster gave particulars of the work
+  done by these dredgers in a paper read before the Engineering Congress
+  in 1899. They are each 320 ft. long, 47 ft. wide and 20.5 ft. deep,
+  the draught loaded being 16 ft. They are fitted with two centrifugal
+  pumps, each 6 ft. in diameter, with 36 in. suction and delivery pipes,
+  united into a 45 in. diameter pipe, hung by a ball and socket joint in
+  a trunnion, so as to work safely in a seaway when the waves are 10 ft.
+  high. The suction pipe is 76 ft. long and will dredge in 53 ft. of
+  water. The eight hoppers hold 3000 tons, equivalent when solid to 2000
+  cub. yds.; they can be filled in three-quarters of an hour and
+  discharged in five minutes. Mr Lyster stated that up to May 1899, the
+  quantity removed from bar and main-channel shoals amounted to
+  41,240,360 tons, giving a width of channel of 1500 ft. through the
+  bar, with a minimum depth of 27 ft. The cost of dredging on the bar by
+  the "G. B. Crow" during 1898, when 4,309,350 tons of material were
+  removed, was 0.61d. per ton for wages, supplies and repairs. These
+  figures include all direct working costs and a proportion of the
+  charge for actual superintendence, but no allowance for interest on
+  capital cost or depreciation. On an average, 20% of the sand and mud
+  that are raised escapes over the side of the vessel. Mr Lyster has,
+  however, to a considerable extent overcome this difficulty by a
+  special arrangement added to the hoppers (see _Proc. Inst. C.E._ vol.
+  188).
+
+  At the Engineering Conference, 1907, Mr Lyster read a note in which he
+  stated that the total quantity of material removed from the bar of the
+  Mersey, from the Crosby channel, and from other points of the main
+  channel by the "G. B. Crow" and "Brancker" suction dredgers amounted
+  to 108,675,570 tons up to the 1st of May 1907. "In the note of 1899
+  (he added) it was pointed out that the Mersey was a striking instance
+  of the improvement of a river by dredging rather than by permanent
+  works, and the economy of the system as well as the advantage which
+  its elasticity and adaptability to varying circumstances permit, was
+  pointed out.... The most recent experience, which has resulted in the
+  adoption of the proposal to revet the Taylor's bank, indicates that
+  the dredging method has its limitations and cannot provide for every
+  contingency which is likely to arise; at the same time, the utility
+  and economy of the dredging system is in no way diminished.... Having
+  regard to the ever-increasing size of vessels, a scheme for new docks
+  and entrances on a very large scale received the authority of
+  parliament during the session of 1905-1906 In this scheme it was
+  considered necessary to make provision for vessels of 1000 ft. in
+  length and 40 ft. in draught, and having regard to this prospective
+  growth of vessels it has been determined still further to deepen and
+  improve the outer channel of the Mersey. No fixed measure of
+  improvement has been decided on, but after careful survey of existing
+  conditions and a comparison with probable requirements, it has been
+  determined to construct a dredger of 10,000 tons capacity, provided
+  with pumping power equivalent to about three times that of any
+  existing dredgers. By the use of this vessel it is anticipated that it
+  will be possible to deal with very much larger quantities of sand at a
+  cheaper rate, and to 10 ft. greater depth than the existing plant
+  permits."
+
+  The vessel in question was launched on the Mersey from the yard of
+  Messrs Cammell, Laird & Co. in October 1908, and was named the
+  "Leviathan." Her length is 487 ft., beam 69 ft., and depth 30 ft. 7
+  in. Her dredging machinery consists of four centrifugal pumps driven
+  by four sets of inverted triple expansion engines, and connected to
+  four suction tubes 90 ft. long and 42 in. in internal diameter. Her
+  propelling machinery, consisting of two sets of triple expansion
+  engines, is capable of driving her at a speed of 10 knots.
+
+  Another powerful and successful sand-pump dredger, "Kate" (Plate I.
+  fig. 7), was built in 1897 by Messrs Wm. Simons & Co. Ltd. for the
+  East London Harbour Board, South Africa. Its dimensions are: length
+  200 ft., breadth 39 ft., depth 14 ft. 6 in., hopper capacity 1000
+  tons. The pumping arrangements for filling the hopper with sand or
+  discharging overboard consist of two centrifugal pumps, each driven
+  from one of the propelling engines. The suction pipes are each 27 in.
+  in diameter, and are so arranged that they may be used for pumping
+  either forward or aft, as the state of the weather may require. Four
+  steam cranes are provided for manipulating the suction pipes. Owing to
+  the exceptional weather with which the vessel had to contend, special
+  precautions were taken in designing the attachments of the suction
+  pipes to the vessel. The attachment is above deck and consists of a
+  series of joints, which give a perfectly free and universal movement
+  to the upper ends of the pipes. The joints, on each side of the
+  vessel, are attached to a carriage, which is traversed laterally by
+  hydraulic gear. By this means the pipes are pushed out well clear of
+  the vessel's sides when pumping, and brought inboard when not in work.
+  Hydraulic cushioning cylinders are provided to give any required
+  resistance to the fore and aft movements of the pipes. When the vessel
+  arrived at East London on the 18th of July 1897, there was a depth of
+  14 ft. on the bar at high tide. On the 10th of October, scarcely three
+  months afterwards, there was a depth of 20 ft. on the bar at low
+  water. Working 22 days in rough weather during the month of November
+  1898, the "Kate" raised and deposited 2-1/2 m. at sea 60,000 tons of
+  dredgings. Her best day's work (12 hours) was on the 7th of November,
+  when she dredged and deposited 6440 tons.
+
+  A large quantity of sand-pump dredging has been carried out at
+  Boulogne and Calais by steam hopper pump dredgers, workable when the
+  head waves are not more than 3 ft. high and the cross waves not more
+  than 1-1/2 ft. high. The dredgings are taken 2 m. to sea, and the price
+  for dredging and depositing from 800,000 to 900,000 cub. metres in 5
+  or 6 years was 7.25d. per cub. yd. The contractor offered to do the
+  work at 4.625d. per cub. yd. on condition of being allowed to work
+  either at Calais or Boulogne, as the weather might permit. Sand-pump
+  dredging has also been extensively carried out at the mouth of the
+  ports of Amsterdam, Rotterdam and on the north coast of France by sand
+  dredgers constructed by Messrs L. Smit & Son and G. & K. Smit. The
+  largest dredger, the "Amsterdam," is 141 ft. by 27 ft. by 10 ft. 8
+  in., and has engines of 190 i.h.p. The hopper capacity is 10,600 cub.
+  ft., and the vessel can carry 600 tons of dredgings. The pump fan is 6
+  ft. 3 in. in diameter by 10 in. wide, the plates being of wrought
+  iron, and makes 130 revolutions a minute. The pump can raise 230 cub.
+  ft. a minute from a depth of 33 ft., which, taking the proportion of 1
+  of sand to 7 of water, gives a delivery of 29 cub. ft. of sand per
+  minute. The hopper containing 10,600 cub. ft. was under favourable
+  circumstances filled in 40 minutes. The vessels are excellent sea
+  boats.
+
+_Combined Bucket-Ladder and Sand-Pump Dredgers._--Bucket ladders and
+sand pumps have also been fitted to the same dredger. A successful
+example of this practice is furnished by the hopper dredger "Percy
+Sanderson" (Plate I. fig. 8), constructed under the direction of Sir C.
+A. Hartley, engineer of the Danube Commission for the deepening of the
+river Danube and the Sulina bar. This dredger is 220 ft. by 40 ft. by 17
+ft. 2 in., and has a hopper capacity for 1250 tons of dredgings. The
+buckets have each a capacity of 25 cub. ft., and are able to raise 1000
+tons of ordinary material per hour. The suction pump, which is driven by
+an independent set of triple expansion engines, is capable of raising
+700 tons of sand per hour, and of dredging to a depth of 35 ft. below
+the water-line. The lower end of the suction pipe is controlled by
+special steam appliances by which the pipe can be brought entirely
+inboard. The "Percy Sanderson" raises and deposits on an average 5000
+tons of material per day.
+
+_Grab Dredgers._--The grab dredger was stated by Sir Benjamin Baker
+(_Proc. Inst. C.E._ vol. 113, p. 38) to have been invented by Gouffe in
+1703, and was worked by two ropes and a bar. Various kinds of apparatus
+have been designed in the shape of grabs or buckets for dredging
+purposes. These are usually worked by a steam crane, which lets the open
+grab down to the surface of the ground to be excavated and then closes
+it by a chain which forces the tines into the ground; the grab is then
+raised by the crane, which deposits the contents either into the hopper
+of the vessel upon which the crane is fixed or into another barge.
+
+  The Priestman grab has perhaps been more extensively used than any
+  other apparatus of this sort. It is very useful for excavating mud,
+  gravel and soft sand, but is less effective with hard sand or stiff
+  clay--a general defect in this class of dredger. It is also capable of
+  lifting large loose pieces of rock weighing from 1 to 2 tons. A
+  dredger of this type, with grab holding 1 ton of mud, dredged during
+  six days, in 19 ft. of water, an average of 52-1/2 tons and a maximum
+  of 68-1/2 tons per hour, and during 12 days, in 16 ft. of water, an
+  average of 48 tons and a maximum of 58 tons per hour, at a cost of
+  1.63d. per ton, excluding interest on the capital and depreciation.
+  The largest dredger to which this apparatus has been applied is the
+  grab bucket hopper dredger "Miles K. Burton" (Plate I. fig. 9),
+  belonging to the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board. It is equipped with 5
+  grabs on Morgan's patent system, which is a modification of
+  Priestman's, the grabs being worked by 5 hydraulic cranes. It raised
+  and deposited, 12 to 15 m. at sea, 11 loads of about 1450 tons each
+  with a double shift of hands, at a cost of about 1s. 5d. per cub. yd.
+  of spoil, including the working expenses for wages of crew, fuel and
+  stores. Mr R. A. Marillier of Hull has stated that "the efficiency of
+  these grabs is not at all dependent upon the force of the blow in
+  falling for the penetration and grip in the material, as they do their
+  work very satisfactorily even when lowered quite gently on to the
+  material to be cut out, the jaws being so framed as to draw down and
+  penetrate the material as soon as the upward strain is put on the
+  lifting chain. Even in hard material the jaws penetrate so thoroughly
+  as to cause the bucket to be well filled. The grab is found to work
+  successfully in excavating hard clay from its natural bed on dry
+  land." It is claimed on behalf of grabs that they lift a smaller
+  proportion of water than any other class of dredger.
+
+  Since the beginning of the 20th century considerable advance has been
+  made in the use of Priestman grabs, not only for dredging and
+  excavating (for which work they were originally designed), but also in
+  discharging bulk cargo. The first quadruple dredger used by the
+  Liverpool Docks Board had grabs of a capacity of 30 cub. ft., but
+  subsequently second and third quadruple dredgers were put to work in
+  the Liverpool Docks, with grabs having a capacity of 70 and 100 cub.
+  ft. respectively. In discharging coal at Southampton, Havre, Erith,
+  as well as at the coaling station at Purfleet on the Thames, grabs
+  having a capacity of about 80 cub. ft. are in constant use. Perhaps
+  the most difficult kind of bulk cargo to lift is "Narvick" iron ore,
+  which sets into a semi-solid body in the holds of the vessels, and for
+  this purpose one of the largest grabs, having about 150 cub. ft.
+  capacity and weighing about 8 tons, has been adopted. This grab was
+  designed as a result of experiments extending over a long period in
+  lifting iron ore. It is fitted with long, forged, interlocked steel
+  teeth for penetrating the compact material, which is very costly to
+  remove by hand labour. The Priestman grab is made to work with either
+  one or two chains or wire ropes. Grabs worked with two chains or ropes
+  have many advantages, and are therefore adopted for large
+  undertakings.
+
+  Wild's single chain half-tine grab works entirely with a single chain,
+  and has been found very useful in excavating the cylinders in Castries
+  harbour. Upon experimenting with an ordinary grab a rather curious
+  condition of things was observed with respect to sinking. On
+  penetrating the soil to a certain depth the ground was found as it
+  were nested, and nothing would induce the grab to sink lower. Sir W.
+  Matthews suggested that a further set of external tines might possibly
+  get over this difficulty. A new grab having been made with this
+  modification, and also with a large increase of weight--all the parts
+  being of steel--it descended to any required depth with ease, the
+  outside tines loosening the ground effectually whilst the inside
+  bucket or tines picked up the material.
+
+_Miscellaneous Appliances._--There are several machines or appliances
+which perhaps can hardly be called dredgers, although they are used for
+cleansing and deepening rivers and harbours.
+
+  Kingfoot's dredger, used for cleansing the river Stour, consisted of a
+  boat with a broad rake fitted to the bow, capable of adjustment to
+  different depths. At the sides of the boat were hinged two wings of
+  the same depth as the rake and in a line with it. When the rake was
+  dropped to the bottom of the river and the wings extended to the side,
+  they formed a sort of temporary dam, and the water began to rise
+  gradually. As soon as a sufficient head was raised, varying from 6 to
+  12 in., the whole machine was driven forward by the pressure, and the
+  rake carried the mud with it. Progress at the rate of about 3 m. an
+  hour was made in this manner, and to prevent the accumulation of the
+  dredgings, operations were begun at the mouth of the river and carried
+  on backwards. The apparatus was very effective and the river was
+  cleansed thoroughly, but the distance travelled by the dredger must
+  have been great.
+
+  In 1876 J. J. Rietschoten designed a "propeller dredger" for removing
+  the shoals of the river Maas. It consisted of an old gunboat fitted
+  with a pair of trussed beams, one at each side, each of which carried
+  a steel shaft and was capable of being lowered or raised by means of a
+  crab. An ordinary propeller 3 ft. 6 in. in diameter was fixed to the
+  lower end of the shaft, and driven by bevel gear from a cross shaft
+  which derived its motion by belting from the fly-wheel of a 12 h.p.
+  portable engine. The propellers were lowered until they nearly reached
+  the shoals, and were then worked at 150 revolutions per minute. This
+  operation scoured away the shoal effectively, for in about 40 minutes
+  it had been lowered about 3 ft. for a space of 150 yds. long by 8 yds.
+  wide.
+
+  A. Lavalley in 1877 designed an arrangement for the harbour of Dunkirk
+  to overcome the difficulty of working an ordinary bucket-ladder
+  dredger when there is even a small swell. A pump injects water into
+  the sand down a pipe terminating in three nozzles to stir up the sand,
+  and another centrifugal pump draws up the mixed sand and water and
+  discharges it into a hopper, the pumps and all machinery being on
+  board the hopper. To allow for the rising and falling of the
+  vessel--either by the action of the tide or by the swell--the ends of
+  the pipes are made flexible. The hopper has a capacity of 190 cub.
+  yds., and is propelled and the pumps worked by an engine of 150 i.h.p.
+  From 50 to 80 cub. yds. per hour can be raised by this dredger.
+
+  The "Aquamotrice," designed by Popie, and used on the Garonne at Agen,
+  appears to be a modification of the old bag and spoon arrangement. A
+  flat-bottomed boat 51-1/2 ft. long by 6-1/2 ft. wide was fitted at the
+  bow with paddles, which were actuated by the tide. Connected with the
+  paddles was a long chain, passing over a pulley on uprights and under
+  a roller, and a beam was attached to the chain 14 ft. 8 in. long,
+  passing through a hole in the deck. At the end of the beam was an iron
+  scoop 2 ft. wide and 2 ft. 6 in. deep. When the tide was strong enough
+  it drew the scoop along by means of the paddles and chains, and the
+  scoop when filled was opened by a lever and discharged. About 65 cub.
+  yds. of gravel could be raised by the apparatus in 12 hours. When the
+  tide failed the apparatus was worked by men.
+
+  The Danube Steam Navigation Co. removed the shingle in the shallow
+  parts of the river by means of a triangular rake with wrought-iron
+  sides 18 ft. long, and fitted with 34 teeth of chilled cast iron 12
+  in. deep. This rake was hung from the bow of a steamer 180 ft. long by
+  21 ft. beam, and dragged across the shallows, increasing the depth of
+  water in one instance from 5 ft. 6 in. to 9 ft., after passing over
+  the bank 355 times.
+
+  A combination of a harrow and high pressure water jets, arranged by B.
+  Tydeman, was found very efficacious in removing a large quantity of
+  mud which accumulated in the Tilbury Dock basin, which has an area of
+  about 17 acres, with a depth of 26 ft. at low-water spring tides. In
+  the first instance chain harrows merely were used, but the addition of
+  the water jets added materially to the success of the operation. The
+  system accomplished in six tides more than was done in twelve tides
+  without the water jets which worked at about 80 lb pressure per sq.
+  in. at the bottom of the dock.
+
+  Ive's excavator consists of a long weighted spear, with a sort of
+  spade at the end of it. The spade is hinged at the top, and is capable
+  of being turned at right angles to the spear by a chain attached to
+  the end of the spear. The spade is driven into the ground, and after
+  releasing the catch which holds it in position during its descent, it
+  is drawn up at right angles to the spear by the chain, carrying the
+  material with it. Milroy's excavator is similar, but instead of having
+  only one spade it generally has eight, united to the periphery of an
+  octagonal iron frame fixed to a central vertical rod. When these eight
+  spades are drawn up by means of chains, they form one flat table or
+  tray at right angles to the central rod. In operation the spades hang
+  vertically, and are dropped into the material to be excavated; the
+  chains are then drawn up, and the table thus formed holds the material
+  on the top, which is lifted and discharged by releasing the spade.
+  This apparatus has been extensively used both in Great Britain and in
+  India for excavating in bridge cylinders.
+
+  The clam shell dredger consists of two hinged buckets, which when
+  closed form one semi-cylindrical bucket. The buckets are held open by
+  chains attached to the top of a cross-head, and the machine is dropped
+  on to the top of the material to be dredged. The chains holding the
+  bucket open are then released, while the spears are held firmly in
+  position, the buckets being closed by another chain. Bull's dredger,
+  Gatmell's excavator, and Fouracre's dredger are modifications with
+  improvements of the clam shell dredger, and have all been used
+  successfully upon various works.
+
+  Bruce & Batho's dredger, when closed, is of hemispherical form, the
+  bucket being composed of three or four blades. It can be worked by
+  either a single chain or by means of a spear, the latter being
+  generally used for stiff material. The advantage of this form of
+  dredger bucket is that the steel points of the blades are well adapted
+  for penetrating hard material. Messrs Bruce & Batho also designed a
+  dredger consisting of one of these buckets, but worked entirely by
+  hydraulic power. This was made for working on the Tyne. The excavator
+  or dredger is fixed to the end of a beam which is actuated by two
+  hydraulic cylinders, one being used for raising the bucket and the
+  other for lowering it; the hydraulic power is supplied by the pumps in
+  the engine-room. The novelty in the design is the ingenious way in
+  which the lever in ascending draws the shoot under the bucket to
+  receive its contents, and draws away again as the bucket descends. The
+  hydraulic cylinder at the end of the beam is carried on gimbals to
+  allow for irregularities on the surface being dredged. The hydraulic
+  pressure is 700 lb. per sq. in., and the pumps are used in connexion
+  with a steam accumulator.
+
+  An unloading apparatus was designed by Mr A. Manning for the East &
+  West India Dock Co. for unloading the dredged materials out of barges
+  and delivering it on the marsh at the back of the bank of the river
+  Thames at Crossness, Kent. A stage constructed of wooden piles
+  commanded a series of barge beds, and the unloading dredger running
+  from end to end of the stage, lifted and delivered the materials on
+  the marsh behind the river wall at the cost of 1 d. per cub. yd.
+
+_Dredging on the River Scheldt below Antwerp._--This dredging took place
+at Krankeloon and the Belgian Sluis under the direction of L. Van
+Gansberghe. At Melsele there is a pronounced bend in the river, causing
+a bar at the Pass of Port Philip, and just below the pass of Lillo there
+is a cross-over in the current, making a neutral point and forming a
+shoal. After dredging to 8 metres (26.24 ft.) below low tide, in clay
+containing stone and ferruginous matter, a sandstone formation was
+encountered, which was very compact and difficult to raise. A suction
+dredger being unsuited to the work, a bucket-ladder dredger was
+employed. The dredging was commenced at Krankeloon in September 1894 and
+continued to the end of 1897. A depth of 6 metres (19.68 ft.) was
+excavated at first, but was afterwards increased to 8 metres (26.24
+ft.). The place of deposit was at first on lands acquired by the State,
+2.17 m. above Krankeloon, and placed at the disposal of the contractor.
+The dredgings excavated by the bucket-ladder dredger were deposited in
+scows, which were towed to the front of the deposit ground and
+discharged by a suction pump fixed in a special boat, moored close to
+the bank of the river. The material brought by the suction dredger in
+its own hull was discharged by a plant fixed upon the dredger itself. In
+both instances the material was deposited at a distance of 1640 ft. from
+the river, the spoil bank varying in depth from 2 to 7 metres. The water
+thrown out behind the dyke with the excavated material returned to the
+river, after settlement, by a special discharge lock built under the
+dyke. After 1896 the material was delivered into an abandoned pass by
+means of barges with bottom hopper doors or by the suction dredger. One
+suction dredger and three bucket-ladder dredgers were employed upon the
+work, and a vessel called "Scheldt I." used for discharging the material
+from the scows. Four tugboats and twenty scows were also employed.
+
+  The largest dredger, "Scheldt III.," was 147.63 ft. long by 22.96 ft.
+  wide by 10.98 ft. deep, and had buckets of 21.18 cub. ft. capacity.
+  The output per hour was 10,594 cub. ft. This dredger had also a
+  complete installation as a suction dredger, the suction pipe being 2
+  ft. diameter. The fan of the centrifugal pump was 5.25 ft. diameter,
+  and was driven by the motor of the bucket ladder. The three bucket
+  dredgers worked with head to the ebb tide. They could also work with
+  head to the flood tide, but it took so long a time to turn them about
+  that it was impracticable. The work was for from 13 to 14 hours a day
+  on the ebb tide. The effective daily excavation averaged 4839 cub.
+  yds. Each dredger was fitted with six anchors. The excavated cut was
+  164 ft. wide by 6.56 ft. deep. "Scheldt III." was capable of lifting a
+  mass 9.84 ft. thick. The suction dredger "Scheldt II." was of the
+  multiple type, and is stated to be unique in construction. It can
+  discharge material from a scow alongside, fill its own hopper with
+  excavations, discharge its own load upon the bank or into a scow by
+  different pipes provided for the purpose, and discharge its own load
+  through hopper doors. The machinery is driven by a triple expansion
+  engine of 300 i.h.p. working the propeller by a clutch. Owing to the
+  rise and fall in the tide of 23 ft. the suction pipe is fitted with
+  spherical joints and a telescopic arrangement. The vessel is 157.5 ft.
+  by 28.2 ft. by 12.8 ft. The diameter of the pump is 5.25 ft. The wings
+  of the pump are curved, the surface being in the form of a cylinder
+  parallel to the axis of rotation, the directrix of which is an arc of
+  a circle of 2.62 ft. radius with the straight part beyond. The suction
+  and discharge pipes are 2 ft. diameter. A centrifugal pump is provided
+  for throwing water into the scows to liquefy the material during
+  discharge. The dredger, which is fitted with electric lights for work
+  at night, is held by two anchors, to prevent lurching backwards and
+  forwards; it can work on the flood as well as on the ebb tide, and can
+  excavate to a depth of 42.65 ft., the output depending upon the nature
+  of the material. With good material it can fill its tanks in thirty
+  minutes. To empty the tanks by suction and discharge upon the bank
+  over the dyke takes about fifty minutes, depending upon the height and
+  distance to which the material requires to be delivered. The daily
+  work has averaged eighteen hours, ten trips being made when the
+  distance from the dredging ground to the point of delivery is about 1
+  m. When the dredged material is discharged into the Scheldt, a
+  quantity of 5886 cub. yds. has been raised and deposited in a day, the
+  mean quantity being 4700 cub. yds. When the distance of transportation
+  is increased to 2-1/2 m., six voyages were made in a day, and the day's
+  work amounted to 3530 cub. yds.
+
+_Gold Dredgers._--Dredgers for excavating from river beds soil
+containing gold are generally fitted with a screen and elevator.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Diagram showing Action of Lobnitz Gold Dredger.]
+
+They have been extensively designed and built by Messrs Lobnitz & Co.
+(fig. 2) and also by Messrs Hunter & English.
+
+  The writer is indebted to the _Proceedings_ of the Institution of
+  Civil Engineers, and especially to the paper of Mr J. J. Webster
+  (_Proc. Inst. C.E._ vol. 89), for much valuable information upon the
+  subject treated. He is also indebted to many manufacturers who have
+  furnished him with particulars and photographs of dredging plant.
+       (W. H.*)
+
+
+Plate I.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Barge-loading dredger, "St Austell," constructed
+for the British Government by Wm. Simons & Co.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Stern-well hopper-dredger "La Puissante," by Wm.
+Simons & Co. Length 275 ft., breadth 47 ft., depth 19 ft.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Dredger constructed for the Lake Copais Co. by
+Hunter & English.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Light-draught dredger, with delivery apparatus
+working round an arc of 210 deg., by Hunter & English.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Twin-screw sand-pump dredger, "Kate," built for
+the East London Harbour Board by Wm. Simons & Co.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Twin-screw hopper-dredger, "Percy Sanderson,"
+built for the European Danube Commission by Wm. Simons & Co.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Twin-screw grab-dredger, "Miles K. Burton,"
+built for the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board by Wm. Simons & Co.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Hopper-dredger, "David Dale," with buckets of
+54 cub. ft. capacity (see fig. 11) built for the North Eastern Railway
+Company by Lobnitz & Co.]
+
+
+Plate II.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--BUCKETS OF 5 AND 54 CUBIC FEET CAPACITY
+COMPARED.
+
+The latter, the largest ever made, were for the hopper-dredger "David
+Dale" (Plate I. fig. 10), built by Lobnitz & Co.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--MODEL OF ROCK-CUTTING DREDGER, "DEROCHEUSE."
+
+Built for special work on the Suez Canal by Lobnitz & Co. Length 180
+ft., breadth 40 ft., depth 12 ft.]
+
+
+2. MARINE BIOLOGY
+
+The naturalist's dredge is an instrument consisting essentially of a net
+or bag attached to a framework of iron which forms the mouth of the net.
+When in use as the apparatus is drawn over the sea-bottom mouth
+forwards, some part of the framework passes beneath objects which it
+meets and so causes them to enter the net. It is intended for the
+collection of animals and plants living on or near the sea-bottom, or
+sometimes of specimens of the sea-bottom itself, for scientific
+purposes.
+
+Until the middle of the 18th century, naturalists who studied the marine
+fauna and flora relied for their materials on shore collection and the
+examination of the catches of fishing boats. Their knowledge of
+creatures living below the level of low spring tides was thus gained
+only from specimens cast up in storms, or caught by fishing gear
+designed for the capture of certain edible species only. The first
+effort made to free marine biology from these limitations was the use of
+the dredge, which was built much on the plan of the oyster dredge.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Otho Frederick Muller's Dredge (1770).]
+
+  _The Oyster Dredge._--At first naturalists made use of the ordinary
+  oyster dredge, which is constructed as follows. The frame is an iron
+  triangle, the sides being the round iron "arms" of the dredge, the
+  base a flat bar called the shere or lip, which is sloped a little, not
+  perpendicular to the plane of the triangle; an iron bar parallel to
+  the base joins the arms. The net is fastened to the parallel bars and
+  the portion of the arms between them, and consists of two parts: that
+  attached to the shere is of round iron rings linked together by
+  smaller ones of wire lashings, that attached to the upper bar is of
+  ordinary network. Where these two portions of the bag meet a wooden
+  beam is fastened. In use the frame is towed forward by its apex: the
+  shere passes below oysters, &c., which pass back on to the iron
+  netting. The length of each side of the triangular frame is about 6
+  ft., the width of the shere 3 in. and the height of the mouth just
+  under a foot. The rings vary in size, but are usually some 2-1/2 in.
+  in diameter. The weight is about 60 lb. This dredge was soon
+  abandoned: its weight was prohibitive for small boats, from which the
+  naturalist usually worked, its wide rings allowed precious specimens
+  to fall through, and its shallow net favoured the washing out of light
+  objects on hauling through the moving water of the surface. Moreover,
+  it sometimes fell on its back and was then useless, although when the
+  apex or towing point was weighted no great skill is needed to avoid
+  this.
+
+  Otho Muller used a dredge (fig. 13) consisting of a net with a square
+  iron mouth, each of whose sides was furnished with a thin edge turned
+  slightly away from the dredge's centre. As any one of these everted
+  lips could act as a scraper it was a matter of indifference which
+  struck the bottom when the dredge was lowered. The chief defect of the
+  instrument was the ease with which light objects could be washed out
+  on hauling, owing to the size of the mouth. However, with this
+  instrument Muller obtained from the often stormy Scandinavian seas all
+  the material for his celebrated _Zoologia Danica_, a description of
+  the marine fauna of Denmark and Norway which was published with
+  excellent coloured plates in 1778; and historical interest attaches to
+  the dredge as the first made specially for scientific work.
+
+  _Ball's Dredge._--About 1838 a dredge devised by Dr Ball of Dublin was
+  introduced. It has been used all over the world, and is so apt for its
+  purpose that it has suffered very little modification during its 70
+  years of life. It is known as Ball's dredge or more generally simply
+  "the dredge."
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 14.--Ball's Naturalist's Dredge.]
+
+  Ball's dredge (fig. 14) consists of a rectangular net attached to a
+  rectangular frame much longer than high, and furnished with rods
+  stretching from the four corners to meet at a point where they are
+  attached to the dredge rope. It differs from Muller's dredge in the
+  slit-like shape of the opening, which prevents much of the "washing
+  out" suffered by the earlier pattern, and in the edges. The long edges
+  only are fashioned as scrapers, being wider and heavier than Muller's,
+  especially in later dredges. The short edges are of round iron bar.
+
+  Like Muller's form, Ball's dredge will act whichever side touches the
+  bottom first, as its frame will not remain on its short edge, and
+  either of the long edges acts as a scraper. The scraping lips thicken
+  gradually from free edge to net; they are set at 110 deg. to the plane
+  of the mouth, and in some later patterns curve outwards instead of
+  merely sloping. All dredge frames are of wrought iron.
+
+  The thick inner edges of the scrapers are perforated by round holes at
+  distances of about an inch, and through these strong iron rings about
+  an inch in diameter are passed, and two or three similar rings run on
+  the short rods which form the ends of the dredge-frame. A light iron
+  rod, bent to the form of the dredge opening, usually runs through
+  these rings, and to this rod and to the rings the mouth of the
+  dredge-bag is securely attached by stout cord or strong copper wire.
+  Various materials have been used for the bag, the chief of which are
+  hide, canvas and netting. The hide was recommended by its strength,
+  but it is now abandoned. Canvas bags fill quickly with mud or sand and
+  then cease to operate: on the other hand wide mesh net fails to retain
+  small specimens. Probably the most suitable material is hand-made
+  netting of very strong twine, the meshes half an inch to the side, the
+  inter-spaces contracting to a third of an inch across when the twine
+  is thoroughly soaked, with an open canvas or "bread-bag" lining to the
+  last 6 in. of the net. A return to canvas covering has latterly
+  occurred in the small dredge called the mud-bag, trailed behind the
+  trawl of the "Albatross" for obtaining a sample of the bottom, and in
+  the conical dredge.
+
+  The dimensions of the first dredges were as follows: Frame about 12
+  in. by about 4 in.; scraping lips about 2 in. wide; all other iron
+  parts of round iron bar 5/8 in. diameter; bag rather more than 1 ft.
+  long. These small dredges were used from rowing boats. Larger dredges
+  were subsequently made for use from yawls or cutters. The mouth of
+  these was 18 by 5 in., the scraping lips about 2 in. wide and bag 2
+  ft. deep; such a dredge weighs about 20 lb. The dredge of the
+  "Challenger" had a frame 4 ft. 6 in. by 1 ft. 3 in. and the bag had a
+  length of 4 ft. 6 in.; the "Porcupine" used a dredge of the same size
+  weighing 225 lb. Doubtless the size of Ball's dredge would have
+  grown still more had it not been proved by the "Challenger" expedition
+  that for many purposes trawls could be used advantageously instead of
+  dredges.
+
+_Operation of the Dredge from Small Vessels._ For work round the coasts
+of Europe, at depths attainable from a row-boat or yawl, probably the
+best kind of line is bolt-rope of the best Russian hemp, not less than
+1-1/2 in. in circumference, containing 18 to 20 yarns in 3 strands. Each
+yarn should be nearly a hundredweight, so that the breaking strain of
+such a rope ought to be about a ton. Of course it is never voluntarily
+exposed to such a strain, but in shallow water the dredge is often
+caught among rocks or coral, and the rope should be strong enough in
+such a case to bring up the boat, even if there were some little way on.
+It is always well, when dredging, to ascertain the approximate depth
+with the lead before casting the dredge; and the lead ought always to be
+accompanied by a registering thermometer, for the subsequent haul of the
+dredge will gain greatly in value as an observation in geographical
+distribution, if it be accompanied by an accurate note of the bottom
+temperature. For depths under 100 fathoms the amount of rope paid out
+should be at least double the depth; under 30 fathoms, where one usually
+works more rapidly, it should be more nearly three times; this gives a
+good deal of slack before the dredge if the boat be moving very slowly,
+and keeps the lip of the dredge well down. When there is anything of a
+current, from whatever cause, it is usually convenient to attach a
+weight, varying from 14 lb. to half a hundredweight, to the rope 3 or 4
+fathoms in front of the dredge. This prevents in some degree the lifting
+of the mouth of the dredge; if the weight be attached nearer the dredge
+it is apt to injure delicate objects passing in.
+
+In dredging in sand or mud, the dredge-rope may simply be passed through
+the double eye formed by the ends of the two arms of the dredge-frame;
+but in rocky or unknown ground it is better to fasten the rope to the
+eye of one of the arms only, and to tie the two eyes together with three
+or four turns of rope-yarn. This stop breaks much more readily than the
+dredge-rope, so that if the dredge get caught it is the first thing to
+give way under the strain, and in doing so it often alters the position
+of the dredge so as to allow of its extrication.
+
+The dredge is slipped gently over the side, either from the bow or from
+the stern--in a small boat more usually the latter--while there is a
+little way on, and the direction which the rope takes indicates roughly
+whether the dredge is going down properly. When it reaches the ground
+and begins to scrape, an experienced hand upon the rope can usually
+detect at once a tremor given to the dredge by the scraper passing over
+the irregularities of the bottom. The due amount of rope is then paid
+out, and the rope hitched to a bench or rowlock-pin. The boat should
+move very slowly, probably not faster than a mile an hour. In still
+water or with a very slight current the dredge of course anchors the
+boat, and oars or sails are necessary; but if the boat be moving at all
+it is all that is required. It is perhaps most pleasant to dredge with
+a close-reefed sail before a light wind, with weights, against a very
+slight tide or current; but these are conditions which cannot be
+commanded. The dredge may remain down from a quarter of an hour to
+twenty minutes, by which time, if things go well, it ought to be fairly
+filled. In dredging from a small boat the simplest plan is for two or
+three men to haul in, hand over hand, and coil in the bottom of the
+boat. For a large yawl or yacht, and for depths over 50 fathoms, a winch
+is a great assistance. The rope takes a couple of turns round the winch,
+which is worked by two men, while a third hand takes it from the winch
+and coils it down.
+
+It is easier to operate a dredge from a steam vessel than a sailing
+boat, but if the steamer is of any size great care should be taken that
+the dredge does not move too rapidly.
+
+Two ingenious cases of dredging under unusual conditions are worthy of
+mention, one case from shore, one from ice. In the Trondligem Fjord,
+Canon A. M. Norman in 1890 worked by hauling the dredge up the
+precipitous shores of the fjord. The dredge was shot from a boat close
+to the shore, to which after paying out some hundreds of fathoms of line
+it returned. The dredge was then hauled from the top of the cliffs up
+whose side it scraped. Hitches against projecting rocks were frequent
+and were overcome by suddenly paying out line for a time. The dredge was
+lifted into a boat when it reached the surface of the sea. The other
+case occurred during the Antarctic expedition of the "Discovery."
+Hodgson dropped loops of line along cracks which occasionally formed in
+the ice. The ice always joined up again, but with the line below it; and
+a hole being cleared at each place at which the end of the line emerged,
+the dredge could be worked between them.
+
+The dredge comes up variously freighted according to the locality, and
+the next step is to examine its contents and to store the objects of
+search for future use. In a regularly organized dredging expedition a
+frame or platform is often erected with a ledge round it to receive the
+contents of the dredge, but it does well enough to capsize it on an old
+piece of tarpaulin. There are two ways of emptying the dredge; we may
+either turn it up and pour out its contents by the mouth, or we may have
+a contrivance by which the bottom of the bag is made to unlace. The
+first plan is the simpler and the one more usually adopted; the second
+has the advantage of letting the mass slide out more smoothly and
+easily, but the lacing introduces rather a damaging complication, as it
+is apt to loosen or give way. Any objects visible on the surface of the
+heap are now carefully removed, and placed for identification in jars or
+tubs of sea-water, of which there should be a number secured in some
+form of bottle basket, standing ready. The heap should not be much
+disturbed, for the delicate objects contained in it have already been
+unavoidably subjected to a good deal of rough usage, and the less
+friction among the stones the better.
+
+_Examination of the Catch. Sifting._--The sorting of the catch is
+facilitated by sifting. The sieves used in early English expeditions
+were of various sizes and meshes, each sieve having a finer mesh than
+the sieve smaller than itself. In use the whole were put together in the
+form of a nest, the smallest one with the coarsest mesh being on top. A
+little of the dredge's contents were then put in the top sieve, and the
+whole set moved gently up and down in a tub of sea water by handles
+attached to the bottom one. Objects of different sizes are thus left in
+different sieves. A simple but effective plan is to let the sieves of
+various sized mesh fit accurately on each other like lids, the coarsest
+on top, and to pour water upon material placed on the top one. In the
+United States Bureau of Fisheries ship "Albatross" these sieves are
+raised to form a table and the water is led on them from a hose: the
+very finest objects or sediments are retained by the waste water
+escaping from a catchment tub by muslin bags let into its sides. Any of
+these methods are preferable to sifting by the agitation of a sieve hung
+over the side, as in the last anything passing through the sieve is gone
+past recall.
+
+_Preservation of Specimens._--The preservation of specimens will of
+course depend on the purpose for which they are intended. For
+microscopic observation formaldehyde has some advantages. It can be
+stored in 40% solution and used in 2%, thus saving space, and it
+preserves many animals in their colours for a time: formalin
+preparations do not, however, last as well as do those in spirit. The
+suitable fluids for various histological inquiries are beyond the scope
+of the present article; but for general marine histology Bles' fluid is
+useful, being simple to prepare and not necessitating the removal of the
+specimen to another fluid. It is composed of 70% alcohol 90 parts,
+glacial acetic acid 7 parts, 4% formaldehyde 7 parts.
+
+The scientific value of a dredging depends mainly upon two things, the
+care with which the objects procured are preserved and labelled for
+future identification and reference, and the accuracy with which all the
+circumstances of the dredging--the position, the depth, the nature of
+the ground, the date, the bottom-temperature, &c.--are recorded. In the
+British Marine Biological Association's work in the North Sea, a
+separate sheet of a printed book with carbon paper and duplicate sheets
+(which remain always on the ship) is used for the record of the
+particulars of each haul; depth, gear, &c., being filled into spaces
+indicated in the form. This use of previously prepared forms has been
+found to be a great saving of time and avoids risk of omission. Whether
+labelled externally or not, all bottles should contain parchment or good
+paper labels written with a soft pencil. These cannot be lost. The more
+fully details of reference number of station, gear, date, &c., are given
+the better, as should a mistake be made in one particular it can
+frequently be traced and rectified by means of the rest.
+
+_Growth of Scope of Operations._--At the Birmingham meeting of the
+British Association in 1839 an important committee was appointed "for
+researches with the dredge with a view to the investigation of the
+marine zoology of Great Britain, the illustration of the geographical
+distribution of marine animals, and the more accurate determination of
+the fossils of the Pliocene period." Of this committee Edward Forbes was
+the ruling spirit, and under the genial influence of his contagious
+enthusiasm great progress was made during the next decade in the
+knowledge of the fauna of the British seas, and many wonderfully
+pleasant days were spent by the original committee and by many others
+who from year to year were "added to their number." Every annual report
+of the British Association contains communications from the English, the
+Scottish, or the Irish branches of the committee; and in 1850 Edward
+Forbes submitted its first general report on British marine zoology.
+This report, as might have been anticipated from the eminent
+qualifications of the reporter, was of the highest value; and, taken
+along with his remarkable memoirs previously published, "On the
+Distribution of the Mollusca and Radiata of the Aegean Sea," and "On the
+Zoological Relations of the existing Fauna and Flora of the British
+Isles," may be said to mark an era in the progress of human thought.
+
+The dredging operations of the British Association committee were
+carried on generally under the idea that at the 100-fathom line, by
+which amateur work in small boats was practically limited, the zero of
+animal life was approached--a notion which was destined to be gradually
+undermined, and finally overthrown. From time to time, however, there
+were not wanting men of great skill and experience to maintain, with Sir
+James Clark Ross, that "from however great a depth we may be enabled to
+bring up mud and stones of the bed of the ocean we shall find them
+teeming with animal life." Samples of the sea-bottom procured with great
+difficulty and in small quantity from the first deep soundings in the
+Atlantic, chiefly by the use of Brooke's sounding machine, an instrument
+which by a neat contrivance disengaged its weights when it reached the
+bottom, and thus allowed a tube, so arranged as to get filled with a
+sample of the bottom, to be recovered by the sounding line, were eagerly
+examined by microscopists; and the singular fact was established that
+these samples consisted over a large part of the bed of the Atlantic of
+the entire or broken shells of certain foraminifera. Dr Wallich, the
+naturalist to the "Bulldog" sounding expedition under Sir Leopold
+M'Clintock, reported that star-fishes, with their stomachs full of the
+deep-sea foraminifera, had come up from a depth of 1200 fathoms on a
+sounding line; and doubts began to be entertained whether the bottom of
+the sea was in truth a desert, or whether it might not present a new
+zoological region open to investigation and discovery, and peopled by a
+peculiar fauna suited to its special conditions.
+
+In the year 1867, while the question was still undecided, two testing
+investigations were undertaken independently. In America Count L. F. de
+Pourtales (1824-1880), an officer employed in the United States Coast
+Survey under Benjamin Peirce, commenced a series of deep dredgings
+across the Gulf Stream off the coast of Florida, which were continued in
+the following year, and were productive of most valuable results; and in
+Great Britain the Admiralty, on the representation of the Royal Society,
+placed the "Lightning," a small gun-vessel, at the disposal of a small
+committee to sound and dredge in the North Atlantic between Shetland and
+the Farue Islands.
+
+In the "Lightning," with the help of a donkey-engine for winding in,
+dredging was carried on with comparative ease at a depth of 600 fathoms,
+and at that depth animal life was found to be still abundant. The
+results of the "Lightning's" dredgings were regarded of so great
+importance to science that the Royal Society pressed upon the Admiralty
+the advantage of continuing the researches, and accordingly, during the
+years 1869 and 1870, the gun-boat "Porcupine" was put under the orders
+of a committee consisting of Dr W. B. Carpenter, Dr Gwyn Jeffreys, and
+Professor (afterwards Sir Charles) Wyville Thomson, one or other of whom
+superintended the scientific work of a series of dredging trips in the
+North Atlantic to the north and west of the British Islands, which
+occupied two summers.
+
+In the "Porcupine," in the summer of 1869, dredging was carried down
+successfully to a depth of 2435 fathoms, upwards of two miles and a
+half, in the Bay of Biscay, and the dredge brought up well-developed
+representatives of all the classes of marine invertebrates. During the
+cruises of the "Porcupine" the fauna of the deep water off the western
+coasts of Great Britain and of Spain and Portugal was tolerably well
+ascertained, and it was found to differ greatly from the fauna of
+shallow water in the same region, to possess very special characters,
+and to show a very marked relation to the faunae of the earlier Tertiary
+and the later Cretaceous periods.
+
+In the winter of 1872, as a sequel to the preliminary cruises of the
+"Lightning" and "Porcupine," by far the most considerable expedition in
+which systematic dredging had ever been made a special object left Great
+Britain. H.M.S. "Challenger," a corvette of 2306 tons, with auxiliary
+steam working to 1234 h.p., was despatched to investigate the physical
+and biological conditions of the great ocean basins.
+
+The "Challenger" was provided with a most complete and liberal
+organization for the purpose; she had powerful deck engines for hauling
+in the dredge, workrooms, laboratories and libraries for investigating
+the results on the spot, and a staff of competent naturalists to
+undertake such investigations and to superintend the packing and
+preservation of the specimens reserved for future study. Since the
+"Challenger" expedition the use of wire rope has enabled far smaller
+vessels to undertake deep sea work. The "Challenger," however, may be
+said to have established the practicability of dredging at any known
+depth.
+
+_Operating Dredges and Trawls in deep Seas._--Dredging operations from
+large vessels in deep seas present numerous difficulties. The great
+weight of the ship makes her motion, whether of progress or rolling,
+irresistible to the dredge. The latter tends to jump, therefore, which
+both lowers its efficiency and causes it to exert a sudden strain on the
+dredge rope.
+
+The efficiency or evenness of dredging was secured, therefore, by the
+special device of fastening a heavy weight some 200 or 300 fathoms from
+the dredge end of the dredge rope. This was either lowered with the
+dredge or sent down after by means of a "messenger," a ring of rope
+fixed round, but running freely on, the dredge rope. The latter plan was
+used on the "Challenger"; the weights were six 28 lb. leads in canvas
+covers: their descent was arrested by a toggle or wooden cross-bar
+previously attached to the rope at the desired point. When, however, the
+rope used is of wire this front weight is unnecessary.
+
+  The possibility of sudden strain necessitates a constant watching of
+  the dredge rope, as the ship's engines may at any moment be needed to
+  ease the tension by stopping the vessel's way, and the hauling engines
+  by paying out more rope. The use of accumulators both renders the
+  strain more gradual and gives warning of an increase or decrease;
+  indeed they can be calibrated and used as dynamometers to measure the
+  strain. One of the best forms of accumulator consists of a pile of
+  perforated rubber disks, which receive the strain and become
+  compressed in doing so. The arrangement is in essence as follows. The
+  disks form a column resting on a cross-bar or base, from which two
+  rods pass up one on each side of the column. Another cross-bar rests
+  on the top disk, and from it a rod passes freely down the centre
+  perforation of disks and base. Eyes are attached to the lower end of
+  this rod and to a yoke connecting the side rods at the top: a pull
+  exerted on these eyes is thus modified by the elasticity of the
+  dredge. In the "Porcupine" and other early expeditions the accumulator
+  was hung from the main yard arm, and the block through which the
+  dredge rope ran suspended from it. In more recent ships a special
+  derrick boom is rigged for this block, and a second accumulator is
+  sometimes inserted between the topping lift by which this is raised
+  and the end of the boom.
+
+  The margin of safety of steel wire rope is much larger than is that of
+  hempen rope, a fact of importance both in towing in a rough sea and in
+  hauling. Galvanized steel wire with a hempen core was first used by
+  Agassiz on the "Blake." He states that his wire weighed one pound per
+  fathom, against two pounds per fathom of hempen rope, and had a
+  breaking strain nearly twice that of hempen rope, which bore two tons.
+  Thus in hauling the wire rope has both greater capability and less
+  actual strain. It has also the advantages of occupying a mere fraction
+  (1/9) of the storage space needed for rope, of lasting much longer,
+  and its vibrations transmit much more rapid and minute indications of
+  the conduct of the dredge.
+
+  Wire rope is kept wound on reels supplied with efficient brakes to
+  check or stop its progress, and an engine is often fitted for winding
+  it in and veering it out. From the reel it passes to the drum of the
+  hauling engine, round which it takes some few turns; care is taken by
+  watching or by the use of an automatic regulator (Tanner) that it is
+  taken at a rate equal to that at which it is moving over the side.
+  From the hauling engine it passes over leading wheels (one of which
+  should preferably be a registering wheel and indicate the amount of
+  rope which has passed it), and so it reaches the end of the derrick
+  boom.
+
+The dredge is lowered from the derrick boom, which has been previously
+trained over to windward so that its end is well clear of the ship,
+while the ship is slowly moving forward. The rope is checked until the
+net is seen to be towing clear, and then lowered rapidly. Where a weight
+is used in front of the trawl Captain Calver successfully adopted the
+plan of backing after sufficient line had been paid out: the part of the
+rope from weight to surface thus became more vertical, while the shorter
+remainder, previously in line with it, sank to the bottom without change
+of relative position of weight and dredge. The ship was then ready for
+towing. When no front weight is used the manoeuvre is unnecessary.
+
+There should be a relation maintained between speed of vessel onward and
+of rope downward, or a foul haul may result owing to the gear capsizing
+(in the case of a trawl), or getting the net over the mouth (in a
+dredge). The most satisfactory method of ensuring this relation seems to
+be so to manage the two speeds that the angle made by the dredge rope is
+fairly constant. This angle can be observed with a simple clinometer.
+The following table abridged from Tanner most usefully brings together
+the requisite angles with other useful quantities.
+
+  +----------+----------------+---------+---------------+---------------+
+  | Depth of | Speed of ship  |Length of|Angle of dredge|Angle of dredge|
+  |  water.  | while shooting |  rope   |  rope while   |  rope while   |
+  |          |dredge or trawl.|required.|lowering trawl.|dragging trawl.|
+  +----------+----------------+---------+---------------+---------------+
+  | Fathoms. |     Knots.     | Fathoms.|               |               |
+  |    100   |     3          |   200   |       60      |      55       |
+  |    200   |     3          |   400   |       60      |      55       |
+  |    400   |     3          |   700   |       60      |      52       |
+  |    600   |     2-3/4      |  1000   |       55      |      50       |
+  |    800   |     2-1/2      |  1200   |       50      |      44       |
+  |   1000   |     2-1/2      |  1500   |       50      |      40       |
+  |   1500   |     2-1/4      |  2166   |       50      |      40       |
+  |   2000   |     2          |  2670   |       45      |      35       |
+  |   3000   |     2          |  4000   |       40      |      35       |
+  +----------+----------------+---------+---------------+---------------+
+
+The speed of towing, always slow, may be assumed to be approximately
+correct if the appropriate angle is maintained. Hauling should at first
+be slow from great depths, but may increase in speed as the gear rises.
+
+  For further details of deep-sea dredging, especially of the hauling
+  machinery and management of the gear, the special reports of the
+  various expeditions must be consulted. Commander Tanner, U.S.N., has
+  given in _Deep Sea Exploration_ (1897) a very full and good account of
+  the equipment of an exploring ship; and to this book the present
+  article is much indebted.
+
+_Modifications and Additions to the Dredge._--From 1818, when Sir John
+Ross brought up a fine Astrophyton from over 800 fathoms on a sounding
+line in Baffin's Bay, instances gradually accumulated of specimens being
+obtained from great depths without nets or traps. The naturalists of the
+"Porcupine" and other expeditions found that echinoderms, corals and
+sponges were often carried up adhering to the outer surface of the
+dredge and the last few fathoms of dredge rope. In order to increase the
+effectiveness of this method of capture a bar was fastened to the bottom
+of the dredge, to which bunches of teased-out hemp were tied. In this
+way specimens of the greatest interest, and frequently of equal
+importance with those in the dredge bag, were obtained. The tangle bar
+was at first attached to the back of the net. From the "Challenger"
+expedition onward it has been fixed behind the net by iron bars
+stretching back from the short sides of the dredge frame which pass
+through eyes in their first ends (fig. 15). The swabs are thus unable to
+fold over the mouth of the dredge. Rope lashings to the lips of the
+dredge are sometimes added, and a weight is tied to the larger bar to
+keep it down.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Deep-sea Dredge, with Tangle Bar.]
+
+Occasionally the tangle bar is used alone (Agassiz), and one form
+(Tanner) has two bars, stretching back like the side strokes of the
+letter A from a strong steel spring in the form of an almost complete
+circle. The whole is pulled forward from a spherical sinker fastened in
+front of the spring apex; and should the apex enter a crevice between
+rock masses, the side bars are closed by the pressure instead of
+catching and bringing up. This is said to be a very useful instrument
+among corals.
+
+  _The Blake Dredge._--In the soft ooze which forms the bottom of deep
+  seas the common dredge sinks and digs much too deeply for its ordinary
+  purpose, owing partly to its chief weight bearing on the frame only,
+  partly to its everted lips. To obviate these defects Lieutenant
+  Commander Sigsbee of the "Blake" devised the Blake dredge. Its novel
+  features were the frame and lips. The former was in the form of a
+  skeleton box; that is, a rectangle of iron bars was placed at the back
+  as well as the front or mouth of the net and four more iron bars
+  connected the two rectangles. The lips instead of being everted were
+  in parallel planes--those, namely, of the top and bottom of the net.
+  The effect of this was to minimize digging and somewhat spread the
+  incidences of the weight. Another advantage was that the net being
+  constantly distended by its frame, and, moreover, protected top and
+  bottom by an external shield of canvas, quite delicate specimens
+  reached the surface uninjured. The dredge weighed 80 lb. and was 4
+  ft. square and 9 in. deep.
+
+  _Rake Dredges._--These are devices for collecting burrowing creatures
+  without filling the dredge with the soil in which they live. Holt
+  used, at Plymouth, a dredge whose side bars and lower lip were of
+  iron, the latter armed with forward and downward pointing teeth which
+  stirred up the sand and its denizens in front of the dredge mouth. The
+  upper lip of the dredge was replaced by a bar of wood. The bag was of
+  cheese-cloth or light open canvas, and the whole was of light
+  construction. The apparatus was very useful in capturing small
+  burrowing crustacea. The Chester rake dredge is a Blake dredge in
+  front of which is secured a heavy iron rectangle with teeth placed
+  almost at right angles to its long sides and in the plane of the
+  rectangle. Each of these instruments has a width along the scraping
+  edge of about 3 ft.
+
+  _Triangular and Conical Dredges._--Two other dredges are worthy of
+  mention. The triangular dredge, much resembling Muller's but with a
+  triangular mouth, and hung by chains from its angles, is an old
+  fashion now not in general use. It is, however, very useful for rocky
+  ground. At the Plymouth marine laboratory was also devised the conical
+  dredge (1901), the circular form being the suggestion of Garstang.
+  This dredge (fig. 16) was intended for digging deeply. It is of
+  wrought iron, and of the following dimensions: diameter of mouth 16
+  in., length 33 in., depth of ring at mouth 9 in. Its weight is 67
+  lb. As at first used the spaces between the bars are closed by wire
+  netting; if used for collecting bottom samples it is furnished with a
+  lining of strong sail-cloth.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Conical Dredge being hoisted in.]
+
+  Its weight and the small length of edge in contact with the ground
+  cause this dredge to dig well, and enable the user to obtain many
+  objects which though quite common are of rare occurrence in an
+  ordinary dredge. Thus on the Brown Ridges, a fishing-ground west of
+  Holland, although _Donax vittalus_ is known from examination of fish
+  stomachs to be abundant, it is rarely taken except in the conical
+  dredge: the same is true of _Echinocyamus pusillus_, which is in many
+  parts of the North Sea abundant in bottom samples and in no ordinary
+  dredgings. With the sail-cloth lining the conical dredge fills in
+  about 10 minutes on most ground, and no material washing out of fine
+  sediment occurs on hauling. In shallow seas such as the North Sea
+  commercial beam and other trawls are now used as quantitative
+  instruments in the estimation of the fish population, especially of
+  the _Pleuronectidae_.
+
+  _Use of Small Trawls for Dredging._--Although these trawls do not here
+  concern us, certain adaptations of small beam trawls for biological
+  exploration are of such identical use with the dredge, and differ from
+  it so little in structure and size, that they may be here described.
