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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 19:58:15 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 19:58:15 -0700 |
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padding-bottom: 1em;} + + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 8, Slice 7, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 8, Slice 7 + "Drama" to "Dublin" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: June 11, 2010 [EBook #32783] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 8 SL 7 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber's note: +</td> +<td class="norm"> +A few typographical errors have been corrected. They +appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the +explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked +passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration +when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the +Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will +display an unaccented version. <br /><br /> +<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will +be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online. +</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + + +<h2>THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA</h2> + +<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2> + +<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<hr class="full" /> +<h3>VOLUME VIII SLICE VII<br /><br /> +Drama to Dublin</h3> +<hr class="full" /> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p> +<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">DRAMA</a> (part)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">DRONFIELD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">DRAMBURG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">DROPSY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">DRAMMEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">DROPWORT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">DRANE, AUGUSTA THEODOSIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">DROSHKY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">DRAPER, JOHN WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">DROSTE-HÜLSHOFF, ANNETTE ELISABETH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">DRAPER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">DROSTE-VISCHERING, CLEMENS AUGUST</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">DRAUGHT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">DROUAIS, JEAN GERMAIN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">DRAUGHTS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">DROUET, JEAN BAPTISTE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">DRAUPADI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">DROWNING AND LIFE SAVING</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">DRAVE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">DROYSEN, JOHANN GUSTAV</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">DRAVIDIAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">DROZ, ANTOINE GUSTAVE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">DRAWBACK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">DROZ, FRANÇOIS-XAVIER JOSEPH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">DRAWING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">DRUG</a> (district of British India)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">DRAWING AND QUARTERIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">DRUG</a> (medicine)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">DRAWING-ROOM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">DRUIDISM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">DRAYTON, MICHAEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">DRUIDS, ORDER OF</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">DREAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">DRUM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">DREDGE and DREDGING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">DRUMMOND, HENRY</a> (1786-1860)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">DRELINCOURT, CHARLES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">DRUMMOND, HENRY</a> (1851-1897)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">DRENTE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">DRUMMOND, THOMAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">DRESDEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">DRUMMOND, WILLIAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">DRESS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">DRUNKENNESS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">DRESSER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">DRURY, SIR WILLIAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">DREUX</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">DRUSES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">DREW</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">DRUSIUS JOHANNES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">DREW, SAMUEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">DRUSUS, MARCUS LIVIUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">DREWENZ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">DRUSUS, NERO CLAUDIUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">DREXEL, ANTHONY JOSEPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">DRUSUS CAESAR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">DREYFUS, ALFRED</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">DRYADES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">DRIBURG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">DRYANDER, JONAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">DRIFFIELD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">DRYBURGH ABBEY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">DRIFT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">DRYDEN, JOHN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">DRILL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">DRYOPITHECUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">DRINKING VESSELS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">DRY ROT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">DRIPSTONE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">DUALISM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">DRISLER, HENRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">DUALLA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">DRIVER, SAMUEL ROLLES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">DU BARRY, MARIE JEANNE BÉCU</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">DRIVING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">DU BARTAS, GUILLAUME DE SALUSTE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">DROGHEDA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">DUBAWNT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">DROIT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">DUBBO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">DROITWICH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">DU BELLAY, GUILLAUME</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">DRÔME</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">DU BELLAY, JEAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">DROMEDARY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">DU BELLAY, JOACHIM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">DROMORE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">DUBLIN</a> (county of Ireland)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">DROMOS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">DUBLIN</a> (city of Ireland)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">DRONE</a></td> <td class="tcl"> </td></tr> +</table> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page497" id="page497"></a>497</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">DRAMA.<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span>  (<i>Continued from Volume 8 Slice 6</i>.)</p> + +<p class="center pt2 sc">10. <span class="sc">Medieval Drama</span></p> + +<p>While the scattered and persecuted strollers thus kept alive +something of the popularity, if not of the loftier traditions, of +their art, neither, on the other hand, was there an +utter absence of written compositions to bridge the +<span class="sidenote">Ecclesiastical and monastic literary drama.</span> +gap between ancient and modern dramatic literature. +In the midst of the condemnation with which the +Christian Church visited the stage, its professors and +votaries, we find individual ecclesiastics resorting in their +writings to both the tragic and the comic form of the ancient +drama. These isolated productions, which include the <span class="grk" title="Christos +paschôn">Χριστὀς πάσχων</span> (<i>Passion of Christ</i>) formerly attributed to St Gregory +Nazianzen, and the <i>Querolus</i>, long fathered upon Plautus himself, +were doubtless mostly written for educational purposes—whether +Euripides and Lycophron, or Menander, Plautus and +Terence, served as the outward models. The same was probably +<span class="sidenote">Hrosvitha.</span> +the design of the famous “comedies” of Hrosvitha, the +Benedictine nun of Gandersheim, in Eastphalian +Saxony, which associate themselves in the history of Christian +literature with the spiritual revival of the 10th century in the +days of Otto the Great. While avowedly imitated in form from +the comedies of Terence, these religious exercises derive their +themes—martyrdoms,<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and miraculous or otherwise startling +conversions<a name="fa2a" id="fa2a" href="#ft2a"><span class="sp">2</span></a>—from the legends of Christian saints. Thus, +from perhaps the 9th to the 12th centuries, Germany and France, +and through the latter, by means of the Norman Conquest, +England, became acquainted with what may be called the literary +monastic drama. It was no doubt occasionally performed by +the children under the care of monks or nuns, or by the religious +themselves; an exhibition of the former kind was that of the +<i>Play of St Katharine</i>, acted at Dunstable about the year 1110 +in “copes” by the scholars of the Norman Geoffrey, afterwards +abbot of St Albans. Nothing is known concerning it except +the fact of its performance, which was certainly not regarded as +a novelty.</p> + +<p>These efforts of the cloister came in time to blend themselves +with more popular forms of the early medieval drama. The +natural agents in the transmission of these popular +forms were those <i>mimes</i>, whom, while the representatives +<span class="sidenote">The joculatores, jongleurs, minstrels.</span> +of more elaborate developments, the “pantomimes” +in particular, had inevitably succumbed, the Roman +drama had left surviving it, unextinguished and unextinguishable. +Above all, it is necessary to point out how in the long interval +now in question—the “dark ages,” which may, from the present +point of view, be reckoned from about the 6th to the 11th century—the +Latin and the Teutonic elements of what may be broadly +designated as medieval “minstrelsy,” more or less imperceptibly, +coalesced. The traditions of the disestablished and disendowed +<i>mimus</i> combined with the “occupation” of the Teutonic <i>scôp</i>, +who as a professional personage does not occur in the earliest +Teutonic poetry, but on the other hand is very distinctly traceable +under this name or that of the “gleeman,” in Anglo-Saxon +literature, before it fell under the control of the Christian Church. +Her influence and that of docile rulers, both in England and in +the far wider area of the Frank empire, gradually prevailed even +over the inherited goodwill which neither Alfred nor even Charles +the Great had denied to the composite growth in which <i>mimus</i> +and <i>scôp</i> alike had a share.</p> + +<p>How far the <i>joculatores</i>—which in the early middle ages came +to be the name most widely given to these irresponsible transmitters +of a great artistic trust—kept alive the usage of entertainments +more essentially dramatic than the minor varieties of +their performances, we cannot say. In different countries these +entertainers suited themselves to different tastes, and with the +rise of native literatures to different literary tendencies. The +literature of the <i>troubadours</i> of Provence, which communicated +itself to Spain and Italy, came only into isolated contact with the +beginnings of the religious drama; in northern France the +<i>jongleurs</i>, as the <i>joculatores</i> were now called, were confounded +with the <i>trouvères</i>, who, to the accompaniment of <i>vielle</i> or harp, +sang the <i>chansons de geste</i> commemorative of deeds of war. +As appointed servants of particular households they were here, +and afterwards in England, called <i>menestrels</i> (from <i>ministeriales</i>) +or <i>minstrels</i>. Such a <i>histrio</i> or <i>mimus</i> (as he is called) was +Taillefer, who rode first into the fight at Hastings, singing his +songs of Roland and Charlemagne, and tossing his sword in the +air and catching it again. In England such accomplished +minstrels easily outshone the less versatile gleemen of pre-Norman +times, and one or two of them appeared as landholders +in Domesday Book, and many enjoyed the favour of the Norman, +Angevin and Plantagenet kings. But here, as elsewhere, the +humbler members of the craft spent their lives in strolling from +castle to convent, from village-green to city-street, and there +exhibiting their skill as dancers, tumblers, jugglers proper, and +as masquers and conductors of bears and other dumb contributors +to popular wonder and merriment. Their only chance of survival +finally came to lie in organization under the protection of powerful +nobles; but when, in the 15th century in England, companies of +players issued forth from towns and villages, the profession, +in so far as its members had not secured preference, saw itself +threatened with ruin.</p> + +<p>In any attempt to explain the transmission of dramatic +elements from pagan to Christian times, and the influence +exercised by this transmission upon the beginnings of +the medieval drama, account should finally be taken +<span class="sidenote">Survivals and adaptations of pagan festive ceremonies and usages.</span> +of the pertinacious survival of popular festive rites and +ceremonies. From the days of Gregory the Great, <i>i.e.</i> +from the end of the 6th century onwards, the Western +Church tolerated and even attracted to her own +festivals popular customs, significant of rejoicing, +which were in truth relics of heathen ritual. Such were the +Mithraic feast of the 25th of December, or the egg of Eostre-tide, +and a multitude of Celtic or Teutonic agricultural ceremonies. +These rites, originally symbolical of propitiation or of weather-magic, +were of a semi-dramatic nature—such as the dipping of +the neck of corn in water, sprinkling holy drops upon persons +or animals, processions of beasts or men in beast-masks, dressing +trees with flowers, and the like, but above all ceremonial dances, +often in disguise. The sword-dance, recorded by Tacitus, of +which an important feature was the symbolic threat of death to +a victim, endured (though it is rarely mentioned) to the later +middle ages. By this time it had attracted to itself a variety of +additional features, and of characters familiar as pace-eggers, +mummers, morris-dancers (probably of distinct origin), who +continually enlarged the scope of their performances, especially +as regarded their comic element. The dramatic “expulsion of +death,” or winter, by the destruction of a lay-figure—common +through western Europe about the 8th century—seems connected +with a more elaborate rite, in which a disguised performer +(who perhaps originally represented summer) was slain and +afterwards revived (the <i>Pfingstl</i>, Jack in the Green, or Green +Knight). This representation, after acquiring a comic complexion, +was annexed by the character dancers, who about the +15th century took to adding still livelier incidents from songs +treating of popular heroes, such as St George and Robin Hood; +which latter found a place in the festivities of May Day with their +central figure, the May Queen. The earliest ceremonial observances +of this sort were clearly connected with pastoral and +agricultural life; but the inhabitants of the towns also came +to have a share in them; and so, as will be seen later, did the +clergy. They were in particular responsible for the buffooneries +of the feast of fools (or asses), which enjoyed the greatest popularity +in France (though protests against it are on record from +the 11th century onwards to the 17th), but was well known from +London to Constantinople. This riotous New Year’s celebration +was probably derived from the ancient Kalend feasts, which +may have bequeathed to it both the hobby-horse and the lord, +or bishop, of misrule. In the 16th century the feast of fools was +combined with the elaborate festivities of courts and cities +during the twelve Christmas feast-days—the season when throughout +the previous two centuries the “mummers” especially +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page498" id="page498"></a>498</span> +flourished, who in their disguisings and “<i>viseres</i>” began as +dancers gesticulating in dumb-show, but ultimately developed +into actors proper.</p> + +<p>Thus the literary and the professional element, as well as that +of popular festive usages, had survived to become tributaries +to the main stream of the early Christian drama, +which had its direct source in the liturgy of the Church +<span class="sidenote">The liturgy the main source of the medieval religious drama.</span> +itself. The service of the Mass contains in itself +dramatic elements, and combines with the reading +out of portions of Scripture by the priest—its “epical” +part—a “lyrical” part in the anthems and responses +of the congregation. At a very early period—certainly +already in the 5th century—it was usual on special occasions to +increase the attractions of public worship by living pictures, +illustrating the Gospel narrative and accompanied by songs; +and thus a certain amount of action gradually introduced itself +into the service. The insertion, before or after sung portions +<span class="sidenote">Tropes.</span> +of the service, of tropes, originally one or more verses +of texts, usually serving as introits and in connexion +with the gospel of the day, and recited by the two halves of the +choir, naturally led to dialogue chanting; and this was frequently +accompanied by illustrative fragments of action, such as drawing +down the veil from before the altar.</p> + +<p>This practice of interpolations in the offices of the church, +which is attested by texts from the 9th century onwards (the +so-called “Winchester tropes” belong to the 10th +and 11th), progressed, till on the great festivals of the +<span class="sidenote">The liturgical mystery.</span> +church the epical part of the liturgy was systematically +connected with spectacular and in some measure +mimical adjuncts, the lyrical accompaniment being of course +retained. Thus the <i>liturgical mystery</i>—the earliest form of the +Christian drama—was gradually called into existence. This had +certainly been accomplished as early as the 10th century, when +on great ecclesiastical festivals it was customary for the priests +to perform in the churches these offices (as they were called). +The whole Easter story, from the burial to Emmaus, was thus +presented, the Maries and the angel adding their lyrical <i>planctus</i>; +while the surroundings of the Nativity—the Shepherds, the +Innocents, &c.—were linked with the Shepherds of Epiphany +by a recitation of “Prophets,” including Vergil and the Sibyl. +Before long, from the 11th century onwards, <i>mysteries</i>, as they +were called, were produced in France on scriptural subjects +unconnected with the great Church festivals—such as the Wise +and Foolish Virgins, Adam (with the fall of Lucifer), Daniel, +Lazarus, &c. Compositions on the last-named two themes +remain from the hand of one of the very earliest of medieval +play-writers, Hilarius, who may have been an Englishman, +and who certainly studied under Abelard. He also wrote a +“miracle” of St Nicholas, one of the most widely popular of +medieval saints. Into the pieces founded on the Scripture +narrative outside characters and incidents were occasionally +introduced, by way of diverting the audience.</p> + +<p>These mysteries and miracles being as yet represented by the +clergy only, the language in which they were usually written is +Latin—in many varieties of verse with occasional +prose; but already in the 11th century the further +<span class="sidenote">The collective mystery.</span> +step was taken of composing these texts in the vernacular—the +earliest example being the mystery of the +Resurrection. In time a whole series of mysteries was joined +together; a process which was at first roughly and then more +elaborately pursued in France and elsewhere, and finally resulted +in the <i>collective mystery</i>—merely a scholars’ term of course, but +one to which the principal examples of the English mystery-drama +correspond.</p> + +<p>The productions of the medieval religious drama it is usual +technically to divide into three classes. The <i>mysteries</i> proper +deal with scriptural events only, their purpose being +to set forth, with the aid of the prophetic or preparatory +<span class="sidenote">Mysteries, miracles, and morals distinguished.</span> +history of the Old Testament, and more especially of +the fulfilling events of the New, the central mystery +of the Redemption of the world, as accomplished by +the Nativity, the Passion and the Resurrection. But in fact +these were not kept distinctly apart from the <i>miracle-plays</i>, or +<i>miracles</i>, which are strictly speaking concerned with the legends +of the saints of the church; and in England the name <i>mysteries</i> +was not in use. Of these species the miracles must more especially +have been fed from the resources of the monastic literary +drama. Thirdly, the <i>moralities</i>, or <i>moral-plays</i>, teach and +illustrate the same truths—not, however, by direct representation +of scriptural or legendary events and personages, but allegorically, +their characters being personified virtues or qualities. Of +the moralities the Norman <i>trouvères</i> had been the inventors; +and doubtless this innovation connects itself with the endeavour, +which in France had almost proved victorious by the end of the +13th century, to emancipate dramatic performances from the +control of the church.</p> + +<p>The attitude of the clergy towards the dramatic performances +which had arisen out of the elaboration of the services of the +church, but soon admitted elements from other sources, +was not, and could not be, uniform. As the plays grew +<span class="sidenote">The clergy and the religious drama.</span> +longer, their paraphernalia more extensive, and their +spectators more numerous, they began to be represented +outside as well as inside the churches, at first in the +churchyards, and the use of the vulgar tongue came to be gradually +preferred. A Beverley Resurrection play (1220 c.) and some +others are bilingual. Miracles were less dependent on this +connexion with the church services than mysteries proper; +and lay associations, gilds, and schools in particular, soon began +to act plays in honour of their patron saints in or near their own +halls. Lastly, as scenes and characters of a more or less trivial +description were admitted even into the plays acted or superintended +by the clergy, as some of these characters came to be +depended on by the audiences for conventional extravagance or +fun, every new Herod seeking to out-Herod his predecessor, and +the devils and their chief asserting themselves as indispensable +favourites, the comic element in the religious drama increased; +and that drama itself, even where it remained associated with +the church, grew more and more profane. The endeavour to +sanctify the popular tastes to religious uses, which connects itself +with the institution of the great festival of Corpus Christi (1264, +confirmed 1311), when the symbol of the mystery of the Incarnation +was borne in solemn procession, led to the closer union +of the dramatic exhibitions (hence often called <i>processus</i>) with +this and other religious feasts; but it neither limited their range +nor controlled their development.</p> + +<p>It is impossible to condense into a few sentences the extremely +varied history of the processes of transformation undergone by +the medieval drama in Europe during the two centuries—from +about 1200 to about 1400—in which it ran +<span class="sidenote">Progress of the medieval drama in Europe.</span> +a course of its own, and during the succeeding period, +in which it was only partially affected by the influence +of the Renaissance. A few typical phenomena may, +however, be noted in the case of the drama of each of the several +chief countries of the West; where the vernacular successfully +supplanted Latin as the ordinary medium of dramatic speech, +where song was effectually ousted by recitation and dialogue, +and where finally, though the emancipation was on this head +nowhere absolute, the religious drama gave place to the secular.</p> + +<p>In France, where dramatic performances had never fallen +entirely into the hands of the clergy, the progress was speediest +and most decided towards forms approaching those +of the modern drama. The earliest play in the French +<span class="sidenote">France.</span> +tongue, however, the 12th-century <i>Adam</i>, supposed to have +been written by a Norman in England (as is a fragmentary +<i>Résurrection</i> of much the same date), still reveals its connexion +with the liturgical drama. Jean Bodel of Arras’ miracle-play +of <i>St Nicolas</i> (before 1205) is already the production of a secular +author, probably designed for the edification of some civic confraternity +to which he belonged, and has some realistic features. +On the other hand, the <i>Theophilus</i> of Rutebeuf (d. c. 1280) treats +its Faust-like theme, with which we meet again in Low-German +dramatic literature two centuries later, in a rather lifeless form +but in a highly religious spirit, and belongs to the cycle of +miracles of the Virgin of which examples abound throughout +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page499" id="page499"></a>499</span> +this period. Easter or Passion plays were fully established in +popular acceptance in Paris as well as in other towns of France +by the end of the 14th century; and in 1402 the <i>Confrérie de +la Passion</i>, who at first devoted themselves exclusively to the +performance of this species, obtained a royal privilege for the +purpose. These series of religious plays were both extensive +and elaborate; perhaps the most notable series (c. 1450) is that +by Arnoul Greban, who died as a canon of Le Mans, his native +town. Its revision, by Jean Michel, containing much illustrative +detail (first performed at Angers in 1486), was very popular. +Still more elaborate is the Rouen Christmas mystery of 1474, +and the celebrated <i>Mystère du vieil testament</i>, produced at +Abbeville in 1458, and performed at Paris in 1500. Most of the +Provençal Christmas and Passion plays date from the 14th +century, as well as a miracle of St Agnes. The miracles of saints +were popular in all parts of France, and the diversity of local +colouring naturally imparted to these productions contributed +materially to the growth of the early French drama. The +miracles of Ste Geneviève and St Denis came directly home to +the inhabitants of Paris, as that of St Martin to the citizens of +Tours; while the early victories of St Louis over the English +might claim a national significance for the dramatic celebration +of his deeds. The local saints of Provence were in their turn +honoured by miracles dating from the 15th and 16th centuries.</p> + +<p>It is less easy to trace the origins of the comic medieval drama +in France, connected as they are with an extraordinary variety +of associations for professional, pious and pleasurable purposes. +The <i>ludi inhonesti</i> in which the students of a Paris college +(Navarre) were in 1315 debarred from engaging cannot be proved +to have been dramatic performances; the earliest known secular +plays presented by university students in France were moralities, +performed in 1426 and 1431. These plays, depicting conflicts +between opposing influences—and at bottom the struggle between +good and evil in the human soul—become more frequent from +about this time onwards. Now it is (at Rennes in 1439) the +contention between <i>Bien-avisé</i> and <i>Mal-avisé</i> (who at the close +find themselves respectively in charge of <i>Bonne-fin</i> and <i>Male-fin</i>); +now, one between <i>l’homme juste</i> and <i>l’homme mondain</i>; +now, the contrasted story of <i>Les Enfants de Maintenant</i>, who, +however, is no abstraction, but an honest baker with a wife +called Mignotte. Political and social problems are likewise +treated; and the <i>Mystère du Concile de Bâle</i>—an historical +morality—dates back to 1432. But thought is taken even more +largely of the sufferings of the people than of the controversies +of the Church; and in 1507 we even meet with a hygienic or +abstinence morality (by N. de la Chesnaye) in which “Banquet” +enters into a conspiracy with “Apoplexy,” “Epilepsy” and +the whole regiment of diseases.</p> + +<p>Long before this development of an artificial species had been +consummated—from the beginning of the 14th century onwards—the +famous fraternity or professional union of the Basoche +(clerks of the Parlement and the Châtelet) had been entrusted +with the conduct of popular festivals at Paris, in which, as of +right, they took a prominent personal share; and from a date +unknown they had performed plays. But after the <i>Confrérie de +la Passion</i> had been allowed to monopolize the religious drama, +the <i>basochiens</i> had confined themselves to the presentment of +moralities and of farces (from Italian <i>farsa</i>, Latin <i>farcita</i>), in +which political satire had as a matter of course when possible +found a place. A third association, calling themselves the +<i>Enfans sans souci</i>, had, apparently also early in the 15th century, +acquired celebrity by their performances of short comic plays +called soties—in which, as it would seem, at first allegorical +figures ironically “played the fool,” but which were probably +before long not very carefully kept distinct from the farces of +the Basoche, and were like these on occasion made to serve the +purposes of State or of Church. Other confraternities and +associations readily took a leaf out of the book of these devil-may-care +good-fellows, and interwove their religious and moral plays +with comic scenes and characters from actual life, thus becoming +more and more free and secular in their dramatic methods, and +unconsciously preparing the transition to the regular drama.</p> + +<p>The earliest example of a serious secular play known to have +been written in the French tongue is the <i>Estoire de Griseldis</i> +(1393); which is in the style of the miracles of the Virgin, but +is largely indebted to Petrarch. The <i>Mystère du siege d’Orléans</i>, +on the other hand, written about half a century later, in the epic +tediousness of its manner comes near to a chronicle history, +and interests us chiefly as the earliest of many efforts to +bring Joan of Arc on the stage. Jacques Milet’s celebrated +mystery of the <i>Destruction de Troye la grant</i> (1452) seems to have +been addressed to readers and not to hearers only. The beginnings +of the French regular comic drama are again more difficult +to extract from the copious literature of farces and soties, which, +after mingling actual types with abstract and allegorical figures, +gradually came to exclude all but the concrete personages; +moreover, the large majority of these productions in their extant +form belong to a later period than that now under consideration. +But there is ample evidence that the most famous of all +medieval farces, the immortal <i>Maistre Pierre Pathelin</i> (otherwise +<i>L’Avocat Pathelin</i>), was written before 1470 and acted by +the <i>basochiens</i>; and we may conclude that this delightful story +of the biter bit, and the profession outwitted, typifies a multitude +of similar comic episodes of real life, dramatized for the +delectation of clerks, lawyers and students, and of all lovers +of laughter.</p> + +<p>In the neighbouring Netherlands many Easter and Christmas +mysteries are noted from the middle of the 15th century, attesting +the enduring popularity of these religious plays; and +with them the celebrated series of the Seven Joys of +<span class="sidenote">The Netherlands.</span> +Maria—of which the first is the Annunciation and the +seventh the Ascension. To about the same date belongs +the small group of the so-called <i>abele spelen</i> (as who should say +plays easily managed), chiefly on chivalrous themes. Though +allegorical figures are already to be found in the Netherlands +miracles of Mary, the species of the moralities was specially +cultivated during the great Burgundian period of this century +by the chambers or lodges of the <i>Rederijkers</i> (rhetoricians)—the +well-known civic associations which devoted themselves to +the cultivation of learned poetry and took an active share in the +festivals that formed one of the most characteristic features of +the life of the Low Countries. Among these moralities was that +of <i>Elckerlijk</i> (printed 1495 and presumably by Peter Dorlandus), +which there is good reason for regarding as the original of one +of the finest of English moralities, <i>Everyman</i>.</p> + +<p>In Italy the liturgical drama must have run its course as +elsewhere; but the traces of it are few, and confined to the +north-east. The collective mystery, so common in +other Western countries, is in Italian literature +<span class="sidenote">Italy.</span> +represented by a single example only—a <i>Passione di Gesù Cristo</i>, +performed at Revello in Saluzzo in the 15th century; though +there are some traces of other cyclic dramas of the kind. The +Italian religious plays, called <i>figure</i> when on Old, <i>vangeli</i> when on +New, Testament subjects, and differing from those of northern +Europe chiefly by the less degree of coarseness in their comic +characters, seem largely to have sprung out of the development +of the processional element in the festivals of the Church. +Besides such processions as that of the Three Kings at Epiphany +in Milan, there were the penitential processions and songs (<i>laude</i>), +which at Assisi, Perugia and elsewhere already contained a +dramatic element; and at Siena, Florence and other centres +these again developed into the so-called (<i>sacre</i>) <i>rappresentazioni</i>, +which became the most usual name for this kind of entertainment. +Such a piece was the <i>San Giovanni e San Paolo</i> (1489), by Lorenzo +the Magnificent—the prince who afterwards sought to reform +the Italian stage by paganizing it; another was the <i>Santa +Teodora</i>, by Luigi Pulci (d. 1487); <i>San Giovanni Gualberto</i> (of +Florence) treats the religious experience of a latter-day saint; +<i>Rosana e Ulimento</i> is a love-story with a Christian moral. Passion +plays were performed at Rome in the Coliseum by the <i>Compagnia +del Gonfalone</i>; but there is no evidence on this head before the +end of the 15th century. In general, the spectacular magnificence +of Italian theatrical displays accorded with the growing pomp +of the processions both ecclesiastical and lay—called <i>trionfi</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page500" id="page500"></a>500</span> +already in the days of Dante; while the religious drama gradually +acquired an artificial character and elaboration of form +assimilating it to the classical attempts, to be noted below, +which gave rise to the regular Italian drama. The poetry of the +Troubadours, which had come from Provence into Italy, here +frequently took a dramatic form, and may have suggested some +of his earlier poetic experiments to Petrarch.</p> + +<p>It was a matter of course that remnants of the ancient popular +dramatic entertainments should have survived in particular +abundance on Italian soil. They were to be recognized in the +improvised farces performed at the courts, in the churches (<i>farse +spirituali</i>), and among the people; the Roman carnival had +preserved its wagon-plays, and various links remained to connect +the modern comic drama of the Italians with the <i>Atellanes</i> and +<i>mimes</i> of their ancestors. But the more notable later comic +developments, which belong to the 16th century, will be more +appropriately noticed below. Moralities proper had not flourished +in Italy, where the love of the concrete has always been dominant +in popular taste; more numerous are examples of scenes, largely +mythological, in which the influence of the Renaissance is already +perceptible, of eclogues, and of allegorical festival-plays of +various sorts.</p> + +<p>In Spain hardly a monument of the medieval religious drama +has been preserved. There is manuscript evidence of the 11th +century attesting the early addition of dramatic +elements to the Easter office; and a Spanish fragment +<span class="sidenote">Spain.</span> +of the Three Kings Epiphany play, dating from the 12th century, +is, like the French <i>Adam</i>, one of the very earliest examples of +the medieval drama in the vernacular. But that religious plays +were performed in Spain is clear from the permission granted +by Alphonso X. of Castile (d. 1284) to the clergy to represent +them, while prohibiting the performance by them of <i>juegos de +escarnio</i> (mocking plays). The earliest Spanish plays which we +possess belong to the end of the 15th or beginning of the 16th +century, and already show humanistic influence. In 1472 the +couplets of <i>Mingo Revulgo</i> (<i>i.e.</i> Domingo Vulgus, the common +people), and about the same time another dialogue by the same +author, offer examples of a sort resembling the Italian <i>contrasti</i> +(see below).</p> + +<p>The German religious plays in the vernacular, the earliest of +which date from the 14th and 15th centuries, and were produced +at Trier, Wolfenbuttel, Innsbruck, Vienna, Berlin, &c., +were of a simple kind; but in some of them, though +<span class="sidenote">Germany.</span> +they were written by clerks, there are traces of the minstrels’ +hands. The earliest complete Christmas play in German, +contained in a 14th-century St Gallen MS., has nothing in it to +suggest a Latin original. On the other hand, the play of <i>The +Wise and the Foolish Virgins</i>, in a Thuringian MS. thought to be +as early as 1328, a piece of remarkable dignity, was evidently +based on a Latin play. Other festivals besides Christmas were +celebrated by plays; but down to the Reformation Easter +enjoyed a preference. In the same century miracle-plays began +to be performed, in honour of St Catherine, St Dorothea and +other saints. But all these productions seem to belong to a +period when the drama was still under ecclesiastical control. +Gradually, as the liturgical drama returned to the simpler forms +from which it had so surprisingly expanded, and ultimately died +out, the religious plays performed outside the churches expanded +more freely; and the type of mystery associated with the name +of the Frankfort canon Baldemar von Peterweil communicated +itself, with other examples, to the receptive region of the south-west. +The Corpus Christi plays, or (as they were here called) +<i>Frohnleichnamsspiele</i>, are notable, since that of Innsbruck (1391) +is probably the earliest extant example of its class. The number +of non-scriptural religious plays in Germany was much smaller +than that in France; but it may be noted that (in accordance +with a long-enduring popular notion) the theme of the last +judgment was common in Germany in the latter part of the +middle ages. Of this theme <i>Antichrist</i> may be regarded as an +episode, though in 1469 an <i>Antichrist</i> appears to have occupied +at Frankfort four days in its performance. The earlier (12th +century) <i>Antichrist</i> is a production quite unique of its kind; +this political protest breathes the Ghibelline spirit of the reign +(Frederick Barbarossa’s) in which it was composed.</p> + +<p>Though many of the early German plays contain an element +of the moralities, there were few representative German examples +of the species. The academical instinct, or some other influence, +kept the more elaborate productions on the whole apart from +the drolleries of the professional strollers (<i>fahrende Leute</i>), whose +Shrove-Tuesday plays (<i>Fastnachtsspiele</i>) and cognate productions +reproduced the practical fun of common life. Occasionally, no +doubt, as in the Lübeck <i>Fastnachtsspiel</i> of the Five Virtues, +the two species may have more or less closely approached to one +another. When, in the course of the 15th century, Hans Rosenplüt, +called Schnepperer—or Hans Schnepperer, called Rosenplüt—the +predecessor of Hans Sachs, first gave a more enduring form +to the popular Shrove-Tuesday plays, a connexion was already +establishing itself between the dramatic amusements of the +people and the literary efforts of the “master-singers” of the +towns. But, while the main productivity of the writers of +moralities and cognate productions—a species particularly suited +to German latitudes—falls into the periods of Renaissance and +Reformation, the religious drama proper survived far beyond +either in Catholic Germany, and, in fact, was not suppressed +in Bavaria and Tirol till the end of the 18th century.<a name="fa3a" id="fa3a" href="#ft3a"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p> + +<p>It may be added that the performance of miracle-plays is +traceable in Sweden in the latter half of the 14th century; and +that the German clerks and laymen who immigrated +into the Carpathian lands, and into Galicia in particular, +<span class="sidenote">Sweden, Carpathian lands, &c.</span> +in the later middle ages, brought with them their +religious plays together with other elements of culture. +This fact is the more striking, inasmuch as, though Czech Easter +plays were performed about the end of the 14th century, we +hear of none among the Magyars, or among their neighbours of +the Eastern empire.</p> + +<p>Coming now to the English religious drama, we find that from +its extant literature a fair general idea may be derived of the +character of these medieval productions. The <i>miracle-plays</i>, +<i>miracles</i> or <i>plays</i> (these being the terms used in +<span class="sidenote">Religious drama in England.</span> +England) of which we hear in London in the 12th +century were probably written in Latin and acted by +ecclesiastics; but already in the following century mention is +made—in the way of prohibition—of plays acted by professional +players. (Isolated moralities of the 12th century are not to be +regarded as popular productions.) In England as elsewhere, the +clergy either sought to retain their control over the religious +plays, which continued to be occasionally acted in churches +even after the Reformation, or else reprobated them with or +<span class="sidenote">Cornish miracle-plays.</span> +without qualifications. In Cornwall miracles in the +native Cymric dialect were performed at an early date; +but those which have been preserved are apparently +copies of English (with the occasional use of French) +originals; they were represented, unlike the English plays, in +the open country, in extensive amphitheatres constructed for +the purpose—one of which, at St Just near Penzance, has +recently been restored.</p> + +<p>The flourishing period of English miracle-plays begins with the +practice of their performance by trading-companies in the towns, +though these bodies were by no means possessed of +any special privileges for the purpose. Of this practice +<span class="sidenote">Localities of the performance of miracle-plays.</span> +Chester is said to have set the example (1268-1276); +it was followed in the course of the 13th and 14th +centuries by many other towns, while in yet others +traces of such performances are not to be found till the +15th, or even the 16th. These towns with their neighbourhoods +include, starting from East Anglia, where the religious drama +was particularly at home, Wymondham, Norwich, Sleaford, +Lincoln, Leeds, Wakefield, Beverley, York, Newcastle-on-Tyne, +with a deviation across the border to Edinburgh and Aberdeen. +In the north-west they are found at Kendal, Lancaster, Preston, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page501" id="page501"></a>501</span> +Chester; whence they may be supposed to have migrated to +Dublin. In the west they are noticeable at Shrewsbury, Worcester +and Tewkesbury; in the Midlands at Coventry and +Leicester; in the east at Cambridge and Bassingbourne, Heybridge +and Manningtree; to which places have to be added +Reading, Winchester, Canterbury, Bethesda and London, +in which last the performers were the parish-clerks. Four +collections, in addition to some single examples of such plays, +<span class="sidenote">The York, Towneley, Chester and Coventry plays.</span> +have come down to us, the <i>York</i> plays, the so-called +<i>Towneley</i> plays, which were probably acted at the +fairs of Widkirk, near Wakefield, and those bearing the +names of <i>Chester</i> and of <i>Coventry</i>. Their dates, in the +forms in which they have come down to us, are more +or less uncertain; that of the <i>York</i> may on the whole be +concluded to be earlier than that of the <i>Towneley</i>, which were +probably put together about the middle of the 14th century; the +<i>Chester</i> may be ascribed to the close of the 14th or the earlier +part of the 15th; the body of the <i>Coventry</i> probably belongs to +the 15th or 16th. Many of the individual plays in these collections +were doubtless founded on French originals; others are taken +direct from Scripture, from the apocryphal gospels, or from the +legends of the saints. Their characteristic feature is the combination +of a whole series of plays into one <i>collective</i> whole, exhibiting +the entire course of Bible history from the creation to the day +of judgment. For this combination it is unnecessary to suppose +that they were generally indebted to foreign examples, though +there are several remarkable coincidences between the Chester +plays and the French <i>Mystère du vieil testament</i>. Indeed, the +oldest of the series—the <i>York</i> plays—exhibits a fairly close +parallel to the scheme of the <i>Cursor mundi</i>, an epic poem of +Northumbrian origin, which early in the 14th century had set +an example of treatment that unmistakably influenced the +collective mysteries as a whole. Among the isolated plays of +the same type which have come down to us may be mentioned +<i>The Harrowing of Hell</i> (the Saviour’s descent into hell), an +East-Midland production which professes to tell of “a strif of +Jesu and of Satan” and is probably the earliest dramatic, or all +but dramatic, work in English that has been preserved; and +several belonging to a series known as the <i>Digby Mysteries</i>, +including <i>Parfre’s Candlemas Day</i> (the massacre of the Innocents), +and the very interesting miracle of <i>Mary Magdalene</i>. Of the +so-called “Paternoster” and “Creed” plays (which exhibit +the miraculous powers of portions of the Church service) no +example remains, though of some we have an account; the +Croxton <i>Play of the Sacrament</i>, the MS. of which is preserved +at Dublin, and which seems to date from the latter half of the +15th century, exhibits the triumph of the holy wafer over +wicked Jewish wiles.