+
+  A small beam trawl was first used from the "Challenger" (fig. 17). It
+  was sent down in 600 fathoms off Cape St Vincent, the reason for its
+  use being the frequency with which the dredge sank into the sea-bottom
+  and there remained until hauling. The experiment was entirely
+  successful. The sinking of the net was avoided, the net had a much
+  greater spread than the dredge, and in addition to invertebrates it
+  captured several fish. After this the trawl was frequently used
+  instead of the dredge. Indeed tangle bar, dredge and trawl form a
+  series which are fitted for use on the roughest, moderately rough and
+  fairly firm, and the softest ground respectively, although the dredge
+  can be used almost anywhere.
+
+  [Illustration: From Sir Charles Wyville Thomson's _Voyage of the
+  "Challenger."_ By permission of Macmillan & Co., Ltd
+
+  FIG. 17.--Trawl of the "Challenger."]
+
+  The frame of the "Challenger" trawl consisted of a 15 ft. wooden beam
+  which in use was drawn over the sea-bed on two runners resembling
+  those of a sledge, by means of two ropes or bridles attached to eyes
+  in the front of the runners or "trawl heads." A net 30 ft. long was
+  suspended by one side to the beam by half-a-dozen stops. The remainder
+  of the net's mouth was of much greater length than the beam, and was
+  weighted with close-set rolls of sheet lead; it thus dragged along the
+  bottom in a curve approximately to a semicircle, behind the beam. The
+  net tapers towards the hinder end, and contains a second net with open
+  bottom, which, reaching about three-quarters of the way down the main
+  net, acts as a valve or pocket. Both heels (or hinder ends) of the
+  trawl heads and the tail of the net were weighted to assist the net in
+  digging sufficiently and to maintain its balance--an important point,
+  since if the trawl lands on its beam the net's mouth remains closed,
+  and nothing is caught.
+
+  The main differences of this trawl from the dredge are the replacement
+  of scraping lip by ground rope, the position of this ground rope and
+  the greater size of the mouth. The absence of a lip makes it less
+  effective for burrowing and sessile creatures, but the weighted ground
+  rope nevertheless secures them to a very surprising extent. The
+  position of the ground rope is an important feature, as any free
+  swimming creature not disturbed until the arrival of the ground rope
+  cannot escape by simply rising or "striking" up. This and the greater
+  spread make the trawl especially suitable for the collection of fishes
+  and other swiftly moving animals. The first haul of the "Challenger"
+  trawl brought up fishes, and most of our knowledge of fish of the
+  greatest depths is due to it.
+
+  A tendency to return to the use of the small beam trawl for deep-sea
+  work has lately shown itself. That used by Tanner on the "Albatross"
+  has runners more heart-shaped than the "Challenger's" instrument; the
+  net is fastened to the downward and backward sloping edge of the
+  runner as well as to the beam, being thus fixed on three sides instead
+  of one; and a Norwegian glass float is fastened in a network cover to
+  that part of the net which is above and in front of the ground rope in
+  use, to assist in keeping the opening clear. These floats can stand
+  the pressure at great depths, and do not become waterlogged as do cork
+  floats. The largest "Albatross" trawl has a beam 11 ft. long, runners
+  2 ft. 5 in. high, and its frame weighs 275 lb.
+
+  _Agassiz or Blake Trawl._--This is generally considered to possess
+  advantages over the preceding, and is decidedly better for those not
+  experts in trawling. Its frame (fig. 18) consists of two iron runners
+  each the shape of a capital letter D, joined by iron rods or pipes
+  which connect the middle of each stroke with the corresponding point
+  on the other letter. The net is a tapering one, its mouth being a
+  strong rope bound with finer rope for protection till the whole
+  reaches a thickness of some 2 in. It is fastened to the frame at four
+  points only, the ends of the curved rods, and thus has a rectangular
+  opening.
+
+  [Illustration: From Alexander E. Agassiz's _Three Cruises of the
+  "Blake."_ By permission of Houghton, Mifflin & Co.
+
+  FIG. 18.--Agassiz or Blake Trawl.]
+
+  The chief advantage of this frame is that it does not matter in the
+  least which side lands first on the bottom; it is to the other trawls
+  what Ball's dredge is to an oyster dredge. The course can also be
+  altered during shooting or towing the Blake trawl with far greater
+  ease than is the case with others. An Agassiz trawl very successful in
+  the North Sea has the following dimensions: length of the connecting
+  rods and therefore of the mouth 8 ft., height of runners and of mouth
+  1 ft. 9 in., extreme length of runners 2 ft., length of net 11 ft. 3
+  in., weight of whole trawl 94 lb., 63 of which are due to the frame.
+
+It is instructive to note how closely our knowledge of bottom-living
+forms has been associated with the instruments of capture in use. As
+long as small vessels were used in dredging, the belief that life was
+limited to the regions accessible to them was widely spread. The first
+known denizens of great depths were the foraminifera and few echinoderms
+brought up by various sounding apparatus. Next with the dredge and
+tangles the number of groups obtained was much greater. As soon as
+trawls were adopted fish began to make their appearance. The greatest
+gaps in our knowledge still probably occur in the large and swiftly
+moving forms, such as fish and cephalopods. As we can hardly hope to
+move apparatus swiftly over the bottom in great depths, the way in which
+improvement is possible probably is that of increasing the spread of the
+nets; and a start in this direction appears to have been made by Dr
+Petersen, who has devised a modified otter sieve which catches fish at
+all events very well, and has been operated already at considerable
+depths.
+
+Of the economy of quite shallow seas, however, we are still largely
+ignorant. Much as has been learnt of the bionomics of the sea, it is but
+a commencement; and this is of course especially true of deep seas. The
+dredge and its kindred have, however, in less than a century enabled
+naturalists to compile an immense mass of knowledge of the structure,
+development, affinities and distribution of the animals of the sea-bed,
+and in the most accessible seas to produce enumerations and
+morphological accounts of them of some approach to completeness.
+     (J. O. B.)
+
+
+
+
+DRELINCOURT, CHARLES (1595-1669), French Protestant divine, was born at
+Sedan on the 10th of July 1595. In 1618 he undertook the charge of the
+French Protestant church at Langres, but failed to receive the necessary
+royal sanction, and early in 1620 he removed to Paris, where he was
+nominated minister of the Reformed Church at Charenton. He was the
+author of a large number of works in devotional and polemical theology,
+several of which had great influence. His _Catechism_ (_Catechisme ou
+instruction familiere_, 1652) and his _Christian's Defense against the
+Fears of Death_ (_Consolations de l'ame fidele contre les frayeurs de la
+mort, 1651_) became well known in England by means of translations,
+which were very frequently reprinted. It has been said that Daniel Defoe
+wrote his fiction of Mrs Veal (_A True Relation of the Apparition of Mrs
+Veal_), who came from the other world to recommend the perusal of
+_Drelincourt on Death_, for the express purpose of promoting the sale of
+an English translation of the _Consolations_; Defoe's contribution is
+added to the fourth edition of the translation (1706). Another popular
+work of his was _Les Visites charitables pour toutes sortes de personnes
+affligees_ (1669). Drelincourt's controversial works were numerous.
+Directed entirely against Roman Catholicism, they did much to strengthen
+and consolidate the Protestant party in France. He died on the 3rd of
+November 1669.
+
+Several of his sons were distinguished as theologians or physicians.
+Laurent (1626-1681) became a pastor, and was the author of _Sonnets
+chretiens sur divers sujets_ (1677); Charles (1633-1697) was professor
+of physic at the university of Leiden, and physician to the prince of
+Orange; Peter (1644-1722) was ordained a priest in the Church of
+England, and became dean of Armagh.
+
+
+
+
+DRENTE, a province of Holland, bounded N. and N.E. by Groningen, S.E. by
+the Prussian province of Hanover, S. and S.W. by Overysel, and N.W. by
+Friesland; area, 1128 sq. m.; pop. (1900) 149,551. The province of
+Drente is a sandy plateau forming the kernel of the surrounding
+provinces. The soil consists almost entirely of sand and gravel, and is
+covered with bleak moorland, patches of wood, and fen. This is only
+varied by the strip of fertile clay and grass-land which is found along
+the banks of the rivers, and by the areas of high fen in the
+south-eastern corner and on the western borders near Assen. The surface
+of the province is a gentle slope from the south-west towards the
+north-east, where it terminates in the long ridge of hills known as the
+Hondsrug (Dog's Back) extending along the eastern border into Groningen.
+The watershed of the province runs from east to west across the middle
+of the province, along the line of the Orange canal. The southern
+streams are all collected at two points on the southern borders, namely,
+at Meppel and Koevorden, whence they communicate with the Zwarte Water
+and the Vecht respectively by means of the Meppeler Diep and the
+Koevorden canal. The Steenwyker Aa, however, enters the Zuider Zee
+independently. The northern rivers all flow into Groningen. The piles of
+granite rocks somewhat in the shape of cromlechs which are found
+scattered about this province, and especially along the western edge of
+the Hondsrug, have long been named _Hunebedden_, from a popular
+superstition that they were "Huns' beds." Possibly the word originally
+meant "beds of the dead," or tombs.
+
+Two industries have for centuries been associated with the barren heaths
+and sodden fens so usually found together on the sand-grounds, namely,
+the cultivation of buckwheat and peat-digging. The work is conducted on
+a regular system of fen colonization, the first operation being directed
+towards the drainage of the country. This is effected by means of
+drainage canals cut at regular intervals and connected by means of cross
+ditches. These draining ditches all have their issue in a main drainage
+canal, along which the transport of the peat and peat-litter takes place
+and the houses of the colonists are built. The heathlands when
+sufficiently drained are prepared for cultivation by being cut into sods
+and burnt. This system appears to have been practised already at the end
+of the 17th century. After eight years, however, the soil becomes
+exhausted, and twenty to thirty years are required for its
+refertilization. The cultivation of buckwheat on these grounds has
+decreased, and large areas which were formerly thus treated now lie
+waste. Potatoes, rye, oats, beans and peas are also largely cultivated.
+In connexion with the cultivation of potatoes, factories are established
+for making spirits, treacle, potato-meal, and straw-paper. Furthermore,
+agriculture is everywhere accompanied on the sand-grounds by the rearing
+of sheep and cattle, which assist in fertilizing the soil. Owing to the
+meagreness of their food these animals are usually thin and small, but
+are quickly restored when placed on richer grounds. The breeding of pigs
+is also widely practised on the sand-grounds, as well as forest culture.
+Of the fen-colonies in Drente the best known are those of Frederiksoord
+and Veenhuizen.
+
+Owing to the general condition of poverty which prevailed after the
+French evacuation in the second decade of the 19th century, attention
+was turned to the means of industry offered by the unreclaimed
+heath-lands in the eastern provinces, and in 1818 the Society of Charity
+(_Maatschappij van Weldadigheid_) was formed with Count van den Bosch at
+its head. This society began by establishing the free agricultural
+colony of Frederiksoord, about 10 m. N. of Meppel, named after Prince
+Frederick, son of William I., king of the Netherlands. An industrious
+colonist could purchase a small farm on the estate and make himself
+independent in two years. In addition to this, various industries were
+set on foot for the benefit of those who were not capable of field work,
+such as mat and rope making, and jute and cotton weaving. In later times
+forest culture was added, and the Gerard Adriaan van Swieten schools of
+forestry, agriculture and horticulture were established by Major van
+Swieten in memory of his son. A Reformed and a Roman Catholic church are
+also attached to the colony. To this colony the Society of Charity later
+added the adjoining colonies of Willemsoord and Kolonie VII. in
+Overysel, and Wilhelminasoord partly in Friesland. The colony of
+Veenhuizen lies about 7 m. N.W. of Assen, and was founded by the same
+society in 1823. In 1859, however, the Veenhuizen estates were sold to
+the government for the purpose of a penal establishment for drunkards
+and beggars.
+
+Owing to its geographical isolation, the development of Drente has
+remained behind that of every other province in the Netherlands, and
+there are few centres of any importance, either agricultural or
+industrial. Hence the character and customs of the people have remained
+peculiarly conservative. Assen is the chief town. In the south Meppel
+and Koevorden absorb the largest amount of trade. Hoogeveen, situated
+between these two, owes its origin to the fen reclamation which was
+begun here in 1625 by Baron van Echten. In the following year it was
+erected into a barony which lasted till 1795. The original industry has
+long since moved onwards to other parts, but the town remains a
+prosperous market centre, and has a considerable industrial activity.
+Extensive fir woods have been laid out in the neighbourhood. Zuidlaren
+is a picturesque village at the northern end of the Hondsrug, with an
+important market. The railway from Amsterdam to Groningen traverses
+Drente; branch lines connect Meppel with Leeuwarden and Assen with
+Delfzyl.
+
+_History._--The early history of Drente is obscure. That it was
+inhabited at a remote date is proved by the prehistoric sepulchral
+mounds, the _Hunebedden_ already mentioned. In the 5th and 6th centuries
+the country was overrun by Saxon tribes, and later on was governed by
+counts under the Frankish and German kings. Of these only three are
+recorded, Eberhard (943-944), Balderic (1006) and Temmo (1025). In 1046
+the emperor Henry III. gave the countship to the bishop and chapter of
+Utrecht, who governed it through the burgrave, or chatelain, of
+Koevorden, a dignity which became hereditary after 1143 in the family of
+Ludolf or Roelof, brother of Heribert of Bierum, bishop of Utrecht
+(1138-1150). This family became extinct in the male line about 1232, and
+was succeeded by Henry I. of Borculo (1232-1261), who had married the
+heiress of Roelof III. of Koevorden. In 1395 Reinald IV. (d. 1410) of
+Borculo-Koevorden was deposed by Bishop Frederick of Utrecht, and the
+country was henceforth administered by an episcopal official
+(_amptman_), who was, however, generally a native. With its popularly
+elected assembly of twenty-four Etten (_jurati_) Drente remained
+practically independent. This state of things continued till 1522, when
+it was conquered by Duke Charles of Gelderland, from whom it was taken
+by the emperor Charles V. in 1536, and became part of the Habsburg
+dominions.
+
+Drente took part in the revolt of the Netherlands, and being a district
+covered by waste heath and moor was, on account of its poverty and
+sparse population, not admitted into the union as a separate province,
+and it had no voice in the assembly of the states-general. It was
+subdued by the Spaniards in 1580, but reconquered by Maurice of Nassau
+in 1594. During the years that followed, Drente, though unrepresented in
+the states-general, retained its local independence and had its own
+stadtholder. William Louis of Nassau-Siegen (d. 1620) held that office,
+and it was held later by Maurice, Frederick Henry, William II. and
+William III., princes of Orange. At the general assembly of 1651 Drente
+put forward its claim to admission as a province, but was not admitted.
+After the deaths of William II. (1650) and of William III. (1702) Drente
+remained for a term of years without a stadtholder, but in 1722 William
+Charles Henry of the house of Nassau-Siegen, who, through the extinction
+of the elder line, had become prince of Orange, was elected stadtholder.
+His descendants held that office, which was declared hereditary, until
+the French conquest in 1795. In the following year Drente at length
+obtained the privilege, which it had long sought, of being reckoned as
+an eighth province with representation in the states-general. Between
+1806 and 1813 Drente, with the rest of the Netherlands, was incorporated
+in the French empire, and, with part of Groningen, formed the department
+of Ems Occidental. With the accession of William I. as king of the
+Netherlands it was restored to its old position as a province of the new
+kingdom.
+
+
+
+
+DRESDEN, a city of Germany, capital of the kingdom of Saxony, 71 m.
+E.S.E. from Leipzig and 111 m. S. from Berlin by railway. It lies at an
+altitude of 402 ft. above the Baltic, in a broad and pleasant valley on
+both banks of the Elbe. The prospect of the city with its cupolas,
+towers, spires and the copper green roofs of its palaces, as seen from
+the distance, is one of striking beauty. On the left bank of the river
+are the Altstadt (old town) with four old suburbs and numerous new
+suburbs, and the Friedrichstadt (separated from the Altstadt by a long
+railway viaduct); on the right, the Neustadt (new town), Antonstadt, and
+the modern military suburb Alberstadt. Five fine bridges connect the
+Altstadt and Neustadt. The beautiful central bridge--the Alte or
+Augustusbrucke--with 16 arches, built in 1727-1731, and 1420 ft. long,
+has been demolished (1906) and replaced by a wider structure. Up-stream
+are the two modern Albert and Kunigin Carola bridges, and, down-stream,
+the Marien and the Eisenbahn (railway) bridges. The streets of the
+Alstadt are mostly narrow and somewhat gloomy, those of the Neustadt
+more spacious and regular.
+
+On account of its delightful situation and the many objects of interest
+it contains, Dresden is often called "German Florence," a name first
+applied to it by the poet Herder. The richness of its art treasures, the
+educational advantages it offers, and its attractive surroundings render
+it a favourite resort of people with private means. There are a large
+number of foreign residents, notably Austro-Hungarians and Russians, and
+also a considerable colony of English and Americans, the latter
+amounting to about 1500. The population of the city on the 1st of
+December 1905 was 516,996, of whom 358,776 lived on the left bank
+(Altstadt) and 158,220 on the right (Neustadt). The royal house belongs
+to the Roman Catholic confession, but the bulk of the inhabitants are
+Lutheran Protestants.
+
+Dresden is the residence of the king, the seat of government for the
+kingdom of Saxony, and the headquarters of the XII. (Saxon) Army Corps.
+Within two decades (1880-1900) the capital almost at a single bound
+advanced into the front rank of German commercial and industrial towns;
+but while gaining in prosperity it has lost much of its medieval aspect.
+Old buildings in the heart of the Altstadt have been swept away, and
+their place occupied by modern business houses and new streets. Among
+the public squares in the Altstadt must be mentioned the magnificent
+Theaterplatz, with a fine equestrian statue of King John, by Schilling;
+the Altmarkt, with a monument commemorative of the war of 1870-71; the
+Neumarkt, with a bronze statue of King Frederick Augustus II., by E. J.
+Hahnel; the Postplatz, adorned by a Gothic fountain, by Semper; and the
+Bismarckplatz in the Anglo-American quarter. In the Neustadt are the
+market square, with a bronze equestrian statue of Augustus the Strong;
+the Kaiser Wilhelmplatz; and the Albertplatz. The continuous Schloss-,
+See- and Prager-Strasse, and the Wilsdruffer- and Kunig Johann-Strasse
+are the main streets in the Altstadt, and the Hauptstrasse in the
+Neustadt.
+
+The most imposing churches include the Roman Catholic Hofkirche, built
+(1739-1751) by C. Chiaveri, in rococo style, with a tower 300 ft. high.
+It contains a fine organ by Silbermann and pictures by Raphael Mengs and
+other artists, the outside being adorned with 59 statues by Mattielli.
+On the Neumarkt is the Frauenkirche, with a stone cupola rising to the
+height of 311 ft.; close to the Altmarkt, the Kreuzkirche, rebuilt after
+destruction by fire in 1897, also with a lofty tower surmounted by a
+cupola; and near the Postplatz the Sophienkirche, with twin spires. In
+the Neustadt is the Dreikunigskirche (dating from the 18th century) with
+a high pinnacled tower. Among more modern churches may be mentioned: in
+the Altstadt, the Johanneskirche, with a richly decorated interior; the
+Lukaskirche; and the Trinitatiskirche; and in the Neustadt, the Martin
+Luther-Kirche and the new garrison church. Apart from the chapels in the
+royal palaces, Dresden contains in all 32 churches, viz. 21 Evangelical,
+6 Roman Catholic, a Reformed, a Russian, an English (erected by Gilbert
+Scott) with a graceful spire, a Scottish (Presbyterian), and an American
+(Episcopal) church, the last a handsome building, with a pretty
+parsonage attached.
+
+Of secular buildings, the most noteworthy are grouped in the Altstadt
+near the river. The royal palace, built in 1530-1535 by Duke George (and
+thus called Georgenschloss), was thoroughly restored, and in some
+measure rebuilt between 1890 and 1902, in German Renaissance style, and
+is now an exceedingly handsome structure. The Georgentor has been
+widened, and through it, and beneath the royal apartments, vehicular
+traffic from the centre of the town is directed to the Augustusbrucke.
+The whole is surmounted by a lofty tower--387 ft.--the highest in
+Dresden. The interior is splendidly decorated. In the palace chapel are
+pictures by Rembrandt, Nicolas Poussin, Guido Reni and Annibale Caracci.
+The adjoining Prinzen-Palais on the Taschenberg, built in 1715, has a
+fine chapel, in which are various works of S. Torelli; it has also a
+library of 20,000 volumes. The Zwinger, begun in 1711, and built in the
+rococo style, forms an enclosure, within which is a statue of King
+Frederick Augustus I. It was intended to be the vestibule to a palace,
+but now contains a number of collections of great value. Until 1846 it
+was open at the north side; but this space has since been occupied by
+the museum, a beautiful Renaissance building, the exterior of which is
+adorned by statues of Michelangelo, Raphael, Giotto, Dante, Goethe and
+other artists and poets by Rietschel and Hahnel, and it contains the
+famous picture gallery. The Bruhl palace, built in 1737 by Count Bruhl,
+the minister of Augustus II., has been in some measure demolished to
+make room for the new Standehaus (diet house), with its main facade
+facing the Hofkirche; before the main entrance there is an equestrian
+statue (1906) of King Albert. Close by is the Bruhl Terrace, approached
+by a fine flight of steps, on which are groups, by Schilling,
+representing Morning, Evening, Day and Night. The terrace commands a
+view of the Elbe and the distant heights of Loschwitz and the Weisser
+Hirsch, but the prospect has of late years become somewhat marred, owing
+to the extension of the town up the river and to the two new up-stream
+bridges. The Japanese palace in the Neustadt, built in 1715 as a summer
+residence for Augustus II., receives its name from certain oriental
+figures with which it is decorated; it is sometimes called the Augusteum
+and contains the royal library. Among other buildings of note is the
+Hoftheatre, a magnificent edifice in the Renaissance style, built after
+the designs of Semper, to replace the theatre burnt in 1869, and
+completed in 1878. A new town hall of huge dimensions, also in German
+Renaissance, with an octagon tower 400 ft. in height, stands on the
+former southern ramparts of the inner town, close to the Kreuzkirche. In
+the Altstadt the most striking of the newer edifices is the
+Kunstakademie, constructed from designs by K. Lipsius in the Italian
+Renaissance style, 1890-1894. The Albertinum, formerly the arsenal,
+built in 1559-1563, was rebuilt 1884-1889, and fitted up as a museum of
+oriental and classical antiquities, and as the depository of the state
+archives. On the right bank of the Elbe in Neustadt stand the fine
+buildings of the ministries of war, of finance, justice, the interior
+and education. The public monuments of Dresden also include the Moritz
+Monument, a relief dedicated by the elector Augustus to his brother
+Maurice, a statue of Weber the composer by Rietschel, a bronze statue of
+Theodor Kurner by Hahnel, the Rietschel monument on the Bruhl Terrace by
+Schilling, a bust of Gutzkow, and a statue of Bismarck on the promenade.
+In the suburbs which encircle the old town are to be noted the vast
+central Hauptbahnhof (1893-1898) occupying the site of the old
+Buhmischer railway station, the new premises of the municipal hospital
+and the Ausstellungs-Halle (exhibition buildings).
+
+The chief pleasure-ground of Dresden is the Grosser Garten, in which
+there are a summer theatre, the Reitschel museum, and a chateau
+containing a museum of antiquities. The latter is composed chiefly of
+objects removed from the churches in consequence of the Reformation.
+Near the chateau is the zoological garden, formed in 1860, and
+excellently arranged. A little to the south of Dresden, on the left bank
+of the Elbe, is the village Racknitz, in which is Moreau's monument,
+erected on the spot where he was mortally wounded in 1813. The mountains
+of Saxon Switzerland are seen from this neighbourhood.
+
+_Art._--Dresden owes a large part of its fame to its extensive artistic,
+literary and scientific collections. Of these the most valuable is its
+splendid picture gallery, founded by Augustus I. and increased by his
+successors at great cost. It is in the museum, and contains about 2500
+pictures, being especially rich in specimens of the Italian, Dutch and
+Flemish schools. The gem of the collection is Raphael's "Madonna di San
+Sisto," for which a room is set apart. There is also a special room for
+the "Madonna" of the younger Holbein. Other paintings with which the
+name of the gallery is generally associated are Correggio's "La Notte"
+and "Mary Magdalene"; Titian's "Tribute Money" and "Venus"; "The
+Adoration" and "The Marriage in Cana," by Paul Veronese; Andrea del
+Sarto's "Abraham's Sacrifice"; Rembrandt's "Portrait of Himself with his
+Wife sitting on his Knee"; "The Judgment of Paris" and "The Boar Hunt,"
+by Rubens; Van Dyck's "Charles I., his Queen, and their Children."
+
+Of modern painters, this magnificent collection contains masterpieces by
+Defregger, Vautier, Makart, Munkacsy, Fritz von Uhde, Bucklin, Hans
+Thoma; portraits by Leon Pohle, Delaroche and Sargent; landscapes by
+Andreas and Oswald Achenbach and allegorical works by Sascha Schneider.
+In separate compartments there are a number of crayon portraits, most of
+them by Rosalba Carriera, and views of Dresden by Canaletto and other
+artists. Besides the picture gallery the museum includes a magnificent
+collection of engravings and drawings. There are upwards of 400,000
+specimens, arranged in twelve classes, so as to mark the great epochs in
+the history of art. A collection of casts, likewise in the museum, is
+designed to display the progress of plastic art from the time of the
+Egyptians and Assyrians to modern ages. This collection was begun by
+Raphael Mengs, who secured casts of the most valuable antiques in Italy,
+some of which no longer exist.
+
+The Japanese palace contains a public library of more than 400,000
+volumes, with about 3000 MSS. and 20,000 maps. It is especially rich in
+the ancient classics, and in works bearing on literary history and the
+history of Germany, Poland and France. There are also a valuable cabinet
+of coins and a collection of ancient works of art. A collection of
+porcelain in the "Museum Johanneum" (which once contained the picture
+gallery) is made up of specimens of Chinese, Japanese, East Indian,
+Sevres and Meissen manufacture, carefully arranged in chronological
+order. There is in the same building an excellent Historical Museum. In
+the Grune Gewulbe (Green Vault) of the Royal Palace, so called from the
+character of its original decorations, there is an unequalled collection
+of precious stones, pearls and works of art in gold, silver, amber and
+ivory. The objects, which are about 3000 in number, are arranged in
+eight rooms. They include the regalia of Augustus II. as king of Poland;
+the electoral sword of Saxony; a group by Dinglinger, in gold and
+enamel, representing the court of the grand mogul Aurungzebe, and
+consisting of 132 figures upon a plate of silver 4 ft. 4 in. square; the
+largest onyx known, 6-2/3 in. by 2-1/4 in.; a pearl representing the
+dwarf of Charles II. of Spain; and a green brilliant weighing 40 carats.
+The royal palace also has a gallery of arms consisting of more than 2000
+weapons of artistic or historical value. In the Zwinger are the
+zoological and mineralogical museums and a collection of instruments
+used in mathematical and physical science. Among other collections is
+that of the Kurner museum with numerous reminiscences of the
+Goethe-Schiller epoch, and of the wars of liberation (1813-15), and
+containing valuable manuscripts and relics. Founded by Hofrath Dr Emil
+Peschel, it has passed into the possession of the city.
+
+_Education._--Dresden is the seat of a number of well-known scientific
+associations. The educational institutions are numerous and of a high
+order, including a technical high school (with about 1100 students),
+which enjoys the privilege of conferring the degrees of doctor of
+engineering, doctor of technical sciences, &c., a veterinary college, a
+political-economic institution (Gehestiftung), with library, a school of
+architects, a royal and four municipal gymnasia, numerous lower grade
+and popular schools, the royal conservatorium for music and drama, and a
+celebrated academy of painting. Dresden has several important hospitals,
+asylums and other charitable institutions.
+
+_Music and the Theatres._--Besides the two royal theatres, Dresden
+possesses several minor theatres and music halls. The pride of place in
+the world of music is held by the orchestra attached to the court
+theatre. Founded by Augustus II., it has become famous throughout the
+world, owing to the masters who have from time to time been associated
+with it--such as Paer, Weber, Reissiger and Wagner. Symphony and popular
+concerts are held throughout the year in various public halls, and,
+during the winter, concerts of church music are frequently given in the
+Protestant Kreuz- and Frauen-Kirchen, and on Sundays in the Roman
+Catholic church.
+
+_Communications and Industries._--Dresden lies at the centre of an
+extensive railway system, which places it in communication with the
+chief cities of northern and central Germany as well as with Austria and
+the East. Here cross the grand trunk lines Berlin-Vienna,
+Chemnitz-Gurlitz-Breslau. It is connected by two lines of railway with
+Leipzig and by local lines with neighbouring smaller towns. The
+navigation on the Elbe has of recent years largely developed, and, in
+addition to trade by river with Bohemia and Magdeburg-Hamburg, there is
+a considerable pleasure-boat traffic during the summer months. The
+communications within the city are maintained by an excellent system of
+electric trams, which bring the more distant suburbs into easy connexion
+with the business centre. A considerable business is done on the
+exchange, chiefly in local industrial shares, and the financial
+institutions number some fifty banks, among them branches of the Reichs
+Bank and of the Deutsche Bank. Among the more notable industries may be
+mentioned the manufacture of china (see CERAMICS), of gold and silver
+ornaments, cigarettes, chocolate, coloured postcards, perfumery,
+straw-plaiting, artificial flowers, agricultural machinery, paper,
+photographic and other scientific instruments. There are several great
+breweries; corn trade is carried on, and an extensive business is done
+in books and objects of art.
+
+_Surroundings._--The environs of the city are delightful. To the north
+are the vine-clad hills of the Lussnitz commanding views of the valley
+of the Elbe from Dresden to Meissen; behind them, on an island in a
+lake, is the castle of Moritzburg, the hunting box of the king of
+Saxony. On the right bank of the Elbe, 3 m. above the city, lies the
+village of Loschwitz, where Schiller, in the summer of 1786, wrote the
+greater part of his _Don Carlos_: above it on the fringe of the Dresdner
+Heide, the climatic health resort Weisser-Hirsch; farther up the river
+towards Pirna the royal summer palace Pillnitz; to the south the
+Plauensche Grund, and still farther the Rabenauer Grund.
+
+_History._--Dresden (Old Slav _Drezga_, forest, _Drezgajan_,
+forest-dwellers), which is known to have existed in 1206, is of Slavonic
+origin, and was originally founded on the right bank of the Elbe, on the
+site of the present Neustadt, which is thus actually the _old_ town. It
+became the capital of Henry the Illustrious, margrave of Meissen, in
+1270, but belonged for some time after his death, first to Wenceslaus of
+Bohemia, and next to the margrave of Brandenburg. Early in the 14th
+century it was restored to the margrave of Meissen. On the division of
+Saxony in 1485 it fell to the Albertine line, which has since held it.
+Having been burned almost to the ground in 1491, it was rebuilt; and in
+the 16th century the fortifications were begun and gradually extended.
+John George II., in the 17th century, formed the Grosser Garten, and
+otherwise greatly improved the town; but it was in the first half of the
+18th century, under Augustus I. and Augustus II., who were kings of
+Poland as well as electors of Saxony, that Dresden assumed something
+like its present appearance. The Neustadt, which had been burned down in
+the 17th century, was founded anew by Augustus I.; he also founded
+Friedrichstadt. The town suffered severely during the Seven Years' War,
+being bombarded in 1760. Some damage was also inflicted on it in 1813,
+when Napoleon made it the centre of his operations; one of the
+buttresses and two arches of the old bridge were then blown up. The
+dismantling of the fortifications had been begun by the French in 1810,
+and was gradually completed after 1817, the space occupied by them being
+appropriated to gardens and promenades. Many buildings were completed or
+founded by King Anthony, from whom Antonstadt derives its name. Dresden
+again suffered severely during the revolution of 1849, but all traces of
+the disturbances which then took place were soon effaced. In 1866 it was
+occupied by the Prussians, who did not finally evacuate it until the
+spring of the following year. Since that time numerous improvements have
+been carried out.
+
+  See Lindau, _Geschichte der Haupt- und Residenzstadt Dresden_ (2
+  vols., Dresden, 1884-1885); Prulss, _Geschichte des Hoftheaters in
+  Dresden_ (Dresden, 1877); Schumann, _Fuhrer durch die kunigl.
+  Sammlungen zu Dresden_ (1903); Woerl, _Fuhrer durch Dresden_; Daniel,
+  _Deutschland_ (1894).
+
+
+BATTLE OF DRESDEN. The battle of Dresden, the last of the great
+victories of Napoleon, was fought on the 26th and 27th of August 1813.
+The intervention of Austria in the War of Liberation, and the consequent
+advance of the Allies under the Austrian field-marshal Prince
+Schwarzenberg from Prague upon Dresden, recalled Napoleon from Silesia,
+where he was engaged against the Prussians and Russians under Blucher.
+Only by a narrow margin of time, indeed, was he able to bring back
+sufficient troops for the first day's battle. He detached a column under
+Vandamme to the mountains to interpose between Schwarzenberg and Prague
+(see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS); the rest of the army pressed on by forced
+marches for Dresden, around which a position for the whole army had been
+chosen and fortified, though at the moment this was held by less than
+20,000 men under Gouvion St Cyr, who retired thither from the mountains,
+leaving a garrison in Kunigstein, and had repeatedly sent reports to the
+emperor as to the allied masses gathering to the southward. The battle
+of the first day began late in the afternoon, for Schwarzenberg waited
+as long as possible for the corps of Klenau, which formed his extreme
+left wing on the Freiberg road. At last, about 6 p.m. he decided to wait
+no longer, and six heavy columns of attack advanced against the suburbs
+defended by St Cyr and now also by the leading troops of the main army.
+Three hundred guns covered the assault, and Dresden was set on fire in
+places by the cannonade, while the French columns marched unceasingly
+over the bridges and through the Altstadt. On the right the Russians
+under Wittgenstein advanced from Striesen, the Prussians under Kleist
+through the Grosser Garten, whilst Prussians under Prince Augustus and
+Austrians under Colloredo moved upon the Moczinski redoubt, which was
+the scene of the most desperate fighting, and was repeatedly taken and
+retaken. The attack to the westward was carried out by the other
+Austrian corps; Klenau, however, was still far distant. In the end, the
+French defences remained unshaken. Ney led a counter-attack against the
+Allies' left, the Moczinski redoubt was definitely recaptured from
+Colloredo, and the Prussians were driven out of the Grosser Garten. The
+_coup_ of the Allies had failed, for every hour saw the arrival of fresh
+forces on the side of Napoleon, and at length the Austrian leader drew
+off his men to the heights again. He was prepared to fight another
+battle on the morrow--indeed he could scarcely have avoided it had he
+wished to do so, for behind him lay the mountain defiles, towards which
+Vandamme was marching with all speed.
+
+[Illustration: Emery Walker sc.]
+
+Napoleon's plan for the 27th was, as usual, simple in its outline. As at
+Friedland, a ravine separated a part of the hostile line of battle from
+the rest. The villages west of the Plauen ravine and even Lubda were
+occupied in the early morning by General Metzko with the leading
+division of Klenau's corps from Freiberg, and upon Metzko Napoleon
+intended first to throw the weight of his attack, giving to Victor's
+infantry and the cavalry of Murat, king of Naples, the task of
+overwhelming the isolated Austrians. The centre, aided by the defences
+of the Dresden suburbs, could hold its own, as the events of the 26th
+had shown, the left, now under Ney, with whom served Kellermann's
+cavalry and the Young Guard, was to attack Wittgenstein's Russians on
+the Pirna road. Thus, for once, Napoleon decided to attack both flanks
+of the enemy. His motives in so doing have been much discussed by the
+critics; Vandamme's movements, it may be suggested, contributed to the
+French emperor's plan, which if carried out would open the Pirna road.
+Still, the left attack may have had a purely tactical object, for in
+that quarter was the main body of the Prussians and Russians, and
+Napoleon's method was always to concentrate the fury of the attack on
+the heaviest masses of the enemy, i.e. the best target for his own
+artillery. A very heavy rainstorm during the night seriously affected
+the movements of troops on the following day, but all to Napoleon's
+advantage, for his more mobile artillery, reinforced by every horse
+available in and about Dresden, was still able to move where the Allied
+guns sank in mud. Further, if the cavalry had to walk, or at most trot,
+through the fields the opposing infantry was almost always unable to
+fire their muskets. "You cannot fire; surrender," said Murat to an
+Austrian battalion in the battle. "Never," they replied; "you cannot
+charge us." On the appearance of Murat's horse artillery, however, they
+had to surrender at once. Under such conditions, Metzko, unsupported
+either by Klenau or the main army beyond the ravine, was an easy victim.
+Victor from Lubda drove in the advanced posts and assaulted the line of
+villages Wolfnitz-Tultschen; Metzko had to retire to the higher ground
+S.W. of the first line, and Murat, with an overwhelming cavalry force
+from Cotta and Burgstadl, outflanked his left, broke up whole
+battalions, and finally, with the assistance of the renewed frontal
+attack of Victor's infantry, annihilated the division. The Austrian
+corps of Gyulai arrived too late to save it. A few formed bodies escaped
+across the ravine, but Metzko and three-fourths of his men were killed
+or taken prisoners.
+
+Meanwhile Ney on the other flank, with his left on the Pillnitz road and
+his right on the Grosser Garten, had opened his attack. The Russians
+offered a strenuous resistance, defending Seidnitz, Gross Dubritz and
+Reick with their usual steadiness, and Ney was so far advanced that
+several generals at the Allied headquarters suggested a counter-attack
+of the centre by way of Strehlen, so as to cut off the French left from
+Dresden. This plan was adopted, but, owing to various misunderstandings,
+failed of execution. Thus the Allied centre remained inactive all day,
+cannonaded by the Dresden redoubts. One incident only, but that of great
+importance, took place here. The tsar, the king of Prussia,
+Schwarzenberg and a very large headquarter staff watched the fighting
+from a hill near Racknitz and offered an easy mark to the French guns.
+In default of formed bodies to fire at, the latter had for a moment
+ceased fire; Napoleon, riding by, half carelessly told them to reopen,
+and one of their first shots, directed at 2000 yards range against the
+mass of officers on the sky-line, mortally wounded General Moreau, who
+was standing by the emperor Alexander. A council of war followed. The
+Allied sovereigns were for continuing the fight; Schwarzenberg, however,
+knowing the exhaustion of his troops decided to retreat. As at Bautzen,
+the French cavalry was unable to make any effective pursuit.
+
+The forces engaged were 96,000 French, Saxons, &c., and 200,000
+Austrians, Russians and Prussians. The French losses were about 10,000,
+or a little over 10%, those of the Allies 38,000 killed, wounded and
+prisoners (the latter 23,000) or 19%. They lost also 15 colours and 26
+guns.
+
+
+
+
+DRESS (from the Fr. _dresser_, to set out, arrange, formed from Lat.
+_directus_, arranged, _dirigere_, to direct, arrange), a substantive of
+which the current meaning is that of clothing or costume in general, or,
+specifically, the principal outer garment worn by a woman (see COSTUME).
+The verb "to dress" has various applications which can be deduced from
+its original meaning. It is thus used not only of the putting on of
+clothing, but of the preparing and finishing of leather, the preparation
+of food for eating, the application of cleansing and healing substances
+or of bandages, &c., to a wound, the drawing up in a correct line of a
+body of troops, and, generally, adorning or decking out, as of a ship
+with flags. In the language of the theatre the "dresser" is the person
+who looks after the actor's wardrobe and assists him in the changing of
+his costumes. For the printer's use of "dresser" see TYPOGRAPHY.
+
+
+
+
+DRESSER, in furniture, a form of sideboard. The name is derived from the
+Fr. _dressoir_, a piece of furniture used to range or _dresser_ the more
+costly appointments of the table. The appliance is the direct descendant
+of the credence and the buffet, and is, indeed, a much more legitimate
+inheritor of their functions than the modern sideboard, which, as we
+know it, is practically an 18th-century invention. It developed into its
+present shape about the second quarter of the 17th century, and has
+since then changed but little. As a piece of movable furniture it was
+made rarely, if at all, after the beginning of the 19th century until
+the revival of interest in what is called "farmhouse furniture" at the
+very beginning of the 20th century led in the first place to the
+construction of many imitation antique dressers from derelict pieces of
+old oak, and especially from panels of chests, and in the second to the
+making of avowed imitations. The dresser conformed to a model which
+varied only in detail and in ornament. Its simple and agreeable form
+consisted of a long and rather narrow table or slab, with drawers or
+cupboards beneath and a tall upright closed-in back arranged with a
+varying number of shallow shelves for the reception of plates; hooks for
+mugs were often fixed upon the face of these shelves. Towards the end of
+the 17th century small cupboards were often added to the superstructure.
+The majority of these dressers were made of oak, but when, early in the
+Georgian period mahogany came into general use, they were frequently
+inlaid with that wood; holly and box were also used for inlaying, most
+frequently in the shape of plain bands or lines. A peculiarly effective
+combination of oak and mahogany is found in the dressers, as in other
+"farmhouse furniture," made on the borders of Staffordshire and
+Shropshire. The excellence of the work of this kind in that district and
+in the country lying west of it may perhaps explain the expression
+"Welsh dresser," which is now no more than a trade term, not necessarily
+suggestive of the place of origin, and applied to all dressers of this
+type. They are most frequently found in the houses of small yeomen and
+substantial farmers, into which fashion penetrated slowly. The dresser
+is now most familiar as necessary plenishing of the kitchen, in which it
+is invariably a fixture. In form it is essentially identical with the
+movable variety, but it is usually much larger, is made of deal or other
+soft wood, and the superstructure has no back.
+
+
+
+
+DREUX, a town of north-western France, capital of an arrondissement in
+the department of Eure-et-Loir, 27 m. N.N.W. of Chartres by rail. Pop.
+(1906) 8209. It is situated on the Blaise, which at this point divides
+into several arms. It is overlooked from the north by an eminence on
+which stands a ruined medieval castle; within the enclosure of this
+building is a gorgeous chapel, begun in 1816 by the dowager duchess of
+Orleans, and completed and adorned at great cost by Louis Philippe. It
+contains the tombs of the Orleans family, chief among them that of Louis
+Philippe, whose remains were removed from England to Dreux in 1876. The
+sculptures on the tombs and the stained glass of the chapel windows are
+masterpieces of modern art. The older of the two hotels-de-ville of
+Dreux was built in the early 16th century, chiefly by Clement Metezau,
+the founder of a famous family of architects, natives of the town. It is
+notable both for the graceful carvings of the facade and for the fine
+staircase and architectural details of the interior. The church of St
+Pierre, which is Gothic in style, contains good stained glass and other
+works of art. The town has a statue of the poet Jean de Rotrou, born
+there in 1609. Dreux is the seat of a subprefect. Among the public
+institutions are tribunals of first instance and of commerce, and a
+communal college. The manufacture of boots and shoes, metal-founding and
+tanning, are carried on, and there is trade in wheat and other
+agricultural products and poultry.
+
+Dreux was the capital of the Gallic tribe of the _Durocasses_. In 1188
+it was taken and burnt by the English; and in 1562 Gaspard de Coligny,
+and Louis I., prince of Conde, were defeated in its vicinity by Anne de
+Montmorency and Francis, duke of Guise. In 1593 Henry IV. captured the
+town after a fortnight's siege. It was occupied by the Germans on the
+9th of October 1870, was subsequently evacuated, and was again taken, on
+the 17th of November, by General Von Tresckow. In the 10th century Dreux
+was the chief town of a countship, which Odo, count of Chartres, ceded
+to king Robert, and Louis VI. gave to his son Robert, whose grandson
+Peter of Dreux, younger brother of Count Robert III., became duke of
+Brittany by his marriage with Alix, daughter of Constance of Brittany by
+her second husband Guy of Thouars. By the marriage of the countess
+Jeanne II. with Louis, viscount of Thouars (d. 1370), the Capetian
+countship of Dreux passed into the Thouars family. In 1377 and 1378,
+however, two of the three co-heiresses of Jeanne, Perronelle and
+Marguerite, sold their shares of the countship to King Charles V.
+Charles VI. gave it to Arnaud Amanien d'Albret, but took it back in
+order to give it to his brother Louis of Orleans (1407); later he gave
+it back to the lords of Albret. Francis of Cleves laid claim to it in
+the 16th century as heir of the d'Albrets of Orval, but the parlement of
+Paris declared the countship to be crown property. It was given to
+Catherine de' Medici (1539), then to Francis, duke of Alencon (1569); it
+was pledged to Charles de Bourbon, count of Soissons, and through him
+passed to the houses of Orleans, Vendome and Conde.
+
+
+
+
+DREW, the name of a family of American actors. JOHN DREW (1827-1862) was
+born in Dublin and made his first New York appearance in 1846. He played
+Irish and light comedy parts with success in all the American cities,
+and was manager of the Arch Street theatre in Philadelphia. He visited
+England in 1855, and Australia in 1859, and died in Philadelphia. His
+wife, LOUISE LANE DREW (1820-1897), was the daughter of a London actor,
+and in 1827 went to America, appearing as the Duke of York to the elder
+Booth's Richard III., and as Albert to Edwin Forrest's William Tell.
+After this she starred as a child actress, and then as leading lady. She
+had been twice married before she became Mrs Drew in 1850. From 1861 to
+1892 she had the management of the Arch Street theatre in Philadelphia.
+In 1880 she toured with Joseph Jefferson in his elaborate revival of
+_The Rivals_, playing Mrs Malaprop to perfection. She had three
+children, John, Sidney and Georgiana, wife of Maurice Barrymore
+(1847-1905), and mother of Lionel and Ethel Barrymore, all actors. The
+eldest son, JOHN DREW (b. 1853), began his stage career under his
+mother's management in Philadelphia as Plumper in _Cool as a Cucumber_,
+on the 22nd of March 1873; and after playing with Edwin Booth and
+others, became leading man in Augustin Daly's company in 1879. His
+association with this company, and with Ada Rehan as the leading lady,
+constituted a brilliant period in recent stage history, his Petruchio
+being only one, though perhaps the most striking, of a series of famous
+impersonations. In 1892 he left Daly's company, and began a career as a
+"star."
+
+
+
+
+DREW, SAMUEL (1765-1833), English theologian, was born in the parish of
+St Austell, in Cornwall, on the 6th of March 1765. His father was a poor
+farm labourer, and could not afford to send him to school long enough
+even to learn to read and write. At ten he was apprenticed to a
+shoemaker, and at twenty he settled in the town of St Austell, first as
+manager for a shoemaker, and in 1787 began business on his own account.
+He had already gained a reputation in his narrow circle as a keen
+debater and a jovial companion, and it is said that he had several
+smuggling adventures. He was first aroused to serious thought in 1785 by
+a funeral sermon preached over his elder brother by Adam Clarke. He
+joined the Methodists, was soon employed as a class leader and local
+preacher, and continued to preach till a few months before his death.
+His opportunities of gaining knowledge were very scanty, but he
+strenuously set himself to make the most of them. It is stated that an
+accidental introduction to Locke's great essay determined the ultimate
+direction of his studies. In 1798 the first part of Thomas Paine's _Age
+of Reason_ was put into his hands; and in the following year he made his
+first appearance as an author by publishing his _Remarks_ on that work.
+The book was favourably received, and was republished in 1820. Drew had
+begun to meditate a greater attempt before he wrote his _Remarks on
+Paine_; and, encouraged by the antiquary John Whitaker, he published his
+_Essay on the Immateriality and Immortality of the Soul_ in 1802. This
+work made the "Cornish metaphysician," as he was called, widely known,
+and for some time it held a high place in the judgment of the religious
+world as a conclusive argument on its subject. A fifth edition appeared
+in 1831. Drew continued to work at his trade till 1805, when he entered
+into an engagement with Dr Thomas Coke, a prominent Wesleyan official,
+which enabled him to devote himself entirely to literature. In 1809 he
+published his _Essay on the Identity and General Resurrection of the
+Human Body_, perhaps the most original of his works, which reached a
+second edition in 1822. In 1814 he completed a history of Cornwall begun
+by F. Hitchins. In 1819 he removed to Liverpool, being appointed editor
+of the _Imperial Magazine_, then newly established, and in 1821 to
+London, the business being then transferred to the capital. Here he
+filled the post of editor till his death, and had also the supervision
+of all works issued from the Caxton Press. He was an unsuccessful
+competitor for the Burnett prize offered in 1811 for an essay on the
+existence and attributes of God. The work which he then wrote, and which
+in his own judgment was his best, was published in 1820, under the title
+of _An Attempt to demonstrate from Reason and Revelation the Necessary
+Existence, Essential Perfections, and Superintending Providence of an
+Eternal Being, who is the Creator, the Supporter, and the Governor of
+all Things_ (2 vols. 8 vo). This procured him the degree of M.A. from
+the university of Aberdeen. Among Drew's lesser writings are a _Life of
+Dr Thomas Coke_ (1817), and a work on the deity of Christ (1813). He
+died at Helston in Cornwall on the 29th of March 1833. He was a man of
+strong mind, honourable spirit and affectionate disposition, energetic
+both in speech and in writing.
+
+  A memoir of his life by his eldest son appeared in 1834.
+
+
+
+
+DREWENZ, a river of Germany, a right-bank tributary of the Vistula. It
+rises on the plateau of Hohenstein in East Prussia, 5 m. S.W. of the
+town of Hohenstein. After passing through the lake of Drewenz (7 m.
+long), it flows S.W. through flat marshy country, and forms, from just
+below the town of Strassburg to that of Leibitsch, a distance of 30 m.,
+the frontier between Prussia and Russian Poland. After a course of 148
+m. it enters the Vistula from the right, a little above the fortress of
+Thorn. It is navigable only for rafts. Lake Drewenz is connected with
+Elbing (and so with the Baltic) by the navigable Elbing-Oberland Canal.
+
+
+
+
+DREXEL, ANTHONY JOSEPH (1826-1893), American banker, was born in
+Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 13th of September 1826. He was the
+son of Francis M. Drexel (1792-1863), a native of Austrian Tirol, who
+emigrated to America in 1817, and, after some years spent as a
+portrait-painter, became a banker and the founder of the house of Drexel
+& Company. Anthony, who entered his father's counting-house in 1839,
+eventually, with his brothers Francis and Joseph, succeeded to the
+control of the business, and organized the banking houses of Drexel,
+Morgan & Company, New York, of which his brother Joseph W. (1833-1888)
+was long the resident head, and of Drexel, Harjes & Company, Paris. In
+1864 he joined his friend George W. Childs in the purchase of the
+Philadelphia _Public Ledger_, and with him in 1892 founded the Printers'
+Home for union men at Colorado Springs. In 1891 he founded, and endowed
+with $2,000,000, the Drexel Institute of Art, Science and Industry in
+Philadelphia, the buildings for which he constructed at a cost of
+$750,000. This institution provides technical instruction for both night
+and day classes and public lecture courses, and has a good museum and a
+library of 35,000 volumes. Drexel died at Carlsbad, Germany, on the 30th
+of June 1893.
+
+
+
+
+DREYFUS, ALFRED (1859-   ), French soldier, of Jewish parentage, the
+scandal of whose condemnation for treason and subsequent rehabilitation
+convulsed French political life between 1894 and 1899, and only ended in
+1906, was born in Mulhausen, Upper Alsace, removing to Paris in 1874.
+After going through the usual course of military instruction with
+credit, he became a sous-lieutenant in the artillery in 1882, and was
+promoted captain in 1889; and, after passing through the _Ecole de
+Guerre_ with distinction, he was appointed to the general staff. His
+name was, however, unknown to the general public till he was arrested on
+the 15th of October 1894 on a charge of selling military secrets to
+Germany, condemned, publicly degraded (January 4, 1895), and transported
+(March 10) to the Ile du Diable, French Guiana. The story of the
+subsequent proceedings in this celebrated case is told in the article
+ANTI-SEMITISM, and need not here be repeated. It was not till 1899 that
+the unfortunate prisoner was brought back to France for retrial by
+court-martial, and even then, so strong was the anti-Semitic and
+military prejudice, he was again found guilty "with extenuating
+circumstances" at Rennes (September 9), though ten days later he was
+"pardoned" by President Loubet. It was not till the Cour de Cassation
+ordered a further investigation, and on the 12th of July 1906 decided
+that his conviction had been based on a forgery and that Dreyfus was
+innocent, that the agitation came to a final conclusion. He was then
+restored to his rank in the army and promoted major. But the
+anti-Semitic and anti-Dreyfusard spirit in certain French circles could
+not easily be quelled even then; and on the occasion of the translation
+of the remains of Emile Zola (Dreyfus's determined champion) to the
+Pantheon on the 4th of June 1908, Major Dreyfus was shot at and wounded
+by a fanatical journalist named Gregori, who was subsequently acquitted
+by a Paris jury of the charge of attempted murder, his own plea being
+that he had merely intended a "demonstration."
+
+  See Dreyfus's own _Five Years of my Life_ (1901), and literature cited
+  under ANTI-SEMITISM.
+
+
+
+
+DRIBURG, a town and spa of Germany, in Prussian Westphalia, pleasantly
+situated on the Aa and the railway Soest-Huxter-Berlin. Pop. 2600. It
+has an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church and some glass
+manufactures. It is celebrated for its saline-ferruginous springs,
+discovered in 766, and since 1779 largely frequented in summer. In the
+vicinity are the ruins of Iburg, a castle destroyed by Charlemagne in
+775, and bestowed by him upon the bishopric of Paderborn.
+
+
+
+
+DRIFFIELD (officially Great Driffield), a market town in the Buckrose
+parliamentary division of the East Riding of Yorkshire, England, 19-1/2
+m. N. by W. from Hull, the junction of several branch lines of the North
+Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 5766. It is pleasantly
+situated at the foot of the Wolds, and is connected with Hull by a
+navigable canal. The church of All Saints is of various dates from
+Norman onwards. The town is the centre of a rich agricultural district,
+and large markets and fairs are held. There are works for the
+manufacture of oil-cake. Driffield is of high antiquity, and numerous
+tumuli are seen in the vicinity, while there is an excellent private
+antiquarian museum in the town.
+
+
+
+
+DRIFT (from "drive"), a verb or noun used in various connexions with the
+sense of propelled motion, especially (but not necessarily) of an
+aimless sort, undirected. Thus it is possible to speak of a snow-drift,
+an accumulation driven by the wind; of a ship drifting out of its
+course; of the drift of a speech, i.e. its general tendency. The word is
+also used in some technical senses, more immediately resulting from the
+action of driving something in. But the most important technical use of
+the word is in geology, as introduced by C. Lyell in 1840 in place of
+"Diluvium." The earlier geologists had been in the habit of dividing the
+Quaternary deposits into an older Diluvium and a younger Alluvium; the
+latter is still employed in England, but the former has dropped out of
+use, though it is still retained by some continental writers. The
+Alluvium was distinguished from Diluvium by the fact that its mammalian
+fossils were representatives of still living forms, but it is a matter
+of great difficulty to separate these two divisions in practice. "The
+term drift is now applied generally to the Quaternary deposits, which
+consist for the most part of gravel, sand, loam or brickearth and clay;
+it naturally refers to strata laid down at some distance from the rocks
+to whose destruction they are largely due; but, although applied to
+river deposits, the word drift is more appropriately used in reference
+to the accumulations of the Glacial period.
+
+"The occurrence of stones and boulders far removed from their parent
+source early attracted the attention of geologists, but for a long
+period the phenomena, now known as of glacial origin, were unexplained,
+and the drifts were looked upon as little more than 'extraneous
+rubbish,' the product of geological agents, quite distinct from those
+which helped to form the more 'solid' rocks that underlie them." (See H.
+B. Woodward, _The Geology of England and Wales_, 2nd ed., 1887.) The
+conception of an underlying "solid" geological structure covered by a
+superficial mantle of "drift" is still retained for certain practical
+purposes; thus, the Geological Survey of Great Britain issues many of
+the maps in two forms, the "Solid Edition," showing the "solid geology,"
+which embraces all igneous rocks and the stratified rocks older than
+Pleistocene, and the "Drift Edition," which shows only such older strata
+as are unobscured by drift.