</p> + +<p>To return to the collective mysteries, as they present themselves +to us in the chief extant series. “The manner of these +plays,” we read in a description of those at Chester, +dating from the close of the 16th century, “were:—Every +<span class="sidenote">English collective mysteries.</span> +company had his pageant, which pageants were +a high scaffold with two rooms, a higher and a lower, +upon four wheels. In the lower they apparelled themselves, +and in the higher room they played, being all open at the top, +that all beholders might hear and see them. The places where they +played them was in every street. They began first at the abbey +gates, and when the first pageant was played, it was wheeled +to the high cross before the mayor, and so to every street, and +so every street had a pageant playing before them at one time +till all the pageants appointed for the day were played; and +when one pageant was near ended, word was brought from +street to street, that so they might come in place thereof, exceedingly +orderly, and all the streets have their pageants afore +them all at one time playing together; to see which plays was +great resort, and also scaffolds and stages made in the streets in +those places where they determined to play their pageants.”</p> + +<p>Each play, then, was performed by the representative of +a particular trade or company, after whom it was called the +fishers’, glovers’, &c., <i>pageant</i>; while a general prologue was +spoken by a herald. As a rule the movable stage sufficed for the +action, though we find horsemen riding up to the scaffold, and +Herod instructed to “rage in the pagond and in the strete also.” +There is no probability that the stage was, as in France, divided +into three platforms with a dark cavern at the side of the lowest, +appropriated respectively to the Heavenly Father and his +angels, to saints and glorified men, to mere men, and to souls in +hell. But the last-named locality was frequently displayed +in the English miracles, with or without fire in its mouth. The +costumes were in part conventional,—divine and saintly personages +being distinguished by gilt hair and beards, Herod being +clad as a Saracen, the demons wearing hideous heads, the souls +black and white coats according to their kind, and the angels gold +skins and wings.</p> + +<p>Doubtless these performances abounded in what seem to us +ludicrous features; and, though their main purpose was serious, +they were not in England at least intended to be +devoid of fun. But many of the features in question +<span class="sidenote">Character of the Plays.</span> +are in truth only homely and <i>naïf</i>, and the simplicity +of feeling which they exhibit is at times pathetic +rather than laughable. The occasional grossness is due to +an absence of refinement of taste rather than to an obliquity +of moral sentiment. These features the four series have more or +less in common, still there are certain obvious distinctions +between them. The <i>York</i> plays (48), which were performed +at Corpus Christi, are comparatively free from the tendency to +jocularity and vulgarity observable in the <i>Towneley</i>; several +of the plays concerned with the New Testament and early +Christian story are, however, in substance common to both +series. The <i>Towneley Plays</i> or <i>Wakefield Mysteries</i> (32) were +undoubtedly composed by the friars of Widkirk or Nostel; but +they are of a popular character; and, while somewhat over-free +in tone, are superior in vivacity and humour to both the later +collections. The <i>Chester Plays</i> (25) were undoubtedly indebted +both to the <i>Mystère du vieil testament</i> and to earlier French +mysteries; they are less popular in character than the earlier +two cycles, and on the whole undistinguished by original power +of pathos or humour. There is, on the other hand, a notable +inner completeness in this series, which includes a play of +<i>Antichrist</i>, devoid of course of any modern application. While +these plays were performed at Whitsuntide, the <i>Coventry Plays</i> +(42) were Corpus Christi performances. Though there is no proof +that the extant series were composed by the Grey Friars, they +reveal a considerable knowledge of ecclesiastical literature. +For the rest, they are far more effectively written than the +<i>Chester Plays</i>, and occasionally rise to real dramatic force. +In the <i>Coventry</i> series there is already to be observed an element +of abstract figures, which connects them with a different species +of the medieval drama.</p> + +<p>The <i>moralities</i> corresponded to the love for allegory which +manifests itself in so many periods of English literature, +and which, while dominating the whole field of medieval +literature, was nowhere more assiduously and effectively +<span class="sidenote">Moralities.</span> +cultivated than in England. It is necessary to bear this in +mind, in order to understand what to us seems so strange, the +popularity of the moral-plays, which indeed never equalled +that of the miracles, but sufficed to maintain the former species +till it received a fresh impulse from the connexion established +between it and the “new learning,” together with the new +political and religious ideas and questions, of the Reformation +age. Moreover, a specially popular element was supplied to +these plays, which in manner of representation differed in no +essential point from the miracles, in a character borrowed from +the latter, and, in the moralities, usually provided with a companion +<span class="sidenote">The Devil and the Vice.</span> +whose task it was to lighten the weight of such abstractions +as Sapience and Justice. These were the Devil +and his attendant the <i>Vice</i>, of whom the latter seems to +have been of native origin, and, as he was usually dressed +in a fool’s habit, was probably suggested by the familiar +custom of keeping an attendant fool at court or in great houses. +The Vice had many <i>aliases</i> (<i>Shift</i>, <i>Ambidexter</i>, <i>Sin</i>, <i>Fraud</i>, +<i>Iniquity</i>, &c.), but his usual duty is to torment and tease the +Devil his master for the edification and diversion of the audience. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page502" id="page502"></a>502</span> +He was gradually blended with the domestic fool, who survived +in the regular drama. There are other concrete elements in the +moralities; for typical figures are often fitted with concrete +names, and thus all but converted into concrete human +personages.</p> + +<p>The earlier English moralities<a name="fa4a" id="fa4a" href="#ft4a"><span class="sp">4</span></a>—from the reign of Henry VI. +to that of Henry VII.—usually allegorize the conflict between +good and evil in the mind and life of man, without any +side-intention of theological controversy. Such also +<span class="sidenote">Groups of English moralities.</span> +is still essentially the purpose of the extant morality +by Henry VIII.’s poet, the witty Skelton.<a name="fa5a" id="fa5a" href="#ft5a"><span class="sp">5</span></a> <i>Everyman</i> +(pr. c. 1529), perhaps the most perfect example of its class, with +which the present generation has fortunately become familiar, +contains passages certainly designed to enforce the specific +teaching of Rome. But its Dutch original was written at least a +generation earlier, and could have no controversial intention. +On the other hand, R. Wever’s <i>Lusty Juventus</i> breathes the +spirit of the dogmatic reformation of the reign of Edward VI. +Theological controversy largely occupies the moralities of the +earlier part of Elizabeth’s reign,<a name="fa6a" id="fa6a" href="#ft6a"><span class="sp">6</span></a> and connects itself with political +feeling in a famous morality, Sir David Lyndsay’s <i>Satire of the +Three Estaitis</i>, written and acted (at Cupar, in 1539) on the other +side of the border, where such efforts as the religious drama +proper had made had been extinguished by the Reformation. +Only a single English political morality proper remains to us, +which belongs to the beginning of the reign of Elizabeth.<a name="fa7a" id="fa7a" href="#ft7a"><span class="sp">7</span></a> +Another series connects itself with the ideas of the Renaissance +rather than the Reformation, treating of intellectual progress +rather than of moral conduct;<a name="fa8a" id="fa8a" href="#ft8a"><span class="sp">8</span></a> this extends from the reign +of Henry VIII. to that of his younger daughter. Besides these, +there remain some Elizabethan moralities which have no special +theological or scientific purpose, and which are none the less +lively in consequence.<a name="fa9a" id="fa9a" href="#ft9a"><span class="sp">9</span></a></p> + +<p>The transition from the morality to the regular drama in +England was effected, on the one hand, by the intermixture of +historical personages with abstractions—as in Bishop +Bale’s <i>Kyng Johan</i> (c. 1548)—which easily led over to +<span class="sidenote">Heywood’s interludes.</span> +the <i>chronicle history</i>; on the other, by the introduction +of types of real life by the side of abstract figures. +This latter tendency, of which instances occur in earlier +plays, is observable in several of the 16th-century +moralities;<a name="fa10a" id="fa10a" href="#ft10a"><span class="sp">10</span></a> but before most of these were written, a further +step in advance had been taken by a man of genius, John +<span class="sidenote">Transition from the morality to the regular drama.</span> +Heywood (b. c. 1500, d. between 1577 and 1587), +whose “interludes”<a name="fa11a" id="fa11a" href="#ft11a"><span class="sp">11</span></a> were short farces in the French +manner. The term “interludes” was by no means +new, but had been applied by friend and foe to religious plays, +and plays (including moralities) in general, already in the 14th +century. But it conveniently serves to designate a species +which marks a distinct stage in the history of the modern drama. +Heywood’s interludes dealt entirely with real—very real—men +and women. Orthodox and conservative, he had at the same +time a keen eye for the vices as well as the follies of his age, +and not the least for those of the clerical profession. Other +writers, such as T. Ingeland,<a name="fa12a" id="fa12a" href="#ft12a"><span class="sp">12</span></a> took the same direction; and the +allegory of abstractions was thus undermined on the stage, +very much as in didactic literature the ground had been cut +from under its feet by the <i>Ship of Fooles</i>. Thus the interludes +facilitated the advent of comedy, without having superseded the +earlier form. Both moralities and miracle-plays survived into +the Elizabethan age after the regular drama had already begun +its course.</p> + +<p>Such, in barest outline, was the progress of dramatic entertainments +in the principal countries of Europe, before the revival of +classical studies brought about a return to the examples +of the classical drama, or before this return had +<span class="sidenote">Pageants.</span> +distinctly asserted itself. It must not, however, be forgotten +that from an early period in England as elsewhere had flourished +a species of entertainments, not properly speaking dramatic, +but largely contributing to form and foster a taste for dramatic +spectacles. The <i>pageants</i>—as they were called in England—were +the successors of those <i>ridings</i> from which, when they +gladdened “Chepe,” Chaucer’s idle apprentice would not keep +away; but they had advanced in splendour and ingenuity of +device under the influence of Flemish and other foreign examples. +Costumed figures represented before gaping citizens the heroes +of mythology and history, and the abstractions of moral, +patriotic, or municipal allegory; and the city of London clung +with special fervour to these exhibitions, which the Elizabethan +drama was neither able nor—as represented by most of its poets +who composed devices and short texts for these and similar shows—willing +to oust from popular favour. Some of the greatest and +some of the least of English dramatists were the ministers of +pageantry; and perhaps it would have been an advantage for +the future of the theatre if the legitimate drama and the <i>Triumphs +of Old Drapery</i> had been more jealously kept apart. With the +reign of Henry VIII. there also set in a varied succession of +entertainments at court and in the houses of the great nobles, +which may be said to have lasted through the Tudor and early +Stuart periods; but it would be an endless task to attempt to +discriminate the dramatic elements contained in these productions. +The “mask,” stated to have been introduced from Italy +into England as a new diversion in 1512-1513, at first merely +added a fresh element of “disguising” to those already in use; +as a quasi-dramatic species (“mask” or “masque”) capable of +a great literary development it hardly asserted itself till quite +the end of the 16th century.</p> + +<p class="center pt2 sc">11. The Modern National Drama</p> + +<p>The literary influence which finally transformed the growths +noticed above into the national dramas of the several countries +of Europe, was that of the Renaissance. Among the +remains of classical antiquity which were studied, +<span class="sidenote">Influence of the Renaissance.</span> +translated and imitated, those of the drama necessarily +held a prominent place. Never altogether lost sight of, +they now became subjects of devoted research and models for +more or less exact imitation, first in Greek or Latin, then in +modern tongues; and these essentially literary endeavours +came into more or less direct contact with, and acquired more or +less control over, dramatic performances and entertainments +already in existence. This process it will be most convenient +to pursue <i>seriatim</i>, in connexion with the rise and progress of the +several dramatic literatures of the West. For no sooner had the +stream of the modern drama, whose source and contributories +have been described, been brought back into the ancient bed, +than its flow diverged into a number of national currents, unequal +in impetus and strength, and varying in accordance with their +manifold surroundings. And even of these it is only possible to +survey the most productive or important.</p> + +<p class="center pt2">(a) <i>Italy.</i></p> + +<p>The priority in this as in most of the other aspects of the +Renaissance belongs to Italy. In ultimate achievement the +Italian drama fell short of the fulness of the results +obtained elsewhere—a surprising fact when it is +<span class="sidenote">The modern Italian drama.</span> +considered, not only that the Italian language had the +vantage-ground of closest relationship to the Latin, +but that the genius of the Italian people has at all times led it +to love the drama. The cause is doubtless to be sought in the +lack, noticeable in Italian national life during a long period, and +more especially during the troubled days of division and strife +coinciding with the rise and earlier promise of Italian dramatic +literature, of those loftiest and most potent impulses of popular +feeling to which a national drama owes so much of its strength. +This deficiency was due partly to the peculiarities of the Italian +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page503" id="page503"></a>503</span> +character, partly to the political and ecclesiastical experiences +which Italy was fated to undergo. The Italians were alike +strangers to the enthusiasm of patriotism, which was as the breath +in the nostrils of the English Elizabethan age, and to the religious +devotion which identified Spain with the spirit of the Catholic +revival. The clear-sightedness of the Italians had something +to do with this, for they were too intelligent to believe in their +tyrants, and too free from illusions to deliver up their minds to +their priests. Finally, the chilling and enervating effects of a +pressure of foreign domination, such as no Western people with +a history and a civilization like those of Italy has ever experienced, +contributed to paralyse for many generations the higher efforts +of the dramatic art. No basis was permanently found for a +really national tragedy; while literary comedy, after turning +from the direct imitation of Latin models to a more popular form, +lost itself in an abandoned immorality of tone and in reckless +insolence of invective against particular classes of society. +Though its productivity long continued, the poetic drama more +and more concentrated its efforts upon subordinate or subsidiary +species, artificial in origin and decorative in purpose, and surrendered +its substance to the overpowering aids of music, dancing +and spectacle. Only a single form of the Italian drama, improvised +comedy, remained truly national; and this was of its +nature dissociated from higher literary effort. The revival of +Italian tragedy in later times is due partly to the imitation of +French models, partly to the endeavour of a brilliant genius to +infuse into his art the historical and political spirit. Comedy +likewise attained to new growths of considerable significance, +when it was sought to accommodate its popular forms to the +representation of real life in a wider range, and again to render +it more poetical in accordance with the tendencies of modern +romanticism.</p> + +<p>The regular Italian drama, in both its tragic and its comic +branches, began with a reproduction, in the Latin language, of +classical models—the first step, as it was to prove, towards the +transformation of the medieval into the modern drama, and +the birth of modern dramatic literature. But the process was +both tentative and tedious, and must have died away but for the +pomp and circumstance with which some of the patrons of the +Renaissance at Florence, Rome and elsewhere surrounded these +manifestations of a fashionable taste, and for the patriotic +inspiration which from the first induced Italian writers to +dramatize themes of national historic interest. Greek tragedy +had been long forgotten, and one or two indications in the earlier +part of the 16th century of Italian interest in the Greek drama, +chiefly due to the printing presses, may be passed by.<a name="fa13a" id="fa13a" href="#ft13a"><span class="sp">13</span></a> To the +later middle ages classical tragedy meant Seneca, and even his +plays remained unremembered till the study of them was revived +by the Paduan judge Lovato de’ Lovati (Lupatus, d. 1309). +Of the comedies of Plautus three-fifths were not rediscovered +till 1429; and though Terence was much read in the schools, +he found no dramatic imitators, <i>pour le bon motif</i> or otherwise, +since Hrosvitha.</p> + +<p>Thus the first medieval follower of Seneca, Albertino Mussato +(1261-1330) may in a sense be called the father of modern +dramatic literature. Born at Padua, to which city all his services +were given, he in 1315 brought out his <i>Eccerinis</i>, a Latin tragedy +very near to the confines of epic poetry, intended to warn the +Paduans against the designs of Can Grande della Scala by the +example of the tyrant Ezzelino. Other tragedies of much the +same type followed during the ensuing century; such as L. da +Fabiano’s <i>De casu Caesenae</i> (1377) a sort of chronicle history in +Latin prose on Cardinal Albornoz’ capture of Caesena.<a name="fa14a" id="fa14a" href="#ft14a"><span class="sp">14</span></a> Purely +classical themes were treated in the <i>Achilleis</i> of A. de’ Loschi +of Vicenza (d. 1441), formerly attributed to Mussato, several +passages of which are taken verbally from Seneca; in the +celebrated <i>Progne</i> of the Venetian Gregorio Cornaro, which is +dated 1428-1429, and in later Latin productions included among +the translations and imitations of Greek and Latin tragedies +and comedies by Bishop Martirano (d. 1557), the friend of Pope +Leo X.,<a name="fa15a" id="fa15a" href="#ft15a"><span class="sp">15</span></a> and the efforts of Pomponius Laetus and his followers, +who, with the aid of Cardinal Raffaele Riario (1451-1521), sought +to revive the ancient theatre, with all its classical associations, +at Rome.</p> + +<p>In this general movement Latin comedy had quickly followed +suit, and, as just indicated, it is almost impossible, when we +reach the height of the Italian Renaissance under the Medici at +Florence and at Rome in particular, to review the progress of +either species apart from that of the other. If we possessed the +lost <i>Philologia</i> of Petrarch, of which, as of a juvenile work, he +declared himself ashamed, this would be the earliest of extant +humanistic comedies. As it is, this position is held by <i>Paulus</i>, +a Latin comedy of life on the classic model, by the orthodox +P. P. Vergerio (1370-1444); which was followed by many others.<a name="fa16a" id="fa16a" href="#ft16a"><span class="sp">16</span></a></p> + +<p>Early in the 16th century, tragedy began to be written in the +native tongue; but it retained from the first, and never wholly +lost, the impress of its origin. Whatever the source +of its subjects—which, though mostly of classical +<span class="sidenote">Italian tragedy in the 16th century.</span> +origin, were occasionally derived from native romance, +or even due to invention—they were all treated with +a predilection for the horrible, inspired by the example of +Seneca, though no doubt encouraged by a perennial national +taste. The chorus, stationary on the stage as in old Roman +tragedy, was not reduced to a merely occasional appearance +between the acts till the beginning of the 17th century, or ousted +altogether from the tragic drama till the earlier half of the 18th. +Thus the changes undergone by Italian tragedy were for a long +series of generations chiefly confined to the form of versification +and the choice of themes; nor was it, at all events till the last +century of the course which it has hitherto run, more than the +aftergrowth of an aftergrowth. The honour of having been the +earliest tragedy in Italian seems to belong to A. da Pistoia’s +<i>Pamfila</i> (1499), of which the subject was taken from Boccaccio, +introduced by the ghost of Seneca, and marred in the taking. +Carretto’s <i>Sofonisba</i>, which hardly rises above the art of a +chronicle history, though provided with a chorus, followed in +1502. But the play usually associated with the beginning of +Italian tragedy—that with which “th’ Italian scene first learned +to glow”—was another <i>Sofonisba</i>, acted before Leo X. in 1515, +and written in blank hendecasyllables instead of the <i>ottava</i> and +<i>terza rima</i> of the earlier tragedians (retaining, however, the lyric +measures of the chorus), by G. G. Trissino, who was employed +as nuncio by that pope. Other tragedies of the former half of +the 16th century, largely inspired by Trissino’s example, were +the <i>Rosmunda</i> of Rucellai, a nephew of Lorenzo the Magnificent +(1516); Martelli’s <i>Tullia</i>, Alamanni’s <i>Antigone</i> (1532); the +<i>Canace</i> of Sperone Speroni, the envious <i>Mopsus</i> of Tasso, who, +like Guarini, took Sperone’s elaborate style for his model; the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page504" id="page504"></a>504</span> +<i>Orazia</i>, the earliest dramatic treatment of this famous subject by +the notorious Aretino (1549); and the nine tragedies of G. B. +Giraldi (Cinthio) of Ferrara, among which <i>L’Orbecche</i> (1541) +is accounted the best and the bloodiest. Cinthio, the author of +those <i>Hecatommithi</i> to which Shakespeare was indebted for so +many of his subjects, was (supposing him to have invented these) +the first Italian who was the author of the fables of his own +dramas; he introduced some novelties into dramatic construction, +separating the prologue and probably also the epilogue +from the action, and has by some been regarded as the inventor +of the pastoral drama. But his style was arid. In the latter half +of the 16th century may be mentioned the <i>Didone</i> and the +<i>Marianna</i> of L. Dolce, the translator of Euripides and Seneca +(1565); A. Leonico’s <i>Il Soldato</i> (1550); the <i>Adriana</i> (acted +before 1561 or 1586) of L. Groto, which treats the story of <i>Romeo +and Juliet</i>; Tasso’s <i>Torrismondo</i> (1587); the <i>Tancredi</i> of Asinari +(1588); and the <i>Merope</i> of Torelli (1593), the last who employed +the stationary chorus (<i>coro fisso</i>) on the Italian stage. Leonico’s +<i>Soldato</i> is noticeable as supposed to have given rise to the +<i>tragedia cittadina</i>, or domestic tragedy, of which there are few +examples in the Italian drama, and De Velo’s <i>Tamar</i> (1586) +as written in prose. Subjects of modern historical interest were +in this period treated only in isolated instances.<a name="fa17a" id="fa17a" href="#ft17a"><span class="sp">17</span></a></p> + +<p>The tragedians of the 17th century continued to pursue the +beaten track, marked out already in the 16th by rigid prescription. +In course of time, however, they sought by the +introduction of musical airs to compromise with the +<span class="sidenote">Italian tragedy in the 17th and 18th centuries.</span> +danger with which their art was threatened of being +(in Voltaire’s phrase) extinguished by the beautiful +monster, the opera, now rapidly gaining ground in the +country of its origin. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Opera</a></span>.) To Count P. Bonarelli +(1589-1659), the author of <i>Solimano</i>, is on the other hand +ascribed the first disuse of the chorus in Italian tragedy. The +innovation of the use of rhyme attempted in the learned Pallavicino’s +<i>Erminigildo</i> (1655), and defended by him in a discourse +prefixed to the play, was unable to achieve a permanent success +in Italy any more than in England; its chief representative +was afterwards Martelli (d. 1727), whose rhymed Alexandrian +verse (<i>Martelliano</i>), though on one occasion used in comedy by +Goldoni, failed to commend itself to the popular taste. By the +end of the 17th century Italian tragedy seemed destined to expire, +and the great tragic actor Cotta had withdrawn in disgust at the +apathy of the public towards the higher forms of the drama. +The 18th century was, however, to witness a change, the beginnings +of which are attributed to the institution of the Academy +of the Arcadians at Rome (1690). The principal efforts of the +new school of writers and critics were directed to the abolition +of the chorus, and to a general increase of freedom in treatment. +<span class="sidenote">Maffei.</span> +Before long the marquis S. Maffei with his <i>Merope</i> +(first printed 1713) achieved one of the most brilliant +successes recorded in the history of dramatic literature. This +play, which is devoid of any love-story, long continued to be +considered the masterpiece of Italian tragedy; Voltaire, who +declared it “worthy of the most glorious days of Athens,” +adapted it for the French stage, and it inspired a celebrated +production of the English drama.<a name="fa18a" id="fa18a" href="#ft18a"><span class="sp">18</span></a> It was followed by a tragedy +full of horrors,<a name="fa19a" id="fa19a" href="#ft19a"><span class="sp">19</span></a> noticeable as having given rise to the first Italian +dramatic <i>parody</i>; and by the highly esteemed productions of +<span class="sidenote">Metastasio.</span> +Granelli (d. 1769) and his contemporary Bettinelli. P. T. +Metastasio (1698-1782), who had early begun his career +as a dramatist by a strict adherence to the precepts of +Aristotle, gained celebrity by his contributions to the operatic +drama at Naples, Venice and Vienna (where he held office as +<i>poeta cesareo</i>, whose function was to arrange the court entertainments). +But his <i>libretti</i> have a poetic value of their own;<a name="fa20a" id="fa20a" href="#ft20a"><span class="sp">20</span></a> and +Voltaire pronounced much of him worthy of Corneille and of +Racine, when at their best. The influence of Voltaire had now +come to predominate over the Italian drama; and, in accordance +with the spirit of the times, greater freedom prevailed in the choice +of tragic themes. Thus the greatest of Italian tragic poets. +<span class="sidenote">Alfieri.</span> +Count V. Alfieri (1749-1803), found his path prepared +for him. Alfieri’s grand and impassioned treatment of +his subjects caused his faultiness of form, which he never +altogether overcame, to be forgotten. His themes were partly +classical;<a name="fa21a" id="fa21a" href="#ft21a"><span class="sp">21</span></a> but the spirit of a love of freedom which his creations<a name="fa22a" id="fa22a" href="#ft22a"><span class="sp">22</span></a> +breathe was the herald of the national ideas of the future. +Spurning the usages of French tragedy, his plays, which abound +in soliloquies, owe part of their effect to an impassioned force of +declamation, part to those “points” by which Italian acting +seems pre-eminently capable of thrilling an audience. He has +much besides the subjects of two of his dramas<a name="fa23a" id="fa23a" href="#ft23a"><span class="sp">23</span></a> in common with +Schiller, but his amazon-muse (as Schlegel called her) was not +schooled into serenity, like the muse of the German poet. Among +his numerous plays (21), <i>Merope</i> and <i>Saul</i>, and perhaps <i>Mirra</i>, +are accounted his masterpieces.</p> + +<p>The political colouring given by Alfieri to Italian tragedy +reappears in the plays of U. Foscolo and A. Manzoni, both of +whom are under the influence of the romantic school +of modern literature; and to these names must be +<span class="sidenote">Tragedians since Alfieri.</span> +added those of S. Pellico and G. B. Niccolini (1785-1861), +Paolo Giacometti (b. 1816) and others, whose +dramas<a name="fa24a" id="fa24a" href="#ft24a"><span class="sp">24</span></a> treat largely national themes familiar to all students +of modern history and literature. In their hands Italian tragedy +upon the whole adhered to its love of strong situations and +passionate declamation. Since the successful efforts of G. +Modena (1804-1861) renovated the tragic stage in Italy, the +art of tragic acting long stood at a higher level in this than +in almost any other European country; in Adelaide Ristori +(Marchesa del Grillo) the tragic stage lost one of the greatest +of modern actresses; and Ernesto Rossi (1827-1896) and +Tommaso Salvini long remained rivals in the noblest forms of +tragedy.</p> + +<p>In comedy, the efforts of the scholars of the Italian Renaissance +for a time went side by side with the progress of the popular +entertainments noticed above. While the <i>contrasti</i> of +the close of the 15th and of the 16th century were +<span class="sidenote">Italian comedy; popular forms.</span> +disputations between pairs of abstract or allegorical +figures, in the <i>frottola</i> human types take the place of +abstractions, and more than two characters appear. The <i>farsa</i> +(a name used of a wide variety of entertainments) was still under +medieval influences, and in this popular form Alione of Asti +(soon after 1500) was specially productive. To these popular +diversions a new literary as well as social significance was given by +the Neapolitan court-poet Sannazaro (c. 1492); about the same +time a <i>capitano valoroso</i>, Venturino of Pesara, first brought on +the modern stage the <i>capitano glorioso</i> or <i>spavente</i>, the military +braggart, who owed his origin both to Plautus<a name="fa25a" id="fa25a" href="#ft25a"><span class="sp">25</span></a> and to the +Spanish officers who abounded in the Italy of those days. The +popular character-comedy, a relic of the ancient <i>Atellanae</i>, +likewise took a new lease of life—and this in a double form. +The <i>improvised</i> comedy (<i>commedia a soggetto</i>) was now as a rule +performed by professional actors, members of a <i>craft</i>, and was +<span class="sidenote">Commedia dell’ arte.</span> +thence called the <i>commedia dell’ arte</i>, which is said to +have been invented by Francesco (called Terenziano) +Cherea, the favourite player of Leo X. Its scenes, still +unwritten except in skeleton (<i>scenario</i>), were connected together +by the ligatures or links (<i>lazzi</i>) of the <i>arlecchino</i>, the descendant +of the ancient Roman <i>sannio</i> (whence our <i>zany</i>). Harlequin’s +summit of glory was probably reached early in the 17th century, +when he was ennobled in the person of Cecchino by the emperor +Matthias; of Cecchino’s successors, Zaccagnino and Truffaldino, +<span class="sidenote">Masked comedy.</span> +we read that “they shut the door in Italy to good harlequins.” +Distinct from this growth is that of the <i>masked</i> +comedy, the action of which was chiefly carried on by certain +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page505" id="page505"></a>505</span> +typical figures in masks, speaking in local dialects,<a name="fa26a" id="fa26a" href="#ft26a"><span class="sp">26</span></a> but which +was not improvised, and indeed from the nature of the case +hardly could have been. Its inventor was A. Beolco of Padua, +who called himself Ruzzante (joker), and is memorable under +that name as the first actor-playwright—a combination of +extreme significance for the history of the modern stage. He +published six comedies in various dialects, including the Greek of +the day (1530). This was the masked comedy to which the +Italians so tenaciously clung, and in which, as all their own and +imitable by no other nation, they took so great a pride that +even Goldoni was unable to overthrow it. Improvisation and +burlesque, alike abominable to comedy proper, were inseparable +from the species.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, the Latin imitations of Roman, varied by occasional +translations of Greek, comedies early led to the production +of Italian translations, several of which were performed +at Ferrara in the last quarter of the 15th century, +<span class="sidenote">Early Italian regular comedy.</span> +whence they spread to Milan, Pavia and other towns +of the north. Contemporaneously, imitations of Latin +comedy made their appearance, for the most part in rhymed +verse; most of them applying classical treatment to subjects +derived from Boccaccio’s and other <i>novelle</i>, some still mere +adaptations of ancient models. In these circumstances it is all +but idle to assign the honour of having been “the first Italian +comedy”—and thus the first comedy in modern dramatic +literature—to any particular play. Boiardo’s <i>Timone</i> (before +1494), for which this distinction was frequently claimed, is to a +large extent founded on a dialogue of Lucian’s; and, since some +of its personages are abstractions, and Olympus is domesticated +on an upper stage, it cannot be regarded as more than a transition +from the moralities. A. Ricci’s <i>I Tre Tiranni</i> (before 1530) +seems still to belong to the same transitional species. Among +the earlier imitators of Latin comedy in the vernacular may be +noted G. Visconti, one of the poets patronized by Ludovico il +Moro at Milan;<a name="fa27a" id="fa27a" href="#ft27a"><span class="sp">27</span></a> the Florentines G. B. Araldo, J. Nardi, the +historian,<a name="fa28a" id="fa28a" href="#ft28a"><span class="sp">28</span></a> and D. Gianotti.<a name="fa29a" id="fa29a" href="#ft29a"><span class="sp">29</span></a> The step—very important had it +been adopted consistently or with a view to consistency—of +substituting prose for verse as the diction of comedy, is sometimes +attributed to Ariosto; but, though his first two comedies +were originally written in prose, the experiment was not +new, nor did he persist in its adoption. Caretto’s <i>I Sei Contenti</i> +dates from the end of the 15th century, and Publio Filippo’s +<i>Formicone</i>, taken from Apuleius, followed quite early in the 16th. +Machiavelli, as will be seen, wrote comedies both in prose and +in verse.</p> + +<p>But, whoever wrote the first Italian comedy, Ludovico +Ariosto was the first master of the species. All but the first two +of his comedies, belonging as they do to the field of <i>commedia +erudita</i>, or scholarly comedy, are in blank verse, to which he gave +a singular mobility by the dactylic ending of the line (<i>sdrucciolo</i>). +Ariosto’s models were the masterpieces of the <i>palliata</i>, and his +morals those of his age, which emulated those of the worst days +of ancient Rome or Byzantium in looseness, and surpassed them +in effrontery. He chose his subjects accordingly; but his +dramatic genius displayed itself in the effective drawing of +character,<a name="fa30a" id="fa30a" href="#ft30a"><span class="sp">30</span></a> and more especially in the skilful management of +complicated intrigues.<a name="fa31a" id="fa31a" href="#ft31a"><span class="sp">31</span></a> Such, with an additional brilliancy of +wit and lasciviousness of tone, are likewise the characteristics +of Machiavelli’s famous prose comedy, the <i>Mandragola</i> (<i>The +Magic Draught</i>);<a name="fa32a" id="fa32a" href="#ft32a"><span class="sp">32</span></a> and at the height of their success, of the plays +of P. Aretino,<a name="fa33a" id="fa33a" href="#ft33a"><span class="sp">33</span></a> especially the prose <i>Marescalco</i> (1526-1527) +whose name, it has been said, ought to be written in asterisks. +It may be added that the plays of Ariosto and his followers were +represented with magnificent scenery and settings. Other +dramatists of the 16th century were B. Accolti, whose <i>Virginia</i> +(prob. before 1513) treats the story from Boccaccio which +reappears in <i>All’s Well that Ends Well</i>; G. Cecchi, F. d’Ambra, +A. F. Grazzini, N. Secco or Secchi and L. Dolce—all writers of +romantic comedy of intrigue in verse or prose.</p> + +<p>During the same century the “pastoral drama” flourished +in Italy. The origin of this peculiar species—which was the +bucolic idyll in a dramatic form, and which freely +lent itself to the introduction of both mythological +<span class="sidenote">The pastoral drama.</span> +and allegorical elements—was purely literary, and +arose directly out of the classical studies and tastes +of the Renaissance. It was very far removed from the genuine +peasant plays which flourished in Venetia and Tuscany early +in the 16th century. The earliest example of the artificial, but +in some of its productions exquisite, growth in question was the +renowned scholar A. Politian’s <i>Orfeo</i> (1472), which begins like +an idyll and ends like a tragedy. Intended to be performed with +music—for the pastoral drama is the parent of the opera—this +beautiful work tells its story simply. N. da Correggio’s (1450-1508) +<i>Cefalo</i>, or <i>Aurora</i>, and others followed, before in 1554 A. +Beccari produced, as totally new of its kind, his Arcadian pastoral +drama <i>Il Sagrifizio</i>, in which the comic element predominates. +But an epoch in the history of the species is marked by the +<i>Aminta</i> of Tasso (1573), in whose Arcadia is allegorically mirrored +the Ferrara court. Adorned by choral lyrics of great beauty, it +presents an allegorical treatment of a social and moral problem; +and since the conception of the characters, all of whom think +and speak of nothing but love, is artificial, the charm of the poem +lies not in the interest of its action, but in the passion and +sweetness of its sentiment. This work was the model of many +others, and the pastoral drama reached its height of popularity +in the famous <i>Pastor fido</i> (written before 1590) of G. B. Guarini, +which, while founded on a tragic love-story, introduces into its +complicated plot a comic element, partly with a satirical intention. +It is one of those exceptional works which, by circumstance +as well as by merit, have become the property of the world’s +literature at large. Thus, both in Italian and in other literatures, +the pastoral drama became a distinct species, characterized, like +the great body of modern pastoral poetry in general, by a tendency +either towards the artificial or towards the burlesque. Its +artificiality affected the entire growth of Italian comedy, including +the <i>commedia dell’ arte</i>, and impressed itself in an intensified +form upon the opera. The foremost Italian masters of the last-named +species, so far as it can claim to be included in the poetic +drama, were A. Zeno (1668-1750) and P. Metastasio.</p> + +<p>The comic dramatists of the 17th century are grouped as +followers of the classical and of the romantic school, G. B. della +Porta (<i>q.v.</i>) and G. A. Cicognini (whom Goldoni +describes as full of whining pathos and commonplace +<span class="sidenote">Comedy in the 17th and 18th centuries.</span> +drollery, but as still possessing a great power to +interest) being regarded as the leading representatives +of the former. But neither of these largely intermixed groups +of writers could, with all its fertility, prevail against the competition, +on the one hand of the musical drama, and on the other +of the popular farcical entertainments and those introduced in +imitation of Spanish examples. Italian comedy had fallen into +decay, when its reform was undertaken by the wonderful +<span class="sidenote">Goldoni.</span> +theatrical genius of C. Goldoni. One of the most +fertile and rapid of playwrights (of his 150 comedies +16 were written and acted in a single year), he at the same +time pursued definite aims as a dramatist. Disgusted with +the conventional buffoonery, and ashamed of the rampant +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page506" id="page506"></a>506</span> +immorality of the Italian comic stage, he drew his characters +from real life, whether of his native city (Venice)<a name="fa34a" id="fa34a" href="#ft34a"><span class="sp">34</span></a> or of society +at large, and sought to enforce virtuous and pathetic sentiments +without neglecting the essential objects of his art. Happy and +various in his choice of themes, and dipping deep into a popular +life with which he had a genuine sympathy, he produced, besides +comedies of general human character,<a name="fa35a" id="fa35a" href="#ft35a"><span class="sp">35</span></a> plays on subjects drawn +from literary biography<a name="fa36a" id="fa36a" href="#ft36a"><span class="sp">36</span></a> or from fiction.<a name="fa37a" id="fa37a" href="#ft37a"><span class="sp">37</span></a> Goldoni, whose style +was considered defective by the purists whom Italy has at no +time lacked, met with a severe critic and a temporarily successful +<span class="sidenote">Gozzi.</span> +rival in Count C. Gozzi (1722-1806), who sought to +rescue the comic drama from its association with the +actual life of the middle classes, and to infuse a new spirit into +the figures of the old masked comedy by the invention of a new +species. His themes were taken from Neapolitan<a name="fa38a" id="fa38a" href="#ft38a"><span class="sp">38</span></a> and Oriental<a name="fa39a" id="fa39a" href="#ft39a"><span class="sp">39</span></a> +fairy tales, to which he accommodated some of the standing +figures upon which Goldoni had made war. This attempt at +mingling fancy and humour—occasionally of a directly satirical +turn<a name="fa40a" id="fa40a" href="#ft40a"><span class="sp">40</span></a>—was in harmony with the tendencies of the modern +romantic school; and Gozzi’s efforts, which though successful +found hardly any imitators in Italy, have a family resemblance +to those of Tieck and of some more recent writers whose art +wings its flight, through the windows, “over the hills and far +away.”</p> + +<p>During the latter part of the 18th and the early years of the +19th century comedy continued to follow the course marked +out by its acknowledged master Goldoni, under the +influence of the sentimental drama of France and other +<span class="sidenote">Comedians after Goldoni.</span> +countries. Abati Andrea Villi, the marquis Albergati +Capacelli, Antonio Simone Sografi (1760-1825), +Federici, and Pietro Napoli Signorelli (1731-1815), the historian +of the drama, are mentioned among the writers of this school; +to the 19th century belong Count Giraud, Marchisio (who took +his subjects especially from commercial life), and Nota, a fertile +writer, among whose plays are three treating the lives of poets. +Of still more recent date are L. B. Bon and A. Brofferio. At +the same time, the comedy of dialect to which the example of +Goldoni had given sanction in Venice, flourished there as well as +in the mutually remote spheres of Piedmont and Naples. Quite +modern developments must remain unnoticed here; but the +fact cannot be ignored that they signally illustrate the perennial +vitality of the modern drama in the home of its beginnings. A +new realistic style set fully in about the middle of the 18th +century with P. Ferrari and A. Torelli; and though an historical +reaction towards classical and medieval themes is associated with +the names of P. Cossa and G. Giacosa, modernism reasserted +itself through P. Bracco and other dramatists. It should be noted +that the influence of great actors, more especially Ermete +Novelli and Eleanora Duse, must be credited with a large share +of the success with which the Italian stage has held its own +even against the foreign influences to which it gave room. And +it would seem as if even the paradoxical endeavour of the poet +Gabrielle d’ Annunzio to lyricize the drama by ignoring action +as its essence were a problem for the solution of which the stage +can furnish unexpected conditions of its own. In any event, +both Italian tragedy and Italian comedy have survived periods +of a seemingly hopeless decline; and the fear has vanished +that either the opera or the ballet might succeed in ousting +from the national stage the legitimate forms of the national +drama.</p> + +<p class="center pt2">(b) <i>Greece.</i></p> + +<p>The dramatic literature of the later Hellenes is a creation +of the literary movement which preceded their noble struggle +for independence, or which may be said to form part +of that struggle. After beginning with dramatic +<span class="sidenote">Modern Greek and Dalmatian drama.</span> +dialogues of a patriotic tendency, it took a step in +advance with the tragedies of J. R. Nerulos<a name="fa41a" id="fa41a" href="#ft41a"><span class="sp">41</span></a> (1778-1850), +whose name belongs to the political as well as to the +literary history of his country. His comedies—especially one +directed against the excesses of journalism<a name="fa42a" id="fa42a" href="#ft42a"><span class="sp">42</span></a>—largely contributed +to open a literary life for the modern Greek tongue. Among +the earlier patriotic Greek dramatists of the 19th century are +T. Alkaeos, J. Zampelios (whose tragic style was influenced by +that of Alfieri),<a name="fa43a" id="fa43a" href="#ft43a"><span class="sp">43</span></a> S. K. Karydis and A. Valaoritis. A. Zoiros<a name="fa44a" id="fa44a" href="#ft44a"><span class="sp">44</span></a> +is noteworthy as having introduced the use of prose into Greek +tragedy, while preserving to it that association with sentiments +and aspirations which will probably long continue to pervade +the chief productions of modern Greek literature. The love of +the theatre is ineradicable from Attic as it is from Italian soil; +and the tendencies of the young dramatic literature of Hellas +which is not wholly absorbed in the effort to keep abreast of +recent modern developments, seem to justify the hope that a +worthy future awaits it.</p> + +<p>Under Italian influence an interesting dramatic growth +attained to some vitality in the Dalmatian lands about the +beginning of the 16th century, where the religious drama, whose +days were passing away in Italy, found favour with a people +with a scant popular literature of its own. At Ragusa Italian +literary influence had been spread by the followers of Petrarch +from the later years of the 15th century; here several Servo-Croatian +writers produced religious plays in the manner of the +Italian <i>rappresentazioni</i>; and a gifted poet, Martin Držić, +composed, besides religious plays and farces, a species of pastoral +which enjoyed much favour.</p> + +<p class="center pt2">(c) <i>Spain.</i></p> + +<p>Spain is the only country of modern Europe which shares with +England the honour of having achieved, at a relatively early date, +the creation of a genuinely national form of the regular drama. +So proper to Spain was the form of the drama which she +produced and perfected, that to it the term <i>romantic</i> has been +specifically applied, though so restricted a use of the epithet is +clearly unjustifiable. The influences which from the Romance +peoples—in whom Christian and Germanic elements mingled +with the legacy of Roman law, learning and culture—spread to +the Germanic nations were represented with the most signal +force and fulness in the institutions of chivalry,—to which, in the +words of Scott, “it was peculiar to blend military valour with the +strongest passions which actuate the human mind, the feelings +of devotion and those of love.” These feelings, in their combined +operation upon the national character, and in their reflection +in the national literature, were not confined to Spain; but +nowhere did they so long or so late continue to animate the moral +life of a nation.</p> + +<p>Outward causes contributed to this result. For centuries +after the crusades had become a mere memory, Spain was a +battle-ground between the Cross and the Crescent. And it was +just at the time when the Renaissance was establishing new +starting-points for the literary progress of Europe, that Christian +Spain rose to the height of Catholic as well as national self-consciousness +by the expulsion of the Moors and the conquest +of the New World. From their rulers or rivals of so many +centuries the Spaniards derived that rich, if not very varied, +glow of colour which became permanently distinctive of their +national life, and more especially of its literary and artistic +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page507" id="page507"></a>507</span> +expressions; they also perhaps derived from the same source a +not less characteristically refined treatment of the passion of +love. The ideas of Spanish chivalry—more especially religious +devotion and a punctilious sense of personal honour—asserted +themselves (according to a process often observable in the history +of civilization) with peculiar distinctness in literature and art, +after the period of great achievements to which they had contributed +in other fields had come to an end. The ripest glories +of the Spanish drama belong to an age of national decay—mindful, +it is true, of the ideas of a greater past. The chivalrous +enthusiasm pervading so many of the masterpieces of its literature +is indeed a distinctive feature of the Spanish nation in all, even +in the least hopeful, periods of its later history; and the religious +ardour breathed by these works, though associating itself with +what is called the Catholic Reaction, is in truth only a manifestation +of the spirit which informed the noblest part of the Reformation +movement itself. The Spanish drama neither sought nor +could seek to emancipate itself from views and forms of religious +life more than ever sacred to the Spanish people since the glorious +days of Ferdinand and Isabella; and it is not so much in the +beginnings as in the great age of Spanish dramatic literature that +it seems most difficult to distinguish between what is to be +termed a religious and what a secular play. After Spain had thus, +the first after England among modern European countries, fully +unfolded that incomparably richest expression of national life +and sentiment in an artistic form—a truly national dramatic +literature,—the terrible decay of her greatness and prosperity +gradually impaired the strength of a brilliant but, of its nature, +dependent growth. In the absence of high original genius the +Spanish dramatists began to turn to foreign models, though +little supported in such attempts by popular sympathy; and it +is only in more recent times that the Spanish drama has sought +to reproduce the ancient forms from whose masterpieces the +nation had never become estranged, while accommodating them +to tastes and tendencies shared by later Spanish literature with +that of Europe at large.</p> + +<p>The earlier dramatic efforts of Spanish literature may without +inconvenience be briefly dismissed. The reputed author of the +<i>Coplas de Mingo Revulgo</i> (R. Cota the elder) likewise +composed the first act of a story of intrigue and +<span class="sidenote">Early efforts.</span> +character, purely dramatic but not intended for representation. +This tragic comedy of <i>Calisto and Meliboea</i>, which +was completed (in 21 acts) by 1499, afterwards became famous +under the name of <i>Celestina</i>; it was frequently imitated and +translated, and was adapted for the Spanish stage by R. de +Zepeda in 1582. But the father of the Spanish drama was J. de +la Enzina, whose <i>representaciones</i> under the name of “eclogues” +were dramatic dialogues of a religious or pastoral character. +His attempts were imitated more especially by the Portuguese +<span class="sidenote">Gil Vicente.</span> +Gil Vicente, whose writings for the stage appear to be +included in the period 1502-1536, and who wrote both +in Spanish and in his native tongue. A further impulse +came, as was natural, from Spaniards resident in Italy, and +especially from B. de Torres Naharro, who in 1517 published, as +the chief among the “firstlings of his genius” (<i>Propaladia</i>), a +series of eight <i>comedias</i>—a term generally applied in Spanish +literature to any kind of drama. He claimed some knowledge of +the theory of the ancient drama, divided his plays into <i>jornadas</i><a name="fa45a" id="fa45a" href="#ft45a"><span class="sp">45</span></a> +(to correspond to acts), and opened them with an <i>introyto</i> +(prologue). Very various in their subjects, and occasionally odd +in form,<a name="fa46a" id="fa46a" href="#ft46a"><span class="sp">46</span></a> they were gross as well as audacious in tone, and were +soon prohibited by the Inquisition. The church remained unwilling +to renounce her control over such dramatic exhibitions +as she permitted, and sought to suppress the few plays on not +strictly religious subjects which appeared in the early part of +the reign of Charles I. Though the universities produced both +translations from the classical drama and modern Latin plays, +these exercised very little general effect. Juan Perez’ (Petreius’) +posthumous Latin comedies were mainly versions of Ariosto.<a name="fa47a" id="fa47a" href="#ft47a"><span class="sp">47</span></a></p> + +<p>Thus the foundation of the Spanish national theatre was +reserved for a man of the people. Cervantes has vividly sketched +the humble resources which were at the command of +Lope de Rueda, a mechanic of Seville, who with his +<span class="sidenote">Lope de Rueda and his followers.</span> +friend the bookseller Timoneda, and two brother +authors and actors in his strolling company, succeeded +in bringing dramatic entertainments out of the churches and +palaces into the public places of the towns, where they were +produced on temporary scaffolds. The manager carried about +his properties in a corn-sack; and the “comedies” were still +only “dialogues, and a species of eclogues between two or three +shepherds and a shepherdess,” enlivened at times by intermezzos +of favourite comic figures, such as the negress or the Biscayan, +“played with inconceivable talent and truthfulness by Lope.” +One of his plays at least,<a name="fa48a" id="fa48a" href="#ft48a"><span class="sp">48</span></a> and one of Timoneda’s,<a name="fa49a" id="fa49a" href="#ft49a"><span class="sp">49</span></a> seem to have +been taken from an Italian source; others mingled modern +themes with classical apparitions,<a name="fa50a" id="fa50a" href="#ft50a"><span class="sp">50</span></a> one of Timoneda’s was +(perhaps again through the Italian) from Plautus.<a name="fa51a" id="fa51a" href="#ft51a"><span class="sp">51</span></a> Others of a +slighter description were called <i>pasos</i>,—a species afterwards +termed <i>entremeses</i> and resembling the modern French <i>proverbes</i>. +With these popular efforts of Lope de Rueda and his friends a +considerable dramatic activity began in the years 1560-1590 +in several Spanish cities, and before the close of this period +permanent theatres began to be fitted up at Madrid. Yet +Spanish dramatic literature might still have been led +<span class="sidenote">Classical dramas.</span> +to follow Italian into an imitation of classical models. +Two plays by G. Bermudez (1577), called by their +learned author “the first Spanish tragedies,” treating the national +subject of Inez de Castro, but divided into five acts, composed in +various metres, and introducing a chorus; a <i>Dido</i> (c. 1580) by +C. de Virues (who claimed to have first divided dramas into +three <i>jornadas</i>); and the tragedies of L. L. de Argensola (acted +1585, and praised in <i>Don Quixote</i>) alike represent this tendency.</p> + +<p>Such were the alternatives which had opened for the Spanish +drama, when at last, about the same time as that of the English, +its future was determined by writers of original genius. +The first of these was the immortal Cervantes, who, +<span class="sidenote">Cervantes.</span> +however, failed to anticipate by his earlier plays (1584-1588) the +great (though to him unproductive) success of his famous +romance. In his endeavour to give a poetic character to the +drama he fell upon the expedient of introducing personified +abstractions speaking a “divine” or elevated language—a +device which was for a time favourably received. But these +plays exhibit a neglect or ignorance of the laws of dramatic +construction; their action is episodical; and it is from the +realism of these episodes (especially in the <i>Numancia</i>, which is +crowded with both figures and incidents), and from the power +and flow of the declamation, that their effect must have been +derived. When in his later years (1615) Cervantes returned to +dramatic composition, the style and form of the national drama +had been definitively settled by a large number of writers, the +brilliant success of whose acknowledged chief may previously +have diverted Cervantes from his labours for the theatre. His +influence upon the general progress of dramatic literature is, +however, to be sought, not only in his plays, but also in those +<i>novelas exemplares</i>—incomparable alike in their clearness and +their terseness of narrative—to which more than one drama is +indebted for its plot, and for much of its dialogue to boot.</p> + +<p>Lope de Vega, one of the most astonishing geniuses the world +has known, permanently established the national forms of the +Spanish drama. Some of these were in their beginnings +taken over by him from ruder predecessors; some +<span class="sidenote">Lope de Vega.</span> +were cultivated with equal or even superior success by +subsequent authors; but in variety, as in fertility of dramatic +production, he has no rivals. His fertility, which was such that +he wrote about 1500 plays, besides 300 dramatic works classed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page508" id="page508"></a>508</span> +as <i>autos sacramentales</i> and <i>entremeses</i>, and a vast series of other +literary compositions, has indisputably prejudiced his reputation +with those to whom he is but a name and a number. Yet as a +dramatist Lope more fully exemplifies the capabilities of the +Spanish theatre than any of his successors, though as a poet +Calderon may deserve the palm. Nor would it be possible to +imagine a truer representative of the Spain of his age than a poet +who, after suffering the hardships of poverty and exile, and the +pangs of passion, sailed against the foes of the faith in the +Invincible Armada, subsequently became a member of the Holy +Inquisition and of the order of St Francis, and after having been +decorated by the pope with the cross of Malta and a theological +doctorate, honoured by the nobility, and idolized by the nation, +ended with the names of Jesus and Mary on his lips. From the +plays of such a writer we may best learn the manners and the +sentiments, the ideas of religion and honour, of the Spain of the +Philippine age, the age when she was most prominent in the eyes +of Europe and most glorious in her own. For, with all its +inventiveness and vigour, the genius of Lope primarily set itself +the task of pleasing his public,—the very spirit of whose inner as +well as outer life is accordingly mirrored in his dramatic works. +In them we have, in the words of Lope’s French translator Baret, +“the movement, the clamour, the conflict of unforeseen intrigues +suitable to unreflecting spectators; perpetual flatteries addressed +to an unextinguishable national pride; the painting of passions +dear to a people never tired of admiring itself; the absolute +sway of the point of honour; the deification of revenge; the +adoration of symbols; buffoonery and burlesque, everywhere +beloved of the multitude, but here never defiled by obscenities, +for this people has a sense of delicacy, and the foundation of its +character is nobility; lastly, the flow of proverbs which at +times escape from the <i>gracioso</i>” (the comic servant domesticated +in the Spanish drama by Lope)—“the commonplace literature +of those who possess no other.”</p> + +<p>The plays of Lope, and those of the national Spanish drama in +general, are divided into classes which it is naturally not always +easy, and which there is no reason to suppose him +always to have intended, to keep distinct from one +<span class="sidenote">Comedias de capa y espada.</span> +another. After in his early youth composing eclogues, +pastoral plays, and allegorical moralities in the old +style, he began his theatrical activity at Madrid about 1590, +and the plays which he thenceforth produced have been distributed +under the following heads. The <i>comedias</i>, all of which are +in verse, include (1) the so-called <i>c. de capa y espada</i>—not +comedies proper, but dramas in which the principal personages +are taken from the class of society that wears cloak and sword. +Gallantry is their main theme, an interesting and complicated, +but well-constructed and perspicuous intrigue their chief feature; +and this is usually accompanied by an underplot in which the +<i>gracioso</i> plays his part. Their titles are frequently taken from +the old proverbs or proverbial phrases of the people<a name="fa52a" id="fa52a" href="#ft52a"><span class="sp">52</span></a> upon +the theme suggested, by which the plays often (as G. H. Lewes +admirably expresses it) constitute a kind of gloss (<i>glosa</i>) in +action. This is the favourite species of the national Spanish +theatre; and to the plots of the plays belonging to it the drama +of other nations owes a debt almost incalculable in extent. +<span class="sidenote">Heróicas.</span> +(2) The <i>c. heróicas</i> are distinguished by some of their +personages being of royal or very high rank, and by +their themes being often historical and largely<a name="fa53a" id="fa53a" href="#ft53a"><span class="sp">53</span></a> (though not invariably<a name="fa54a" id="fa54a" href="#ft54a"><span class="sp">54</span></a>) +taken from the national annals, or founded on contemporary +or recent events.<a name="fa55a" id="fa55a" href="#ft55a"><span class="sp">55</span></a> Hence they exhibit a greater +gravity of tone; but in other respects there is no difference +between them and the cloak-and-sword comedies with which they +share the element of comic underplots. Occasionally Lope condescended +in the opposite direction, to (3) plays of which the scene +is laid in common life, but for which no special name appears +to have existed.<a name="fa56a" id="fa56a" href="#ft56a"><span class="sp">56</span></a> Meanwhile, both he and his successors were +too devoted sons of the church not to acknowledge in some sort +her claim to influence the national drama. This claim she had +never relinquished, even when she could no longer retain an +absolute control over the stage. For a time, indeed, she was +able to reassert even this; for the exhibition of all secular plays +was in 1598 prohibited by the dying Philip II., and remained so +for two years; and Lope with his usual facility proceeded to +supply religious plays of various kinds. After a few dramas on +scriptural subjects he turned to the legends of the saints; and +<span class="sidenote">Comedias de santos.</span> +the <i>comedias de santos</i>, of which he wrote a great +number, became an accepted later Spanish variety +of the miracle-play. True, however, to the popular +instincts of his genius, he threw himself with special zeal and +success into the composition of another kind of religious plays—a +development of the Corpus Christi pageants, in honour of +which all the theatres had to close their doors for a month. +<span class="sidenote">Autos sacramentales.</span> +These were the famous <i>autos sacramentales</i> (<i>i.e.</i> solemn +“acts” or proceedings in honour of the Sacrament), +which were performed in the open air by actors who +had filled the cars of the sacred procession. Of these +Lope wrote about 400. These entertainments were arranged +on a fixed scheme, comprising a prologue in dialogue between +two or more actors in character (<i>loa</i>), a farce (<i>entremes</i>), and the +<i>auto</i> proper, an allegorical scene of religious purport, as an +example of which Ticknor cites the <i>Bridge of the World</i>,—in +which the Prince of Darkness in vain seeks to defend the bridge +against the Knight of the Cross, who finally leads the Soul of +<span class="sidenote">Entremeses.</span> +Man in triumph across it. Not all the <i>entremeses</i> of +Lope and others were, however, composed for insertion +in these <i>autos</i>. This long-lived popular species, +together with the old kind of dramatic dialogue called <i>eclogues</i>, +completes the list of the varieties of his dramatic works.</p> + +<p>The example of Lope was followed by a large number of +writers, and Spain thus rapidly became possessed of a dramatic +literature almost unparalleled in quantity—for in +fertility also Lope was but the first among many. +<span class="sidenote">The school of Lope.</span> +Among the writers of Lope’s school, his friend G. de +Castro (1569-1631) must not be passed by, for his <i>Cid</i><a name="fa57a" id="fa57a" href="#ft57a"><span class="sp">57</span></a> was the +basis of Corneille’s; nor J. P. de Montalban, “the first-born of +Lope’s genius,” the extravagance of whose imagination, like +that of Lee, culminated in madness. Soon after him died (1639) +Juan Ruiz de Alarcon, in whose plays, as contrasted with those +of Lope, has been recognized the distinctive element of a moral +purpose. To G. Tellez, called Tirso de Molina (d. 1648), no +similar praise seems due; but the frivolous gaiety of the inventor +of the complete character of Don Juan was accompanied by +ingenuity in the construction of his excellent<a name="fa58a" id="fa58a" href="#ft58a"><span class="sp">58</span></a> though at times +“sensational”<a name="fa59a" id="fa59a" href="#ft59a"><span class="sp">59</span></a> plots. F. de Rojas Zorrilla (b. 1607), who was +largely plundered by the French dramatists of the latter half of +the century, survived Molina for about a generation. In vain +scholars of strictly classical tastes protested in essays in prose and +verse against the ascendancy of the popular drama; the prohibition +of Philip II. had been recalled two years after his death +and was never renewed; and the activity of the theatre spread +through the towns and villages of the land, everywhere under the +controlling influence of the school of writers who had established +so complete a harmony between the drama and the tastes and +tendencies of the people.</p> + +<p>The glories of Spanish dramatic literature reached their height +in P. Calderon de la Barca, though in the history of the Spanish +theatre he holds only the second place. He elaborated +some of the forms of the national drama, but brought +<span class="sidenote">Calderon.</span> +about no changes of moment in any of them. Even the brilliancy +of his style, glittering with a constant reproduction of the same +family of tropes, and the variety of his melodious versification, +are mere intensifications of the poetic qualities of Lope, while +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page509" id="page509"></a>509</span> +in their moral and religious sentiments, and their general views +of history and society, there is no difference between the two. +Like Lope, Calderon was a soldier in his youth and an ecclesiastic +in his later years; like his senior, he suited himself to the tastes +of both court and people, and applied his genius with equal +facility to the treatment of religious and of secular themes. +In fertility Calderon was inferior to Lope (for he wrote not many +more than 100 plays); but he surpasses the elder poet in richness +of style, and more especially in fire of imagination. In his <i>autos</i> +(of which he is said to have left not less than 73), Calderon probably +attained to his most distinctive excellence; some of these +appear to take a wide range of allegorical invention,<a name="fa60a" id="fa60a" href="#ft60a"><span class="sp">60</span></a> while they +uniformly possess great beauty of poetical detail. Other of his +most famous or interesting pieces are <i>comedias de santos</i>.<a name="fa61a" id="fa61a" href="#ft61a"><span class="sp">61</span></a> In his +secular plays he treats as wide a variety of subjects as Lope, +but it is not a dissimilar variety; nor would it be easy to decide +whether a poet so uniformly admirable within his limits has +achieved greater success in romantic historical tragedy,<a name="fa62a" id="fa62a" href="#ft62a"><span class="sp">62</span></a> in the +comedy of amorous intrigue,<a name="fa63a" id="fa63a" href="#ft63a"><span class="sp">63</span></a> or in a dramatic work combining +fancy and artificiality in such a degree that it has been diversely +described as a romantic caprice and as a philosophical poem.<a name="fa64a" id="fa64a" href="#ft64a"><span class="sp">64</span></a></p> + +<p>During the life of the second great master of the Spanish +drama there was little apparent abatement in the productivity +of its literature; while the <i>autos</i> continued to flourish +in Madrid and elsewhere, till in 1765 (shortly before +<span class="sidenote">Contemporaries of Calderon.</span> +the expulsion of the Jesuits from Spain) their public +representation was prohibited by royal decree. In the +world of fashion, the opera had reached Spain already during +Calderon’s lifetime, together with other French influences, +and the great dramatist had himself written one or two of his +plays for performance with music. But the regular national +<span class="sidenote">Moreto and the comedia de figuron.</span> +drama continued to command popular favour, and +with A. Moreto may be said to have actually taken a +step in advance. While he wrote in all the forms +established by Lope and cultivated by Calderon, his +manner seems most nearly to approach the masterpieces of +French and later English comedy of character; he was the earliest +writer of the <i>comedias de figuron</i>, in which the most prominent +personage is (in Congreve’s phrase) “a character of affectation,” +in other words, the Spanish fop of real life.<a name="fa65a" id="fa65a" href="#ft65a"><span class="sp">65</span></a> His masterpiece, +a favourite of many stages, is one of the most graceful and +pleasing of modern comedies—simple but interesting in plot, +and true to nature, with something like Shakespearian truth.<a name="fa66a" id="fa66a" href="#ft66a"><span class="sp">66</span></a> +Other writers trod more closely in the footsteps of the masters +without effecting any noticeable changes in the form of the +Spanish drama; even the <i>saynete</i> (tit-bit), which owes its name +to Benavente (fl. 1645), was only a kind of <i>entremes</i>. The +Spanish drama in all its forms retained its command over the +nation, because they were alike popular in origin and character; +nor is there any other example of so complete an adaptation +of a national art to the national taste and sentiment in its ethics +and aesthetics, in the nature of the plots of the plays (whatever +their origin), in the motives of their actions, in the conduct and +tone and in the very costume of their characters.</p> + +<p>National as it was, and because of this very quality, the Spanish +drama was fated to share the lot of the people it so fully represented. +At the end of the 17th century, when the +Spanish throne at last became the declared apple of +<span class="sidenote">Decay of the national Spanish drama.</span> +discord among the governments of Europe, the Spanish +people lay, in the words of an historian of its later days, +“like a corpse, incapable of feeling its own impotence.” +That national art to which it had so faithfully clung had fallen +into decline and decay with the spirit of Spain itself. By the +time of the close of the great war, the theatre had sunk into a +mere amusement of the populace, which during the greater part +of the 18th century, while allowing the old masters the measure of +favour which accords with traditional esteem, continued to uphold +the representatives of the old drama in its degeneracy—authors +on the level of their audiences. But the Spanish court was now +<span class="sidenote">The French school of the 18th century.</span> +French, and in the drama, even more than in any other +form of art, France was the arbiter of taste in Europe. +With the restoration of peace accordingly began isolated +attempts to impose the French canons of dramatic +theory, and to follow the example of French dramatic +practice; and in the middle of the century these endeavours +assumed more definite form. Montiano’s bloodless tragedy of +<i>Virginia</i> (1750), which was never acted, was accompanied +by a discourse endeavouring to reconcile the doctrines of the +author with the practice of the old Spanish dramatists; the play +itself was in blank verse (a metre never used by Calderon, though +occasionally by Lope), instead of the old national ballad-measures +(the romance-measure with assonance and the rhymed <i>redondilla</i> +quatrain) preferred by the old masters among the variety of +metres employed by them. The earliest Spanish comedy in +the French form (a translation only, though written in the +national metre)<a name="fa67a" id="fa67a" href="#ft67a"><span class="sp">67</span></a> (1751), and the first original Spanish comedy +on the same model, Nicolas Moratin’s <i>Petimetra</i> (<i>Petite-Maîtresse</i>), +printed in 1726 with a critical dissertation, likewise remained +unacted. In 1770, however, the same author’s <i>Hormesinda</i>, +an historic drama on a national theme and in the national +metre, but adhering to the French rules, appeared on the stage; +and similar attempts followed in tragedy by the same writer +and others (including Ayala, who ventured in 1775 to compete +with Cervantes on the theme of Numantia), and in comedy by +Iriarte and Jovellanos (afterwards minister under Godoy), who +produced a sentimental comedy in Diderot’s manner.<a name="fa68a" id="fa68a" href="#ft68a"><span class="sp">68</span></a> But +<span class="sidenote">Other later dramatists.</span> +these endeavours failed to effect any change in the +popular theatre, which was with more success raised +from its deepest degradation by R. de la Cruz, a fertile +author of light pieces of genuine humour, especially +<i>saynetes</i>, depicting the manners of the middle and lower classes. +In literary circles Garcia de la Huerta’s voluminous collection +of the old plays (1785) gave a new impulse to dramatic productivity, +and the conflict continued between representatives +of the old school, such as Luciano Francisco Comella (1716-1779) +and of the new, such as the younger Moratin, whose comedies—of +which the last and most successful<a name="fa69a" id="fa69a" href="#ft69a"><span class="sp">69</span></a> was in prose—raised +him to the foremost position among the dramatists of his age. +In tragedy N. de Cienfuegos likewise showed some originality. +After, however, the troubles of the French domination and the +war had come to an end, the precepts and examples of the new +school failed to reassert themselves.</p> + +<p>Already in 1815 an active critical controversy was carried on +by Böhl de Faber against the efforts of J. Faber and Alcalá +Galiano to uphold the principles of classicism; and with the aid +of the eminent actor Máiquez the old romantic masterpieces were +easily reinstated in the public favour, which as a matter of fact +they had never forfeited. The Spanish dramatists of the 19th +century, after passing, as in the instance of F. Martinez de la +Rosa and Bréton de los Herreros, from the system of French +comedy to the manner of the national drama, appear either to +have stood under the influence of the French romantic school, +or to have returned once more to the old Spanish models. Among +the former class A. Gil y Zarate, of the latter J. Zorrilla, are +mentioned as specially prominent. The most renowned Spanish +dramatist at the opening of the 20th century was the veteran +politician and man of letters J. Echegaray.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, the old religious performances are not wholly +extinct in Spain, and the relics of the solemn pageantry with +which they were associated may long continue to survive there, +as in the case of the <i>pasos</i>, which claim to have been exhibited +in Holy Week at Seville for at least three centuries. As to the +theatre itself, there can be no fear either that the imitation +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page510" id="page510"></a>510</span> +of foreign examples will satisfy Spanish dramatists—especially +when, like the author of <i>Doña Perfecta</i> (Perez Galdos), they have +excellent home material of their own for adaptation,—or that the +Spanish public itself, with fine actors and actresses still upholding +the lofty traditions of the national drama, will remain too +fatigued to consume the drama unless bit by bit—in the shape +of <i>zarzuelas</i> and similar one-act confections. Whatever may be +the future of one of the noblest of modern dramatic literatures, +it may confidently be predicted that, so long as Spain is Spain, her +theatre will not be permanently either denationalized or degraded.</p> + +<p class="center pt2">(d) <i>Portugal.</i></p> + +<p>The Portuguese drama in its earlier phases, especially before +in the latter part of the 14th century the nation completely +achieved its independence, seems to have followed +much the same course as the Spanish; and the religious +<span class="sidenote">The Portuguese drama.</span> +drama in all its prevailing forms and direct +outgrowths retained its popularity even by the side +of the products of the Renaissance. In the later period of that +movement translations of classical dramas into the vernacular +were stimulated by the cosmopolitan example of George +Buchanan, who for a time held a post in the university of Coimbra; +to this class of play Teive’s <i>Johannes</i> (1553) may be supposed +to have belonged. In the next generation Antonio Ferreira<a name="fa70a" id="fa70a" href="#ft70a"><span class="sp">70</span></a> +and others still wrote comedies more or less on the classical +model. But the rather vague title of “the Plautus of Portugal” +is accorded to an earlier comic writer, the celebrated Gil Vicente, +who died about 1536, after, it is stated, producing forty-two plays. +He was the founder of popular Portuguese comedy, and his +plays were called <i>autos</i>, or by the common name of <i>praticas</i>.<a name="fa71a" id="fa71a" href="#ft71a"><span class="sp">71</span></a> +Among his most gifted successors are mentioned A. Ribeiro, +called <i>Chiado</i> (the mocking-bird), who died in 1590;<a name="fa72a" id="fa72a" href="#ft72a"><span class="sp">72</span></a> his brother +Jeronymo, B. Dias, A. Pires, J. Pinto, H. Lopes and others. +The dramatic efforts of the illustrious poet Luis de Camões +(Camoens) are relatively of slight importance; they consist +of one of the many modern versions of the <i>Amphitruo</i>, and of two +other comedies, of which the earlier (<i>Filodemo</i>) was acted at +Goa in 1553, the subjects having a romantic colour.<a name="fa73a" id="fa73a" href="#ft73a"><span class="sp">73</span></a> Of greater +importance were the contributions to dramatic literature of +F. de Sá de Miranda, who, being well acquainted with both +Spanish and Italian life, sought early in his career to domesticate +the Italian comedy of intrigue on the Portuguese stage;<a name="fa74a" id="fa74a" href="#ft74a"><span class="sp">74</span></a> but +he failed to carry with him the public taste, which preferred +the <i>autos</i> of Gil Vicente. The followers of Miranda were, however, +more successful than he had been himself, among them the +already-mentioned Antonio Ferreira; the prose plays of Jorge +Ferreira de Vasconcellos, which bear some resemblance to the +Spanish <i>Celestina</i>, are valuable as pictures of contemporary +manners in city and court.<a name="fa75a" id="fa75a" href="#ft75a"><span class="sp">75</span></a></p> + +<p>The later Portuguese dramatic literature seems also to have +passed through phases corresponding to those of the Spanish, +though with special features of its own. In the 18th century +Alcino Mycenio (1728-1770), known as Domingos dos Reis Quito +in everyday life, in which his avocation was that of Allan Ramsay, +was remarkably successful with a series of plays,<a name="fa76a" id="fa76a" href="#ft76a"><span class="sp">76</span></a> including of +course an <i>Inez de Castro</i>, which in a subsequent adaptation by +J. B. Gomes long held the national stage. Another dramatist, +of both merit and higher aspirations, was Lycidas Cynthio (<i>alias</i> +Manoel de Figueiredo, 1725-1801).<a name="fa77a" id="fa77a" href="#ft77a"><span class="sp">77</span></a> But the romantic movement +was very late in coming to Portugal. Curiously enough, one of +its chief representatives, the viscount da Almeida Garrett, +exhibited his sympathy with French, revolutionary and anti-English +ideas by a tragedy on the subject of Cato;<a name="fa78a" id="fa78a" href="#ft78a"><span class="sp">78</span></a> but his +later works were mainly on national subjects.<a name="fa79a" id="fa79a" href="#ft79a"><span class="sp">79</span></a> The expansive +tendencies of later Portuguese dramatic literature are illustrated +by the translations of A. F. de Castilho, who even ventured +upon Goethe’s <i>Faust</i> (1872). Among 19th-century dramatists +are to be noted Pereira da Cunha, R. Cordeiro, E. Biester, +L. Palmeirin, and Garrett’s disciple F. G. de Amorim, by +whom both political and social themes have been freely +treated. The reaction against romanticism observable in +Portuguese poetic literature can hardly fail to affect (or perhaps +has already affected) the growth of the national drama; for the +receptive qualities of both are not less striking than the productive.</p> + +<p class="center pt2">(e) <i>France.</i></p> + +<p>France was the only country, besides Italy, in which classical +tragedy was naturalized. In 1531 the Benedictine Barthélemy +of Loches printed a <i>Christus Xylonicus</i>; and a very +notable impulse was given both to the translation and +<span class="sidenote">The French regular drama.</span> +to the imitation of ancient models by a series of efforts +made in the university of Paris and other French +places of learning. The most successful of these attempts was +the <i>Johannes Baptistes</i> of George Buchanan, who taught in +Paris for five years and at a rather later date resided at Bordeaux, +where in 1540 he composed this celebrated tragedy (afterwards +translated into four or five modern languages), in which it is +now ascertained that he had in view the trial and condemnation +of Sir Thomas More. He also wrote <i>Jephthah</i>, and translated +into Latin the <i>Medea</i> and <i>Alcestis</i> of Euripides. At a rather +later date the great scholar M. A. Muret (Muretus) produced his +<i>Julius Caesar</i>, a work perhaps superior in correctness to +Buchanan’s tragic masterpiece, but inferior to it in likeness to +life. About the same time the enthusiasm of the Paris classicists +showed itself in several translations of Sophoclean and Euripidean +tragedies into French verse.<a name="fa80a" id="fa80a" href="#ft80a"><span class="sp">80</span></a></p> + +<p>Thus the beginnings of the regular drama in France, which, +without absolutely determining, potently swayed its entire +course, came to connect themselves directly with the great +literary movement of the Renaissance. Du Bellay sounded the +note of attack which converted that movement in France into +an endeavour to transform the national literature; and in +Ronsard the classical school of poetry put forward its conquering +hero and sovereign lawgiver. Among the disciples who gathered +<span class="sidenote">Jodelle.</span> +round Ronsard, and with him formed the “Pleiad” +of French literature, Étienne Jodelle, the reformer of +the French theatre, soon held a distinguished place. The stage +of this period left ample room for the enterprise of this youthful +writer. The popularity of the old entertainments had reached +its height when Louis XII., in his conflict with Pope Julius II., +had not scrupled to call in the aid of Pierre Gringoire (Gringon), +and when the <i>Mère sotte</i> had mockingly masqueraded in the +petticoats of Holy Church. In the reign of Francis I. the +Inquisition, and on occasion the king himself, had to some extent +succeeded in repressing the audacity of the actors, whose follies +were at the same time an utter abomination in the eyes of the +Huguenots. For a time the very mysteries of the Brethren of +the Passion had been prohibited; while the moralities and +farces had sunk to an almost contemptible level. Yet to this +reign belong the contributions to farce-literature of three writers +so distinguished as Rabelais (non-extant), Clément Marot and +Queen Margaret of Navarre. Meanwhile isolated translations +of Italian<a name="fa81a" id="fa81a" href="#ft81a"><span class="sp">81</span></a> as well as classical dramas had in literature begun +the movement which Jodelle now transferred to the stage itself. +His tragedy <i>Cléopatre captive</i> was produced there on the same +day as his comedy <i>L’Eugène</i>, in 1552, his <i>Didon se sacrifiant</i> +following in 1558. Thus at a time when a national theatre was +perhaps impossible in a country distracted by civil and religious +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page511" id="page511"></a>511</span> +conflicts, whose monarchy had not yet welded together a number +of provinces attached each to its own traditions, and whose +population, especially in the capital, was enervated by frivolity +or enslaved by fanaticism, was born that long-lived artificial +growth, the so-called classical tragedy of France. For French +comedy, though subjected to the same influences as tragedy, +had a national basis upon which to proceed, and its history is +partly that of a modification of old popular forms.</p> + +<p>The history of French tragedy begins with the <i>Cléopâtre +captive</i>, in the representation of which the author, together +with other members of the “Pleiad,” took part. It is +a tragedy in the manner of Seneca, devoid of action +<span class="sidenote">French tragedy in the 16th century.</span> +and provided with a ghost and a chorus. Though +mainly written in the five-foot Iambic couplet, it +already contains passages in the Alexandrine metre, which soon +afterwards J. de La Péruse by his <i>Médée</i> (pr. 1556) established +in French tragedy, and which Jodelle employed in his <i>Didon</i>. +Numerous tragedies followed in the same style by various authors, +among whom Gabriel Bounyn produced the first French regular +tragedy on a subject neither Greek nor Roman,<a name="fa82a" id="fa82a" href="#ft82a"><span class="sp">82</span></a> and the brothers +de la Taille,<a name="fa83a" id="fa83a" href="#ft83a"><span class="sp">83</span></a> and J. Grévin,<a name="fa84a" id="fa84a" href="#ft84a"><span class="sp">84</span></a> distinguished themselves by their +style. In the reign of Charles IX. a vain attempt was made by +Nicolas Filleul to introduce the pastoral style of the Italians into +French tragedy;<a name="fa85a" id="fa85a" href="#ft85a"><span class="sp">85</span></a> and the Brotherhood of the Passion was +intermingling with pastoral plays its still continued reproductions +of the old entertainments, and the religious drama making its +expiring efforts, among which T. Le Coq’s interesting mystery +of <i>Cain</i> (1580) should be noted. Beza’s <i>Abraham sacrifiant</i> +(1550), J. de Coignac’s <i>Goliath</i> (dedicated to Edward VI.), +Rivandeau’s <i>Haman</i> (1561), belong to a group of Biblical tragedies, +inspired by Calvinist influences. But these more and +more approached to the examples of the classical school, which, +in spite of all difficulties and rivalries, prevailed. Among its +followers Montchrétien exhibited unusual vigour of rhetoric,<a name="fa86a" id="fa86a" href="#ft86a"><span class="sp">86</span></a> +and in R. Garnier French tragedy reached the greatest height +in nobility and dignity of style, as well as in the exhibition of +dramatic passion, to which it attained before Corneille. In his +tragedies<a name="fa87a" id="fa87a" href="#ft87a"><span class="sp">87</span></a> choruses are still interspersed among the long Alexandrine +tirades of the dialogue.</p> + +<p>During this period comedy had likewise been influenced by +classical models; but the distance was less between the national +farces and Terence, than between the mysteries and +moralities, and Seneca and the Greeks. <i>L’Eugène</i> +<span class="sidenote">Comedy under Italian influence.</span> +differs little in style from the more elaborate of the old +farces; and while it satirizes the foibles of the clergy +without any appreciable abatement of the old licence, its theme +is the favourite burden of the French comic theatre in all times—<i>le +cocuage</i>. The examples, however, which directly facilitated +the productivity of the French comic dramatists of this period, +among whom Jean de la Taille was the first to attempt a regular +comedy in prose,<a name="fa88a" id="fa88a" href="#ft88a"><span class="sp">88</span></a> were those of the Italian stage, which in 1576 +established a permanent colony in France, destined to survive +there till the close of the 17th century, by which time it had +adopted the French language, and was ready to coalesce with +French actors, without, however, relinquishing all remembrance +of its origin. R. Belleau, a member of the “Pleiad,” produced +a comedy in which the type (already approached by Jodelle) +of the swaggering captain appears,<a name="fa89a" id="fa89a" href="#ft89a"><span class="sp">89</span></a> J. Grévin copied Italian +intrigue, characters and manners;<a name="fa90a" id="fa90a" href="#ft90a"><span class="sp">90</span></a> O. de Turnèbe (d. 1581) +borrowed the title of one Italian play<a name="fa91a" id="fa91a" href="#ft91a"><span class="sp">91</span></a> and perhaps parts of the +plots of others; the Florentine F. d’Amboise (d. 1558) produced +versions of two Italian comedies;<a name="fa92a" id="fa92a" href="#ft92a"><span class="sp">92</span></a> and the foremost French +comic poet of the century, P. de Larivey, likewise an Italian +born (of the name of Pietro Giunto), openly professed to imitate +the poets of his native country. His plays are more or less literal +translations of L. Dolce,<a name="fa93a" id="fa93a" href="#ft93a"><span class="sp">93</span></a> Secchi<a name="fa94a" id="fa94a" href="#ft94a"><span class="sp">94</span></a> and other Italian dramatists; +and this lively and witty author, to whom Molière owes much, +thus connects two of the most important and successful growths +of the modern comic drama.</p> + +<p>The close conjunction between the history of a living dramatic +literature and that of the theatre can least of all be ignored in the +case of France, where the actor’s art has gone through so ample +an evolution, and where the theatre has so long and continuously +formed an important part of the national life. By the middle +of the 16th century not only had theatrical representations, now +quite emancipated from clerical control, here and there already +become matters of speculation and business, but the acting +profession was beginning to organize itself as such; strolling +companies of actors had become a more or less frequent experience; +and the attitude of the church and of civic respectability +were once more coming to be systematically hostile to +the stage and its representatives.</p> + +<p>Before, however, either tragedy or comedy in France entered +into the period of their history when genius was to illuminate +both of them with creations of undying merit, and +before the theatre had associated itself enduringly +<span class="sidenote">French tragedy and comedy in the 17th century before Corneille.</span> +with the artistic and literary divisions of court and +society and the people at large, the country had passed +through a new phase of the national life. When the +troubles and terrors of the great civil and religious +wars of the 16th century were over at last, they were +found to have produced a reaction towards culture and +refinement which spread from certain spheres of society whose +influence was for a time prevailing. The seal had been set upon +the results of the Renaissance by Malherbe, the father of French +style. The masses meanwhile continued to solace or distract +their weariness and their sufferings with the help of the accredited +ministers of that half-cynical gaiety which has always lighted +up the darkest hours of French popular life. In the troublous +days preceding Richelieu’s definitive accession to power (1624), +the <i>tabarinades</i>—a kind of street dialogue recalling the earliest +days of the popular drama—had made the Pont-Neuf the +favourite theatre of the Parisian populace. Meanwhile the +influence of Spain, which Henry IV. had overcome in politics, +had throughout his reign and afterwards been predominant in +other spheres, and not the least in that of literature. The <i>stilo +culto</i>, of which Gongora was the native Spanish, Marino the +Italian, and Lyly the English representative, asserted its dominion +over the favourite authors of French society; the pastoral +romance of Honoré d’Urfé—the text-book of pseudo-pastoral +gallantry—was the parent of the romances of the Scudérys, de +La Calprenède and Mme de La Fayette; the Hôtel de Rambouillet +was in its glory; the true (not the false) <i>précieuses</i> sat +on the heights of intellectual society; and J. L. G. de Balzac +(ridiculed in the earliest French dramatic parody)<a name="fa95a" id="fa95a" href="#ft95a"><span class="sp">95</span></a> and Voiture +were the dictators of its literature. Much of the French drama +of this age is of the same kind as its romance-literature, like +which it fell under the polite castigation of Boileau’s satire. +Heroic love (quite a technical passion), “fertile in tender sentiments,” +seized hold of the theatre as well as of the romances; +and La Calprenède, G. de Scudéry<a name="fa96a" id="fa96a" href="#ft96a"><span class="sp">96</span></a> and his sister and others +were equally fashionable in both species. The Gascon Cyrano de +Bergerac, though not altogether insignificant as a dramatist,<a name="fa97a" id="fa97a" href="#ft97a"><span class="sp">97</span></a> +gained his chief literary reputation by a Rabelaisian fiction. +Meanwhile, Spanish and Italian models continued to influence +both branches of the drama. Everybody knew by heart Gongora’s +version of the story of “young Pyramus and his love Thisbe,” +as dramatized by Th. Viaud (1590-1626); and the sentiment of +Tristan<a name="fa98a" id="fa98a" href="#ft98a"><span class="sp">98</span></a> (1601-1655) overpowered Herod on the stage, and +drew tears from Cardinal Richelieu in the audience. J. Mairet +was noted for superior vigour.