+
+In writing and in conversation the geological expression "drift" is now
+usually understood to mean Glacial drift, including boulder clay and all
+the varieties of sand, gravel and clay deposits formed by the agency of
+ice sheets, glaciers and icebergs. But in the "Drift" maps many other
+types of deposit are indicated, such, for instance, as the ordinary
+modern alluvium of rivers, and the older river terraces (River-drift of
+various ages), including gravels, brickearth and loam; old raised sea
+beaches and blown-sand (Aeolian-drift); the "Head" of Cornwall and
+Devon, an angular detritus consisting of stones with clay or loam;
+clay-with-flints, rainwash (landwash), scree and talus; the "Warp," a
+marine and estuarine silt and clay of the Humber; and also beds of peat
+and diatomite.
+
+  See GLACIAL PERIOD; PLEISTOCENE; BOULDER CLAY. (J. A. H.)
+
+
+
+
+DRILL. (1) A tool for boring or making holes in hard substances, such as
+stone, metal, &c. (an adaptation in the 17th century from the Dutch
+_dril_ or _drille_, from _drillen_, to turn, bore a hole; according to
+the New English Dictionary the word is not to be connected with the
+English "thrill"). The word _drillen_ was used in Dutch, German and
+Danish, from the 17th century for training in military exercises and was
+adopted into English in the same sense. The origin of the application
+seems to be in the primary sense of "to turn round," from the turning of
+the troops in their evolutions and from the turning of the weapons in
+the soldiers' hands. Drill is, formally, the preparation of soldiers for
+their duties in war by the practice or rehearsal of movements in
+military order and the handling of arms, and, psychologically, the
+method of producing in the individual soldier habits of self-control and
+of mechanically precise actions under disturbing conditions, and of
+rendering the common instinctive will of a body of men, large or small,
+amenable to the control of, and susceptible to a stimulus imparted by
+its commander's will.
+
+(2) A furrow made in the soil in which seed may be sown, and a machine
+used for sowing seed in such furrows (see SOWING). The word is somewhat
+doubtful in origin. It may be the same as an obsolete word "drill," to
+trickle, flow in drops, also a small stream or flow of water, a rill,
+and is possibly an altered form of "trill."
+
+(3) In zoology, the native name of a large short-tailed west African
+baboon, _Papio leucophaeus_, closely allied to the mandrill (q.v.), but
+distinguished by the absence of brilliant blue and scarlet on the jaws
+of the fully adult males.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+(4) The name of a fabric made in both linen and cotton, and commonly
+bleached and finished stiff. The word is a shortened form of "drilling,"
+from the German _drillich_, or "three-threaded," and is so named because
+the weave originally used in its construction is what is termed the
+three-leaf twill, nine repeats of which appear in the accompanying
+figure, while immediately below the design is an intersection of all the
+nine threads with the first pick. It is essentially a warp-faced fabric;
+that is, the upper surface is composed mostly of warp threads. In the
+figure it will be seen that two out of every three threads appear on the
+surface, and, by introducing a greater number of threads per inch than
+picks per inch, the weft is made to occupy a still more subordinate
+position so far as the upper surface of the cloth is concerned. Although
+the weave shown is still extensively used in this branch, there are
+others, e.g. the 4-thread and the 5-thread weaves, which are employed
+for the production of this cloth. Large quantities of drill are shipped
+to the Eastern markets and to other sub-tropical centres, from which it
+is sold for clothing. In temperate climates it forms a satisfactory
+material for ladies' and children's summer clothing, and it is used by
+chefs, hairdressers, provision merchants, grocers, buttermen, painters
+and decorators, &c., while many of the long jackets or overalls, such as
+those worn by many mill and factory managers, are made from the same
+material.
+
+
+
+
+DRINKING VESSELS.[1] The use of special vessels for drinking purposes
+may fairly be assumed to have had a natural origin and development. From
+a practical point of view it would soon be found desirable to provide
+vessels for liquids in addition to those serving to hold food. As in
+many other commonplace details of modern life, we must turn to the
+primitive races to understand how our present conditions were reached.
+In almost all parts of the world many of the products of nature are
+capable of serving such purposes, with little or no change at the hands
+of man; in tropical and sub-tropical climates the coco-nut and the gourd
+or calabash require but little change to adapt them as the most
+convenient of drinking utensils; the eggs of the larger birds, such as
+the ostrich or the emu, shells, like the nautilus and other univalves,
+as well as the deeper bivalves, are equally convenient. Such natural
+objects are in fact used by the uncivilized tribes of Africa, America
+and Polynesia, as well as, in some cases, by the white races who have
+intruded into those parts of the world, and adopted some of the native
+habits. In Paraguay, for example, the so-called "Paraguay tea," an
+infusion of the _yerba mate_ (_Ilex paraguayensis_), is drunk through a
+tube from a small gourd held in the hand, and often handsomely mounted
+in silver or even gold. In the same way, as we shall see, civilized man
+has adopted nearly all the natural forms that were found convenient by
+the savage, altering and adorning them in accordance with the taste of
+the time or country where they were used.
+
+Another line of development, however, has been found to be the natural
+outcome of the human mind. Nothing could form a more practical drinking
+cup than the half of a coco-nut shell or part of a gourd. Such cups,
+however, in the countries where the plants producing them are common,
+would be easily obtained, and every one, rich or poor, could possess one
+or more. In order, therefore, to distinguish the chief's possessions
+from those of his inferiors, his cup is often made with great labour,
+from some more intractable material, wood or stone, though in
+practically the same form as that of the natural object.
+
+
+  Early drinking cups.
+
+Among European races in medieval times the same lines have been
+followed, though for different reasons. Human ingenuity, though perhaps
+originally inspired by natural forms, is apt to turn aside into more
+artificial channels. The invention of the potter's art (see CERAMICS),
+where the plastic nature of the raw material renders it capable of
+infinite changes of form, gave rise to types of vessels having no
+obvious or necessary relation to the productions of nature. In Britain
+and in northern Europe generally, the interments of the races of the
+Neolithic and Bronze Ages have furnished vessels of pottery of a
+beaker-like form, to which the name of "drinking-cups" has been given.
+It must be confessed that the evidence for attributing such a use to
+them is slender, and mainly consists of the fact that their thin lips
+would render them better adapted for the purpose than the other pottery
+vessels found with them, some of which, on equally slight grounds, have
+been called food vessels. The general use and acceptance of the term by
+two generations of archaeologists is, however, an adequate reason for a
+passing mention in this place. In the later prehistoric times of Europe
+vessels of gold, bronze and other materials, including amber, were made,
+sometimes of elegant forms, and would seem to have been used as drinking
+vessels; still, this is again an assumption, though a fairly probable
+one. A small gold cup with handle was found in a barrow at Rillaton,
+Cornwall; one of amber of a similar form was found at Hove, and a third
+of shale near Honiton. All of these doubtless may be referred to the
+Bronze Age.
+
+
+  New forms found by Schliemann.
+
+Schliemann found many drinking vessels in his exploration of the
+superimposed cities of Troy. A pretty form is that found in the first
+city. It is of clay, and closely resembles an early Victorian tea cup on
+a high foot. This form is of interest, as Schliemann discovered the same
+both at Tiryns and Mycenae, five from the latter site being of gold,
+while the type also occurs from Ialysus in Rhodes in association with
+bronze swords. This Trojan cup was found at a depth of 50 ft. below the
+present surface and about 18 ft. below the stratum of what Schliemann
+claimed to be the Homeric Troy. In his second city appears a different
+type of ware, somewhat fantastic in form, one vessel being in the form
+of a sow, while others foreshadow the _crater_ and _amphora_ of later
+and more familiar Greek wares.
+
+But the drinking vessel to which Schliemann draws most attention is the
+tall cup of a trumpet form furnished with two earlike loop handles. This
+curious and original type occurs also in the Third (or Homeric), Fourth
+and Sixth Cities, with little if any change. Schliemann devotes some
+pages to the discussion of the form, in which he sees the [Greek: depas
+amphikypellon][2] of Homer, which has been more usually understood to
+mean an hour-glass shaped cup, in which the distinguishing feature was
+two cups, not two handles. He applies the same term to a drinking vessel
+of a very different form, found with several others in the Third City.
+This is a sauce-boat shaped vessel[3] of gold, made with a lip for
+pouring or drinking at either end, and with two loop handles. This
+equals those previously mentioned in originality of form; with it were
+found others of gold, silver and electrum (i.e. 4 parts of gold to 1 of
+silver). Of these three were shaped like 18th-century coffee cups but
+wanting handles. In the Sixth City appear forms more nearly approaching
+those of later times, particularly prototypes of the _cantharus_ and
+_scyphus_.
+
+These discoveries in the various strata of Troy may be taken as the
+analogues in the Mediterranean and hither Asia of the later Stone and
+Bronze Ages of northern Europe, with an allowance of some centuries of
+greater antiquity for the former.
+
+It is not proposed in this article to deal with the ceramic and metallic
+drinking vessels of the Greeks and Romans, of what is generally known as
+the classical period (see CERAMICS and PLATE). It may be mentioned,
+however, that both on the Rhine and in various places in Britain,
+notably at Castor in Northamptonshire and in the New Forest, were
+factories where large numbers of _pocula_ or drinking cups were made;
+those made on the Rhine and at Castor bearing legends to indicate their
+use. Many of these are to be seen in the British Museum and in the
+Wallraf-Richartz Museum in Cologne.
+
+
+  Gothic and Scandinavian types.
+
+After the decline of Roman power, the Gothic and Scandinavian races who
+replaced the Romans in central and northern Europe brought with them
+their own forms and types of drinking vessels. These, from about the 4th
+century, replaced the well-known Roman vessels. The northern barbarians
+were as great drinkers as fighters, and their literature recites with
+equal zest the richness of their drinking cups as the power and deadly
+qualities of their arms. Fortunately the practice of burying with the
+dead warrior all his property, or at least as much of it as he would be
+supposed to need, has preserved to our day the actual vessels in use by
+the pagan northmen who pervaded northern Europe from the 4th century
+onward. Saxon graves in Britain have furnished great numbers of drinking
+cups and horns, in many cases quite unbroken. From the remains, of which
+the chief series are in the British and Liverpool Museums, we can learn
+a great deal to amplify the references in literature. The richest single
+interment that has yet been found was within the present churchyard at
+Taplow. Here under a huge mound lay buried a Saxon chieftain surrounded
+by his belongings; arms defensive and offensive, his drinking cups, and
+even his game of draughts. The drinking vessels consisted of five cows'
+horns and four glass cups. The former were of great size, 2 ft. long,
+richly mounted at the mouth and at the point with silver bands embossed
+and gilt. The glasses also were of great size and of a type familiar in
+Saxon interments. Each was of a trumpet shape, with a small foot, while
+the sides were ornamented with hollow pointed tubes bent downwards, and
+open on the inner side, so that the liquid would fill them. Such a plan
+is most unpractical, and it must have been very difficult to keep the
+vessels clean. Glasses of this uncommon form have not been found
+elsewhere than in Saxon graves, either in England or in the north of the
+continent. Other types are perhaps nearly as characteristic, though of
+simpler construction. One of these is a simple cone of glass, sometimes
+quite plain, at others ornamented with an applied spiral glass thread,
+or more rarely with festoons of white glass embedded in the body of the
+vessel. A third form is a plain cup or bowl widely expanded at the mouth
+and with a rounded base, so that it could only be set down when empty,
+in fact a true "tumbler." This feature is in fact a very common one in
+the drinking vessels of the Saxon race. There are many other varieties,
+plain cylindrical goblets, generally with ornamental glass threads on
+the outside, and a more usual type has a rounded body somewhat of the
+shape of an orange with a wide plain mouth. Many of all these classes
+were found in the famous cemetery known as the King's Field at Faversham
+in Kent (the relics from which are now in the British Museum), at
+Chessel Down in the Isle of Wight, and in the cemetery within the
+ancient camp on High Down, near Worthing. In Belgium, France and Germany
+the same types occur, and even as far north as Scandinavia, where they
+are found in association with Roman coins of the 4th century. On the
+continent, however, additional types are found that do not occur in
+Britain--one of these is a drinking glass in the form of a hunting horn
+with glass threads forming an ornamental design on the outside. From the
+wide distribution of these types, it seems certain that they sprang
+originally from a common centre, and the slender evidence available on
+the subject seems to point to that centre having been somewhere on the
+lower Rhine. Although glass seems to have been popular and by no means
+rare as a material for drinking vessels, other materials also were used.
+A large number of the smaller pottery vessels would serve such a
+purpose, and in one grave at Broomfield in Essex two small wooden cups
+were found which, from their small size and thinness, were no doubt used
+for liquid.
+
+Of the later Saxon domestic utensils nothing remains, the habit of
+burying such objects with the dead having ceased on the gradual
+introduction of Christianity through the country. Manuscripts are our
+only resource, and they are not only of great rarity, but in the main
+rudely and conventionally drawn in their details. In those of the 9th to
+the 11th century various simple forms are seen, some resembling our
+modern tumbler in shape, others like a dice box. Horns as drinking
+vessels certainly retained their popularity at all times, surviving
+especially among the northern nations, and many of the vessels of this
+form were no doubt actual horns, though horn-shaped vessels were often
+made of other materials. Until we come to the 13th and 14th centuries
+there is an absolute dearth of the actual objects used in domestic life.
+And here we begin with plate used in the service of the church.
+
+
+  Church vessels.
+
+The drinking vessel possessing the most unbroken history is doubtless
+the chalice of the Christian Church.[4] Like other ceremonial objects it
+was no doubt differentiated from the drinking cups in ordinary use by a
+gradual transition, and in the early centuries it is unlikely that it
+differed either in form or material from the ordinary domestic vessel of
+the time. Figures of such vessels, apparently with a symbolic intention,
+are found upon early Christian tombstones, and it has been contended
+that the vessel indicated the grave of a priest. While this may be the
+case, the similarity of the vessel represented to the ordinary
+non-liturgical form renders the conclusion somewhat weak. Among objects
+found under conditions which lend colour to their specific use as
+chalices are the bottoms of glass vessels found inserted in plaster in
+the Catacombs at Rome; but here again the Jesuit Padre Garrucci was
+unable to find any evidence to support such a conclusion. It is not in
+fact until the 6th century that the sacred vessel would appear to have
+assumed a definite form. From about that time date the lost golden
+chalices of Monza, representations of which still exist in that city;
+and the famous chalice of Gourdon in the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris
+is probably of about the same time. All of these are two-handled with a
+vase-shaped body and supported on a high foot; and thus quite unlike the
+more recent medieval types. Two glass vases of exactly this two-handled
+form are in the Slade collection at the British Museum, and may well
+have been chalices. Another chalice, in the same collection, of the 6th
+or 7th century, was found with a silver treasure at Lampsacus on the
+Hellespont. It is of silver, with a cylindrical body and small expanding
+foot; with it were found a number of silver spoons and dishes, the
+former inscribed with the names of Apostles, Greek hexameters and lines
+from Virgil's Eclogues. No doubt the whole was the treasure of a
+monastery, buried and never reclaimed. So far as evidence exists for the
+form of the chalice, the vase-shape with two handles seems to have been
+mainly succeeded by a goblet with straight sides and without handles;
+these latter in great part disappeared. Then came the rounded cup-shaped
+bowl as seen in the well-known Kremsmunster chalice. An interesting
+silver vessel, probably a chalice, found at Trewhiddle in Cornwall, is
+in the British Museum. It is of plain semi-oviform shape, and dates from
+the 9th century. The 13th century chalice was usually a broad somewhat
+shallow cup, on a conical base, and squat in its general lines as
+compared with those of later date. These gradually became taller, and
+with a bowl smaller in proportion, following the tendency of the civil
+vessels towards more elegant lines. Both civil and religious vessels
+eventually carried this tendency to an extreme point, so that in the
+17th century the continental chalices and standing cups had lost all
+sense of true artistic proportions; the bowl of the chalice had greatly
+shrunk in size while the foot had become huge and highly elaborate, both
+in general form and in ornamental details. In Britain chalices ceased to
+be used in the English church in the reign of Edward VI., and were
+replaced by communion cups. These were much plainer in make, recalling
+in their outlines the goblet form of about a thousand years earlier, the
+sides of the bowl being concave, or nearly straight, as opposed to the
+convexity of the chalice, while the paten was reversed over the mouth
+and so arranged as to form a closely fitting cover. With the beginning
+of the 17th century English communion cups again followed the civil
+fashion in adapting the outline of the Venetian drinking glass, a shape
+which has survived to our own days.
+
+The materials of which chalices were made in the early centuries seem to
+have been as various as those of ordinary vessels. Glass was undoubtedly
+a favourite substance, perhaps from its lending itself readily to
+scrupulous cleanliness; but wood, horn, ivory and similar materials were
+undoubtedly in use, and were from time to time condemned as improper by
+the Fathers of the Church. Pewter was in common use, and it was not an
+unusual practice in the 12th and 13th centuries to place sacramental
+vessels, of this or more precious metal, in the grave of an
+ecclesiastic. Bronze was also used, and the Kremsmunster chalice is of
+that metal, which was a favourite one in the Celtic church. But gold or
+silver chalices were no doubt always preferred when they could be
+obtained.
+
+It may be mentioned here that it was a common practice in the 16th
+century and later in England for laymen to make gifts to the church of
+vessels of an entirely domestic character for use in the service. Many
+of these from their associations, and in the character of the designs
+upon them, were entirely unsuited for such purposes, and in our own
+time, when a healthy desire has sprung up for the proper investigation
+of such matters, many such unsuitable vessels have been withdrawn from
+use. Domestic plate, however, being much more highly appreciated by
+collectors, there has been a regrettable tendency on the part of the
+holders of such pieces to sell them to the highest bidders; the tendency
+is to be deplored, for while they remain the property of the church,
+they are a national asset; if sold by auction, there is a great
+probability of their going abroad.
+
+
+  Medieval vessels for common uses.
+
+  Mazers.
+
+It would seem fairly certain that the ordinary drinking vessel of
+medieval times was, like the trenchers of wood, turned on the lathe. Of
+these the commoner varieties have entirely disappeared, having become
+useless from distortion or other damage. Such as have come down to our
+own time owe their preservation to the added refinement of a silver
+mount. Vessels of this kind are known as _mazer_ bowls, a word of
+uncertain origin, but undoubtedly, in the medieval sense, indicating
+wood of some more or less valuable kind, and not improbably, in the 16th
+century, maple or a wood of that appearance. Spenser in the "Shepherd's
+Kalendar" speaks of "a mazer ywrought of the maple warre." Although such
+vessels are mentioned in the inventories and other contemporary records
+as far back as the 12th century, no example is known to exist of an
+earlier date than the 14th century, of which date there are two in the
+possession of Harbledown hospital. This type of drinking vessel was in
+common use in well-to-do households until the 16th century, when a
+change of fashion and the greater luxury and refinement dictated the
+adoption of more elegant and complex forms. The ordinary mazer was a
+shallow bowl (see PLATE, Plate II.) about 6 in. in diameter, with a
+broad expanding rim of silver gilt often engraved with a motto in black
+letter or Lombardic capitals, at times referring to the function of the
+cup, such as:--
+
+  "In the name of the Trinity
+   Fille the Kup and drinke to me."
+
+or,
+
+  "Potum et nos benedicat Agios."
+
+Within the bowl, in the centre is often found a circular medallion
+called a "print" with some device upon it, engraved and filled with
+enamel. The reason of this addition may conceivably be found in the fact
+that such bowls were sometimes made from the lower half of a gourd or
+calabash, in the centre of which would be a rough projection whence the
+fibres of the fruit had diverged. A rarer form of mazer has the
+characters just mentioned and in addition is mounted upon a high foot,
+bringing it nearer to the category of standing cups or "hanaps." The
+famous Scrope mazer belonging to York Minster (early 15th century)
+stands upon three small feet. Of the hanap type examples are in the
+possession of Pembroke College, Cambridge (the Foundress' Cup), and All
+Souls' College, Oxford, the former an exceedingly fine specimen, of the
+third quarter of the 15th century. The form dictated originally by the
+simple wooden cup was at times carried out entirely in silver, or even
+in stone, mazer-like cups being found either entirely in metal or with
+the main portion made of serpentine or some other ornamental stone. An
+example of the former from the Hamilton Palace collection, as well as
+several ordinary mazers, are to be seen in the British Museum. The types
+above described are of English origin, with the exception of that made
+entirely of silver, which is thought to be French. Most of the
+continental forms differed from the English, and were more elaborately
+finished. One of the finest is that which belonged to Louis de Male,
+last count of Flanders. It is an exceedingly thin, shallow bowl of
+fine-grained wood, with a cover of the same make. The latter is
+surmounted by a silver figure of a falcon holding a shield in its mouth
+with the arms of the count. The foot is of silver with lozenge-shaped
+panels inserted, bearing in enamel the arms of the count. A German form
+of the 16th century consisted of a depressed sphere of wood for the
+bowl, with a silver rim, and a cover formed of a similarly shaped
+sphere, called in France a "creusequin." Such mazers were furnished in
+addition with a short metal handle turned up at the end, a feature
+unknown in the English types. All of these again are to be seen in the
+British Museum series.
+
+
+  Hanaps.
+
+Although the use of wooden vessels more or less elaborately mounted was
+continued well into the 16th century as a fashion, many other materials
+of far greater value were in use among the wealthy long before that
+time. Crystal, agate and other hard stones, ivory, Chinese porcelain, as
+well as more ordinary wares, were all in use, as well as the precious
+metals. The inventories of the 14th and 15th centuries are full of
+entries showing that such precious cups were fairly common. Of gold cups
+of any antiquity naturally but few remain; the intrinsic value of the
+metal probably is a sufficient explanation. One of the most important in
+existence is however preserved in the British Museum, viz. the royal
+gold cup of the kings of England and France. It is of nearly pure gold
+with a broad bowl and a high foot, the cover pyramidal. The whole is
+ornamented with translucent enamels of the most perfect quality, and
+with a little damage in one part, absolutely well preserved. The
+subjects represented on it are scenes from the life of St Agnes, in two
+rows, one on the cover and one outside the bowl; on the foot are the
+symbols of the four Evangelists, and around the base a coronal of leaves
+alternating with pearls; the cover originally had a similar adjunct, but
+it has unfortunately been cut away. This is the only piece of royal
+plate of the treasures of the kings of England and France that now
+remains, and its history has been traced from the time it was made,
+about the year 1380, to the present time. It was made by one of the
+goldsmiths of the luxurious Duc de Berri, the brother of Charles V. of
+France, no doubt to offer as a gift to the king, whose  birthday was
+St Agnes' day. It was, however, never presented, probably owing to the
+death of Charles V. in 1380. The duc de Berri was not on friendly terms
+with his nephew Charles VI., but on their being reconciled he presented
+the young king with this cup. The troubles of his reign led to the
+invasion of France by Henry V. of England, and the ultimate appointment
+of his brother, John, duke of Bedford, as regent. The necessities of the
+half-insane Charles doubtless caused this cup and other valuables to
+pass into the possession of the regent in exchange for ready money, for
+it appears in the duke of Bedford's will, under which it passed into the
+treasury of Henry VI. There it remained and appears in all subsequent
+royal inventories up to the time of James I. This monarch, whose motto
+was "Beati pacifici," received with joy the embassy sent from Spain in
+the year 1610 to conclude the first treaty of peace with England since
+the Armada, and showered upon the envoy, Don Juan de Velasco, constable
+of Castile, the most lavish and extravagant gifts. The constable, in
+fact, was so impressed by the warmth of his reception that he printed an
+account of his embassy, and from this work the main story of the cup has
+eventually been traced. On his return to Spain the constable, a piously
+disposed man, presented this cup, with many other valuable gifts, to the
+convent of Santa Clara Medina de Pomar at Burgos, of which his sister
+was Superior. Although it was a domestic vessel, a "hanap" in fact, the
+constable elected that it should be consecrated and made use of as a
+chalice at great festivals. And so it continued to be used from the
+early years of the 17th century until about the year 1882, when the
+convent having fallen upon evil times, it was decided to sell this
+precious relic. A priest from the Argentine being at the time in Burgos,
+it was confided to him to sell in Paris, and he deposited the sum of
+L100 by way of security. This was all that the unfortunate nuns at
+Burgos ever received in return for their chalice, for they never saw the
+priest again. He took the cup to Paris, arriving in the month of
+September, when the majority of the well-to-do are away from town. After
+many failures to dispose of it, he ultimately succeeded in selling it to
+Baron Jerome Pichon for the sum of about L400, practically its weight in
+gold. The baron, after vainly trying to resell it at various sums from
+L20,000 downwards, eventually parted with it to Messrs Wertheimer of
+Bond Street for L8000, and that firm very liberally ceded it to Sir
+Wollaston Franks for the same sum, and it was finally secured by a
+subscription for the British Museum.
+
+
+Plate I.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--ROMAN GLASS CUP. With representation of a
+chariot race. Found at Colchester.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--TEUTONIC GLASS CUP. From a grave at Selzen,
+Rhenish Hesse.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--SAXON GLASS "TUMBLER."]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--FRANKISH GLASS DRINKING HORN. Bingerbruck.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--SAXON COW'S HORN. Mounted in silver. Taplow.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--SAXON TRUMPET-SHAPED DRINKING VESSEL. With
+hollow tubular ornamentation.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--THE ROYAL GOLD ENAMELLED HANAP. Made about
+1380.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--SARACENIC ENAMELLED GOBLET. With French silver
+mountings. Fourteenth century.]
+
+
+Plate II.
+
+All the objects represented on these two plates are in the British
+Museum.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--VENETIAN GLASS GOBLET. With enamelled
+decoration. Fifteenth century.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--ENGLISH "BLACKJACK." With initials of Charles I.
+and date 1646.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--THE ROCHESTER MAZER. Presented by Brother Robert
+Peacham. Sixteenth century.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--CHINESE CUP. Carved from rhinoceros horn.
+Eighteenth century.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--ENGLISH GLASS TANKARD. Bearing the Arms of Lord
+Burleigh.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--COCO-NUT CUP. German, about 1600.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--SWISS "TANZENMANN." Seventeenth century.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--A GLASS "YARD OF ALE" (English). Eighteenth
+century.]
+
+Such is the story of one of the most remarkable "hanaps" in existence.
+The word "hanap" is translated by Cotgrave in his French dictionary of
+1660 as "a drinking cup or goblet," and probably was intended to mean
+what would be called a standing cup, that is, raised on a foot, to
+distinguish it from a bowl of the mazer class. Such vessels were chiefly
+used to ornament the dinner table or sideboard, in the way that
+loving-cups are now used at civic banquets, where, almost alone in fact,
+the ancient ceremonial of the table is still observed to some extent;
+and the loving-cup is the direct descendant of the hanap of the middle
+ages.
+
+
+  Nefs.
+
+Of all the ornaments of the table in medieval times the most conspicuous
+was probably the "nef." This was in the form of a ship (_navis_), as its
+name implies, and originally was designed to hold the table utensils of
+the host--knives, napkins, and at times even the wine. Some of the later
+examples which alone survive are carried out with the greatest
+elaboration, the sails and rigging being carefully finished and with a
+number of figures on the deck. The reason for the existence of such an
+article of table furniture was doubtless the fear of poison. As in
+course of time this became less, the nef changed its character, and
+became either a mere ornament, or sometimes was capable of being used as
+a drinking vessel. The former, however, was much more common, and the
+number of nefs that can be practically used as drinking cups is small.
+
+
+  16th-century types.
+
+In the 15th and 16th centuries the shapes, decoration and materials of
+drinking vessels were almost endless. A favourite object to be so
+adapted was an ostrich egg, and many can be seen in museums in elaborate
+silver mounts; coco-nuts were also used in the same way, and Chinese
+and other Oriental wares then of great variety, were often turned into
+cups and vases by ingeniously devised silver mounting. The use of
+drinking vessels either formed of actual horns or of other materials was
+common in the 15th and 16th centuries, especially in the north. They
+were usually provided with feet so as to serve as standing cups, and
+some of them were mounted with great richness. An excellent example is
+the famous drinking-horn in the possession of Queen's College, Oxford,
+dating from the 14th century. The medieval beliefs about "griffins'
+claws" still survived to this late date, and a horn cup in the British
+Museum bears the inscription "Ein Greifen Klau bin ich genannt, In Asia,
+Africa wohl bekannt." Another horn, probably that of an ibex, is in the
+same institution, and has a silver mount inscribed "Gryphi unguis divo
+Cuthberto dunelmensi sacer." The elegant natural curve of the horn adds
+greatly to the charm of the vessel. In Germany the ingenuity of the
+silversmith was turned in the direction of making vessels in the forms
+of animals, at times in allusion to the coat of arms of the patron.
+Stags, lions, bears and various birds are often found; the head
+generally removable so as to form a small cup Switzerland and south
+Germany had a special type, in the form of the figure of a peasant,
+generally in wood, carrying on his back a large basket, which edged with
+silver formed the drinking cup. This type is only found in wine-growing
+districts, the basket being used for carrying grapes. In Germany such
+cups are called "Buttenmann," in Switzerland "Tanzenmann." The royal and
+princely museums of Germany contain great numbers of such vessels, the
+Green Vault in Dresden in particular, while a good number are to be seen
+in our own great museums. A curious fancy, combining instruction with
+conviviality, was to make cups in the form of a globe, terrestrial or
+celestial, which are still useful as showing the state of geographical
+or astronomical knowledge at the time. Several of those made in the 16th
+century are still in existence, one in the British Museum, a second at
+Nancy, and others are in Copenhagen and Zurich and in private
+collections. The upper half of the globe is removable, leaving the lower
+as the drinking cup. Ivory both from the beauty of its colour and the
+evenness of its structure has been a favourite material for drinking
+vessels at all times, and would seem to have been continuously used from
+the earliest period, whether derived from Asia or Africa, while the
+semi-fossil mammoth ivory of Siberia has not been neglected. In general,
+however, the vessels made from this material presented no essential
+differences of form from those in wood, until the art of lathe-turning
+attained great perfection, when a wide field was opened for ingenuity
+and even extravagance of form. The most remarkable examples of the
+possibilities of this kind of mechanical skill are seen in the
+productions of the Nuremberg turners of the 17th century, whose
+elaborate and entirely useless _tours de force_ comprise among many
+other things standing cups of ivory sometimes 2 ft. high, exemplifying
+every eccentricity of which the lathe is capable. Peter Zick (d. 1632)
+and his three sons were celebrated for such work. Several pieces,
+doubtless from their hands, are in the British Museum.
+
+
+  Glass cups.
+
+The use of glass cups was not common in England until the 16th century,
+Venice having practically the monopoly of the supply. A silver-mounted
+glass goblet which belonged to the great Lord Burghley is, however, in
+the British Museum, where there is also a very large series of Venetian
+drinking glasses of various kinds, clear and lace glass as well as some
+of the 15th-century goblets with enamelled designs, now of the greatest
+rarity. The relations of Venice with the East were of so intimate a
+character that the earlier forms of Venetian glasses were nearly
+identical with those of the Mahommedan East.
+
+A common type of Arab drinking glass resembled our modern tumbler (a
+beaker), but gradually expanding in a curve towards the mouth, and often
+enamelled. The enamelled designs were at times related to the purpose of
+the vessel, figures drinking and the like, but more commonly bore either
+a mark of ownership, such as the armorial device of an emir, or some
+simple decorative design. This simple form probably has its origin in
+the horn cup made from the base of a cow's horn and closed at the
+smaller end. The later forms in the late 15th century and after,
+followed the fashion in other materials, and were raised on a tall foot,
+so that from the 16th century onwards the type of wine glass has hardly
+changed, except in details. An interesting variety in one detail is seen
+in the German fashion of providing an elaborate silver stand into which
+the foot of such an ordinary-shaped glass was made to fit. Frequently,
+as might be expected, such stands are found without glasses, and their
+use then seems difficult to explain.
+
+Another characteristic German type is the "wiederkom," a vessel more
+conspicuous for capacity than for its artistic qualities. It is usually
+a cylindrical vessel of green glass often holding as much as a quart,
+elaborately enamelled with coats of arms and views of well-known places;
+and at times when the cup was a wedding gift the figures of the bride
+and bridegroom are seen upon it.
+
+A very fanciful kind of cup was known in England as a "yard of ale," a
+long tube of glass generally shaped like a coach horn, but ending
+sometimes in three prongs as a trident, the opening in the latter being
+at the end of the handle, which was about a yard in length.
+
+Small silver cups were often made in dozens with various devices,
+differing in each, such as the signs of the zodiac, the occupations of
+the months, or figures of the classical gods and goddesses, engraved
+upon them.
+
+The tankard came into fashion in the 16th century, a practical, but
+seldom graceful object. At first some attempt was made, by shaping the
+sides, to attain to some artistic quality, but usually the tankard from
+the late 16th century to the present time is found with straight sides,
+either vertical or contracting towards the top, which is of course
+always furnished with a hinged lid.
+
+
+  17th and 18th century types.
+
+A material that has one obvious merit, that of being practically
+unbreakable, is leather, and drinking cups were often made of it. The
+flagon called a "black jack" is the best-known, and examples are very
+common, mostly of the 17th and 18th centuries. A quaint fashion was to
+have a leather cup made in the form of a lady's shoe; this, however, was
+confined to Germany and might be thought in somewhat questionable taste.
+
+In the 17th and 18th centuries a great impetus was given to the
+production of curious drinking vessels in pottery. In England at various
+potting centres a great number of cups called "tygs" were made:
+capacious mugs with several handles, three or four, round the sides, so
+that the cup could be readily passed from one to the other. Many of
+these have quaint devices and inscriptions upon them. Another favourite
+plan is to make a jug with open-work round the neck and a variety of
+spouts, one only communicating with the liquid. These "puzzle jugs" no
+doubt caused a good deal of amusement when attempted by a novice, who
+would inevitably spill some of the contents.
+
+The horn of the rhinoceros is much favoured by the Chinese as a material
+for drinking cups often of a somewhat archaic form. The dense structure
+of the horn is well adapted for the purpose, and its beautiful amber hue
+makes the vessel a very agreeable object to the eye. The usual form is
+of a boat shape on a square foot, and the carved decoration is often
+copied from that of the bronze vessels of the earlier dynasties. Others
+are treated in a freer and more naturalistic manner, the bowl being
+formed as the flower of the magnolia, and the entire horn, at times more
+than 2 ft. in length, is utilized in carrying out the design. One of
+this kind is in the Victoria and Albert Museum. Cups of the former type
+are commonly found imitated in ivory-white porcelain, and are known as
+"libation cups." Rhinoceros horn is held by the Chinese to be an
+antidote against poison, a belief shared by other nations.
+
+
+  Tea and coffee cups.
+
+There is but little to be said about the vessels used in the drinking of
+tea and coffee. In Europe the type has practically remained unchanged
+since the introduction of tea and coffee drinking, except that in the
+18th century the tea-cups imported from China had no handles, and were
+generally thinner than the coffee cups. In Japan there is a ceremonious
+way of drinking tea, known as _Cha no yu_. Here powdered green tea is
+used; the party assembles in a small pavilion in a garden, and the tea
+is made in accordance with a rigid etiquette. The infusion is stirred
+with a whisk in a rudely fashioned bowl, holding about a pint, and
+passed from one guest to another. The bowls are of very thick pottery,
+never of porcelain, and the most valued kind is that made in Korea. In
+the drinking of rice spirit (sake) in Japan small wide shallow cups are
+used, made generally of porcelain, but sometimes of finely lacquered
+wood. Both kinds are usually ornamented with elaborate and sometimes
+allusive designs.
+
+
+  Savage utensils.
+
+Among savage races the most peculiar drinking ceremony is that of kava
+drinking in Polynesia, principally in the Fijian, Tongan and Samoan
+groups. The best description of the process is given in Mariner's
+_Tonga_. The principal vessel is usually a large bowl, sometimes
+measuring 2 or 3 ft. in diameter, cut from a solid block of wood. It has
+four short legs and an ear at one side to which a rope of coco-nut fibre
+is generally attached. The liquid is prepared in this bowl and ladled
+out in small cups often made of coco-nut shells, and these are handed
+round with great ceremony. Both the bowl and the cups become coated in
+the inside with a highly polished layer, pale blue in colour; but this
+beautiful tint fades when the vessel is out of use, and it is therefore
+very rarely seen in specimens in Europe. The kava itself is prepared
+from the root of a tree of the pepper family (_Piper methysticum_); the
+root is cut into pieces of a convenient size, and these are given to
+young men and women of the company, who masticate them, and the lumps
+thus shredded are placed in the large bowl, water is poured over them,
+and the mass is strained with great care by wringing it in strips of the
+inner bark of the _hibiscus_. The liquor is slightly intoxicating.
+
+If the Polynesian method of preparing kava as a drink is distasteful to
+our ideas, the favourite drinking bowl of the old Tibetans is even more
+so. Friar Odoric (14th century), quoted by Yule, describes how the
+Tibetan youth "takes his father's head and straightway cooks and eats
+it, and of the skull he makes a goblet from which he and all his family
+always drink devoutly to the memory of the deceased father." This
+recalls Livy's account of the Boii in Upper Italy, who made a drinking
+vessel of the head of the Roman consul Postumus. Among the Tibetans
+skulls are still used, but generally for libations only; for this
+purpose great care is exercised in the selection of the skull, and the
+"points" of a good skull are well understood by the Lamas.
+     (C. H. RD.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The verb "to drink" is Common Teut.; cf. Ger. _trinken_, &c.
+
+  [2] See PLATE, Plate I.
+
+  [3] See PLATE, Plate I.
+
+  [4] For two illustrations see PLATE, Plate II.
+
+
+
+
+DRIPSTONE, in architecture, a projecting moulding weathered on the upper
+surface and throated underneath so as to form a drip. The term is more
+correctly applied to a string course. When carried round an arch its
+more correct description would be a hood (q.v.). When employed inside a
+building it serves a decorative purpose only.
+
+
+
+
+DRISLER, HENRY (1818-1897), American classical scholar, was born on the
+27th of December 1818, on Staten Island, New York. He graduated at
+Columbia College in 1839, taught classics in the Columbia grammar school
+for four years, and was then appointed tutor in classics in the college.
+In 1845 he became adjunct professor of Latin and Greek there, in 1857
+was appointed to the new separate chair of Latin language and
+literature, and ten years later succeeded Dr Charles Anthon as Jay
+professor of Greek language and literature. He was acting president in
+1867 and in 1888-1889, and from 1890 to his retirement as professor
+emeritus in 1894 was dean of the school of arts. He died in New York
+City on the 30th of November 1897. Dr Drisler completed and supplemented
+Dr Anthon's labours as an editor of classical texts. His criticisms and
+corrections of Liddell and Scott's _Greek-English Lexicon_, of which he
+brought out a revised American edition in 1846, won his name a place on
+the title-page of the British edition in 1879, and in 1870 he published
+a revised and enlarged edition of Yonge's _English-Greek Lexicon_. He
+was ardently opposed to slavery, and brilliantly refuted _The Bible View
+of Slavery_, written by Bishop J. H. Hopkins of Vermont, in a _Reply_
+(1863), which meets the bishop on purely Biblical ground and displays
+the wide range of Dr Drisler's scholarship.
+
+
+
+
+DRIVER, SAMUEL ROLLES (1846-   ), English divine and Hebrew scholar, was
+born at Southampton on the 2nd of October 1846. He was educated at
+Winchester and New College, Oxford, where he had a distinguished career,
+taking a first class in Literae Humaniores in 1869. He was awarded the
+Pusey and Ellerton scholarship in 1866, the Kennicott scholarship in
+1870 (both Hebrew), and the Houghton Syriac prize in 1872. From 1870 he
+was a fellow, and from 1875 also a tutor, of New College, and in 1883
+succeeded Pusey as regius professor of Hebrew and canon of Christ
+Church. He was a member of the Old Testament Revision Committee
+(1876-1884) and examining chaplain to the bishop of Southwell
+(1884-1904); received the honorary degrees of doctor of literature of
+Dublin (1892), doctor of divinity of Glasgow (1901), doctor of
+literature of Cambridge (1905); and was elected a fellow of the British
+Academy in 1902. Dr Driver devoted his life to the study, both textual
+and critical, of the Old Testament. Among his numerous works are
+commentaries on Joel and Amos (1897); Deuteronomy (1902); Daniel (1901);
+Genesis (1909); the Minor Prophets, Nahum to Malachi (1905); Job (1905);
+Jeremiah (1906); Leviticus (1894 Hebrew text, 1898 trans. and notes);
+Samuel (Hebrew text, 1890). Among his more general works are: _Treatise
+on the Use of the Tenses in Hebrew_ (1892); _Isaiah, his Life and Times_
+(1893); _Introd. to the Literature of the Old Test._ (1897, ed. 1909);
+_Sermons on Subjects connected with the Old Testament_ (1892); _The
+Parallel Psalter_ (1904); _Heb. and Eng. Lexicon of the O.T._ (in
+collaboration, 1906); _Modern Research as illustrating the Bible_
+(1909); articles in the _Ency. Brit._, _Ency. Bibl._ and Hastings'
+_Dict. of the Bible_.
+
+
+
+
+DRIVING (from "to drive," i.e. generally to propel, force along or in, a
+word common in various forms to the Teutonic languages), a word used in
+a restricted sense for the art of controlling and directing draught
+animals from a coach or other conveyance or movable machine to which
+they are harnessed for the purpose of traction. This has been an
+occupation practised since domesticated animals were first put to this
+use. In various parts of the world a number of different animals have
+been, and still are, so employed; of these the horse, ox, mule and ass
+are the most common, though their place is taken by the reindeer in
+northern latitudes, and by the Eskimo dog in arctic and antarctic
+regions. The driving of each of these requires special skill, only to be
+acquired by practice combined with knowledge of the characteristics
+peculiar to the several animals employed. The most accomplished driver
+of spirited horses would probably be in difficulties if called upon to
+drive sixteen or twenty dogs in an arctic sledge, or a team of oxen or
+mules drawing the guns of a mountain battery; and the adept in either of
+these branches of the art might provoke the compassion of a farmer from
+Lincolnshire or Texas by his attempts to manage a pair of Clydesdale
+horses in the plough or the reaping machine.
+
+Under all these different conditions driving is a work of utility, of
+economic value to civilized society. But from very early times driving,
+especially of horses, has also been regarded as a sport or pastime. This
+probably arose in the first instance from its association with battle.
+In the earliest historical records, such as the Old Testament and the
+Homeric poems, the driver of the chariot fills a place of importance in
+the economy of war; and on his skill and efficiency the fate of kings,
+and even of kingdoms, must often have depended. The statement in the
+Book of Kings that Jehu the son of Nimshi was recognized from a distance
+by his style of driving appears to indicate that the warrior himself on
+occasion took the place of the professional charioteer; and although it
+would be unsafe to infer from the story that the pleasure derived from
+the occupation was his motive for doing so, the name of this king of
+Israel has become the eponym of drivers. Among the Greeks at an equally
+early period driving was a recognized form of sport, to the popularity
+of which Horace afterwards made allusion. Racing between teams of horses
+harnessed to war-chariots took the place occupied by saddle-horse
+racing and American trotting races (see HORSE-RACING) in the sport of
+modern times. The element of danger doubtless gave pleasurable
+excitement to chariot racing and kept alive its association with
+incidents familiar in war; just as at a later period, when the
+institution of chivalry had given the armed knight on horseback a
+conspicuous place in medieval warfare, the tournament became the most
+popular sport of the aristocracy throughout Europe.
+
+This element of danger cannot be said to enter usually into the
+enjoyment of driving at the present day. Though accidents occasionally
+happen, the pastime is practically unattended by serious risk; and the
+source of the pleasure it affords the driver must be sought in the skill
+it requires, combined with the love of the horse which is common to
+sportsmen, and of exercise of power. The art of driving as practised
+to-day for pleasure without profit, and without the excitement of
+racing, is of quite modern development. Oliver Cromwell, indeed, met
+with a mishap in Hyde Park while driving a team of four horses presented
+to him by the count of Oldenburg, which was the subject of more than one
+satirical allusion by contemporary royalist writers; but two things were
+needed before much enjoyment could be found in driving apart from
+utility. These were the invention of carriages on springs, and the
+construction of roads with smooth and solid surface. The former did not
+come into general use till near the end of the 18th century, and it was
+about the same period that the engineering skill of Thomas Telford and
+the invention of John London Macadam combined to provide the latter. The
+influence on driving of these two developments was soon apparent.
+Throughout the 18th century stage-coaches, ponderous unwieldy vehicles
+without springs, had toiled slowly over rough and deeply rutted tracks
+as a means of communication between different parts of Great Britain;
+but those who made use of them did so as a matter of necessity and not
+for enjoyment. But by the beginning of the 19th century the improvement
+in carriage-building and road-construction alike had greatly diminished
+the discomfort of travel; and interest in driving for its own sake grew
+so rapidly that in 1807 the first association of amateur coachmen was
+formed. This was the Bensington Driving Club, the forerunner of many
+aristocratic clubs for gentlemen interested in driving as a pastime.
+
+In modern driving one, two or four horses are usually employed. When a
+greater number than four is put in harness, as in the case of the state
+equipages of royal personages on occasions of ceremony, the horses are
+not driven but are controlled by "postillions" mounted on the near-side
+horse of each pair. When two horses are used they may either be placed
+side by side, in "double harness," which is the commoner mode of driving
+a pair of horses, or one following the other, in a "tandem." Four
+horses, or "four-in-hand," are harnessed in two pairs, one following the
+other, and called respectively the "leaders" and the "wheelers"--the
+same terms being used for the two horses of a tandem.
+
+Though it is a less difficult accomplishment to drive a single horse
+than a tandem or four-in-hand, or even a pair, it nevertheless requires
+both knowledge and the skill that practice alone confers. The driver
+should have some knowledge of equine character, and complete familiarity
+with every part of the harness he uses, and with the purpose which each
+buckle or strap is intended to serve. The indefinable quality known in
+horsemanship as "good hands" is scarcely less desirable on the box-seat
+than in the saddle. It is often said to be unattainable by those who do
+not possess it by nature; but though this may be true to some extent,
+"good hands" are partly at least the result of learning the correct
+position for the arm and hand that holds the reins. The reins are held
+in the left hand, which should be kept at about the level of the lowest
+button of the driver's waistcoat, and near the body though not pressed
+against it. The driving hand should never be reached forward more than a
+few inches, nor raised as high as the breast. The upper arm should lie
+loosely against the side, the forearm horizontal across the front of the
+body, forming a right angle or thereabouts at the elbow-joint, the
+wrist very slightly bent inwards, and the back of the hand and knuckles
+facing outwards towards the horses. In this position the three joints of
+the arm form a kind of automatic spring that secures the "give" to the
+movement of the horse's mouth which, in conjunction with firmness, is a
+large part of what is meant by "good hands." But this result is only
+obtained if the reins be also held with the proper degree of bearing on
+the bit. What the proper degree may be depends greatly on the character
+of the horses and the severity of the bit. Pulling horses must be
+restrained by a strong draw on their bits, such as would bring other
+animals to a standstill. But under no circumstances, no matter how
+sluggish the horses may be, should the reins be allowed to lie slack;
+for if this is done the horse receives no support in the event of a
+sudden stumble, and no control if he shies unexpectedly. The driver
+should therefore always just "feel his horse's mouth" as lightly as
+possible; he then has the animal well under control in readiness for
+every emergency, while avoiding such a pull on the mouth as would cause
+a high-spirited horse to chafe and fret. Well-broken carriage horses
+should always be willing to run into their bits, and those that draw
+back when lightly held in hand should be kept up to the bit with the
+whip.
+
+These principles are common to all branches of the art of driving,
+whether of one, two or four horses. When they are observed no great
+difficulty confronts the coachman who is content with single or double
+harness, provided he has acquired the eye for pace and distance, and the
+instinctive realization of the length of the carriage behind him,
+without which he may suffer collision with other vehicles, or allow
+insufficient room in turning a corner or entering a gateway. For before
+he can have had the practice by which alone this knowledge is to be
+gained, the beginner will have learnt such elementary facts as that his
+horses must be held well in hand going down hill and given their heads
+on an ascent, and that on no account should the horse's mouth be
+"jobbed" by the driver jerking the reins; he will also have learnt a
+good deal about the character and temperament of the horse, on which so
+much of the art of driving depends, and which can best be studied on the
+box-seat and not at all in the library. If he has pursued this study
+with any degree of insight, he will have learnt further to be sparing in
+the use of the hand-brake with which most modern carriages are provided.
+This apparatus is most useful in case of emergency, or for taking weight
+off the carriage on a really steep descent; but the habit which too many
+coachmen fall into of using the brake on every trifling decline should
+be avoided. Its effect is that the horses are continually doing
+collar-work, and are thus deprived of the relief which ought to be given
+them by occasional light pole or shaft work instead.
+
+
+  Tandem and four-in-hand.
+
+When the ambition of the amateur coachman leads him to attempt a tandem
+or four-in-hand he enters on a much more complex department of the art
+of driving. In the first place he has now four reins instead of two to
+manipulate, and the increase of weight on his hand, especially when four
+horses are being driven, requires considerable strength of wrist to
+support it without tiring. It is of the first importance, moreover, that
+he should know instinctively the position in his hand of each of the
+reins, and be able automatically and instantaneously to lay a finger on
+any one of them. The driver who has to look at his reins to find the
+off-side leader's rein, or who touches the near-side wheeler's in
+mistake for it, is in peril of a catastrophe. It is therefore essential
+that the reins should be correctly disposed between the fingers of the
+left hand, and that the driver should as quickly as possible accustom
+himself to handle them automatically. This is somewhat more difficult in
+driving tandem than in driving four-in-hand, because in the latter case
+there is greater spread of the reins in front of the hand than with
+tandem, where the reins lie much more nearly parallel one above the
+other. The actual holding of the reins is the same in both cases. The
+coachman should be careful to take the reins in his hand before mounting
+to the box-seat, as otherwise his team may make a start without his
+having the means to control them. It is customary to hitch the reins,
+ready for him to take them, on the outside terret (the ring on the pad
+through which the rein runs) of the wheeler--the off-side wheeler in
+four-in-hand. Standing on the ground beside the off-side wheel of his
+carriage, ready to mount to the box-seat, the coachman, after drawing up
+his reins till he almost feels the horses' mouths, must then let out
+about a foot of slack in his off-side reins, in order that when on his
+seat he may find all the reins as nearly as possible equal in length in
+his hand. He mounts with them disposed in his right hand precisely as
+they will be in his left when ready to start. The leaders' reins should
+be separated by the forefinger, and the wheelers' by the middle finger.
+The near-leader's rein will then be uppermost of the four, between the
+forefinger and thumb; then between the forefinger and middle finger are
+two reins together--the off-leader's and the near-wheeler's in the order
+named; while at the bottom, between the middle and third fingers, is the
+off-wheeler's rein. It will be found that held thus the reins spread
+immediately in front of the hand in such a way that each several rein,
+and each pair of reins--two near-side, two off-side, two wheelers' or
+two leaders'--can be conveniently manipulated; and the proficient driver
+can instinctively and instantaneously grasp any of them he chooses with
+his right hand without having to turn his eyes from the road before him
+to the reins in his hand. Having seated himself on the box and
+transferred the reins, thus disposed, from the right to the left hand,
+the coachman should shorten them till he just feels his wheelers' mouths
+and holds back his leaders sufficiently to prevent them quite tightening
+their traces; then, when he has taken the whip from its socket in his
+right hand, he is ready to start. This is an operation requiring careful
+management, to secure that leaders and wheelers start simultaneously;
+for if the leaders start first they will be drawn up sharp by their
+bits, or, what is worse, if their reins have not been sufficiently
+shortened they will jump into their collars and possibly break a
+swinging bar, and in either case they will be fretted and disconcerted
+and will possibly in consequence either kick or rear; if the wheelers
+start before the leaders they will ram the swinging bars under the tails
+of the latter, with results equally unfortunate. The worst possible
+method of starting is suddenly to give the horses their heads and use
+the whip. But no positive rule can be laid down, for it is just one of
+those points which depend largely on familiarity with the horses forming
+the team. Horses even moderately accustomed to the work will generally
+start best in obedience to the voice, and their attention may
+simultaneously be aroused by gently feeling their mouths. When once
+started the driver should at once see that his team is going straight.
+If the leaders and wheelers are not exactly on the same line, this or
+that rein must be shortened or lengthened as the case may require; and
+it is to be noticed that as the near-wheeler's and off-leader's reins
+lie together between the same fingers, a simultaneous shortening or
+lengthening of these two reins will usually produce the desired result.
+With rare exceptions, reins should be shortened or lengthened by pushing
+them back or drawing them forward with the right hand from in front of
+the driving hand, and not from behind it. As soon as the team is in
+motion the leaders may be let out till they draw their traces taut; but
+draught should be taken off them on falling ground or while rounding a
+corner. Good drivers touch the reins as little as possible with the
+whip-hand, and nothing is less workmanlike than for a coachman to act as
+if he were an angler continually letting out or reeling in his line. In
+rounding a corner a loop of an inch or two of the leaders' rein on the
+side to which the turn is to be made is taken up by the right hand and
+placed under the left thumb. This "points the leaders," who accordingly
+make the required turn, while at the same time the right hand bears
+lightly on the wheelers' rein of the opposite side, to prevent them
+making the turn too sharply for safety to the coach behind them. As soon
+as the turn is made--and all this applies equally to the passing of
+other vehicles or obstacles on the road--the driver's left thumb
+releases the loop, which runs out of itself, and the team returns to the
+straight formation. A circumstance useful to bear in mind is that the
+swinging bars are wider than the maximum width of the coach;
+consequently the driver knows that wherever the swinging bars can pass
+through with safety--and as they are before his eyes the calculation is
+easy--the coach will safely follow.
+
+
+  The use of the whip.
+
+A necessary part of driving four horses or tandem is the proper use of
+the whip. The novice, before beginning to drive, should acquire the
+knack--which can only be learnt by practical instruction and
+experiment--of catching up the thong of the whip on to the stick by a
+flick of the wrist. With practice this is done almost automatically and
+without looking at the whip. It is not merely an ornamental
+accomplishment, but a necessary one; for in no other way can the whip be
+kept in constant readiness for use either on wheelers or leaders as the
+need of the moment may dictate. The point of the thong is confined in
+the whip-hand when striking the wheelers (which should be done in front
+of the pad), and is released for reaching the leaders. Considerable
+dexterity is required in using the whip on the leaders without at the
+same time touching, or at all events alarming or fretting, the wheelers.
+The thong of the whip should reach the leaders from beneath the swinging
+bar; and proficient "whips" can unerringly strike even the near leader
+from under the off-side bar without disturbing the equanimity of any
+other member of the team. This demands great skill and accuracy; but no
+coachman is competent to drive four horses until he is able to touch
+with the whip any particular horse that may require it, and no other.
+
+Essential as is proficiency in the use of the whip when driving four
+horses, it is even more imperative for the driver of tandem. For in
+four-in-hand the leaders act in some measure as a restraint upon each
+other's freedom of action, whereas the leader in tandem is entirely
+independent and therefore more difficult to control. If he takes it into
+his head to turn completely round and face the driver, there is no
+effectual means of preventing him. It is here that a prompt and accurate
+use of the whip is important. A sharp cut with the thong of the whip on
+the side to which he is turning will often drive the leader back into
+his place. But it must be done instantaneously, and the driver who has
+got his thong coiled round the stick of his whip, or who cannot make
+certain of striking the horse on precisely the desired spot, will miss
+the opportunity and may find his team in a sad mess, possibly with
+disastrous results. If the leader, in spite of a stroke from the whip at
+the right moment and on the right spot, still persists in turning, the
+only thing to be done is to turn the wheeler also; and then when the
+tandem has been straightened, to turn the horses back once more to their
+original direction. For this reason it is never safe to harness a tandem
+to a four-wheeled vehicle; because if it should be necessary to turn the
+wheeler sharply round, the fore-carriage would probably lock and the
+trap be overturned. Of comparatively recent years a great improvement
+has been effected in the harnessing of a tandem by the introduction of
+swinging bars similar to those used in four-in-hand. Formerly the
+leading traces in tandem drew direct from tugs on the wheeler's hames,
+or less frequently from the stops on the shafts. This left a
+considerable length of trace which, when draught was taken off the
+leader, hung slack between the two horses; with the result that either
+of them might get a leg over the leading trace, with dangerous
+consequences. In the more modern arrangement short traces attached to
+the wheeler's tugs hold a bar, which is kept in place by a few inches of
+chain from the kidney-link on the wheeler's collar. This bar is
+connected by short traces or chains with a second bar to which the
+leader's true traces are hooked in the usual way, allowing him a
+comfortable distance clear of the bar precisely as in four-in-hand. The
+leader thus draws as before from the wheeler's tugs; but the length of
+trace is broken up by the two swinging bars, and as these are prevented
+from falling low by their attachment to the wheeler's collar, the danger
+from a too slack leading trace is reduced to a minimum; though care is
+needed when the leader is not pulling to prevent the bar falling on his
+hocks.