<a name="fa99a" id="fa99a" href="#ft99a"><span class="sp">99</span></a> P. Du Ryer’s style is described +as, while otherwise superior to that of his contemporaries, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page512" id="page512"></a>512</span> +Italian in its defects. A mixture of the forms of classical +comedy with elements of Spanish and of the Italian pastoral was +attempted with great temporary success by A. Hardy, a playwright +who thanked Heaven that he knew the precepts of his +art while preferring to follow the demands of his trade. The +mixture of styles begun by him was carried on by the marquis de +Racan,<a name="fa100a" id="fa100a" href="#ft100a"><span class="sp">100</span></a> J. de Rotrou and others; and among these comedies of +intrigue in the Spanish manner the earliest efforts of Corneille +himself<a name="fa101a" id="fa101a" href="#ft101a"><span class="sp">101</span></a> are to be classed. Rotrou’s noteworthier productions<a name="fa102a" id="fa102a" href="#ft102a"><span class="sp">102</span></a> +are later in date than the event which marks an epoch in the +history of the French drama, the appearance of Corneille’s +<i>Cid</i> (1636).</p> + +<p>P. Corneille is justly revered as the first, and in some respects +the unequalled, great master of French tragedy, whatever may +have been unsound in his theories, or defective in his +practice. The attempts of his predecessors had been +<span class="sidenote">Corneille.</span> +without life, because they lacked really tragic characters and the +play of really tragic passions; while their style had been either +pedantically imitative or a medley of plagiarisms. He conquered +tragedy at once for the national theatre and for the national +literature—and this, not by a long tentative process of production, +but by a few masterpieces, which may be held to be +comprehended within the ten years 1636 to 1646; for in his +many later tragedies he never again proved fully equal to himself. +The French tragedy, of which the great age begins with the <i>Cid</i>, +<i>Horace</i>, <i>Cinna</i>, <i>Polyeucte</i> and <i>Rodogune</i>, was not, whatever it +professed to be, a copy of the classical tragedy of Greeks or +Romans, or an imitation of the Italian imitations of these; nor, +though in his later tragedies Corneille depended less and less +upon characters, and more and more, after the fashion of the +Spaniards, upon situations, and even upon spectacle, were +the forms of the Spanish drama able to assert their dominion +over the French tragic stage. The mould of French tragedy +was cast by Corneille; but the creative power of his genius was +unable to fill it with more than a few examples. His range of +passions and characters was limited; he preferred, he said, the +reproach of having made his women too heroic to that of having +made his men effeminate. His actions inclined too much to +the exhibition of conflicts political rather than broadly ethical +in their significance. The defects of his style are of less moment; +but in this, as in other respects, he was, with all his strength +and brilliancy, not one of those rarest of artists who are at the +same time the example and the despair of their successors. +The <i>examens</i> which he printed of all his plays up to 1660 show +how much self-criticism (though it may not always be as in this +case conscious) contributes to the true fertility of genius.</p> + +<p>In comedy also Corneille begins the first great original epoch +of French dramatic literature; for it was to him that Molière +owed the inspiration of the tone and style which he made those +of the higher forms of French comedy. But <i>Le Menteur</i> (the +parent, with its sequel, of a numerous dramatic progeny<a name="fa103a" id="fa103a" href="#ft103a"><span class="sp">103</span></a>) was +itself derived from a Spanish original,<a name="fa104a" id="fa104a" href="#ft104a"><span class="sp">104</span></a> which it did not (as was +the case with the <i>Cid</i>) transform into something new. French +tragi-comedy Corneille can hardly be said to have invented;<a name="fa105a" id="fa105a" href="#ft105a"><span class="sp">105</span></a> +and of the mongrel growths of sentimental comedy and of +domestic drama or <i>drame</i>, he rather suggested than exemplified +the conditions.</p> + +<p>The tragic art of Racine supplements rather than surpasses +that of his older contemporary. His works reflect the serene +and settled formality of an age in which the sun of +monarchy shone with an effulgence no clouds seemed +<span class="sidenote">Racine.</span> +capable of obscuring, and in which the life of a nation seemed +reducible to the surroundings of a court. The tone of the poetic +literature of such an age is not necessarily unreal, because the +range of its ideas is limited, and because its forms seem to exist +by an immutable authority. That Racine should permanently +hold the position which belongs to him in French dramatic +literature is due to the fact that to him it was given to present +these forms—the forms approved by his age—in what may +reasonably be called perfection; and, from the point of view +of workmanship, Sophocles could not have achieved more. +What his plays contain is another question. They suit themselves +so well to the successive phases in the life of Louis XIV., +that Madame de Sévigné described Racine as having in his later +years loved God as he had formerly loved his mistresses; and +this sally at all events indicates the range of passions which +inspired his tragic muse. His heroes are all of one type—that +of a gracious gloriousness; his heroines vary in their fortunes, +but they are all the “trophies of love,”<a name="fa106a" id="fa106a" href="#ft106a"><span class="sp">106</span></a> with the exception +of the scriptural figures, which stand apart from the rest.<a name="fa107a" id="fa107a" href="#ft107a"><span class="sp">107</span></a> +T. Corneille, Campistron, Joseph Duché (1668-1704), Antoin de +Lafosse (c. 1653-1708) and Quinault were mere followers of one +or both of the great masters of tragedy, though the last named +achieved a reputation of his own in the bastard species of the +opera.</p> + +<p>The type of French tragedy thus established, like everything +else which formed part of the “age of Louis XIV.,” proclaimed +itself as the definitively settled model of its kind, and +was accepted as such by a submissive world. Proud +<span class="sidenote">Characteristics of French classical tragedy.</span> +of its self-imposed fetters, French tragedy dictatorially +denied the liberty of which it had deprived itself to the +art of which it claimed to furnish the highest examples. +Yet, though calling itself classical, it had not caught the essential +spirit of the tragedy of the Greeks. The elevation of tone which +characterizes the serious drama of the age of Louis XIV. is a true +elevation, but its heights do not lose themselves in a sphere +peopled by the myths of a national religion, still less in the region +of great thoughts which ask Heaven to stoop to the aspirations +and the failures of man. The personages of this drama are +conventional like its themes, but the convention is with itself +only; Orestes and Iphigenia have not brought with them the +cries of the stern goddesses and the flame on the altar of Artemis; +their passions like their speech are cadenced by a modern measure. +In construction, the simplicity and regularity of the ancient +models are stereotyped into a rigid etiquette by the exigencies +of the court-theatre, which is but an apartment of the palace. +The unities of time and place, with the Greeks mere rules of +convenience, French tragedy imposes upon itself as a permanent +yoke. The Euripidean prologue is judiciously exchanged for +the exposition of the first act, and the lyrical element essential +to Greek tragedy is easily suppressed in its would-be copy; +lyrical passages still occur in some of Corneille’s early masterpieces,<a name="fa108a" id="fa108a" href="#ft108a"><span class="sp">108</span></a> +but the chorus is consistently banished, to reappear only +in Racine’s latest works<a name="fa109a" id="fa109a" href="#ft109a"><span class="sp">109</span></a> as a scholastic experiment appropriate +to a conventual atmosphere. Its uses for explanation and +comment are served by the expedient, which in its turn becomes +conventional, of the conversations with <i>confidants</i> and <i>confidantes</i>, +which more than sufficiently supply the foil of general sentiments. +The epical element is allowed full play in narrative passages, +more especially in those which relate parts of the catastrophe,<a name="fa110a" id="fa110a" href="#ft110a"><span class="sp">110</span></a> +and, while preserving the stage intact from realisms, suit themselves +to the generally rhetorical character of this species of the +tragic drama. This character impressed itself more and more +upon the tragic art of a rhetorical nation in an age when the +loftiest themes were in the pulpit receiving the most artistic +oratorical treatment, and developed in the style of French +classical tragedy the qualities which cause it to become something +between prose and poetry—or to appear (in the phrase of +a French critic) like prose in full dress. The force of this description +is borne out by the fact that the distinction between the +versification of French tragedy and that of French comedy seems +at times imperceptible.</p> + +<p>The universal genius of Voltaire found it necessary to shine +in all branches of literature, and in tragedy to surpass predecessors +whom his own authority declared to have surpassed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page513" id="page513"></a>513</span> +the efforts of the Attic muse. He succeeded in impressing the +world with the belief that his innovations had imparted a fresh +<span class="sidenote">Voltaire.</span> +vitality to French tragedy; in truth, however, they +represent no essential advance in art, but rather +augmented the rhetorical tendency which paralyses true dramatic +life. Such life as his plays possess lies in their political and social +sentiments, their invective against tyranny,<a name="fa111a" id="fa111a" href="#ft111a"><span class="sp">111</span></a> and their exposure +of fanaticism.<a name="fa112a" id="fa112a" href="#ft112a"><span class="sp">112</span></a> In other respects his versatility was barren of +enduring results. He might take his themes from French history,<a name="fa113a" id="fa113a" href="#ft113a"><span class="sp">113</span></a> +or from Chinese,<a name="fa114a" id="fa114a" href="#ft114a"><span class="sp">114</span></a> or Egyptian,<a name="fa115a" id="fa115a" href="#ft115a"><span class="sp">115</span></a> or Syrian,<a name="fa116a" id="fa116a" href="#ft116a"><span class="sp">116</span></a> from the days of the +Epigoni<a name="fa117a" id="fa117a" href="#ft117a"><span class="sp">117</span></a> or from those of the Crusades;<a name="fa118a" id="fa118a" href="#ft118a"><span class="sp">118</span></a> he might appreciate +Shakespeare, with a more or less partial comprehension of his +strength, and condescendingly borrow from and improve the +barbarian.<a name="fa119a" id="fa119a" href="#ft119a"><span class="sp">119</span></a> But he added nothing to French tragedy where it +was weakest—in character; and where it was strongest—in +diction—he never equalled Corneille in fire or Racine in refinement. +While the criticism to which French tragedy in this age +at last began to be subjected has left unimpaired the real titles +to immortality of its great masters, the French theatre itself has +all but buried in respectful oblivion the dramatic works bearing +the name of Voltaire—a name persistently belittled, but +second to none in the history of modern progress and of modern +civilization.</p> + +<p>As it is of relatively little interest to note the ramifications of +an art in its decline, the contrasts need not be pursued among +the contemporaries of Voltaire, between his imitator +Bernard Joseph Saurin (1706-1781), Saurin’s royalist +<span class="sidenote">French classical tragedy in its decline.</span> +rival de Belloy, Racine’s imitator Lagrange-Chancel +and Voltaire’s own would-be rival, the “terrible” +Crébillon the elder, who professed to vindicate to +French tragedy, already mistress of the heavens through Corneille, +and of the earth through Racine, Pluto’s supplementary realm, +but who, though thus essaying to carry tragedy lower, failed +to carry it farther. In the latter part of the 18th century French +classical tragedy as a literary growth was dying a slow death, +however numerous might be the leaves which sprouted from the +decaying tree. Its form had been permanently fixed; and even +Shakespeare, as manipulated by Ducis<a name="fa120a" id="fa120a" href="#ft120a"><span class="sp">120</span></a>—an author whose +tastes were better than his times—failed to bring about a change. +“It is a Moor, not a Frenchman, who has written this play,” +cried a spectator of Ducis’ <i>Othello</i> (1791); but Talma’s conviction +was almost as strong as his capacity was great for convincing +his public; and he certainly did much to prepare the influence +which Shakespeare was gradually to assert over the French +drama, and which was aided by translations, more especially +that of Pierre Letourneur (1736-1788), which had attracted the +sympathy of Diderot and the execrations of the aged Voltaire.<a name="fa121a" id="fa121a" href="#ft121a"><span class="sp">121</span></a> +Meanwhile, the command which classical French tragedy continued +to assert over the stage was due in part, no doubt, to the +love of Roman drapery—not always abundant, but always in +the grand style—which characterized the Revolution, and which +was by the Revolution handed down to the Empire. It was +likewise, and more signally, due to the great actors who freed +the tragic stage from much of its artificiality and animated it +by their genius. No great artist has ever more generously +estimated the labours of a predecessor than Talma judged those +of Le Kain; but it was Talma himself whose genius was pre-eminently +fitted to reproduce the great figures of antiquity in +the mimic world, which, like the world outside, both required +and possessed its Caesar. He, like Rachel after him, reconciled +French classical tragedy with nature; and it is upon the art of +great original actors such as these that the theatrical future of +this form of the drama in France depends. Mere whims of fashion—even +when inspired by political feeling—will not waft back +to it a real popularity; nor will occasional literary aftergrowths, +however meritorious, such as the admirable <i>Lucrèce</i> of F. Ponsard +and the attempts of even more recent writers, suffice to re-establish +a living union between it and the progress of the +national literature.</p> + +<p>The rival influences under which classical tragedy has after +a long struggle virtually become a thing of the past in French +literature are also to be traced in the history of French +comedy, which under the co-operation of other influences +<span class="sidenote">Comedy.</span> +produced a wide variety of growths. The germs of most +of these—though not of all—are to be found in the works of the +most versatile, the most sure-footed, and, in some respects, +the most consummate master of the comic drama whom the +<span class="sidenote">Molière.</span> +world has known—Molière. What Molière found in +existence was a comedy of intrigue, derived from +Spanish or Italian examples, and the elements of a comedy of +character, in French and more especially in Italian farce and +ballet-pantomime. Corneille’s <i>Menteur</i> had pointed the way to +a fuller combination of character with intrigue, and in this +direction Molière’s genius exercised the height of its creative +powers. After beginning with farces, he produced in the earliest +of his plays (from 1652), of which more than fragments remain, +comedies of intrigue which are at the same time marvellously +lively pictures of manners, and then proceeded, with the <i>École +des maris</i> (1661), to begin a long series of masterpieces of comedy +of character. Yet even these, the chief of which are altogether +unrivalled in dramatic literature, do not exhaust the variety +of his productions. To define the range of his art is as difficult +as to express in words the essence of his genius. For though he +has been copied ever since he wrote, neither his spirit nor his +manner has descended in full to any of his copyists, whole schools +of whom have missed elements of both. A Molière can only be +judged in his relations to the history of comedy at large. He +was indeed the inheritor of many forms and styles—remaining +a stranger to those of Old Attic comedy only, rooted as it was +in the political life of a free imperial city; though even the rich +extravagances of Aristophanes’ burlesque was not left wholly +unreproduced by him. Molière is both a satirist and a humorist; +he displays at times the sentiments of a loyal courtier, at others +that gay spirit of opposition which is all but indispensable to +a popular French wit. His comedies offer elaborate and subtle—even +tender—pictures of human character in its eternal types, +lively sketches of social follies and literary extravagances, and +broad appeals to the ordinary sources of vulgar merriment. +Light and perspicuous in construction, he is master of the delicate +play of irony, the penetrating force of wit, and the expansive +gaiety of frolicsome fun. Faithful to the canons of artistic taste, +and under the sure guidance of true natural humour, his style +suits itself to every species attempted by him. His morality is the +reverse of rigid, but its aberrations are not those of prurience, +nor its laws those of pretence; and, wholly free as he was from +the didactic aim which is foreign to all true dramatic representation, +the services rendered by him to his art are not the less +services rendered to society, concerning which the laughter of +genuine comedy tells the truth. He raised the comedy of character +out of the lower sphere of caricature, and in his greatest +creations subordinated to the highest ends of all dramatic +composition the plots he so skilfully built, and the pictures of +the manners he so faithfully reproduced.</p> + +<p>Even among the French comic dramatists of this age there +must have been many who “were not aware” that Molière +was its greatest poet. For though he had made the true +path luminous to them, their efforts were still often +<span class="sidenote">Molière’s contemporaries and successors.</span> +of a tentative kind, and one was reviving <i>Pathelin</i> +while another was translating the <i>Andria</i>. A more +unique attempt was made in one of the very few really +modern versions of an Aristophanic comedy, which deserves to +be called an original copy—the <i>Plaideurs</i> of Racine. The tragic +poets Quinault and Campistron likewise wrote comedies, one<a name="fa122a" id="fa122a" href="#ft122a"><span class="sp">122</span></a> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page514" id="page514"></a>514</span> +or more of which furnished materials to contemporary English +dramatists, as did one of the felicitous plays in which Boursault +introduced Mercury and Aesop into the theatrical <i>salon</i>.<a name="fa123a" id="fa123a" href="#ft123a"><span class="sp">123</span></a> Antoine +Montfleury (1640-1685), Baron and Dancourt, who were actors +like Molière, likewise wrote comedies. But if the mantle of +Molière can be said to have fallen upon any of his contemporaries +or successors, this honour must be ascribed to J. F. Regnard, +who imitated the great master in both themes and characters,<a name="fa124a" id="fa124a" href="#ft124a"><span class="sp">124</span></a> +while the skilfulness of his plots, and his gaiety of the treatment +even of subjects tempting into the by-path of sentimental +comedy,<a name="fa125a" id="fa125a" href="#ft125a"><span class="sp">125</span></a> entitle him to be regarded as a comic poet of original +genius. With him C. R. Dufresny occasionally collaborated.</p> + +<p>In the next generation (that of Voltaire) comedy gradually—but +only gradually—surrendered for a time the very essence of +its vitality to the seductions of a hybrid species, which disguised +its identity under more than a single name. A. R. le Sage, +who as a comic dramatist at first followed successfully in the +footsteps of Molière, proved himself on the stage as well as in +picturesque fiction a keen observer and inimitable satirist of +human life.<a name="fa126a" id="fa126a" href="#ft126a"><span class="sp">126</span></a> The light texture of the playful and elegant art +of J. B. L. Gresset was shown on the stage in a character comedy +of merit;<a name="fa127a" id="fa127a" href="#ft127a"><span class="sp">127</span></a> and in a comedy which reveals something of his +pointed wit, A. Piron produced something like a new type of +enduring ridiculousness.<a name="fa128a" id="fa128a" href="#ft128a"><span class="sp">128</span></a> P. C. de Marivaux, the French +<i>Spectator</i>, is usually supposed to have formed the connecting +link between the “old” French comedy and the “new” and +bastard variety. Yet, though his minute analysis of the tender +passion excited the scorn of Voltaire, it should not be overlooked +that in <i>marivaudage</i> proper the wit holds the balance to the +sentiment, and that in some of this frequently misjudged writer’s +earlier and most delightful plays the elegance and gaiety of diction +are as irresistible as the pathetic sentiment, which is in fact rather +an ingredient in his comedy than the pervading characteristic of +it.<a name="fa129a" id="fa129a" href="#ft129a"><span class="sp">129</span></a> Some of the comedies of P. H. Destouches no doubt have a +serious basis, and in his later plays he comes near to a kind of +drama in which the comic purpose has been virtually submerged.<a name="fa130a" id="fa130a" href="#ft130a"><span class="sp">130</span></a> +The writer who is actually to be credited with the +transition to sentimental comedy, and who was fully conscious +of the change which he was helping to effect, was Nivelle de La +Chaussée, in whose hands French comedy became a champion of +the sanctity of marriage, and reproduced the sentiments—in +one instance even the characters—of Richardson.<a name="fa131a" id="fa131a" href="#ft131a"><span class="sp">131</span></a> To his play +<i>La Fausse Antipathie</i> the author supplied a <i>critique</i>, amounting +to an apology for the new species of which it was designed as +an example.</p> + +<p>The new species known as <i>comédie larmoyante</i> was now fairly +in the ascendant; and it would be easy to show how even +Voltaire, who had deprecated the innovation, had to yield to a +power greater than his own, and introduced the sentimental +element into some of his comedies.<a name="fa132a" id="fa132a" href="#ft132a"><span class="sp">132</span></a> The further step, by which +<i>comédie larmoyante</i> was transformed into <i>tragédie bourgeoise</i>, +from which the comic element was to all intents and purposes +extruded, was taken by a great French writer, D. Diderot; to +whose influence it was largely due that the species which had +attained to this consummation for more than a generation ruled +supreme in the dramatic literature of Europe. But the final +impulse, as Diderot himself virtually acknowledged in the +<i>entretiens</i> subjoined by him to his <i>Fils naturel</i> (1757), had been +given by a far humbler citizen of the world of letters, the author +of <i>The London Merchant</i>. Diderot’s own plays were a literary +rather than a theatrical success. <i>Le Fils naturel ou les épreuves +de la vertu</i> was not publicly performed till 1771, and then only +in deference to the determination of a single actor of the Français +(Molé); nor was the performance of it repeated. Diderot’s +second play, <i>Le Père de famille</i>, printed in 1758 with a <i>Discours +sur la poésie dramatique</i>, went through a few public performances +in 1761; and a later revival was unsuccessful. But “at a +distance,” as was well said, the effect of Diderot’s endeavours, the +earlier in particular, was extremely great, and Lessing, though +very critical as to particular points, greatly helped to spread it. +Diderot had for the first time consciously sought to proclaim the +theatre an agency of social reform, and to entrust to it as its +task the propagation of the gospel of philanthropy. Though +the execution of his dramatic works fell far short of his aims; +though Madame de Staël was not far wrong in denouncing them +as exhibiting not nature itself, but “the affectation of nature,” +yet they contained, in a measure almost unequalled in the history +of the modern drama, the fermenting element which never seems +to subside. Their author announced them as examples of a third +dramatic form—the <i>genre sérieux</i>—which he declared to be the +consummation of the dramatic art. Making war upon the frigid +artificiality of classical tragedy, he banished verse from the new +species. The effect of these plays was intended to spring from +their truth to nature—a truth such as no spectator could mistake, +and which should bring home its moral teachings to the business +as well as the bosoms of all. The theatre was to become a real +and realistic school of the principles of society and of the conduct +of life—it was, in other words, to usurp functions with which +it has no concern, and to essay the direct reformation of mankind. +The idea was neither new nor just; but its speciousness will +probably continue to commend it to many enthusiastic minds, +whensoever and in whatsoever shape it is revived.</p> + +<p>From this point the history of the French drama becomes +that of a conflict between an enfeebled artistic school and a +tendency which is hardly to be dignified by the name +of a school at all. Among the successful dramatists +<span class="sidenote">The comedy of the Revolution and the first empire.</span> +following on Diderot may be mentioned the critical +and versatile J. F. Marmontel, and more especially +M. J. Sedaine, who though chiefly working for the opera, +produced two comedies of acknowledged merit.<a name="fa133a" id="fa133a" href="#ft133a"><span class="sp">133</span></a> P. A. C. +de Beaumarchais (1732-1799), who for his early sentimental +plays,<a name="fa134a" id="fa134a" href="#ft134a"><span class="sp">134</span></a> in which he imitated Diderot, invented the appellation +<i>drame</i>—so convenient in its vagueness that it became the +accepted name of the hybrid species to which they belonged—in +two works of a very different kind, the famous <i>Barbier de Séville</i> +and the still more famous <i>Mariage de Figaro</i>, boldly carried +comedy back into its old Spanish atmosphere of intrigue; but, +while surpassing all his predecessors in the skill with which he +constructed his frivolous plots, he drew his characters with a +lightness and sureness of touch peculiar to himself, animated +his dialogue with an unparalleled brilliancy of wit, and seasoned +action as well as dialogue with a political and social meaning, +which caused his epigrams to become proverbs, and which marks +his <i>Figaro</i> as a herald of the Revolution. Such plays as these +were ill suited to the rule of the despot whose vigilance could not +overlook their significance. The comedy of the empire is, in the +hands of Collin d’Harleville, Louis Picard (1769-1828), A. Duval, +Étienne and others, mainly a harmless comedy of manners; +nor was the attempted innovation of N. Lemercier—who was +fain to invent a new species, that of historical comedy—more than +a flattering self-delusion. The theatre had its share in all the +movements and changes which ensued in France; though the +most important revolution which the drama itself was to undergo +was not one of wholly native origin. Those branches of the +drama which belong specifically to the history of the opera, or +which associate themselves with it, are here passed by. Among +them was the <i>vaudeville</i> (from Val de Vire in Calvados), which +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page515" id="page515"></a>515</span> +began as an interspersion of pantomime with the airs of popular +songs, and which, after the Italian masks had been removed +<span class="sidenote">Vaudevilles, etc.</span> +from it, was cultivated by Ponsard and Marmontel, +while Sedaine wrote a didactic poem on the subject +(1756). Sedaine was the father of the <i>opéra-comique</i> +proper;<a name="fa135a" id="fa135a" href="#ft135a"><span class="sp">135</span></a> Marmontel,<a name="fa136a" id="fa136a" href="#ft136a"><span class="sp">136</span></a> as well as Rousseau,<a name="fa137a" id="fa137a" href="#ft137a"><span class="sp">137</span></a> likewise composed +<i>opérettes</i>—a smaller sort of opera, at first of the pastoral variety; +and these flexible species easily entered into combination. The +melodrama proper, of which the invention is also attributed to +Rousseau,<a name="fa138a" id="fa138a" href="#ft138a"><span class="sp">138</span></a> in its latter development became merely a drama +accentuated by music, though usually in little need of any +accentuation.</p> + +<p>The chief home of the regular drama, however, demanded +efforts of another kind. At the Théâtre Français, or Comédie +Française, whose history as that of a single company +of actors had begun in 1680, the party-strife of the +<span class="sidenote">The stage.</span> +times made itself audible; and the most prominent tragic +poet of the Revolution, M. J. de Chénier, a disciple of Voltaire +in dramatic poetry as well as in political philosophy, wrote for +the national stage the historical drama—with a political moral<a name="fa139a" id="fa139a" href="#ft139a"><span class="sp">139</span></a>—in +which in the memorable year 1789 the actor Talma achieved +his first complete triumph. But the victorious Revolution +proclaimed among other liberties that of the theatres in Paris, +of which soon not less than 50 were open. In 1807 the empire +restricted the number to 9, and reinstated the Théâtre Français +in sole possession (or nearly such) of the right of performing the +<span class="sidenote">Transition to the romantic school.</span> +classic drama. No writer of note was, however, +tempted or inspired by the rewards and other encouragements +offered by Napoleon to produce such a +classic tragedy as the emperor would have willingly +stamped from out of the earth. The tragedies of C. Delavigne +represent the transition from the expiring efforts of the classical +to the ambitious beginnings of the romantic school of the French +drama.</p> + +<p>Of modern romantic drama in France it must suffice to say +that it derives some of its characteristics from the general +movement of romanticism which in various ways and +at various points of time transformed nearly every +<span class="sidenote">The romantic school.</span> +modern European literature, others from the rhetorical +tendency which is a French national feature. Victor +Hugo was the founder whom it followed in a spirit of high emprise +to success upon success, his own being the most conspicuous of +all;<a name="fa140a" id="fa140a" href="#ft140a"><span class="sp">140</span></a> A. Dumas the elder its unshrinking middleman. The +marvellous fire and grandeur of genius of the former, always in +extremes but often most sublime at the height of danger, was +nowhere more signally such than in the drama; Dumas was a +Briareus, working, however, with many hands besides his own. +Together with them may, with more or less precision, be classed +in the romantic school of dramatists A. de Vigny<a name="fa141a" id="fa141a" href="#ft141a"><span class="sp">141</span></a> and George +Sand,<a name="fa142a" id="fa142a" href="#ft142a"><span class="sp">142</span></a> neither of whom, however, attained to the highest rank +in the drama, and Jules Sandeau;<a name="fa143a" id="fa143a" href="#ft143a"><span class="sp">143</span></a> A. de Musset, whose originality +pervades all his plays, but whose later works, more especially +in his prose “proverbs” and pieces of a similar kind, have a +flavour of a delicacy altogether indescribable;<a name="fa144a" id="fa144a" href="#ft144a"><span class="sp">144</span></a> perhaps also +P. Mérimée (1803-1870), who invented not only Spanish dramas +but a Spanish dramatist, and who was never more audacious +than when he seemed most <i>naïf</i>.<a name="fa145a" id="fa145a" href="#ft145a"><span class="sp">145</span></a></p> + +<p>The romantic school was not destined to exercise a permanent +control over French public taste; but it can hardly be said to +have been overthrown by the brief classical revival begun by +F. Ponsard, and continued, though in closer contact with modern +ideas, both by him<a name="fa146a" id="fa146a" href="#ft146a"><span class="sp">146</span></a> and by E. Augier, a dramatist who +gradually attained to an extraordinary effectiveness in the self-restrained +<span class="sidenote">Modern schools.</span> +treatment of social as well as of historical +themes.<a name="fa147a" id="fa147a" href="#ft147a"><span class="sp">147</span></a> While the theatrical fecundity and the +remarkable constructive ability of E. Scribe<a name="fa148a" id="fa148a" href="#ft148a"><span class="sp">148</span></a> supplied +a long series of productions attesting the rapid growth of the +playwright’s mastery over the secrets of his craft the name of his +competitors is legion. Among them may be mentioned, if only +as the authors of two of the most successful plays of the historical +species produced in the century, two writers of great eminence—C. +Delavigne<a name="fa149a" id="fa149a" href="#ft149a"><span class="sp">149</span></a> and E. Legouvé.<a name="fa150a" id="fa150a" href="#ft150a"><span class="sp">150</span></a> Later developments of the +drama bore the impress of a period of social decay, prepared to +probe its own sufferings, while glad at times to take refuge in +the gaiety traditional in France in her more light-hearted days, +but which even then had not yet deserted either French social +life or the theatre which reflected it. After a fashion which +would have startled even Diderot, while recalling his efforts +in the earnestness of its endeavour to arouse moral interests +to which the theatre had long been a stranger, A. Dumas the +younger set himself to reform society by means of the stage.<a name="fa151a" id="fa151a" href="#ft151a"><span class="sp">151</span></a> +But the technical skill which he and contemporary dramatists +displayed in the execution of their self-imposed task was such as +had been undreamt of by Diderot. O. Feuillet, more eminent +as a novelist than on the stage, applied himself, though with +the aid of fewer prefaces, to the solution of the same or similar +problems; while the extraordinary versatility of V. Sardou +and his unfailing constructive skill was applied by him to almost +every kind of serious, or serio-comic, drama—even the most +solid of all.<a name="fa152a" id="fa152a" href="#ft152a"><span class="sp">152</span></a> In the same period, while E. Pailleron revived some +of the most characteristic tendencies of the best French satirical +comedy in ridiculing the pompous pretentiousness of learning +for its own sake,<a name="fa153a" id="fa153a" href="#ft153a"><span class="sp">153</span></a> the light-hearted gaiety of E. Labiche changed +into something not altogether similar in the productions of the +comic muse of L. Halévy and H. Meilhac, ranging from the +licence of the musical burlesque which was the congenial delight +of the later days of the Second Empire to a species of comedy +in which the ingredients of bitterness and even of sadness found +a place.<a name="fa154a" id="fa154a" href="#ft154a"><span class="sp">154</span></a></p> + +<p>Dramatic criticism in France has had a material share in the +maintenance of a deep as well as wide national interest in the +preservation of a high standard of excellence both in +the performance of plays and in the plays themselves. +<span class="sidenote">Tendencies of the drama and of the theatre in France.</span> +Among its modern representatives the foremost place +would probably be by common consent allowed to +F. Sarcey, whose Monday theatrical <i>feuilleton</i> in the +<i>Temps</i> was long awaited week by week as an oracle of +dramaturgy. But he was only the first among equals, and the +successor and the predecessor of writers who have at least +sought to be equal to a function of real public importance. For +it seems hardly within the range of probability to suppose that +the theatre will for many a generation to come lose the hold +which it has established over the intellectual and moral sympathies +of nearly the whole of the educated—to say nothing of a +great part of the half-educated—population of France. This +does not, of course, imply that the creative activity of French +dramatic literature is certain to endure. Since the great changes +set in which were consequent upon the disastrous war of 1870, +French dramatic literature has reflected more than one phase of +national sentiment and opinion, and has represented the aspirations, +the sympathies and the philosophy of life of more than one +class in the community. Thus it has had its episodes of reaction +in the midst of an onward flow of which it would be difficult to +predict the end. The tendency of what can only vaguely be +described as the naturalistic school of writers has corresponded +to that even more prominent in the dramatic literatures of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page516" id="page516"></a>516</span> +certain other European nations; but it must be allowed that a +new poetic will have to be constructed if the freedom of development +which the dramatic, like all other arts, is entitled to +claim is to be reconciled to laws deducible from the whole +previous history of the drama. The reaction towards earlier +forms has asserted itself in various ways—through the poetic +plays of the later years of F. Coppée; in the success (notable for +reasons other than artistic) of Vicomte H. de Bornier’s first +tragedy; and of late more especially in the dramas—highly +original and truly romantic in both form and treatment—of +E. Rostand.</p> + +<p>The art of acting is not altogether dependent upon the measure +of contemporary literary productivity, even in France, where +the connexion between dramatic literature and the stage has +perhaps been more continuously intimate than in many other +countries. Talma and Mlle Mars flourished in one of the most +barren ages of the French literary drama; and though this +cannot be asserted of the two most brilliant stars of the French +19th century tragic stage, Rachel and Sarah Bernhardt, or of +their comic contemporaries from Frédérick-Lemaître down to +types less unique than the “Talma of the boulevards,” the +constantly accumulating experience of the successive schools +of acting in France may here ensure to the art a future not less +notable than its past. Moreover, the French theatre has long +been, and is more than ever likely to continue, an affair of the +state as well as of the nation; and the judicious policy of not +leaving the chief theatres at the mercy of shifting fashion and +the base demands of idleness and sensuality will remain the +surest guarantee for the maintenance of a high standard both in +principle and in practice. So long as France continues to maintain +her ascendancy over other nations in matters of taste, and +in much else that adorns, brightens and quickens social life, +the predominant influence of the French theatre over the theatres +of other nations is likewise assured. But dramatic literature is +becoming international to a degree hardly dreamt of half a +century ago; and the distinctive development of the French +theatre cannot fail to be affected by the success or failure of the +national drama in retaining and developing its own most characteristic +qualities. Its history shows periods of marvellously +rapid advance, of hardly less swift decline, and of frequent +though at times fitful recovery. Its future may be equally +varied; but it will remain not less dependent on the conditions +which in every people, ancient or modern, have proved to be +indispensable to national vigour and vitality.</p> +<div class="author">(A. W. W.)</div> + +<p><i>Recent French Drama.</i>—The last twenty-five years of the 19th +century witnessed an important change in the constructive +methods, as well as in the moral tendencies, of the French playwrights. +Of the two leading dramatists who reigned supreme +over the <i>haute comédie</i> in 1875, one, Émile Augier, had almost +ended his career, but the other, Alexandre Dumas, was to maintain +his ascendancy for many years longer. Sardou’s fertility +of invention, and extraordinary cleverness at manipulating a +complicated intrigue, were also greatly admired, and much was +expected from Edouard Pailleron’s brilliant and—as it seemed—inexhaustible +wit in satirizing the whims and weaknesses of +high-born and highly-cultured society. Alexandre Dumas had +created and still monopolized the problem play, of which <i>Le +Demi-monde</i>, <i>Le Fils naturel</i>, <i>La Question d’argent</i>, <i>Les Idées de +Madame Aubray</i>, <i>La Femme de Claude</i>, <i>Monsieur Alphonse</i>, <i>La +Visite de noces</i>, <i>L’Étrangère</i>, <i>Francillon</i> and <i>Denise</i> may be +mentioned as the most characteristic specimens. The problem +play is the presentation of a particular case, with a view to a +general conclusion on some important question of human conduct. +This afforded the author, who was, in his way, a moralist and a +reformer, excellent opportunities for humorous discussions and +the display of that familiar eloquence which was his greatest +gift and most effective faculty. Among other subjects, the social +position of women had an all-powerful attraction for his mind, +and many of his later plays were written with the object of +placing in strong relief the remarkable inequality of the sexes, +both as regards freedom of action and responsibility, in modern +marriage. Like all the dramatists of his time, he adhered to +Scribe’s mode of play-writing—a mixture of the <i>drame bourgeois</i>, +as initiated by Diderot, and the comedy of character and manners, +long in vogue—from the days of Molière, Regnard, Destouches +and Marivaux, down to the beginning of the 19th century. In +his prefaces Dumas often undertook the defence of the system +which, in his estimation, was best calculated to serve the purpose +of the artist, the humorist and the moralist—a dramatist being, +as he conceived, a combination of the three.</p> + +<p>Though the majority of French playgoers continued to side +with him, and to cling to the time-honoured theatrical beliefs, +a few young men were beginning to murmur against the too +elaborate mechanism and artificial logic. Scribe and his successors, +whose plays were a combination of comedy and drama, +were wont to devote the first act to a brilliant and witty presentation +of personages, then to crowd the following scenes with +incidents, until the action was brought to a climax about the +end of the fourth act, invariably concluding, in the fifth, with an +optimistic <i>dénouement</i>, just before midnight, the time appointed +by police regulations for the closing of playhouses. At the same +time a more serious and far-reaching criticism was levelled at the +very principles on which the conception of human life was then +dependent. A new philosophy, based on scientific research, +had been gradually gaining ground and penetrating the French +mind. A host of bold writers had been trying, with considerable +firmness and continuity of purpose, to start a new kind of fiction, +writing in perfect accordance with the determinist theories of +Auguste Comte, Darwin and Taine. The long-disputed success +of the Naturalistic School carried everything before it during +the years 1875-1885, and its triumphant leaders were tempted +to make the best of their advantage by annexing a new province +and establishing a footing on the stage. In this they failed +signally, either when they were assisted by professional dramatists +or when left to their own resources. It became evident that +Naturalism, to be made acceptable on the stage, would have to +undergo a special process of transformation and be handled in a +peculiar way. Henry Becque succeeded in embodying the new +theories in two plays, which at first met with very indifferent +success, but were revived at a later period, and finally obtained +permanent recognition in the French theatre—even with the +acquiescence of the most learned critics, when they discovered, +or fancied they discovered, that Becque’s comedies agreed, in +the main, with Molière’s conception of dramatic art. In <i>Les +Corbeaux</i> and <i>La Parisienne</i> the plot is very simple; the episodes +are incidents taken from ordinary life. No extraneous character +is introduced to discuss moral and social theories, or to acquaint +us with the psychology of the real <i>dramatis personae</i>, or to suggest +humorous observations about the progress of the dramatic action. +The characters are left to tell their own tale in their own words, +which are sometimes very comical, sometimes very repulsive, +but purport to be always true to nature. Human will, which +was the soul and mainspring of French tragedy in the 17th +century, and played such a paramount part in the <i>drame bourgeois</i> +and the <i>haute comédie</i> of the 19th, appears in M. Becque’s plays +to have fallen from its former exalted position and to have ceased +to be a free agent. It is a mere passive instrument to our inner +desires and instincts and appetites, which, in their turn, obey +natural laws. Thus, in Becque’s comedies, as in the old Greek +drama, destiny, not man, is the chief actor, the real but unseen +protagonist.</p> + +<p>Becque was not a prolific writer, and when he died, in 1899, +it was remarked that he had spent the last ten years of his life in +comparative inactivity. But during these years his young and +ardent disciples had spared no effort in putting their master’s +theories to the test. It had occurred to a gifted and enterprising +actor-manager, named André Antoine, that the time had come +for trying dramatic experiments in a continued and methodical +manner. For this purpose he gathered around him a number +of young authors, and produced their plays before a select +audience of subscribers, who had paid in advance for their season-tickets. +The entertainment was a strictly private one. In this +way Antoine made himself independent of the censors, and at the +same time was no longer obliged to consider the requirements +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page517" id="page517"></a>517</span> +of the average playgoer, as is the case with ordinary managers, +anxious, above all things, to secure long runs. At the Théâtre +Libre the most successful play was not to be performed for more +than three nights.</p> + +<p>The reform attempted was to consist in the elimination of what +was contrary to nature in Dumas’s and Augier’s comedies: of +the <i>intrigue parallèle</i> or underplot, of the over-numerous and +improbable incidents which followed the first act and taxed the +spectator’s memory to the verge of fatigue; and, lastly, of the +conventional <i>dénouement</i> for which there was no justification. +A true study of character was to take the place of Sardou’s +complicated fabrications and Dumas’s problem plays. The +authors would present the spectator with a fragment of life, but +would force no conclusion upon him at the termination of the +play. The reformation in histrionic art was to proceed apace. +The actors and actresses of the preceding period had striven +to give full effect to certain witty utterances of the author, or to +preserve and to develop their own personal peculiarities or +oddities. Antoine and his fellow-artists did their best to make +the public realize, in every word and every gesture, the characteristic +features and ruling passions of the men and women they were +supposed to represent.</p> + +<p>It was in the early autumn of 1887 that the Théâtre Libre +opened its doors for the first time. It struggled on for eight +years amidst unfailing curiosity, but not without encountering +some adverse, or even derisive, criticism from a considerable +portion of the public and the press. The Théâtre Libre brought +under public notice such men as George Courteline and George +Ancey, who gave respectively, in <i>Bonbouroche</i> and <i>La Dupe</i>, +specimens of a comic vein called the “<i>comique cruel</i>.” Fabre, in +<i>L’Argent</i>, approached if not surpassed his master, Henry Becque. +Brieux, in <i>Blanchette</i>, gave promise of talent, which he has since +in a great measure justified. In <i>Les Fossiles</i> and <i>L’Envers d’une +sainte</i>, by François de Curel, were found evidences of dramatic +vigour and concentrated energy, allied with a remarkable gift +for the minute analysis of feeling. Antoine’s activity was not +exclusively confined to the efforts of the French Naturalistic +School; he included the Norwegian drama in his programme, +and successively produced several of Ibsen’s plays. They +received a large amount of attention from the critics, the views +then expressed ranging from the wildest enthusiasm to the +bitterest irony. Francisque Sarcey was decidedly hostile, and +Jules Lemaître, who ranked next to him in authority, ventured +to suggest that Ibsen’s ideas were nothing better than long-discarded +social and literary paradoxes, borrowed from Pierre +Leroux through George Sand, and returned to the French +market as novelties. Ibsen was not understood by the French +public at large, though his influence could be clearly traced on +thoughtful men like Paul Hervieu and François de Curel.</p> + +<p>The authors of the Théâtre Libre were sadly wanting in tact +and patience. They went at once to extremes, and, while trying +to free themselves from an obsolete form of drama, fell into a state +of anarchy. If a too elaborate plot is a fault, no plot at all is an +absurdity. The old school had been severely taken to task for +devoting the first act to the delineation of character, and the +delineation of character was now found to have extended over +the whole play; and worse still, most of these young men +seemed to find pleasure in importing a low vocabulary on to the +stage; they made it their special object to place before the spectator +revolting pictures of the grossest immorality. In this they +were supported by a knot of noisy and unwise admirers, whose +misplaced approval largely contributed towards bringing an +otherwise useful and interesting undertaking into disrepute. +The result was that after the lapse of eight years the little group +collected round Antoine had lost in cohesion and spirit, that it was +both less hopeful and less compact than it had been at the outset +of the campaign. But some authors who had kept aloof from +the movement were not slow in reaping the moral and intellectual +profit of these tentative experiments. Among them must be +cited George de Porto-Riche, Henri Lavedan, Paul Hervieu, +Maurice Donnay and Jules Lemaître. Alone among the authors +of the Théâtre Libre, É. Brieux secured an assured position on +the regular stage. Instead of attacking the vices and follies of his +times, he has made a name by satirizing the weak points or the +wrong application of certain fundamental principles by which +modern institutions are supported. He mocked at universal +suffrage in <i>L’Engrenage</i>, at art in <i>Ménages d’artistes</i>, at popular +instruction in <i>Blanchette</i>, at charity in <i>Les Bienfaiteurs</i>, at +science in <i>L’Évasion</i>, and then at law in <i>La Robe rouge</i>. +Of <i>Les Trois Filles de M. Dupont</i>, one is an old maid with a strong +bent towards mysticism, another is a star in the demi-monde, +and the third is married. Neither religion, nor free love, nor +marriage has made one of the three happy. The strange fact +about Brieux is that he propounds his uncomfortable ideas with +an incredible amount of dash and spirit.</p> + +<p>All the plays written by the above-mentioned authors, and by +those who follow in their steps, have been said to constitute +the “new comedy.” But one may question the advisability +of applying the same name to literary works which present so +little, if any, family likeness. It was tacitly agreed to remove +the intricacies of the plot and the forced <i>dénouement</i>. But no one +will trace in those plays the uniformity of moral purpose which +would justify us in comprising them under the same head, as +products of the same school. Then, before the Naturalistic, +or half-Naturalistic, School had attained to a practical result or +taken a definite shape, a wave of Romanticism swept over the +French public, and in a measure brought back the old artistic +and literary dogmas propounded by Victor Hugo and the generation +of 1830. Signs of a revival in French dramatic poetry were +not lacking. The success of <i>La Fille de Roland</i>, by the Vicomte +de Bornier, was restricted to the more cultivated classes, but the +vogue of Jean Richepin’s <i>Chemineau</i> was at once general and +lasting. <i>Cyrano de Bergerac</i>, produced in the last days of 1897, +brought a world-wide reputation to its young author, Edmond +Rostand. This play combines sparkling wit and brilliancy +of imagination with delightful touches of pathos and delicate +tenderness. It was assumed that Rostand was endowed to an +extraordinary degree both with theatrical genius and the poetic +faculty. <i>L’Aiglon</i> fell short of this too favourable judgment. +It is more a dramatic poem than a real drama, and the author +handles history with the same childish incompetence and inaccuracy +as Hugo did in <i>Cromwell</i>, in <i>Ruy Blas</i> and <i>Hernani</i>. +The persistent approbation of the public seemed, however, to +indicate a growing taste for poetry, even when unsupported by +dramatic interest—a curious symptom among the least poetical +of modern European races.</p> + +<p>To sum up, the French, as regards the present condition of +their drama, were confronted with two alternative movements. +Naturalism, furthered by science and philosophy, was contending +against traditions three centuries old, and seemed unable to +crystallize into masterly works; while romantic drama, founded +on vague and exploded theories, had become embodied in productions +of real artistic beauty, which have been warmly welcomed +by the general playgoer. It should nevertheless be noted +that in <i>Cyrano</i> and <i>L’Aiglon</i> human will, which was the main-spring +of Corneille’s tragedy and Hugo’s drama, tried to reassert +itself, but was baffled by circumstance, and had to submit to +inexorable laws. This showed that the victorious school would +have to reckon with the doctrines of the defeated party, and +suggested that a determinist theatre might be the ultimate +outcome of a compromise.</p> +<div class="author">(A. Fi.)</div> + +<p class="center pt2">(f) <i>English Drama.</i></p> + +<p>Among the nations of Germanic descent the English alone +succeeded, mainly through the influence of the Renaissance +movement, in transforming the later growths of the medieval +drama into the beginnings of a great and enduring national +dramatic literature, second neither in volume nor in splendour +to any other in the records of the world. And, although in +England, as elsewhere, the preparatory process had been continuing +for some generations, its consummation coincided with +one of the greatest epochs of English national history, and indeed +forms one of the chief glories of that epoch itself; so that, in +thinking or speaking of the Elizabethan age and the Elizabethan +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page518" id="page518"></a>518</span> +drama, the one can scarcely be thought or spoken of without +the other.</p> + +<p>It is of course conceivable that the regular drama, or drama +proper, might in England have been called into life without the +direct influence of classical examples. Already in the +reign of Edward VI. the spirit of the Reformation had +<span class="sidenote">Beginnings of the regular drama.</span> +(with the aid of a newly awakened desire for the study +of history, which was no doubt largely due to Italian +examples) quickened the relatively inanimate species of the +morality into the beginning of a new development.<a name="fa155a" id="fa155a" href="#ft155a"><span class="sp">155</span></a> But +though the <i>Kyng Johan</i> of Bale (much as this author abhorred +the chronicles as written by ecclesiastics) came very near to the +chronicle histories, there is no proof whatever that the work, +long hidden away for very good reasons, actually served as a +transition to the new species; and Bale’s production was entirely +unknown to the particular chronicle history which treated the +same subject. Before the earliest example of this transitional +species was produced, English tragedy had directly connected +its beginnings with classical models.</p> + +<p>Much in the same way, nothing could have been more natural +and in accordance with the previous sluggish evolution of the +English drama than that a gradual transition, however complete +in the end, should have been effected from the moralities to +comedy. It was not, however, John Heywood himself who was +to accomplish any such transition; possibly, he was himself +the author of the morality <i>Genus humanum</i> performed at the +coronation feast of Queen Mary, whose council speedily forbade +the performance of interludes without the queen’s licence. Nor +are we able to conjecture the nature of the pieces bearing this +name composed by Richard Farrant, afterwards the master of +the Children of St George’s at Windsor, or of William Hunnis, +master under Queen Elizabeth of the Children of the Chapel +Royal. But the process of transition is visible in productions, +also called interludes, but charged with serious purpose, such +as T. Ingeland’s noteworthy <i>Disobedient Child</i> (before 1560), +and plays in which the element of abstractions is perceptibly +yielding to that of real personages, or in which the characters +are for the most part historical or the main element in the action +belongs to the sphere of romantic narrative.<a name="fa156a" id="fa156a" href="#ft156a"><span class="sp">156</span></a> The demonstration +would, however, be alien to the purpose of indicating the main +conditions of the growth of the English drama. The immediate +origin of the earliest extant English comedy must, like that of +<span class="sidenote">Imitation of classical examples.</span> +the first English tragedy, be sought, not in the development +of any popular literary or theatrical antecedents, +but in the imitation, more or less direct, of classical +models. This cardinal fact, unmistakable though it +is, has frequently been ignored or obscured by writers intent +upon investigating the <i>origines</i> of our drama, and to this day +remains without adequate acknowledgment in most of the +literary histories accessible to the great body of students.</p> + +<p>It is true that in tracing the entrance of the drama into the +national literature there is no reason for seeking to distinguish +very narrowly between the several tributaries to the main stream +which fertilized this as well as other fields under Renaissance +culture. The universities then still remained, and for a time +became more prominently than ever, the leading agents of +education in all its existent stages; and it is a patent fact that +no influence could have been so strong upon the Elizabethan +dramatists as that to which they had been subjected during the +university life through which the large majority of them had +passed. The corporate life of the universities, and the enthusiasms +(habitually unanimous) of their undergraduates and +younger graduates, communicated this influence, as it were +automatically, to the students, and to the learned societies +themselves, of the Inns of Court. In the Tudor, as afterwards +in the early Stuart, times, these Inns were at once the seminaries +of loyalty, and the obvious resort for the supply of young men +of spirit desirous of honouring a learned court by contributing +to its choicer amusements. Thus, whether we trace them in +the universities, in the “bowers” or halls of the lawyers, or in +the palaces of the sovereign, the beginnings of the English +academical drama, which in later Elizabethan and Jacobean +literature cannot claim to be more than a subordinate species +of the national drama, in an earlier period served as the actual +link between classical tragedy and comedy and the surviving +native growths, and supplied the actual impulse towards the +beginnings of English tragedy and comedy.</p> + +<p>The academical drama of the early years of Elizabeth’s reign +and of the preceding part of the Tudor period—including the +school-drama in the narrower sense of the term and +other performances of academical origin—consisted, +<span class="sidenote">The earlier academical drama.</span> +apart from actual reproductions of classical plays in +original Latin or in Latin versions of the Greek, +in adaptations of Latin originals, or of Latin or English plays +directly modelled on classical examples. A notable series of +plays of this kind was performed in the hall of Christ Church, +Oxford, from the first year of Edward VI. onward, when N. +Grimald’s <i>Archipropheta</i>, treating in classic form the story of +St John the Baptist, but introducing the Vice and comic scenes, +was brought out.<a name="fa157a" id="fa157a" href="#ft157a"><span class="sp">157</span></a> Others were J. Calfhill’s <i>Progne</i> and R. +Edwardes’ <i>Palaemon and Arcyte</i> (both 1566), and, from about +1580 onwards, a succession of Latin plays by William Gager, +beginning with the tragedy <i>Meleager</i>, and including, with other +tragedies,<a name="fa158a" id="fa158a" href="#ft158a"><span class="sp">158</span></a> a comedy <i>Rivales</i>. Yet another comedy, acted at +Christ Church, and extolled in 1591 by Harington for “harmless +mirth,” was the <i>Bellum grammaticale</i>, or Civil War between +Nouns and Verbs, which may have been a revision of a comedy +written by Bale’s friend, R. Radcliff, in 1538, but of which in any +case the ultimate origin was a celebrated Italian allegorical +treatise.<a name="fa159a" id="fa159a" href="#ft159a"><span class="sp">159</span></a> In Cambridge, as is not surprising, the activity of the +early academical friends and favourers of the drama was even +more marked. At St John’s College, where Bishop Watson’s +Latin tragedy called <i>Absolom</i> was produced within the years +1534 and 1544, plays were, according to Ascham, repeatedly +performed about the middle of the century; at Christ’s a +controversial drama in the Lutheran interest called <i>Pammachius</i>, +of which Gardiner complained to the privy council, and which +seems afterwards to have been translated by Bale, was acted in +1544; and at Trinity there was a long series of performances +which began with Christopherson’s <i>Jephtha</i> about 1546, and +consisted partly of reproductions of classical works,<a name="fa160a" id="fa160a" href="#ft160a"><span class="sp">160</span></a> partly of +plays and “shows” unnamed; while on one occasion at all +events, in 1559, “two English plays” were produced. In 1560 +was acted, doubtless in the original Latin, and not in Palsgrave’s +English translation (1540) for schoolboys, the celebrated +“comedy” of <i>Acolastus</i>, by W. Gnaphaeus, on the story of the +Prodigal Son. The long series of Trinity plays interspersed with +occasional plays at King’s (where Udall’s <i>Ezechias</i> was produced +in English in 1564), at St John’s (where T. Legge’s <i>Richardus III.</i> +was first acted in 1573), and, as will be seen below, at Christ’s, +continued, with few noticeable breaks, up to the time when +the Elizabethan drama was in full activity.<a name="fa161a" id="fa161a" href="#ft161a"><span class="sp">161</span></a> Among the +“academical” plays not traceable to any particular university +source may be mentioned, as acted at court so early as the end +of 1565 or the beginning of 1566, the Latin <i>Sapientia Solomonis</i>, +which generally follows the biblical narrative, but introduces a +comic element in the sayings of the popular Marcolph, who here +appears as a court fool.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page519" id="page519"></a>519</span></p> + +<p>It was under the direct influence of the Renaissance, viewed +primarily, in England as elsewhere, as a revival of classical +studies, and in connexion with the growing taste in +university and cognate circles of society, and at a +<span class="sidenote">Influence of Seneca.</span> +court which prided itself on its love and patronage of +learning, that English tragedy and comedy took their actual +beginnings. Those of comedy, as it would seem, preceded +those of tragedy by a few years. Already in Queen Mary’s reign, +translation was found the readiest form of expression offering +itself to literary scholarship; and Italian examples helped to +commend Seneca, the most modern of the ancient tragedians, +and the imitator of the most human among the masters of Attic +tragedy, as a favourite subject for such exercises. In the very +year of Elizabeth’s accession—seven years after Jodelle had +brought out the earliest French tragedy—a group of English +university scholars began to put forth a series of translations of +the ten tragedies of Seneca, which one of them, T. Newton, in +1581 collected into a single volume. The earliest of these +versions was that of the <i>Troades</i> (1559) by Jasper Heywood, +a son of the author of the <i>Interludes</i>. He also published the +<i>Thyestes</i> (1560) and the <i>Hercules Furens</i> (1561); the names of +his fellow-translators were A. Neville, T. Nuce, J. Studley and +the T. Newton aforesaid. These translations, which occasionally +include original interpolations (“additions,” a term which was +to become a technical one in English dramaturgy), are in no +instance in blank verse, the favourite metre of the dialogue being +the couplets of fourteen-syllable lines best known through +Chapman’s <i>Homer</i>.</p> + +<p>The authority of Seneca, once established in the English literary +world, maintained itself there long after English drama had +emancipated itself from the task of imitating this pallid +model, and, occasionally, Seneca’s own prototype, +<span class="sidenote">Earliest English tragedies.</span> +Euripides.<a name="fa162a" id="fa162a" href="#ft162a"><span class="sp">162</span></a> Nor can it be doubted that some translation +of the Latin tragic poet had at one time or another +passed through Shakespeare’s own hands. But what is of present +importance is that to the direct influence of Seneca is to be ascribed +the composition of the first English tragedy which we possess. +Of <i>Gorboduc</i> (afterwards re-named <i>Ferrex and Porrex</i>), first acted +on the 18th of January 1562 by the members of the Inner Temple +before Queen Elizabeth, the first three acts are stated to have +been written by T. Norton; the rest of the play (if not more) +was the work of T. Sackville, afterwards Lord Buckhurst and +earl of Dorset, whom Jasper Heywood praised for his sonnets, +but who is better known for his leading share in The <i>Mirror for +Magistrates</i>. Though the subject of <i>Gorboduc</i> is a British legend, +and though the action is neither copied nor adapted from any +treated by Seneca, yet the resemblance between this tragedy +and the <i>Thebais</i> is too strong to be fortuitous. In all formal +matters—chorus, messengers, &c.—<i>Gorboduc</i> adheres to the +usage of classical tragedy; but the authors show no respect for +the unities of time or place. Strong in construction, the tragedy +is—like its model, Seneca—weak in characterization. The +dialogue, it should be noticed, is in blank verse; and the device +of the <i>dumb-show</i>, in which the contents of each act are in succession +set forth in pantomime only, is employed at once to +instruct and to stimulate the spectator.</p> + +<p>The nearly contemporary <i>Apius and Virginia</i> (c. 1563), though +it takes its subject—destined to become a perennial one on the +modern stage—from Roman story; the <i>Historie of Horestes</i> (pr. +1567); and T. Preston’s <i>Cambises King of Percia</i> (1569-1570), +are somewhat rougher in form, and, the first and last of them at +all events, more violent in diction, than <i>Gorboduc</i>. They still +contain elements of the moralities (above all the Vice) and none +of the formal features of classical tragedy. But a <i>Julyus Sesyar</i> +seems to have been performed, in precisely the same circumstances +as <i>Gorboduc</i>, so early as 1562; and, four years later, G. Gascoigne, +the author of the satire <i>The Steele Glass</i>, produced with the aid +of two associates (F. Kinwelmersh and Sir Christopher Yelverton, +who wrote an epilogue), <i>Jocasta</i>, a virtual translation of L. Dolce’s +<i>Giocasta</i>, which was an adaptation, probably, of R. Winter’s +Latin translation of the <i>Phoenissae</i> of Euripides.<a name="fa163a" id="fa163a" href="#ft163a"><span class="sp">163</span></a> Between the +years 1567 and 1580 a large proportion of the plays presented at +court by choir- or school-boys, and by various companies of +actors, were taken from Greek legend or Roman history; as was +R. Edwardes’ <i>Damon and Pithias</i> (perhaps as early as 1564-1565), +which already shades off from tragedy into what soon came to +be called tragi-comedy.<a name="fa164a" id="fa164a" href="#ft164a"><span class="sp">164</span></a> Simultaneously with the influence, +exercised directly or indirectly, of classical literature, that of +Italian, both dramatic and narrative, with its marked tendency +to treat native themes, asserted itself, and, while diversifying +the current of early English tragedy, infused into it a long-abiding +element of passion. There are sufficient grounds for +concluding that a play on the subject of <i>Romeo and Juliet</i>, which +L. da Porto and M. Bandello had treated in prose narrative—that +of the latter having through a French version formed itself +into an English poem—was seen on an English stage in or before +1562. <i>Gismonde of Salerne</i>, a play founded on Boccaccio, was +acted before Queen Elizabeth at the Inner Temple in 1568, +nearly a generation before it was published, rewritten in blank +verse by R. Wilmot, one of the performers, then in holy orders; +G. Whetstone’s <i>Promos and Cassandra</i>, founded on G. Cinthio +(from which came the plot of <i>Measure for Measure</i>), followed, +printed in 1578; and there were other “casts of Italian devices” +belonging to this age, in which the choice of a striking theme +still seemed the chief preoccupation of English tragic poets.</p> + +<p>From the double danger which threatened English tragedy +in the days of its infancy—that it would congeal on the wintry +heights of classical themes, or dissolve its vigour in the glowing +heat of a passion fiercer than that of the Italians—<i>Ingleso +Italianato è un diavolo incarnato</i>—it was preserved more than by +any other cause by its happy association with the traditions of +the national history. An exceptional position might seem to be +in this respect occupied by T. Hughes’ interesting tragedy <i>The +Misfortunes of Arthur</i> (1587). But the author of this play—in +certain portions of whose framework there were associated with +him seven other members of Gray’s Inn, including Francis Bacon, +and which was presented before Queen Elizabeth like <i>Gorboduc</i>—in +truth followed the example of the authors of that work both +in choice of theme, in details of form, and in a general though +far from servile imitation of the manner of Seneca; nor does he +represent any very material advance upon the first English +tragedy.</p> + +<p>Fortunately, at the very time when from such beginnings +as those just described the English tragic drama was to set forth +upon a course in which it was to achieve so much, a +new sphere of activity suggested itself. And in this, +<span class="sidenote">Chronicle histories.</span> +after a few more or less tentative efforts, English +dramatists very speedily came to feel at home. In their direct +dramatization of passages or portions of English history (in +which the doings and sufferings of King Arthur could only by +courtesy or poetic licence be included) classical models would be +of scant service, while Italian examples of the treatment of +national historical subjects, having to deal with material so +wholly different, could not be followed with advantage. The +native species of the <i>chronicle history</i>, which designedly assumed +this name in order to make clear its origin and purpose, essayed +nothing more or less than a dramatic version of an existing +chronicle. Obviously, while the transition from half historical, +half epical narrative often implied carrying over into the new +form some of the features of the old, it was only when the subject +matter had been remoulded and recast that a true dramatic action +could result. But the <i>histories</i> to be found among the plays of +Shakespeare and one or two other Elizabethans are true dramas, +and it would be inconvenient to include these in the transitional +species of those known as <i>chronicle histories</i>. Among these ruder +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page520" id="page520"></a>520</span> +compositions, which intermixed the blank verse introduced on +the Stage by <i>Gorboduc</i> with prose, and freely combined or placed +side by side tragic and comic ingredients, we have but few +distinct examples. One of these is <i>The Famous Victories of +Henry the Fifth</i>, known to have been acted before 1588; in +which both the verse and the prose are frequently of a very rude +sort, while it is neither divided into acts or scenes nor, in general, +constructed with any measure of dramatic skill. But its vigour +and freshness are considerable, and in many passages we recognize +familiar situations and favourite figures in later masterpieces of +the English historical drama. The second is <i>The Troublesome +Raigne of King John</i>, in two parts (printed in 1591), an epical +narrative transferred to the stage, neither a didactic effort like +Bale’s, nor a living drama like Shakespeare’s, but a far from +contemptible treatment of its historical theme. <i>The True +Chronicle History of King Leir</i> (acted in 1593) in form resembles +the above, though it is not properly on a national subject (its +story is taken from Geoffrey of Monmouth); but, with all its +defects, it seems only to await the touch of the master’s hand to +become a tragedy of supreme effectiveness. A yet further step +was taken in the <i>Tragedy of Sir Thomas More</i> (c. 1590)—in +which Shakespeare’s hand has been thought traceable, and +which deserves its designation of “tragedy” not so much on +account of the relative nearness of the historical subject to the +date of its dramatic treatment, as because of the tragic responsibility +of character here already clearly worked out.</p> + +<p>Such had been the beginnings of tragedy in England up to +the time when the genius of English dramatists was impelled +by the spirit that dominates a great creative epoch +of literature to seize the form ready to their hands. +<span class="sidenote">Earliest comedies.</span> +The birth of English comedy, at all times a process +of less labour and eased by an always ready popular responsiveness +to the most tentative efforts of art, had slightly preceded +that of her serious sister. As has been seen from the brief review +given above of the early history of the English academical +drama, isolated Latin comedies had been performed in the original +or in English versions as early as the reign of Henry VIII.—perhaps +even earlier; while the morality and its direct descendant, +the interlude, pointed the way towards popular treatment in the +vernacular of actions and characters equally well suited for the +diversion of Roman, Italian and English audiences. Thus +there was no innovation in the adaptation by N. Udal (<i>q.v.</i>) of +the <i>Miles Gloriosus</i> of Plautus under the title of <i>Ralph Roister +Doister</i>, which may claim to be the earliest extant English +comedy. It has a genuinely popular vein of humour, and the +names fit the characters after a fashion familiar to the moralities. +The second English comedy—in the opinion of at least one high +authority our first—is <i>Misogonus</i>, which was certainly written +as early as 1560. Its scene is laid in Italy; but the Vice, commonly +called “Cacurgus,” is both by himself and others frequently +designated as “Will Summer,” in allusion to Henry +VIII.’s celebrated jester. <i>Gammer Gurton’s Needle</i>, long regarded +as the earliest of all <i>English</i> comedies, was printed in 1575, as +acted “not long ago in Christ’s College, Cambridge.” Its +authorship was till recently attributed to John Still (afterwards +bishop of Bath and Wells), who was a resident M.A. at Christ’s, +when a play was performed there in 1566. But the evidence of +his authorship is inconclusive, and the play “made by Mr. S., +Master of Arts,” may be by William Stevenson, or by some other +contemporary. This comedy is slighter in plot and coarser in +diction than <i>Ralph Roister Doister</i>, but by no means unamusing.</p> + +<p>In the main, however, early English comedy, while occasionally +introducing characters and scenes of thoroughly native origin +and complexion (<i>e.g.</i> Grim, the Collier of Croydon),<a name="fa165a" id="fa165a" href="#ft165a"><span class="sp">165</span></a> was content +to borrow its themes from classical or Italian sources.<a name="fa166a" id="fa166a" href="#ft166a"><span class="sp">166</span></a> G. +Gascoigne’s <i>Supposes</i> (acted at Gray’s Inn in 1566) is a translation +of <i>I Suppositi</i> of Ariosto, remarkable for the flowing facility of +its prose. While, on the one hand, the mixture of tragic with +comic motives, which was to become so distinctive a feature of the +Elizabethan drama, was already leading in the direction of tragi-comedy, +the precedent of the Italian pastoral drama encouraged +the introduction of figures and stories derived from classical +mythology; and the rapid and diversified influence of Italian +comedy, in close touch with Italian prose fiction, seemed likely +to affect and quicken continuously the growth of the lighter +branch of the English drama.</p> + +<p>Out of such promises as these the glories of English drama +were ripened by the warmth and light of the great Elizabethan +age—of which the beginnings may fairly be reckoned +from the third decennium of the reign to which it owes +<span class="sidenote">Conditions of the early Elizabethan drama.</span> +its name. The queen’s steady love of dramatic entertainments +could not of itself have led, though it undoubtedly +contributed, to such a result. Against the +attacks which a nascent puritanism was already directing +against the stage by the hands of J. Northbrooke,<a name="fa167a" id="fa167a" href="#ft167a"><span class="sp">167</span></a> the repentant +playwright S. Gosson,<a name="fa168a" id="fa168a" href="#ft168a"><span class="sp">168</span></a> P. Stubbes,<a name="fa169a" id="fa169a" href="#ft169a"><span class="sp">169</span></a> and others,<a name="fa170a" id="fa170a" href="#ft170a"><span class="sp">170</span></a> were to be set +not only the frugal favour of royalty and the more liberal +patronage of great nobles,<a name="fa171a" id="fa171a" href="#ft171a"><span class="sp">171</span></a> but the fact that literary authorities +were already weighing the endeavours of the English drama in +the balance of respectful criticism, and that in the abstract +at least the claims of both tragedy and comedy were upheld by +those who shrank from the desipience of idle pastimes. It is +noticeable that this period in the history of the English theatre +coincides with the beginning of the remarkable series of visits +made to Germany by companies of English comedians, which +did not come to an end till the period immediately before the +Thirty Years’ War, and were occasionally resumed after its close. +As at home the popularity of the stage increased, the functions +of playwright and actor, whether combined or not, began to +hold out a reasonable promise of personal gain. Nor, above all, +was that higher impulse which leads men of talent and genius +to attempt forms of art in harmony with the tastes and tendencies +of their times wanting to the group of writers who can be +remembered by no nobler name than that of Shakespeare’s +predecessors.</p> + +<p>The lives of all of these are, of course, in part contemporary +with the life of Shakespeare himself; nor was there any substantial +difference in the circumstances under which +most of them, and he, led their lives as dramatic +<span class="sidenote">The predecessors of Shakespeare.</span> +authors. A distinction was manifestly kept up +between poets and playwrights. Of the contempt +entertained for the actor’s profession some fell to the share of +the dramatist; “even Lodge,” says C. M. Ingleby, “who had +indeed never trod the stage, but had written several plays, and +had no reason to be ashamed of his antecedents, speaks of the +vocation of the play-maker as sharing the odium attaching to +the actor.” Among the dramatists themselves good fellowship +and literary partnership only at times asserted themselves as +stronger than the tendency to mutual jealousy and abuse; of all +chapters of dramatic history, the annals of the early Elizabethan +stage perhaps least resemble those of Arcadia.</p> + +<p>Moreover, the theatre had hardly found its strength as a +powerful element in the national life, when it was involved in +a bitter controversy, with which it had originally no +connexion, on behalf of an ally whose sympathy with +<span class="sidenote">History of the Elizabethan stage.</span> +it can only have been of a very limited kind. The +Marprelate controversy, into which, among leading +playwrights, Lyly and Nashe were drawn, in 1589 led to a stoppage +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page521" id="page521"></a>521</span> +of stage-plays which proved only temporary; but the general +result of the attempt to make the stage a vehicle of political abuse +and invective was beyond a doubt to coarsen and degrade both +plays and players. Scurrilous attempts and rough repression +continued during the years 1590-1593; and the true remedy +was at last applied, when from about 1594, the chief London +actors became divided into two great rival companies—the lord +chamberlain’s and the lord admiral’s—which alone received +licences. Instead of half a dozen or more companies whose +jealousies communicated themselves to the playwrights belonging +to them, there were now, besides the Children of the Chapel, two +established bodies of actors, directed by steady and, in the full +sense of the word, respectable men. To the lord chamberlain’s +company, which, after being settled at “the Theater” (opened as +early as 1576 or 1577), moved to Blackfriars, purchased by James +Burbage, in 1596, and to the Globe on the Bankside in 1599, +Shakespeare and Richard Burbage, the greatest of the Elizabethan +actors, belonged; the lord admiral’s was managed by +Philip Henslowe, the author of the <i>Diary</i>, and Edward Alleyn, +the founder of Dulwich College, and was ultimately, in 1600, +settled at the Fortune. In these and other houses were performed +the plays of the Elizabethan dramatists, with few +adventitious aids, the performance being crowded into a brief +afternoon, when it is obvious that only the idler sections of the +population could attend. No woman might appear at a playhouse, +unless masked; on the stage, down to the Restoration, +women’s parts continued to be acted by boys.</p> + +<p>It is futile to take no account of such outward circumstances +as these and many which cannot here be noted in surveying the +progress of the literature of the Elizabethan drama. Like that +of the Restoration—and like that of the present day—it was +necessarily influenced in its method and spirit of treatment by +the conditions and restrictions which governed the place and +circumstances of the performance of plays, including the construction +of theatre and stage, as well as by the social composition +of its audiences, which the local accommodation, not less than +the entertainment, provided for them had to take into account. +But to these things a mere allusion must suffice. It may safely be +said, at the same time, that no dramatic literature which has +any claim to rank beside the Elizabethan—not that of Athens +nor those of modern Italy and Spain, nor those of France and +Germany in their classic periods—had to contend against such +odds; a mighty inherent strength alone ensured to it the vitality +which it so triumphantly asserted, and which enabled it to run +so unequalled a course.</p> + +<p>Among Shakespeare’s predecessors, John Lyly, whose plays +were all written for the Children of the Chapel and the Children +of St Paul’s, holds a position apart in English dramatic +literature. The euphuism, to which his famous +<span class="sidenote">Lyly.</span> +romance gave its name, likewise distinguishes his mythological,<a name="fa172a" id="fa172a" href="#ft172a"><span class="sp">172</span></a> +quasi-historical,<a name="fa173a" id="fa173a" href="#ft173a"><span class="sp">173</span></a> allegorical,<a name="fa174a" id="fa174a" href="#ft174a"><span class="sp">174</span></a> and satirical<a name="fa175a" id="fa175a" href="#ft175a"><span class="sp">175</span></a> comedies. But his +real service to the progress of English drama is to be sought +neither in his choice of subjects nor in his imagery—though to +his fondness for fairylore and for the whole phantasmagoria of +legend, classical as well as romantic, his contemporaries, and +Shakespeare in particular, were indebted for a stimulative +precedent, and though in his <i>Endimion</i> at all events he excites +curiosity by an allegorical treatment of contemporary characters +and events. It does not even lie in the songs interspersed in his +plays, though none of his predecessors had in the slightest degree +anticipated the lyric grace which distinguishes some of these +incidental efforts. It consists in his adoption of Gascoigne’s +innovation of writing plays in prose; and in his having, though +under the fetters of an affected and pretentious style, given the +first example of brisk and vivacious dialogue—an example to +<span class="sidenote">Kyd.</span> +which even such successors as Shakespeare and Jonson +were indebted. Thomas Kyd, the author of the +<i>Spanish Tragedy</i> (preceded or followed by the first part of +<i>Jeronimo</i>), and probably of several plays whose author was +unnamed, possesses some of the characteristics, but none of the +genius, of the greatest tragic dramatist who preceded Shakespeare. +<span class="sidenote">Marlowe.</span> +No slighter tribute than this is assuredly the +due of Christopher Marlowe, whose violent end prematurely +closed a poetic career of dazzling brilliancy. His +earliest play, <i>Tamburlaine the Great</i>, in which the use of blank +verse was introduced upon the English public stage, while full +of the “high astounding terms” of an extravagant and often +bombastic diction, is already marked by the passion which was +the poet’s most characteristic feature, and which was to find +expression so luxuriantly beautiful in his <i>Doctor Faustus,</i> and +so surpassingly violent in his <i>Jew of Malta</i>. His masterpiece, +<i>Edward II.</i>, is a tragedy of singular pathos and of a dramatic +<span class="sidenote">Peele.</span> +power unapproached by any of his contemporaries. +George Peele was a far more versatile writer even as +a dramatist; but, though his plays contain passages of exquisite +beauty, not one of them is worthy to be ranked by the side of +Marlowe’s <i>Edward II.</i>, compared with which, if indeed not +absolutely, Peele’s <i>Chronicle of Edward I.</i> still stands on the +level of the species to which its title and character alike assign it. +His finest play is undoubtedly <i>David and Bethsabe</i>, which +resembles <i>Edward I.</i> in construction, but far surpasses it in +beauty of language and versification, besides treating its subject +with greatly superior dignity. If the difference between Peele +and Shakespeare is still, in many respects besides that of genius, +an immeasurable one, we seem to come into something like a +<span class="sidenote">Greene.</span> +Shakespearian atmosphere in more than one passage of +the plays of the unfortunate Robert Greene—unfortunate +perhaps in nothing more enduringly than in the proof +which he left behind him of his supercilious jealousy of Shakespeare. +Greene’s genius, most conspicuous in plays treating +English life and scenes, could, notwithstanding his academic +self-sufficiency, at times free itself from the pedantry apt to +beset the flight of Peele’s and at times even of Marlowe’s muse; +and his most delightful work<a name="fa176a" id="fa176a" href="#ft176a"><span class="sp">176</span></a> seems to breathe something of the +air, sweet and fresh like no other, which blows over an English +countryside. Thomas Lodge, whose dramatic, and much less of +course his literary activity, is measured by the only play that we +know to have been wholly his;<a name="fa177a" id="fa177a" href="#ft177a"><span class="sp">177</span></a> Thomas Nashe, the redoubtable +pamphleteer and the father of the English picaresque novel;<a name="fa178a" id="fa178a" href="#ft178a"><span class="sp">178</span></a> +Henry Chettle, who worked the chords of both pity<a name="fa179a" id="fa179a" href="#ft179a"><span class="sp">179</span></a> and terror<a name="fa180a" id="fa180a" href="#ft180a"><span class="sp">180</span></a> +with equal vigour, and Anthony Munday, better remembered +for his city pageants than for his plays, are among the other +more important writers of the early Elizabethan drama, though +not all of them can strictly speaking be called predecessors of +Shakespeare. It is not possible here to enumerate the more +interesting of the anonymous plays which belong to this “pre-Shakespearian” +period of the Elizabethan drama; but many of +them are by intrinsic merit as well as for special causes deserving +of the attention of the student.</p> + +<p>The common characteristics of nearly all these dramatists +and plays were in accordance with those of the great age to which +they belonged. Stirring times called for stirring +themes, such as those of “Mahomet, Scipio and +<span class="sidenote">Common characteristics of the early Elizabethans.</span> +Tamerlane”; and these again for a corresponding +vigour of treatment. Neatness and symmetry of +construction were neglected for fulness and variety +of matter. Novelty and grandeur of subject seemed +well matched by a swelling amplitude and often reckless extravagance +of diction. As if from an inner necessity, the balance +of rhymed couplets gave way to the impetuous march of blank +verse; “strong lines” were as inevitably called for as strong +situations and strong characters. Although the chief of these +poets are marked off from one another by the individual genius +which impressed itself upon both the form and the matter of +their works, yet the stamp of the age is upon them all. Writing +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page522" id="page522"></a>522</span> +for the stage only, of which some of them possessed a personal +experience and from which none of them held aloof, they acquired +an instinctive insight into the laws of dramatic cause and effect, +and infused a warm vitality into the dramatic literature which +they produced, so to speak, for immediate consumption. On +the other hand, the same cause made rapidity of workmanship +indispensable to a successful playwright. <i>How</i> a play was +produced, how many hands had been at work upon it, what +loans and what spoliations had been made in the process, were +considerations of less moment than the question <i>whether</i> it was +produced, and whether it succeeded. His harness—frequently +double or triple—was inseparable from the lusty Pegasus of the +early English drama, and its genius toiled, to borrow the phrase +of the Attic comedian, “like an Arcadian mercenary.”</p> + +<p>This period of the English drama, though it is far from being +one of crude effort, could not therefore yet be one of full consummation. +In tragedy the advance which had been +made in the choice of great themes, in knitting closer +<span class="sidenote">Progress of tragedy and comedy before Shakespeare.</span> +the connection between the theatre and the national +history, in vindicating to passion its right to adequate +expression, was already enormous. In comedy the +advance had been less decisive and less independent; +much had been gained in reaching greater freedom +of form and something in enlarging the range of subjects; but +artificiality had proved a snare in the one direction, while the +licence of the comic stage, upheld by favourite “clowns,” such +as Kemp or Tarlton, had not succumbed before less elastic +demands. The way of escaping from the dilemma had, however, +been already recognized to lie in the construction of suitable +plots, for which a full storehouse was open in the popular traditions +preserved in national ballads, and in the growing literature +of translated foreign fiction, or of native imitations of it. Meanwhile, +the aberration of the comic stage to political and religious +controversy, which it could never hope to treat with Attic +freedom in a country provided with a strong monarchy and a +dogmatic religion, seemed likely to extinguish the promise of +the beginnings of English romantic comedy.</p> + +<p>These were the circumstances under which the greatest of +dramatists began to devote his genius to the theatre. Shakespeare’s +career as a writer of plays can have differed +little in its beginnings from those of his contemporaries +<span class="sidenote">Shakespeare.