+
+Expert tandem driving, owing to the greater freedom of the leader from
+control, is a more difficult art than the driving of four horses, in
+spite of the fact that the weight on the hand is much less severe; but
+the general principles of the two are the same. In Great Britain,
+however, the coach-and-four is the more popular. It is more showy than
+tandem; it keeps alive the romantic associations of the days when the
+stagecoach was the ordinary means of locomotion; and a coach, or "drag,"
+accommodates a larger party of passengers to a race-meeting or other
+expedition for pleasure than a dogcart. But for those whose means do not
+permit the more costly luxury of a four-horse team, a tandem will be
+found to make all the demand on skill and nerve which, in combination
+with the taste for horses, makes the art of driving a source of
+enjoyment.
+
+  See Donald Walker, _British Manly Exercises: in which Riding, Driving,
+  Racing are now first described_ (London, 1834); Fuller, _Essay on
+  Wheel Carriages_ (London, 1828); William Bridges Adams, _English
+  Pleasure Carriages: their Origin, History, Materials, Construction_
+  (London, 1837); _The Equestrian: A Handbook of Horsemanship,
+  containing Plain Rules for Riding, Driving and the Management of the
+  Horse_ (London, 1854); a Cavalry Officer, _The Handy Horse Book; or
+  Practical Instruction in Driving and the Management of the Horse_
+  (London, 1865-1867, 1871-1881); H. J. Helm, _American Roadsters and
+  Trotting Horses_ (Chicago, 1878); E. M. Stratton, _The World on
+  Wheels_ (New York, 1878); J. H. Walsh ("Stonehenge"), _Riding and
+  Driving_ (London, 1863); James A. Garland, _The Private Stable_ (2nd
+  ed., Boston, 1902); the Duke of Beaufort, _Driving_ (The Badminton
+  Library, London, 1889), containing a bibliography; F. H. Huth, _Works
+  on Horses and Equitation: A Bibliographical Record of Hippology_
+  (London, 1887).     (R. J. M.)
+
+
+
+
+DROGHEDA, a municipal borough, seaport and market town, on the southern
+border of Co. Louth, Ireland, in the south parliamentary division, on
+the river Boyne, about 4 m. from its mouth in Drogheda Bay, and 31-1/2
+m. N. by W. from Dublin on the Great Northern main line. Pop. (1901)
+12,760. It occupies both banks of the river; but the northern division
+is the larger of the two, and has received greater attention in modern
+times. The ancient fortifications, still extant in the beginning of the
+19th century, have disappeared almost entirely, but of the four gateways
+one named after St Lawrence remains nearly perfect, consisting of two
+loopholed circular towers; and there are considerable ruins of another,
+the West or Butler Gate. Among the public buildings are a mansion-house
+or mayoralty, with a suite of assembly rooms attached; and the Tholsel,
+a square building with a cupola. St Peter's chapel formerly served as
+the cathedral of the Roman Catholic archbishopric of Armagh; and in the
+abbey of the Dominican nuns there is still preserved the head of Oliver
+Plunkett, the archbishop who was executed at Tyburn in 1681 on an
+unfounded charge of treason. There was formerly an archiepiscopal palace
+in the town, built by Archbishop Hampton about 1620; and the Dominicans,
+the Franciscans, the Augustinians, the Carmelites and the knights of St
+John have monastic establishments. Of the Dominican monastery (1224)
+there still exists the stately Magdalen tower; while of the Augustinian
+abbey of St Mary d'Urso (1206) there are the tower and a fine pointed
+arch. At the head of the educational institutions there is a classical
+school endowed by Erasmus Smith. There is also a blue-coat school,
+founded about 1727 for the education of freemen's sons. The present
+building was erected in 1870. Benjamin Whitworth, M.P., was a generous
+benefactor to the town, who built the Whitworth Hall, furnished half the
+funds for the construction of waterworks, established a cotton factory,
+and is commemorated by a statue in the Mall. The industrial
+establishments comprise cotton, flax and flour mills, sawmills,
+tanneries, salt and soap works, breweries, chemical manure and
+engineering works. The town is the headquarters of the valuable Boyne
+salmon-fishery. A brisk trade is carried on mainly in agricultural
+produce, especially with Liverpool (which is distant 135 m. due E.) and
+with Glasgow. Many works of improvement have been effected from time to
+time in the harbour, the quays of which occupy both sides of the river,
+the principal, 1000 yds. in length, being on the north side. Here is a
+depth of 21 ft. at the highest and 14 ft. at the lowest tides. The tide
+reaches 2-1/2 m. above the town to Oldbridge; and barges of 50 tons
+burden can proceed 19 m. inland to Navan. The river is crossed by a
+bridge for ordinary traffic, and by a fine railway viaduct. The town is
+governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors.
+
+In the earliest notices the town of Drogheda is called Inver-Colpa or
+the Port of Colpa; the present name signifies "The Bridge over the
+Ford." In 1152 the place is mentioned as the seat of a synod convened by
+the papal legate, Cardinal Paparo; in 1224 it was chosen by Lucas de
+Netterville, archbishop of Armagh, for the foundation of the Dominican
+friary of which there are still remains; and in 1228 the two divisions
+of the town received separate incorporation from Henry III. But there
+grew up a strong feeling of hostility between Drogheda _versus Uriel_
+and Drogheda _versus Midiam_, in consequence of trading vessels lading
+their cargoes in the latter or southern town, to avoid the pontage duty
+levied in the former or northern town. At length, after much blood had
+been shed in the dispute, Philip Bennett, a monk residing in the town,
+succeeded by his eloquence, on the festival of Corpus Christi, 1412, in
+persuading the authorities of the two corporations to send to Henry IV.
+for a new charter sanctioning their combination, and this was granted on
+the 1st of November. Drogheda was always considered by the English a
+place of much importance. In the reign of Edward III. it was classed
+along with Dublin, Waterford and Kilkenny as one of the four staple
+towns of Ireland. Richard II. received in its Dominican monastery the
+submissions of O'Neal, O'Donnell and other chieftains of Ulster and
+Leinster. The right of coining money was bestowed on the town, and
+parliaments were several times held within its walls. In the reign of
+Edward IV. the mayor received a sword of state and an annuity of L20, in
+recognition of the services rendered by the inhabitants at Malpus Bridge
+against O'Reilly; the still greater honour of having a university with
+the same privileges as that of Oxford remained a mere paper distinction,
+owing to the poverty of the town and the unsettled state of the country;
+and an attempt made by the corporation in modern times to resuscitate
+their rights proved unsuccessful. In 1495 Poyning's laws were enacted by
+a parliament held in the town. In the civil wars of 1641 the place was
+besieged by O'Neal and the Northern Irish forces; but it was gallantly
+defended by Sir Henry Tichbourne, and after a long blockade was relieved
+by the Marquess of Ormond. The same nobleman relieved it a second time,
+when it was invested by the Parliamentary army under Colonel Jones. In
+1649 it was captured by Cromwell, after a short though spirited defence;
+and nearly every individual within its walls, without distinction of age
+or sex, was put to the sword. Thirty only escaped, who were afterwards
+transported as slaves to Barbados. In 1690 it was garrisoned by King
+James's army; but after the decisive battle of the Boyne (q.v.) it
+surrendered to the conqueror without a struggle, in consequence of a
+threat that quarter would not be granted if the town were taken by
+storm.
+
+Drogheda ceased to be a parliamentary borough in 1885, and a county of a
+town in 1898. Before 1885 it returned one member, and before the Union
+in 1800 it returned four members to the Irish parliament.
+
+From the close of the 12th century, certainly long before the
+Reformation and for some time after it, the primates of Ireland lived in
+Drogheda. Being mostly Englishmen, they preferred to reside in the
+portion of their diocese within the gate, and Drogheda, being a walled
+town, was less liable to attack from the natives. From 1417 onwards
+Drogheda was their chief place of residence and of burial. Its proximity
+to Dublin, the seat of government and of the Irish parliament, in which
+the primates were such prominent figures, induced them to prefer it to
+_Ardmacha inter Hibernicos_. Archbishop O'Scanlain, who did much in the
+building of the cathedral at Armagh, preferred to live at Drogheda, and
+there he was buried in 1270. Near Drogheda in later times was the
+primates' castle and summer palace at Termonfeckin, some ruins of which
+remain. In Drogheda itself there is now not a vestige of the palace,
+except the name "Palace Street." It stood at the corner of the main
+street near St Lawrence's gate, and its grounds extended back to St
+Peter's church. The primates of the 15th century were buried in or near
+Drogheda. After the Reformation five in succession lived in Drogheda and
+there were buried, though there is now nothing to fix the spot where any
+of them lies. The last of these--Christopher Hampton--who was
+consecrated to the primacy in 1613, repaired the ruined cathedral of
+Armagh. He built a new and handsome palace at Drogheda, and he repaired
+the old disused palace at Armagh and bestowed on it a demesne of 300
+acres.
+
+
+
+
+DROIT (Fr. for "right," from Lat. _directus_, straight), a legal title,
+claim or due; a term used in English law in the phrase _droits of
+admiralty_, certain customary rights or perquisites formerly belonging
+to the lord high admiral, but now to the crown for public purposes and
+paid into the exchequer. These _droits_ (see also WRECK) consisted of
+flotsam, jetsam, ligan, treasure, deodand, derelict, within the
+admiral's jurisdiction; all fines, forfeitures, ransoms, recognizances
+and pecuniary punishments; all sturgeons, whales, porpoises, dolphins,
+grampuses and such large fishes; all ships and goods of the enemy coming
+into any creek, road or port, by durance or mistake; all ships seized at
+sea, salvage, &c., with the share of prizes--such shares being
+afterwards called "tenths," in imitation of the French, who gave their
+admiral a _droit de dixieme_. The _droits of admiralty_ were definitely
+surrendered for the benefit of the public by Prince George of Denmark,
+when lord high admiral of England in 1702. American law does not
+recognize any such _droits_, and the disposition of captured property is
+regulated by various acts of Congress.
+
+The term _droit_ is also used in various legal connexions (for _French
+law_, see FRANCE: _law_), such as the _droit_ of angary (q.v.), the
+_droit d'achat_ (right of pre-emption) in the case of contraband (q.v.),
+the feudal _droit de bris_ (see WRECK), the _droit de regale_ or ancient
+royal privilege of claiming the revenues and patronage of a vacant
+bishopric, and the feudal droits of seignory generally.
+
+
+
+
+DROITWICH, a market town and municipal borough in the Droitwich
+parliamentary division of Worcestershire, England, 5-1/2 m. N.N.E. of
+Worcester, and 126 m. N.W. by W. from London by the Great Western
+railway. Pop. (1901) 4201. It is served by the Bristol-Birmingham line
+of the Midland railway, and by the Worcester-Shrewsbury line of the
+Great Western. It stands on the river Salwarpe, an eastern tributary of
+the Severn. There is connexion with the Severn by canal. There are three
+parish churches, St Andrew, St Peter and St Michael, of which the two
+first are fine old buildings in mixed styles, while St Michael's is
+modern. The principal occupation is the manufacture of the salt obtained
+from the brine springs or _wyches_, to which the town probably owes both
+its name and its origin. The springs also give Droitwich a considerable
+reputation as a health resort. There are Royal Brine baths, supplied
+with water of extreme saltness, St Andrew's baths, and a private bath
+hospital. The water is used in cases of gout, rheumatism and kindred
+diseases. Owing to the pumping of the brine for the salt-works there is
+a continual subsidence of the ground, detrimental to the buildings, and
+new houses are mostly built in the suburbs. In the pleasant well-wooded
+district surrounding Droitwich the most noteworthy points are Hindlip
+Hall, 3 m. S., where (in a former mansion) some of the conspirators in
+the Gunpowder Plot defied search for eight days (1605); and Westwood, a
+fine hall of Elizabethan and Carolean date on the site of a Benedictine
+nunnery, a mile west of Droitwich, which offered a retreat to many
+Royalist cavaliers and churchmen during the Commonwealth. Droitwich is
+governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 1856 acres.
+
+A Roman villa, with various relics, has been discovered here, but it is
+doubtful how far the Romans made use of the brine springs. Droitwich
+(_Wic_, _Salturic_, _Wich_) probably owed its origin to the springs,
+which are mentioned in several charters before the Conquest. At the time
+of the Domesday Survey all the salt springs belonged to the king, who
+received from them a yearly farm of L65, but the manor was divided
+between several churches and tenants-in-chief. The burgesses of
+Droitwich are mentioned in the Domesday Survey, but they probably only
+had certain franchises in connexion with the salt trade. The town is
+first called a borough in the pipe roll of 2 Henry II., when an aid of
+20s. was paid, but the burgesses did not receive their first charter
+until 1215, when King John granted them freedom from toll throughout the
+kingdom and the privilege of holding the town at a fee-farm of L100. The
+burgesses appear to have had much difficulty in paying this large farm;
+in 1227 the king pardoned twenty-eight marks of the thirty-two due as
+tallage, while in 1237 they were L23 in arrears for the farm. They
+continued, however, to pay the farm until the payment gradually lapsed
+in the 18th century. In medieval times Droitwich was governed by two
+bailiffs and twelve jurats, the former being elected every year by the
+burgesses; Queen Mary granted the incorporation charter in 1554 under
+the name of the bailiffs and burgesses. James I. in 1625 granted another
+and fuller charter, which remained the governing charter until the
+Municipal Reform Act. King John's charter granted the burgesses a fair
+on the feast of SS. Andrew and Nicholas lasting for eight days, but
+Edward III. in 1330 granted instead two fairs on the vigil and day of St
+Thomas the Martyr and the vigil and day of SS. Simon and Jude. Queen
+Mary granted three new fairs, and James I. changed the market day from
+Monday to Friday.
+
+
+
+
+DROME, a department in the south-east of France, formed of parts of
+Dauphine and Provence, and bounded W. by the Rhone, which separates it
+from Ardeche, N. and N.E. by Isere, E. by Hautes-Alpes, S.E. by
+Basses-Alpes, and S. by Vaucluse; area 2533 sq. m.; pop. (1906) 297,270.
+Drome is traversed from east to west by numerous rivers of the Rhone
+basin, chief among which are the Isere in the north, the Drome in the
+centre and the Aygues in the south. The left bank of the Rhone is
+bordered by alluvial plains and low hills, but to the east of this zone
+the department is covered to the extent of two-thirds of its surface by
+spurs of the Alps, sloping down towards the west. To the north of the
+Drome lie the Vercors and the Royans, a region of forest-clad ridges
+running uniformly north and south. South of that river the mountain
+system is broken, irregular and intersected everywhere by torrents. The
+most easterly portion of the department, where it touches the mountains
+of the Devoluy, contains its culminating summit (7890 ft.). North of the
+Isere stretches a district of low hills terminating on the limits of the
+department in the Valloire, its most productive portion. The climate,
+except in the valleys bordering the Rhone, is cold, and winds blow
+incessantly. Snow is visible on the mountain-tops during the greater
+part of the year.
+
+The agriculture of the department is moderately prosperous. The main
+crops are wheat, which is grown chiefly on the banks of the Isere and
+Rhone, oats and potatoes. Large flocks of sheep feed on the pastures in
+the south; cattle-raising is carried on principally in the north-east.
+Good wines, among which the famous Hermitage growth ranks first, are
+grown on the hills and plains near the Rhone and Drome. Fruit culture is
+much practised. Olives and figs are grown in the south; the cultivation
+of mulberries and walnuts is more widely spread. In the rearing of
+silkworms Drome ranks high in importance among French departments. The
+Montelimar district is noted for its truffles, which are also found
+elsewhere in the department. The mineral products of Drome include
+lignite, blende, galena, calamine, freestone, lime, cement, potter's
+clay and kaolin. Brick and tile works, potteries and porcelain
+manufactories exist in several localities. The industries comprise
+flour-milling, distilling, wood-sawing, turnery and dyeing. The chief
+textile industry is the preparation and weaving of silk, which is
+carried on in a number of towns. Woollen and cotton goods are also
+manufactured. Leather working and boot-making, which are carried on on a
+large scale at Romans, are important, and the manufacture of machinery,
+hats, confectionery and paper employs much labour. Drome exports fruit,
+oil, cheese, wine, wool, live stock and its manufactured articles; the
+chief import is coal. It is served by the Paris-Lyon railway, and the
+Rhone and Isere furnish over 100 m. of navigable waterway. The canal de
+la Bourne, the only one in the department, is used for purposes of
+irrigation only. Drome is divided into the arrondissements of Valence,
+Die, Montelimar and Nyons, comprising 29 cantons and 379 communes. The
+capital is Valence, which is the seat of a bishopric of the province of
+Avignon. The department forms part of the academie (educational
+division) of Grenoble, where its court of appeal is also located, and of
+the region of the XIV. army corps.
+
+Besides Valence, the chief towns of the department are Die, Montelimar,
+Crest and Romans (qq.v.). Nyons is a small industrial town with a
+medieval bridge and remains of ramparts. Suze-la-Rousse is dominated by
+a fine chateau with fortifications of the 12th and 14th centuries; in
+the interior the buildings are in the Renaissance style. At St Donat
+there are remains of the palace of the kings of Cisjuran Burgundy;
+though but little of the building is of an earlier date than the 12th
+century, it is the oldest example of civil architecture in France. The
+churches of Leoncel, St Restitut and La Garde-Adhemar, all of Romanesque
+architecture, are also of antiquarian interest. St Paul-Trois-Chateaux,
+an old Roman town, once the seat of a bishopric, has a Romanesque
+cathedral. At Grignan there are remains of the Renaissance chateau where
+Madame de Sevigne died. At Tain there is a sacrificial altar of A.D.
+184.
+
+
+
+
+DROMEDARY (from the Gr. [Greek: dromas, dromados], running, [Greek:
+dramein], to run), a word applied to swift riding camels of either the
+Arabian or the Bactrian species. (See CAMEL.)
+
+
+
+
+DROMORE, a market town of Co. Down, Ireland, in the west parliamentary
+division, on the upper Lagan, 17-1/2 m. S.W. of Belfast by a branch of
+the Great Northern railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 2307. It is in
+the linen manufacturing district. The town is of high antiquity, and was
+the seat of a bishopric, which grew out of an abbey of Canons Regular
+attributed to St Colman in the 6th century, and was united in 1842 to
+Down and Connor. The town and cathedral were wholly destroyed during the
+insurrection of 1641, and the present church was built by Bishop Jeremy
+Taylor in 1661, who is buried here, as also is Thomas Percy, another
+famous bishop of the diocese, who laid out the fine grounds of the
+palace. Remains of a castle and earthworks are to be seen, together with
+a large rath or encampment known as the Great Fort. The town gives its
+name to a Roman Catholic diocese.
+
+
+
+
+DROMOS (Gr. for running-place), in architecture, the name of the
+entrance passage leading down to the beehive tombs in Greece, open to
+the air and enclosed between stone walls.
+
+
+
+
+DRONE, in music[1] (corresponding to Fr. _bourdon_; Ger. _Summer_,
+_Stimmer_, _Hummel_; Ital. _bordone_), the bass pipe or pipes of the
+bagpipe, having no lateral holes and therefore giving out the same note
+without intermission as long as there is wind in the bag, thus forming a
+continuous pedal, or drone bass. The drone consists of a jointed pipe
+having a cylindrical bore and usually terminating in a bell. During the
+middle ages bagpipes are represented in miniatures with conical
+drones,[2] and M. Praetorius[3] gives a drawing of a bagpipe, which he
+calls _Grosser Bock_, having two drones ending in a curved ram's horn.
+The drone pipe has, instead of a mouthpiece, a socket fitted with a
+reed, and inserted into a stock or short pipe immovably fixed in an
+aperture of the bag. The reed is of the kind known as beating reed or
+_squeaker_, prepared by making a cut in the direction of the
+circumference of the pipe and splitting back the reed from the cut
+towards a joint or knot, thus leaving a flap or tongue which vibrates or
+beats, alternately opening and closing the aperture. The sound is
+produced by the stream of air forced from the bag by the pressure of the
+performer's arm causing the reed tongue to vibrate over the aperture,
+thus setting the whole column of air in vibration. Like all cylindrical
+pipes with reed mouthpiece, the drone pipe has the acoustic properties
+of the closed pipe and produces a note of the same pitch as that of an
+open pipe twice its length. The conical drones mentioned above would,
+therefore, speak an octave higher than a cylindrical drone of the same
+length. The drones are tuned by means of sliding tubes at the joints.
+
+The drones of the old French _cornemuse_ played in concert with the
+_hautbois de Poitou_ (see BAGPIPE), and differing from the shepherd's
+_cornemuse_ or _chalemie_, formed an exception to this method of
+construction, being furnished with double reeds like that of the oboe.
+The drones of the musette and of the union pipes of Ireland are also
+constructed on an altogether different plan. Instead of having long
+cumbersome pipes, pointing over the shoulder, the musette drones consist
+of a short barrel containing lengths of tubing necessary for four or
+five drones, reduced to the most compact form and resembling the rackett
+(q.v.). The narrow bores are pierced longitudinally through the
+thickness of the barrel in parallel channels communicating with each
+other in twos or threes, and so arranged as to provide the requisite
+length for each drone. The reeds are double reeds all set in the wooden
+stock within the bag. By means of regulating slides (called in English
+_regulators_ and in French _layettes_), which may be pushed up and down
+in longitudinal grooves round the circumference of the barrel, the
+length of each drone tube can be so regulated that a simple harmonic
+bass consisting of the common chord is obtainable. In the union pipes
+the drones are separate pipes having keys played by the elbow, which
+correspond to the sliders in the musette drone and produce the same kind
+of harmonic bass. The modern Egyptian arghool consists of a kind of
+clarinet with a drone attached to it by means of waxed thread; in this
+case the beating reed of the drone is set in vibration directly by the
+breath of the performer, who takes both mouthpieces into his mouth,
+without the medium of a wind reservoir. Mersenne gave very clear
+descriptions of the construction of cornemuse and musette, with clear
+illustrations of the reeds and stock.[4] There are allusions in the
+Greek classics which point to the existence of a pipe with a drone,
+either of the arghool or the bagpipe type.[5] (K. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] For the "drone," the male of the honey bee, see BEE. The musical
+   sense, both for the noise made and for the instrument, comes from the
+   buzzing of the bee.
+
+  [2] British Museum, Add. MS. 12,228 (Italian work), _Roman du Roy
+    Meliadus_, 14th century, fol. 221 b., and Add. MS. 18,851, end 15th
+    century (Spanish work illustrated by Flemish artists), fol. 13.
+
+  [3] _Syntagma musicum. Theatrum instrumentorum_, pl. xi. No. 6.
+
+  [4] _L'Harmonie universelle_ (Paris, 1636-1637), t. ii. bk. 5, pp.
+    282-287 and p. 305.
+
+  [5] Plato, _Crito_, 54; Aristophanes, _Acharnians_, 865, where some
+    musicians are in derision dubbed "bumblebee pipers." See BAGPIPE;
+    also Kathleen Schlesinger, "Researches into the Origin of the Organs
+    of the Ancients," _Intern. mus. Ges._ vol. ii. (1901), Sammelband ii.
+    pp. 188-202.
+
+
+
+
+DRONFIELD, an urban district in the north-eastern parliamentary division
+of Derbyshire, England, 6 m. S. of Sheffield, on the Midland railway.
+Pop. (1901) 3809. It lies on the small river Drone, a tributary of the
+Rother, in a busy industrial district in which are numerous coal-mines,
+and there are iron foundries and manufactures of tools and other iron
+and steel goods. The church of St John the Baptist, with a lofty spire,
+is a good example of Decorated work, with Perpendicular additions.
+
+
+
+
+DROPSY (contracted from the old word _hydropisy_, derived from the Gr.
+[Greek: udrops]; [Greek: udor], water, and [Greek: ops], appearance),
+the name given to a collection of simple serous fluid in all or any of
+the cavities of the body, or in the meshes of its tissues. Dropsy of the
+subcutaneous connective tissue is termed _oedema_ when it is localized
+and limited in extent; when more diffuse it is termed _anasarca_; the
+term _oedema_ is also applied to dropsies of some of the internal
+organs, notably to that of the lungs. _Hydrocephalus_ signifies an
+accumulation of fluid within the ventricles of the brain or in the
+arachnoid cavity; _hydrothorax_, a collection of fluid in one or both
+pleural cavities; _hydropericardium_, in the pericardium; _ascites_, in
+the peritoneum; and, when _anasarca_ is conjoined with the accumulation
+of fluid in one or more of the serous cavities, the dropsy is said to be
+general (see also PATHOLOGY).
+
+Dropsy (excluding "epidemic dropsy," for which see below) is essentially
+a symptom and not a specific disease, and is merely an exaggeration of a
+certain state of health. Fluid, known as lymph, is continually passing
+through the capillary walls into the tissues, and in health this is
+removed as fast as it is exuded, in one or more of three ways: part of
+it is used in the nutrition of the tissues, part is returned to the
+general circulation by the veins, and part by the lymphatics. Any
+accumulation constitutes dropsy and is a sign of disease, though not a
+disease in itself. The serous effusions due to inflammation are not
+included under the term dropsy. A dropsical fluid varies considerably in
+composition according to its position in the body, but varies only
+slightly according to the disease which has given rise to it. Its
+specific gravity ranges between 1008 and 1018; the mineral salts present
+are the same and in about the same proportion as those of blood, nor do
+they vary with the position of the exudation. The quantity of albumin,
+however, depends much on the position of the fluid, and slightly on the
+underlying disease. In oedema the fluid contains only traces, whereas a
+pleural or peritoneal effusion is always highly albuminous. Also an
+effusion due to heart disease contains more albumin than one due to
+kidney disease. In appearance it may be colourless, greenish or reddish
+from the presence of blood pigment, or yellowish from the presence of
+bile pigment; transparent or opalescent or milky from the presence of
+fatty matter derived from the chyle. The membrane from which the
+dropsical fluid escapes is healthy, or at least not inflamed, and only
+somewhat sodden by long contact with the fluid--the morbid condition on
+which the transudation depends lying elsewhere.
+
+The simplest cause of dropsy is purely mechanical, blood pressure being
+raised beyond a certain point owing to venous obstruction. This may be
+due to thrombosis of a vein as in phlegmasia dolens (white leg),
+retardation of venous circulation as in varicose veins, or obstruction
+of a vein due to the pressure of an aneurism or tumour. Cardiac and
+renal dropsy are more complicated in origin, but cardiac dropsy is
+probably due to diminished absorption, and renal dropsy, when
+unassociated with heart failure, to increased exudation. But the
+starting point of acute renal dropsy, of the dropsy sometimes occurring
+in diabetes, and that of chlorosis is the toxic condition of the blood.
+For accounts of the various local dropsies see HYDROCEPHALUS; ASCITES;
+LIVER, &c.; general dropsy, or dropsy which depends on causes acting on
+the system at large, is due chiefly to diseases of the heart, kidneys or
+lungs, occasionally on lardaceous disease, more rarely still on diabetes
+or one of the anaemias.
+
+Broadly speaking, 50% of cases of general dropsy are due to disease of
+the heart or aorta, and 25% to renal troubles. The natural tendency of
+all diseases of the heart is to transfer the blood pressure from the
+arteries to the veins, and, so soon as this has reached a sufficient
+degree, dropsy in the form of local _oedema_ commences to appear at
+whatever may be the most depending part of the body--the instep and
+ankle in the upright position, the lower part of the back or the lungs
+if the patient be in bed--and this tends gradually to increase till all
+the cavities of the body are invaded by the serous accumulation. The
+diseases of the lungs which produce dropsy are those which obstruct the
+passage of the blood through them, such as emphysema and fibrosis, and
+thus act precisely like disease of the heart in transferring the blood
+pressure from the arteries to the veins, inducing dropsy in exactly a
+similar manner. The dropsy of renal disease is dependent for the most
+part on an excess of exudation, due largely to an increase of arterial
+and cardiac tension. This in its turn produces arterial thickening and
+cardiac hypertrophy, which, if the case be sufficiently prolonged,
+brings about a natural removal of the fluid. In kidney cases, in the
+absence of cardiac disease, the dropsy will be found to appear first
+about the loose cellular tissue surrounding the eyes, where the vessels,
+turgid with watery blood, have less efficient support. The dropsy of
+chlorosis is very similar to renal dropsy, a toxic condition of blood
+being present in both; also other forms of anaemia, as also hydraemia,
+tend to produce or assist in the production of dropsical effusions.
+
+For the treatment of dropsy the reader is referred to the articles on
+the several diseases of which it is a symptom. Briefly, however, tapping
+of the abdomen or puncture of the legs are constantly resorted to in
+severe cases. Dehydration by diet is very valuable under certain
+circumstances when the dropsy is other than renal. And there is the
+routine treatment by drugs, purgative, diaphoretic and diuretic as the
+symptoms of the case may demand.
+
+It may be well to mention that there are certain affections which may be
+termed _spurious dropsies_, such as _ovarian dropsy_, which is only a
+cystic disease of the ovary; _hydrometria_, dropsy of the uterus, due to
+inflammatory occlusion of the os uteri; _hydronephrosis_, dropsy of the
+kidney, due to obstruction of the ureter, and subsequent distension of
+these organs by serous accumulations; other hollow organs may also be
+similarly affected.
+
+Having no known relation to the preceding is _epidemic dropsy_, the
+first recorded outbreak of which occurred in Calcutta in the year 1877.
+It disappeared during the hot weather of the following year, only to
+recur over a wider area in the cold months of 1878 to 1879, and once
+again in the cold of 1879 to 1880. Since then only isolated cases have
+been recorded in the immediate neighbourhood of Calcutta, though
+epidemics have broken out in other places both by land and sea. At the
+end of 1902 an outbreak occurred in the Barisal gaol, Bengal, in which
+nearly one-third of the cases ended fatally. Dropsy was an invariable
+feature of the disease, and was either the first symptom or occurred
+early. The lower limbs were first affected, trunk and upper limbs later
+in severe cases, the face very rarely. It was accompanied by pyrexia,
+gastro-enteritis, deep-seated pains in limbs and body, and burning and
+pricking of the skin. Various rashes appeared early in the attack, while
+eczema, desquamation and even ulceration supervened later. Anaemia was
+very marked, giving rise in Mauritius to the name of acute anaemic
+dropsy. The duration of the disease was very variable, the limits being
+three weeks and three months. Death was often sudden, resulting chiefly
+from cardiac and respiratory complications. The cause of the disease has
+remained obscure, but there is reason to suppose that it was originally
+imported from the Madras famine tracts.
+
+
+
+
+DROPWORT, in botany, the common name for a species of _Spiraea_, _S.
+filipendula_ (nat. ord. _Rosaceae_), found in dry pastures. It is a
+perennial herb, with much divided radical leaves and an erect stem 2 to
+3 ft. high bearing a loose terminal inflorescence of small white
+flowers, closely resembling those of the nearly allied species _S.
+Ulmaria_, or meadowsweet.
+
+Water Dropwort, _Oenanthe crocata_ (nat. ord. _Umbelliferae_), is a tall
+herbaceous plant growing in marshes and ditches. The stem, which springs
+from a cluster of thickened roots, is stout, branched, hollow and 2 to 5
+ft. high; the leaves are large and pinnately divided, and the flowers
+are borne in a compound umbel, the long rays bearing dense partial
+umbels of small white flowers. The plant, which is very poisonous, is
+often mistaken for celery.
+
+
+
+
+DROSHKY (Russ. _drozhki_, diminutive of _drogi_, a wagon), a light
+four-wheeled uncovered carriage used in Russia. Properly it consists of
+two pairs of wheels joined by a board. This forms a seat for the
+passengers who sit sideways, while the driver sits astride in front. The
+word _Droschke_, however, is applied especially in Germany to light
+carriages generally which ply for hire.
+
+
+
+
+DROSTE-HULSHOFF, ANNETTE ELISABETH, FREIIN VON (1797-1848), German poet,
+was born at the family seat of Hulshoff near Munster in Westphalia on
+the 10th of January 1797. Her early mental training was largely
+influenced by her cousin, Clemens August, Freiherr von Droste zu
+Vischering, who, as archbishop of Cologne, became notorious for his
+extreme ultramontane views (see below); and she received a more liberal
+education than in those days ordinarily fell to a woman's lot. After
+prolonged visits among the intellectual circles at Coblenz, Bonn and
+Cologne, she retired to the estate of Ruschhaus near Munster, belonging
+to her mother's family. In 1841, owing to delicate health, she went to
+reside in the house of her brother-in-law, the well-known scholar,
+Joseph, Freiherr von Lassberg (1770-1855), at Schloss Meersburg on the
+Lake of Constance, where she met Levin Schucking (q.v.); and there she
+died on the 24th of May 1848. Annette von Droste-Hulshoff is, beyond
+doubt, the most gifted and original of German women poets. Her verse is
+strong and vigorous, but often unmusical even to harshness; one looks in
+vain for a touch of sentimentality or melting sweetness in it. As a
+lyric poet, she is at her best when she is able to attune her thoughts
+to the sober landscape of the Westphalian moorlands of her home. Her
+narrative poetry, and especially _Das Hospiz auf dem Grossen St Bernard_
+and _Die Schlacht im Loener Bruch_ (both 1838), belongs to the best
+German poetry of its kind. She was a strict Roman Catholic, and her
+religious poems, published in 1852, after her death, under the title
+_Das geistliche Jahr, nebst einem Anhang religiuser Gedichte_, enjoyed
+great popularity.
+
+  Annette von Droste-Hulshoff's _Gedichte_ were first published in 1844
+  during her lifetime, and a number of her poems were translated into
+  English by Thomas Medwin. The most complete edition of her works is
+  that in 4 vols. edited by E. von Droste-Hulshoff (Munster, 1886). The
+  _Ausgewahlte Gedichte_ were edited by W. von Scholz (Leipzig, 1901).
+  See Levin Schucking, _Annette von Droste-Hulshoff, ein Lebensbild_
+  (2nd ed., Hanover, 1871)--her letters to L. Schucking were published
+  at Leipzig in 1893; also H. Hueffer, _Annette von Droste-Hulshoff und
+  ihre Werke_ (Gotha, 1887), and W. Kreiten, _Annette von
+  Droste-Hulshoff_ (2nd ed., Paderborn, 1900).
+
+
+
+
+DROSTE-VISCHERING, CLEMENS AUGUST, BARON VON (1773-1845), German Roman
+Catholic divine, was born at Munster on the 21st of January 1773. He was
+educated in his native town and entered the priesthood in 1798; in 1807
+the local chapter elected him vicar-general. This office he resigned in
+1813 through his opposition to Napoleon, but assumed it again after the
+battle of Waterloo (1815) until a disagreement with the Prussian
+government in 1820 led to his abdication. He remained in private life
+until 1835, when he was appointed archbishop of Cologne. Here again his
+zeal for the supremacy of the church led him to break the agreement
+between the state and the Catholic bishops which he had signed at his
+installation, and he was arrested by the Prussian government in November
+1837. A battle of pamphlets raged for some time; Droste was not
+re-installed but was obliged to accept a coadjutor. His chief works
+were: _Uber die Religionsfreiheit der Katholiken_ (1817), and _Uber den
+Frieden unter der Kirche und den Staaten_ (1843).
+
+  See Carl Mirbt's article in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyk. fur prot. Theol._
+  v. 23.
+
+
+
+
+DROUAIS, JEAN GERMAIN (1763-1788), French historical painter, was born
+at Paris on the 25th of November 1763. His father, Francois Hubert
+Drouais, and his grandfather, Hubert Drouais, were well-known portrait
+painters; and it was from his father that he received his first artistic
+instruction. He was afterwards entrusted to the care of Brenet, an
+excellent teacher, though his own pictures did not take high rank. In
+1780 David, who had just returned from Rome, opened a school of painting
+in Paris, and Drouais was one of his earliest and most promising pupils.
+He adopted the classical style of his master, and gave his whole time to
+study--painting during the day, and spending a great part of every night
+in designing. For weeks together it is said that he never left his
+studio. In 1783 he was admitted to compete for the great prize of
+painting offered by the Academy, the subject being the "Widow of Nain."
+After inspecting the works of his fellow-competitors, however, he lost
+hope and destroyed his own canvas, but was consoled by the assurance of
+his master David that had he not done so he would have won the prize.
+Next year he was triumphantly successful, the "Woman of Canaan at the
+Feet of Christ," with which he gained the prize, being compared by
+competent critics with the works of Poussin. He was carried shoulder
+high by his fellow-students through the streets to his mother's house,
+and a place was afterwards found for his picture in the Louvre. His
+success making him only the more eager to perfect himself in his art, he
+accompanied David to Rome, where he worked even more assiduously than in
+Paris. He was most strongly influenced by the remains of ancient art and
+by the works of Raphael. Goethe, who was at Rome at the time it was
+finished, has recorded the deep impression made by his "Marius at
+Minturno," which he characterizes as in some respects superior to the
+work of David, his master. The last picture which he completed was his
+"Philoctetus on the Island of Lemnos." He died on the 15th of July
+1788. A monument to his memory was erected by his fellow-students in the
+church of Santa Maria in the Via Lata.
+
+
+
+
+DROUET, JEAN BAPTISTE (1763-1824), French Revolutionist, chiefly noted
+for the part he played in the arrest of Louis XVI. at Varennes, was born
+at Sainte-Menehould. He served for seven years in the army, and
+afterwards assisted his father, who was post-master of his native town.
+The carriages conveying the royal family on their flight to the frontier
+stopped at his door on the evening of the 21st of June 1791; and the
+passengers, travelling under assumed names, were recognized by Drouet,
+who immediately took steps which led to their arrest and detection on
+reaching Varennes. For this service the Assembly awarded him 30,000
+francs, but he appears to have declined the reward. In September 1792 he
+was elected deputy to the Convention, and took his place with the most
+violent party. He voted the death of the king without appeal, showed
+implacable hostility to the Girondins, and proposed the slaughter of all
+English residents in France. Sent as commissioner to the army of the
+north, he was captured at the siege of Maubeuge and imprisoned at
+Spielberg till the close of 1795. He then became a member of the Council
+of Five Hundred, and was named secretary. Drouet was implicated in the
+conspiracy of Babeuf, and was imprisoned; but he made his escape into
+Switzerland, and thence to Teneriffe. There he took part in the
+successful resistance to the attempt of Nelson on the island, in 1797,
+and later visited India. The first empire found in him a docile
+sub-prefect of Sainte-Menehould. After the second Restoration he was
+compelled to quit France. Returning secretly he settled at Macon, under
+the name of Merger and a guise of piety, and preserved his incognito
+till his death on the 11th of April 1824.
+
+  See G. Lenotre, _Le Drame de Varennes_ (Paris, 1905).
+
+
+
+
+DROWNING AND LIFE SAVING. To "drown" (a verb used both transitively and
+intransitively, of which the origin, though traced to earlier forms, is
+unknown) is to suffer or inflict death by submersion in water, or
+figuratively to submerge entirely in water or some other liquid. As a
+form of ancient capital punishment, the method of drowning is referred
+to at the end of this article, but the interest of the subject is mainly
+associated with rescue-work in cases of accident.
+
+Death from drowning is the result of asphyxia, due to the stoppage of a
+supply of fresh air to the lungs. There is a certain amount of
+stationary air in the lungs, and into this is diffused oxygen from the
+fresh air taken in, while the carbonic acid which it has taken from the
+blood through the walls of the capillaries is driven out. This process
+of exchange is ever proceeding, the whole of it being regulated from the
+nervous centre at the base of the brain. When a person gets under water
+and cannot swim, there is a natural tendency to struggle, and in the
+efforts to respire water is drawn into the windpipe and cough is brought
+on. This expels the air from the lungs with the water which threatened
+to suffocate him, and as further efforts are made to respire more water
+is taken in and has to be swallowed. Meanwhile, the oxygen in the lungs
+is gradually diminishing, the quantity of carbonic acid is increasing,
+and at length the air in the lungs becomes too impure to effect an
+exchange with the blood. Then the blood passing into the heart becomes
+venous and the heart begins to send out venous instead of arterial blood
+to all parts of the body. Immediately a dull, sickening pain becomes
+apparent at the base of the neck, and insensibility rapidly ensues. This
+arises from the affection of the respiratory nerve centre. In a short
+space of time the face becomes dark and congested through the veins
+being gorged with blood, and the heart ultimately ceases to beat.
+
+When a person unable to swim falls into the water, he usually rises to
+the surface, throws up his arms and calls for help. This, with the water
+swallowed, will make him sink, and if the arms are moved above the head
+when under water, he will, as a natural consequence, sink still lower.
+The struggle will be prolonged a few seconds, and then probably cease
+for a time, allowing him to rise again, though perhaps not sufficiently
+high to enable him to get another breath of air. If still conscious, he
+will renew his struggle, more feebly perhaps, but with the same result.
+As soon as insensibility occurs, the body sinks altogether, owing to the
+loss of air and the filling of the stomach with water. There is a
+general belief that a drowning person must rise three times before he
+finally sinks, but this is a fallacy. The question whether he rises at
+all, or how often he does so, entirely depends upon circumstances. A man
+may get entangled among weeds, which prevent his coming to the surface,
+or he may die through heart failure from the shock or fright of entering
+the water.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--1st Release Method.]
+
+On seeing a person struggling in the water in danger of drowning, no
+time should be lost in going to his assistance, for he may sink at once,
+and then there is danger of missing the body when searching under water
+for it, or it may get entangled among weeds and then the rescuer's task
+is rendered doubly dangerous. Before diving in to the rescue the boots
+and heavy clothing should be discarded if possible, and in cases where a
+leap has to be made from a height, such as a bridge, high embankment,
+vessel or pier, or where the depth of the water is not known, it is best
+to drop in feet first. Where weeds abound there is always danger of
+entanglement, and therefore progress should be made in the direction of
+the stream. When approaching a drowning man there is always the danger
+of being clutched, but a swimmer who knows the right way to deal with a
+man in the water can easily avoid this; but if through some mistake he
+finds himself seized by the drowning person, a necessary thing for the
+swimmer to do is to take advantage of his knowledge of the water and
+keep uppermost, as this weakens the drowning person and makes the effort
+of effecting a release much easier than would otherwise be the case. To
+the Royal Life Saving Society in England is due the credit of
+disseminating, throughout the entire world, the ideas of swimmers, based
+on practical experience, as to the safest methods which should be
+adopted for release and rescue, and their methods, as well as the
+approved ones for resuscitation, are now taught in almost every school
+and college.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--2nd Release Method.]
+
+If the rescuer be held by the wrists, he must turn both arms
+simultaneously against the drowning person's thumbs, and bring his arms
+at right angles to the body, thus dislocating the thumbs of the drowning
+person if he does not leave go (fig. 1). If he be clutched round the
+neck he must take a deep breath and lean well over the drowning person,
+at the same time placing one hand in the small of his back, then raise
+the other arm in line with the shoulder, and pass it over the drowning
+person's arm, then pinch the nostrils close with the fingers, and at the
+same time place the palm of the hand on the chin and push away with all
+possible force. By the firm holding of the nose the drowning person is
+made to open his mouth for breathing, and as he will then be under
+water, choking ensues and he gives way to the rescuer, who then gains
+complete control (fig. 2). One of the most dangerous clutches is that
+round the body and arms or round the body only. When so tackled the
+rescuer should lean well over the drowning person, take a breath as
+before, and either withdraw both arms in an upward direction in front of
+his body, or else act in the same way as when releasing oneself when
+clutched round the neck. In any case one hand must be placed on the
+drowning man's shoulder, and the palm of the other hand against his
+chin, and at the same time one knee should be brought up against the
+lower part of his chest. Then, with a strong and sudden push, the arms
+and legs should be stretched out straight and the whole weight of the
+body thrown backwards. This sudden and totally unexpected action will
+break the clutch and leave the rescuer free to get hold of the drowning
+person in such a manner as to be able to bring him to land (fig. 3).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--3rd Release Method.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Easiest method of carrying a person not
+struggling.]
+
+There are several practical methods of carrying a person through the
+water, the easiest assistance to render being that to a swimmer attacked
+by cramp or exhaustion, or a drowning person who may be obedient and
+remain quiet when approached and assured of safety. Then the person
+assisted should place his arms on the rescuer's shoulders, close to the
+neck, with the arms at full stretch, lie on his back perfectly still,
+with the head well back. The rescuer will then be uppermost, and having
+his arms and legs free can, with the breast stroke, make rapid progress
+to the shore; indeed a good pace can easily be made (fig. 4). In this,
+as in the other methods afterwards described, every care should be taken
+to keep the face of the drowning person above the water. All jerking,
+struggling or tugging should be avoided, and the stroke of the legs be
+regular and well timed, thus husbanding strength for further effort. The
+drowning person being able to breathe with freedom is reassured, and is
+likely to cease struggling, feeling that he is in safe hands.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--1st Rescue Method.]
+
+When a drowning person is not struggling, but yet seems likely to do so
+when approached, the best method of rescue is to swim straight up, turn
+him on his back, and then place the hands on either side of his face.
+Then the rescuer should lie on his back, holding the drowning man in
+front of him, and swim with the back stroke, always taking care to keep
+the man's face above water (fig. 5). If the man be struggling and in a
+condition difficult to manage, he should be turned on his back as
+before, and a firm hold taken of his arms just above his elbows. Then
+the man's arms should be drawn up at right angles to his body and the
+rescuer should start swimming with the back stroke (fig. 6). He should
+take particular care not to go against the current or stream, and
+thereby avoid exhaustion. If the arms be difficult to grasp, or the
+struggling so violent as to prevent a firm hold, the rescuer should slip
+his hands under the armpits of the drowning person, and place them on
+his chest or round his arms, then raise them at right angles to his
+body, thus placing the drowning person completely in his power. The
+journey to land can then be made by swimming on the back as in the other
+methods (fig. 7). In carrying a person through the water, it will be of
+much advantage to keep his elbows well out from the sides, as this
+expands the chest, inflates the lungs and adds to his buoyancy. The legs
+should be kept well up to the surface and the whole body as horizontal
+as possible. This avoids a drag through the water, and will considerably
+help the rescuer. In some cases it may happen that the drowning person
+has sunk to the bottom and does not rise again. In that event the
+rescuer should look for bubbles rising to the surface before diving in.
+In still water the bubbles rise perpendicularly; in running water they
+rise obliquely, so that the rescuer must look for his object higher up
+the stream than where the bubbles rise. It is also well to remember that
+in running water a body may be carried along by the current and must be
+looked for in the direction in which it flows. When a drowning person is
+recovered on the bottom, the rescuer should seize him by the head or
+shoulders, place the left foot on the ground and the right knee in the
+small of his back, and then, with a vigorous push, come to the surface.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--2nd Rescue Method.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--3rd Rescue Method.]
+
+When the rescuer reaches land with an insensible person, no time should
+be lost in sending for a medical man, but in the meantime an attempt to
+induce artificial respiration may be made. The first recorded cases of
+resuscitating the apparently drowned are mentioned in the notes to
+William Derham's _Physico-Theology_, as having occurred at Troningholm
+and Oxford, about 1650. In 1745 Dr J. Fothergill read a paper on the
+subject before the Royal Society. It dealt with the recovery of a man
+dead in appearance by distending the lungs by Mr William Tossack,
+surgeon in Alloa, in 1744. In 1767 several cases of resuscitation were
+reported in Switzerland, and shortly after a society was formed at
+Amsterdam for recovery of the apparently drowned, and to instruct the
+common people as to the best manner of treating them when rescued, and
+to reward the people for their services. In 1773 Dr A. Johnson suggested
+the formation of a similar society in England, and Dr Thomas Cogan
+translated the memoirs of the Amsterdam society. Dr William Hawes
+secured a copy and tried to form a society. There was, however, a strong
+prejudice against the idea, but he publicly offered rewards to persons
+who, between Westminster and London Bridges, should rescue drowning
+persons and bring them to certain places on shore in order that
+resuscitation might be attempted. In this way he was instrumental in the
+saving of several lives, and paid the rewards out of his own pocket,
+until his zeal brought him sympathy and the Royal Humane Society was
+founded. This was in 1774. The system then in vogue was a means of
+inducing artificial respiration by inserting the pipe of a pair of
+bellows into one nostril and closing the other. Air was forced into the
+lungs and then expelled by pressing the chest, thus imitating
+respiration. Dr Hawes used for his resuscitation work a kind of cradle,
+in which the subject was placed, and then raised over a furnace.
+Bleeding, holding up by the heels, rolling on casks, &c. were at various
+times resorted to. Simple means are often as effective as the official
+ones. In 1891 a subject was restored in Australia by being held over a
+smoky fire, which is the native method of restoring life; while a few
+years back, at an English riverside town, a patient was saved by the
+placing of a handkerchief over his mouth and the alternate blowing into
+and drawing air out of the lungs until natural breathing was restored.
+
+One of the oldest methods of resuscitation was that of Dr Marshall Hall
+(1790-1857), introduced in 1856. In this method the operator takes his
+place at the patient's left side, and places a roll of clothing or
+pillow (which must be the same length as that used in the previous
+methods), so that it may be in position under the chest when the patient
+is turned over. The assistant at the head pays particular attention to
+the patient's arms, that they may not be laid upon or twisted at the
+wrists, elbows, hands or shoulders. The patient is then turned face
+downwards, with the body reclining over the pillow, the operator makes a
+firm pressure with the hand upon the back, between and on the shoulder
+blades, he then pulls the patient slowly up on to the side towards
+himself. Once in position, the operator pushes the patient back again
+until the face is downward, when the pressure on the back is to be
+repeated. These three movements must be continued at the rate of about
+fifteen times a minute, until natural breathing has been restored.
+
+Then came the methods of Dr H. R. Silvester and Dr Benjamin Howard, of
+New York.
+
+When using the Silvester method, or, for the matter of that, any other
+method, the first thing to do is to send for medical assistance. Dr
+Silvester recommended that the patient should not be carried face
+downwards or held up by his feet. All rough usage should be avoided,
+especially twisting or bending of limbs, and the patient must not be
+allowed to remain on the back unless the tongue is pulled forward. In
+the event of respiration not being entirely suspended when a person is
+lifted out of the water, it may not be necessary to imitate breathing,
+but natural respiration may be assisted by the application of an
+irritant substance to the nostrils and tickling the nose.
+Smelling-salts, pepper and snuff may be used, or hot and cold water
+alternately dashed on the face or chest. Provided no sign of life can be
+seen or felt or the heart's action heard, promotion of breathing, _not_
+circulation must be the first aim and effort. Lay the patient flat on
+his back, with the head at a slightly higher level than the feet. Remove
+all tight clothing about the neck, chest and abdomen, and loosen the
+braces, belts or corsets. The operator taking his place at the head,
+with an assistant on one side, will turn the patient over until he is
+lying face downwards, his head resting upon one arm. He should then,
+after the assistant has given one or two sharp blows with the open hand
+between the shoulder blades, wipe and clear the mouth, throat and
+nostrils of all matter that may prevent the air from entering the lungs,
+using a handkerchief for this purpose. This being done, the patient
+should be turned upon his back, the tongue pulled forward and kept in
+position by means of a dry cloth, handkerchief or piece of string tied
+round the jaw. Every care must be taken not to let it fall back into the
+mouth and thus obstruct the air passages. When this work has been
+accomplished (it should only last a few seconds) the operator at the
+head should lift the patient, handling the head and shoulders very
+carefully, in order that the assistant may place a roll of clothing or
+pillow under the shoulder blades. The roll being placed in position, the
+operator will lean forward and grasp the arms below the elbows. He will
+then draw the patient's arms steadily upwards and outwards, above the
+head, until fully extended in line with the body. Having held the arms
+in this position for about one second, the operator will carry them back
+again and press them firmly against the side and front of the chest for
+another second. By these means an exchange of air is produced in the
+lungs similar to that effected by natural respiration. These movements
+must be repeated carefully and deliberately about fifteen times a
+minute, and persevered in. When natural respiration is once established,
+the operator should cease to imitate the movements of breathing, and
+proceed with the treatment for _the promotion of warmth and
+circulation_.
+
+Friction over the surface of the body must be at once resorted to, using
+handkerchiefs, flannels, &c., so as to propel the blood along the veins
+towards the heart, while the operator attends to the mouth, nose and
+throat. The friction along the legs, arms and body should all be towards
+the heart and should be continued after the patient has been wrapped in
+blankets or some dry clothing. As soon as possible, the patient should
+be removed to the nearest house and further efforts made to promote
+warmth by the application of hot flannels to the pit of the stomach, and
+bottles or bladders of hot water, heated bricks, &c. to the armpits,
+between the thighs and to the soles of the feet. If there be pain or
+difficulty in breathing, apply a hot linseed meal poultice to the chest.
+On the restoration of life, a teaspoonful of warm water should be given;
+and then, if the power of swallowing has returned, very small quantities
+of wine, warm brandy and water, beef tea or coffee administered, the
+patient kept in bed, and a disposition to sleep encouraged. The patient
+should be carefully watched for some time to see that breathing does not
+fail, and, should any signs of failure appear, artificial respiration
+should at once be resumed. While the patient is in the house, care
+should be taken to let the air circulate freely about the room and all
+overcrowding should be prevented.
+
+In the Howard method there are only two movements; its knowledge is said
+to be necessary in case the patient's arm be in any way injured, or a
+more vigorous method than the "Silvester" deemed necessary, _but care
+should be exercised not to injure the patient by too forcible pressure_.
+The patient is laid on his back, the roll is larger than that used in
+the Silvester method, and is placed farther under the back in order that
+the lower part of the chest may be highest. After adjusting the roll,
+the operator kneels astride of the patient, while his assistant goes to
+the head, lifts the patient's arms beyond the head, and holds them to
+the ground, cleans the mouth and nose, and attends to the tongue. The
+operator, with his fingers spread well apart, taking care that the
+thumbs do not press into the pit of the stomach, grasps the most
+compressible part of the lower ribs, and with both hands applies
+pressure firmly by leaning over the patient; then he springs back,
+lifting his hands off the patient. Artificial respiration is thus
+effected, and continued at the rate of about fifteen times a minute.
+When natural breathing has been restored, the treatment is the same as
+in the Silvester method.
+
+These methods have now been superseded by the Schafer method, which has
+been taken up by the Royal Life Saving Society, a body instituted in
+1891 for the promotion of technical education in life saving and
+resuscitation of the apparently drowned. The Schafer method has much to
+recommend it, owing to its extreme simplicity and the ease with which
+the physical operations necessary to carry on artificial respiration may
+be performed, hardly any muscular exertion being required. It involves
+no risk of injury to the congested liver or to any other organ, and as
+the patient is laid face downwards, there is no possibility of the air
+passages being blocked by the falling back of the tongue into the
+pharynx. The water and mucus can also be expelled much more readily from
+the air passages through the mouth and nostrils.
+
+It was due to the happy selection of Professor E. A. Schafer, as
+chairman of a committee appointed by the Royal Medical & Chirurgical
+Society for the investigation of the methods in use for resuscitation of
+the apparently drowned, that the new method was devised. This committee
+made many experiments upon the cadaver but failed to arrive at any
+definite conclusion by that means. The necessity then appeared of
+thorough investigation of the subject by experiments upon animals, so
+that the phenomena attendant upon drowning might be better known, and
+the various methods of resuscitation properly tried. These experiments
+were made in Edinburgh by Professor Schafer, with the co-operation of
+Dr P. T. Herring, and the results obtained were embodied in the report
+of the committee, which was presented to the Royal Medical and
+Chirurgical Society in 1904, and published as a supplement to volume 86
+of the _Transactions_ of the society. As the direct outcome of these
+experiments, Professor Schafer was led to believe that a pressure method
+of resuscitation was not only simpler to perform but also more
+efficacious than any other. This conclusion was put to the test by
+measurements of the results obtained upon the normal human subject by
+the various methods in vogue; from these measurements, which were
+published in the _Proceedings_ of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in
+December 1903, it appeared that when such pressure is exerted in the
+prone position the highest degree of efficiency as well as simplicity is
+obtained. The description of this method was communicated to the Royal
+Medical and Chirurgical Society, and was published in the following year
+(1904) in volume 87 of the _Transactions_ of the society.
+
+Thus it came about that by investigating the phenomena of drowning, and
+the means of resuscitation in dogs, and by applying the results obtained
+to man, the method which the society now advocates as the best was
+arrived at. In the experiments referred to, it was found necessary to
+drown 38 dogs, all but two of which were from first to last in a
+complete state of anaesthesia, the two exceptions having been simply
+drowned without anaesthesia. It is important that the public should
+understand that the evolution of a method which will probably be the
+means of saving thousands of lives has resulted from the painless
+sacrifice of less than 40 dogs, a number which would doubtless in any
+case have been destroyed by drowning or some other form of suffocation,
+but without the benefit of the anaesthetics which were employed in the
+experiments.
+
+[Illustration: FIG 8..--Schafer method of treatment of the apparently
+drowned. Position A.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Schafer method of treatment of the apparently
+drowned. Position B.]
+
+Professor Schafer describes the method as follows:--Lay the subject face
+downwards on the ground, then without stopping to remove the clothing
+the operator should at once place himself in position astride or at one
+side of the subject, facing his head and kneeling upon one or both
+knees. He then places his hands flat over the lower part of the back (on
+the lowest ribs), one on each side (fig. 8), and then gradually throws
+the weight of his body forward on to them so as to produce firm pressure
+(fig. 9)--which must not be violent, or upon the patient's chest. By
+this means the air, and water if any, are driven out of the patient's
+lungs. Immediately thereafter the operator raises his body slowly so as
+to remove the pressure, but the hands are left in position. This forward
+and backward movement is repeated every four or five seconds; in other
+words, the body of the operator is swayed slowly forwards and backwards
+upon the arms from twelve to fifteen times a minute, and should be
+continued for at least half an hour, or until the natural respirations
+are resumed. Whilst one person is carrying out artificial respiration in
+this way, others may, if there be opportunity, busy themselves with
+applying hot flannels to the body and limbs, and hot bottles to the
+feet, but no attempt should be made to remove the wet clothing or to
+give any restoratives by the mouth until natural breathing has
+recommenced.
+
+In his paper read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh in December 1903
+Professor Schafer gave the following table of the relative exchanges of
+air under different methods:--
+
+  +------------------------------+--------+---------------+--------------+
+  |                              | Number | Amount of air |Amount of air |
+  |      Mode of Respiration.    |  per   | exchanged per |exchanged per |
+  |                              | minute.|  respiration. |   minute.    |
+  +------------------------------+--------+---------------+--------------+
+  | Natural respiration (supine) |  13    |     489 c.c.  |   6.460 c.c. |
+  | Natural      "    (prone)    |  12.5  |     422  "    |   5.240  "   |
+  | Prone (pressure), "Schafer"  |  13    |     520  "    |   6.760  "   |
+  | Supine (pressure), "Howard"  |  13.6  |     295  "    |   4.020  "   |
+  | Rolling (with pressure),     |        |               |              |
+  |   "Marshall Hall"            |  13    |     254  "    |   3.300  "   |
+  | Rolling (without pressure),  |        |               |              |
+  |   "Marshall Hall"            |  12    |     192  "    |   2.300  "   |
+  | Traction (with pressure),    |        |               |              |
+  |   "Silvester"                |  12.8  |     178  "    |   2.280  "   |
+  +------------------------------+--------+---------------+--------------+
+
+These experiments all tend to show that by far the most efficient method
+of performing artificial respiration is that of intermittent pressure
+upon the lower ribs with the subject in the prone position or face
+downward. It is also the easiest to perform, requiring practically no
+exertion, as the weight of the operator's body produces the effect, and
+the swinging forwards and backwards of the body some thirteen times a
+minute, which alone is required, is by no means fatiguing, and has the
+further great advantage that it can be effectively carried out by one
+person.
+
+  See Taylor, _Medical Jurisprudence_; "Description of a simple and
+  efficient method of performing artificial respiration in the human
+  subject, especially in cases of drowning," by E. A. Schafer, F.R.S.
+  (vol. 87, _Medico-Chirurgical Society's Transactions_); "The relative
+  efficiency of certain methods of performing artificial respiration in
+  man," by E. A. Schafer, F.R.S. (vol. 23, part i. _Proceedings of the
+  Royal Society of Edinburgh_); _A Method for the Treatment of the
+  Apparently Drowned_, by R. S. Bowles (London, 1903); _Handbook of
+  Instruction_, Royal Life Saving Society (London, 1908).     (W. HY.)
+
+_Penal Use of Drowning._--As a form of capital punishment, drowning was
+once common throughout Europe, but it is now only practised in
+Mahommedan countries and the Far East. Tacitus states that the ancient
+Germans hanged criminals of any rank, but those of the low classes were
+drowned beneath hurdles in fens and bogs. The Romans also drowned
+convicts. The Lex Cornelia ordained that parricides should be sewn in a
+sack with a dog, cock, viper and ape, and thrown into the sea. The law
+of ancient Burgundy ordered that an unfaithful wife should be smothered
+in mud. The Anglo-Saxon punishment for women guilty of theft was
+drowning. So usual was the penalty in the middle ages that grants of
+life and death jurisdiction were worded to be "_cum fossa et furca_"
+(i.e. "with drowning-pit and gallows"). The owner of Baynard's Castle,
+London, in the reign of John, had powers of trying criminals, and his
+descendants long afterwards claimed the privileges, the most valued of
+which was the right of drowning in the Thames traitors taken within
+their jurisdiction. Drowning was the punishment ordained by Richard
+Coeur de Lion for any soldier of his army who killed a fellow-crusader
+during the passage to the Holy Land. Drowning was usually reserved for
+women as being the least brutal form of death-penalty, but occasionally
+a male criminal was so executed as a matter of favour. Thus in Scotland
+in 1526 a man convicted of theft and sacrilege was ordered to be drowned
+"by the queen's special grace." In 1611 a man was drowned at Edinburgh
+for stealing a lamb, and in 1623 eleven gipsy women suffered there. By
+that date the penalty was obsolete in England. It survived in Scotland
+till 1685 (the year of the drowning of the Wigtoun martyrs). The last
+execution by drowning in Switzerland was in 1652, in Austria 1776, in
+Iceland 1777; while in France during the Revolution the penalty was
+revived in the terrible _Noyades_ carried out by the terrorist Jean
+Baptiste Carrier at Nantes. It was abolished in Russia at the beginning
+of the 18th century.
+
+
+
+
+DROYSEN, JOHANN GUSTAV (1808-1884), German historian, was born on the
+6th of July 1808 at Treptow in Pomerania. His father, Johann Christoph
+Droysen, was an army chaplain, in which capacity he was present at the
+celebrated siege of Kolberg in 1806-7. As a child young Droysen
+witnessed some of the military operations during the War of Liberation,
+for his father was pastor at Greifenhagen, in the immediate
+neighbourhood of Stettin, which was held by the French during the
+greater part of 1813. The impressions of these early years laid the
+foundation of the ardent attachment to Prussia which distinguished him,
+like so many other historians of his generation. He was educated at the
+gymnasium of Stettin and at the university of Berlin; in 1829 he became
+a master at the Graue Kloster (or Grey Friars), one of the oldest
+schools in Berlin; besides his work there he gave lectures at the
+university, from 1833 as _privat-dozent_, and from 1835 as professor,
+without a salary. During these years he was occupied with classical
+antiquity; he published a translation of Aeschylus and a paraphrase of
+Aristophanes, but the work by which he made himself known as a historian
+was his _Geschichte Alexanders des Grossen_ (Berlin, 1833, and other
+editions), a book which still remains probably the best work on the
+subject. It was in some ways the herald of a new school of German
+historical thought, for it shows that idealization of power and success
+which he had learnt from the teaching of Hegel. It was followed by other
+volumes dealing with the successors of Alexander, published under the
+title of _Geschichte des Hellenismus_ (Hamburg, 1836-1843). A new and
+revised edition of the whole work was published in 1885; it has been
+translated into French, but not into English.
+
+In 1840 Droysen was appointed professor of history at Kiel. He was at
+once attracted into the political movement for the defence of the rights
+of the Elbe duchies, of which Kiel was the centre. Like his predecessor
+F. C. Dahlmann, he placed his historical learning at the service of the
+estates of Schleswig-Holstein and composed the address of 1844, in which
+the estates protested against the claim of the king of Denmark to alter
+the law of succession in the duchies. In 1848 he was elected a member of
+the Frankfort parliament, and acted as secretary to the committee for
+drawing up the constitution. He was a determined supporter of Prussian
+ascendancy, and was one of the first members to retire after the king of
+Prussia refused the imperial crown in 1849. During the next two years he
+continued to support the cause of the duchies, and in 1850, with Carl
+Samwer, he published a history of the dealings of Denmark with
+Schleswig-Holstein, _Die Herzogthumer Schleswig-Holstein und das
+Kunigreich Danemark seit dem Jahre 1806_ (Hamburg, 1850). A translation
+was published in London in the same year under the title _The Policy of
+Denmark towards the Duchies of Schleswig-Holstein_. The work was one of
+great political importance, and had much to do with the formation of
+German public opinion on the rights of the duchies in their struggle
+with Denmark.
+
+After 1851 it was impossible for him to remain at Kiel, and he was
+appointed to a professorship at Jena; in 1859 he was called to Berlin,
+where he remained till his death. In his later years he was almost
+entirely occupied with Prussian history. In 1851 he brought out a life
+of Count Yorck von Wartenburg (Berlin, 1851-1852, and many later
+editions), one of the best biographies in the German language, and then
+began his great work on the _Geschichte der preussischen Politik_
+(Berlin, 1855-1886). Seven volumes were published, the last not till
+after his death. It forms a complete history of the growth of the
+Prussian monarchy down to the year 1756. This, like all Droysen's work,
+shows a strongly marked individuality, and a great power of tracing the
+manner in which important dynamic forces worked themselves out in
+history. It was this characteristic quality of comprehensiveness that
+also gave him so much influence as a teacher.
+
+Droysen, who was twice married, died in Berlin on the 19th of June 1884.
+His eldest son, Gustav, is the author of several well-known historical
+works, namely, _Gustav Adolf_ (Leipzig, 1869-1870); _Herzog Bernhard von
+Weimar_ (Leipzig, 1885); an admirable _Historischer Handatlas_ (Leipzig,
+1885), and several writings on various events of the Thirty Years' War.
+Another son, Hans Droysen, is the author of some works on Greek history
+and antiquities.
+
+  See M. Duncker, _Johann Gustav Droysen, ein Nachruf_ (Berlin, 1885);
+  and Dahlmann-Waitz, _Quellenkunde der deutschen Geschichte_ (Leipzig,
+  1906).     (J. W. HE.)
+
+
+
+
+DROZ, ANTOINE GUSTAVE (1832-1895), French man of letters, son of the
+sculptor J. A. Droz (1807-1872), was born in Paris on the 9th of June
+1832. He was educated as an artist, and began to exhibit in the Salon of
+1857. A series of sketches dealing gaily and lightly with the intimacies
+of family life, published in the _Vie parisienne_ and issued in book
+form as _Monsieur, Madame et Bebe_ (1866), won for the author an
+immediate and great success. _Entre nous_ (1867) was built on a similar
+plan, and was followed by some psychological novels: _Le Cahier bleu de
+Mlle Cibot_ (1868); _Autour d'une source_ (1869); _Un Paquet de lettres_
+(1870); _Babolein_ (1872); _Les Etangs_ (1875); _L'Enfant_ (1885). His
+_Tristesses et sourires_ (1884) is a delicate analysis of the niceties
+of family intercourse and its difficulties. Droz's first book was
+translated into English under the title of _Papa, Mamma and Baby_
+(1887). _Un Ete a la campagne_, a book which caused considerable
+scandal, was erroneously attributed to him. He died on the 22nd of
+October 1895.
+
+
+
+
+DROZ, FRANCOIS-XAVIER JOSEPH (1773-1850), French writer on ethics and
+political science, was born on the 31st of October 1773 at Besancon,
+where his family had furnished men of considerable mark to the legal
+profession. His own legal studies led him to Paris in 1792; he arrived
+on the very day after the dethronement of the king, and was present
+during the massacres of September; on the declaration of war he joined
+the volunteer _bataillon_ of the Doubs, and for the next three years
+served in the Army of the Rhine. Receiving his discharge on the score of
+ill-health, he obtained a much more congenial post in the newly-founded
+_ecole centrale_ of Besancon; and in 1799 he made his first appearance
+as an author by an _Essai sur l'art oratoire_ (Paris, Fructidor, An
+VII.), in which he acknowledges his indebtedness more especially to Hugh
+Blair. Removing to Paris in 1803, he became intimate not only with the
+like-minded Ducis, but also with the sceptical Cabanis; and it was on
+this philosopher's advice that, in order to catch the public ear, he
+produced the romance of _Lina_, which Sainte-Beuve has characterized as
+a mingled echo of Florian and _Werther_. Like several other literary men
+of the time, he obtained a post in the revenue office known as the
+_Droits reunis_; but from 1814 he devoted himself exclusively to
+literature and became a contributor to various journals. Already
+favourably known by his _Essai sur l'art d'etre heureux_ (Paris, 1806),
+his _Eloge de Montaigne_ (1812), and his _Essai sur le beau dans les
+arts_ (1815), he not only gained the Monthyon prize in 1823 by his work
+_De la philosophie morale ou des differents systemes sur la science de
+la vie_, but also in 1824 obtained admission to the Academie Francaise.
+The main doctrine inculcated in this last treatise is that society will
+never be in a proper state till men have been educated to think of their
+duties and not of their rights. It was followed in 1825 by _Application
+de la morale a la philosophie et a la politique_, and in 1829 by
+_Economie politique, ou principes de la science des richesses_, a
+methodical and clearly written treatise, which was edited by Michel
+Chevalier in 1854. His next and greatest work was a _Histoire du regne
+de Louis XVI_ (3 vols., Paris, 1839-1842). As he advanced in life Droz
+became more and more decidedly religious, and the last work of his
+prolific pen was _Pensees du Christianisme_ (1842). Few have left so
+blameless a reputation: in the words of Sainte-Beuve, he was born and he
+remained all his life of the race of the good and the just.
+
+  See Guizot, _Discours academiques_; Montalembert, "Discours de
+  reception," in _Memoires de l'Academie francaise_; Sainte-Beuve,
+  _Causeries du lundi_, t. iii.; Michel Chevalier, Notice prefixed to
+  the _Economie politique_.
+
+
+
+
+DRUG, a district and town of British India, in the Chhattisgarh division
+of the Central Provinces. The district was formed in 1906 out of
+portions of the districts of Bilaspur and Raipur. It has an area of 3807
+sq. m., and the population on that area in 1901 was 628,885, showing a
+heavy decrease in the preceding decade, owing to the famines of 1897 and
+1900. The district is a long narrow tract, with lofty ridges of gravel
+in the centre and north, but otherwise consisting of open rolling
+country. The Tendula and Seonath are the principal rivers. Rich black
+soil covers a large part of the district, and rice, wheat and other
+crops are grown. The main line of the Bengal-Nagpur railway passes
+through the district. Drug, the capital of the district, is on the
+railway, 685 m. from Bombay, and had in 1901 a population of 4002.
+Bell-metal-founding and cotton-weaving are carried on.
+
+
+
+
+DRUG (from Fr. _drogue_, a word common in Romance languages, cf. Span.
+and Ital. _droga_; the origin of the word is obscure, but may possibly
+be connected with Dutch _droog_, dry), any organic and inorganic
+substance used in the preparation of medicines, by itself or in
+combination with others, and either prepared by some method or used in a
+natural state (see PHARMACOLOGY and PHARMACOPOEIA). In a particular
+sense "drug" is often used synonymously for narcotics or poisonous
+substances, and hence "to drug" means to stupefy or poison. The word is
+also applied to any article for which there is no sale, or of which the
+value has greatly depreciated--a "drug in the market."
+
+
+
+
+DRUIDISM, the name usually given to the religious system of the ancient
+inhabitants of Gaul and the British Islands. The word Druid (Lat.
+_druida_) probably represents a Gaulish _druid-s_, Irish _drui_, gen.
+sing. _druad_. On the analogy of Irish _sui<su-vid-s_ the word has been
+analysed into _dru-vid-_, "very knowing, wise." The ancient Welsh form
+of the word does not exist. Welsh _derwydd_ and _dryw_ are probably to
+be regarded as of recent coinage, as also the Breton forms _drouiz_,
+_druz_. The important part played by the oak in the religious cults of
+other countries suggests a connexion with Greek [Greek: drus], oak, but
+this etymology is rather in disfavour at the present time.
+
+We find in Caesar the first and at the same time the most circumstantial
+account of the Druids to be met with in the classical writers. He tells
+us that all men of any rank and dignity in Gaul were included among the
+Druids or the nobles. In other words, the Druids constituted the learned
+and the priestly class, and they were in addition the chief expounders
+and guardians of the law. We are, however, informed by Diodorus and
+Strabo that this class was composed of Druids, bards and soothsayers.
+Hence Caesar seems to assign more extensive functions to the Druids than
+they actually possessed. The substance of Caesar's account is as
+follows. On those who refused to submit to their decisions they had the
+power of inflicting severe penalties, of which excommunication from
+society was the most dreaded. As they were not a hereditary caste and
+enjoyed exemption from service in the field as well as from payment of
+taxes, admission to the order was eagerly sought after by the youth of
+Gaul. The course of training to which a novice had to submit was
+protracted, extending sometimes over twenty years. All instruction was
+communicated orally, but for ordinary purposes they had a written
+language in which they used the Greek characters. The president of the
+order, whose office was elective and who enjoyed the dignity for life,
+had supreme authority among them. They taught that the soul was
+immortal. Astrology, geography, physical science and natural theology
+were their favourite studies.
+
+Britain was the headquarters of Druidism, but once every year a general
+assembly of the order was held within the territories of the Carnutes in
+Gaul. The Gauls were accustomed to offer human sacrifices, usually
+criminals. Cicero remarks on the existence among the Gauls of augurs or
+soothsayers, known by the name of Druids, with one of whom, Divitiacus,
+an Aeduan, he was acquainted. Diodorus informs us that a sacrifice
+acceptable to the gods must be attended by a Druid, for they are the
+intermediaries. Before a battle they often throw themselves between two
+armies to bring about peace. They are said to have had a firm belief in
+the immortality of the soul and in metempsychosis, a fact which led
+several ancient writers to conclude that they had been influenced by the
+teaching of the Greek philosopher Pythagoras.
+
+A rescript of Augustus forbade Roman citizens to practise druidical
+rites. In Strabo we find the Druids still acting as arbiters in public
+and private matters, but they no longer deal with cases of murder. Under
+Tiberius the Druids were suppressed by a decree of the senate, but this
+had to be renewed by Claudius in A.D. 54. In Mela we find the Druids
+teaching in the depths of a forest or in caverns. In Pliny their
+activity is limited to the practice of medicine and sorcery. According
+to this writer the Druids held the mistletoe in the highest veneration.
+Groves of oak were their chosen retreat. Whatever grew on that tree was
+thought to be a gift from heaven, more especially the mistletoe. When
+thus found, the mistletoe was cut with a golden knife by a priest clad
+in a white robe, two white bulls being sacrificed on the spot. Tacitus,
+in describing the attack made on the island of Mona (Anglesea) by the
+Romans under Suetonius Paulinus, represents the legionaries as being
+awe-struck on landing by the appearance of a band of Druids, who, with
+hands uplifted towards heaven, poured forth terrible imprecations on the
+heads of the invaders. The courage of the Romans, however, soon overcame
+such fears; the Britons were put to flight; and the groves of Mona, the
+scene of many a sacrifice and bloody rite, were cut down.
+
+After this the continental Druids disappear entirely, and are only
+referred to on very rare occasions. Ausonius, for instance,
+apostrophizes the rhetorician Attius Patera as sprung from a race of
+Druids.
+
+When we turn to the British Islands we find, as we should expect, no
+traces of the Druids in England and Wales after the conquest of Anglesea
+mentioned above, except in the story of Vortigern as recounted by
+Nennius. After being excommunicated by Germanus the British leader
+invites twelve Druids to assist him. These probably came from North
+Britain. In Irish literature, however, the Druids are frequently
+mentioned, and their functions in the island seem to correspond fairly
+well to those of their Gaulish brethren described by classical writers.
+The functions of Caesar's Druids we here find distributed amongst
+Druids, bards and poets (_fili_), but even in very early times the poet
+has usurped many of the duties of the Druid and finally supplants him
+with the spread of Christianity. The following is the position of the
+Druid in the pagan literature. The most important documents are
+contained in MSS. of the 12th century, but the texts themselves go back
+in large measure to about A.D. 700. In the heroic cycles the Druids do
+not appear to have formed any corporation, nor do they seem to have been
+exempt from military service. Cathbu (Cathbad), the Druid connected with
+Conchobar, king of Ulster, in the older cycle is accompanied by a number
+of youths (100 according to the oldest version) who are desirous of
+learning his art, though what this consisted in we are not told. The
+Druids are represented as being able to foretell the future and to
+perform magic. Before setting out on the great expedition against
+Ulster, Medb, queen of Connaught, goes to consult her Druid, and just
+before the famous heroine Derdriu (Deirdre) is born, Cathbu prophesies
+what sort of a woman she will be. We may cite two instances of the
+magical skill of the Druids. The hero Cuchulinn has returned from the
+land of the fairies after having been enticed thither by a fairy-woman
+named Fand, whom he is now unable to forget. He is given a potion by
+some Druids, which banishes all memory of his recent adventures and
+which also rids his wife Emer of the pangs of jealousy. More remarkable
+still is the story of Etain. This lady, now the wife of Eochaid Airem,
+high-king of Ireland, was in a former existence the beloved of the god
+Mider, who again seeks her love and carries her off. The king has
+recourse to his Druid Dal[=a]n, who requires a whole year to discover
+the haunt of the couple. This he accomplished by means of four wands of
+yew inscribed with ogam characters. The following description of the
+band of Cathbu's Druids occurs in the epic tale, the _Cattle-spoiling of
+Cualnge_ (Cooley): "The attendant raises his eyes towards heaven and
+observes the clouds and answers the band around him. They all raise
+their eyes towards heaven, observe the clouds, and hurl spells against
+the elements, so that they arouse strife amongst them and clouds of fire
+are driven towards the camp of the men of Ireland." We are further told
+that at the court of Conchobar no one had the right to speak before the
+Druids had spoken. In other texts the Druids are able to produce
+insanity.
+
+In the religious literature they are almost exclusively represented as
+magicians and diviners opposing the Christian missionaries, though we
+find two of them acting as tutors to the daughters of Laegaire, the
+high-king, at the coming of St Patrick. They are represented as
+endeavouring to prevent the progress of St Patrick and St Columba by
+raising clouds and mist. Before the battle of Culdremne (561) a Druid
+made an _airbe druad_ (fence of protection?) round one of the armies,
+but what is precisely meant by the phrase is obscure. The Irish Druids
+seem to have had a peculiar tonsure. The word _drui_ is always used to
+render the Latin _magus_, and in one passage St Columba speaks of Christ
+as his Druid.
+
+  See D'Arbois de Jubainville, _Les Druides et les dieux celtiques a
+  forme d'animaux_ (Paris, 1906), and _Introduction a l'etude de la
+  litterature celtique_ (Paris, 1883); P. W. Joyce, _A Social History of
+  Ancient Ireland_ (London, 1903).     (E. C. Q.)
+
+
+
+
+DRUIDS, ORDER OF, a friendly society founded, as an imitation of the
+ancient Druids, in London in 1781. They adopted Masonic rites and spread
+to America (1833) and Australia. Their lodges are called "Groves." In
+1872 the Order was introduced into Germany. (See FRIENDLY SOCIETIES.)
+
+
+
+
+DRUM (early forms _drome_ or _dromme_, a word common to many Teut.
+languages, cf. Dan. _tromme_, Ger. _Trommel_: the word is ultimately the
+same as "trumpet," and is probably onomatopoeic in origin; it appears
+late in Eng. about the middle of the 16th century), the name given to
+the well-known musical instrument (see below) and also to many objects
+resembling it in shape. Thus it is used of any receptacle of similar
+shape, as a "drum" of oil, &c.; in machinery, of a revolving cylinder,
+round which belting is passed; of the _tympanum_ or cylindrically shaped
+middle ear, and specially of the membrane that closes the external
+auditory meatus; and, in architecture, of the substructure of a dome
+when raised to some height above the pendentives. The architectural drum
+had a twofold object; first, to give greater elevation to the dome
+externally so that it should rise well above the surrounding building,
+and secondly, to allow of the interior being lighted with vertical
+windows cut in the drum, instead of forming penetrations in the dome
+itself, as in St Sophia, Constantinople. The term is also applied to the
+circular blocks of stone, which in columns of large dimensions were
+built with a series of drums. At Selinus in Sicily some of these great
+circular blocks are found on the road between the quarries and the
+temples; they vary from 8 to 10 ft. in diameter, being about 6 ft. high.
+The term _frusta_ is sometimes applied to them.
+
+In music the drum (Fr. _tambour_; Ger. _Trommel_; Ital. _tamburo_) is an
+instrument of percussion common in some form to all nations and ages. It
+consists of a frame or vessel forming a resonant cavity, over one or
+both ends of which is stretched a skin or vellum set in vibration by
+direct percussion of hand or stick. Drums fall into two divisions
+according to the nature of their sonority:--(1) instruments producing
+sounds of definite musical pitch, and qualified thereby to take part in
+the harmony of the orchestra, such as the kettledrum (q.v.); (2)
+instruments of indefinite sonorousness, and therefore excluded from the
+harmony of the orchestra; such are the bass drum, the side or snare
+drum, the tenor drum, the tambourine, all used for marking the rhythm
+and adding tone colour.
+
+Drums are further divided into three classes according to special
+features of construction:--(1) instruments having a skin stretched over
+one end of the resonant cavity, the other being open, such as the
+tambourine (q.v.) and the _darabukkeh_ or Egyptian drum, shaped like a
+mushroom; (2) instruments consisting of a cup-shaped receptacle of
+metal, wood or earthenware entirely closed by a skin or vellum stretched
+across the opening, as in the kettledrum; (3) a receptacle in the shape
+of a cylinder closed at both ends by skins, as in the bass drum, side
+drum, &c.
+
+Skin or parchment only acquires the elasticity requisite to produce
+vibration by tension; the vibrations of the parchment are taken up by
+the air enclosed in the receptacle, which thus reinforces the sound
+produced by the parchment. The _tone_ of the instrument whether definite
+or indefinite depends upon the dimensions of the vellum, the shape of
+the resonant receptacle, and the method of percussion. The _intensity_
+of the sound depends upon the degree of percussive force used and the
+diameter of the vellum in proportion to the dimensions of the resonant
+receptacle; the material of which the latter consists has little or no
+influence on the tone of the instrument. The _pitch_ of the sound is
+determined by the dimensions of the vellum taken in conjunction with the
+degree of tension, the pitch varying in acuteness directly with the
+degree of tension and inversely with the size of the vellum.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Military Bass Drum (Besson & Co.)]
+
+The _bass drum_ or Turkish drum (Fr. _grosse caisse_; Ger. _Grosse
+Trommel_; Ital. _gran cassa_ or _tamburo grande_) consists of a short
+cylinder of very wide diameter covered at both ends by vellum stretched
+over thin hoops, which in turn are kept in place by larger hoops fitting
+tightly over them. At regular intervals in the two large hoops are bored
+holes through which passes an endless cord stretched in zig-zag round
+the cylinder and connecting the two hoops. The tension of the vellum is
+controlled by means of leather braces which are made to slide up and
+down the zig-zag of cord, slackening or tightening the large hoops, and
+with them the vellum, at the will of the performer. Systems of rods and
+screws are also used for the purpose. The bass drum is mounted on a
+stand when used in the orchestra. The sound is produced by striking the
+centre of the vellum on the one end of the drum with a stick having a
+large soft round knob composed of wood covered with cork, sponge or
+felt. The bass drum cannot be tuned since it gives out no definite note,
+but the pitch may be varied, according as a rich full tone or a mere
+dull thud be required, by tightening or loosening the braces; the
+instrument can, moreover, be muffled by covering it with a piece of
+cloth. The music for the bass drum is generally written on a stave with
+a bass clef, [Illustration: notes], the C being merely used to show the
+rhythm and accents. Sometimes the stave is dispensed with, a single note
+on a single line being sufficient. The bass drum has a place in every
+orchestra, although it is used but sparingly to accentuate the rhythm.
+It is possible to make gradations in _forte_ and _piano_ on the bass
+drum, and to play quavers and semi-quavers in moderate _tempo_. A roll
+is sometimes played by holding a short stick, furnished with a knob at
+each end, in the middle and striking in quick succession with each knob
+alternately; two kettledrum sticks answer the purpose still better. It
+is understood that the cymbals play the same music as the bass drum
+unless the composer has written _senza piatti_ over the part. Wagner did
+not once score for the bass drum after he composed _Rienzi_, but Verdi,
+Gounod, Berlioz and Sullivan used it effectively. The bass drum was
+formerly known as the _long drum_, the cylinder being long in proportion
+to the diameter.
+
+The _side_ or _snare drum_ (Fr. _tambour militaire_; Ger.
+_Militartrommel_; Ital. _tamburo militare_) is an instrument consisting
+of a small wooden or brass cylinder with a vellum at each end. The
+parchments are lapped over small hoops and pressed firmly down by larger
+hoops. As in the bass drum, these and the vellums are tightened or
+slackened by means of cords and leather braces, or by a system of rods
+and screws. Across the lower head are stretched two or more catgut
+strings called snares, which produce a rattling sound at each stroke on
+the upper head, owing to the sympathetic vibration of the lower head
+which jars against the snares. The upper head, set in vibration by
+direct percussion from the sticks, induces sympathetic vibrations in the
+air contained within the resonating receptacle, and these vibrations are
+communicated to the lower head. The presence of the snares across the
+diameter of the latter produces a phenomenon which gives the side drum
+its peculiar timbre, changing the nature of the vibrations, now no
+longer free: the snares form a kind of nodal contact, inducing double
+the number of vibrations and a sound approximately an octave higher than
+would be the case were the heads left to vibrate freely. Moreover, the
+vibrations of the upper head being weaker, the latter is compelled to
+vibrate synchronously with the lower vellum.[1]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Guards pattern Side Drum (Besson & Co.).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Regulation Side Drum (Besson & Co.).]
+
+The side drum, so called because it is worn at the side, is struck in
+the centre by two small wooden sticks with elongated heads or knobs of
+hard wood, producing a hard rasping sound when the drum is played singly
+and in close proximity to the hearer; when, however, several drums are
+played simultaneously or with other instruments the effect is brilliant
+and exhilarating. The roll is produced by striking two blows alternately
+with each hand quite regularly and very rapidly, the result being a
+rattling tremolo. This roll ("daddy-mammy") is very difficult to
+acquire, and requires long practice. The side drum can be muffled by
+loosening the snares or by inserting a piece of silk or cloth between
+the snares and the parchment. An impressive effect is produced by a
+continued roll on muffled drums in funeral marches. The notation for the
+side drum is similar to that in use for the bass drum; the value of the
+note is alone of importance; the place of the note on the staff is
+immaterial and purely a matter of custom. In orchestral scores, a single
+line is often used, or the part for side and bass drum is written on the
+same staff. A great variety of rhythmical figures can be played on the
+side drum, such as
+
+[Illustration: notes]
+
+The _tenor drum_ (Fr. _caisse roulante_; Ger. _Roll-_ or _Ruhrtrommel_;
+Ital. _tamburo rulante_) is similar to the side drum but has a larger
+cylinder of wood and no snares; consequently its timbre lacks the
+brilliancy and incisiveness of the side drum. It is used for the roll in
+military bands, in some theatre orchestras, and on the stage.
+
+The _tambourin de Provence_ is a small drum with a long cylinder of
+narrow diameter used in the Basque provinces with a small pipe
+(_galoubet_) having three holes. The drum is beaten with one stick only,
+the performer steadying it with the hand which fingers the pipe. The
+tambourin and galoubet are in fact a survival of the pipe and tabor
+(q.v.).
+
+The popularity of all kinds of drums in the most ancient civilizations
+is established beyond a doubt by the numerous representations of the
+instrument in a variety of shapes and sizes on the monuments and
+paintings of Egypt, Assyria, India and Persia. The _tympanon_, under
+which name seem to have been included tambourines and kettledrums, as
+well as the dulcimer (during the middle ages), was in use among Greeks
+and Romans chiefly in the worship of Cybele and Bacchus; it was
+introduced through the medium of the Roman civilization into western
+Europe. It is often said that the drum was introduced by the crusaders,
+but it was certainly known in England long before the crusades, for Bede
+(_Musica practica_) mentions it in his list of instruments, and
+Cassiodorus (ii. p. 507) describes it. The side drum was, until the
+reign of Elizabeth, of a much larger size than now and was held
+horizontally and beaten on one head only. It is not known at what date
+snares were added; Praetorius (_Syntagma musicum_, 1618) and Mersenne
+(_L'Harmonie universelle_, Paris, 1636) both mention them. A drawing of
+a side drum showing a snare appears in a book[2] from the printing press
+of J. Badius Ascensius (1510); the instrument also has cords and braces.
+Another woodcut of the same century is given as frontispiece to an
+edition of Flavius Vegetius Renatus.[3] An actual side drum with two
+curved drumsticks belonging to the ancient Egyptians was found during
+the excavations conducted at Thebes in 1823.[4] It measured 1-1/2 ft. in
+height by 2 ft. in diameter; the tension of the heads was regulated by
+cords braced by means of catgut encircling both ends of the drum, and
+wound separately round each cord so that these could be tightened or
+slackened at will by pulling the catgut bands closer together or pushing
+them farther apart. The Berlin Museum possesses some ancient Egyptian
+straight drumsticks with handle and knob. Drums were used at the battle
+of Halidon Hill (1333). An old ballad celebrating Edward III.'s victory
+on this occasion appears in a chronicle of the 14th century, preserved
+in the British Museum (Harl. MS. 4690),
+
+  "This was do with merry sowne.
+   With pipes trumpes and tabers thereto.
+   And loud clariones they blew also."
+
+A prose account of the battle in the same MS. states that the "Englische
+mynstrelles beaten their tabers and blewen their trompes and pipers
+pipenede loude and made a great schowte upon the Skottes."
+
+Froissart, under date 1338, gives details of the means taken by the
+Scots to intimidate the soldiers of Edward III.[5] Having mentioned
+their great horns, he adds, "ils font si grand' noise avec grands
+tambours qu'ils ont aussi." The same chronicler, describing the
+triumphal entry of Edward III. into Calais (1347), gives the following
+list of instruments used: "trompes, tambours, nacaires, chalemies,
+muses."[6]
+
+Drums were used in the British army in the 16th century to give signals
+in war and peace-side drums by the infantry and dragoons, and
+kettledrums by the cavalry.[7] In the reign of Henry VIII. two drummers
+were allowed to every company of 100 men. The chief drum beats used by
+the infantry in the 17th century[8] were _call_, _troop_, _preparative_,
+_march_, _battaile_ and _retreat_; these were later[9] changed to
+_general_, _reveille_, _assembly_ or _troop_, _tattoo_, _chamade_, &c.
+The side drum was admitted into the orchestra in the 17th century, when
+Marais (1636-1728) scored for it in his opera _Alcione_.     (K. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See Victor Mahillon, _Catalogue descriptif_ (Ghent, 1880), vol.
+    i. pp. 19 and 20.
+
+  [2] Joannes Mauburnius, _Rosetum exercitiorum spiritualium et
+    sacrarum meditationum_ (Paris, 1510), Alphabetum, ix.
+
+  [3] _Vier Bucher der Ritterschaft; mit manicherleyen gerusten_, &c.;
+    (Augsburg, 1534).
+
+  [4] Carl Engel, _The Music of the Most Ancient Nations_ (London,
+    1864), p. 219.
+
+  [5] _Chron._ ii. p. 737, see also Grose's _Military Antiquities_, ii.
+    41.
+
+  [6] See Froissart in J. A. Buchon, _Pantheon litt._ (Paris, 1837),
+    vol. i. cap. 322, p. 273.
+
+  [7] Sir John Smythe, _A Brief Discourse_ (London, 1594), pp. 158-159.
+
+  [8] Lieut.-Col. W. Bariffe, _Militarie Discipline, or the Young
+    Artilleryman_ (London, 1643).
+
+  [9] Sir James Turner, _Pallas armata_ (1685), xxi. 302.
+
+
+
+
+DRUMMOND, HENRY (1786-1860), English banker, politician and writer, best
+known as one of the founders of the Catholic Apostolic or "Irvingite"
+Church, was born at the Grange, near Alresford, Hampshire, on the 5th of
+December 1786. He was the eldest son of Henry Drummond, a prominent
+London banker, by a daughter of the first Lord Melville. He was educated
+at Harrow and at Christ Church, Oxford, but took no degree. His name is
+permanently connected with the university through the chair of political
+economy which he founded in 1825. He entered parliament in early life,
+and took an active interest from the first in nearly all departments of
+politics. Thoroughly independent and often eccentric in his views, he
+yet acted generally with the Conservative party. His speeches were often
+almost inaudible but were generally lucid and informing, and on occasion
+caustic and severe. From 1847 until his death in 1860 he represented
+West Surrey in parliament. Drummond took a deep interest in religious
+subjects, and published numerous books and pamphlets on such questions
+as the interpretation of prophecy, the circulation of the Apocrypha, the
+principles of Christianity, &c., which attracted considerable attention.
+In 1817 he met Robert Haldane at Geneva, and continued his movement
+against the Socinian tendencies then prevalent in that city. In later
+years he was intimately associated with the origin and spread of the
+Catholic Apostolic Church. Meetings of those who sympathized with the
+views of Edward Irving were held for the study of prophecy at Drummond's
+seat, Albury Park, in Surrey; he contributed very liberally to the funds
+of the new church; and he became one of its leading office-bearers,
+visiting Scotland as an "apostle" and being ordained as an "angel" for
+that kingdom. The numerous works he wrote in defence of its distinctive
+doctrines and practice were generally clear and vigorous, if seldom
+convincing. He died on the 20th of February 1860.
+
+
+
+
+DRUMMOND, HENRY (1851-1897), Scottish evangelical writer and lecturer,
+was born in Stirling on the 17th of August 1851. He was educated at
+Edinburgh University, where he displayed a strong inclination for
+physical and mathematical science. The religious element was an even
+more powerful factor in his nature, and disposed him to enter the Free
+Church of Scotland. While preparing for the ministry, he became for a
+time deeply interested in the evangelizing mission of Moody and Sankey,
+in which he actively co-operated for two years. In 1877 he became
+lecturer on natural science in the Free Church College, which enabled
+him to combine all the pursuits for which he felt a vocation. His
+studies resulted in his writing _Natural Law in the Spiritual World_,
+the argument of which was that the scientific principle of continuity
+extended from the physical world to the spiritual. Before the book
+issued from the press (1883), a sudden invitation from the African Lakes
+Company drew Drummond away to Central Africa. Upon his return in the
+following year he found himself famous. Large bodies of serious readers,
+alike among the religious and the scientific classes, discovered in
+_Natural Law_ the common standing-ground which they needed; and the
+universality of the demand proved, if nothing more, the seasonableness
+of its publication. Drummond continued to be actively interested in
+missionary and other movements among the Free Church students. In 1888
+he published _Tropical Africa_, a valuable digest of information. In
+1890 he travelled in Australia, and in 1893 delivered the Lowell
+Lectures at Boston. It had been his intention to reserve them for mature
+revision, but an attempted piracy compelled him to hasten their
+publication, and they appeared in 1894 under the title of _The Ascent of
+Man_. Their object was to vindicate for altruism, or the disinterested
+care and compassion of animals for each other, an important part in
+effecting "the survival of the fittest," a thesis previously maintained
+by Professor John Fiske. Drummond's health failed shortly afterwards,
+and he died on the 11th of March 1897. His character was full of charm.
+His writings were too nicely adapted to the needs of his own day to
+justify the expectation that they would long survive it, but few men
+exercised more religious influence in their own generation, especially
+on young men.
+
+
+
+
+DRUMMOND, THOMAS (1797-1840), British inventor and administrator, was
+born at Edinburgh on the 10th of October 1797, and was educated at the
+high school there. He was appointed to a cadetship at the Royal Military
+Academy, Woolwich, in 1813; and in 1815 he entered the Royal Engineers.
+In 1819, when meditating the renunciation of military service for the
+bar, he made the acquaintance of Colonel T. F. Colby (1784-1852), from
+whom in the following year he received an appointment on the
+trigonometrical survey of Great Britain. During his winters in London he
+attended the chemical lectures of W. T. Brande and M. Faraday at the
+Royal Institution, and the mention at one of these of the brilliant
+luminosity of lime when incandescent suggested to him the employment of
+the lime light for making distant surveying stations visible. In 1825,
+when he was assisting Colby in the Irish survey, his lime-light
+apparatus ("Drummond light") was put to a practical test, and enabled
+observations to be completed between Divis mountain, near Belfast, and
+Slieve Snaght, a distance of 67 m. About the same time he also devised
+an improved heliostat, and in 1829 he was employed in adopting his light
+for lighthouse purposes. In 1831 he entered political life and was
+appointed superintendent of the boundary commission. Four years later he
+was made under-secretary of state for Ireland, where he proved himself a
+most successful administrator, and did much to promote law and order. It
+was he who in 1838 told the Irish landlords that "property has its
+duties as well as its rights." In 1836 he proposed the appointment of a
+commission on railways in Ireland, and took a large share in its work,
+which resulted in the recommendation, not, however, carried out, that
+the state should construct a system of lines throughout the island.
+Drummond's health was undermined by overwork, and he died at Dublin on
+the 15th of April 1840.
+
+  See _Life_ by J. F. M'Lennan (1867); _Life and Letters_ by R. Barry
+  O'Brien (1889); and Sir T. A. Larcom in _Papers on the Duties of the
+  Royal Engineers_, vol. iv. (1840).
+
+
+
+
+DRUMMOND, WILLIAM (1585-1649), called "of Hawthornden," Scottish poet,
+was born at Hawthornden, near Edinburgh, on the 13th of December 1585.
+His father, John Drummond, was the first laird of Hawthornden; and his
+mother was Susannah Fowler, sister of William Fowler (q.v.), poet and
+courtier. Drummond received his early education at the high school of
+Edinburgh, and graduated in July 1605 as M.A. of the recently founded
+university of Edinburgh. His father was a gentleman usher at the English
+court (as he had been at the Scottish court from 1590) and William, in a
+visit to London in 1606, describes the festivities in connexion with the
+visit of the king of Denmark. Drummond spent two years at Bourges and
+Paris in the study of law; and, in 1609, he was again in Scotland,
+where, by the death of his father in the following year, he became laird
+of Hawthornden at the early age of twenty-four. The list of books he
+read up to this time is preserved in his own handwriting. It indicates a
+strong preference for imaginative literature, and shows that he was
+keenly interested in contemporary verse. His collection (now in the
+library of the university of Edinburgh) contains many first editions of
+the most famous productions of the age. On finding himself his own
+master, Drummond naturally abandoned law for the muses; "for," says his
+biographer in 1711, "the delicacy of his wit always run on the
+pleasantness and usefulness of history, and on the fame and softness of
+poetry." In 1612 began his correspondence with Sir William Alexander of
+Menstrie, afterwards earl of Stirling (q.v.), which ripened into a
+life-long friendship after Drummond's visit to Menstrie in 1614.
+
+Drummond's first publication appeared in 1613, an elegy on the death of
+Henry, prince of Wales, called _Teares on the Death of Meliades_
+(_Moeliades_, 3rd edit. 1614). The poem shows the influence of Spenser's
+and Sidney's pastoralism. In the same year he published an anthology of
+the elegies of Chapman, Wither and others, entitled _Mausoleum_, or _The
+Choisest Flowres of the Epitaphs_. In 1616, the year of Shakespeare's
+death, appeared _Poems: Amorous, Funerall, Divine, Pastorall: in
+Sonnets, Songs, Sextains, Madrigals_, being substantially the story of
+his love for Mary Cunningham of Barns, who was about to become his wife
+when she died in 1615. The poems bear marks of a close study of Sidney,
+and of the Italian poets. He sometimes translates direct from the
+Italian, especially from Marini. _Forth Feasting: A Panegyricke to the
+King's Most Excellent Majestie_ (1617), a poem written in heroic
+couplets of remarkable facility, celebrates James's visit to Scotland in
+that year. In 1618 Drummond began a correspondence with Michael Drayton.
+The two poets continued to write at intervals for thirteen years, the
+last letter being dated in the year of Drayton's death. The latter had
+almost been persuaded by his "dear Drummond" to print the later books of
+_Poly-Olbion_ at Hart's Edinburgh press. In the winter of 1618-1619,
+Drummond had included Ben Jonson in his circle of literary friends, and
+at Christmas 1618 was honoured with a visit of a fortnight or more from
+the dramatist. The account of their conversations, long supposed to be
+lost, was discovered in the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh, by David
+Laing, and was edited for the Shakespeare Society in 1842 and printed by
+Gifford & Cunningham. The conversations are full of literary gossip, and
+embody Ben's opinion of himself and of his host, whom he frankly told
+that "his verses were too much of the schooles, and were not after the
+fancie of the time," and again that he "was too good and simple, and
+that oft a man's modestie made a fool of his witt." But the publication
+of what was obviously intended merely for a private journal has given
+Jonson an undeserved reputation for harsh judgments, and has cast blame
+on Drummond for blackening his guest's memory.
+
+In 1623 appeared the poet's fourth publication, entitled _Flowers of
+Sion: By William Drummond of Hawthornedenne: to which is adjoyned his
+Cypresse Grove_. From 1625 till 1630 Drummond was probably for the most
+part engaged in travelling on the Continent. In 1627, however, he seems
+to have been home for a short time, as, in that year, he appears in the
+entirely new character of the holder of a patent for the construction of
+military machines, entitled "Litera Magistri Gulielmi Drummond de
+Fabrica Machinarum Militarium, Anno 1627." The same year, 1627, is the
+date of Drummond's munificent gift (referred to above) of about 500
+volumes to the library of the university of Edinburgh.
+
+In 1630 Drummond again began to reside permanently at Hawthornden, and
+in 1632 he married Elizabeth Logan, by whom he had five sons and four
+daughters. In 1633 Charles made his coronation-visit to Scotland; and
+Drummond's pen was employed in writing congratulatory speeches and
+verses. As Drummond preferred Episcopacy to Presbytery, and was an
+extremely loyal subject, he supported Charles's general policy, though
+he protested against the methods employed to enforce it. When Lord
+Balmerino was put on his trial on the capital charge of retaining in his
+possession a petition regarded as a libel on the king's government,
+Drummond in an energetic "Letter" (1635) urged the injustice and folly
+of the proceedings. About this time a claim by the earl of Menteith to
+the earldom of Strathearn, which was based on the assertion that Robert
+III., husband of Annabella Drummond, was illegitimate, roused the poet's
+pride of blood and prompted him to prepare an historical defence of his
+house. Partly to please his kinsman the earl of Perth, and partly to
+satisfy his own curiosity, the poet made researches in the genealogy of
+the family. This investigation was the real secret of Drummond's
+interest in Scottish history; and so we find that he now began his
+_History of Scotland during the Reigns of the Five Jameses_, a work
+which did not appear till 1655, and is remarkable only for its good
+literary style. His next work was called forth by the king's enforced
+submission to the opposition of his Scottish subjects. It is entitled
+_Irene: or a Remonstrance for Concord, Amity, and Love amongst His
+Majesty's Subjects_ (1638), and embodies Drummond's political creed of
+submission to authority as the only logical refuge from democracy, which
+he hated. In 1639 Drummond had to sign the Covenant in self-protection,
+but was uneasy under the burden, as several political squibs by him
+testify. In 1643 he published [Greek: Skiamachia]: _or a Defence of a
+Petition tendered to the Lords of the Council of Scotland by certain
+Noblemen and Gentlemen_, a political pamphlet in support of those
+royalists in Scotland who wished to espouse the king's cause against the
+English parliament. Its burden is an invective on the intolerance of the
+then dominant Presbyterian clergy.
+
+His later works may be described briefly as royalist pamphlets, written
+with more or less caution, as the times required. Drummond took the part
+of Montrose; and a letter from the Royalist leader in 1646 acknowledged
+his services. He also wrote a pamphlet, "A Vindication of the
+Hamiltons," supporting the claims of the duke of Hamilton to lead the
+Scottish army which was to release Charles I. It is said that Drummond's
+health received a severe shock when news was brought of the king's
+execution. He died on the 4th of December 1649. He was buried in his
+parish church of Lasswade.
+
+Drummond's most important works are the _Cypresse Grove_ and the poems.
+The _Cypresse Grove_ exhibits great wealth of illustration, and an
+extraordinary command of musical English. It is an essay on the folly of
+the fear of death. "This globe of the earth," says he, "which seemeth
+huge to us, in respect of the universe, and compared with that wide
+pavilion of heaven, is less than little, of no sensible quantity, and
+but as a point." This is one of Drummond's favourite moods; and he uses
+constantly in his poems such phrases as "the All," "this great All."
+Even in such of his poems as may be called more distinctively Christian,
+this philosophic conception is at work.
+
+A noteworthy feature in Drummond's poetry, as in that of his courtier
+contemporaries Ayton (q.v.), Lord Stirling and others, is that it
+manifests no characteristic Scottish element, but owes its birth and
+inspiration rather to the English and Italian masters. Drummond was
+essentially a follower of Spenser, but, amid all his sensuousness, and
+even in those lines most conspicuously beautiful, there is a dash of
+melancholy thoughtfulness--a tendency deepened by the death of his first
+love, Mary Cunningham. Drummond was called "the Scottish Petrarch"; and
+his sonnets, which are the expression of a genuine passion, stand far
+above most of the contemporary Petrarcan imitations. A remarkable
+burlesque poem _Polemo-Middinia inter Vitarvam et Nebernam_ (printed
+anonymously in 1684) has been persistently, and with good reason,
+ascribed to him. It is a mock-heroic tale, in dog-Latin, of a country
+feud on the Fifeshire lands of his old friends the Cunninghams.
+
+  Drummond's _Poems_, with _Cypresse Grove_, the _History_, and a few of
+  the minor tracts, were collected in 1656 and edited by Edward
+  Phillips, Milton's nephew. _The Works of William Drummond, of
+  Hawthornden_ (1711), edited by Bishop Sage and Thomas Ruddiman,
+  contains a life by the former, and some of the poet's letters. A
+  handsome edition of the _Poems_ was printed by the Maitland Club in
+  1832. Later editions are by Peter Cunningham (1833), by William R.
+  Turnbull in "The Library of Old Authors" (1856), and by W. C. Ward
+  (1894) for "The Muses' Library." The standard biography of Drummond is
+  by David Masson (1873). Extracts from the Hawthornden MSS. preserved
+  in the Library of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland were printed
+  by David Laing in _Archaeologia Scotica_, vol. iv.
+
+
+
+
+DRUNKENNESS, a term signifying generally a state resulting from
+excessive drinking, and usually associated with alcoholic intoxication,
+or alcohol poisoning. It may represent either an _act_ or a _habit_, the
+latter consisting in frequent repetitions of the former. As an act it
+may be an accident, most usually arising from the incautious use of one
+or other of the commonly employed intoxicating agents; as a habit (as in
+the form of chronic alcoholism) it is one of the most degrading forms of
+vice which can result from the enfeeblement of the moral principle by
+persistent self-indulgence.
+
+What appears to be "intoxication" may arise from many different causes
+(e.g. epilepsy, fractured skull, intracranial haemorrhage, and the
+toxaemic coma of diabetes and uraemia), and the close resemblance
+between the pathological and the toxic phenomena has been the cause of
+many untoward accidents. Cold alone may produce such peculiar effects
+that Captain Parry said in his _Journal_, "I cannot help thinking that
+many a man may have been punished for intoxication who was only
+suffering from the benumbing effects of frost; for I have more than once
+seen our people in a state so exactly resembling that of the most
+stupid intoxication, that I should certainly have charged them with the
+offence had I not been quite sure that no possible means were afforded
+them on Melville Island to procure anything stronger than snow water."
+The same confusion is frequently found in cases which come before the
+police-courts, people being arrested as "drunk and disorderly" who can
+prove that the symptoms were not due to over-indulgence in drink at all.
+Some individuals have, moreover, a special idiosyncrasy or
+susceptibility to alcohol, due to heredity or to one of the sequelae of
+sunstroke or cranial injury. The children of drunkards are usually very
+susceptible to the poison, becoming intoxicated by a far smaller
+quantity than is needed by a normal person.
+
+But, as a rule, the phenomena of drunkenness are actually due to
+excessive consumption of some intoxicating liquid. The physiological
+action of all such agents may be described as a cumulative production of
+paralysis of various parts of the nervous system, but this effect
+results only in doses of a certain amount--a dose which varies with the
+agent, the race and the individual. Even the cup so often said to
+"cheer, but not inebriate," cannot be regarded as altogether free from
+the last-named effect. Tea-sots are well known to be affected with
+palpitation and irregularity of the heart, as well as with more or less
+sleeplessness, mental irritability and muscular tremors, which in some
+culminate in paralysis; while positive intoxication has been known to be
+the result of the excessive use of strong tea. In short, from tea to
+haschisch we have, through hops, alcohol, tobacco and opium, a sort of
+graduated scale of intoxicants, which stimulate in small doses and
+narcotize in larger,--the narcotic dose having no stimulating properties
+whatever, and only appearing to possess them from the fact that the
+agent can only be gradually taken up by the blood, and the system thus
+comes primarily under the influence of a stimulant dose. In certain
+circumstances and with certain agents--as in the production of
+chloroform narcosis--this precursory stage is capable of being much
+abbreviated, if not altogether annihilated; while with other agents--as
+tea--the narcotic stage is by no means always or readily produced.
+
+No subject in modern times has led to more extreme opinions than this of
+indulgence in "intoxicants" to any degree whatever. It is well to
+remember that (in spite of apparently authoritative modern views to the
+contrary) there is not a shadow of proof that the moderate use of any
+one of these agents as a stimulant has any definite tendency to lead to
+its abuse; it is otherwise with their employment as narcotics, which,
+once indulged in, is almost certain to lead to repetition, and to a more
+or less rapid process of degradation, though there are many exceptions
+to this latter statement. It is interesting to know that a former
+English judge, who lived to nearly ninety years of age, believed he had
+prolonged his life and added greatly to his comfort by the moderate use
+of ether, which he was led to employ because neither wine nor tobacco
+agreed with him; while the immoderate use of the same agent has given
+rise to a most deleterious form of drunkenness, both in parts of Ireland
+and in some of the large industrial centres in Great Britain.
+
+Various modern biologists have discussed, with more or less acceptance
+in certain circles, the historical conditions in various races and in
+different countries as to the use and abuse of intoxicants, and have
+drawn varying conclusions from their theories. It has even been
+contended, with much show of learned authority, that since drunkenness
+leads to disease and early death, the proneness to strong drink in the
+long run causes the elimination of the unfit, and results in a general
+sobering of the community, a race being therefore temperate in
+proportion to its past sufferings through alcohol. But on this subject
+it may be said that, at least, no agreement has been reached.
+
+The effects of intoxicants are variously modified by the temperament of
+the individual and the nature of the inebriant. When that is alcohol,
+its action on an average individual is first to fill him with a serene
+and perfect self-complacency. His feelings and faculties are exalted
+into a state of great activity and buoyancy, so that his language
+becomes enthusiastic, and his conversation vivacious if not brilliant.