</span> +and rivals. Before or while he was proceeding from the +re-touching and re-writing of the plays of others to original +dramatic composition, the most gifted of those whom we have +termed his predecessors had passed away. He had been decried +as an actor before he was known as an author; and after living +through days of darkness for the theatre, if not for himself, +attained, before the close of the century, to the beginnings of his +prosperity and the beginnings of his fame. But if we call him +fortunate, it is not because of such rewards as these. As a poet, +Shakespeare was no doubt happy in his times, which intensified +the strength of the national character, expanded the activities +of the national mind, and were able to add their stimulus even +to such a creative power as his. He was happy in the antecedents +of the form of literature which commended itself to his choice, +and in the opportunities which it offered in so many directions +for an advance to heights yet undiscovered and unknown. +What he actually accomplished was due to his genius, whose +achievements are immeasurable like itself. His influence upon +the progress of English drama divides itself in very unequal +proportions into a direct and an indirect influence. To the +former alone reference can here be made.</p> + +<p>Already the first editors of Shakespeare’s works in a collected +form recognized so marked a distinction between his plays +taken from English history and those treating other +historical subjects (whether ancient or modern) that, +<span class="sidenote">Shakespeare and the national historical drama.</span> +while they included the latter among the tragedies at +large, they grouped the former as <i>histories</i> by themselves. +These <i>histories</i> are in their literary genesis a +development of the <i>chronicle histories</i> of Shakespeare’s +predecessors and contemporaries, the taste for which had greatly +increased towards the beginning of his own career as a dramatist, +in accordance with the general progress of national life and +sentiment in this epoch. Though it cannot be assumed that +Shakespeare composed his several dramas from English history +in the sequence of the chronology of their themes, his genius +gave to the entire series an inner harmony, and a continuity +corresponding to that which is distinctive of the national life, +such as not unnaturally inspired certain commentators with +the wish to prove it a symmetrically constructed whole. He +thus brought this peculiarly national species to a perfection +which made it difficult, if not impossible, for his later contemporaries +and successors to make more than an occasional +addition to his series. None of them was, however, found able +or ready to take up the thread where Shakespeare had left it, +after perfunctorily attaching the present to the past by a work +(probably not all his own) which must be regarded as the end +rather than the crown of the series of his <i>histories</i>.<a name="fa181a" id="fa181a" href="#ft181a"><span class="sp">181</span></a> But to furnish +such supplements accorded little with the tastes and tendencies +of the later Elizabethans; and with the exception of an isolated +work,<a name="fa182a" id="fa182a" href="#ft182a"><span class="sp">182</span></a> the national historical drama in Shakespeare reached at +once its perfection and its close. The ruder form of the old +chronicle history for a time survived the advance made upon it; +but the efforts in this field of T. Heywood,<a name="fa183a" id="fa183a" href="#ft183a"><span class="sp">183</span></a> S. Rowley,<a name="fa184a" id="fa184a" href="#ft184a"><span class="sp">184</span></a> and others +are, from a literary point of view, anachronisms.</p> + +<p>Of Shakespeare’s other plays the several groups exercised +a more direct influence upon the general progress of our dramatic +literature. His Roman tragedies, though following their +authorities with much the same fidelity as that of the English +<i>histories</i>, even more effectively taught the great lesson of free +dramatic treatment of historic themes, and thus pre-eminently +became the perennial models of the modern historic drama. His +tragedies on other subjects, which necessarily admitted of a more +absolute freedom of treatment, established themselves as the +examples for all time of the highest kind of tragedy. Where else +is exhibited with the same fulness the struggle between will and +obstacle, character and circumstance? Where is mirrored +with equal power and variety the working of those passions in +the mastery of which over man lies his doom? Here, above all, +Shakespeare as compared with his predecessors, as well as with +his successors, “<i>is</i> that nature which they paint and draw.” +He threw open to modern tragedy a range of hitherto unknown +breadth and depth and height, and emancipated the national +drama in its noblest forms from limits to which it could never +again restrict itself without a consciousness of having renounced +its enfranchisement. Happily for the variety of his creative +genius on the English stage, no divorce had been proclaimed +between the serious and the comic, and no division of species +had been established such as he himself ridicules as pedantic +when it professes to be exhaustive. The comedies of Shakespeare +accordingly refuse to be tabulated in deference to any method +of classification deserving to be called precise; and several of +them are comedies only according to a purely technical use of +the term. In those in which the instinct of reader or spectator +recognizes the comic interest to be supreme, it is still of its nature +incidental to the progress of the action; for the criticism seems +just, as well as in agreement with what we can conclude as to +Shakespeare’s process of construction, that among all his comedies +not more than a single one<a name="fa185a" id="fa185a" href="#ft185a"><span class="sp">185</span></a> is in both design and effect a comedy +of character proper. Thus in this direction, while the unparalleled +wealth of his invention renewed or created a whole +gallery of types, he left much to be done by his successors; +while the truest secrets of his comic art, which interweaves fancy +with observation, draws wisdom from the lips of fools, and +imbues with character what all other hands would have left +shadowy, monstrous or trivial, are among the things inimitable +belonging to the individuality of his poetic genius.</p> + +<p>The influences of Shakespeare’s diction and versification upon +those of the English drama in general can hardly be overrated, +though it would be next to impossible to state them definitely. In +these points, Shakespeare’s manner as a writer was progressive; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page523" id="page523"></a>523</span> +and this progress has been deemed sufficiently well traceable +in his plays to be used as an aid in seeking to determine +<span class="sidenote">His style and its influence.</span> +their chronological sequence. The general laws of this +progress accord with those of the natural advance of +creative genius; artificiality gives way to freedom, +and freedom in its turn submits to a greater degree +of regularity and care. In versification as in diction the +earliest and the latest period of Shakespeare’s dramatic writing +are more easily recognizable than what lies between and may be +called the <i>normal</i> period, the plays belonging to which in form +most resemble one another, and are least affected by distinguishable +peculiarities—such as the rhymes and intentionally euphuistic +colouring of style which characterize the earliest, or the feminine +endings of the lines and the more condensed manner of expression +common to the latest of his plays. But, such distinctions apart, +there can be no doubt but that in verse and in prose alike, Shakespeare’s +style, so far as it admitted of reproduction, is itself to be +regarded as the <i>norm</i> of that of the Elizabethan drama; that +in it the prose form of English comedy possesses its first accepted +model; and that in it the chosen metre of the English versified +drama established itself as irremovable unless at the risk of an +artificial experiment.</p> + +<p>The assertion may seem paradoxical, that it is by their construction +that Shakespeare’s plays exerted the most palpable +influence upon the English drama, as well as upon the +modern drama of the Germanic nations in general, +<span class="sidenote">Influence of his method of construction.</span> +and upon such forms of the Romance drama as have +been in more recent times based upon it. For it was +not in construction that his greatest strength lay, +or that the individuality of his genius could raise him above the +conditions under which he worked in common with his immediate +predecessors and contemporaries. Yet the fact that he accepted +these conditions, while producing works of matchless strength +and of unequalled fidelity to the demands of nature and art, +established them as inseparable from the Shakespearian drama—to +use a term which is perhaps unavoidable but has been often +misapplied. The great and irresistible demand on the part of +Shakespeare’s public was for <i>incident</i>—a demand which of itself +necessitated a method of construction different from that of the +Greek drama, or of those modelled more or less closely upon it. +To no other reason is to be ascribed the circumstance that Shakespeare +so constantly combined two actions in the course of a +single play, not merely supplementing the one by means of the +other as a bye- or under-plot. In no respect is the progress of +his technical skill as a dramatist more apparent,—a proposition +which a comparison of plays clearly ascribable to successive +periods of his life must be left to prove.</p> + +<p>Should it, however, be sought to express in one word the +greatest debt of the drama to Shakespeare, this word must be +the same as that which expresses his supreme gift as +a dramatist. It is in <i>characterization</i>—in the drawing +<span class="sidenote">His characters.</span> +of characters ranging through almost every type of +humanity which furnishes a fit subject for the tragic or the comic +art—that he remains absolutely unapproached; and it was in +this direction that he pointed the way which the English drama +could not henceforth desert without becoming untrue to itself. +It may have been a mere error of judgment which afterwards +held him to have been surpassed by others in particular fields +of characterization (setting him down, forsooth, as supremely +excellent in male, but not in female, characters). But it was a +sure sign of decay when English writers began to shrink from +following him in the endeavour to make the drama a mirror +of humanity, and when, in self-condemned arrogance, they +thrust unreality back upon a stage which he had animated with +the warm breath of life, where Juliet had blossomed like a +flower of spring, and where Othello’s noble nature had suffered +and sinned.</p> + +<p>By the numerous body of poets who, contemporary with +Shakespeare or in the next generation, cultivated the wide field +of the national drama, every form commending itself to the +tastes and sympathies of the national genius was essayed. None +were neglected except those from which the spirit of English +literature had been estranged by the Reformation, and those +which had from the first been artificial importations of the +<span class="sidenote">Forms of the later Elizabethan drama.</span> +Renaissance. The mystery could not in England, as in +Spain, produce such an aftergrowth as the <i>auto</i>, and the +confines of the religious drama were only now and then +tentatively touched.<a name="fa186a" id="fa186a" href="#ft186a"><span class="sp">186</span></a> The direct imitations of classical +examples were, except perhaps in the continued efforts +of the academical drama, few and feeble. Chapman, while +resorting to use of narrative in tragedy and perhaps otherwise +indebted to ancient models, was no follower of them in essentials. +S. Daniel (1562-1619) may be regarded as a belated disciple of +Seneca,<a name="fa187a" id="fa187a" href="#ft187a"><span class="sp">187</span></a> while experiments like W. Alexander’s (afterwards earl +of Stirling) <i>Monarchicke Tragedies</i><a name="fa188a" id="fa188a" href="#ft188a"><span class="sp">188</span></a> (1603-1605) are the mere +isolated efforts of a student, and more exclusively so than +Milton’s imposing <i>Samson Agonistes</i>, which belongs to a later +date (1677). At the opposite end of the dramatic scale, the light +gaiety of the Italian and French farce could not establish itself +on the English popular stage without more substantial adjuncts; +the Englishman’s festive digestion long continued robust, and +<span class="sidenote">The pastoral drama.</span> +he liked his amusements solid. In the pastoral drama +and the mask, however, many English dramatists +found special opportunities for the exercise of their +lyrical gifts and of their inventive powers. The former +could never become other than an exotic, so long as it retained +the artificial character of its origin. Shakespeare had accordingly +only blended elements derived from it into the action of +his romantic comedies. In more or less isolated works Jonson, +Fletcher, Daniel, Randolph, and others sought to rival Tasso +and Guarini—Jonson<a name="fa189a" id="fa189a" href="#ft189a"><span class="sp">189</span></a> coming nearest to nationalizing an +essentially foreign growth by the fresh simplicity of his treatment, +Fletcher<a name="fa190a" id="fa190a" href="#ft190a"><span class="sp">190</span></a> bearing away the palm for beauty of poetic execution; +Daniel being distinguished by simpler beauties of style in both +verse and prose.<a name="fa191a" id="fa191a" href="#ft191a"><span class="sp">191</span></a></p> + +<p>The mask (or masque) was a more elastic kind of composition, +mixing in varying proportions its constituent elements of +declamation and dialogue, music and dancing, decoration +and scenery. In its least elaborate literary form—which, +<span class="sidenote">The mask.</span> +of course, externally was the most elaborate—it closely +approached the pageant; in other instances the distinctness of +its characters or the fulness of the action introduced into its +scheme, brought it nearer to the regular drama. A frequent +ornament of Queen Elizabeth’s progresses, it was cultivated with +increased assiduity in the reign of James I., and in that of his +successor outshone, by the favour it enjoyed with court and +nobility, the attractions of the regular drama itself. Most of +the later Elizabethan dramatists contributed to this species, +upon which Shakespeare expended the resources of his fancy +only incidentally in the course of his dramas; but by far the +most successful writer of masks was Ben Jonson, of whose +numerous compositions of this kind many hold a permanent +place in English poetic literature, and “next” whom, in his +own judgment, “only Fletcher and Chapman could write a +mask.” From a poetic point of view, however, they were at least +rivalled by Dekker and Ford; in productivity and favour T. +Campion, who was equally eminent as poet and as musician, +seems for a time to have excelled. Inasmuch, however, as the +history of the mask in England is to a great extent that of +“painting and carpentry” and of Inigo Jones, and as, moreover, +this kind of piece, while admitting dramatic elements, +is of its nature occasional, it need not further be pursued here. +The <i>Microcosmus</i> of T. Nabbes (printed 1637), which is very +like a morality, seems to have been the first mask brought +upon the public stage. It was the performance of a mask by +Queen Henrietta Maria and her ladies at Whitehall which had +some years previously (1632) been thought to have supplied +to the invective of <i>Histrio-Mastix</i> against the stage the occasion +for disloyal innuendo; and it was for the performance of a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page524" id="page524"></a>524</span> +mask in a great nobleman’s castle that Milton—a Puritan of a +very different cast—not long afterwards (1634) wrote one of +the loftiest and loveliest of English poems. <i>Comus</i> has been +judged and condemned as a drama—unjustly, for the dramatic +qualities of a mask are not essential to it as a species. Yet its +history in England remains inseparably connected with that +of the Elizabethan drama. In later times the mask merged +into the opera, or continued a humble life of its own apart +from contact with higher literary effort. It is strange that later +English poets should have done so little to restore to its nobler +uses, and to invest with a new significance, a form so capable of +further development as the poetic mask.</p> + +<p>The annals of English drama proper in the period reaching +from the closing years of Elizabeth to the outbreak of the +great Revolution include, together with numerous +names relatively insignificant, many illustrious in the +<span class="sidenote">The later Elizabethan drama.</span> +history of our poetic literature. Among Shakespeare’s +contemporaries and successors there is, however, but +one who by the energy of his genius, not less than by the circumstances +of his literary career, reached undisputed primacy +among his fellows. Ben Jonson, to whom in his latter days a +whole generation of younger writers did filial homage as to their +veteran chief, was alone in full truth the founder of a school +or family of dramatists. Yet his pre-eminence did not (whatever +he or his followers may have thought) extend to both branches +of the regular drama. In tragedy he fell short of the highest +success; the weight of his learning lay too heavily upon his +efforts to draw from deeper sources than those which had +sufficed for Shakespeare. Such as they are, his tragic works<a name="fa192a" id="fa192a" href="#ft192a"><span class="sp">192</span></a> +stand almost, though not quite, alone in this period as examples +of sustained effort in historic tragedy proper. G. Chapman +treated stirring themes, more especially from modern French +history,<a name="fa193a" id="fa193a" href="#ft193a"><span class="sp">193</span></a> always with vigour, and at times with genuine effectiveness; +but, though rich in beauties of detail, he failed in this +branch of the drama to follow Shakespeare even at a distance in +the supreme art of fully developing a character by means of +the action. Mention has been made above of Ford’s isolated +effort in the direction of historic tragedy, as well as of excursions +into the still popular domain of the chronicle history by T. +Heywood, Dekker and others, which cannot be regarded as +anything more than retrogressions. With the great body of the +English dramatists of this and of the next period, tragedy had +passed into a phase where its interest depended mainly upon plot +and incident. The romantic tragedies and tragi-comedies which +crowd English literature in this period constitute together a +growth of at first sight astonishing exuberance, and in mere +externals of theme—ranging as these plays do from Byzantium +to ancient Britain, and from the Caesars of ancient Rome to +the tyrants of the Renaissance—of equally astonishing variety. +The sources from which these subjects were derived had been +perennially augmenting. Besides Italian, Spanish and French +fiction, original or translated, besides British legend in its +Romance dress, and English fiction in its humbler or in its more +ambitious and artificial forms, the contemporary foreign drama, +especially the Spanish, offered opportunities for resort. To the +English, as to the French and Italian drama, of both this and the +following century, the prolific dramatists clustering round Lope +de Vega and Calderon, and the native or naturalized fictions from +which they drew their materials supplied a whole arsenal of +plots, incidents and situations—among others to Middleton, to +Webster, and most signally to Beaumont and Fletcher. And, in +addition to these resources, a new field of supply was at hand +since English dramatists had begun to regard events and episodes +of domestic life as fit subjects for tragic treatment. Domestic +tragedy of this description was indeed no novelty on the English +stage; Shakespeare himself may have retouched with his master-hand +more than one effort of this kind;<a name="fa194a" id="fa194a" href="#ft194a"><span class="sp">194</span></a> but T. Heywood may +be set down as the first who achieved any work of considerable +literary value of this class,<a name="fa195a" id="fa195a" href="#ft195a"><span class="sp">195</span></a> to which some of the plays of T. +Dekker, T. Middleton, and others likewise more or less belong. +Yet, in contrast to this wide variety of sources, and consequent +apparent variety of themes, the number of <i>motives</i> employed—at +least as a rule—in the tragic drama of this period was comparatively +small and limited. Hence it is that, notwithstanding +the diversity of subjects among the tragic dramas of such +writers as Marston, Webster, Fletcher, Ford and Shirley, an +impression of sameness is left upon us by a connected perusal +of these works. Scheming ambition, conjugal jealousy, absolute +female devotion, unbridled masculine passion—such are the +motives which constantly recur in the Decameron of our later +Elizabethan drama. And this impression is heightened by the +want of moderation, by the extravagance of passion, which these +dramatists so habitually exhibit in the treatment of their +favourite themes. All the tragic poets of this period are not +equally amenable to this charge; in J. Webster,<a name="fa196a" id="fa196a" href="#ft196a"><span class="sp">196</span></a> master as he +is of the effects of the horrible, and in J. Ford,<a name="fa197a" id="fa197a" href="#ft197a"><span class="sp">197</span></a> surpassingly +seductive in his sweetness, the monotony of exaggerated passion +is broken by those marvellously sudden and subtle touches +through which their tragic genius creates its most thrilling effects. +Nor will the tendency to excess of passion which F. Beaumont +and J. Fletcher undoubtedly exhibit be confounded with their +distinctive power of sustaining tenderly pathetic characters and +irresistibly moving situations in a degree unequalled by any of +their contemporaries—a power seconded by a beauty of diction +and softness of versification which for a time raised them to the +highest pinnacle of popular esteem, and which entitles them in +their conjunction, and Fletcher as an independent worker, to +an enduring pre-eminence among their fellows. In their morals +Beaumont and Fletcher are not above the level of their age. +The manliness of sentiment and occasionally greater width of +outlook which ennoble the rhetorical genius of P. Massinger, +and the gift of poetic illustration which entitles J. Shirley to be +remembered not merely as the latest and the most fertile of this +group of dramatists, have less direct bearing upon the general +character of the tragic art of the period. The common features +of the romantic tragedy of this age are sufficiently marked; +but they leave unobscured the distinctive features in its individual +writers of which a discerning criticism has been able to take note.</p> + +<p>In comedy, on the other hand, the genius and the insight of +Jonson pointed the way to a steady and legitimate advance. +His theory of “humours” (which found the most palpable +expression in two of his earliest plays<a name="fa198a" id="fa198a" href="#ft198a"><span class="sp">198</span></a>), if translated into the +ordinary language of dramatic art, signifies the paramount +importance in the comic drama of the presentation of distinctive +human types. As such it survived by name into the Restoration +age<a name="fa199a" id="fa199a" href="#ft199a"><span class="sp">199</span></a> and cannot be said to have ever died out. In the actual +reproduction of humanity in its infinite but never, in his hands, +alien variety, it was impossible that Shakespeare should be +excelled by Jonson; but in the consciousness with which he +recognized and indicated the highest sphere of a comic dramatist’s +labours, he rendered to the drama a direct service which the +greater master had left unperformed. By the rest of his contemporaries +and his successors, some of whom, such as R. Brome, +were content avowedly to follow in his footsteps, Jonson was +only occasionally rivalled in individual instances of comic +creations; in the entirety of its achievements his genius as a +comic dramatist remained unapproached. The favourite types +of Jonsonian comedy, to which Dekker, J. Marston and Chapman +had, though to no large extent, added others of their own, were +elaborated with incessant zeal and remarkable effect by their +contemporaries and successors. It was after a very different +fashion from that in which the Roman comedians reiterated +the ordinary types of the New Attic comedy, that the inexhaustible +<i>verve</i> of T. Middleton, the buoyant productivity of +Fletcher, the observant humour of N. Field, and the artistic +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page525" id="page525"></a>525</span> +versatility of Shirley—not to mention many later and not +necessarily minor names<a name="fa200a" id="fa200a" href="#ft200a"><span class="sp">200</span></a>—mirrored in innumerable pictures of +contemporary life the undying follies and foibles of mankind. +As comedians of manners more than one of these surpassed the +old master, not indeed in distinctness and correctness—the +fruits of the most painstaking genius that ever fitted a learned +sock to the representation of the living realities of life—but in a +lightness not incompatible with sureness of touch; while in the +construction of plots the access of abundant new materials, +and the greater elasticity in treatment resulting from accumulated +experience, enabled them to advance from success to success. +Thus the comic dramatic literature from Jonson to Shirley is +unsurpassed as a comedy of manners, while as a comedy of +character it at least defies comparison with any other national +literary growth preceding or contemporaneous with it. Though +the younger generation, of which W. Cartwright may be taken +as an example, was unequal in originality or force to its predecessors, +yet so little exhausted was the vitality of the species, +that its traditions survived the <i>interregnum</i> of the Revolution, +and connected themselves more closely than is sometimes assumed +with later growths of English comedy.</p> + +<p>Such was also the case with a special growth which had +continued side by side, but in growing frequency of contact, +with the progress of the national drama. The +academical drama of the later Elizabethan period and +<span class="sidenote">The later academical drama.</span> +of the first two Stuart reigns by no means fell off +either in activity or in variety from that of the preceding +generations. At Oxford, after an apparent break of several +years—though in the course of these one or two new plays, +including a <i>Tancred</i> by Sir Henry Wotton at Queen’s, seem to +have been produced—a long succession of English plays, some +in Latin doubtless from time to time intervening, were performed, +from the early years of the 17th century onwards to the dark +days of the national theatre and beyond. The production of +these plays was distributed among several colleges, among +which the most conspicuously active were Christ Church and +St John’s, where a whole series of festal performances took +place under the collective title of <i>The Christmas Prince</i> (<i>i.e.</i> +master of the Christmas revels). They included a wide variety +of pieces, from the treatment by an author unnamed of the story +of “Ovid’s owne Narcissus” (1602) and S. Daniel’s <i>Queen’s +Arcadia</i> (1606) to Barten Holiday’s <i>Technogamia</i> (1618), a +complicated allegory on the relations between the arts and +sciences quite in the manner of the moralities; interspersed by +romantic dramas of the ordinary contemporary type by T. Goffe +(1591-1629), W. Cartwright, J. Maine (1604-1672) and others. +At Cambridge the list of Latin and English academical plays, +performed in the latter half of Elizabeth’s reign at Trinity, +St John’s, Queen’s and a few other colleges, contains several +examples in each language which for one reason or another possess +a special interest. Thus E. Forsett’s <i>Pedantius</i>, probably acted +at Trinity in 1581, ridicules a personage who lived very near the +rose—the redoubtable Gabriel Harvey;<a name="fa201a" id="fa201a" href="#ft201a"><span class="sp">201</span></a> a <i>Laelia</i>, acted at +Queen’s in 1590 and again in 1598, resembles <i>Twelfth Night</i> +in part of its plot; while in <i>Silvanus</i>, performed in 1596, probably +at St John’s, there are certain striking similarities to <i>As You +Like It</i>. These are in Latin, as are the comedies <i>Hispanus</i> +(containing some curious allusions to the Armada, Drake and +Dr Lopez) and <i>Machiavellus</i>, acted at St John’s in 1597.<a name="fa202a" id="fa202a" href="#ft202a"><span class="sp">202</span></a> By +far the most interesting of the English plays of the later Cambridge +series, and, it may be averred, of the remains of the English +academical drama as a whole, are the Parnassus Plays (<i>q.v.</i>), +successively produced at St John’s in 1598-1602, which illustrate +with much truthfulness as well as fancy the relations between +university life and the outside world, including the world of +letters and of the stage. Upon a different, but also a very +notable, aspect of English university life—the relations between +town and gown—a partisan light is thrown by <i>Club-Law</i>, acted +at Clare in 1599—and in G. Ruggle’s celebrated Latin comedy of +<i>Ignoramus</i>, twice acted by members of Clare at Trinity in 1615 +before King James I. On one of these occasions were also produced +in English T. Tomkis’ comedy <i>Albumazar</i> (a play absurdly +attributed to Shakespeare), and Phineas Fletcher’s <i>Sicelides</i>, a +“piscatory” (<i>i.e.</i> a pastoral drama in which the place of the +shepherds is taken by fishermen). Latin and English plays +continued to be brought out in Cambridge till the year of the +outbreak of the Civil War, T. Randolph and A. Cowley<a name="fa203a" id="fa203a" href="#ft203a"><span class="sp">203</span></a> being +among the authors of some of the latest so produced; and with +the Restoration the usage recommenced, the <i>Adelphi</i> of Terence +and other Latin comedies being performed as they had been +a century earlier. A complete survey and classification of the +English academical drama, for which the materials are at last +being collected and compared, will prove of an importance which +is only beginning to be recognized to the future historian of the +English drama.</p> + +<p>To return to the general current of that drama. The rivals +against which it had to contend in the times with which its +greatest epoch came to an end have in their turn been +noticed. From the masks and triumphs at court and +<span class="sidenote">The stage.</span> +at the houses of the nobility, with their Olympuses and Parnassuses +built by Inigo Jones, and filled with goddesses and +nymphs clad in the gorgeous costumes designed by his inventive +hand, to the city pageants and shows by land and water—from +the tilts and tournaments at Whitehall to the more philosophical +devices at the Inns of Court and the academical plays at the +universities—down even to the brief but thrilling theatrical +excitements of Bartholomew Fair and the “Ninevitical motions” +of the puppets—in all these ways the various sections of the +theatrical public were tempted aside. Foreign performers—French +and Spanish actors, and even French actresses—paid +visits to London. But the national drama held its ground. +The art of acting maintained itself at least on the level to which it +had been brought by Shakespeare’s associates and contemporaries, +Burbage and Heminge, Alleyn, Lewin, Taylor, and others “of +the older sort.” The profession of actor came to be more generally +than of old separated from that of playwright, though they +were still (as in the case of Field) occasionally combined. But +this rather led to an increased appreciation of the artistic merit +of actors who valued the dignity of their own profession and +whose co-operation the authors learnt to esteem as of independent +significance. The stage was purged from the barbarism of the +old school of clowns. Women’s parts were still acted by boys, +many of whom attained to considerable celebrity; and a practice +was thus continued which must assuredly have placed the English +theatre at a considerable disadvantage as compared with the +Spanish (where it never obtained), and which may, while it has +been held to have facilitated freedom of fancy, more certainly +encouraged the extreme licence of expression cherished by the +dramatists. The arrangement of the stage, which facilitated a +rapid succession of scenes without any necessity for their being +organically connected with one another, remained essentially +what it had been in Shakespeare’s days; though the primitive +expedients for indicating locality had begun to be occasionally +exchanged for scenery more or less appropriate to the place of +action. Costume was apparently cultivated with much greater +care; and the English stage of this period had probably gone a +not inconsiderable way in a direction to which it is obviously +in the interests of the dramatic art to set some bounds, if it +is to depend for its popular success upon its qualities as such, +and upon the interpretation of its agents upon the stage. At +the same time, the drama had begun largely to avail itself of +adventitious aids to favour. The system of prologues and +epilogues, and of dedications to published plays, was more +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page526" id="page526"></a>526</span> +uniformly employed than it had been by Shakespeare as the +conventional method of recommending authors and actors to the +favour of individual patrons, and to that of their chief patron, +the public.</p> + +<p>Up to the outbreak of the Civil War the drama in all its +forms continued to enjoy the favour or good-will of the court, +although a close supervision was exercised over all +attempts to make the stage the vehicle of political +<span class="sidenote">The drama and Puritanism.</span> +references or allusions. The regular official agent of +this supervision was the master of the revels; but +under James I. a special ordinance, in harmony with the king’s +ideas concerning the dignity of the throne, was passed “against +representing any modern Christian king in plays on the stage.” +The theatre could hardly expect to be allowed a liberty of speech +in reference to matters of state denied to the public at large; +and occasional attempts to indulge in the freedom of criticism +dear to the spirit of comedy met with more or less decisive +repression and punishment.<a name="fa204a" id="fa204a" href="#ft204a"><span class="sp">204</span></a> But the sympathies of the +dramatists were so entirely on the side of the court that the real +difficulties against which the theatre had to contend came from +a directly opposite quarter. With the growth of Puritanism +the feeling of hostility to the stage increased in a large part +of the population, well represented by the civic authorities of the +capital. This hostility found many ways of expressing itself. +The attempts to suppress the Blackfriars theatre (1619, 1631, +1633) proved abortive; but the representation of stage-plays +continued to be prohibited on Sundays, and during the prevalence +of the plague in London in 1637 was temporarily suspended +altogether. The desire of the Puritans of the more pronounced +type openly aimed at a permanent closing of the theatres. +The war between them and the dramatists was accordingly of a +life-and-death kind. On the one hand, the drama heaped its +bitterest and often coarsest attacks upon whatever savoured +of the Puritan spirit; gibes, taunts, caricatures in ridicule +and aspersion of Puritans and Puritanism make up a great part +of the comic literature of the later Elizabethan drama and of its +aftergrowth in the reigns of the first two Stuarts. This feeling +of hostility, to which Shakespeare was no stranger,<a name="fa205a" id="fa205a" href="#ft205a"><span class="sp">205</span></a> though he +cannot be connected with the authorship of one of its earliest +and coarsest expressions,<a name="fa206a" id="fa206a" href="#ft206a"><span class="sp">206</span></a> rose into a spirit of open defiance in +some of the masterpieces of Ben Jonson;<a name="fa207a" id="fa207a" href="#ft207a"><span class="sp">207</span></a> and the comedies of +his contemporaries and successors<a name="fa208a" id="fa208a" href="#ft208a"><span class="sp">208</span></a> abound in caricatured reproductions +of the more common or more extravagant types of +Puritan life. On the other hand, the moral defects, the looseness +of tone, the mockery of ties sanctioned by law and consecrated +by religion, the tendency to treat middle-class life as the hunting-ground +for the diversions of the upper classes, which degraded +so much of the dramatic literature of the age, intensified the +Puritan opposition to all and any stage plays. A patient endeavour +to reform instead of suppressing the drama was not to +be looked for from such adversaries, should they ever possess +the means of carrying out their views; and whenever Puritanism +should victoriously assert itself in the state, the stage was +doomed. Among the attacks directed against it in its careless +heyday of prosperity Prynne’s <i>Histrio-Mastix</i> (1632), while it +involved its author in shamefully cruel persecution, did not +remain wholly without effect upon the tone of the dramatic +literature of the subsequent period; but the quarrel between +Puritanism and the theatre was too old and too deep to end in +any but one way, so soon as the latter was deprived of its +<span class="sidenote">Closing of the theatres.</span> +protectors. The Civil War began in August 1642; +and early in the following month was published the +ordinance of the Lords and Commons, which, after a +brief and solemn preamble, commanded “that while +these sad causes and set-times of humiliation do continue, +public stage plays shall cease and be forborne.” Many actors +and playwrights followed the fortunes of the royal cause in the +field; some may have gone into a more or less voluntary exile; +upon those who lingered on in the familiar haunts the hand of +power lay heavy; and, though there seems reason to believe +that dramatic entertainments of one kind or another continued +to be occasionally presented, stringent ordinances gave summary +powers to magistrates against any players found engaged in +such proceedings (1647), and bade them treat all stage-players +as rogues, and pull down all stage galleries, seats and boxes +(1648). A few dramatic works were published in this period;<a name="fa209a" id="fa209a" href="#ft209a"><span class="sp">209</span></a> +while at fairs about the country were acted farces called “drolls,” +consisting of the most vulgar scenes to be found in popular plays. +Thus, the life of the drama was not absolutely extinguished; +and its darkest day proved briefer than perhaps either its friends +or its foes could have supposed.</p> + +<p>Already “in Oliver’s time” private performances took place +from time to time at noblemen’s houses and (though not undisturbed) +in the old haunt of the drama, the Red +Bull. In 1656 the ingenuity of Sir William Davenant +<span class="sidenote">Revival of the drama.</span> +whose name (though not really so significant in the +dramatic as in another field of English literature) is +memorable as connecting together two distinct periods in it, +ventured on a bolder step in the production of a quasi-dramatic +entertainment “of declamation and music”; and in the following +year he brought out with scenery and music a piece which was +afterwards in an enlarged form acted and printed as the first +part of his opera, <i>The Siege of Rhodes</i>. This entertainment he +afterwards removed from the private house where it had been +produced to the Cockpit, where he soon ventured upon the +performance of regular plays written by himself. Thus, under +the cover of two sister arts, whose aid was in the sequel to prove +by no means altogether beneficial to its progress, the English +drama had boldly anticipated the Restoration, and was no longer +hiding its head when that much-desired event was actually +brought about. Soon after Charles II.’s entry into London, +two theatrical companies are known to have been acting in the +capital. For these companies patents were soon granted, under +the names of “the Duke (of York)’s” and “the King’s Servants,” +to Davenant and one of the brothers Killigrew respectively—the +former from 1662 acting at Lincoln’s Inn Fields, then at +Dorset Garden in Salisbury Court, the latter from 1663 at the +Theatre Royal near Drury Lane. These companies were united +from 1682, a royal licence being granted in 1695 to a rival +company which performed in Lincoln’s Inn Fields, and which +migrated to Covent Garden in 1733. Meanwhile, Vanbrugh had +in 1705 built the theatre in the Haymarket; and a theatre in +Goodman’s Fields—afterwards rendered famous by the first +appearance of Garrick—led a fitful existence from 1729 to 1733. +The act of 1737 deprived the crown of the power of licensing +any more theatres; so that the history of the English stage for +a long period was confined to a restricted area. The rule which +prevailed after the Restoration, that neither of the rival companies +should ever attempt a play produced by the other, operated +beneficially both upon the activity of dramatic authorship +and upon the progress of the art of acting, which was not exposed +to the full effects of that deplorable spirit of personal rivalry +which too often leads even most intelligent actors to attempt +parts for which they have no special qualification. There can be +little doubt that the actor’s art has rarely flourished more in +England than in the days of T. Betterton and his contemporaries, +among whose names those of Hart, Mohun, Kynaston, Nokes, +Mrs Barry, Mrs Betterton, Mrs Bracegirdle and Mrs Eleanor +Gwyn have, together with many others, survived in various +connexions among the memories of the Restoration age. No +higher praise has ever been given to an actor than that which +Addison bestowed upon Betterton, in describing his performance +of <i>Othello</i> as a proof that Shakespeare could not have written the +most striking passages of the character otherwise than he has +done.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page527" id="page527"></a>527</span></p> + +<p>It may here be noticed that the fortunes of the Irish theatre +in general followed those of the English, of which of course it was +merely a branch. Of native dramatic compositions in +earlier times not a trace remains in Ireland; and the +<span class="sidenote">The Irish stage.</span> +drama was introduced into that country as an English +exotic—apparently already in the reign of Henry VIII., and +more largely in that of Elizabeth. The first theatre in Dublin +was built in 1635; but in 1641 it was closed, and even after the +Restoration the Irish stage continued in a precarious condition +till near the end of the century. About that time an extraordinarily +strong taste for the theatre took possession of Irish +society, and during the greater part of the 18th century the +Dublin stage rivalled the English in the brilliancy of its stars. +Betterton’s rival, R. Wilks, Garrick’s predecessor in the homage +paid to Shakespeare, Macklin, and his competitor for favour, +the “silver-tongued” Barry, were alike products of the Irish +stage, as were Mrs Woffington and other well-known actresses. +Nor should it be forgotten that three of the foremost English +writers of comedy in its later days, Congreve, Farquhar and +Sheridan, were Irish, the first by education, and the latter two +by birth also.</p> + +<p>Already in the period preceding the outbreak of the Civil +War the English drama had perceptibly sunk from the height +to which it had been raised by the great Elizabethans. +When it had once more recovered possession of that +<span class="sidenote">The later Stuart drama.</span> +arena with which no living drama can dispense, it +would have been futile to demand that the dramatists +should return altogether into the ancient paths, unaffected by +the influences, native or foreign, in operation around them. +But there was no reason why the new drama should not, like the +Elizabethan, have been true in spirit to the higher purposes of +the dramatic art, to the nobler tendencies of the national life, +and to the demands of moral law. Because the later Stuart +drama as a whole proved untrue to these, and, while following +its own courses, never more than partially returned from the +aberrations to which it condemned itself, its history is that of a +decay which the indisputable brilliancy, borrowed or original, +of many of its productions is incapable of concealing.</p> + +<p>Owing in part to the influence of the French theatre, which +by this time had taken the place of the Spanish as the ruling +drama of Europe, the separation between tragedy and +comedy is clearly marked in post-Restoration plays. +<span class="sidenote">Tragedy.</span> +Comic scenes are still occasionally introduced into tragedies +by some dramatists who adhered more closely to the Elizabethan +models (such as Otway and Crowne), but the practice fell into +disuse; while the endeavour to elevate comedy by pathetic +scenes and motives is one of the characteristic marks of the +beginning of another period in English dramatic literature. +The successive phases through which English tragedy passed in +the later Stuart times cannot be always kept distinct from one +another; and the guidance offered by the theories put forth by +some of the dramatists in support of their practice is often +delusive. Following the example of Corneille, Dryden and his +contemporaries and successors were fond of proclaiming their +adherence to this or that principle of dramatic construction or +form, and of upholding, with much show of dialectical acumen, +maxims derived by them from French or other sources, or +elaborated with modifications and variations of their own, but +usually amounting to little more than what Scott calls “certain +romantic whimsical imitations of the dramatic art.” Students +of the drama will find much entertainment and much instruction +in these prefaces, apologies, dialogues and treatises. They will +acknowledge that Dryden’s incomparable vigour does not desert +him either in the exposing or in the upholding of fallacies, while +<i>le bon sens</i>, which he hardly ever fails to exhibit, and which is a +more eclectic gift than common-sense, serves as a sure guide +to the best intelligence of his age. Even Rymer,<a name="fa210a" id="fa210a" href="#ft210a"><span class="sp">210</span></a> usually regarded +as having touched the nadir of dramatic criticism, will be found +to be not wholly without grains of salt. But Restoration tragedy +itself must not be studied by the light of Restoration criticism. +So long as any dramatic power remained in the tragic poets—and +it is absent from none of the chief among them from Dryden +to Rowe—the struggle between fashion (disguised as theory) +and instinct (tending in the direction of the Elizabethan traditions) +could never wholly determine itself in favour of the +former.</p> + +<p>Lord Orrery, in deference, as he declares, to the expressed +tastes of his sovereign King Charles II. himself, was the first to +set up the standard of <i>heroic plays</i>.