+The senses gradually become hazy, a soft humming seems to fill the
+pauses of the conversation, and modify the tones of the speaker, a filmy
+haze obscures the vision, the head seems lighter than usual, the
+equilibrium unstable. By-and-by objects appear double, or flit
+confusedly before the eyes; judgment is abolished, secretiveness
+annihilated, and the drunkard pours forth all that is within him with
+unrestrained communicativeness; he becomes boisterous, ridiculous, and
+sinks at length into a mere animal. Every one around him, the very
+houses, trees, even the earth itself, seem drunken and unstable, he
+alone sober, till at last the final stage is reached, and he falls on
+the ground insensible--_dead drunk_ (alcoholic coma)--a state from
+which, after profound slumber, he at last awakes feverish, exhausted,
+sick and giddy, with ringing ears, a throbbing heart and a violent
+headache.
+
+The poison primarily affects the cerebral lobes, and the other parts of
+the cerebro-spinal system are consecutively involved, till in the state
+of _dead-drunkenness_ the only parts not invaded by a benumbing
+paralysis are those automatic centres in the medulla oblongata which
+regulate and maintain the circulation and respiration. But even these
+centres are not unaffected; the paralysis of these as of the other
+sections of the cerebro-spinal system varies in its incompleteness, and
+at times becomes complete, the coma of drunkenness terminating in death.
+More usually the intoxicant is gradually eliminated, and the individual
+restored to consciousness, a consciousness disturbed by the secondary
+results of the agent he has abused, which vary with the nature of that
+agent. Whether, however, directly or indirectly through the nervous
+system, the stomach suffers in every case; thus nutrition is interfered
+with by the defective ingestion of food, as well as by the
+mal-assimilation of that which is ingested; and from this cause, as well
+as by the peculiar local action of the various poisons, the various
+organic degenerations are induced (cirrhosis of the liver, &c.) which in
+most cases shorten the drunkard's days.
+
+The primary discomforts of an act of drunkenness are readily removed for
+the time by a repetition of the cause. Thus what has been an act may
+readily become a habit, all the more readily that each repetition more
+and more enfeebles both the will and the judgment, till they become
+utterly unfit to resist the temptation to indulgence supplied by the
+knowledge of the temporary relief to suffering which is sure to follow,
+and in spite of the consciousness that each repetition of the act only
+forges their chains more tightly. From this condition there is no hope
+of relief but in enforced abstinence; any one in this condition must be
+regarded as temporarily insane (see INSANITY and NEUROPATHOLOGY), and
+ought to be placed in an inebriate asylum till he regain sufficient
+self-control to enable him to overcome his love for drink. Numerous
+"cures" have been started in recent years, which have often succeeded in
+individual cases. An anti-alcoholic serum obtained from alcoholized
+horses has been advocated by Dr Sapelier.
+
+For the law concerning drunkenness the reader is referred to INEBRIETY,
+LAW OF. Its prevalence as a vice has varied considerably according to
+the state of education or comfort in different classes of society. In
+considering the extent to which intemperance has prevailed, the
+statistics of prosecutions upon which such comparisons are usually based
+are far from being completely satisfactory, but, inasmuch as they
+constitute the only possible data for such comparisons, we are compelled
+to accept them. The following table gives the average number of persons
+per 1000 of the population proceeded against for drunkenness in England
+and Wales for quinquennial periods, dating from 1857, the first year of
+the Judicial Statistics:--
+
+  1857-1861             4.28
+  1862-1866             4.78
+  1867-1871             5.47
+  1872-1876             7.83
+  1877-1881             7.25
+  1882-1886             6.90
+  1887-1891             6.19
+  1892-1896             5.84
+  1897-1901             6.42
+  1902-1906             6.51
+
+The figures, it will be seen, show a steady decline from 1872-1876 (when
+the consumption of alcohol was quite abnormal) to 1892-1896. After that
+year, however, the figures again rose. The increase was especially
+marked in 1899, when a tide of exceptional prosperity was again
+accompanied by great drunkenness. It is also disquieting to discover
+that the average number of prosecutions for drunkenness in the three
+years 1897-1899 was 51% higher than the average for 1857-1861, and 35%
+higher than the average for 1862-1866. That the increase was partly due
+to more efficient police administration is probable, but that this is
+not a complete explanation of the figures is made evident by an analysis
+of the general statistics of crime during the same period, from which it
+may be seen that, while crime generally (excluding drunkenness)
+decreased 28% in England and Wales since 1857-1861, drunkenness
+increased 51%. Speaking generally, it may be said that in the United
+Kingdom drunkenness appears chiefly prevalent in the seaport and mining
+districts. If a line be drawn from the mouth of the Severn to the Wash,
+it will be found that the "black" counties, without exception, lie to
+the north-west of this line. The worst counties in England and Wales in
+the matter of drunkenness are Northumberland, Durham and Glamorganshire,
+while Pembrokeshire and Lancashire follow close behind. The most sober
+counties, on the other hand, are Cambridgeshire, Suffolk, Oxfordshire
+and Wiltshire. Averages based upon the returns of entire counties do
+not, however, afford a complete guide to the distribution of
+drunkenness, inasmuch as offences are not equally distributed over the
+whole area of a county. A heavy ratio of drunkenness in a small district
+may often give a county an unfavourable position in the general
+averages, notwithstanding favourable conditions in the rest of its area.
+
+Analysis of the prosecutions for drunkenness shows that about 24% of the
+total number of offences are committed by women. In the larger towns the
+proportion, as a rule, is higher. In London, 38% of the drunkenness is
+attributable to women; in Manchester, 36%; in Belfast and Glasgow, 32%.
+In Liverpool, on the other hand, the proportion is only 24%. The
+much-controverted question as to whether intemperance is increasing
+among women can hardly, however, be decided by an appeal to the criminal
+statistics. So far as these statistics throw any light at all upon the
+question, they suggest important local differences. A more direct clue
+is afforded by the registrar-general's annual returns of deaths directly
+attributed to intemperance. The figures are given below. In order to
+eliminate accidental variations, the comparison is based upon the
+average mortality during consecutive periods:--
+
+  +---------------+----------------------+----------+----------+
+  |     Years.    | Average No. of deaths|   Males  | Females  |
+  |               | (England and Wales). | per cent.| per cent.|
+  +---------------+----------------------+----------+----------+
+  |   1877-1881   |         1071         |    69    |    31    |
+  |   1882-1886   |         1320         |    66    |    34    |
+  |   1887-1891   |         1710         |    64    |    36    |
+  |   1892-1896   |         2044         |    61    |    39    |
+  |   1897-1899   |         2577         |    61    |    39    |
+  |   1899        |         2871         |    60    |    40    |
+  +---------------+----------------------+----------+----------+
+
+For the ten years ending 1904, out of 26,426 deaths from alcoholism,
+59.34% were males and 40.66% females.
+
+The figures are certainly striking. They show, it will be noticed, that
+out of every 100 deaths from alcoholic excess in England and Wales women
+contributed nine more at the end of the century then they did in 1880.
+If, instead of taking the total number of deaths, we take the ratio per
+million persons living, the increase is seen even more clearly:--
+
+  +------------------+----------------+----------------+
+  |     Years.       |   Males per    | Females per    |
+  |                  | million living.| million living.|
+  +------------------+----------------+----------------+
+  |    1877-1881     |        60      |       25       |
+  |    1882-1886     |        67      |       32       |
+  |    1887-1891     |        79      |       42       |
+  |    1892-1896     |        86      |       51       |
+  |    1897-1899     |       103      |       63       |
+  |    1899          |       112      |       70       |
+  +------------------+----------------+----------------+
+
+
+It appears that, while the ratio of mortality from alcoholic excess
+increased 87% among males during the last two decades of the century,
+among females it increased by no less than 180%.
+
+See also LIQUOR LAWS and TEMPERANCE.
+
+
+
+
+DRURY, SIR WILLIAM (1527-1579), English statesman and soldier, was a son
+of Sir Robert Drury of Hedgerley in Buckinghamshire, and grandson of
+another Sir Robert Drury (d. 1536), who was speaker of the House of
+Commons in 1495. He was born at Hawstead in Suffolk on the 2nd of
+October 1527, and was educated at Gonville Hall, Cambridge. Fighting in
+France, Drury was taken prisoner in 1544; then after his release he
+helped Lord Russell, afterwards earl of Bedford, to quell a rising in
+Devonshire in 1549, but he did not come to the front until the reign of
+Elizabeth. In 1559 he was sent to Edinburgh to report on the condition
+of Scottish politics, and five years later he became marshal and
+deputy-governor of Berwick. Again in Scotland in January 1570, it is
+interesting to note that the regent James Stewart, earl of Murray, was
+proceeding to keep an appointment with Drury in Linlithgow when he was
+mortally wounded, and it was probably intended to murder the English
+envoy also. After this event Drury led two raids into Scotland; at least
+thrice he went to that country on more peaceable errands, during which,
+however, his life was continually in danger from assassins; and he
+commanded the force which compelled Edinburgh Castle to surrender in May
+1573. In 1576 he was sent to Ireland as president of Munster, where his
+stern rule was very successful, and in 1578 he became lord justice to
+the Irish council, taking the chief control of affairs after the
+departure of Sir Henry Sidney. The rising of the earl of Desmond had
+just broken out when Sir William died in October 1579.
+
+  Drury's letters to Lord Burghley and others are invaluable for the
+  story of the relations between England and Scotland at this time.
+
+
+
+
+DRUSES, or DRUZES (Arab. _Druz_), a people of mid-Syria (for the
+derivation of the name see HISTORY section below), distributed nowadays
+into three isolated groups, of which the most numerous inhabits Jebel
+Hauran (Jebel Druz), E. of Jordan (about 55,000); the second, the
+_cazas_ of Shuf and Metn in Lebanon (about 50,000); the third, the
+_cazas_ of Hasbeya, Rasheya, W. al Ajem, Homs, Hamadiyeh and Selimiyeh
+in Anti-Lebanon and Hermon (about 45,000). The first group, which has
+been greatly increased by migrants from the second, since the
+establishment of the privileged Lebanon province (1861) under Christian
+auspices, lives apart from other peoples in semi-independence. The
+second is now confined to the southern Lebanon, and even there is
+greatly outnumbered by Maronites, who, in the whole "Mountain," stand to
+Druses as 9 to 2. The third is counterbalanced everywhere by a large
+population of Moslem and Orthodox Syrians. The Hauran, therefore, has
+become the stronghold of the Druses, offering nowadays the best field
+for studying their peculiar customs and religion; and the group there
+still increases at the expense of the other groups, despite efforts on
+the part of the Ottoman government to check Druse migration by both
+conciliatory and repressive measures. The actual distinction of the
+Druses, as a racial unity, despite their dispersion, depends so
+exclusively on the peculiarity of their common religion, that it will be
+well at once to give an account of Druse creed and practice as they are
+understood to stand at the present day. How this religion may have grown
+up and come to be theirs will be considered later.
+
+_Religion._--Druse religion is a secret faith, and the following account
+is given with all reserves. There are many indications that a more
+primitive cult, containing elements of Nature worship, preceded it, and
+still survives in the popular practices of the more remote Druse
+districts, e.g. in the eastern Hauran. The _Muwahhidin_ (Unitarians), as
+the Druses call themselves, believe that there is one and only one God,
+indefinable, incomprehensible, ineffable, passionless. He has made
+himself known to men by successive incarnations, of which the last was
+Hakim, the sixth Fatimite caliph. How many these incarnations have been
+is stated variously; but seventy, one for each period of the world,
+seems the best-attested number. Jesus appears to be accepted as one
+such incarnation, but not Mahomet, although it is agreed that, in his
+time, the "Universal Intelligence" (see later) was made flesh, in the
+person of Mikdad al-Aswad. No further incarnation can now take place: in
+Hakim a final appeal was made to mankind, and after the door of mercy
+had stood open to all for twenty-six years, it was finally and for ever
+closed. When the tribulation of the faithful has reached its height,
+Hakim will reappear to conquer the world and render his religion
+supreme. Druses, believed to be dispersed in China, will return to
+Syria. The combined body of the Faithful will take Mecca, and finally
+Jerusalem, and all the world will accept the Faith. The first of the
+creatures of God is the Universal Intelligence or Spirit, impersonated
+in Hamza, Hakim's vizier. This Spirit was the creator of all subordinate
+beings, and alone has immediate communion with the Deity. Next in rank,
+and equally supporting the throne of the Almighty, are four Ministering
+Spirits, the Soul, the Word, the Right Wing and the Left Wing, who, in
+Hakim's time, were embodied respectively in Ismael Darazi, Mahommed ibn
+Wahab, Selama ibn Abd al-Wahal and Baha ud-Din; and beneath these again
+are spiritual agents of various ranks. The material world is an
+emanation from, and a "mirror" of, the Divine Intelligence. The number
+of human beings admits neither of increase nor of decrease, and a
+regular process of metempsychosis goes on continually. The souls of the
+virtuous pass after death into ever new incarnations of greater
+perfection, till at last they reach a point at which they can be
+re-absorbed into the Deity itself; those of the wicked may be degraded
+to the level of camels or dogs. All previous religions are mere types of
+the true, and their sacred books and observances are to be interpreted
+allegorically. The Gospel and the Koran are both regarded as inspired
+books, but not as religious guides. The latter function is performed
+solely by the Druse Scriptures. As the admission of converts is no
+longer permitted, the faithful are enjoined to keep their doctrine
+secret from the profane; and in order that their allegiance may not
+bring them into danger, they are allowed (like Persian mystics) to make
+outward profession of whatever religion is dominant around them. To this
+latter indulgence is to be attributed the apparent indifferentism which
+leads to their joining Moslems in prayers and ablutions, or sprinkling
+themselves with holy water in Maronite churches. Obedience is required
+to the seven commandments of Hamza, the first and greatest of which
+enjoins truth in words (but only those of Druse speaking with Druse);
+the second, watchfulness over the safety of the brethren; the third,
+absolute renunciation of every other religion; the fourth, complete
+separation from all who are in error; the fifth, recognition of the
+unity of "Our Lord" in all ages; the sixth, complete resignation to his
+will; and the seventh, complete obedience to his orders. Prayer,
+however, is regarded as an impertinent interference with the Creator;
+while, at the same time, instead of the fatalistic predestination of
+Mahommedanism, the freedom of the human will is distinctly maintained.
+Not only is the charge of secrecy rigidly obeyed in regard to the alien
+world, but full initiation into the deeper mysteries of the creed is
+permitted only to a special class designated _Akils_, (Arabic _'Akl_,
+intelligence), in contradistinction from whom all other members of the
+Druse community, whatever may be their position or attainments, are
+called _Jahel_, the Ignorant. About 15% of the adult population belong
+to the order of Akils. Admission is granted to any Druse of either sex
+who expresses willingness to conform to the laws of the society, and
+during a year of probation gives sufficient proof of sincerity and
+stability of purpose. There appears to be no formal distinction of rank
+among the various members; and though the amir, Beshir Shehab, used to
+appoint a sheikh of the Akils, the person thus distinguished obtained no
+primacy over his fellows. Exceptional influence depends upon exceptional
+sanctity or ability. All are required to abstain from tobacco and wine;
+the women used not to be allowed to wear gold or silver, or silk or
+brocade, but this rule is commonly broken now; and although neither
+celibacy nor retirement from the affairs of the world is either
+imperative or customary, unusual respect is shown to those who
+voluntarily submit themselves to ascetic discipline. While the Akils
+mingle frankly with the common people, and are remarkably free from
+clerical pretension, they are none the less careful to maintain their
+privileges. They are distinguished by the wearing of a white turban,
+emblematic of the purity of their life. Their food must be purchased
+with money lawfully acquired; and lest they should unwittingly partake
+of any that is ceremonially unclean, they require those Jahels, whose
+hospitality they share, to supply their wants from a store set apart for
+their exclusive use. The ideal Akil is grave, calm and dignified, with
+an infinite capacity of keeping a secret, and a devotion that knows no
+limits to the interests of his creed. On Thursday evening, the
+commencement of the weekly day of rest, the members of the order meet
+together in the various districts, probably for the reading of their
+sacred books and consultation on matters of ecclesiastical or political
+importance. Their meeting-houses, _khalwas_, are plain, unornamented
+edifices. These have property attached to them, the revenues of which
+are consecrated to the relief of the poor and the demands of
+hospitality. In the eastern Hauran, there are hill-top shrines
+containing each a black stone, on which rugs, &c., are hung, and these
+seem to perpetuate features of pre-Islamic Arabian cult, including the
+sacrifice of animals, e.g. goats. They are held in reverence by the
+Bedouins. The women assemble in the _khalwas_ at the same time as the
+men, a part of the space being fenced off for them by a semi-transparent
+black veil. Even while the Akils are assembled, strangers are readily
+enough admitted to the _khalwas_; but as long as these are present the
+ordinary ceremonies are neglected, and the Koran takes the place of the
+Druse Scriptures. It has been frequently asserted that the image of a
+calf is kept in a niche, and traces of phallic and gynaecocratic worship
+have been vaguely suspected; but there is no authentic information in
+support of either statement. The calf, if calf there be, is probably a
+symbol of the execrable heresy of Darazi, who is frequently styled the
+calf by his Orthodox opponents. Ignorance is the mother of suspicion as
+well as of superstition; and accordingly the Christian inhabitants of
+the Lebanon have long been persuaded that the Druses in their secret
+assemblies are guilty of the most nefarious practices. For this
+allegation, so frequently repeated by European writers, there seems to
+be little evidence; and it is certain that the sacred books of the
+religion contain moral teaching of a high order on the whole.
+
+As a formulated creed, the Druse system is not a thousand years old. In
+the year A.D. 996 (386 A.H.) Hakim Biamrillahi (i.e. he who judges by
+the command of God), sixth of the Fatimite caliphs (third in Egypt),
+began to reign; and during the next twenty-five years he indulged in a
+tyranny at once so terrible and so fantastic that little doubt can be
+entertained of his insanity. He believed that he held direct intercourse
+with the deity, or even that he was an incarnation of the divine
+intelligence; and in A.D. 1016 (407 A.H.) his claims were made known in
+the mosque at Cairo, and supported by the testimony of Ismael Darazi.
+The people showed such bitter hostility to the new gospel that Darazi
+was compelled to seek safety in flight; but even in absence he was
+faithful to his god, and succeeded in winning over certain ignorant
+inhabitants of Lebanon. According to the Druses, this great conversion
+took place in A.D. 1019 (410 A.H.). Meanwhile the endeavours of the
+caliph to get his divinity acknowledged by the people of Cairo
+continued. The advocacy of Hasan ibn Haidara Fergani was without avail;
+but in 1017 (408 A.H.) the new religion found a more successful apostle
+in the person of Hamza ibn Ali ibn Ahmed, a Persian mystic, felt-maker
+by trade, who became Hakim's vizier, gave form and substance to his
+creed, and by an ingenious adaptation of its various dogmas to the
+prejudices of existing sects, finally enlisted an extensive body of
+adherents. In 1020 (411 A.H.) the caliph was assassinated by contrivance
+of his sister Sitt ul-Mulk; but it was given out by Hamza that he had
+only withdrawn for a season, and his followers were encouraged to look
+forward with confidence to his triumphant return. Darazi, who had acted
+independently in his apostolate, was branded by Hamza as a heretic, and
+thus, by a curious anomaly, he is actually held in detestation by the
+very sect which perhaps bears his name. The propagation of the faith in
+accordance with Hamza's initiation was undertaken by Ismael ibn Mahommed
+Tamimi, Mahommed ibn Wahab, Abul-Khair Selama ibn Abd al-Wahal ibn
+Samurri, and Moktana Baha ud-Din, the last of whom became known by his
+writings from Constantinople to the borders of India. In two letters
+addressed to the emperors Constantine VIII. and Michael the Paphlagonian
+he endeavoured to prove that the Christian Messiah reappeared in the
+person of Hamza.
+
+It is possible, even probable, that the segregation of the Druses as a
+people dates only from the adoption of Hamza's creed. But when it is
+recalled that other inhabitants of the same mountain system, e.g. the
+Maronites, the Ansarieh, the Metawali and the "Isma'ilites," also
+profess creeds which, like the Druse system, differ from Sunni Islam in
+the important feature of admitting incarnations of the Deity, it is
+impossible not to suspect that Hamza's emissaries only gave definition
+and form to beliefs long established in this part of the world. Many of
+the fundamental ideas of Druse theology belong to a common West Asiatic
+stock; but the peculiar history of the Mountain is no doubt responsible
+for beliefs, held elsewhere by different peoples, being combined there
+in a single creed. Some allowance, too, must be made for the probability
+that Hamza's system owed something to doctrines Christian and other,
+with which the metropolitan position of Cairo brought Fatimite society
+into contact.
+
+_History_--There is good reason to regard the Druses as, racially, a
+mixture of refugee stocks, in which the Arab largely predominates,
+grafted on to an original mountain population of Aramaic blood and
+Incarnationist tendencies. The latter is represented more purely by the
+Maronites (q.v.). The native tradition regards an immigration of Hira
+Arabs into S. Lebanon, under Khalid ibn Walid in the 9th century, as the
+beginning of Druse distinctiveness and power; but it also accepts
+Turkoman and Kurdish elements in the original Druse state. About the
+same time, or a little later (in the reign of Saladin), it believes that
+Hermon was colonized by a population of 15,000 Hira and Yemenite Arabs,
+who had sojourned awhile in Hauran. The name Druse is met with first in
+Benjamin of Tudela (c. A.D. 1170), and its origin has been much
+disputed. Some authorities see in it a descriptive epithet, derived from
+Arabic _darasa_ (those who _read_ the Book), or _darisa_ (those in
+_possession_ of Truth) or _durs_ (the _clever_ or _initiated_); but more
+connect it with the name of the first missionary, Ismael _Darazi_.
+
+As soon as we begin to know anything of the Druses they were living in a
+feudal state of society, as village communities under _sheikhs_,
+themselves generally subordinate to one or more amirs. In the time of
+the first crusades the main power was in the hands of the Arslan family,
+which, however, suffered so severely in wars with the Franks, that it
+was superseded by the Tnuhs, who, holding Beirut and nearly all the
+Phoenician coast, came into conflict with the sultans of Egypt. One of
+these latter, Malik Ashraf, about A.D. 1300, forced outward compliance
+with Sunni Islam on the Mountain, after defeating the Druses at Ain
+Sofar. Meanwhile, however, the _Maan_ family, lately immigrant from N.
+Arabia, was growing in power, and throwing in its lot with the Osmanli
+invaders in the reign of Selim I., it was promoted to the supreme
+amirate about 1517. Fakr ud-Din Maan II. increased Druse dominion until
+it included all the N. Syrian region from the edge of the Antioch plain
+to Acre, with part of the eastern desert, dominated by his castle at
+Tadmor (Palmyra), and the important towns of Latakia, Tripoli, Beirut
+and Saida; and forming further ambitious designs, he intrigued with
+Christians and broke with the Turks. In 1614 the pasha of Damascus moved
+against him with a large force, and compelled him to fly from Syria. He
+sought the courts of Tuscany and Naples and tried to enlist Frank
+sympathies, inventing (probably) the curious myth, so often credited
+since, that the Druses are of crusading origin and owe their name to the
+counts of Dreux.[1] He landed again at Saida in 1619 and recovered his
+old position. But in 1633 Kuchuk Ahmed Pasha was sent against him with a
+large army, and succeeded in capturing him with his sons. The family was
+sent to Constantinople, and two years later strangled. The dynasty
+struggled on till the end of the century, amid civil war, in which the
+parties seem to have been divided by the earlier Arab factions of
+Kaisites (Qaisites) and Yemenites, the Maan belonging to the latter.
+
+The Shehab family, originally Hira Arabs, which had governed Hauran
+under the early caliphs of Damascus, and thereafter held power in
+Hermon, intermarried with the Maan; and in the latter's day of weakness
+sided with the Kaisi faction and obtained the supreme amirate of the
+Mountain. But it appears never to have professed the Druse creed,
+remaining Sunnite. Haidar Shehab, third of the line, inflicted a notable
+defeat on the pasha of Saida (capital of an Ottoman eyalet since 1688)
+and the Yemenite Druses at Ain Dara, near Zahleh, in 1711, and proceeded
+to consolidate Shehab power, breaking up the old feudal society and
+substituting for the sheikhs _mukatajis_ (tax-contractors), who had
+penal jurisdiction. The Yemenite Druses thereupon emigrated in large
+numbers to the Hauran, and laid the foundation of Druse power there. The
+Turks recognized the _status quo_, and made terms with the Shehab amir
+in 1748; but his power was none too well secured against the opposition
+of the Kurdish _Jumblat_ family, even though he was supported by the
+_Talhuk_, _Abd al-Malik_ and _Yezbeki_ families; and it appears that
+some members of the Shehab joined the Maronite faith in the middle of
+the 18th century, causing a suspicion of secret apostasy to fall on all
+the family.
+
+It is said that the amir Beshir, who succeeded about 1786, was himself a
+crypto-Christian. This remarkable man, who ruled the Mountain for
+fifty-four years, maintained his power by taking the side of one rebel
+pasha after another, betraying each in turn, and cultivating relations
+with European admirals. His earliest ally was Ahmed "Jezzar," who
+established himself in Acre in contumacious independence late in the
+18th century. Beshir supported Jezzar against Napoleon in 1799 and
+earned the friendship of Sir Sidney Smith. Falling out with Jezzar,
+Beshir fled to Cairo in 1805, attached himself to Mehemet Ali, and
+returned to take up the reins. Once more chased out by the Turks, he was
+again in the Mountain in 1823, allied with Abdallah, on whom Jezzar's
+mantle had ultimately fallen at Acre, and maintaining friendly relations
+with the "English Princess," Lady Hester Stanhope. He now finally
+worsted the Jumblat. The invasion of Syria by Mehemet Ali in 1831 caused
+Beshir to desert Abdallah and throw in his lot with Ibrahim Pasha; but
+he was not cordially followed by the Druses in general, and had good
+excuse for revolt in 1839, and intrigue with the British admiral in
+1840. Ibrahim, however, by his possession of Druse hostages, restrained
+the amir, and after the bombardment of Acre, the Turks called him to
+account for his record of rebellion and treachery. He fled to Malta on a
+British ship, but was induced to go to Constantinople, where he died in
+1851.
+
+His successor, Beshir al-Kassim, openly joined the Maronites, and
+instigating these against the malcontents of his own people, brought
+enmities, which had been growing for a century, to a head, and initiated
+a devastating internecine warfare which was to continue for twenty
+years. The state of the Lebanon went from bad to worse, and at last, in
+January 1842, the Turkish government appointed Omar Pasha as
+administrator of the Druses and Maronites, with a council of four chiefs
+from each party; but the pasha, attempting to effect a disarming, was
+besieged in November in the castle of Beit ed-Din by the Druses under
+Shibli el-Arrian. At the instigation of the European powers he was
+recalled in December, and the Druses and Maronites were placed under
+separate _kaimakams_ (governors), who, it was stipulated, were not to be
+of the family of Shehab. Disturbances again broke out in 1845, the
+native _mukatajis_ refusing to obey the _kaimakams_. The Maronites flew
+to arms, but with the assistance of the Turks their opponents carried
+the day. A superficial pacification effected by Shekib Effendi, the
+Ottoman commissioner, lasted only till his departure; and the Porte was
+obliged to despatch a force of 12,000 men to the Lebanon. Forty of the
+chiefs were seized, the people was nominally disarmed, and in 1846 a new
+constitution was inaugurated, by which the _kaimakam_ was to be assisted
+by two Druses, two Maronites, four Greeks, two Turks and one Metawali.
+All, however, was in vain: the conflict was continued through 1858, 1859
+and 1860; and the disturbance culminated in the famous Damascus massacre
+(see SYRIA). The European powers now determined to interfere; and, by a
+protocol of the 3rd of May 1860, it was decided that the Lebanon should
+be occupied by a force of 20,000 men, of whom half were to be French. A
+body of troops was accordingly landed on the 16th of August under
+General Beaufort d'Hautpoul; and Fuad Pasha, who had been appointed
+Turkish commissioner with full powers, proceeded to bring the leaders of
+the massacres to justice. The French occupation continued till the 5th
+of June 1861, and the French and English squadrons cruised on the coast
+for several months after. In accordance with the recommendation of the
+European powers the Porte determined to appoint a Christian governor not
+belonging to the district, and independent of the pasha of Beirut, to
+hold office for three years. The choice fell on Daud Pasha, an Armenian
+Catholic, who was installed on the 4th of July. In spite of many
+difficulties, and especially the ambitious conduct of the Maronite
+Jussuf Karam, he succeeded in restoring order; and by the formation of a
+military force from the inhabitants of the Lebanon he rendered
+unnecessary the presence of the Turkish soldiery.
+
+The privileged province of Lebanon (q.v.) was finally constituted by the
+Organic Statute of the 6th of September 1864, and the subsequent history
+of the Lebanon Druses is one of gradual withdrawal from the jurisdiction
+of that state, in which they see their ancient independence
+irretrievably compromised, and their religion subordinated to Christian
+supremacy. Many now emigrate, when occasion offers, to America.
+
+Meanwhile, the Hauran, the old seat of the Shehab family and Hermon
+Druses, had been steadily receiving a Druse influx, since the day of Ain
+Dara (see above). Towards the close of the 18th century some 600
+families left Lebanon for the Hauran, in discontent with the rule of the
+Shehab dynasty, and their place and property were taken by 1500 families
+driven out of Jebel Ansarieh by Topal Ali in 1811. The Hauran Druses
+increased by the middle of the 19th century to 7000 souls. They had
+successfully resisted Ibrahim, the Egyptian, in 1839 in the Lija, and
+asserted complete independence of the Turks, living under a theocratic
+government directed by the chief Akil in Suweda. A great effort, made by
+Kibrisli Pasha in 1852 to subdue the Hauran, came to nothing. In 1879
+the population numbered 20,000, and by a murderous raid attracted the
+attention of Midhat Pasha, then vali of the province of Syria. After
+experiencing one disaster he defeated their forces and imposed a
+_kaimakam_, at first drawn from the Talhuks, but subsequently chosen
+from the Atrash family of Kunawat. But the Druses still refused to pay
+taxes, to serve in the Ottoman army, or to recognize the _kaimakam_, and
+maintained their contumacy under the lead of the Jumblat, till 1896;
+when, as the result of a military expedition under Tahir Pasha and a
+great defeat at Ijun, a compromise was arrived at, under which the
+Druses agreed to pay taxes, but to serve in their own territory only as
+a frontier guard. The government was put into the hands of a mutessarif
+resident at Sheikh Saad, under whom are _kaimakams_ at Suweda and
+Salkhad. Since that epoch there has been comparative peace between the
+Druses and the government, largely because the latter, having learned
+wisdom, leaves the people very much to itself, maintaining only a small
+garrison of regular troops, and enlisting Druse police for service in
+Jebel Druz itself. The Druses are allowed to carry on their feuds with
+the Bedouins of the E. Desert as they will, so long as they do not
+disturb western districts. With the recent opening out of the W. Hauran
+by railway, the Druse sheikhs are beginning to acquire commercial
+ambitions, and to desire peace.
+
+The Hauran Druses are a vigorous, independent folk, with a well-deserved
+reputation for courage, very astute, and hospitable to Europeans,
+especially the British, with whom they have an old tradition of
+friendship. But, like most persecuted but semi-independent peoples, they
+are both cruel, and, by our standards, treacherous. They are a handsome
+race, the women being often beautiful. The latter no longer carry the
+head-horn which used to support the veil dropped over the face out of
+doors. But their dress is still black with the exception of red
+slippers, and the veil is never abandoned, not even, it is said, during
+sleep. An English lady, who has been much among them, states that the
+Druse women of the Hauran never unveiled before her. The men wear a
+_tarbush_ with white roll, a black under-robe with white girdle, a short
+loose jacket, and when necessary an _aba_ or parti-coloured cloak over
+all. They go habitually armed with scimitar and half-moon axe, besides
+gun or rifle.
+
+Polygamy is forbidden. Marriage retains certain traces of the original
+system of capture; but Druse women enjoy much consideration, and are
+comparatively well educated, dignified and free in their bearing in
+spite of their close veiling. As has been stated above, they join the
+men in religious functions. Divorce is easy and can be initiated by the
+woman; but remarriage of the pair can only be effected by the good
+offices of a proxy (as in Moslem societies, after a third divorce).
+Burial takes place in family mausoleums, walled up after each interment;
+but Akils are buried in their own houses. The body is laid on its side,
+with its face to the south (Mecca).
+
+Education is widely spread, and there is a considerable religious
+literature, much of which is known in Europe. A copy of the _Book of the
+Testimonies to the Mysteries of the Unity_, consisting of seventy
+treatises in four folio volumes, was found in the house of the chief
+Akil at Bakhlin, and presented in 1700 to Louis XIV. by Nusralla ibn
+Gilda, a Syrian doctor. Other manuscripts are to be found at Rome in the
+Vatican, at Oxford in the Bodleian, at Vienna, at Leiden, at Upsala and
+at Munich; and Dr J. L. Porter got possession of seven standard works of
+Druse theology while at Damascus. The Munich collection was presented to
+the king of Bavaria by Clot Bey, the chief physician in the Egyptian
+army during its occupation of Syria; and for a number of the other
+manuscripts we are indebted to the elder Niebuhr. A history of the Druse
+nation by the amir Haidar Shehab is quoted by Urquhart.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Adler, "Druze Catechism," in _Museum Cuficum Borgianum_
+  (1782); Silvestre de Sacy, _Expose de la religion des Druses_ (1838);
+  Ph. Wolff, _Reise in das gelobte Land_, and _Die Drusen und ihre
+  Vorlaufer_ (1842); C. H. Churchill, _Ten Years' Residence in Mount
+  Lebanon_ (3 vols., 1853); G. W. Chasseaud, _The Druzes of the Lebanon_
+  (1855); E. G. Ray, _Voyage dans le Haouran, execute pendant les annees
+  1857 et 1858_; C. H. Churchill, _The Druzes and Maronites under the
+  Turkish Rule from 1840 to 1860_ (London, 1862); H. Guys, _Le Theogonie
+  des Druses_ (1863), and _La Nation Druse_ (1864); M. von Oppenheim,
+  _Vom Mittelmeer_, &c. (1899); Gertrude L. Bell, _The Desert and the
+  Sown_ (1907).     (D. G. H.; G. BE.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Sophisticated Druses still sometimes claim connexion with
+    Rosicrucians, and a special relation to Scottish freemasons.
+
+
+
+
+DRUSIUS (or VAN DEN DRIESCHE), JOHANNES (1550-1616), Protestant divine,
+distinguished specially as an Orientalist and exegete, was born at
+Oudenarde, in Flanders, on the 28th of June 1550. Being designed for the
+church, he studied Greek and Latin at Ghent, and philosophy at Louvain;
+but his father having been outlawed for his religion, and deprived of
+his estate, retired to England, where the son followed him in 1567. He
+found an admirable teacher of Hebrew in Chevalier, the celebrated
+Orientalist, with whom he resided for some time at Cambridge. In 1572 he
+became professor of Oriental languages at Oxford. Upon the pacification
+of Ghent (1576) he returned with his father to their own country, and
+was appointed professor of Oriental languages at Leiden in the following
+year. In 1585 he removed to Friesland, and was admitted professor of
+Hebrew in the university of Franeker, an office which he discharged with
+great honour till his death, which happened in February 1616. He
+acquired so extended a reputation as a professor that his class was
+frequented by students from all the Protestant countries in Europe. His
+works prove him to have been well skilled in Hebrew and in Jewish
+antiquities; and in 1600 the states-general employed him, at a salary of
+400 florins a year, to write notes on the most difficult passages in the
+Old Testament; but this work was not published until after his death. As
+the friend of Arminius, he was charged by the orthodox and dominant
+party with unfairness in the execution of the task, and the last sixteen
+years of his life were therefore somewhat embittered by controversy. He
+carried on an extensive correspondence with the learned in different
+countries; for, besides letters in Hebrew, Greek and other languages,
+there were found amongst his papers upwards of 2000 written in Latin. He
+had a son, John, who died in England at the age of twenty-one, and was
+accounted a prodigy of learning. He had mastered Hebrew at the age of
+nine, and Scaliger said that he was a better Hebrew scholar than his
+father. He wrote a large number of letters in Hebrew, besides notes on
+the Proverbs of Solomon and other works.
+
+  Paquot states the number of the printed works and treatises of the
+  elder Drusius at forty-eight, and of the unprinted at upwards of
+  twenty. Of the former more than two-thirds were inserted in the
+  collection entitled _Critici sacri, sive annolata doctissimorum
+  virorum in Vetus et Novum Testamentum_ (Amsterdam, 1698, in 9 vols.
+  folio, or London, 1660, in 10 vols. folio). Amongst the works of
+  Drusius not to be found in this collection may be mentioned--(1)
+  _Alphabetum Hebraicum vetus_ (1584, 4to); (2) _Tabulae in grammaticam
+  Chaldaicam ad usum juventutis_ (1602, 8vo); (3) An edition of
+  Sulpicius Severus (Franeker, 1807, 12mo); (4) _Opuscula quae ad
+  grammaticam spectant omnia_ (1609, 4to); (5) _Lacrymae in obitum J.
+  Scaligeri_ (1609, 4to); and (6) _Grammatica linguae sanctae nova_
+  (1612, 4to).
+
+
+
+
+DRUSUS, MARCUS LIVIUS, Roman statesman, was colleague of Gaius Gracchus
+in the tribuneship, 122 B.C. The proposal of Gracchus (q.v.) to confer
+the full franchise on the Latins had been opposed not only by the
+senate, but also by the mob, who imagined that their own privileges
+would thereby be diminished. Drusus threatened to veto the proposal.
+Encouraged by this, the senatorial party put up Drusus to outbid
+Gracchus. Gracchus had proposed to found colonies outside Italy; Drusus
+provided twelve in Italy, to each of which 3000 citizens were to be
+sent. Gracchus had proposed to distribute allotments to the poorer
+citizens subject to a state rent-charge; Drusus promised them free of
+all charge, and further that they should be inalienable. In addition to
+the franchise, immunity from corporal punishment (even in the field) was
+promised the Latins. The absence of Gracchus, and the inefficiency of
+his representative at Rome, led to the acceptance of these proposals,
+which were never intended to be carried. Drusus himself declined all
+responsibility in connexion with carrying them out. He was rewarded for
+his services by the consulship (112), and the title of _patronus
+senatus_. He received Macedonia for his province, where he distinguished
+himself in a campaign against the Scordisci, whom he drove across the
+Danube, being the first Roman general who reached that river. It is
+possible that he is the Drusus mentioned by Plutarch as having died in
+109, the year of his censorship.
+
+  Appian, _Bell. Civ._ i. 23; Plutarch, _Gaius Gracchus_, 8-11; Florus
+  iii. 4; A. H. J. Greenidge, _Hist. of Rome_, vol. i. (1904).
+
+His son, MARCUS LIVIUS DRUSUS, became tribune of the people in 91 B.C.
+He was a thoroughgoing conservative, wealthy and generous, and a man of
+high integrity. With some of the more intelligent members of his party
+(such as Marcus Scaurus and L. Licinius Crassus the orator) he
+recognized the need of reform. At that time an agitation was going on
+for the transfer of the judicial functions from the equites to the
+senate; Drusus proposed as a compromise a measure which restored to the
+senate the office of judices, while its numbers were doubled by the
+admission of 300 equites. Further, a special commission was to be
+appointed to try and sentence all judices guilty of taking bribes. But
+the senate was lukewarm, and the equites, whose occupation was
+threatened, offered the most violent opposition. In order, therefore, to
+catch the popular votes, Drusus proposed the establishment of colonies
+in Italy and Sicily, and an increased distribution of corn at a reduced
+rate. By help of these riders the bill was carried. Drusus now sought a
+closer alliance with the Italians, promising them the long-coveted boon
+of the Roman franchise. The senate broke out into open opposition. His
+laws were abrogated as informal, and each party armed its adherents for
+the civil struggle which was now inevitable. Drusus was stabbed one
+evening as he was returning home. His assassin was never discovered.
+
+  See Rome: _History_, ii. "The Republic" (Period C); also Appian,
+  _Bell. Civ._ i. 35; Florus iii. 17; Diod. Sic. xxxvii. 10; Livy,
+  _Epit._ 70; Vell. Pat. ii. 13.
+
+
+
+
+DRUSUS, NERO[1] CLAUDIUS (38-9 B.C.) Roman general, son of Tiberius
+Claudius Nero and Livia Drusilla, stepson of Augustus and younger
+brother of the emperor Tiberius. Having held the office of quaestor and
+acted as praetor for his brother during the latter's absence in Gaul, he
+began (in 15 B.C.) the military career which has made his name famous.
+In conjunction with Tiberius, he carried on a successful campaign
+against the Raeti and Vindelici, who, although repulsed from Italy,
+continued to threaten the frontiers of Gaul. The credit of the decisive
+victory, however, must be assigned to Tiberius. Two of the _Odes_ of
+Horace (iv. 4 and 14) were written to glorify the exploits of the
+brothers. In 13 Drusus was sent as governor to the newly organized
+province of the three Gauls, where considerable discontent had been
+aroused by the exactions of the Roman governor Licinius. Drusus made a
+fresh assessment for taxation purposes, and summoned the Gallic
+representatives to a meeting at Lugdunum to discuss their grievances. It
+was of great importance to pacify the Gauls, in order to have his hands
+free to deal with the German tribes, one of which, the Sugambri, on the
+right bank of the Rhine, had seized the opportunity, during the absence
+of Augustus, to cross the river (12). Drusus drove them back and pursued
+them through the island of the Batavi and the land of the Usipetes
+(Usipes, Usipii) to their own territory, which he devastated. Sailing
+down the Rhine, he subdued the Frisii and, in order to facilitate
+operations against the Chauci, dug a canal (Fossa Drusiana) leading from
+the Rhenus (Rhine) to the Isala (Yssel)[2] into the lacus Flevus
+(Zuidersee) and the German Ocean. Making his way along the Frisian
+coast, he conquered the island of Burchanis (_Borkum_), defeated the
+Bructeri in a naval engagement on the Amisia (_Ems_), and went on to the
+mouth of the Visurgis (_Weser_) to attack the Chauci. On the way back
+his vessels grounded on the shallows, and were only got off with the
+assistance of the Frisii. Winter being close at hand, the campaign was
+abandoned till the following spring, and Drusus returned to Rome with
+the honour of having been the first Roman general to reach the German
+Ocean.
+
+In his second campaign (11), Drusus defeated the Usipetes, threw a
+bridge over the Luppia (_Lippe_), attacked the Sugambri, and advanced
+through their territory and that of the Tencteri and Chatti as far as
+the Weser, where he gained a victory over the Cherusci. Lack of
+provisions, the approach of winter, and an inauspicious portent
+prevented him from crossing the Weser. While making his way back to the
+Rhine he fell into an ambuscade, but the carelessness of the enemy
+enabled him to inflict a crushing defeat upon them. In view of future
+operations, he built two castles, one at the junction of the Luppia and
+Aliso (_Alme_), the other in the territory of the Chatti on the Taunus,
+near Moguntiacum (_Mainz_).
+
+The third campaign (10) was of little importance. The Chatti had joined
+the Sugambri in revolt; and, after some insignificant successes, Drusus
+returned with Augustus and Tiberius to Rome, and was elected consul for
+the following year. In spite of unfavourable portents at Rome, he
+determined to enter upon his fourth and last campaign (9) without delay.
+He attacked and defeated the Chatti, Suebi, Marcomanni and Cherusci,
+crossed the Weser and penetrated as far as the Albis (_Elbe_). Here
+trophies were set up to mark the farthest point ever reached by a Roman
+army. Various measures were taken to secure the possession of the
+conquered territory: fortresses were erected along the Elbe, Weser and
+Maas (_Meuse_, _Mosa_); a flotilla was placed upon the Rhine and a dam
+built upon the right arm of its estuary to increase the flow of water
+into the canal mentioned above. Drusus was said to have been deterred
+from crossing the Elbe by the sudden appearance of a woman of
+supernatural size, who predicted his approaching end. On his return,
+probably between the Elbe and the Saale (_Sala_), his horse stumbled and
+threw him. His leg was fractured and he died thirty days after the
+accident, on the 14th of September. Suetonius mentions an absurd rumour
+that he had been poisoned by order of Augustus, because he had refused
+to obey the order for his recall. The body was carried to the winter
+quarters of the army, whence it was escorted by Tiberius to Rome, the
+procession being joined by Augustus at Ticinum (Pavia). Tiberius
+delivered an oration over the remains in the Forum, whence they were
+conveyed to the Campus Martius and cremated, and ashes being deposited
+in the mausoleum of Augustus.
+
+Drusus was one of the most distinguished men of his time. His agreeable
+manners, handsome person and brilliant military talents gained him the
+affection of the troops, while his sympathy with republican principles,
+endeared him to the people. It is not too much to say that, had he and
+his son lived long enough, they might have brought about the abolition
+of the monarchy. Although the successes of Drusus, resulting in the
+subjection of the German tribes from the Rhine to the Elbe, were too
+rapid to be lasting, they brought home the fact of the existence of the
+Romans to many who had never heard their name. For his victories he
+received the title of Germanicus. He married Antonia, the daughter of
+Marcus Antonius the triumvir, by whom he had three children: Germanicus,
+adopted by Tiberius; Claudius, afterwards emperor; and a daughter
+Livilla.
+
+  The chief ancient authorities for the life of Drusus are Dio Cassius,
+  the epitomes of Livy, Suetonius (_Claudius_), Tacitus (portions of the
+  _Annals_), Florus (whose chief source is Livy), Velleius Paterculus,
+  and the _Consolatio ad Liviam_. The German campaigns were described in
+  the last books of Livy and the lost _Bella Germaniae_ of the elder
+  Pliny. As would naturally be expected, they have produced an extensive
+  literature in Germany, J. Asbach's "Die Feldzuge des Nero Claudius
+  Drusus" (_Rhein. Jahrb._ lxxxv. 14-30) being especially recommended;
+  see also Mommsen's _History of the Roman Provinces_, i.; Merivale,
+  _History of the Romans under the Empire_, ch. 36; A. Stein in
+  Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_ (1899), where other authorities are
+  given; J. C. Tarver, _Tiberius the Tyrant_ (1902).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Originally Decimus.
+
+  [2] The district extending from Westervoort to Doesborgh.
+
+
+
+
+DRUSUS CAESAR (c. 15 B.C.-A.D. 23), commonly called Drusus junior, to
+distinguish him from his uncle Nero Claudius Drusus, was the only son of
+the emperor Tiberius by his first wife Vipsania Agrippina. After having
+held several curule offices, he was consul elect in A.D. 14, the year of
+Augustus's death. His father, on his accession to the throne,
+immediately sent him to put down a mutiny of the troops in Pannonia, a
+task which he successfully accomplished (Tacitus, _Annals_, i. 24-30).
+As governor of Illyricum (17), he set the Germanic tribes against one
+another, and encouraged Catualda, chief of the Gothones, to drive out
+Marbod (Maroboduus), king of the Marcomanni. On his return Drusus was
+consul a second time (21) and in the following year received the
+tribunician authority from Tiberius, which practically indicated him as
+heir to the throne. Sejanus, who also aspired to the supreme power,
+determined to remove Drusus. He endeavoured to poison Tiberius's mind
+against him, seduced Drusus's wife and persuaded her to assist him in
+murdering her husband. Her physician Eudemus prepared and the eunuch
+Lygdus administered a slow poison, from the effects of which Drusus died
+after a lingering illness. Although Tiberius is said to have received
+the news of his death with indifference, there is no reason to suppose
+that he had any hand in it; indeed, he seems to have entertained a
+genuine affection for his son. Drusus was a man of violent passions, a
+drunkard and a debauchee, but not entirely devoid of better feelings, as
+is shown by his undoubtedly sincere grief at the death of Germanicus.
+The cunning and reserve which he exhibited on occasion were probably due
+to the instructions or influence of Tiberius (_Annals_, iii. 8), since
+he was himself naturally frank and open, and for this reason,
+notwithstanding his vices, more popular than his father. He revelled in
+bloody gladiatorial displays, and the sharpest swords used on such
+occasions were called "Drusine."
+
+  See Tacitus, _Annals_, i. 76, iv. 8-11; Dio Cassius lvii. 13, 14;
+  Suetonius, _Tiberius_, 62; J. C. Tarver, _Tiberius the Tyrant_ (1902).
+
+
+
+
+DRYADES, or HAMADRYADES, in Greek mythology, nymphs of trees and woods.
+Each particular tree ([Greek: drus]) was the home of its own special
+Dryad, who was supposed to be born and to die with it ([Greek: hama]).
+
+
+
+
+DRYANDER, JONAS (1748-1810), Swedish botanist, was born in 1748. By his
+uncle, Dr Lars Montin, to whom his education was entrusted, he was sent
+to the university of Gothenburg, whence he removed to Lund. After taking
+his degree there in 1776, he studied at Upsala under Linnaeus, and then
+became for a time tutor to a young Swedish nobleman. He next visited
+England, and, on the death of his friend Dr Daniel Charles Solander
+(1736-1782), succeeded him as librarian to Sir Joseph Banks. He was
+librarian to the Royal Society and also to the Linnean Society. Of the
+latter, in 1788, he was one of the founders, and, when it was
+incorporated by royal charter in 1802, he took a leading part in drawing
+up its laws and regulations. He was vice-president of the society till
+his death, which took place in London on the 19th of October 1810.
+Besides papers in the Transactions of the Linnean and other societies,
+Dryander published _Dissertatio gradualis fungos regno vegetabili
+vindicans_ (Lund, 1776), and _Catalogus bibliothecae historico-naturalis
+Josephi Banks, Bart._ (London, 1796-1800, 5 vols.). He also edited the
+first and part of the second edition of W. Aiton's _Hortus Kewensis_ and
+W. Roxburgh's _Plants of the Coast of Coromandel_.
+
+
+
+
+DRYBURGH ABBEY, a monastic ruin in the extreme south-west of
+Berwickshire, Scotland, about 5 m. S.E. of Melrose, and 1-1/4 m. E. of
+St Boswells station on the North British railway's Waverley route from
+Edinburgh to Carlisle. The name has been derived from the Gaelic _darach
+bruach_, "oak bank," in allusion to the fact that the Druids once
+practised their rites here. The abbey occupies the spot where, about
+522, St Modan, an Irish Culdee, established a sanctuary--a secluded
+position on a tongue of land washed on three sides by the Tweed. Founded
+in 1150 by David I.--though it has also been ascribed to Hugh de
+Morville (d. 1162), lord of Lauderdale and constable of Scotland--it
+enjoyed great prosperity until 1322, when it was partially destroyed by
+the English under Edward II. It suffered again at the hands of Richard
+II. in 1385, and was reduced to ruin during the expedition of the earl
+of Hertford in 1545. After the Reformation the estate was erected into a
+temporal lordship and given (1604) by James VI. to John Erskine, 2nd
+earl of Mar. At a later date it was sold, but reverted to a branch of
+the Erskines in 1786, when it was acquired by the 11th earl of Buchan.
+In 1700 the abbey lands belonged to Thomas Haliburton, Scott's
+great-grandfather, and, but for an extravagant grand-uncle who became
+bankrupt and had to part with the property, they would have descended to
+Sir Walter by inheritance. "We have nothing left of Dryburgh," he said,
+"but the right of stretching our bones there." The style in general is
+Early English, but the west door and the restored entrance from the nave
+to the cloisters are fine examples of transitional Norman. Though in
+various stages of decay, nearly every one of the monastic buildings is
+represented by a fragment. Of the cruciform church--190 ft. long by 75
+broad at the transepts--there remain some of the outer walls, a segment
+of the choir, the east aisle of the north transept, the stumps of some
+of the pillars of the nave, the west gable, the south transept and its
+adjacent chapel of St Modan. The most beautiful of these relics is St
+Mary's aisle of the north transept, in which were buried Sir Walter
+Scott (1832), his wife, son, his son-in-law John Gibson Lockhart, and
+his ancestors, the Haliburtons of New Mains. Sir Walter's tomb is a
+plain block of polished Peterhead granite, inscribed only with his name
+and the dates of his birth and death. The next aisle is the burial-place
+of the Erskines of Shielhill and the Haigs of Bemersyde. On the south
+side of the church, at a lower level, stand the cloisters, about 100 ft.
+square, bounded on the west by the dungeons, on the south-west by the
+cellars and refectory, in the west wall of which is an exquisite
+ivy-clad rose window, and on the east by the chapter-house, on a still
+lower level. The chapter-house, a lofty building with vaulted roof, is
+the most complete structure of the group, and adjoining it on the south
+are, first the abbot's parlour and then the library, the three
+apartments communicating with each other, and constituting the oldest
+portion of the abbey. In the grounds are many venerable trees, a yew
+near the chapter-house being at least coeval with the abbey.
+
+
+
+
+DRYDEN, JOHN (1631-1700), English poet, born on or about the 9th of
+August 1631, at Aldwinkle, in Northamptonshire, was of Cumberland stock,
+though his family had been settled for three generations in
+Northamptonshire, had acquired estates and a baronetcy, and intermarried
+with landed families in that county. His great-grandfather, who first
+carried the name south, and acquired by marriage the estate of Canons
+Ashby, is said to have known Erasmus, and to have been so proud of the
+great scholar's friendship that he gave the name of Erasmus to his
+eldest son. The name Erasmus was borne by the poet's father, the third
+son of Sir Erasmus Dryden. The leanings and connexions of the family
+were Puritan and anti-monarchical. Sir Erasmus Dryden went to prison
+rather than pay loan money to Charles I.; the poet's uncle, Sir John
+Dryden, and his father Erasmus, served on government commissions during
+the Commonwealth. His mother's family, the Pickerings, were still more
+prominent on the Puritan side. Sir Gilbert Pickering, his cousin, was
+chamberlain to the Protector, and was summoned to Cromwell's House of
+Lords in 1657. A trustworthy tradition asserts that John Dryden was born
+at the rectory of Aldwinkle All Saints, of which his maternal
+grandfather, Henry Pickering, was rector.
+
+Dryden's education was such as became a scion of these respectable
+families of squires and rectors, among whom the chance contact with
+Erasmus had left a certain tradition of scholarship. His father, whose
+own fortune, added to his wife's, was not large, procured for the poet,
+who was the eldest of fourteen children, admission to Westminster school
+as a king's scholar, under the famous Dr Busby. Some elegiac verses
+which Dryden wrote there on the death of a schoolfellow, Henry, Lord
+Hastings, son of the earl of Huntingdon, in 1649, were published in
+_Lacrymae Musarum_, among other elegies by "divers persons of nobility
+and worth" in commemoration of the same event. He appeared soon after
+again in print, among writers of commendatory verses to a friend of his,
+John Hoddesdon, who published a volume of _Epigrams_ in 1650. Dryden's
+contribution is signed "John Dryden of Trinity C.," as he had gone up
+from Westminster to Cambridge in May 1650. He was elected a scholar of
+Trinity on the Westminster foundation in October of the same year, and
+took his degree of B.A. in 1654. The only recorded incident of his
+college residence is some unexplained act of disobedience to the
+vice-master, for which he was "put out of commons" and "gated" for a
+fortnight. His father died in 1654, leaving him master of two-thirds of
+a small estate near Blakesley, worth about L60 a year. The next three
+years he is said to have spent at Cambridge. In any case they were spent
+somewhere in study; for his first considerable poem bears indisputable
+marks of scholarly habits, as well as of a command of verse that could
+not have been acquired without practice.
+
+The middle of 1657 is given as the date of his leaving the university to
+take up his residence in London. In one of his many subsequent literary
+quarrels, it was said by Shadwell that he had been clerk to Sir Gilbert
+Pickering, his cousin, who was chamberlain to Cromwell; and nothing is
+more likely than that he obtained some employment under his powerful
+cousin when he came to London. He is said to have lived at first in the
+house of his first publisher, Herringman, with whom he was connected
+till 1679, when Jacob Tonson began to publish his books. He first
+emerged from obscurity with his _Heroic Stanzas_ (1659) to the memory of
+the Protector. That these stanzas should have made him a name as a poet
+does not appear surprising when we compare them with Waller's verses on
+the same occasion. Dryden took some time to consider them, and it was
+impossible that they should not give an impression of his intellectual
+strength. Donne was his model; it is obvious that both his ear and his
+imagination were saturated with Donne's elegiac strains when he wrote;
+yet when we look beneath the surface we find unmistakable traces that
+the pupil was not without decided theories that ran counter to the
+practice of the master. It is plainly not by accident that each stanza
+contains one clear-cut brilliant point. The poem is an academic
+exercise, and it seems to be animated by an under-current of strong
+contumacious protest against the irregularities tolerated by the
+authorities. Dryden had studied the ancient classics for himself, and
+their method of uniformity and elaborate finish commended itself to his
+robust and orderly mind. In itself the poem is a magnificent tribute to
+the memory of Cromwell.
+
+To those who regard the poet as a seer with a sacred mission, and refuse
+the name altogether to a literary manufacturer to order, it comes with a
+certain shock to find Dryden, the hereditary Puritan, the panegyrist of
+Cromwell, hailing the return of King Charles in _Astraea Redux_ (1660),
+deploring his long absence, and proclaiming the despair with which he
+had seen "the rebel thrive, the loyal crost." _A Panegyric on the
+Coronation_ followed in 1661. From a literary point of view also,
+_Astraea Redux_ is inferior to the _Heroic Stanzas_.
+
+Dryden was compelled to supplement his slender income by his writings.
+He naturally first thought of tragedy,--his own genius, as he has
+informed us, inclining him rather to that species of composition; and in
+the first year of the Restoration he wrote a tragedy on the fate of
+Henry, duke of Guise. But some friends advised him that its construction
+was not suited to the requirements of the stage, so he put it aside, and
+used only one scene of the original play later on, when he again
+attempted the subject with a more practised hand. Having failed to write
+a suitable tragedy, he next turned his attention to comedy, although, as
+he admitted, he had little natural turn for it. "I confess," he said, in
+a short essay in his own defence, printed before _The Indian Emperor_,
+"my chief endeavours are to delight the age in which I live. If the
+humour of this be for low comedy, small accidents and raillery, I will
+force my genius to obey it, though with more reputation I could write in
+verse. I know I am not so fitted by nature to write comedy; I want that
+gaiety of humour which is required to it. My conversation is slow and
+dull; my humour saturnine and reserved; in short, I am none of those who
+endeavour to break jests in company or make repartees. So that those who
+decry my comedies do me no injury, except it be in point of profit;
+reputation in them is the last thing to which I shall pretend." He was
+really as well as ostentatiously a playwright; the age demanded
+comedies, and he endeavoured to supply the kind of comedy that the age
+demanded. His first attempt was unsuccessful. Bustle, intrigue and
+coarsely humorous dialogue seemed to him to be part of the popular
+demand; and, looking about for a plot, he found something to suit him in
+a Spanish source, and wrote _The Wild Gallant_. The play was acted in
+February 1663, by Thomas Killigrew's company in Vere Street. It was not
+a success, and Pepys showed good judgment in pronouncing the play "so
+poor a thing as ever I saw in my life." Dryden never learned moderation
+in his humour; there is a student's clumsiness and extravagance in his
+indecency; the plays of Etheredge, a man of the world, have not the
+uncouth riotousness of Dryden's. Of this he seems to have been
+conscious, for when the play was revived, in 1667, he complained in the
+epilogue of the difficulty of comic wit, and admitted the right of a
+common audience to judge of the wit's success. Dryden, indeed, took a
+lesson from the failure of _The Wild Gallant_; his next comedy, _The
+Rival Ladies_, also founded on a Spanish plot, produced before the end
+of 1663, and printed in the next year, was correctly described by Pepys
+as "a very innocent and most pretty witty play," though there was much
+in it which the taste of our time would consider indelicate. But he
+never quite conquered his tendency to extravagance. _The Wild Gallant_
+was not the only victim. _The Assignation, or Love in a Nunnery_,
+produced in 1673, shared the same fate; and even as late as 1680, when
+he had had twenty years' experience to guide him, _The Kind Keeper, or
+Mr Limberham_ was prohibited, after three representations, as being too
+indecent for the stage. Dislike to indecency we are apt to think a
+somewhat ludicrous pretext to be made by Restoration playgoers, and
+probably there was some other reason for the sacrifice of _Limberham_;
+still there is a certain savageness in the spirit of Dryden's indecency
+which we do not find in his most licentious contemporaries. The
+undisciplined force of the man carried him to an excess from which more
+dexterous writers held back.
+
+After the production of _The Rival Ladies_ in 1663, Dryden assisted Sir
+Robert Howard in the composition of a tragedy in heroic verse, _The
+Indian Queen_, produced with great splendour in January 1664. He married
+Lady Elizabeth Howard, Sir Robert's sister and daughter of the 1st earl
+of Berkshire, on the 1st of December 1663. Lady Elizabeth's reputation
+was somewhat compromised before this union, which was not a happy one,
+and there is some evidence for the scandal in a letter written by her
+before her marriage to Philip, 2nd earl of Chesterfield. _The Indian
+Queen_ was a great success, one of the greatest since the reopening of
+the theatres. This was in all likelihood due much less to the heroic
+verse and the exclusion of comic scenes from the tragedy than to the
+magnificent scenic accessories--the battles and sacrifices on the stage,
+the spirits singing in the air, and the god of dreams ascending through
+a trap. The novelty of these Indian spectacles, as well as of the Indian
+characters, with the splendid Queen Zempoalla, acted by Mrs Marshall in
+a real Indian dress of feathers presented to her by Mrs Aphra Behn, as
+the centre of the play, was the chief secret of the success of _The
+Indian Queen_. These melodramatic properties were so marked a novelty
+that they could not fail to draw the town. Dryden was tempted to return
+to tragedy; he followed up _The Indian Queen_ with _The Indian Emperor,
+or the Conquest of Mexico by the Spaniards_, which was acted in 1665,
+and also proved a success.
+
+But Dryden was not content with writing tragedies in rhymed verse. He
+took up the question of the propriety of rhyme in serious plays
+immediately after the success of _The Indian Queen_, in the preface to
+an edition (1664) of _The Rival Ladies_. In that first statement of his
+case, he considered the chief objection to the use of rhyme, and urged
+his chief argument in its favour. Rhyme was not natural, some people had
+said; to which he answers that it is as natural as blank verse, and that
+much of its unnaturalness is not the fault of the rhyme but of the
+writer, who has not sufficient command of language to rhyme easily. In
+favour of rhyme he has to say that it at once stimulates the
+imagination, and prevents it from being too discursive in its flights.
+
+During the Great Plague, when the theatres were closed, and Dryden was
+living at Charlton, Wiltshire, at the seat of his father-in-law, the
+earl of Berkshire, he occupied a considerable part of his time in
+thinking over the principles of dramatic composition, and threw his
+conclusions into the form of a dialogue, which he called an _Essay of
+Dramatick Poesie_ and published in 1668. The essay takes the form of a
+dialogue between Neander (Dryden), Eugenius (Charles, Lord Buckhurst,
+afterwards earl of Dorset), Crites (Sir R. Howard), and Lisideius (Sir
+C. Sedley), who is made responsible for the famous definition of a play
+as a "just and lively image of human nature, representing its passions
+and humours, and the changes of fortune to which it is subject, for the
+delight and instruction of mankind." Dryden's form is of course borrowed
+from the ancients, and his main source is the critical work of Corneille
+in the prefaces and discourses contained in the edition of 1660, but he
+was well acquainted with the whole body of contemporary French and
+Spanish criticism. Crites maintains the superiority of the classical
+drama; Lisideius supports the exacting rules of French dramatic writing;
+Neander defends the English drama of the preceding generations,
+including, in a long speech, an examination of Ben Jonson's _Silent
+Woman_. Neander argues, however, that English drama has much to gain by
+the observance of exact methods of construction without abandoning
+entirely the liberty which English writers had always claimed. He then
+goes on to defend the use of rhyme in serious drama. Howard had argued
+against the use of rhyme in a "preface" to _Four New Plays_ (1665),
+which had furnished the excuse for Dryden's essay. Howard replied to
+Dryden's essay in a preface to _The Duke of Lerma_ (1668). Dryden at
+once replied in a masterpiece of sarcastic retort and vigorous
+reasoning, _A Defence of an Essay of Dramatique Poesie_, prefixed to the
+second edition (1668) of _The Indian Emperor_. It is the ablest and most
+complete statement of his views about the employment of rhymed couplets
+in tragedy.
+
+Before his return to town at the end of 1666, when the theatres (which
+had been closed during the disasters of 1665 and 1666) were reopened,
+Dryden wrote a poem on the Dutch war and the Great Fire entitled _Annus
+Mirabilis_. The poem is in quatrains, the metre of his _Heroic Stanzas_
+in praise of Cromwell, which Dryden chose, he tells us, "because he had
+ever judged it more noble and of greater dignity both for the sound and
+number than any other verse in use amongst us." The preface to the poem
+contains an interesting discussion of what he calls "wit-writing,"
+introduced by the remark that "the composition of all poems is or ought
+to be of wit." His description of the Great Fire is a famous specimen of
+this wit-writing, much more careless and daring, and much more difficult
+to sympathize with, than the graver conceits in his panegyric of the
+Protector. In _Annus Mirabilis_ the poet apostrophizes the newly founded
+Royal Society, of which he had been elected a member in 1662.
+
+From the reopening of the theatres in 1666 till November 1681, the date
+of his _Absalom and Achitophel_, Dryden produced nothing but plays. The
+stage was his chief source of income. _Secret Love, or the Maiden
+Queen_, a tragi-comedy, produced in March 1667, was based on an episode
+in the _Artamene, ou le Grand Cyrus_ of Mlle de Scudery, the historical
+original of the "Maiden Queen" being Christina, queen of Sweden. The
+prologue claims that the piece is written with pains and thought, by the
+exactest rules, with strict observance of the unities, and "a mingled
+chime of Jonson's humour and of Corneille's rhyme"; but it owed its
+success chiefly to the charm of Nell Gwyn's acting in the part of
+Florimel. It is noticeable that only the more passionate parts of the
+dialogue are rhymed, Dryden's theory apparently being that rhyme is then
+demanded for the elevation of the style. His next play, _Sir Martin
+Mar-all, or the Feigned Innocence_, an adaptation in prose of the duke
+of Newcastle's translation of Moliere's _L'Etourdi_, was produced at the
+Duke's theatre, without the author's name, in 1667. It was about this
+time that Dryden became a retained writer under contract for the King's
+theatre, receiving from it L300 or L400 a year, till it was burnt down
+in 1672, and about L200 for six years more till the beginning of 1678.
+His co-operation with Davenant in a new version (1667) of Shakespeare's
+_Tempest_--for his share in which Dryden can hardly be pardoned on the
+ground that the chief alterations were happy thoughts of Davenant's,
+seeing that he affirms he never worked at anything with more
+delight--must also be supposed to be anterior to the completion of his
+contract with the Theatre Royal. He was engaged to write three plays a
+year, and he contributed only ten plays during the ten years of his
+engagement, finally exhausting the patience of his partners by joining
+in the composition of a play for the rival house. In adapting
+_L'Etourdi_, Dryden did not catch Moliere's lightness of touch; his
+alterations go towards making the comedy into a farce. Perhaps all the
+more on this account _Sir Martin Mar-all_ had a great run at the theatre
+in Lincoln's Inn Fields. There is always a certain coarseness in
+Dryden's humour, apart from the coarseness of his age,--a certain
+forcible roughness of touch which belongs to the character of the man.
+His _An Evening's Love, or the Mock Astrologer_, an adaptation from _Le
+Feint Astrologue_ of the younger Corneille, produced at the King's
+theatre in 1668, seemed to Pepys "very smutty, and nothing so good as
+_The Maiden Queen_ or _The Indian Emperor_ of Dryden's making." Evelyn
+thought it foolish and profane, and was grieved "to see how the stage
+was degenerated and polluted by the licentious times." _Ladies a la
+Mode_, another of Dryden's contract comedies, produced in 1668, was "so
+mean a thing," Pepys says, that it was only once acted, and Dryden never
+published it. Of his other comedies, _Marriage a la Mode_ (produced
+1672), _The Assignation, or Love in a Nunnery_ (1673), _The Kind Keeper,
+or Mr Limberham_ (1678), only the first was moderately successful.
+
+While Dryden met with such indifferent success in his willing efforts to
+supply the demand of the age for low comedy, he struck upon a really
+popular and profitable vein in heroic tragedy. _Tyrannic Love, or the
+Royal Martyr_, a Roman play dealing with the persecution of the
+Christians by Maximin, in which St Catherine is introduced, and with her
+some supernatural machinery, was produced in 1669. It is in rhymed
+couplets, but the author again did not trust solely for success to them;
+for, besides the magic incantations, the singing angels, and the view of
+Paradise, he made Nell Gwyn, who had stabbed herself as Valeria, start
+to life again as she was being carried off the stage, and speak a
+riotous epilogue, in violent contrast to the serious character of the
+play. _Almanzor and Almahide, or the Conquest of Granada_, a tragedy in
+two parts, was written in 1669 to 1670. The historical background is
+taken chiefly from Mlle de Scudery's romance of _Almahide_, but Dryden
+borrows freely from other books of hers and her contemporaries. This
+piece seems to have given the crowning touch of provocation to the wits,
+who had never ceased to ridicule the popular taste for these extravagant
+heroic plays. Dryden almost invited burlesque in his epilogue to the
+second part of _The Conquest of Granada_, in which he charged the comedy
+of the Elizabethan age with coarseness and mechanical humour, and its
+conceptions of love and honour with meanness, and claimed for his own
+time and his own plays an advance in these respects. _The Rehearsal_,
+written by the duke of Buckingham, with the assistance, it was said, of
+Samuel Butler, Martin Clifford, Thomas Sprat and others, and produced in
+1671, was a severe and just punishment for this boast. Davenant was
+originally the hero, but on his death in 1668 the satire was turned upon
+Dryden, who is here unmercifully ridiculed under the name of Bayes, the
+name being justified by his appointment in 1670 as poet laureate and
+historiographer to the king (with a pension of L300 a year and a butt of
+canary wine). It is said that _The Rehearsal_ was begun in 1663 and
+ready for representation before the plague. But this probably only means
+that Buckingham and his friends had resolved to burlesque the
+absurdities of Davenant's operatic heroes in _The Siege of Rhodes_, and
+the extravagant heroics of _The Indian Queen_. Materials accumulated
+upon them as the fashion continued, and by the time Dryden had produced
+his _Tyrannic Love_, and his _Conquest of Granada_, he had so
+established himself as the chief offender as to become naturally the
+central figure of the burlesque. Later Dryden fully avenged himself on
+Buckingham by his portrait of Zimri in _Absalom and Achitophel_. His
+immediate reply is contained in the preface "Of Heroic Plays" and the
+"Defence of the Epilogue," printed in the first edition (1672) of his
+_Conquest of Granada_. In these, so far from laughing with his censors,
+he addresses them from the eminence of success. "But I have already
+swept the stakes; and, with the common good fortune of prosperous
+gamesters, can be content to sit quietly; to hear my fortune cursed by
+some, and my faults arraigned by others, and to suffer both without
+reply." Heroic verse, he assures them, is so established that few
+tragedies are likely henceforward to be written in any other metre. In
+the course of a year or two _The Conquest of Granada_ was attacked also
+by Elkanah Settle, on whom Dryden revenged himself later, making him the
+"Doeg" of the second part of _Absalom and Achitophel_.
+
+His next tragedy, _Amboyna_ (1673), an exhibition of certain atrocities
+committed by the Dutch on English merchants in the East Indies, put on
+the stage to inflame the public mind in view of the Dutch war, was
+written, with the exception of a few passages, in prose, and those
+passages in blank verse. An opera which he wrote in rhymed couplets,
+called _The State of Innocence, and Fall of Man_, an attempt to turn
+part of _Paradise Lost_ into rhyme, as a proof of its superiority to
+blank verse, was prefaced by an "Apology for Heroique Poetry and
+Poetique Licence," and entered at Stationers' Hall in 1674, but it was
+never acted. The redeeming circumstance about the performance is the
+admiration professed by the adapter for his original, which he
+pronounces "undoubtedly one of the greatest, most noble and most sublime
+poems which either this age or nation has produced." Dryden is said to
+have had the elder poet's leave "to tag his verses." In _Aurengzebe_,
+which was Dryden's last, and also his best, rhymed tragedy, he borrowed
+from contemporary history, for the Great Mogul was still living. In the
+prologue he confessed that he had grown weary of his long-loved
+mistress rhyme and retracted, with characteristic frankness, his
+disparaging contrast of the Elizabethan with his own age. But the stings
+of _The Rehearsal_ had stimulated him to do his utmost to justify his
+devotion to his mistress, and he claims that _Aurengzebe_ is "the most
+correct" of his plays. It was entered at Stationers' Hall and probably
+acted in 1675, and published in the following year.
+
+After the production of _Aurengzebe_ he seems to have rested for an
+interval from writing, enabled to do so, probably by an additional
+pension of L100 granted to him by the king. During this interval he
+would seem to have reconsidered the principles of dramatic composition,
+and to have made a particular study of the works of Shakespeare. The
+fruits of this appeared in _All for Love, or the World Well Lost_, a
+version of the story of Antony and Cleopatra, produced in 1678, which
+must be regarded as a very remarkable departure for a man of his age,
+and a wonderful proof of undiminished openness and plasticity of mind.
+In his previous writings on dramatic theory, Dryden, while admiring the
+rhyme of the French dramatists as an advance in art, did not give
+unqualified praise to the regularity of their plots; he was disposed to
+allow the irregular structure of the Elizabethan dramatists, as being
+more favourable to variety both of action and of character. But now, in
+frank imitation of Shakespeare, he abandoned rhyme, and, if we might
+judge from _All for Love_, and the precepts laid down in his "Grounds of
+Criticism in Tragedy," prefixed to _Troilus and Cressida_ (1679), the
+chief point in which he aimed at excelling the Elizabethans was in
+giving greater unity to his plot. He upheld still the superiority of
+Shakespeare to the French dramatists in the delineation of character,
+but he thought that the scope of the action might be restricted, and the
+parts bound more closely together with advantage. _All for Love_ and
+_Antony and Cleopatra_ are two excellent plays for the comparison of the
+two methods. Dryden gave all his strength to _All for Love_, writing the
+play for himself, as he said, and not for the public. Carrying out the
+idea expressed in the title, he represents the two lovers as being more
+entirely under the dominion of love than Shakespeare's Antony and
+Cleopatra. Shakespeare's Antony is moved by other impulses than the
+passion for Cleopatra; it is his master motive, but it has to maintain a
+struggle for supremacy; "Roman thoughts" strike in upon him even in the
+very height of the enjoyment of his mistress's love, he chafes under the
+yoke, and breaks away from her of his own impulse at the call of
+spontaneously reawakened ambition. Dryden's Antony is so deeply sunk in
+love that no other impulse has power to stir him; it takes much
+persuasion and skilful artifice to detach him from Cleopatra even in
+thought, and his soul returns to her violently before the rupture has
+been completed. On the other hand, Dryden's Cleopatra is so completely
+enslaved by love for Antony that she is incapable of using the
+calculated caprices and meretricious coquetries which Shakespeare's
+Cleopatra deliberately practises as the highest art of love, the surest
+way of maintaining her empire over her great captain's heart. It is with
+difficulty that Dryden's Cleopatra will agree, on the earnest
+solicitation of a wily counsellor, to feign a liking for Dolabella to
+excite Antony's jealousy, and she cannot keep up the pretence through a
+few sentences. The characters of the two lovers are thus very much
+contracted, indeed almost overwhelmed, beneath the pressure of the one
+ruling motive. And as Dryden thus introduces a greater regularity of
+character into the drama, so he also very much contracts the action, in
+order to give probability to this temporary subjugation of individual
+character. The action of Dryden's play takes place wholly in Alexandria,
+within the compass of a few days; it does not, like Shakespeare's,
+extend over several years, and present incessant changes of scene.
+Dryden chooses, as it were, a fragment of a historical action, a single
+moment during which motives play within a narrow circle, the culminating
+point in the relations between his two personages. He devotes his whole
+play, also, to those relations; only what bears upon them is admitted.
+In Shakespeare's play we get a certain historical perspective, in which
+the love of Antony and Cleopatra appears in its true proportions
+beneath the firmament that overhangs human affairs. In Dryden's play
+this love is our universe; all the other concerns of the world retire
+into a shadowy, indistinct background. If we rise from a comparison of
+the plays with an impression that the Elizabethan drama is a higher type
+of drama, taking Dryden's own definition of the word as "a just and
+lively image of human nature," we rise also with an impression of
+Dryden's power such as we get from nothing else that he had written
+since his _Heroic Stanzas_, twenty years before.
+
+It was twelve years before Dryden produced another tragedy worthy of the
+power shown in _All for Love_. _Don Sebastian_ was acted and published
+in 1690. In the interval, to sum up briefly Dryden's work as a
+dramatist, he wrote _Oedipus_ (pr. 1679) and _The Duke of Guise_ (pr.
+1683) in conjunction with Nathaniel Lee; _Troilus and Cressida_ (1679);
+_The Spanish Friar_ (1681); _Albion and Albanius_, an opera (1685);
+_Amphitryon_ (1690). In _Troilus and Cressida_ he follows Shakespeare
+closely in the plot, but the dialogue is rewritten throughout, and not
+for the better. The versification and the language of the first and the
+third acts of _Oedipus_, which with the general plan of the play were
+Dryden's contribution to the joint work, bear marked evidence of his
+recent study of Shakespeare. The _Duke of Guise_ provided an obvious
+parallel with contemporary English politics. Henry III. was identified
+with Charles II., and Monmouth with the duke. The lord chamberlain
+refused to license it until the political situation was less disturbed.
+The plot of _Don Sebastian_ is more intricate than that of _All for
+Love_. It has also more of the characteristics of his heroic dramas; the
+extravagance of sentiment and the suddenness of impulse remind us
+occasionally of _The Indian Emperor_; but the characters are much more
+elaborately studied than in Dryden's earlier plays, and the verse is
+sinewy and powerful. It would be difficult to say whether _Don
+Sebastian_ or _All for Love_ is his best play; they share the palm
+between them. Dryden's subsequent plays are not remarkable. Their titles
+and dates are--_King Arthur_, an opera (1691), for which Purcell wrote
+the music; _Cleomenes_ (1692); _Love Triumphant_ (1694).
+
+Soon after Dryden's abandonment of heroic couplets in tragedy, he found
+new and more congenial work for his favourite instrument in satire. As
+usual the idea was not original to Dryden, though he struck in with his
+majestic step and energy divine, and immediately took the lead. The
+pioneer was Mulgrave in his _Essay on Satire_, an attack on Rochester
+and the court, which was circulated in MS. in 1679. Dryden himself was
+suspected of the authorship, and it is not impossible that he gave some
+help in revising it; but it is not likely that he attacked the king on
+whom he was dependent for the greater part of his income, and Mulgrave
+in a note to his _Art of Poetry_ in 1717 expressly asserts Dryden's
+ignorance. Dryden, however, was attacked in Rose Street, Covent Garden,
+and severely cudgelled by a company of ruffians who were generally
+supposed to have been hired by Rochester. In the same year Oldham's
+satire on the Jesuits had immense popularity, chiefly owing to the
+excitement about the Popish plot. Dryden took the field as a satirist
+towards the close of 1681, on the side of the court, at the moment when
+Shaftesbury, baffled in his efforts to exclude the duke of York from the
+throne as a papist, and secure the succession of the duke of Monmouth,
+was waiting his trial for high treason. _Absalom and Achitophel_
+produced a great stir. Nine editions were sold in rapid succession in
+the course of a year. There was no compunction in Dryden's ridicule and
+invective. Delicate wit was not one of Dryden's gifts; the motions of
+his weapon were sweeping, and the blows hard and trenchant. The
+advantage he had gained by his recent studies of character was fully
+used in his portraits of Shaftesbury and Buckingham, Achitophel and
+Zimri. In these portraits he shows considerable art in the introduction
+of redeeming traits to the general outline of malignity and depravity.
+It is not impossible that the fact that his pension had not been paid
+since the beginning of 1680 weighed with him in writing this satire to
+gain the favour of the court. In a play produced in 1681, _The Spanish
+Friar_, he had written on the other side, gratifying the popular
+feeling by attacking the Roman Catholic priesthood.
+
+Three other satires followed _Absalom and Achitophel_, one of them
+hardly inferior in point of literary power. _The Medall_; a _Satyre
+against Sedition_ (March 1682) was written in ridicule of the medal
+struck to commemorate Shaftesbury's acquittal. Then Dryden had to take
+vengeance on the literary champions of the Whig party who had opened
+upon him with all their artillery. Their leader, Shadwell, had attacked
+him in _The Medal of John Bayes_, which Dryden answered in October 1682
+by _Mac Flecknoe, or a Satyr upon the True-Blew Protestant Poet, T.S._
+This satire, in which Shadwell filled the title-role, served as the
+model of the _Dunciad_. To the second part of _Absalom and Achitophel_
+(November 1682), written chiefly by Nahum Tate, he contributed a long
+passage of invective against Robert Ferguson, one of Monmouth's chief
+advisers, Elkanah Settle, Shadwell and others. _Religio Laici_, which
+appeared in the same month, though nominally an exposition of a layman's
+creed, and deservedly admired as such, was not without a political
+purpose. It attacked the Papists, but declared the "fanatics" to be
+still more dangerous.
+
+Dryden's next poem in heroic couplets was in a different strain. On the
+accession of James, in 1685, he became a Roman Catholic. There has been
+much discussion as to whether this conversion was or was not sincere. It
+can only be said that the coincidence between his change of faith and
+his change of patron was suspicious, and that Dryden's character for
+consistency is certainly not of a kind to quench suspicion. The force of
+the coincidence cannot be removed by such pleas as that his wife had
+been a Roman Catholic for several years, or that he was converted by his
+son, who was converted at Cambridge, even if there were any evidence for
+these statements. Scott defended Dryden's conversion,--as Macaulay
+denounced it, from party motives. It is worth while, however, to notice
+that in his earlier defence of the English Church he exhibits a desire
+for the definite guidance of a presumably infallible creed, and the case
+for the Roman Church brought forward at the time may have appeared
+convincing to a mind singularly open to new impressions. At the same
+time nothing can be clearer than that Dryden always regarded his
+literary powers as a means of subsistence, and had little scruple about
+accepting a brief on any side. _The Hind and the Panther_, published in
+1687, is an ingenious argument for Roman Catholicism, put into the mouth
+of "a milk-white hind, immortal and unchanged." There is considerable
+beauty in the picture of this tender creature, and its enemies in the
+forest are not spared. One can understand the admiration that the poem
+received when such allegories were in fashion. It was the chief cause of
+the veneration with which Dryden was regarded by Pope, who, himself
+educated in the Roman Catholic faith, was taken as a boy of twelve to
+see the veteran poet in his chair of honour and authority at Wills's
+coffee-house. It was also very open to ridicule, and was treated in this
+spirit by Prior and Montagu, the future earl of Halifax, in _The Hind
+and the Panther transversed to the story of the Country Mouse and the
+City Mouse_. Dryden's other literary services to James were a savage
+reply to Stillingfleet--who had attacked two papers published by the
+king immediately after his accession, one said to have been written by
+his late brother in advocacy of the Church of Rome, the other by his
+late wife explaining the reasons for her conversion--and a translation
+of a life of Xavier in prose. He had written also a panegyric of
+Charles, _Threnodia Augustalis_, and a poem in honour of the birth of
+James II.'s heir, under the title of _Britannia rediviva_ (1688).
+
+Dryden did not abjure his new faith on the Revolution, and so lost his
+office and pension as laureate and historiographer royal. For this act
+of constancy he deserves credit, if the new powers would have considered
+his services worth having after his frequent apostasies. His rival
+Shadwell reigned in his stead. Dryden was once more thrown mainly upon
+his pen for support. He turned again to the stage and wrote the plays
+already enumerated. A great feature in the last decade of his life was
+his translations from the classics. _Ovid's Epistles translated_
+appeared in 1680; and numerous translations from Virgil, Horace, Ovid,
+Lucretius and Theocritus appeared in the four volumes of _Miscellany
+Poems_--_Miscellany Poems_ (1684), _Sylvae_ (1685), _Examen poeticum_
+(1693), _The Annual Miscellany_ (1694 by the "most eminent hands"); in
+1693 was published the verse translation of the _Satires_ of Juvenal and
+of Persius by "Mr Dryden and several other eminent hands," which
+contained his "Discourse concerning the Original and Progress of
+Satire"; and in 1697 Jacob Tonson published his most important
+translation, _The Works of Virgil_. The book, which was the result of
+three years' labour, was a vigorous, rather than a close, rendering of
+Virgil into the style of Dryden. Among other notable poems of this
+period are the two "Songs for St Cecilia's Day," written for a London
+musical society for 1687 and 1697, and published separately. The second
+of these is the famous ode on "Alexander's Feast." The well-known
+paraphrase of _Veni, Creator Spiritus_ was posthumously printed, and his
+"Ode to the memory of Anne Killigrew," called by Dr Johnson the noblest
+ode in the language, was written in 1686.
+
+His next work was to render some of Chaucer's and Boccaccio's tales and
+Ovid's _Metamorphoses_ into his own verse. These translations appeared
+in November 1699, a few months before his death, and are known by the
+title of _Fables, Ancient and Modern_. The preface, which is an
+admirable example of Dryden's prose, contains an excellent appreciation
+of Chaucer, and, incidentally, an answer to Jeremy Collier's attack on
+the stage. Thus a large portion of the closing years of Dryden's life
+was spent in translating for bread. He had a windfall of 500 guineas
+from Lord Abingdon for a poem on the death of his wife in 1691, and he
+received liberal presents from his cousin John Driden and from the duke
+of Ormonde, but generally he was in considerable pecuniary straits.
+Besides, his three sons held various posts in the service of the pope at
+Rome, and he could not well be on good terms with both courts. However,
+he was not molested in London by the government, and in private he was
+treated with the respect due to his old age and his admitted position as
+the greatest of living English poets. He held a small court at Wills's
+coffee-house, where he spent his evenings; here he had a chair by the
+fire in winter and by the window in summer; Congreve, Vanbrugh and
+Addison were among his admirers, and here Pope saw the old poet of whom
+he was to be the most brilliant disciple. He died at his house in
+Gerrard Street, London, on the 1st of May 1700 and was buried on the
+13th of the month in Westminster Abbey. Dryden's portrait, by Sir G.
+Kneller, is in the National Portrait Gallery.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_The Comedies, Tragedies and Operas written by John
+  Dryden, Esq._ (2 vols., 1701) was published by Tonson, who also issued
+  the poet's _Dramatick Works_ (6 vols., 1717), edited by Congreve.
+  _Poems on Various Occasions and Translations from Several Authors_
+  (1701), also published by Tonson, was very incomplete, and although
+  other editions followed there was no satisfactory collection until the
+  edition of the _Works_ (18 vols., 1808, 2nd ed. 1821) by Sir Walter
+  Scott, who supplied historical and critical notes with a life of the
+  author. This, as revised and corrected by G. Saintsbury (18 vols.,
+  Edinburgh, 1882-1893), remains the standard edition. _His Critical and
+  Miscellaneous Prose Works_ (4 vols., 1800) were edited by Edmund
+  Malone, who collected industriously the materials for a life of
+  Dryden. Convenient partial modern editions are the _Poetical Works_
+  (Globe edition, 1870) edited by W. D. Christie with an excellent
+  "life"; _The Best Plays of John Dryden_ (Mermaid series, 2 vols.),
+  edited by G. Saintsbury; and _Essays of John Dryden_ (2 vols., 1900,
+  Oxford), edited by W. P. Ker. Besides the critical and biographical
+  matter in these editions see Dr Johnson's _Lives of the Poets; Dryden_
+  (English Men of Letters series, 1881), by G. Saintsbury; A. Beljame,
+  _Le Public et les hommes de lettres en Angleterre 1660-1744_ (2nd ed.
+  Paris, 1897); A. W. Ward, _History of English Dramatic Literature_
+  (new ed. 1899), vol. iii. pp. 346-392; J. Churton Collins, _Essays and
+  Studies_; W. J. Courthope, _History of English Poetry_, vol. iv.
+  (1903), chap, xiv., and L. N. Chase, _The English Heroic Play_ (New
+  York, 1903). See also ENGLISH LITERATURE.     (W. M.; M. BR.)
+
+
+
+
+DRYOPITHECUS (Gr. [Greek: drys], oak, [Greek: pithekos], ape, "the ape
+of the oak-woods"), the name of an extinct ape or monkey from Miocene
+deposits of France, believed to be allied to the baboons, but perhaps
+with some affinity to the higher apes.
+
+
+
+
+DRY ROT, a fungoid disease in timber which occasions the destruction of
+its fibres, and reduces it eventually to a mass of dry dust. It is
+produced most readily in a warm, moist, stagnant atmosphere, while
+common or wet rot is the result of the exposure of wood to repeated
+changes of climatic conditions. The most formidable of the dry rot fungi
+is the species _Merulius lacrymans_, which is particularly destructive
+of coniferous wood; other species are _Polyporus hybridus_, which
+thrives in oak-built ships, and _P. destructor_ and _Thelephora
+puteana_, found in a variety of wooden structures.
+
+The felling of trees when void of fresh sap, as a means of obviating the
+rotting of timber, is a practice of very ancient origin. Vitruvius
+directs (ii. cap. 9) that, to secure good timber, trees should be cut to
+the pith, so as to allow of the escape of their sap, which by dying in
+the wood would injure its quality; also that felling should take place
+only from early autumn until the end of winter. The supposed superior
+quality of wood cut in winter, and the early practice in England of
+felling oak timber at that season, may be inferred from a statute of
+James I., which enacted "that no person or persons shall fell, or cause
+to be felled, any oaken trees meet to be barked, when bark is worth 2s.
+a cart-load (timber for the needful building and reparation of houses,
+ships or mills only excepted), but between the first day of April and
+last day of June, not even for the king's use, out of barking time,
+except for building or repairing his Majesty's houses or ships." In
+giving testimony before a committee of the House of Commons in March
+1771, Mr Barnard of Deptford expressed it as his opinion that to secure
+durable timber for shipbuilding, trees should be barked in spring and
+not felled till the succeeding winter. In France, so long ago as 1669, a
+royal decree limited the felling of timber from the 1st of October to
+the 15th of April; and, in an order issued to the commissioners of
+forests, Napoleon I. directed that the felling of naval timber should
+take place only from November 1 to March 15, and during the decrease of
+the moon, on account of the rapid decay of timber, through the
+fermentation of its sap, if cut at other seasons. The burying of wood in
+water, which dissolves out or alters its putrescible constituents, has
+long been practised as a means of seasoning. The old "Resistance"
+frigate, which went down in Malta harbour, remained under water for some
+months, and on being raised was found to be entirely freed from the dry
+rot fungus that had previously covered her; similarly, in the ship
+"Eden," the progress of rot was completely arrested by 18 months'
+submergence in Plymouth Sound, so that after remaining a year at home in
+excellent condition she was sent out to the East Indies. It was an
+ancient practice in England to place timber for thrashing-floors and oak
+planks for wainscotting in running water to season them. Whale and other
+oils have been recommended for the preservation of wood; and in 1737 a
+patent for the employment of hot oil was taken out by a Mr Emerson.
+
+  For the modern processes of preserving timber see TIMBER.
+
+
+
+
+DUALISM (from rare Lat. _dualis_, containing two, from _duo_), a
+philosophical term applied to all theories which attempt to explain
+facts by reference to two coexistent principles. The term plays an
+important part in metaphysical, ethical and theological speculation.
+
+_In Metaphysics._--Metaphysical dualism postulates the eternal
+coexistence of mind and matter, as opposed to monism both idealistic and
+materialistic. Two forms of this dualism are held. On the one hand it is
+said that mind and matter are absolutely heterogeneous, and, therefore,
+that any causal relation between them is _ex hypothesi_ impossible. On
+the other hand is a hypothetical dualism, according to which it is held
+that mind cannot bridge over the chasm so far as to _know_ matter _in
+itself_, though it is compelled by its own laws of cause and effect to
+postulate matter as the origin, if not the motive cause, of its
+sensations. It follows that, for the thinking mind, matter is a
+necessary hypothesis. Hence the theory is a kind of monism, inasmuch as
+it confessedly does not assert the existence of matter save as an
+intellectual postulate for the thinking mind. Matter, in other words,
+must be assumed to exist, though mind cannot know it _in itself_. From
+this question there emerges a second and more difficult problem.
+Consciousness, it is held, is of two main kinds, sensation and reason.
+Sensation alone is insufficient to explain all our intellectual
+phenomena; all sensation is momentary and individual (cf. Empiricism).
+How then are we to account for memory and the principles of necessity,
+similarity, universality? It is argued that there must be in the mind an
+enduring, primary faculty whereby we retain, compare and group the
+presentations of sense. This faculty is _a priori_, transcendental, and
+entirely separate from all the data of experience and sense-perception.
+Here then we have a dualism within experience. The mind is not to be
+regarded as a sensitized film which automatically records the
+impressions of the senses. It contains within itself this modifying
+critical faculty which reacts upon and arranges the sense-given
+presentations.
+
+_In Ethics and Theology._--In the domain of morals, dualism postulates
+the separate existence of Good and Evil, as principles of existence. In
+theology the appearance of dualism is sporadic and has not the
+fundamental, determining importance which it has in metaphysics. It is a
+result rather than a starting-point. The old Zoroastrianism, and those
+Christian sects (e.g. Manichaeism) which were influenced by it,
+postulate two contending deities Ormuzd and Ahriman (Good and Evil),
+which war against one another in influencing the conduct of men. So, in
+Christianity, the existence of Satan as an evil influence, antagonistic
+to God, involves a kind of dualism. But generally speaking this dualism
+is permissive, inasmuch as it is always held that God will triumph over
+Satan in His own time. So in Zoroastrianism the dualism is not ultimate,
+for Ahriman and Ormuzd are represented as the twin sons of Zervana
+Akarana, i.e. limitless time, wherein both will be finally absorbed. The
+postulate of an Evil Being arises from the difficulty, at all times
+acutely felt by a certain type of mind, of reconciling the existence of
+evil with the divine attributes of perfect goodness, full knowledge and
+infinite power. John Stuart Mill (_Essay on Religion_) preferred to
+disbelieve in the omnipotence of God rather than forgo the belief in His
+goodness. It follows from such a view that Satan is not the creation of
+God, but rather a power coeval in origin, over whose activity God has no
+absolute control.
+
+_In Theology._--Dualism is also used in a special theological sense to
+describe a doctrine of the Nestorian heresy. According to this doctrine
+the personality of Christ is twofold; the divine Logos dwells as a
+distinct personality in the man Jesus Christ, the union of the two
+natures being analogous to the relation between the believer and the
+indwelling Holy Spirit.
+
+_History of the Doctrine._--The earliest European thinkers (see IONIAN
+SCHOOL OF PHILOSOPHY) endeavoured to reduce all the facts of the
+universe to a single material origin, such as Fire, Water, Air. It is
+only gradually that there appears any recognition of a spiritual
+principle exercising a modifying or causal influence over inert matter.
+Anaxagoras was the first to postulate the existence of Reason ([Greek:
+nous]) as the source of change and progress. Yet even he did not
+conceive this Reason as incorporeal; it was in reality only the most
+highly rarefied form of matter in existence. In Plato for the first time
+we find a truly dualistic conception of the universe. Asserting that
+Ideas alone really exist, he yet found it necessary to postulate a
+second principle of not-being, the groundwork of sensuous existence and
+of imperfection and evil. Herein he identified metaphysics and ethics,
+combining the good with the truly existent and evil with the
+non-existent. Aristotle rebels against this conception and substitutes
+the idea of [Greek: prote hyle] and development. Nevertheless he does
+not escape from the dualism of Form and Matter, [Greek: nous] and
+[Greek: hyle]. The scholastic philosophers naturally held dualistic
+views resulting from their extreme devotion to formalism. This blind
+dualism found its natural consequence in the revolt of the Renaissance
+thinkers, Bruno and Paracelsus, who asserted the unity of mind and
+matter in all existence and were the precursors of the more intelligent
+monism of Leibnitz and the scientific metaphysics of his successors. The
+birth of modern physical science on the other hand in the investigations
+of Bacon and Descartes obscured the metaphysical issue by the
+predominance of the mechanical principles of natural philosophy. They
+attempted to explain the fundamental problems of existence by the
+unaided evidence of the new natural science. Thus Descartes maintained
+the absolute dualism of the _res cogitans_ and the _res extensa_.
+Spinoza realized the flaw in the division and preferred to postulate
+behind mind and matter a single substance (_unica substantia_) while
+Leibnitz explained the universe as a harmony of spiritual or
+semispiritual principles. Kant practically abandons the problem. He
+never really establishes a relation between pure reason and
+things-in-themselves (_Dinge an sich_), but rather seeks refuge in a
+dualism within consciousness, the transcendental and the empirical.
+Since Kant there are, therefore, two streams of dualism, dealing, one
+with the radical problem of the relation between mind and matter, the
+other with the relation between the pure rational and the empirical
+elements within consciousness. To the first problem there is one obvious
+and conclusive answer, namely that matter in itself is inherently
+unthinkable and comes within the vision of the mind only as an
+intellectual presentation. It follows that philosophy is in a sense both
+dualist and monist; it is a cosmic dualism inasmuch as it admits the
+possible existence of matter as a hypothesis, though it denies the
+possibility of any true knowledge of it, and is hence in regard of the
+only possible knowledge an idealistic monism. It is a self-destructive
+dualism, a confessedly one-sided monism, agnostic as to the fundamental
+problem. To the second problem there are two main answers, that of
+Associationism which denies to the mind any _a priori_ existence and
+asserts that sensation is the only source of knowledge, and that which
+admits the existence of both transcendental and empirical knowledge.
+
+
+
+
+DUALLA, one of the principal negro peoples of Cameroon estuary, West
+Africa. When the Germans established themselves in that region, the
+Dualla were under many petty chiefs, whose domains were usually
+restricted to one village. Over these were two greater chiefs, Bell
+(Mbeli) and Akwa, representing the principal families of the tribe. The
+Dualla are physically a fine race. They are proud of their racial
+purity, and it was formerly usual for all half-caste children to be
+strangled at birth. The Dualla tattoo themselves, the women the whole
+body, the men the face only. They also pull out their eyelashes, which
+they believe prevent sharp sight. The monarchical system is more
+developed among the Dualla than any other of the peoples of Cameroon.
+The kings, many of whom have grown rich through trade, retain part of
+their former power, subject to the German government. The Dualla, who
+are laborious, industrious and capable of great physical endurance, are
+great traders and are proportionately prosperous. The average price for
+a wife among the Dualla is from L90 to L120; but sometimes a great deal
+more is paid. Girls are usually betrothed young and may be divorced if
+sterile. The penalty for adultery is a fine imposed on the seducer; if
+he cannot pay he becomes the husband's slave. Cannibalism as a religious
+rite was formerly common among the Dualla. All accessions to power were
+preceded by a sacrifice, a king having no authority till his hands were
+stained with blood. The religion is fetish blended with
+ancestor-worship, and certain secret societies exist among them which
+seem to have a religious connexion. The dead are buried within the hut,
+which is abandoned shortly afterwards; slaves were formerly buried with
+men of importance. Missionary efforts have yielded many converts, and
+some churches have been built. Many of the natives can read. The Dualla
+are in possession of an interesting code, in accordance with which
+messages can be sent and even conversations maintained by means of
+drums, or rather gongs, giving two notes. (See CAMEROON.)
+
+
+
+
+DU BARRY, MARIE JEANNE BECU, Comtesse (1746-1793), French adventuress,
+mistress of Louis XV., was the natural daughter of a poor woman of
+Vaucouleurs, and was born there on the 19th of August 1746. Placed in a
+convent in Paris at an early age, she received a very slight education,
+learning little but the catechism and drawing; and at the age of sixteen
+entered a milliner's shop in the rue St Honore. Subsequently she lived
+as a courtesan under the name of Mdlle Lange. Her great personal charms
+led the adventurer Jean, comte du Barry, to take her into his house in
+order to make it more attractive to the dupes whose money he won by
+gambling. Her success surpassing his expectations, his hopes took a
+higher flight, and through Lebel, valet de chambre of Louis XV., and the
+duc de Richelieu, he succeeded in installing her as mistress of the
+king. In order to present her at court it was necessary to find a title
+for her, and as Count Jean du Barry was married himself his brother
+Guillaume offered himself as nominal husband. The comtesse du Barry was
+presented at court on the 22nd of April 1769, and became official
+mistress of the king. Her influence over the monarch was absolute until
+his death, and courtiers and ministers were in favour or disgrace with
+him in exact accordance with her wishes. The duc de Choiseul, who
+refused to acknowledge her, was disgraced in 1771; and the duc
+d'Aiguillon, who had the reputation of being her lover, took his place,
+and in concert with her governed the monarch. Louis XV. built for her
+the magnificent mansion of Luciennes. At his death in 1774 an order of
+his successor banished her to the abbey of Pont-aux-Dames, near Meaux,
+but, the queen interceding for her, the king in the following year gave
+her permission to reside at Luciennes with a pension. Here she led a
+retired life with the comte de Cosse-Brissac, and was visited there by
+Benjamin Franklin and the emperor Joseph II., among many other
+distinguished men. Having gone to England in 1792 to endeavour to raise
+money on her jewels, she was on her return accused before the
+Revolutionary Tribunal of having dissipated the treasures of the state,
+conspired against the republic, and worn, in London, "mourning for the
+tyrant." She was condemned to death on the 7th of December 1793, and
+beheaded the same evening. Her contemporaries, scorning her low birth
+rather than her vices, attributed to her a malicious political role of
+which she was at heart incapable, and have done scant justice to her
+quick wit, her frank but gracious manners, and her seductive beauty. The
+volume of _Lettres et Anecdotes_ (1779) which bears her name was not
+written by her.
+
+  See E. and J. de Goncourt, _La du Barry_ (Paris, 1880); C. Vatel,
+  _Histoire de Madame du Barry_ (1882-1883), based on sources; R.
+  Douglas, _The Life and Times of Madame du Barry_ (London, 1896).
+
+
+
+
+DU BARTAS, GUILLAUME DE SALUSTE, SEIGNEUR (1544-1590), French poet, was
+born near Auch in 1544. He was employed by Henry IV. of France in
+England, Denmark and Scotland; and he commanded a troop of horse in
+Gascony, under the marshal de Martingan. He was a convinced Huguenot,
+and cherished the idea of writing a great religious epic in which
+biblical characters and Christian sentiment were to supplant the pagan
+_mise en scene_ then in fashion. His first epic, _Judith_, appeared in a
+volume entitled _La Muse chretienne_ (Bordeaux, 1573). This was followed
+five years later by his principal work, _La Sepmaine_, a poem on the
+creation of the world. This work was held by admirers of du Bartas to
+put him on a level with Ronsard, and thirty editions of it were printed
+within six years after its appearance. Its religious tone and fanciful
+style made it a great favourite in England, where the author was called
+the "divine" du Bartas, and placed on an equality with Ariosto. Spenser,
+Hall and Ben Jonson, all speak in the highest terms of what seems to us
+a most uninteresting poem. King James VI. of Scotland tried his
+"prentice hand" at the translation of du Bartas's poem _L'Uranie_, and
+the compliment was returned by the French writer, who translated, as _La
+Lepanthe_, James's poem on the battle of Lepanto. Du Bartas began the
+publication of the _Seconde Semaine_ in 1584. He aimed at a great epic
+which should stretch from the story of the creation to the coming of the
+Messiah. Of this great scheme he only executed a part, marked by a
+certain elevation of style, but he did not succeed in acclimatizing the
+religious epic in France. The work is spoiled by a constant tendency to
+moralize, and is filled with the indiscriminate information that passed
+under the name of science in the 16th century. Du Bartas, perhaps more
+than any other writer, brought the Ronsardist tradition into dispute. He
+introduced many unwieldy compounds foreign to the genius of the French
+language, and in his borrowings from old French, from provincial
+dialects and from Latin, he failed to show the sure instinct and
+prudence of Ronsard and du Bellay. He was also guilty of reduplicating
+the first syllables of words, producing such expressions as
+_pepetiller_, _sousouflantes_. Du Bartas died in July 1590 in Paris from
+wounds received at the battle of Ivry.
+
+  Joshua Sylvester translated the _Sepmaine_ in 1598; other English
+  translations from du Bartas are _The Historie of Judith ..._ (1584),
+  by Thomas Hudson; of portions of the "Weeks" (1625) by William Lisle
+  (1569-1637), the Anglo-Saxon scholar; _Urania_ (1589), by Robert
+  Ashley (1565-1641); and Sir Philip Sidney (see Florio's dedication of
+  the second book of his translation of Montaigne to Lady Rich) wrote a
+  translation of the first "Week," which is lost. The _OEuvres
+  completes_ of du Bartas were printed at Paris (1579), Paris and
+  Bordeaux (1611). See also G. Pellissier, _La Vie et les oeuvres de du
+  Bartas_ (1883).
+
+
+
+
+DUBAWNT, or DOOBAUNT (Indian _Toobaung_, i.e. turbid), a river of
+Mackenzie and Keewatin districts, Canada. It rises in Wholdaia (or Daly)
+Lake, in 104 deg. 20' W. and 60 deg. 15' N., and flows northward to its
+confluence with the Thelon river, and thence eastward to Chesterfield
+Inlet, an arm of Hudson Bay. It passes through numerous lake-expansions,
+including Dubawnt Lake, with an area of 1700 sq. m. and an altitude of
+500 ft. above the sea; Aberdeen, altitude 130 ft.; and Baker, 30 ft.
+From the head of Wholdaia Lake to the head of Chesterfield Inlet is 750
+m. and thence to the west coast of Hudson Bay 125 m. The river is
+shallow, and banks and bed are chiefly composed of boulders; grassy
+slopes, however, occur at intervals along its banks, especially on the
+shores of Dubawnt Lake, and are the feeding grounds of large bands of
+cariboo. Discovered in 1770 by Samuel Hearne, the Dubawnt was explored
+by J. B. Tyrrell in 1893, and the Thelon by David Hanbury in 1899.
+
+  See Annual Report of the Geological Survey of Canada for 1896 (printed
+  1898).
+
+
+
+
+DUBBO, a municipal town of Lincoln county, New South Wales, Australia,
+on the Macquarie river, 278 m. by rail N.W. of Sydney. Pop. (1901) 3409.
+It is a flourishing manufacturing town in a pastoral district, in part
+also cultivated. Coal and copper are found in the neighbourhood.
+
+
+
+
+DU BELLAY, GUILLAUME, SIEUR DE LANGEY (1491-1543), French soldier and
+diplomat, was born at the chateau of Glatigny, near Montmirail, in 1491.
+His father, Louis du Bellay-Langey was a younger son of the Angevin
+family of du Bellay, which from the 14th century was distinguished in
+the service of the dukes of Anjou and afterwards of the kings of France;
+and Louis had six sons, who were among the best servants of Francis I.
+Guillaume, the eldest, is one of the most remarkable figures of the
+time; a brave soldier, a humanist and a historian, he was above all the
+most able diplomat at the command of Francis I., prodigiously active,
+and excelling in secret negotiations. He entered the military service at
+an early age, was taken prisoner at Pavia (1525) and shared the
+captivity of Francis I. His skill and devotion attached him to the king.
+His missions to Spain, Italy, England and Germany were innumerable; sent
+three times to England in 1529-1530, he was occupied with the execution
+of the treaty of Cambrai and also with the question of Henry VIII.'s
+divorce, and with the help of his brother Jean, then bishop of Paris, he
+obtained a decision favourable to Henry VIII. from the Sorbonne (July 2,
+1530). From 1532 to 1536, though he went three times to England, he was
+principally employed in uniting the German princes against Charles V.;
+in May 1532 he signed the treaty of Scheyern with the dukes of Bavaria,
+the landgrave of Hesse, and the elector of Saxony, and in January 1534
+the treaty of Augsburg. During the war of 1537 Francis I. sent him on
+missions to Piedmont; he was governor of Turin from December 1537 till
+the end of 1539, and subsequently replacing Marshal d'Annebaut as
+governor of the whole of Piedmont, he displayed great capacity in
+organization. But at the end of 1542, overwhelmed by work, he was
+compelled to return to France, and died near Lyons on the 9th of January
+1543. Rabelais, an eye-witness, has left a moving story of his death
+(_Pantagruel_, iii. ch. 21, and iv. ch. 27). He was buried in the
+cathedral of Le Mans, where a monument was erected to his memory, with
+the inscription, "Ci git Langey, dont la plume et l'epee Ont surmonte
+Ciceron et Pompee"; Charles V. is said to have remarked that Langey, by
+his own unaided efforts, did more mischief and thwarted more schemes
+than all the French together.
+
+Guillaume du Bellay was the devoted protector of freedom of thought;
+without actually joining the reformers, he defended the innovators
+against their fanatical opponents. In 1534-1535 he even tried,
+unsuccessfully, to bring about a meeting between Francis I. and
+Melanchthon; and in 1541 he intervened in favour of the Vaudois.
+Rabelais was the most famous of his clients, and followed him to
+Piedmont from 1540 to 1542. Guillaume was himself a valuable historian,
+and a clear and precise writer. He imitated Livy in his _Ogdoades_, a
+history of the rivalry between Francis I. and the emperor from 1521, of
+which, though he had no time to finish it, important fragments remain,
+inserted by his brother Martin du Bellay (d. 1559) in his _Memoires_
+(1569). The celebrated _Instructions_, reprinted as _Traite de la
+discipline militaire_ in 1554 and 1592, was formerly attributed to him,
+but it has been proved that he could not have written it (see Bayle,
+_Dict. Hist._ i. 502, and Jahns, _Geschichte der Kriegswissenschaften_,
+i. 498 seq.); this work, however, is of the highest value for the study
+of the military art of the 16th century; in 1550 an Italian, in 1567 a
+Spanish, and in 1594 and 1619 German translations were published.
+
+  See also the edition of Martin du Bellay's _Memoires_ by Michaud and
+  Poujoulat (1838), and Bourrilly's _Fragments de la premiere Ogdoade_
+  (Paris, 1905). There is an excellent study of Guillaume du Bellay by
+  V. L. Bourrilly (Paris, 1905).     (J. I.)
+
+
+
+
+DU BELLAY, JEAN (c. 1493-1560), French cardinal and diplomat, younger
+brother of Guillaume du Bellay, appears as bishop of Bayonne in 1526,
+member of the privy council in 1530, and bishop of Paris in 1532. Supple
+and clever, he was well fitted for a diplomatic career, and carried out
+several missions in England (1527-1534) and Rome (1534-1536). In 1535 he
+received his cardinal's hat; in 1536-1537 he was nominated
+"lieutenant-general" to the king at Paris and in the Ile de France, and
+was entrusted with the organization of the defence against the
+imperialists. When Guillaume du Bellay went to Piedmont, Jean was put in
+charge of the negotiations with the German Protestants, principally
+through the humanist Johann Sturm and the historian Johann Sleidan. In
+the last years of the reign of Francis I., cardinal du Bellay was in
+favour with the duchesse d'Etampes, and received a number of
+benefices--the bishopric of Limoges (1541), archbishopric of Bordeaux
+(1544), bishopric of Le Mans (1546); but his influence in the council
+was supplanted by that of Cardinal de Tournon. Under Henry II., being
+involved in the disgrace of all the servants of Francis I., he was sent
+to Rome (1547), and he obtained eight votes in the conclave which
+followed the death of Pope Paul III. After three quiet years passed in
+retirement in France (1550-1553), he was charged with a new mission to
+Pope Julius III. and took with him to Rome his young cousin the poet
+Joachim du Bellay (q.v.). He lived in Rome thenceforth in great state.