<a name="fa211a" id="fa211a" href="#ft211a"><span class="sp">211</span></a> This new species of tragedy +(for such it professed to be) commended itself by its novel choice +of themes, to a large extent supplied by recent French romance—the +<i>romans de longue haleine</i> of the Scudérys and their contemporaries—and +by French plays treating similar themes. +It likewise borrowed from France that garb of rhyme which the +English drama had so long abandoned, and which now reappeared +in the heroic couplet. But the themes which to readers +of novels might seem of their nature inexhaustible could not long +suffice to satisfy the more capricious appetite of theatrical +audiences; and the form, in the application which it was more +or less sought to enforce for it, was doomed to remain an exotic. +In conjunction with his brother-in-law Sir R. Howard,<a name="fa212a" id="fa212a" href="#ft212a"><span class="sp">212</span></a> and +afterwards more confidently by himself,<a name="fa213a" id="fa213a" href="#ft213a"><span class="sp">213</span></a> Dryden threw the incomparable +vigour and brilliancy of his genius into the scale, +which soon rose to the full height of fashionable popularity. +At first he claimed for English tragedy the right to combine her +native inheritance of freedom with these valuable foreign +acquisitions.<a name="fa214a" id="fa214a" href="#ft214a"><span class="sp">214</span></a> Nor was he dismayed by the ridicule which the +celebrated burlesque (by the duke of Buckingham and others) +of <i>The Rehearsal</i> (1671) cast upon heroic plays, without discriminating +between them and such other materials for ridicule +as the contemporary drama supplied to its facetious authors, +but returned<a name="fa215a" id="fa215a" href="#ft215a"><span class="sp">215</span></a> to the defence of a species which he was himself in +the end to abandon.<a name="fa216a" id="fa216a" href="#ft216a"><span class="sp">216</span></a> The desire for change proved stronger +than the love of consistency—which in Dryden was never more +than theoretical. After summoning tragedy to rival the freedom +(without disdaining the machinery) of opera—with whose birth +its own revival was as a matter of fact simultaneous—he came +to recognize in characterization the truest secret of the master-spirit +of the Elizabethan drama,<a name="fa217a" id="fa217a" href="#ft217a"><span class="sp">217</span></a> and after audaciously, but in +one instance not altogether unhappily, essaying to rival Shakespeare +on his own ground,<a name="fa218a" id="fa218a" href="#ft218a"><span class="sp">218</span></a> produced under the influence of the +same views at least one work of striking merit.<a name="fa219a" id="fa219a" href="#ft219a"><span class="sp">219</span></a> But he was +already growing weary of the stage itself as well as of the rhymed +heroic drama; and, though he put an end to the species to which +he had given temporary vitality, he failed effectively to point +the way to a more legitimate development of English tragedy. +Among the other tragic poets of this period, N. Lee, in the outward +form of his dramas, accommodated his practice to that of +Dryden, with whom he occasionally co-operated as a dramatist, +and like whom he allowed political partisanship to intrude upon +the stage.<a name="fa220a" id="fa220a" href="#ft220a"><span class="sp">220</span></a> His rhetorical genius was not devoid of genuine +energy, nor is he to be regarded as a mere imitator. T. Otway, +the most gifted tragic poet of the younger generation contemporary +with Dryden, inherited something of the spirit of the +Elizabethan drama; he possessed a real gift of tragic pathos +and melting tenderness; but his genius had a worse alloy than +stageyness, and, though he was often happy in his novel choice +of themes, his most successful efforts fail to satisfy tests supplementary +to that of the stage.<a name="fa221a" id="fa221a" href="#ft221a"><span class="sp">221</span></a> Among dramatists who contributed +to the vogue of the “heroic” play may be mentioned +J. Bankes, J. Weston, C. Hopkins, E. Cooke, R. Gould, S. Pordage, +T. Rymer and Elkanah Settle. The productivity of J. Crowne +(d. c. 1703)<a name="fa222a" id="fa222a" href="#ft222a"><span class="sp">222</span></a> covers part of the earlier period as well as of the later, +to which properly belong T. Southerne, a writer gifted with much +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page528" id="page528"></a>528</span> +pathetic power, but probably chiefly indebted for his long-lived +popularity to his skill in the discovery of “sensational” plots; +and Lord Lansdowne (“Granville the polite”) (c. 1667-1735). +Congreve, by virtue of a single long celebrated but not really +remarkable tragedy,<a name="fa223a" id="fa223a" href="#ft223a"><span class="sp">223</span></a> and N. Rowe, may be further singled out +from the list of the tragic dramatists of this period, many of +whom were, like their comic contemporaries, mere translators +or adapters from the French. The tragedies of Rowe, whose +direct services to the study of Shakespeare deserve remembrance, +indicate with singular distinctness the transition from the fuller +declamatory style of Dryden to the calmer and thinner manner +of Addison.<a name="fa224a" id="fa224a" href="#ft224a"><span class="sp">224</span></a> In tragedy (as to a more marked degree in comedy) +the excesses (both of style and subject) of the past period of the +English drama had produced an inevitable reaction; decorum +was asserting its claims on the stage as in society; and French +tragedy had set the example of sacrificing what passion—and +what vigour—it retained in favour of qualities more acceptable +to the “reformed” court of Louis XIV. Addison, in allowing +his <i>Cato</i> to take its chance upon the stage, when a moment +of political excitement (April 1713) ensured to it an extraordinary +success, to which no feature in it corresponds, except an unusual +number of lines predestined to become familiar quotations, +unconsciously sealed the doom of English national tragedy. +The “first reasonable English tragedy,” as Voltaire called it, +had been produced, and the oscillations of the tragic drama of +the Restoration were at an end.</p> + +<p>English comedy in this period displayed no similar desire +to cut itself off from the native soil, though it freely borrowed +the materials for its plots and many of its figures from +Spanish, and afterwards more generally from French, +<span class="sidenote">Comedy.</span> +originals. The spirit of the old romantic comedy had long since +fled; the graceful artificialities of the pastoral drama, even the +light texture of the mask, ill suited the demands of an age which +made no secret to itself of the grossness of its sensuality. With +a few unimportant exceptions, such poetic elements as admitted +of being combined with the poetic drama were absorbed by the +opera and the ballet. No new species of the comic drama formed +itself, though towards the close of the period may be noticed +the beginnings of modern English farce. Political and religious +partisanship, generally in accordance with the dominant reaction +against Puritanism, were allowed to find expression in the +directest and coarsest forms upon the stage, and to hasten the +necessity for a more systematic control than even the times +before the Revolution had found requisite. At the same time the +unblushing indecency which the Restoration had spread through +court and capital had established its dominion over the comic +stage, corrupting the manners, and with them the morals, of +its dramatists, and forbidding them, at the risk of seeming +dull, to be anything but improper. Much of this found its way +even into the epilogues, which, together with the prologues, +proved so important an adjunct of the Restoration drama. +These influences determine the general character of what is +with a more than chronological meaning termed the comedy of +the Restoration. In construction, the national love of fulness +and solidity of dramatic treatment induced its authors to alter +what they borrowed from foreign sources, adding to complicated +Spanish plots characters of native English directness, and +supplementing single French plots by the addition of others.<a name="fa225a" id="fa225a" href="#ft225a"><span class="sp">225</span></a> +At the same time, the higher efforts of French comedy of character, +as well as the refinement of expression in the list of their +models, notably in Molière, were alike seasoned to suit the +coarser appetites and grosser palates of English patrons. The +English comic writers often succeeded in strengthening the +borrowed texture of their plays, but they never added comic +humour without at the same time adding coarseness of their own. +Such were the productions of Sir George Etheredge, Sir Charles +Sedley, and the “mob of gentlemen who wrote with ease”; nor +was there any signal difference between their productions and +those of a playwright-actor such as J. Lacy (d. 1681), and a +professional dramatist of undoubted ability such as J. Crowne. +Such, though often displaying the brilliancy of a genius which +even where it sank could never wholly abandon its prerogative, +were, it must be confessed, the comedies of Dryden himself. +On the other hand, the lowest literary deeps of the Restoration +drama were sounded by T. D’Urfey, while of its moral degradation +the “divine Astraea,” the “unspeakable” Mrs Aphra Behn, +has an indefeasible title to be considered the most faithful +representative. T. Shadwell, fated, like the tragic poet Elkanah +Settle, to be chiefly remembered as a victim of Dryden’s satire, +deserves more honourable mention. Like J. Wilson, whose plays +seem to class him with the pre-Restoration dramatists, Shadwell +had caught something not only of the art, but also of the spirit, +of Ben Jonson; but in most of his works he was, like the rest +of his earlier contemporaries, and like the brilliant group which +succeeded them, content to take his moral tone from the reckless +society for which, or in deference to the tastes of which, he wrote.<a name="fa226a" id="fa226a" href="#ft226a"><span class="sp">226</span></a> +The absence of a moral sense, which, together with a grossness +of expression often defying exaggeration, characterizes English +comic dramatists from the days of Dryden to those of Congreve, +is the main cause of their failure to satisfy the demands which +are legitimately to be made upon their art. They essayed to +draw character as well as to paint manners, but they rarely +proved equal to the former and higher task; and, while choosing +the means which most readily commended their plays to the +favour of their immediate public, they achieved but little as +interpreters of those essential distinctions which their art is +capable of illustrating.<a name="fa227a" id="fa227a" href="#ft227a"><span class="sp">227</span></a> Within these limits, though occasionally +passing beyond them, and always with the same deference to the +immoral tone which seemed to have become an indispensable +adjunct of the comic style, even the greatest comic authors of +this age moved. W. Wycherley was a comic dramatist of real +power, who drew his characters with vigour and distinctness, +and constructed his plots and chose his language with natural +ease. He lacks gaiety of spirit, and his wit is of a cynical turn. +But, while he ruthlessly uncloaks the vices of his age, his own +moral tone is affected by their influence in as marked a degree +as that of the most light-hearted of his contemporaries.<a name="fa228a" id="fa228a" href="#ft228a"><span class="sp">228</span></a> The +most brilliant of these was indisputably W. Congreve, who is not +only one of the very wittiest of English writers, but equally excels +in the graceful ease of his dialogue, and draws his characters +and constructs his plots with the same masterly skill. His chief +fault as a dramatist is one of excess—the brilliancy of the +dialogue, whoever be the speaker, overpowers the distinction +between the “humours” of his personages. Though he is less +brutal in expression than “manly” Wycherley, and less coarse +than the lively Sir J. Vanbrugh, licentiousness in him as in +them corrupts the spirit of his comic art; but of his best though +not most successful play<a name="fa229a" id="fa229a" href="#ft229a"><span class="sp">229</span></a> it must be allowed that the issue of the +main plot is on the side of virtue. G. Farquhar, whose morality +is on a par with that of the other members of this group, is inferior +to them in brilliancy; but as pictures of manners in a wider +sphere of life than that which contemporary comedy usually +chose to illustrate, two of his plays deserve to be noticed, in +which we already seem to be entering the atmosphere of the +18th-century novel.<a name="fa230a" id="fa230a" href="#ft230a"><span class="sp">230</span></a> His influence upon Lessing is a remarkable +fact in the international history of dramatic literature.</p> + +<p>The improvement which now begins to manifest itself in the +moral tone and spirit of English comedy is partly due to the +reaction against the reaction of the Restoration, partly to the +punishment which the excesses of the comic stage had brought +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page529" id="page529"></a>529</span> +upon it in the invective of Jeremy Collier<a name="fa231a" id="fa231a" href="#ft231a"><span class="sp">231</span></a> (1698), of all the +assaults the theatre in England has had to undergo the best-founded, +<span class="sidenote">Sentimental comedy.</span> +and that which produced the most perceptible +results. The comic poets, who had always been more or +less conscious of their sins, and had at all events not +defended them by the ingenious sophistries which +it has pleased later literary criticism to suggest on their behalf, +now began with uneasy merriment to allude in their prologues +to the reformation which had come over the spirit of the town. +Writers like Mrs Centlivre became anxious to reclaim their +offenders with much emphasis in the fifth act; and Colley Cibber—whose +<i>Apology for his Life</i> furnishes a useful view of this and +the subsequent period of the history of the stage, with which +he was connected as author, manager and actor (excelling in +this capacity as representative of those fools with which he +peopled the comic stage)<a name="fa232a" id="fa232a" href="#ft232a"><span class="sp">232</span></a>—may be credited with having first +deliberately made the pathetic treatment of a moral sentiment +the basis of the action of a comic drama. But he cannot be said +to have consistently pursued the vein which in his <i>Careless +Husband</i> (1704) he had essayed. His <i>Non-Juror</i> is a political +adaptation of <i>Tartuffe</i>; and his almost equally celebrated +<i>Provoked Husband</i> only supplied a happy ending to Vanbrugh’s +unfinished play. Sir R. Steele, in accordance with his general +tendencies as a writer, pursued a still more definite moral purpose +in his comedies; but his genius perhaps lacked the sustained +vigour necessary for a dramatist, and his humour naturally +sought the aid of pathos. From partial<a name="fa233a" id="fa233a" href="#ft233a"><span class="sp">233</span></a> he passed to more +complete<a name="fa234a" id="fa234a" href="#ft234a"><span class="sp">234</span></a> experiment; and thus these two writers, who transplanted +to the comic stage a tendency towards the treatment +of domestic themes noticeable in such writers of Restoration +tragedy as Southerne and Rowe, became the founders of <i>sentimental +comedy</i>, a species which exercised a most depressing +influence upon the progress of English drama, and helped to +hasten the decline of its comic branch. With <i>Cato</i> English +tragedy committed suicide, though its pale ghost survived; +with <i>The Conscious Lovers</i> English comedy sank for long into +the tearful embraces of artificiality and weakness.</p> + +<p>During the 18th century the productions of dramatic literature +were still as a rule legitimately designed to meet the demands +of the stage, from which its higher efforts afterwards +to so large an extent became dissociated. The goodwill +<span class="sidenote">The drama and stage in the period before Garrick.</span> +of most sections of the public continued to be steadily +accorded to a theatre which had ceased to defy the +accepted laws and traditions of morality; and the +opposition still aroused by it was confined to a small +minority of thinkers, though these included some who were +far from being puritans. John Dennis was not thought to have +the worst of the controversy, when he defended the stage against +the attack of an opponent far above him in stature—the great +mystic William Law<a name="fa235a" id="fa235a" href="#ft235a"><span class="sp">235</span></a>—and to John Wesley himself it seemed +that “a great deal more might be said in defence of seeing a +serious tragedy” than of taking part in the amusements of +bear-baiting and cock-fighting. On the other hand, the demands +of the stage and those of its patrons and of the public of the +“Augustan” age, and of that which succeeded it, were, in +general, fast bound by the trammels of a taste with which a +revival of the poetic drama long remained irreconcilable. There +is every reason to conclude that the art of acting progressed +in the same direction of artificiality, and became stereotyped +in forms corresponding to the “chant” which represented +tragic declamation in a series of actors ending with Quin and +Macklin. In the latter must be recognized features of a precursor, +but it was reserved to the genius of Garrick, whose +<span class="sidenote">Garrick.</span> +theatrical career extended from 1741 to 1776, to open +a new era in his art. His unparalleled success was due +in the first instance to his incomparable natural gifts; yet +these were indisputably enhanced by a careful and continued +literary training, and ennobled by a purpose which prompted +him to essay the noblest, as he was capable of performing +the most various, range of English theatrical characters. By +devoting himself as actor and manager with special zeal to the +production of Shakespeare, Garrick permanently popularized +on the national stage the greatest creations of English drama, +and indirectly helped to seal the doom of what survived of the +tendency to maintain in the most ambitious walks of dramatic +literature the nerveless traditions of the pseudo-classical school. +A generation of celebrated actors and actresses, many of whom +live for us in the drastic epigrams of Churchill’s <i>Rosciad</i> (1761), +were his helpmates or his rivals; but their fame has paled, +while his is destined to endure as that of one of the typical +masters of his art.</p> + +<p>The contrast between the tragedy of the 18th century and +those plays of Shakespeare and one or two other Elizabethans +which already before Garrick were known to the +English stage, was weakened by the mutilated form +<span class="sidenote">Decline of tragedy.</span> +in which the old masterpieces generally, if not always, +made their appearance there. Even so, however, there are +perhaps few instances in theatrical history in which so unequal +a competition was so long sustained. In the hands of the +tragic poets of the age of Pope, as well as that of Johnson, +tragedy had hopelessly stiffened into the forms of its accepted +French models. Direct reproductions of these continued, as in +Ambrose Philips’s and Charles Johnson’s (1679-1748) translations +from Racine, and Aaron Hill’s from Voltaire. Among +other tragic dramatists of the earlier part of the century may be +mentioned J. Hughes, who, after assisting Addison in his <i>Cato</i>, +produced at least one praiseworthy tragedy of his own;<a name="fa236a" id="fa236a" href="#ft236a"><span class="sp">236</span></a> +E. Fenton, a joint translator of “Pope’s <i>Homer</i>” and the +author of one extremely successful drama on a theme of singularly +enduring interest,<a name="fa237a" id="fa237a" href="#ft237a"><span class="sp">237</span></a> and L. Theobald the first hero of the <i>Dunciad</i>, +who, besides translations of Greek dramas, produced a few +more or less original plays, one of which he was daring enough +to father upon Shakespeare.<a name="fa238a" id="fa238a" href="#ft238a"><span class="sp">238</span></a> A more distinguished name is +that of J. Thomson, whose unlucky <i>Sophonisba</i> and subsequent +tragedies are, however, barely remembered by the side of his +poems (<i>The Seasons</i>, &c.). The literary genius of E. Young, on +the other hand, possessed vigour and variety enough to distinguish +his tragedies from the ordinary level of Augustan plays; +in one of them he seems to challenge comparison in the treatment +of his theme with a very different rival,<a name="fa239a" id="fa239a" href="#ft239a"><span class="sp">239</span></a> but by his main characteristics +as a dramatist he belongs to the school of his contemporaries. +The endeavour of G. Lillo, in his <i>London Merchant, +or George Barnwell</i> (1731), to bring the tragic lessons of terror +and pity directly home to his fellow-citizens exercised an extraordinarily +widespread as well as enduring effect on the history +of the 18th-century drama. At home, they gave birth to the new, +or, more properly speaking, to the revived, species of domestic +tragedy, which connects itself more or less closely with a notable +epoch in the history of English prose-fiction as well as of English +painting. Abroad, this play—whose success was of the kind +which nothing can kill—supplied the text to the teachings of +Diderot, as well as an example to his own dramatic attempts; +and through Diderot the impulse communicated itself to Lessing, +and long exercised a great effect upon the literature of the +German stage. At the same time, it must be allowed that +Lillo’s pedestrian muse failed in the end to satisfy higher artistic +demands than those met in his most popular play, while in +another<a name="fa240a" id="fa240a" href="#ft240a"><span class="sp">240</span></a> she was less consciously guilty of an aberration +towards that “tragedy of destiny,” which, in the modern drama +at least, obscures the ethical character of all tragic actions. +“Classical” tragedy in the generation of Dr Johnson pursued +the even tenor of its way, the dictator himself treading with +solemn footfall in the accustomed path,<a name="fa241a" id="fa241a" href="#ft241a"><span class="sp">241</span></a> and W. Mason +making the futile attempt to produce a close imitation of Greek +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page530" id="page530"></a>530</span> +models.<a name="fa242a" id="fa242a" href="#ft242a"><span class="sp">242</span></a> The best-remembered tragedy of the century, Home’s +<i>Douglas</i> (1757), was the production of an author whose famous +kinsman, David Hume (though no friend of the contemporary +English stage), had advised him “to read Shakespeare, but to +get Racine and Voltaire by heart.” The indisputable merits +of the play cannot blind us to the fact that <i>Douglas</i> is the +offspring of <i>Merope</i>.</p> + +<p>While thus no high creative talent arose to revive the poetic +genius of English tragedy, comedy, which had to contend +against the same rivals, naturally met the demands +of the conflict with greater buoyancy. The history of +<span class="sidenote">English opera.</span> +the most formidable of those rivals, Music, forms no +part of this sketch; but the points of contact between its +progress and the history of dramatic literature cannot be altogether +left out of sight. H. Purcell’s endeavours to unite +English music to the words of English poets were now a thing +of the past; analogous attempts in the direction of musical +dialogue, which have been insufficiently noticed, had likewise +proved transitory; and the isolated efforts of Addison<a name="fa243a" id="fa243a" href="#ft243a"><span class="sp">243</span></a> and +others to recover the operatic stage for the native tongue had +proved powerless. Italian texts, which had first made their +entrance piecemeal, in the end asserted themselves in their +entirety; and the marvellously assimilative genius of Handel +completed the triumphs of a form of art which no longer had +any connexion with the English drama, and which reached the +height of its fashionable popularity about the time when Garrick +began to adorn the national stage. In one form, however, the +English opera was preserved as a pleasing species of the popular +drama. The pastoral drama had (in 1725) produced an isolated +aftergrowth in Allan Ramsay’s <i>Gentle Shepherd</i>, which, with +genuine freshness and humour, but without a trace of burlesque, +transferred to the scenery of the Pentland Hills the lovely tale +of Florizel and Perdita. The dramatic form of this poem is +only an accident, but it doubtless suggested an experiment of a +different kind to the most playful of London wits. Gay’s +“Newgate Pastoral” of <i>The Beggar’s Opera</i> (1728), in which the +amusing text of a burlesque farce was interspersed with songs +set to popular airs, caught the fancy of the town by this novel +combination, and became the ancestor of a series of agreeable +productions, none of which, however, not even its own continuation, +<i>Polly</i> (amazingly successful in book form, after its production +was forbidden by the lord chamberlain), have ever rivalled +it in success or celebrity. Among these may be mentioned the +pieces of I. Bickerstaffe<a name="fa244a" id="fa244a" href="#ft244a"><span class="sp">244</span></a> and C. Dibdin.<a name="fa245a" id="fa245a" href="#ft245a"><span class="sp">245</span></a> The opera in England, +as elsewhere, thus absorbed what vitality remained to the +pastoral drama, while to the ballet and the pantomime (whose +glories in England began at Covent Garden in 1733, and to +whose popularity even Garrick was obliged to defer) was left (in +the 18th century at all events) the inheritance of the external +attractions of the mask and the pageant.</p> + +<p>In the face of such various rivalries it is not strange that +comedy, instead of adhering to the narrow path which Steele +and others had marked out for her, should have +permitted herself some vagaries of her own. Gay’s +<span class="sidenote">Comedy. Burlesque.</span> +example pointed the way to a fatally facile form of the +comic art; and burlesque began to contribute its influence to +the decline of comedy. In an age when party-government was +severely straining the capabilities of its system, dramatic satire +had not far to look for a source of effective seasonings. The +audacity of H. Fielding, whose regular comedies (original or +adapted) have secured no enduring remembrance, but whose love +of parody was afterwards to suggest to him the theme of the +<span class="sidenote">The Licensing Act.</span> +first of the novels which have made his name immortal, +accordingly ventured in two extravaganzas<a name="fa246a" id="fa246a" href="#ft246a"><span class="sp">246</span></a> (so we +should call them in these days) upon a larger admixture +of political with literary and other satire. A third +attempt<a name="fa247a" id="fa247a" href="#ft247a"><span class="sp">247</span></a> (which never reached the stage) furnished the +offended minister, Sir Robert Walpole, with the desired occasion for +placing a curb upon the licence of the theatre, such as had already +been advocated by a representative of its old civic adversaries. +The famous act of 1737 asserted no new principle, but converted +into legal power the customary authority hither exercised by the +lord chamberlain (to whom it had descended from the master +of the revels). The regular censorship which this act established +has not appreciably affected the literary progress of the English +drama, and the objections which have been raised against it +seem to have addressed themselves to practice rather than to +principle. The liberty of the stage is a question differing in its +conditions from that of the liberty of speech in general, or even +from that of the liberty of the press; and occasional lapses of +official judgment weigh lightly in the balance against the obvious +advantages of a system which in a free country needs only the +vigilance of public opinion to prevent its abuse. The policy of +the restraint which the act of 1737 put upon the number of +playhouses is a different, but has long become an obsolete, +question.<a name="fa248a" id="fa248a" href="#ft248a"><span class="sp">248</span></a></p> + +<p>Brought back into its accustomed grooves, English comedy +seemed inclined to leave to farce the domain of healthy ridicule, +and to coalesce with domestic tragedy in the attempt +to make the stage a vehicle of homespun didactic +<span class="sidenote">Comedy in the latter half of the 18th century.</span> +morality. Farce had now become a genuine English +species, and has as such retained its vitality through +all the subsequent fortunes of the stage; it was +actively cultivated by Garrick as both actor and author; and +he undoubtedly had more than a hand in the very best farce +of this age, which is ascribed to clerical authorship.<a name="fa249a" id="fa249a" href="#ft249a"><span class="sp">249</span></a> S. Foote, +whose comedies<a name="fa250a" id="fa250a" href="#ft250a"><span class="sp">250</span></a> and farces are distinguished both by wit and +by variety of characters (though it was an absurd misapplication +of a great name to call him the English Aristophanes), introduced +into comic acting the abuse of personal mimicry, for the exhibition +of which he ingeniously invented a series of entertainments, +the parents of a long progeny of imitations. Meanwhile, +the domestic drama of the sentimental kind achieved, though +not immediately, a success only inferior to that of <i>The London +Merchant</i>, in <i>The Gamester</i> of E. Moore, to which Garrick seems +to have directly contributed;<a name="fa251a" id="fa251a" href="#ft251a"><span class="sp">251</span></a> and sentimental comedy courted +sympathetic applause in the works of A. Murphy, the single +comedy of W. Whitehead,<a name="fa252a" id="fa252a" href="#ft252a"><span class="sp">252</span></a> and the earliest of H. Kelly.<a name="fa253a" id="fa253a" href="#ft253a"><span class="sp">253</span></a> It +cannot be said that this species was extinguished, as it is sometimes +assumed to have been, by O. Goldsmith; but he certainly +published a direct protest against it between the production +of his admirable character-comedy of <i>The Good-Natured Man</i>, +and his delightfully brisk and fresh <i>She Stoops to Conquer</i>, which, +after startling critical propriety from its self-conceit, taught +comedy no longer to fear being true to herself. The most +successful efforts of the elder G. Colman<a name="fa254a" id="fa254a" href="#ft254a"><span class="sp">254</span></a> had in them something +of the spirit of genuine comedy, besides a finish which, however +playwrights may shut their eyes to the fact, is one of the qualities +which ensure a long life to a play. And in the masterpieces of +R. B. Sheridan some of the happiest features of the comedy of +Congreve were revived, together with its too uniform brilliancy +of dialogue, but without its indecency of tone. The varnish +of the age is indeed upon the style, and the hollowness of its +morality in much of the sentiment (even where that sentiment is +meant for the audience) of <i>The Rivals</i> and <i>The School for Scandal</i>; +but in tact of construction, in distinctness of characters, and in +pungency of social satire, they are to be ranked among the glories +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page531" id="page531"></a>531</span> +of English comedy. Something in Sheridan’s style, but quite +without his brilliancy, is the most successful play<a name="fa255a" id="fa255a" href="#ft255a"><span class="sp">255</span></a> of the unfortunate +General Burgoyne. R. Cumberland, who too consciously +endeavoured to excel both in sentimental morality and +in comic characterization, in which he was devoid of depth, +closes the list of authors of higher pretensions who wrote for the +theatre.<a name="fa256a" id="fa256a" href="#ft256a"><span class="sp">256</span></a> Like him, Mrs Cowley<a name="fa257a" id="fa257a" href="#ft257a"><span class="sp">257</span></a> (“Anna Matilda”), T. Holcroft,<a name="fa258a" id="fa258a" href="#ft258a"><span class="sp">258</span></a> +and G. Colman the younger,<a name="fa259a" id="fa259a" href="#ft259a"><span class="sp">259</span></a> all writers of popular +comedies, as well as the prolific J. O’Keefe (1746-1833), who +contributed to nearly every species of the comic drama, survived +into the 19th century. To an earlier date belong the favourite +burlesques of O’Keefe’s countryman K. O’Hara<a name="fa260a" id="fa260a" href="#ft260a"><span class="sp">260</span></a> (d. 1782), good +examples of a species the further history of which may be left +aside. In the hands of at least one later writer, J. R. Planché, +it proved capable of satisfying a more refined taste than his +successors have habitually consulted.</p> + +<p>The decline of dramatic composition of the higher class, +perceptible in the history of the English theatre about the +beginning of the 19th century, was justly attributed +by Sir Walter Scott to the wearing out of the French +<span class="sidenote">The English drama of the 19th century.</span> +model that had been so long wrought upon; but when +he asserted that the new impulse which was sought in +the dramatic literature of Germany was derived from +some of its worst, instead of from its noblest, productions—from +Kotzebue rather than from Lessing, Schiller and Goethe—he +showed a very imperfect acquaintance with a complicated +literary movement which was obliquely reflected in the stage-plays +of Iffland and his contemporaries. The change which was +coming over English literature was in truth of a wider and +deeper nature than it was possible for even one of its chief +representatives to perceive. As that literature freed itself from +the fetters so long worn by it as indispensable ornaments, and +threw aside the veil which had so long obscured both the full +glory of its past and the lofty capabilities of its future, it could not +resort except tentatively to a form which like the dramatic is +bound by a hundred bonds to the life of the age itself. Soon, the +poems with which Scott and Byron, and the unrivalled prose fictions +with which Scott, both satisfied and stimulated the imaginative +demands of the public, diverted the attention of the cultivated +classes from dramatic literature, which was unable to escape, +with the light foot of verse or prose fiction, into “the new, the +romantic land.” New themes, new ideas, new forms occupied +a new generation of writers and readers; nor did the drama +readily lend itself as a vessel into which to pour so many fermenting +elements. In Byron the impressions produced upon a mind +not less open to impulses from without than subjective in its +way of recasting them, called forth a series of dramatic attempts +betraying a more or less wilful ignorance of the demands of +dramatic compositions; his beautiful <i>Manfred</i>, partly suggested +by Goethe’s <i>Faust</i>, and his powerful <i>Cain</i>, have but the form of +plays; his tragedies on Italian historical subjects show some +resemblance in their political rhetoric to the contemporary works +of Alfieri; his <i>Sardanapalus</i>, autobiographically interesting, +fails to meet the demands of the stage; his <i>Werner</i> (of which the +authorship has been ascribed to the duchess of Devonshire) is a +hastily dramatized sensation novel. To Coleridge (1772-1834), +who gave to English literature a splendidly loose translation of +Schiller’s <i>Wallenstein</i>, the same poet’s <i>Robbers</i> (to which Wordsworth’s +only dramatic attempt, the <i>Borderers</i>, is likewise indebted) +had probably suggested the subject of his tragedy of +<i>Osorio</i>, afterwards acted under the title of <i>Remorse</i>. Far superior +to this is his later drama of <i>Zapolya</i>, a genuine homage to Shakespeare, +out of the themes of two of whose plays it is gracefully +woven. Scott, who in his earlier days had translated Goethe’s +<i>Götz von Berlichingen</i>, gained no reputation by his own dramatic +compositions. W. S. Landor, apart from those <i>Imaginary +Conversations</i> upon which he best loved to expend powers of +observation and characterization such as have been given to +few playwrights, cast in a formally dramatic mould studies of +character of which the value is far from being confined to their +wealth in beauties of detail. Of these the magnificent, but in +construction altogether undramatic, <i>Count Julian</i>, is the most +noteworthy. Shelley’s <i>The Cenci</i>, on the other hand, is not only +a poem of great beauty, but a drama of true power, abnormally +revolting indeed in theme, but singularly pure and delicate in +treatment. A humbler niche in the temple of dramatic literature +belongs to some of the plays of C. R. Maturin,<a name="fa261a" id="fa261a" href="#ft261a"><span class="sp">261</span></a> Sir T. N. Talfourd,<a name="fa262a" id="fa262a" href="#ft262a"><span class="sp">262</span></a> +and Dean Milman.<a name="fa263a" id="fa263a" href="#ft263a"><span class="sp">263</span></a></p> + +<p>Divorced, except for passing moments, from the stage, English +dramatic literature could during much the greater part of the +19th century hardly be regarded as a connected national growth; +though, already in the last decades of the Victorian age, the +revival of public interest in the theatre co-operated with a +gradual change in poetic taste to awaken the hope of a future +living reunion. Among English poets who lived in this period, +Sir Henry Taylor probably approached nearest to the objective +treatment and the amplitude of style characteristic of the +Elizabethan drama.<a name="fa264a" id="fa264a" href="#ft264a"><span class="sp">264</span></a> R. H. Horne, long an almost solitary +survivor of the romantic school, was able in at least one memorable +dramatic attempt to revive something of the early Elizabethan +spirit.<a name="fa265a" id="fa265a" href="#ft265a"><span class="sp">265</span></a> Of the chief poets of the age, Tennyson only in his later +years addressed himself to a form of composition little suited +to his genius, though the very fact of the homage paid by him to +the national forms of the historic drama and of romantic comedy +could not fail to ennoble the contemporary stage.<a name="fa266a" id="fa266a" href="#ft266a"><span class="sp">266</span></a> Matthew +Arnold’s stately revival of the traditions of classical tragedy +proper, on the other hand, deliberately excluded itself from any +such contact;<a name="fa267a" id="fa267a" href="#ft267a"><span class="sp">267</span></a> while Longfellow’s refined literary culture and +graceful facility of form made ready use of a quasi-dramatic +medieval vesture.<a name="fa268a" id="fa268a" href="#ft268a"><span class="sp">268</span></a> William Morris’s single “morality,” too, +cannot be regarded as a contribution to dramatic literature +proper.<a name="fa269a" id="fa269a" href="#ft269a"><span class="sp">269</span></a> Of very different importance are the excursions into +dramatic composition of Robert Browning, whose place in the +living inheritance of the English drama has in one instance at +least been not unsuccessfully vindicated by a later age, and +some of whose greatest gifts are beyond a doubt displayed in his +dramatic work;<a name="fa270a" id="fa270a" href="#ft270a"><span class="sp">270</span></a> and the sustained endeavours of A. C. Swinburne, +after adding a flower of exquisite beauty to the wreath +which the lovers of the Attic muse have laid at her feet, to enrich +the national historic drama by a trilogy instinct with the ardent +eloquence of passion.<a name="fa271a" id="fa271a" href="#ft271a"><span class="sp">271</span></a> Until a date too near the times in which +we live to admit of its being fixed with precision, most of the +English writers who sought to preserve a connexion between +their dramatic productions and the demands of the stage +addressed themselves to the theatrical rather than the literary +public—for the distinction, in those times at all events, was by +no means without a difference. The modestly simple and judiciously +concentrated efforts of Joanna Baillie deserve a respectful +remembrance in the records of literature as well as of the stage, +though the day has passed when the theory which suggested +her <i>Plays on the Passions</i> could find acceptance among critics, +or her exemplifications of it satisfy the demands of playgoers. +Sheridan Knowles, on the other hand, composed his conventional +semblances of genuine tragedy and comedy with a thorough +knowledge of stage effect, and some of them can hardly yet be +said to have vanished from the stage.<a name="fa272a" id="fa272a" href="#ft272a"><span class="sp">272</span></a> The first Lord Lytton, +though his plays were for the most part of a lighter texture, +showed even more artificiality of sentiment in their conception +and execution; but the romantic touch which he imparted to at +least one of them accounts for its long-lived popularity. Among +later Victorian playwrights T. W. Robertson brought back a +breath of naturalness into the acted comic drama; Tom Taylor, +rivalling Lope in fertility, made little pretence to original +invention, but adapted with an instinct that rarely failed him, +and materially helped to keep the theatrical diversions of his +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page532" id="page532"></a>532</span> +age sound and pure; an endeavour in which he had the co-operation +of Charles Reade and that of most of those who +competed with them for the favour of generations of playgoers +more easily contented than their successors. The one deplorable +aspect of this age of the English drama was to be found neither +in the sphere of tragedy nor in that of comedy—nor even in that +of farce. It was presented in the low depths of contemporary +burlesque, which had degenerated from the graceful extravaganza +of J. R. Planché into witless and tasteless emptiness.</p> + +<p>Curiously enough, it was at this point that something like +real originality—discovering a new sub-species of its own—first +began, with the aid of a sister-art, to renovate the English +popular comic stage. At the beginning of the 19th century the +greatest tragic actress of the English theatre, Mrs Siddons, had +passed her prime; and before its second decade had closed, not +only she (1812) but her brother John Kemble (1817), the representative +of a grand style of acting which later generations +might conceivably find overpowering, had withdrawn from the +boards. Mrs Siddons was soon followed into retirement by her +successor Miss O’Neill (1819); while Kemble’s brilliant later +rival, Edmund Kean, an actor the intuitions of whose genius seem +to have supplied, so far as intuition ever can supply, the absence +of a consecutive self-culture, remained on the stage till his death +in 1833. Young, Macready, and others handed down some of +the traditions of the older school of acting to the very few artists +who remained to suggest its semblance to a later generation. +Even these—among them S. Phelps, whose special merit it was +to present to a later age, accustomed to elaborate theatrical +environments, dramatic masterpieces as dependent upon themselves +and adequate interpretation; and the foremost English +actress of the earlier Victorian age, Helen Faucit (Lady Martin)—were +unable to leave a school of acting behind them. Still less +was this possible to Charles Kean the younger, with whom the +decorative production of Shakespearian plays really had its +beginning; or even to Sir Henry Irving, an actor of genius, but +also an irrepressible and almost eccentric theatrical personality, +whose great service to the English drama was his faith in its +masterpieces. The comic stage was fortunate in an ampler +aftergrowth, from generation to generation, of the successors +of the old actors who live for us all in the reminiscences of +Charles Lamb; nor were the links suddenly snapped which +bound the humours of the present to those of the past. In the +first decade of the 20th century a generation still survived which +could recall, with many other similar joys, the brilliant levity +of Charles Mathews the younger; the not less irresistible stolidity +of J. B. Buckstone; the solemn fooling of H. Compton (1805-1877); +the subtle humours of J. L. Toole, and the frolic charm +of Marie Wilton (Lady Bancroft), the most original comic +actress of her time.</p> +<div class="author">(A. W. W.)</div> + +<p><i>Recent English Drama.</i>—In England the whole mechanism +of theatrical life had undergone a radical change in the middle +decades of the 19th century. At the root of this change lay the +immense growth of population and the enormously increased +facilities of communication between London and the provinces. +Similar causes came into operation, of course, in France, Germany +and Austria, but were much less distinctly felt, because the +numerous and important subventioned theatres of these countries +remained more or less unaffected by economic influences. Free +trade in theatricals (subject only to certain licensing regulations +and to a court censorship of new plays) was established in +England by an act of 1843, which abolished the long moribund +monopoly of the “legitimate drama” claimed by the “Patent +Theatres” of Drury Lane and Covent Garden. The drama was +thus formally subjected to the operation of the law of supply and +demand, like any other article of commerce, and managers were +left, unaided and unhampered by any subvention or privilege, +to cater to the tastes of a huge and growing community. Theatres +very soon multiplied, competition grew ever keener, and the +long run, with its accompaniments of ostentatious decoration +and lavish advertisement, became the one object of managerial +effort. This process of evolution may be said to have begun in +the second quarter of the 19th century and completed itself in +the 3rd. The system which obtains to-day, almost unforeseen +in 1825, was in full operation in 1875. The repertory theatre, +with its constant changes of programme, maintained on the +continent partly by subventions, partly by the mere force of +artistic tradition, had become in England a faint and far-off +memory. There was not a single theatre in London at which +plays, old and new, were not selected and mounted solely with +a view to their continuous performance for as many nights as +possible, anything short of fifty nights constituting an ignominious +and probably ruinous failure. It was found, too, that +those theatres were most successful which were devoted exclusively +to exploiting the talent of an individual actor. Thus +when the fourth quarter of the century opened, the long “run” +and the actor-manager were in firm possession of the field.</p> + +<p>The outlook was in many ways far from encouraging. It +was not quite so black, indeed, as it had been in the late ’fifties +and early ’sixties, when the “legitimate” enterprises of Phelps +at Sadler’s Wells and Charles Kean at the Princess’s had failed +to hold their ground, and when modern comedy and drama were +represented almost exclusively by adaptations from the French. +There had been a slight stirring of originality in the series of +comedies produced by T. W. Robertson at the Prince of Wales’s +theatre, where, under the management of Bancroft (<i>q.v.