+In 1555 he was nominated bishop of Ostia and dean of the Sacred College,
+an appointment which was disapproved of by Henry II. and brought him
+into fresh disgrace, lasting till his death in Rome on the 16th of
+February 1560. Less resolute and reliable than his brother Guillaume,
+the cardinal had brilliant qualities, and an open and free mind. He was
+on the side of toleration and protected the reformers. Budaeus was his
+friend, Rabelais his faithful secretary and doctor; men of letters, like
+Etienne Dolet, and the poet Salmon Macrin, were indebted to him for
+assistance. An orator and writer of Latin verse, he left three books of
+graceful Latin poems (printed with Salmon Macrin's _Odes_, 1546, by R.
+Estienne), and some other compositions, including _Francisci Francorum
+regis epistola apologetica_ (1542). His voluminous correspondence,
+mostly in MS., is remarkable for its _verve_ and picturesque quality.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The Bibliotheque Nationale at Paris has numerous
+  unpublished letters of Jean du Bellay. See also Ribier, _Lettres et
+  memoires d'estat_ (Paris, 1666); V. L. Bourrilly and P. de Vaissiere,
+  _Ambassade de Jean du Bellay en Angleterre_, vol. i. (Paris, 1905);
+  marquis de la Jonquiere, _Le Cardinal du Bellay_ (Alencon, 1887);
+  Heulhard, _Rabelais, ses voyages en Italie_ (Paris, 1891); Chamard,
+  _Joachim du Bellay_ (Lille, 1900); V. L. Bourrilly, _Guillaume du
+  Bellay_ (Paris, 1905); "Jean du Bellay, les protestants et la
+  Sorbonne" in the _Bulletin du Protestantisme francais_ (1903, 1904);
+  and "Jean Sleidan et le Cardinal du Bellay," in the _Bulletin, &c._
+  (1901, 1906).     (J. I.)
+
+
+
+
+DU BELLAY, JOACHIM (c. 1522-1560), French poet and critic, member of the
+Pleiade, was born[1] at the chateau of La Turmeliere, not far from Lire,
+near Angers, being the son of Jean du Bellay, seigneur de Gonnor,
+cousin-german of the cardinal Jean du Bellay and of Guillaume du Bellay.
+Both his parents died while he was still a child, and he was left to the
+guardianship of his elder brother, Rene du Bellay, who neglected his
+education, leaving him to run wild at La Turmeliere. When he was
+twenty-three, however, he received permission to go to Poitiers to study
+law, no doubt with a view to his obtaining perferment through his
+kinsman the Cardinal Jean du Bellay. At Poitiers he came in contact with
+the humanist Marc Antoine Muret, and with Jean Salmon Macrin
+(1490-1557), a Latin poet famous in his day. There too he probably met
+Jacques Peletier du Mans, who had published a translation of the _Ars
+poetica_ of Horace, with a preface in which much of the programme
+advocated later by the Pleiade is to be found in outline.
+
+It was probably in 1547 that du Bellay met Ronsard in an inn on the way
+to Poitiers, an event which may justly be regarded as the starting-point
+of the French school of Renaissance poetry. The two had much in common,
+and immediately became fast friends. Du Bellay returned with Ronsard to
+Paris to join the circle of students of the humanities attached to Jean
+Daurat (q.v.) at the College de Coqueret. While Ronsard and Antoine de
+Baif were most influenced by Greek models, du Bellay was more especially
+a Latinist, and perhaps his preference for a language so nearly
+connected with his own had some part in determining the more national
+and familiar note of his poetry. In 1548 appeared the _Art poetique_ of
+Thomas Sibilet, who enunciated many of the ideas that Ronsard and his
+followers had at heart, though with essential differences in the point
+of view, since he held up as models Clement Marot and his disciples.
+Ronsard and his friends dissented violently from Sibilet on this and
+other points, and they doubtless felt a natural resentment at finding
+their ideas forestalled and, moreover, inadequately presented. The
+famous manifesto of the Pleiade, the _Deffence et illustration de la
+langue francoyse_ (1549), was at once a complement and a refutation of
+Sibilet's treatise. This book was the expression of the literary
+principles of the Pleiade as a whole, but although Ronsard was the
+chosen leader, its redaction was entrusted to du Bellay. To obtain a
+clear view of the reforms aimed at by the Pleiade, the _Deffence_ should
+be further considered in connexion with Ronsard's _Abrege d'art
+poetique_ and his preface to the _Franciade_. Du Bellay maintained that
+the French language as it was then constituted was too poor to serve as
+a medium for the higher forms of poetry, but he contended that by proper
+cultivation it might be brought on a level with the classical tongues.
+He condemned those who despaired of their mother tongue, and used Latin
+for their more serious and ambitious work. For translations from the
+ancients he would substitute imitations. Not only were the forms of
+classical poetry to be imitated, but a separate poetic language and
+style, distinct from those employed in prose, were to be used. The
+French language was to be enriched by a development of its internal
+resources and by discreet borrowing from the Latin and Greek. Both du
+Bellay and Ronsard laid stress on the necessity of prudence in these
+borrowings, and both repudiated the charge of wishing to latinize their
+mother tongue. The book was a spirited defence of poetry and of the
+possibilities of the French language; it was also a declaration of war
+on those writers who held less heroic views.
+
+The violent attacks made by du Bellay on Marot and his followers, and on
+Sibilet, did not go unanswered. Sibilet replied in the preface to his
+translation (1549) of the _Iphigenia_ of Euripides; Guillaume des
+Autels, a Lyonnese poet, reproached du Bellay with ingratitude to his
+predecessors, and showed the weakness of his argument for imitation as
+opposed to translation in a digression in his _Replique aux furieuses
+defenses de Louis Meigret_ (Lyons, 1550); Barthelemy Aneau, regent of
+the College de la Trinite at Lyons, attacked him in his _Quintil
+Horatian_ (Lyons, 1551), the authorship of which was commonly attributed
+to Charles Fontaine. Aneau pointed out the obvious inconsistency of
+inculcating imitation of the ancients and depreciating native poets in a
+work professing to be a defence of the French language. Du Bellay
+replied to his various assailants in a preface to the second edition
+(1550) of his sonnet sequence _Olive_, with which he also published two
+polemical poems, the _Musagnaeomachie_, and an ode addressed to Ronsard,
+_Contre les envieux poetes_. _Olive_, a collection of love-sonnets
+written in close imitation of Petrarch, first appeared in 1549. With it
+were printed thirteen odes entitled _Vers lyriques_. Olive has been
+supposed to be an anagram for the name of a Mlle Viole, but there is
+little evidence of real passion in the poems, and they may perhaps be
+regarded as a Petrarcan exercise, especially as, in the second edition,
+the dedication to his lady is exchanged for one to Marguerite de Valois,
+sister of Henry II. Du Bellay did not actually introduce the sonnet into
+French poetry, but he acclimatized it; and when the fashion of
+sonneteering became a mania he was one of the first to ridicule its
+excesses.
+
+About this time du Bellay had a serious illness of two years' duration,
+from which dates the beginning of his deafness. He had further anxieties
+in the guardianship of his nephew. The boy died in 1553, and Joachim,
+who had up to this time borne the title of sieur de Lire, became
+seigneur of Gonnor. In 1549 he had published a _Recueil de poesies_
+dedicated to the Princess Marguerite. This was followed in 1552 by a
+version of the fourth book of the _Aeneid_, with other translations and
+some occasional poems. In the next year he went to Rome as one of the
+secretaries of Cardinal du Bellay. To the beginning of his four and a
+half years' residence in Italy belong the forty-seven sonnets of his
+_Antiquites de Rome_, which were rendered into English by Edmund Spenser
+(_The Ruins of Rome_, 1591). These sonnets were more personal and less
+imitative than the _Olive_ sequence, and struck a note which was revived
+in later French literature by Volney and Chateaubriand. His stay in Rome
+was, however, a real exile. His duties were those of an intendant. He
+had to meet the cardinal's creditors and to find money for the expenses
+of the household. Nevertheless he found many friends among Italian
+scholars, and formed a close friendship with another exiled poet whose
+circumstances were similar to his own, Olivier de Magny. Towards the end
+of his sojourn in Rome he fell violently in love with a Roman lady
+called Faustine, who appears in his poetry as Columba and Columbelle.
+This passion finds its clearest expression in the Latin poems. Faustine
+was guarded by an old and jealous husband, and du Bellay's eventual
+conquest may have had something to do with his departure for Paris at
+the end of August 1557. In the next year he published the poems he had
+brought back with him from Rome, the Latin _Poemata_, the _Antiquites de
+Rome_, the _Jeux rustiques_, and the 191 sonnets of the _Regrets_, the
+greater number of which were written in Italy. The _Regrets_ show that
+he had advanced far beyond the theories of the _Deffence_. The
+simplicity and tenderness specially characteristic of du Bellay appear
+in the sonnets telling of his unlucky passion for Faustine, and of his
+nostalgia for the banks of the Loire. Among them are some satirical
+sonnets describing Roman manners, and the later ones written after his
+return to Paris are often appeals for patronage. His intimate relations
+with Ronsard were not renewed; but he formed a close friendship with the
+scholar Jean de Morel, whose house was the centre of a learned society.
+In 1559 du Bellay published at Poitiers _La Nouvelle Maniere de faire
+son profit des lettres_, a satirical epistle translated from the Latin
+of Adrien Turnebe, and with it _Le Poete courtisan_, which introduced
+the formal satire into French poetry. These were published under the
+pseudonym of J. Quintil du Troussay, and the courtier-poet was generally
+supposed to be Melin de Saint-Gelais, with whom du Bellay had always,
+however, been on friendly terms.
+
+A long and eloquent _Discours au roi_ (detailing the duties of a prince,
+and translated from a Latin original written by Michel de l'Hopital, now
+lost) was dedicated to Francis II. in 1559, and is said to have secured
+for the poet a tardy pension. In Paris he was still in the employ of
+the cardinal, who delegated to him the lay patronage which he still
+retained in the diocese. In the exercise of these functions Joachim
+quarrelled with Eustache du Bellay, bishop of Paris, who prejudiced his
+relations with the cardinal, less cordial since the publication of the
+outspoken _Regrets_. His chief patron, Marguerite de Valois, to whom he
+was sincerely attached, had gone to Savoy. Du Bellay's health was weak;
+his deafness seriously hindered his official duties; and on the 1st of
+January 1560 he died. There is no evidence that he was in priest's
+orders, but he was a clerk, and as such held various preferments. He had
+at one time been a canon of Notre Dame of Paris, and was accordingly
+buried in the cathedral. The statement that he was nominated archbishop
+of Bordeaux during the last year of life is unauthenticated by
+documentary evidence and is in itself extremely improbable.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The best edition of the works of J. du Bellay is
+  _OEuvres francaises_ (2 vols., 1866-1867), edited with introduction
+  and notes by C. Marty-Laveaux in his _Pleiade francaise_. His _OEuvres
+  choisies_ were published by L. Becq de Fouquieres in 1876. The chief
+  source of his biography is his own poetry, especially the Latin elegy
+  addressed to Jean de Morel, "_Elegia ad Janum Morellum Ebredunensem,
+  Pyladem suum_," printed with a volume of _Xenia_ (Paris, 1569). A
+  study of his life and writings by H. Chamard, forming vol. viii. of
+  the _Travaux et memoires de l'universite de Lille_ (Lille, 1900),
+  contains all the available information and corrects many common
+  errors. See also Sainte-Beuve, _Tableau de la poesie francaise au
+  XVI^e siecle_ (1828); _La Defense et illust. de la langue francaise_
+  (1905), with biographical and critical introduction by Leon Seche, who
+  also wrote _Joachim du Bellay, documents nouveaux et inedits_ (1880),
+  and published in 1903 the first volume of a new edition of the
+  _OEuvres; Lettres de Joachim du Bellay_ (1884), edited by P. de
+  Nolhac; G. Wyndham, _Ronsard and La Pleiade_ (1906); H. Belloc,
+  _Avril_ (1905); A. Tilley, _The Literature of the French Renaissance_
+  (2 vols., 1904).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] For the date of his birth, commonly given as 1525, see H.
+    Chamard, _Joachim du Bellay_ (Lille, 1900).
+
+
+
+
+DUBLIN, a county of Ireland in the province of Leinster, bounded N. by
+Co. Meath, E. by the Irish Sea, S. by Wicklow, and W. by Kildare and
+Meath. With the exception of Louth and Carlow, Dublin is the smallest
+county in Ireland, having an area of 218,873 acres, or about 342 sq. m.
+The northern portion is flat, and the soil good, particularly on the
+borders of Meath; but on the southern side the land rises into
+elevations of considerable height. The mountains are chiefly covered
+with heath, except where a subsidence in the ground affords a nucleus
+for the formation of bog, with which about 2000 acres are covered. There
+are also a few small tracts of bog in the northern part of the county.
+The mountain district is well adapted for timber. The northern coast of
+the county from Balbriggan to Howth has generally a sandy shore, and
+affords only the small harbours of Balbriggan and Skerries. In the
+promontory of Howth, the coast suddenly assumes a bolder aspect; and
+between the town of Howth and the rocky islet of Ireland's Eye an
+unsuccessful artificial harbour was constructed. Kingstown harbour on
+the south side of Dublin Bay superseded this, and is by far the best in
+the county. Dalkey Island, about 22 acres in extent, lies about midway
+between Kingstown harbour and the beautiful bay of Killiney. North of
+Howth lies Lambay Island, about 600 acres in area. Shell fish,
+especially lobsters, are taken here in abundance. Small islets lie
+farther north off Skerries; the most interesting of which is that known
+as Inispatrick, reputed as the first landing-place of St Patrick, and
+having the ruins of a church said to be the saint's first foundation,
+though it shares this reputation with other sites. Ireland's Eye, off
+Howth, is a very picturesque rock with about 54 acres of grass land. It
+has afforded great room for geological disquisition. The chief river in
+the county is the Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow mountains about 12
+m. S.W. of Dublin, and, after running about 50 m., empties itself into
+Dublin Bay. The course of the river is so tortuous that 40 m. may be
+traversed and only 10 gained in direction. The scenery along the banks
+of the Liffey is remarkably beautiful. The mountains which occupy the
+southern border of the county are the extremities of the great group
+belonging to the adjacent county Wicklow. The principal summits are the
+group containing Glendoo (1919 ft.) and Two Rock (1699 ft.) within the
+county, and the border group of Kippure, reaching in that summit a
+height of 2475 ft. The grandest features of these hills are the great
+natural ravines which open in them, the most extraordinary being the
+Scalp through which the traveller passes from Dublin to Wicklow.
+
+  _Geology._--On the north a Silurian upland stretches, falling to the
+  sea at Balbriggan, where fossiliferous strata contain contemporaneous
+  volcanic rocks. A limestone of Bala age comes out under shales and
+  andesites in the promontory of Portrane, and rocks of the same series
+  occur in the bold island of Lambay, associated with a large mass of
+  dark green porphyritic andesite (the "Lambay porphyry"). Silurian
+  rocks reappear at Tallaght in the south-west, where the granite of
+  Leinster rises through them, forming a moorland 2000 ft. in height
+  only a few miles south of Dublin. Old Red Sandstone, seen at Donabate
+  and Newcastle, leads up into Carboniferous Limestone, which is often
+  darkened by mud and even shaly ("calpy" type). This rock produces a
+  fairly level country, both north and south of the valley of the
+  Liffey, although the beds are greatly folded. Beds of a higher
+  Carboniferous zone are retained in synclinals near Rush. The rugged
+  peninsula of Howth, connected by a raised bench with the mainland, is
+  formed of old quartzites and shales, crushed and folded, and probably
+  of Cambrian age. The rocks of the county show many signs of
+  ice-action, and boulder-clays and drift-gravels cover the lowland, the
+  latter being banked up on the mountain-slopes to heights of 1200 ft.
+  or more. Much of this glacial material has been imported from the area
+  of the Irish Sea. Lead-ore has been mined at the granite-contact at
+  Ballycorus.
+
+  _Industries._--The extension of Dublin city and its suburbs has no
+  doubt had its influence on the decrease of acreage under both tillage
+  and pasture. Oats and potatoes are the principal crops, but live
+  stock, especially cattle, receives greater attention. A large
+  proportion of holdings are of the smallest, nearly one-half of those
+  beneath fifteen acres being also beneath one acre. The manufactures of
+  the county are mainly confined to the city and suburbs, but there is
+  manufacture of cotton hosiery at Balbriggan. The haddock, herring and
+  other fisheries, both deep-sea and coastal, are important, and
+  Kingstown is the headquarters of the fishery district. The salmon
+  fishery district of Dublin also affords considerable employment. As
+  containing the metropolis of Ireland, the communications of the county
+  are naturally good, several important railways and two canals
+  converging upon the city of Dublin, under the head of which they are
+  considered.
+
+_Population and Administration._--The population (148,210 in 1891;
+157,568 in 1901) shows a regular increase, which, however, is not
+consistent from year to year. About 70% are Roman Catholics, the
+Protestant Episcopalians (24%) standing next. The chief towns, apart
+from the capital, are Balbriggan (pop. 2236), Blackrock (8719), Dalkey
+(3398), Killiney and Ballybrack (2744), Pembroke (25,799), Rathmines and
+Rathgar (32,602), and the important port of Kingstown (17,377). These
+are urban districts. Skerries, Howth and Rush are small maritime towns.
+There are nine baronies in the county, which, including the city of
+Dublin, are divided into 100 parishes, all within the Protestant and
+Roman Catholic dioceses of Dublin. Assizes are held in Dublin, and
+quarter sessions also in the capital, and at Balbriggan, Kilmainham,
+Kingstown and Swords. Previous to the union with Great Britain, this
+county returned ten representatives to the Irish Parliament,--two for
+the county, two for the city, two for the university, and two for each
+of the boroughs of Swords and Newcastle. The county parliamentary
+divisions are now two, north and south, each returning one member. The
+city of Dublin constitutes a separate county.
+
+_History._--Dublin is among the counties generally considered to have
+been formed by King John, and comprised the chief portion of country
+within the English pale. The limits of the county, however, were
+uncertain, and underwent many changes before they were fixed. As late as
+the 17th century the mountainous country south of Dublin offered a
+retreat to the lawless, and it was not until 1606 that the boundaries of
+the county received definition in this direction, along with the
+formation of the county Wicklow. Although so near the seat of government
+67,142 acres of profitable land were forfeited in the Rebellion of 1641
+and 34,536 acres in the Revolution of 1688. In 1867 the most formidable
+of the Fenian risings took place near the village of Tallaght, about 7
+m. from the city. The rebels, who numbered from 500 to 700, were found
+wandering at dawn, some by a small force of constabulary who, having in
+vain called upon them to yield, fired and wounded five of them; but the
+great bulk of them were overtaken by the troops under Lord Strathnairn,
+who captured them with ease and marched them into the city. There are
+numerous antiquities in the county. Raths or encampments are frequent,
+and those at Raheny, Coolock, Lucan, with the large specimen at
+Shankill or Rathmichael near the Scalp pass may be mentioned. Cromlechs
+occur in Phoenix Park, Dublin, at Howth, and elsewhere. There are fine
+round towers at Swords, Lusk and Clondalkin, and there is the stump of
+one at Rathmichael.
+
+
+
+
+DUBLIN, a city, county of a city, parliamentary borough and seaport, and
+the metropolis of Ireland, in the province of Leinster. It lies at the
+head of a bay of the Irish Sea, to which it gives name, about midway on
+the eastern coast of the island, 334 m. W.N.W. of London by the Holyhead
+route, and 70 m. W. of Holyhead on the coast of Anglesey, Wales. (For
+map, see IRELAND.) Its population in 1901 was 290,638.
+
+_Site, Streets and Buildings._--Dublin lies on the great central
+limestone district which stretches across the island from the Irish Sea
+to the Atlantic Ocean, and occupies both banks of the river Liffey. Its
+situation is justly admired. The populous shores of the bay are
+exceedingly picturesque. To the north and west the country is
+comparatively level, the central plain of Ireland here reaching to the
+coast, but to the south the foothills of the Wicklow Mountains
+practically touch the confines of Greater Dublin, affording
+comprehensive views of the physical position of the city, and forming a
+background to some of the finest streets. The municipal boundary lies
+generally a little outside the so-called Circular Road, which may be
+taken as encircling the city proper, with a few breaks. It bears this
+name on both the north and south sides of the river. As the city is
+approached from the bay, the river Liffey, which divides the city from
+west to east roughly into two equal parts, is seen to be lined with a
+fine series of quays. At its mouth, on the north side, is the North Wall
+quay, where the principal steamers lie, and in this vicinity are the
+docks. At the opposite (western) end of the city, the Phoenix Park may
+be taken as a convenient landmark. Between this and North Wall the river
+is crossed by twelve bridges, which, in order from west to east, are
+these:--Sarah Bridge, the bridge of the North Wall extension railway;
+King's, commemorating a visit of George IV.; Victoria or Barrack;
+Queen's; Whitworth, of interest as occupying the site where a bridge has
+stood since the 12th century; Richmond, Grattan and Wellington;
+O'Connell, Butt and a swivel bridge carrying a loop railway. Of these
+O'Connell bridge (formerly known as Carlisle) is the principal, as it
+connects the chief thoroughfare on the north side, namely Sackville (or
+O'Connell) Street, with Great Brunswick Street and others on the south.
+Sackville Street, which gains in appearance from its remarkable breadth,
+contains the principal hotels, and the post office, with a fine Ionic
+portico, founded in 1815. At the crossing of Henry Street and Earl
+Street is the Nelson pillar, a beautiful monument 134 ft. in height,
+consisting of a fluted Doric column, raised on a massive pedestal, and
+crowned by a statue of the admiral. At the southern end of the street is
+Daniel O'Connell's monument, almost completed by John Henry Foley before
+his death, and erected in 1882. In Rutland Square, at the northern end,
+is the Rotunda, containing public rooms for meetings, and adjoining it,
+the Rotunda hospital with its Doric facade.
+
+From the north end of Sackville Street, several large thoroughfares
+radiate through the northern part of the city, ultimately joining the
+Circular Road at various points. To the west there are the Broadstone
+station, Dominion Street, and beyond this the large workhouse, prison,
+asylum and other district buildings, while the Royal barracks front the
+river behind Albert Quay. Two other notable buildings face the river on
+the north bank. Between Whitworth and Richmond bridges stands the "Four
+Courts" (law courts), on the site of the ancient Dominican monastery of
+St Saviour. It was erected between 1786 and 1796, and is adjoined by
+other court buildings, the public record office, containing a vast
+collection, and the police offices. Below the lowest bridge on the
+river, and therefore in the neighbourhood of the shipping quarter, is
+the customs house (1781-1791), considered one of the chief ornaments of
+the city. It presents four fronts, that facing the river being of
+Portland stone, in the Doric order, while the rest are of granite. The
+centre is crowned by a dome, surmounted by a statue of Hope. This
+building provides offices for the Local Government Board, Boards of
+Trade and of Public Works and other bodies.
+
+It is, however, to the south of the river that the most interesting
+buildings are found. Crossing O'Connell bridge, the short Westmoreland
+Street strikes into a thoroughfare which traverses the entire city
+parallel with the river, and is known successively (from west to east)
+as James, Thomas, High, Castle, Dame, College and Great Brunswick
+streets. At the end of Westmoreland Street a fine group of buildings is
+seen--Trinity College on the left and the Bank of Ireland on the right.
+Barely half a mile westward down Dame Street, rises the Castle, and 300
+yds. beyond this again is the cathedral of Christ Church. These, with
+the second cathedral of St Patrick, are more conveniently described in
+the inverse order.
+
+
+  Christ Church.
+
+The cathedral of Christ Church, or Holy Trinity, the older of the two
+Protestant cathedrals in the possession of which Dublin is remarkable,
+was founded by Sigtryg, a Christianized king of the Danes of Dublin, in
+1038, but dates its elevation to a deanery and chapter from 1541. It was
+restored in 1870-1877 by G. E. Street at the charge of Mr Henry Roe, a
+merchant of Dublin, who also presented the Synod House. The restoration
+involved the complete rebuilding of the choir and the south side of the
+nave, but the model of the ancient building was followed with great
+care. The crypt embodies remains of the founder's work; the rest is
+Transitional Norman and Early English in style. Among the monuments is
+that of Strongbow, the invader of Ireland, to whom the earlier part of
+the superstructure (1170) is due. Here the tenants of the church lands
+were accustomed to pay their rents. The monument was injured by the fall
+of one of the cathedral walls, but was repaired. By its side is a
+smaller tomb, ascribed to Strongbow's son, whom his father killed for
+showing cowardice in battle. Synods were occasionally held in this
+church, and parliaments also, before the Commons' Hall was destroyed in
+1566 by an accidental explosion of gunpowder. Here also the pretender
+Lambert Simnel was crowned.
+
+
+  St Patrick's.
+
+A short distance south from Christ Church, through the squalid quarter
+of Nicholas and Patrick streets, stands the other Protestant cathedral
+dedicated to St Patrick, the foundation of which was an attempt to
+supersede the older foundation of Christ Church, owing to jealousies,
+both ecclesiastical and political, arising out of the Anglo-Norman
+invasion. It was founded about 1190 by John Comyn, archbishop of Dublin;
+but there was a church dedicated to the same saint before. It was burnt
+about two hundred years later, but was raised from its ruins with
+increased splendour. At the Reformation it was deprived of its status as
+a cathedral, and the building was used for some of the purposes of the
+courts of justice. Edward VI. contemplated its change into a university,
+but the project was defeated. In the succeeding reign of Mary, St
+Patrick's was restored to its primary destination. The installations of
+the knights of St Patrick, the first of which took place in 1783, were
+originally held here, and some of their insignia are preserved in the
+choir. This cathedral contains the monuments of several illustrious
+persons, amongst which the most celebrated are those of Swift (dean of
+this cathedral), of Mrs Hester Johnson, immortalized under the name of
+"Stella"; of Archbishop Marsh; of the first earl of Cork; and of Duke
+Schomberg, who fell at the battle of the Boyne. The tablet over
+Schomberg's grave contains what Macaulay called a "furious libel,"
+though it only states that the duke's relatives refused the expense of
+the tablet. In the cathedral may be seen the chain ball which killed
+General St Ruth at the battle of Aughrim, and the spurs which he wore.
+The cathedral was restored by Sir Benjamin Lee Guinness (1864), whom a
+fine statue by John Henry Foley commemorates, and the work was resumed
+by his son Lord Iveagh in 1900. Attached to the cathedral is Marsh's
+library, incorporated in 1707, by a request of Primate Marsh, archbishop
+of Armagh. It contains a good number of theological works and of
+manuscripts, and is open to the public; but is deficient in modern
+publications.
+
+
+  The Castle.
+
+Dublin Castle stands high, and occupies about ten acres of ground, but
+excepting St Patrick's Hall, the apartments are small, and the building
+is of a motley and unimposing appearance, with the exception of the
+chapel (a Gothic building of the early 19th century) and great tower.
+The castle was originally built in the first two decades of the 13th
+century; and there are portions of this period, but nearly the whole is
+of the 16th century and later. In St Patrick's hall where the knights of
+St Patrick are invested, are the banners of that order. Opposite the
+castle is the city hall (1779), in the possession of the corporation,
+with statues in the central hall of George III., of Grattan (a superb
+work by Sir Francis Chantry), of Daniel O'Connell, and of Thomas
+Drummond by John Hogan and several others.
+
+
+  Bank of Ireland.
+
+The Bank of Ireland (see ARCHITECTURE, fig. 85) occupies five acres, and
+was formerly the House of Parliament. There are three fronts; the
+principal, towards College Green, is a colonnade of the Ionic order,
+with facade and two projecting wings; it connects with the western
+portico by a colonnade of the same order, forming the quadrant of a
+circle. The eastern front, which was the entrance of the House of Lords,
+is, by their special wish, of the Corinthian order, made conformable
+with the rest of the building not without difficulty to the architect.
+The House of Lords contains tapestry dating from 1733, and remains in
+its original condition, but the octagonal House of Commons was
+demolished by the bank directors, and replaced with a cash-office. The
+building was begun in 1729, but the fronts date from the end of the
+century; the remodelling took place in 1803.
+
+
+  Trinity College.
+
+Trinity College, or Dublin University, fronts the street with a
+Palladian facade (1759), with two good statues by Foley, of Goldsmith
+and Burke. Above the gateway is a hall called the Regent House. The
+first quadrangle, Parliament Square, contains the chapel (1798), with a
+Corinthian portico, the public theatre or examination hall (1787),
+containing portraits of Queen Elizabeth, Molyneux, Burke, Bishop
+Berkeley and other celebrities, and the wain-scotted dining hall, also
+containing portraits. A beautiful modern campanile (1853), erected by
+Lord John George Beresford, archbishop of Armagh and chancellor of the
+university, occupies the centre of the square. Library Square takes its
+name from the library, which is one of the four scheduled in the
+Copyright Act as entitled to receive a copy of every volume published in
+the United Kingdom. There is a notable collection of early Irish
+manuscripts, including the magnificently ornamented Book of Kells,
+containing the gospels. The building was begun in 1712. In this square
+are the oldest buildings of the foundation, dating in part from the
+close of the 17th century, and the modern Graduates' Memorial buildings
+(1904). These contain a theatre, library and reading-room, the rooms of
+the college societies and others. The schools form a fine modern pile
+(1856), and other buildings are the provost's house (1760), printing
+house (1760), museum (1857) and the medical school buildings, in three
+blocks, one of the best schools in the kingdom. Other buildings of the
+20th century include chemical laboratories. The College Park and
+Fellows' Garden are of considerable beauty. In the former most of the
+recreations of the students take place; but the college also supports a
+well-known rowing-club. The college observatory is at Dunsink, about 5
+m. north-west of Dublin; it is amply furnished with astronomical
+instruments. It was endowed by Dr Francis Andrews, provost of Trinity
+College, was erected in 1785, and in 1791 was placed by statute under
+the management of the royal astronomer of Ireland, whose official
+residence is here. The magnetic observatory of Dublin was erected in the
+years 1837-1838 in the gardens attached to Trinity College, at the
+expense of the university. A normal climatological station was
+established in the Fellows' Garden in 1904. The botanic garden is at
+Ball's Bridge, 1 m. S.E. of the college.
+
+  The alternative title of Dublin University or Trinity College, Dublin
+  (commonly abbreviated T.C.D.), is explained by the fact that the
+  university consists of only one college, that of "the Holy and
+  Undivided Trinity." This was founded under charter from Queen
+  Elizabeth in 1591, and is the greatest foundation of its kind in the
+  country. The corporation consists of a provost, 7 senior fellows, 25
+  junior fellows and 70 scholars. A vacancy among the fellows is filled
+  up by the provost and a select number of the fellows, after
+  examination comprised in five principal courses, mathematics,
+  experimental science, classics, mental and moral science and Hebrew.
+  Fellowships are held for life. Until the year 1840 the fellows were
+  bound to celibacy, but that restriction was then removed. All except
+  five (medical and law fellows) were bound to take Holy Orders until
+  1872. The scholars on the foundation (or "of the House") are chosen
+  from among the undergraduates, for merit in classics, mathematics or
+  experimental science. The pecuniary advantages attaching to
+  scholarship (L20 Irish, free commons, and rooms at half the charge
+  made to other students) last for four years. Students after an
+  examination are admitted as fellow-commoners, pensioners or sizars.
+  Fellow-commoners, who have decreased in numbers in modern times, pay
+  higher fees than the ordinary undergraduates or pensioners, and have
+  certain advantages of precedence, including the right of dining at the
+  fellows' table. Sizarships are awarded on examination to students of
+  limited means, and carry certain relaxations of fees. They were
+  formerly given on the nomination of fellows. Noblemen, noblemen's sons
+  and baronets (_nobilis, filius nobilis, eques_) have the privilege of
+  forming a separate order with peculiar advantages, on the payment of
+  additional charges. The mode of admission to the university is in all
+  cases by examination. Various exhibitions and prizes are awarded both
+  in connexion with the entrance of students and at subsequent stages of
+  the course of instruction, which normally lasts four years. There are
+  three terms in each year--Michaelmas (beginning the Academic year),
+  Hilary and Trinity. The undergraduate is called in his first year a
+  junior freshman, in his second a senior freshman, in his third a
+  junior sophister, and in his fourth a senior sophister. The usual arts
+  and scientific courses are provided, and there are four professional
+  schools--divinity, law, physic and engineering. The undergraduate has
+  certain examinations in each year, and four "commencements" are held
+  every year for the purpose of conferring degrees. Freedom is offered
+  to students who wish to be transferred from Oxford, Cambridge, or
+  certain colonial universities to Trinity College, by the recognition
+  of terms kept in the former institutions as part of the necessary
+  course at Trinity College. In 1903 it was decided to bestow degrees on
+  women, and in 1904 to establish women's scholarships. The funds of the
+  college, arising from lands and the fees of students, are managed
+  solely by the provost and seven senior fellows, who form a board, to
+  which and to the academic council the whole government of the
+  university, both in its executive and its legislative branches, is
+  committed. The council consists of the provost and sixteen members of
+  the senate elected by the fellows, professors, &c; the senate consists
+  of the chancellor or his deputy and doctors and masters who keep their
+  names on the books. The average number of students on the books is
+  about 1300. By an act passed in 1873, known as Fawcett's Act, all
+  tests were abolished, and the prizes and honours of all grades
+  hitherto reserved for Protestants of the Established Church were
+  thrown open to all. The university returns two members to parliament.
+  (See _Dublin University Calendar_, annual.)
+
+There remain to be mentioned the following buildings in Dublin. The
+permanent building of the International Exhibition of 1865 adjoins the
+pleasure ground of St Stephen's Green. This building was occupied by the
+Royal University of Ireland until its dissolution under the Irish
+Universities Act 1908, which provided for a new university at Dublin, to
+which the building was transferred under the act (see IRELAND:
+_Education_). The new university is called the National University of
+Ireland. At the same time a new college was founded under the name of
+University College. The Royal University replaced the Queen's University
+under the University Act (Ireland) in 1879. No teaching was carried on,
+but examinations were held and degrees conferred, both on men and on
+women. On the west side of St Stephen's Green is the Catholic University
+(1854), which is under the Jesuit Fathers and affiliated to the Royal
+University. Between Trinity College and St Stephen's Green, a large
+group of buildings includes the Royal Dublin Society, founded in 1683 to
+develop agriculture and the useful arts, with a library and gallery of
+statuary; the Science and Arts Museum, and the National Library, the
+former with a noteworthy collection of Irish antiquities; the Museum of
+Natural History, with a splendid collection of Irish fauna; and the
+National Gallery of Ireland, founded in 1853. Here was once a residence
+of the duke of Leinster, and the buildings surround the open space of
+Leinster Lawn. Educational foundations include the Royal College of
+Physicians, of Surgeons and of Science; the Royal Irish Academy, with an
+unequalled collection of national antiquities, including manuscripts and
+a library; and the Royal Hibernian Academy of painting, sculpture and
+architecture. In 1904 the formation of a municipally supported gallery
+of modern art (mainly due to the initiative and generosity of Mr Hugh
+Lane) was signalized by an exhibition including the pictures intended to
+constitute the nucleus of the gallery. In 1905 King Edward VII. laid the
+foundation stone of a college of science on a site in the vicinity of
+Leinster Lawn. The full scheme for the occupation of the site included,
+not only the college, but also offices for the Board of Works and the
+Department of Agriculture. The famous Dublin Horse and Agricultural
+Shows are held at Ball's Bridge in April, August and December.
+
+The most notable churches apart from the cathedrals are Roman Catholic
+and principally modern. The lofty church of the Augustinians in Thomas
+Street; St Mary's, the pro-cathedral, in Marlborough Street, with
+Grecian ornamentation within, and a Doric portico; St Paul's on Arran
+Quay, in the Ionic style; and the striking St Francis Xavier in Gardiner
+Street, also Ionic, are all noteworthy, and the last is one of the
+finest modern churches in Ireland. Among theatres Dublin has, in the
+Royal, a handsome building which replaced the old Theatre Royal, burnt
+down in 1880. Clubs, which are numerous, are chiefly found in the
+neighbourhood of Sackville Street; and there should further be mentioned
+the Rotunda, at the corner of Great Britain Street and Sackville Street,
+a beautiful building of its kind, belonging to the adjacent hospital,
+and used for concerts and other entertainments, while its gardens are
+used for agricultural shows.
+
+_Suburbs._--To the west of the city lies the Phoenix Park. Here, besides
+the viceregal demesne and lodge and the magazine, are a zoological
+garden, a people's garden, the Wellington monument, two barracks, the
+Hibernian military school, the "Fifteen Acres," a natural amphitheatre
+(of much greater extent than its name implies) used as a review ground,
+and a racecourse. The amenities of Phoenix Park were enhanced in 1905 by
+the purchase for the crown of land extending along the Liffey from
+Island bridge to Chapelizod, which might otherwise have been built over.
+To the south lies Kilmainham. Here is the royal hospital for pensioners
+and maimed soldiers. Close by is Kilmainham prison. To the west the
+valley of the Liffey affords pleasant scenery, with the well-known
+grounds called the "Strawberry Beds" on the north bank. In this
+direction lies Chapelizod, said to take its name from that Iseult whom
+Tennyson, Matthew Arnold and Wagner made a heroine; beyond which is
+Lucan connected with the city by tramway. Northward lies Clondalkin,
+with its round tower, marking the site of the important early see of
+Cluain Dolcain; Glasnevin, with famous botanical gardens; Finglas, with
+a ruined church of early foundation, and an Irish cross; and Clontarf, a
+favoured resort on the bay, with its modern castle and many residences
+of the wealthy classes in the vicinity. South of the city are Rathmines,
+a populous suburb, near which, at the "Bloody Fields," English colonists
+were murdered by the natives in 1209; and Donnybrook, celebrated for its
+former fair. Rathmines, Monkstown, Clontarf, Dalkey and Killiney, with
+the neighbourhood of Kingstown and Pembroke, are the most favoured
+residential districts. Howth, Malahide and Sutton to the north, and Bray
+to the south, are favoured seaside watering-places outside the radius of
+actual suburbs.
+
+_Communications._--The direct route to Dublin from London and other
+parts of England is by the Holyhead route, controlled by the London &
+North Western railway with steamers to the port of Dublin itself, while
+the company also works in conjunction with the mail steamers of the City
+of Dublin Steam Packet Company to the outlying port of Kingstown, 7 m.
+S.E. Passenger steamers, however, also serve Liverpool, Heysham,
+Bristol, the south coast ports of England and London; Edinburgh and
+Glasgow, and other ports of Great Britain. The railways leaving Dublin
+are the following: the Great Northern, with its terminus in Amiens
+Street, with suburban lines, and a main line running north to Drogheda,
+Dundalk and Belfast, with ramifications through the northern countries;
+the Great Southern & Western (Kingsbridge terminus) to Kilkenny, Athlone
+and Cork; the Midland Great Western (Broadstone terminus), to Cavan,
+Sligo and Galway; the Dublin & South-Eastern (Harcourt Street and
+Westland Row for Kingstown); and there is the North Wall station of the
+London & North-Western, with the line known as the North Wall extension,
+connecting with the other main lines. The internal communications of the
+city are excellent, electric tramways traversing the principal streets,
+and connecting all the principal suburbs.
+
+_Trade._--Dublin was for long stigmatized as lacking, for so large a
+city, in the proper signs of commercial enterprise. A certain spirit of
+foolish pride was said to exist which sought to disown trade; and the
+tendency to be poor and genteel in the civil service, at the bar, in the
+constabulary, in the army, in professional life, rather than prosperous
+in business, was one of the most unfortunate and strongly marked
+characteristics of Dublin society. This was attributable to the
+lingering yet potent influence of an unhappy past was held by some;
+while others attributed the weakness to the viceregal office and the
+effects of a sham court. About the time of the Revolution, the woollen
+trade flourished in Dublin, and the produce attained great celebrity.
+The cheapness of labour attracted capitalists, who started extensive
+factories in that quarter of the town known even now as the Liberties.
+This quarter was inhabited altogether by workers in wool, and as the
+city was small, the aristocracy lived close by in noble mansions which
+are now miserable memorials of past prosperity. About 1700 the English
+legislature prevailed on William III. to assent to laws which directly
+crushed the Irish trade. All exportation except to England was
+peremptorily forbidden, and the woollen manufacture soon decayed. But at
+the close of the 18th century there were 5000 persons at work in the
+looms of the Liberties. About 1715 parliament favoured the manufacture
+of linen, and the Linen Hall was built. The cotton trade was soon
+afterwards introduced; and silk manufacture was begun by the Huguenots,
+who had settled in Dublin in considerable numbers after the revocation
+of the edict of Nantes. Acts favourable to these enterprises were
+passed, and they flourished apace. But the old jealousy arose in the
+reign of George I., and in the reign of George III. an act was passed
+which tended directly to the ruin of the manufacture. The linen shared
+the same fate. Dublin poplins, however, keep their reputation. However
+adverse influences may have been combated, Dublin yet produces little
+for export save whisky and porter, the latter from the famous Guinness
+brewery and others; but a considerable export trade, principally in
+agricultural produce, passes through Dublin from the country. The total
+annual export trade may be valued at about L120,000, while imports
+exceed in value L3,000,000. To the manufacturing industries of the city
+there should be added mineral water works, foundries and shipbuilding.
+
+
+  Harbour.
+
+By continual dredging a great depth of water is kept available in the
+harbour. The Dublin Port and Docks Board, which was created in 1898 and
+consists of the mayor and six members of the corporation, with other
+members representing the trading and shipping interests, undertook
+considerable works of improvement at the beginning of the 20th century.
+These improvements, _inter alia_, enabled vessels drawing up to 23 ft.
+to lie alongside the extensive quays which border the Liffey, at low
+tide. The extensive Alexandra tidal basin, on the north side of the
+Liffey, admits vessels of similar capacity. The Custom House Works on
+the north side have about 17 ft. of water. With docks named after them
+are connected the Royal and Grand Canals, passing respectively to north
+and south of the city, the one penetrating the great central plain of
+Ireland on the north, the other following the course of the Liffey,
+doing the same on the south, and both joining the river Shannon. The
+docks attached to the canals, and certain other smaller docks, are owned
+by companies, and tolls are levied on vessels entering these, but not
+those entering the docks under the Board.
+
+_Government._--Dublin was formerly represented by two members in the
+imperial parliament, but in 1885 the parliamentary borough was divided
+into the four divisions of College Green, Harbour, St Stephen's Green
+and St Patrick's, each returning one member. The lord-lieutenant of
+Ireland occupies Dublin Castle and the Viceregal Lodge in Phoenix Park.
+Dublin is thus the seat of the viceregal court. It is also the seat of
+the Irish courts of law and equity. In connexion with these it may be
+noted that in 1904 a special court was established for children. On the
+constitution of Dublin as a county borough in 1898, the positions and
+duties of its corporation were left practically unaltered. The
+corporation consists of a lord mayor, 20 aldermen and 60 councillors,
+representing 20 wards. The income of the body arises from rents on
+property, customs and taxes. Under an act passed in 1875 the corporation
+has the right to forward every year three names of persons suitable for
+the office of high sheriff to the viceroy, one of which shall be
+selected by him. The corporation has neither control over the police nor
+any judicial duties, excepting as regards a court of conscience dealing
+with debts under 40s. (Irish); while the lord mayor holds a court for
+debts over 40s., and for the settlement of cases between masters and
+servants. The lord mayor is clerk of the markets and supervises weights
+and measures and deals with cases of adulteration. Besides the usual
+duties of local government, and the connexion with the port and docks
+boards already explained, there should be noticed the connexion of the
+corporation with such bodies as those controlling the city technical
+schools, the Royal Irish Academy of Music, and the gallery of modern
+art. The corporation has shown some concern for the housing of the poor,
+and an extensive scheme taken up in 1904 included the provision of
+cottage dwellings in the suburbs, as at Clontarf, besides improvements
+within the city itself. In 1905 a home on the model of the Rowton Houses
+in London, provided by Lord Iveagh, was opened in Bride Road. A
+competent fire-brigade is maintained by the corporation. The city
+coroner is a corporate officer. The city hall, used as municipal
+offices, has already been mentioned; the official residence of the lord
+mayor is the Mansion House, Dawson Street. The Dublin metropolitan
+police is a force peculiar to the city, the remainder of Ireland being
+protected civilly by the Royal Irish Constabulary. A large military
+force is usually maintained in the city of Dublin, which is the
+headquarters of the military district of Dublin and of the staff of
+Ireland (q.v.). The troops are accommodated in several large barracks in
+various parts of the city.
+
+_Charities._--The number of charitable institutions is large. The
+hospital and Free School of King Charles I., commonly called the Blue
+Coat hospital, was founded in 1670. It is devoted to the education and
+maintenance of the sons of citizens in poor circumstances. Before the
+Irish Parliament Houses were erected the parliament met in the school
+building. Among hospitals those of special general interest are the
+Steevens, the oldest in the city, founded under the will of Dr Richard
+Steevens in 1720; the Mater Misericordiae (1861), which includes a
+laboratory and museum, and is managed by the Sisters of Mercy, but
+relieves sufferers independently of their creed; the Rotunda lying-in
+hospital (1756); the Royal hospital for incurables, Donnybrook, which
+was founded in 1744 by the Dublin Musical Society; and the Royal
+Victoria Eye and Ear hospital, Adelaide Road, which amalgamated (1904)
+two similar institutions. Lunatics are maintained in St Patrick's
+hospital, founded in 1745, pursuant to the will of Dean Swift, and
+conducted by governors appointed under the charter of incorporation. The
+Richmond lunatic asylum, erected near the House of Industry, and placed
+under the care of officers appointed by government, receives patients
+from a district consisting of the counties of Dublin, Louth, Meath and
+Wicklow, each of these contributing towards its expenses in proportion
+to the number of patients sent in. Besides these public establishments
+for the custody of lunatics, there are in the vicinity of Dublin various
+private asylums. The principal institution for blind men (and also those
+afflicted by gout) is Simpson's hospital (1780), founded by a merchant
+of Dublin; while blind women are maintained at the Molyneux asylum
+(1815). An institution for the maintenance and education of children
+born deaf and dumb is maintained at Claremont, near Glasnevin (1816).
+The plan of the Royal hospital, for old and maimed soldiers, was first
+suggested by the earl of Essex, when lord-lieutenant, and carried into
+effect through the repeated applications of the duke of Ormond to
+Charles II. The site chosen for it was that of the ancient priory of
+Kilmainham, founded by Strongbow for Knights Templars. The building,
+completed in 1684, according to a plan of Sir Christopher Wren, is an
+oblong, three sides of which are dwelling-rooms, connected by covered
+corridors. The fourth contains the chapel, the dining-hall, and the
+apartments of the master, who is always the commander of the forces for
+the time being. The Royal Hibernian military school in Phoenix Park
+(1765) provides for soldiers' orphan sons. The Drummond Institution,
+Chapelizod, for the orphan daughters of soldiers, was established in
+1864 by John Drummond, alderman, who left L20,000 to found the asylum.
+The Hibernian Marine Society for the maintenance of seamen's sons was
+established in the city in 1766, but now has buildings at Clontarf. The
+Roman Catholic Church has charge of a number of special charities, some
+of them educational and some for the relief of suffering.
+
+_History._--The name of Dublin signifies the "Black pool." The early
+history is mainly legendary. It is recorded that the inhabitants of
+Leinster were defeated by the people of Dublin in the year 291.
+Christianity was introduced by St Patrick about 450. In the 9th century
+the Danes attacked Dublin and took it. The first Norseman who may be
+reckoned as king was Thorkel I. (832), though the Danes had appeared in
+the country as early as the close of the previous century. Thorkel
+established himself strongly at Armagh. In 1014 Brian Boroihme, king of
+Munster, attacked the enemy and fought the battle of Clontarf, in which
+he and his son and 11,000 of his followers fell. The Irish, however, won
+the battle, but the Danes reoccupied the city. Constant struggles with
+the Irish resulted in intermissions of the Danish supremacy from 1052 to
+1072, at various intervals between 1075 and 1118 and from 1124 to 1136.
+The Danes were finally ousted by the Anglo-Normans in 1171. In 1172
+Henry II. landed at Waterford, and came to Dublin and held his court
+there in a pavilion of wickerwork where the Irish chiefs were
+entertained with great pomp, and alliances entered into with them.
+Previous to his departure for England, Henry bestowed the government on
+Hugh de Lacy, having granted by charter "to his subjects of Bristol his
+city of Dublin to inhabit, and to hold of him and his heirs for ever,
+with all the liberties and free customs which his subjects of Bristol
+then enjoyed at Bristol and through all England." In 1176 Strongbow,
+earl of Pembroke, and chief leader of the Anglo-Norman forces, died in
+Dublin of a mortification in one of his feet, and was buried in Christ
+Church Cathedral, where his monument remains well preserved. A fresh
+charter was granted in 1207 by King John to the inhabitants of Dublin,
+who had not yet made their peace with the neighbourhood, but, like the
+settlers in other towns, were at constant feud with the native Irish; so
+that two years after the date of this charter, whilst the citizens of
+Dublin were celebrating Easter at Cullenswood, they were set upon by the
+Irish of the neighbouring mountains, and 500 of them killed. The scene
+of slaughter is still called the Bloody Fields, and Easter Monday
+denominated Black Monday. On each succeeding anniversary of that day,
+with the prevalent desire of perpetuating a feud, the citizens marched
+out to Cullenswood with banners displayed--"a terror to the native
+Irish." In 1216 Magna Carta, a copy of which is to be found in the Red
+Book of the Exchequer, was granted to the Irish by Henry III. In 1217
+the fee farm of the city was granted to the citizens at a rent of 200
+marks per annum; and about this period many monastic buildings were
+founded. In 1227 the same monarch confirmed the charter of John fixing
+the city boundaries and the jurisdiction of its magistrates.
+
+During the invasion of Ireland by Edward Bruce in 1315 some of the
+suburbs of Dublin were burnt to prevent them from falling into his hand.
+The inroad of Bruce had been countenanced by the native Irish
+ecclesiastics, whose sentiments were recorded in a statement addressed
+to Pope John XXII. Some notion of the defence made against Bruce's
+invasion may be gained from the fact that the churches were torn down to
+supply stones for the building of the city walls. Bruce had seized
+Greencastle on his march; but the natives re-took the town, and brought
+to Dublin the governor who had yielded to Bruce. He was starved to
+death.
+
+Richard II. erected Dublin into a marquisate in favour of Robert de
+Vere, whom he also created duke of Ireland. The same monarch entered
+Dublin in 1394 with 30,000 bowmen and 4000 cavalry, bringing with him
+the crown jewels; but after holding a parliament and making much courtly
+display before the native chieftains, on several of whom he conferred
+knighthood, he returned to England. Five years later, enriched with the
+spoils of his uncle, John of Gaunt, Richard returned to Ireland, landing
+at Waterford, whence he marched through the counties of Kilkenny and
+Wicklow, and subsequently arrived in Dublin, where he remained a
+fortnight, sumptuously entertained by the provost, as the chief
+magistrate of the city was then called, till intelligence of the
+invasion of his kingdom by Bolingbroke recalled him to England.
+
+In 1534 Lord Thomas Fitzgerald, better known as Silken Thomas (so called
+because of a fantastic fringe worn in the helmet of his followers), a
+young man of rash courage and good abilities, son of the Lord Deputy
+Kildare, believing his father, who was imprisoned in the Tower of
+London, to have been beheaded, organized a rebellion against the English
+Government, and marched with his followers from the mansion of the earls
+of Kildare in Thomas Court, through Dame's Gate to St Mary's Abbey,
+where, in the council chamber, he proclaimed himself a rebel. On his
+appearing before the wall with a powerful force, the citizens were
+induced through fear to give admission to a detachment of his troops to
+besiege the castle; but, on hearing that he had met with a reverse in
+another quarter, they suddenly closed their gates and detained his men
+as prisoners. He then attacked the city itself; but, finding it too
+strong to be seized by a _coup de main_, he raised the siege on
+condition of having his captured soldiers exchanged for the children of
+some of the principal citizens who had fallen into his hands. After much
+vicissitude of fortune, Lord Thomas and others concerned in this
+rebellion were executed at Tyburn in 1536.
+
+At the outbreak of civil war in 1641, a conspiracy of the Irish septs,
+under the direction of Roger Moore, to seize Dublin Castle, was
+disclosed by one Owen Connolly on the eve of the day on which the
+attempt was to have been made, and the city was thus preserved for the
+king's party; but the Irish outside began an indiscriminate
+extermination of the Protestant population. In 1646 Dublin was besieged,
+but without success, by the Irish army of 16,000 foot and 1600 horse,
+under the guidance of the Pope's nuncio Rinuccini and others, banded
+together "to restore and establish in Ireland the exercise of the Roman
+Catholic religion." The city had been put in an efficient state of
+defence by the marquess of Ormonde, then lord-lieutenant; but in the
+following year, to prevent it falling into the hands of the Irish, he
+surrendered it on conditions to Colonel Jones, commander of the
+Parliamentary forces. In 1649 Ormonde was totally defeated at the battle
+of Baggotrath, near Old Rathmines, in an attempt to recover possession.
+The same year Cromwell landed in Dublin, as commander-in-chief under the
+parliament, with 9000 foot and 4000 horse, and proceeded thence on his
+career of conquest.
+
+When James II. landed in Ireland in 1689 to assert his right to the
+British throne, he held a parliament in Dublin, which passed acts of
+attainder against upwards of 3000 Protestants. The governor of the city,
+Colonel Luttrell, at the same time issued a proclamation ordering all
+Protestants not housekeepers, excepting those following some trade, to
+depart from the city within 24 hours, under pain of death or
+imprisonment, and in various ways restricting those who were allowed to
+remain. In the hope of relieving his financial difficulties, the king
+erected a mint, where money was coined of the "worst kind of old brass,
+guns and the refuse of metals, melted down together," of the nominal
+value of L1,568,800, with which his troops were paid, and tradesmen were
+compelled to receive it under penalty of being hanged in case of
+refusal. Under these regulations the entire coinage was put into
+circulation. After his defeat at the battle of the Boyne, James returned
+to Dublin, but left it again before daybreak the next day; and William
+III. advancing by slow marches, on his arrival encamped at Finglas, with
+upwards of 30,000 men, and the following day proceeded in state to St
+Patrick's cathedral to return thanks for his victory.
+
+In 1783 a convention of delegates from all the volunteer corps in
+Ireland assembled in Dublin for the purpose of procuring a reform in
+parliament; but the House of Commons refused to entertain the
+proposition, and the convention separated without coming to any
+practical result. In May 1798 the breaking out of a conspiracy planned
+by the United Irishmen to seize the city was prevented by the capture of
+Lord Edward Fitzgerald, son of the duke of Leinster and husband of the
+celebrated "Pamela." Lord Edward died in prison of the wounds received
+in the encounter which preceded his capture. In 1803 an insurrection
+headed by Robert Emmett, a young barrister of much promise, broke out,
+but was immediately quelled, with the loss of some lives in the tumult,
+and the death of its leaders on the scaffold. In 1848 William Smith
+O'Brien, M.P. for Limerick, raised a rebellion in Tipperary, and the
+lower classes in Dublin were greatly agitated. Owing, however, to timely
+and judicious disposition of the military and police forces the city was
+saved from much bloodshed. In 1867 the most serious of modern
+conspiracies, that known as the Fenian organization, came to light. The
+reality of it was proved by a ship being found laden with gunpowder in
+the Liverpool docks, and another with L5000 and 2000 pike-heads in
+Dublin. The Habeas Corpus Act was suspended at one sitting by both
+Houses of Parliament and about 960 arrests were made in Dublin in a few
+hours. Dublin castle was fortified; and the citizens lived in a state of
+terror for several weeks together. For later history, see IRELAND.
+
+  See W. Harris, _History and Antiquities of the City of Dublin_
+  (Dublin, 1766); Sir J. T. Gilbert, _History of the City of Dublin_
+  (Dublin, 1859). The history of the Norsemen in Dublin has been dealt
+  with by a Norwegian writer, L. J. Vogt, _Dublin som Norsk By_
+  (Christiania, 1896).
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 8, Slice 7, by Various
+
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