</i>) a new +school of mounting and acting, minutely faithful (in theory at +any rate) to everyday reality, had come into existence. But +the hopes of a revival of English comedy seemed to have died +with Robertson’s death. One of his followers, James Albery, +possessed both imagination and wit, but had not the strength +of character to do justice to his talent, and sank into a mere +adapter. In the plays of another disciple, H. J. Byron, the +Robertsonian or “cup-and-saucer” school declined upon sheer +inanity. Of the numerous plays signed by Tom Taylor some +were original in substance, but all were cast in the machine-made +French mould. Wilkie Collins, in dramatizing some of his novels, +produced somewhat crude anticipations of the modern “problem +play.” The literary talent of W. S. Gilbert displayed itself in a +group of comedies both in verse and prose; but Gilbert saw life +from too peculiar an angle to represent it otherwise than fantastically. +The Robertsonian impulse seemed to have died utterly +away, leaving behind it only five or six very insubstantial +comedies and a subdued, unrhetorical method in acting. This +method the Bancrofts proceeded to apply, during the ’seventies, +to revivals of stage classics, such as <i>The School for Scandal</i>, +<i>Money</i> and <i>Masks and Faces</i>, and to adaptations from the French +of Sardou.</p> + +<p>While the modern drama appeared to have relapsed into a +comatose condition, poetic and romantic drama was giving +some signs of life. At the Lyceum in 1871 Henry Irving had +leapt into fame by means of his performance of Mathias in +<i>The Bells</i>, an adaptation from the French of Erckmann-Chatrian. +He followed this up by an admirably picturesque performance +of the title-part in <i>Charles I.</i> by W. G. Wills. In the +autumn of 1874 the great success of Irving’s Hamlet was hailed +as the prelude to a revival of tragic acting. As a matter of fact, +it was the prelude to a long series of remarkable achievements +in romantic drama and melodrama. Irving’s lack of physical +and vocal resources prevented him from scaling the heights of +tragedy, and his Othello, Macbeth, and Lear could not be ranked +among his successes; but he was admirable in such parts as +Richard III., Shylock, Iago and Wolsey, while in melodramatic +parts, such as Louis XI. and the hero and villain of <i>The Lyons +Mail</i>, he was unsurpassed. Mephistopheles in a version of +<i>Faust</i> (1885), perhaps the greatest popular success of his career, +added nothing to his reputation for artistic intelligence; but +on the other hand his Becket in Tennyson’s play of that name +(1893) was one of his most masterly efforts. His management +of the Lyceum (1878-1899) did so much to raise the status of +the actor and to restore the prestige of poetic drama, that the +knighthood conferred upon him in 1895 was felt to be no more +than an appropriate recognition of his services. But his +managerial career had scarcely any significance for the living +English drama. He seldom experimented with a new play, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page533" id="page533"></a>533</span> +and, of the few which he did produce, only <i>The Cup</i> and +<i>Becket</i> by Lord Tennyson have the remotest chance of being +remembered.</p> + +<p>To trace the history of the new English drama, then, we must +go back to the Prince of Wales’s theatre. Even while it seemed +that French comedy of the school of Scribe was resuming its +baneful predominance, the seeds of a new order of things were +slowly germinating. <i>Diplomacy</i>, an adaptation of Sardou’s +<i>Dora</i>, produced in 1878, brought together on the Prince of Wales’s +stage Mr and Mrs Bancroft, Mr and Mrs Kendal, John Clayton +and Arthur Cecil—in other words, the future managers of the +Haymarket, the St James’s and the Court theatres, which were +destined to see the first real stirrings of a literary revival. Mr +and Mrs Kendal, who, in conjunction with John Hare, managed +the St James’s theatre from 1879 to 1888, produced A. W. +Pinero’s first play of any consequence, <i>The Money-Spinner</i> (1881), +and afterwards <i>The Squire</i> (1882) and <i>The Hobby Horse</i> (1887). +The Bancrofts, who, after entirely rebuilding the Haymarket +theatre, managed it from 1880 till their retirement in 1885, +produced in 1883 Pinero’s <i>Lords and Commons</i>; and Messrs +Clayton and Cecil produced at the Court theatre between 1885 +and 1887 his three brilliant farces, <i>The Magistrate</i>, <i>The Schoolmistress</i> +and <i>Dandy Dick</i>, which, with the sentimental comedy, +<i>Sweet Lavender</i>, produced at Terry’s theatre in 1888, assured his +position as an original and fertile dramatic humorist of no small +literary power. It is to be noted, however, that Pinero was +almost the only original playwright represented under the +Bancroft, Hare-Kendal and Clayton-Cecil managements, which +relied for the rest upon adaptations and revivals. Adaptations +of French vaudevilles were the staple productions of Charles +Wyndham’s management at the Criterion from its beginning +in 1876 until 1893, when he first produced an original play of any +importance. When Herbert Beerbohm Tree went into management +at the Haymarket in 1887, he still relied largely on plays +of foreign origin. George Alexander’s first managerial ventures +(Avenue theatre, 1890) were two adaptations from the French. +Until well on in the ’eighties, indeed, adaptation from the French +was held the normal occupation of the British playwright, and +original composition a mere episode. Robertson, Byron, Albery, +Gilbert, Tom Taylor, Charles Reade, Herman Merivale, G. W. +Godfrey, all produced numerous adaptations; Sydney Grundy +was for twenty years occupied almost exclusively in this class +of work; Pinero himself has adapted more than one French play. +The ’eighties, then, may on the whole be regarded as showing +a very gradual decline in the predominance of France on the +English stage, and an equally slow revival of originality, so far +as comedy and drama were concerned, manifesting itself mainly +in the plays of Pinero.</p> + +<p>The reaction against French influence, however, was no less +apparent in the domain of melodrama and operetta than in that +of comedy and drama. Until well on in the ’seventies, D’Ennery +and his disciples, adapted and imitated by Dion Boucicault and +others, ruled the melodramatic stage. The reaction asserted +itself in two quarters—in the East End at the Grecian theatre, +and in the West End at the Princess’s. In <i>The World</i>, produced +at Drury Lane in 1880, Paul Meritt (d. 1895) and Henry Pettitt +(d. 1893) brought to the West End the “Grecian” type of popular +drama; and at Drury Lane it survived in the elaborately +spectacular form imparted to it by Sir Augustus Harris, who +managed that theatre from 1879 till his death in 1896. The +production of G. R. Sims’s <i>Lights o’ London</i> at the Princess’s in +1881, under Wilson Barrett’s management, also marked a new +departure. This style of melodrama was chiefly cultivated at +the Adelphi theatre, from 1882 until the end of the century, +when it died out there as a regular institution, apparently because +a host of suburban theatres drew away its audiences. Of all +these English melodramas, only one, <i>The Silver King</i>, by Henry +Arthur Jones (Princess’s, 1882), could for a moment compare in +invention or technical skill with the French dramas they supplanted. +The fact remains, however, that even on this lowest +level of dramatic art the current of the time set decisively towards +home-made pictures of English life, however crude and puerile.</p> + +<p>For twenty-five years, from 1865 to 1890, the English stage +was overrun with French operettas of the school of Offenbach. +Hastily adapted by slovenly hacks, their librettos (often witty +in the original) became incredible farragos of metreless doggrel +and punning ineptitude. The great majority of them are now +so utterly forgotten that it is hard to realize how, in their heyday, +they swarmed on every hand in London and the provinces. The +reaction began in 1875 with the performance at the Royalty +theatre of <i>Trial by Jury</i>, by W. S. Gilbert and Arthur Sullivan. +This was the prelude to that brilliant series of witty and melodious +extravaganzas which began with <i>The Sorcerer</i> at the Opera +Comique theatre in 1877, but was mainly associated with the +Savoy theatre, opened by R. D’Oyly Carte (d. 1901) in 1881. +Little by little the Gilbert and Sullivan operettas (of which +the most famous, perhaps, were <i>H.M.S. Pinafore</i>, 1878, <i>Patience</i>, +1881, and <i>The Mikado</i>, 1885) undermined the popularity of the +French opera-bouffes, and at the same time that of the indigenous +“burlesques” which, graceful enough in the hands of their +inventor J. R. Planché, had become mere incoherent jumbles of +buffoonery, devoid alike of dramatic ingenuity and of literary +form. When, early in the ’nineties, the collaboration between +Gilbert and Sullivan became intermittent, and the vogue of the +Savoy somewhat declined, a new class of extravaganza arose, +under the designation of “musical comedy” or “musical farce.” +It first took form in a piece called <i>In Town</i>, by Messrs “Adrian +Ross” and Osmond Carr (Prince of Wales’s theatre, 1892), and +rapidly became very popular. In these plays the scene and +costumes are almost always modern though sometimes exotic, +and the prose dialogue, setting forth an attenuated and entirely +negligible plot, is frequently interrupted by musical numbers. +The lyrics are often very clever pieces of rhyming, totally different +from the inane doggrel of the old opera-bouffes and burlesques. +In other respects there is little to be said for the literary or +intellectual quality of “musical farce”; but, being an entirely +English (or Anglo-American) product, it falls into line with the +other indications we have noted of the general decline—one might +almost say extinction—of French influence on the English +stage.</p> + +<p>To what causes are we to trace this gradual disuse of adaptation? +In the domain of modern comedy and drama, to two +causes acting simultaneously: the decline in France of the +method of Scribe, which produced “well-made,” exportable +plays, more or less suited to any climate and environment; +and the rise in England of a generation of playwrights more +original, thoughtful and able than their predecessors. It is not +at all to be taken for granted that the falling off in the supply of +exportable plays meant a decline in the absolute merit of French +drama. The historian of the future may very possibly regard +the movement in France, no less than the movement in England, +as a step in advance, and may even see in the two movements +co-ordinate manifestations of one tendency. Be this as it may, +the fact is certain that as the playwrights of the Second Empire +gradually died off, and were succeeded by the authors of the +“new comedy,” plays which would bear transplantation became +ever fewer and farther between. Of recent years Henri Bernstein, +author of <i>Le Voleur</i> and <i>Samson</i>, has been almost the only +French dramatist whose works have found a ready and steady +market in England. Attempts to acclimatize French poetical +drama—<i>Pour la Couronne</i>, <i>Le Chemineau</i>, <i>Cyrano de Bergerac</i>—were +all more or less unsuccessful.</p> + +<p>Having noted the decline of adaptation, we may now trace a +stage farther the development of the English drama. The first +stage, already surveyed, ends with the production of <i>Sweet +Lavender</i> in 1888. Up to this point its author, Pinero (b. 1855), +stood practically alone, and had won his chief successes as a +humorist. Henry Arthur Jones (b. 1851) was known as little +more than an able melodramatist, though in one play, <i>Saints +and Sinners</i> (1884), he had made some attempt at a serious +study of provincial life. R. C. Carton (b. 1856) had written, in +collaboration, one or two plays of slight account. Sydney +Grundy (b. 1848) had produced scarcely any original work. +The second stage may be taken as extending from 1889 to 1893. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page534" id="page534"></a>534</span> +On the 24th of April 1889 John Hare opened the new Garrick +theatre with <i>The Profligate</i>, by Pinero—an unripe and superficial +piece of work in many ways, but still a great advance, both in +ambition and achievement, upon any original work the stage +had seen for many a year.</p> + +<p>With all its faults, it may be said that <i>The Profligate</i> notably +enlarged at one stroke the domain open to the English dramatist. +And it did not stand alone. The same year saw the production +of two plays by H. A. Jones, <i>Wealth</i> and <i>The Middleman</i>, in +which a distinct effort towards a serious criticism of life was +observable, and of two plays by Sydney Grundy, <i>A Fool’s +Paradise</i> and <i>A White Lie</i>, which, though very French in method, +were at least original in substance. Jones during the next two +years made a steady advance with <i>Judah</i> (1890), <i>The Dancing +Girl</i> and <i>The Crusaders</i> (1891). Pinero in these years was putting +forth less than his whole strength in <i>The Cabinet Minister</i> (1890), +<i>Lady Bountiful</i> and <i>The Times</i> (1891), and <i>The Amazons</i> (March +1893). But meanwhile new talents were coming forward. The +management of George Alexander, which opened at the Avenue +theatre in 1890, but was transferred in the following year to the +St James’s, brought prominently to the front R. C. Carton, +Haddon Chambers and Oscar Wilde. Carton’s two sentimental +comedies, <i>Sunlight and Shadow</i> (1890) and <i>Liberty Hall</i> (1892), +showed excellent workmanship, but did not yet reveal his true +originality as a humorist. Haddon Chambers’s work (notably +<i>The Idler</i>, 1891) was as yet sufficiently commonplace; but in +<i>Lady Windermere’s Fan</i> (1892) Oscar Wilde showed himself at +his first attempt a brilliant and accomplished dramatist. Wilde’s +subsequent plays, <i>A Woman of No Importance</i> (1893) and <i>An +Ideal Husband</i> and <i>The Importance of being Earnest</i> (1895), +though marred by mannerism and insincerity, did much to +promote the movement we are here tracing.</p> + +<p>As the production of <i>The Profligate</i> marked the opening +of the second period in the revival of English drama, so the +production of the same author’s <i>The Second Mrs Tanqueray</i> is +very clearly the starting-point of the third period. Before +attempting to trace its course we may do well to glance at certain +conditions which probably influenced it.</p> + +<p>In the first place, economic conditions. The Bancroft-Robertson +movement at the old Prince of Wales’s, between +1865 and 1870, was of even more importance from an economic +than from a literary point of view. By making their little theatre +a luxurious place of resort, and faithfully imitating in their +productions the accent, costume and furniture of upper and +upper-middle class life, the Bancrofts had initiated a reconciliation +between society and the stage. Throughout the middle +decades of the century it was the constant complaint of the +managers that the world of wealth and fashion could not be +tempted to the theatre. The Bancroft management changed all +that. It was at the Prince of Wales’s that half-guinea stalls were +first introduced; and these stalls were always filled. As other +theatres adopted the same policy of upholstery, both on and off +the stage, fashion extended its complaisance to them as well. In +yet another way the reconciliation was promoted—by the ever-increasing +tendency of young men and women of good birth and +education to seek a career upon the English stage. The theatre, +in short, became at this period one of the favourite amusements +of fashionable (though scarcely of intellectual) society in +London. It is often contended that the influence of the sensual +and cynical stall audience is a pernicious one. In some ways, +no doubt, it is detrimental; but there is another side to the case. +Even the cynicism of society marks an intellectual advance upon +the sheer rusticity which prevailed during the middle years of the +19th century and accepted without a murmur plays (original and +adapted) which bore no sort of relation to life. In a celebrated +essay published in 1879, Matthew Arnold (whose occasional +dramatic criticisms were very influential in intellectual circles) +dwelt on the sufficiently obvious fact that the result of giving +English names and costumes to French characters was to make +their sayings and doings utterly unreal and “fantastic.” During +the years of French ascendancy, audiences had quite forgotten +that it was possible for the stage to be other than “fantastic” +in this sense. They no longer thought of comparing the mimic +world with the real world, but were content with what may be +called abstract humour and pathos, often of the crudest quality. +The cultivation of external realism, coinciding with, and in +part occasioning, the return of society to the playhouse, gradually +led to a demand for some approach to plausibility in character +and action as well as in costume and decoration. The stage +ceased to be entirely “fantastic,” and began to essay, however +imperfectly, the representation, the criticism of life. It cannot +be denied that the influence of society tended to narrow the +outlook of English dramatists and to trivialize their tone of +thought. But this was a passing phase of development; and +cleverly trivial representations of reality are, after all, to be +preferred to brainless concoctions of sheer emptiness.</p> + +<p>Quite as important, from the economic point of view, as the +reconciliation of society to the stage, was the reorganization +of the mechanism of theatrical life in the provinces which took +place between 1865 and 1875. From the Restoration to the +middle of the 19th century the system of “stock companies” +had been universal. Every great town in the three kingdoms +had its established theatre with a resident company, playing +the “legitimate” repertory, and competing, often by illegitimate +means, for the possession of new London successes. The smaller +towns, and even villages, were grouped into local “circuits,” +each served by one manager with his troupe of strollers. The +“circuits” supplied actors to the resident stock companies, +and the stock companies served as nurseries to the patent +theatres in London. Metropolitan “stars” travelled from one +country theatre to another, generally alone, sometimes with +one or two subordinates in their train, and were “supported,” +as the phrase went, by the stock company of each theatre. Under +this system, scenery, costumes and appointments were often +grotesquely inadequate, and performances almost always rough +and unfinished. On the other hand, the constant practice in a +great number and variety of characters afforded valuable training +for actors, and developed many remarkable talents. As a source +of revenue to authors, the provinces were practically negligible. +Stageright was unprotected by law; and even if it had been +protected, it is doubtful whether authors could have got any +considerable fees out of country managers, whose precarious +ventures usually left them a small enough margin of profit.</p> + +<p>The spread of railways throughout the country gradually put +an end to this system. The “circuits” disappeared early in the +’fifties, the stock companies survived until about the middle +of the ’seventies. As soon as it was found easy to transport +whole companies, and even great quantities of scenery, from +theatre to theatre throughout the length and breadth of Great +Britain, it became apparent that the rough makeshifts of the +stock company system were doomed. Here again we can trace +to the old Prince of Wales’s theatre the first distinct impulse +towards the new order of things. Robertson’s comedies not only +encouraged but absolutely required a style of art, in mounting, +stage-management and acting, not to be found in the country +theatres. To entrust them to the stock companies was well-nigh +impossible. On the other hand, to quote Sir Squire Bancroft, +“perhaps no play was ever better suited than <i>Caste</i> to a travelling +company; the parts being few, the scenery and dresses quite +simple, and consequently the expenses very much reduced.” +In 1867, then, a company was organized and rehearsed in London +to carry round the provincial theatres as exact a reproduction +as possible of the London performance of <i>Caste</i> and Robertson’s +other comedies. The smoothness of the representation, the +delicacy of the interplay among the characters, were new to +provincial audiences, and the success was remarkable. About +the same time the whole Haymarket company, under Buckstone’s +management, began to make frequent rounds of the country +theatres; and other “touring combinations” were soon organized. +It is manifest that the “combination” system and the stock +company system cannot long coexist, for a manager cannot +afford to keep a stock company idle while a London combination +is occupying his theatre. The stock companies, therefore, soon +dwindled away, and were probably quite extinct before the end +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page535" id="page535"></a>535</span> +of the ’seventies. Under the present system, no sooner is a play +an established success in London than it is reproduced in one, +two or three exact copies and sent round the provincial theatres +(and the numerous suburban theatres which have sprung up +since 1895), Company A serving first-class towns, Company B +the second-class towns, and so forth. The process is very like +that of taking plaster casts of a statue, and the provincial +companies often stand to their London originals very much in +the relation of plaster to marble. Even the London scenery is +faithfully reproduced in material of extra strength, to stand the +wear-and-tear of constant removal. The result is that, instead +of the square pegs in round holes of the old stock company +system, provincial audiences now see pegs carefully adjusted +to the particular holes they occupy, and often incapable of fitting +any other. Instead of the rough performances of old, they are +now accustomed to performances of a mechanical and soulless +smoothness.</p> + +<p>In some ways the gain in this respect is undeniable, in other +ways the loss is great. The provinces are no longer, in any +effective sense, a nursery of fresh talents for the London theatres, +for the art acquired in touring combinations is that of mimicry +rather than of acting. Moreover, provincial playgoers have lost +all personal interest and pride in their local theatres, which have +no longer any individuality of their own, but serve as a mere +frame for the presentation of a series of ready-made London +pictures. Christmas pantomime is the only theatrical product +that has any really local flavour in it, and even this is often only +a second-hand London production, touched up with a few +topical allusions. Again, the railways which bring London productions +to the country take country playgoers by the thousand +to London. The wealthier classes, in the Lancashire, Yorkshire +and Midland towns at any rate, do almost all their theatre-going +in London, or during the autumn months when the leading +London companies go on tour. Thus the better class of comedy +and drama has a hard fight to maintain itself in the provinces, +and the companies devoted to melodrama and musical farce +enjoy an ominous preponderance of popularity.</p> + +<p>On the whole, however—and this is the main point to be +observed with regard to the literary development of the drama—the +economic movement of the five- and twenty years between +1865 and 1890 was enormously to the advantage of the dramatic +author. A London success meant a long series of full houses at +high prices, on which he took a handsome percentage. The +provinces, in which a popular playwright would often have +three or four plays going the rounds simultaneously, became a +steady source of income. And, finally, it was found possible, +even before international copyright came into force, to protect +stageright in the United States, so that about the beginning of +the ’eighties large receipts began to pour in from America. Thus +successful dramatists, instead of living from hand to mouth, like +their predecessors of the previous generation, found themselves +in comfortable and even opulent circumstances. They had +leisure for reading, thought and careful composition, and they +could afford to gratify their ambition with an occasional artistic +experiment. Failure might mean a momentary loss of prestige, +but it would not spell ruin. A distinctly progressive spirit, then, +began to animate the leading English dramatists—a spirit which +found intelligent sympathy in such managers as John Hare, +George Alexander, Beerbohm Tree and Charles Wyndham. +Nor must it be forgotten that, though the laws of literary +property, internal and international, remained far from perfect, +it was found possible to print and publish plays without incurring +loss of stageright either at home or in America. The playwrights +of the present generation have accordingly a motive for giving +literary form and polish to their work which was quite inoperative +with their predecessors, whose productions were either kept +jealously in manuscript or printed only in miserable and totally +unreadable stage editions. It is no small stimulus to ambition +to know that even if a play prove to be in advance of the standards +of taste or thought among the public to which it is originally +presented, it will not perish utterly, but will, if it have any +inherent vitality, continue to live as literature.</p> + +<p>Having now summed up the economic conditions which made +for progress, let us glance at certain intellectual influences which +tended in the same direction. The establishment +of the Théâtre Libre in Paris, towards the close of 1887, +<span class="sidenote">Influence of foreign drama.</span> +unquestionably marked the beginning of a period of +restless experiment throughout the theatrical world of +Europe. A. Antoine and his supporters were in open rebellion +against the artificial methods of Scribe and the Second Empire +playwrights. Their effort was to transfer to the stage the +realism, the so-called “naturalism,” which had been dominant +in French fiction since 1870 or earlier; and this naturalism +was doubtless, in its turn, the outcome of the scientific movement +of the century. New methods (or ideals) of observation, and new +views as to the history and destiny of the race, could not fail to +produce a profound effect upon art; and though the modern +theatre is a cumbrous contrivance, slow to adjust its orientation +to the winds of the spirit, even it at last began to revolve, like a +rusty windmill, so as to fill its sails in the main current of the +intellectual atmosphere. Within three or four years of its +inception, Antoine’s experiment had been imitated in Germany, +England and America. The “Freie Bühne” of Berlin came +into existence in 1889, the Independent Theatre of London in +1891. Similar enterprises were set on foot in Munich and other +cities. In America several less formal experiments of a like +nature were attempted, chiefly in Boston and New York. Nor +must it be forgotten that in Paris itself the Théâtre Libre did +not stand alone. Many other <i>théâtres à côté</i> sprang up, under +such titles as “Théâtre d’Art,” “Théâtre Moderne,” “Théâtre +de l’Avenir Dramatique.” The most important and least +ephemeral was the “Théâtre de l’Œuvre,” founded in 1893 by +Alex. Lugné-Poë, which represented mainly, though not exclusively, +the symbolist reaction against naturalism.</p> + +<p>The impulse which led to the establishment of the Théâtre +Libre was, in the first instance, entirely French. If any foreign +influence helped to shape its course, it was that of the great +Russian novelists. Tolstoi’s <i>Puissance des ténèbres</i> was the only +“exotic” play announced in Antoine’s opening manifesto. +But the whole movement was soon to receive a potent stimulus +from the Norwegian poet Henrik Ibsen.</p> + +<p>Ibsen’s early romantic plays had been known in Germany +since 1875. In 1878 <i>Pillars of Society</i> and in 1880 <i>A Doll’s +House</i> achieved wide popularity, and held the German stage +side by side with <i>A Bankruptcy</i>, by Björnstjerne Björnson. +But these plays had little influence on the German drama. +Their methods were, indeed, not essentially different from those +of the French school of the Second Empire, which were then +dominant in Germany as well as everywhere else. It was <i>Ghosts</i> +(acted in Augsburg and Meiningen 1886, in Berlin 1887) that gave +the impulse which, coalescing with the kindred impulse from +the French Théâtre Libre, was destined in the course of a few +years to create a new dramatic literature in Germany. During +the middle decades of the century Germany had produced some +dramatists of solid and even remarkable talent, such as Friedrich +Hebbel, Heinrich Laube, Karl Gutzkow and Gustav Freytag. +Even the generation which held the stage after 1870, and included +Paul Heyse, Paul Lindau and Adolf Wilbrandt, with +numerous writers of light comedy and farce, such as E. Wichert, +O. Blumenthal, G. von Moser, A. L’Arronge and F. von Schönthan, +had produced a good many works of some merit. But, in +the main, French artificiality and frivolity predominated on +the German stage. In point of native talent and originality, +the Austrian popular playwright Ludwig Anzengruber was well +ahead of his North German contemporaries. It was in 1889, +with the establishment of the Berlin Freie Bühne, that the +reaction definitely set in. In Berlin, as afterwards in London, +<i>Ghosts</i> was the first play produced on the outpost stage, but it +was followed in Berlin by a very rapid development of native +talent. Less than a month after the performance of Ibsen’s +play, Gerhart Hauptmann came to the front with <i>Vor Sonnenaufgang</i>, +an immature piece of almost unrelieved Zolaism, +which he soon followed up, however, with much more important +works. In <i>Das Friedensfest</i> (1890) and <i>Einsame Menschen</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page536" id="page536"></a>536</span> +(1891) he transferred his allegiance from Zola to Ibsen. His +true originality first manifested itself in <i>Die Weber</i> (1892); +and subsequently he produced plays in several different styles, +all bearing the stamp of a potent individuality. His most popular +productions have been the dramatic poems <i>Hannele</i> and <i>Die +versunkene Glocke</i>, the low-life comedy <i>Der Biberpelz</i>, and the +low-life tragedy <i>Fuhrmann Henschel</i>. Other remarkable playwrights +belonging to the Freie Bühne group are Max Halbe +(b. 1865), author of <i>Jugend</i> and <i>Mutter Erde</i>, and Otto Erich +Hartleben (b. 1864), author of <i>Hanna Jagert</i> and <i>Rosenmontag</i>. +These young men, however, so quickly gained the ear of the +general public, that the need for a special “free stage” was no +longer felt, and the Freie Bühne, having done its work, ceased +to exist. Unlike the French Théâtre Libre and the English +Independent theatre, it had been supported from the outset by +the most influential critics, and had won the day almost without +a battle. The productions of the new school soon made their +way even into some of the subventioned theatres; but it was the +unsubventioned Deutsches Theater of Berlin that most vigorously +continued the tradition of the Freie Bühne. One or two playwrights +of the new generation, however, did not actually belong +to the Freie Bühne group. Hermann Sudermann produced his +first play, <i>Die Ehre</i>, in 1888, and his most famous work, <i>Heimat</i>, +in 1892. In him the influence of Ibsen is very clearly perceptible; +while Arthur Schnitzler of Vienna, author of <i>Liebelei</i>, may rather +be said to derive his inspiration from the Parisian “new +comedy.” Originality, verging sometimes on abnormality, +distinguishes the work of Frank Wedekind (b. 1864), author +of <i>Erdgeist</i> and <i>Frühlingserwachen</i>. Hugo von Hofmannsthal +(b. 1874), in his <i>Elektra</i> and <i>Ödipus</i>, rehandles classic themes +in the light of modern anthropology and psychology.</p> + +<p>The promoters of the Théâtre Libre had probably never heard +of Ibsen when they established that institution, but three years +later his fame had reached France, and <i>Les Revenants</i> was produced +by the Théâtre Libre (29th May 1890). Within the next +two or three years almost all his modern plays were acted in +Paris, most of them either by the Théâtre Libre or by L’Œuvre. +Close upon the heels of the Ibsen influence followed another, +less potent, but by no means negligible. The exquisite tragic +symbolism of Maurice Maeterlinck began to find numerous +admirers about 1890. In 1891 his one-act play <i>L’Intruse</i> was +acted; in 1893, <i>Pelléas et Mélisande</i>. By this time, too, the +reverberation of the impulse which the Théâtre Libre had given +to the Freie Bühne began to be felt in France. In 1893 Hauptmann’s +<i>Die Weber</i> was acted in Paris, and, being frequently +repeated, made a deep and lasting impression.</p> + +<p>The English analogue to the Théâtre Libre, the Independent +theatre, opened its first season (March 13, 1891) with a performance +of <i>Ghosts</i>. This was not, however, the first introduction +of Ibsen to the English stage. On the 7th of June 1889 (six weeks +after the production of <i>The Profligate</i>) <i>A Doll’s House</i> was acted +at the Novelty theatre, and ran for three weeks, amid a storm +of critical controversy. In the same year <i>Pillars of Society</i> was +presented in London. In 1891 and 1892 <i>A Doll’s House</i> was +frequently acted; <i>Rosmersholm</i> was produced in 1891, and +again in 1893; in May and June 1891 <i>Hedda Gabler</i> had a run +of several weeks; and early in 1893 <i>The Master Builder</i> enjoyed a +similar passing vogue. During these years, then, Ibsen was very +much “in the air” in England, as well as in France and Germany. +The Independent theatre, in the meantime, under the management +of J. T. Grein, found but scanty material to deal with. It +presented translations of Zola’s <i>Thérèse Raquin</i>, and of <i>A Visit</i>, +by the Danish dramatist Edward Brandes; but it brought to +the front only one English author of any note, in the person +of George Bernard Shaw, whose “didactic realistic play,” +<i>Widowers’ Houses</i>, it produced in December 1892.</p> + +<p>None the less is it true that the ferment of fresh energy, which +between 1887 and 1893 had created a new dramatic literature +both in France and in Germany, was distinctly felt in England as +well. England did not take at all kindly to it. The productions +of Ibsen’s plays, in particular, were received with an outcry of +reprobation. A great part of this clamour was due to sheer +misunderstanding; but some of it, no doubt, arose from genuine +and deep-seated distaste. As for the dramatists of recognized +standing, they one and all, both from policy and from conviction, +adopted a hostile attitude towards Ibsen, expressing at most +a theoretical respect overborne by practical dislike. Yet his +influence permeated the atmosphere. He had revealed possibilities +of technical stagecraft and psychological delineation +that, once realized, were not to be banished from the mind of +the thoughtful playwright. They haunted him in spite of +himself. Still subtler was the influence exerted over the critics +and the more intelligent public. Deeply and genuinely as many +of them disliked Ibsen’s works, they found, when they returned +to the old-fashioned play, the adapted frivolity or the homegrown +sentimentalism, that they disliked this still more. On +every side, then, there was an instinctive or deliberate reaching +forward towards something new; and once again it was Pinero +who ventured the decisive step.</p> + +<p>On the 27th of May 1893 <i>The Second Mrs Tanqueray</i> was +produced at the St James’s theatre. With <i>The Second Mrs +Tanqueray</i> the English acted drama ceased to be a merely insular +product, and took rank in the literature of Europe. Here +was a play which, whatever its faults, was obviously comparable +with the plays of Dumas, of Sudermann, of Björnson, of Echegaray. +It might be better than some of these plays, worse than others; +but it stood on the same artistic level. The fact that such a +play could not only be produced, but could brilliantly succeed, +on the London stage gave a potent stimulus to progress. It +encouraged ambition in authors, enterprise in managers. What +<i>Hernani</i> was to the romantic movement of the ’thirties, and +<i>La Dame aux camélias</i> to the realistic movement of the ’fifties, +<i>The Second Mrs Tanqueray</i> was to the movement of the ’nineties +towards the serious stage-portraiture of English social life. +All the forces which we have been tracing—Robertsonian realism +of externals, the leisure for thought and experiment involved +in vastly improved financial conditions, the substitution in France +of a simpler, subtler technique for the outworn artifices of the +Scribe school, and the electric thrill communicated to the whole +theatrical life of Europe by contact with the genius of Ibsen—all +these slowly converging forces coalesced to produce, in <i>The +Second Mrs Tanqueray</i>, an epoch-marking play.</p> + +<p>Pinero followed up <i>Mrs Tanqueray</i> with a remarkable series +of plays—<i>The Notorious Mrs Ebbsmith</i>, <i>The Benefit of the Doubt</i>, +<i>The Princess and the Butterfly</i>, <i>Trelawny of the “Wells</i>,” <i>The +Gay Lord Quex</i>, <i>Iris</i>, <i>Letty</i>, <i>His House in Order</i> and <i>The Thunderbolt</i>—all +of which show marked originality of conception and +intellectual force. In January 1893 Charles Wyndham initiated +a new policy at the Criterion theatre, and produced an original +play, <i>The Bauble-Shop</i>, by Henry Arthur Jones. It belonged +very distinctly to the pre-Tanqueray order of things; but the +same author’s <i>The Case of Rebellious Susan</i>, in the following year, +showed an almost startlingly sudden access of talent, which was +well maintained in such later works as <i>Michael and his Lost +Angel</i> (1896), that admirable comedy <i>The Liars</i> (1897), and +<i>Mrs Dane’s Defence</i> (1900). Sydney Grundy produced after +1893 by far his most important original works, <i>The Greatest of +These</i> (1896) and <i>The Debt of Honour</i> (1900). R. C. Carton, +breaking away from the somewhat laboured sentimentalism of his +earlier manner, produced several light comedies of thoroughly +original humour and of excellent literary workmanship—<i>Lord +and Lady Algy</i>, <i>Wheels within Wheels</i>, <i>Lady Huntworth’s Experiment</i>, +<i>Mr Hopkinson</i> and <i>Mr Preedy and the Countess</i>. +Haddon Chambers, in <i>The Tyranny of Tears</i> (1899) and <i>The +Awakening</i> (1901), produced two plays of a merit scarcely foreshadowed +in his earlier efforts.</p> + +<p>What was of more importance, a new generation of playwrights +came to the front. Its most notable representatives +were J. M. Barrie, who displayed his inexhaustible gift of humorous +observation and invention in <i>Quality Street</i> (1902), <i>The +Admirable Crichton</i> (1903), <i>Little Mary</i> (1903), <i>Peter Pan</i> (1904), +<i>Alice Sit-by-the-Fire</i> (1905) and <i>What Every Woman Knows</i> +(1908); Mrs Craigie (“John Oliver Hobbes”), who produced in +<i>The Ambassador</i> (1898) a comedy of fine accomplishment; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page537" id="page537"></a>537</span> +and H. V. Esmond, Alfred Sutro, Hubert Henry Davies, W. S. +Maugham, Rudolf Besier, Roy Horniman and J. B. Fagan.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, the efforts to relieve the drama from the pressure +of the long-run system had not been confined to the Independent +theatre. Several other enterprises of a like nature had proved +more or less short-lived; but the Stage Society, founded in 1900, +was conducted with more energy and perseverance, and became +a real force in the dramatic world. After two seasons devoted +mainly to Bernard Shaw, Ibsen, Maeterlinck and Hauptmann, +it produced in its third season <i>The Marrying of Ann Leete</i>, by +Granville Barker (b. 1877), who had developed in its service his +remarkable gifts as a producer of plays. A year or two later, +Barker staged for another organization, the New Century +theatre, Professor Gilbert Murray’s rendering of the <i>Hippolytus</i> +of Euripides; and it was partly the success of this production +that suggested the Vedrenne-Barker partnership at the Court +theatre, which, between 1904 and 1907, gave an extraordinary impulse +to the intellectual life of the theatre. Adopting the “short-run” +system, as a compromise between the long-run and the +repertory systems, the Vedrenne-Barker management made the +plays of Bernard Shaw (both old and new) for the first time really +popular. Of the plays already published <i>You Never Can Tell</i> +and <i>Man and Superman</i> were the most successful; of the new +plays, <i>John Bull’s Other Island</i>, <i>Major Barbara</i> and <i>The Doctor’s +Dilemma</i>. But though Shaw was the mainstay of the enterprise, +it gave opportunities to several other writers, the most +notable being John Galsworthy (b. 1867), author of <i>The Silver +Box</i> and <i>Strife</i>, St John Hankin (1869-1909), author of <i>The +Return of the Prodigal</i> and <i>The Charity that began at Home</i>, and +Granville Barker himself, whose plays <i>The Voysey Inheritance</i> +and <i>Waste</i> (1907) were among the most important products of +this movement. It should also be noted that the production +of the <i>Hippolytus</i> was followed up by the production of the +<i>Trojan Women</i>, the <i>Electra</i> and the <i>Medea</i> of Euripides, all +translated by Gilbert Murray.</p> + +<p>The impulse to which were due the Independent theatre, the +Stage Society and the Vedrenne-Barker management, combined +with local influences to bring about the foundation in Dublin +of the Irish National theatre. Its moving spirit was the poet +W. B. Yeats (b. 1865), who wrote for it <i>Cathleen-ni-Hoolihan</i>, <i>The +Hour-Glass</i>, <i>The King’s Threshold</i> and one or two other plays. +Lady Gregory, Padraic Collum, Boyle and other authors also +contributed to the repertory of this admirable little theatre; but +its most notable products were the plays of J. M. Synge (1871-1909), +whose <i>Riders to the Sea</i>, <i>Well of the Saints</i> and <i>Playboy +of the Western World</i> showed a fine and original dramatic faculty +combined with extraordinary beauty of style.</p> + +<p>Both in Manchester and in Glasgow endeavours have been +made, with considerable success, to counteract the evils of the +touring system, by the establishment of resident companies +acting the better class of modern plays on a “short-run” plan, +similar to that of the Vedrenne-Barker management. The +Manchester enterprise was to some extent subsidized by Miss E. +Horniman, and may therefore claim to be the first endowed +theatre in England. The need for endowment on a much larger +scale was, however, strongly advocated in the early years of the +20th century by the more progressive supporters of English +drama, and in 1908 found a place in the scheme for a Shakespeare +National theatre, which was then superimposed on the earlier +proposal for a memorial commemorating the Shakespeare +tercentenary, organized by an influential committee under the +chairmanship of the Lord Mayor of London. The scheme +involved the raising of £500,000, half to be devoted to the +requisite site and building, while the remainder would be invested +so as to furnish an annual subvention.</p> + +<p>It remains to say a few words of the English literary drama, +as opposed to the acted drama. The two classes are not nearly +so distinct as they once were; but plays continue to be produced +from time to time which are wholly unfitted for the theatre, +and others which, though they may be experimentally placed +on the stage, make their appeal rather to the reading public. +Tennyson had essayed in his old age an art which is scarcely +to be mastered after the energy of youth has passed. He continued +to the last to occupy himself more or less with drama, +and all his plays, except <i>Harold</i>, found their way to the stage. +<i>The Cup</i> and <i>Becket</i>, as we have seen, met with a certain success, +but <i>The Promise of May</i> (1882), an essay in contemporary drama, +was a disastrous failure, while <i>The Falcon</i> (1879) and <i>The +Foresters</i> (acted by an American company in 1893) made little +impression. Lord Tennyson was certainly not lacking in dramatic +faculty, but he worked in an outworn form which he had no +longer the strength to renovate. Swinburne continued now and +then to cast his creations in the dramatic mould, but it cannot +be said that his dramas attained either the vitality or the popularity +of his lyrical poems. <i>Mary Stuart</i> (1881) brought his +Marian trilogy to a close. In <i>Locrine</i> he produced a tragedy in +heroic couplets—a thing probably unattempted since the age +of Dryden. <i>The Sisters</i> is a tragedy of modern date with a +medieval drama inserted by way of interlude. <i>Rosamund, +Queen of the Lombards</i> (1899), perhaps approached more nearly +than any of his former works to the concentration essential to +drama. It may be doubted, however, whether his copious and +ebullient style could ever really subject itself to the trammels of +dramatic form. Of other dramas on the Elizabethan model, +the most notable, perhaps, were the works of two ladies who +adopt the pseudonym of “Michael Field”; <i>Callirrhoë</i> (1884), +<i>Brutus Ultor</i> (1887), and many other dramas, show considerable +power of imagination and expression, but are burdened by a +deliberate artificiality both of technique and style. Alfred Austin +put forth several volumes in dramatic form, such as <i>Savonarola</i> +(1881), <i>Prince Lucifer</i> (1887), <i>England’s Darling</i> (1896), <i>Flodden +Field</i> (1905). They are laudable in intention and fluent in +utterance. Notable additions to the purely literary drama were +made by Robert Bridges in his <i>Prometheus</i> (1883), <i>Nero</i> (1885), +<i>The Feast of Bacchus</i> (1889), and other solid plays in verse, full +of science and skill, but less charming than his lyrical poems. +Sir Lewis Morris made a dramatic experiment in <i>Gycia</i>, but was +not encouraged to repeat it.</p> + +<p>From the outset of his career, John Davidson (1857-1909) was +haunted by the conviction that he was a born dramatist; but +his earlier plays, such as <i>Smith: a Tragedy</i> (1886), <i>Bruce: a +Chronicle Play</i> (1884) and <i>Scaramouch in Naxos</i> (1888), contained +more poetry than drama; and his later pieces, such as <i>Self’s +the Man</i> (1901), <i>The Theatrocrat</i> (1905) and the <i>Triumph of +Mammon</i> (1907), showed a species of turbulent imagination, +but became more and more fantastic and impracticable. +Stephen Phillips (b. 1867), on the other hand, having had some +experience as an actor, wrote always with the stage in view. +In his first play, <i>Paolo and Francesca</i> (1899; produced in 1902), +he succeeded in combining great beauty of diction with intense +dramatic power and vitality. The same may be said of <i>Herod</i> +(1900); but in <i>Ulysses</i> (1902) and <i>Nero</i> (1906) a great falling-off +in constructive power was only partially redeemed by the +fine inspiration of individual passages.</p> + +<p>The collaboration of Robert Louis Stevenson with William +Ernest Henley produced a short series of interesting experiments +in drama, two of which, <i>Beau Austin</i> (1883) and <i>Admiral Guinea</i> +(1884), had more than a merely experimental value. The +former was an emotional comedy, treating with rare distinction +of touch a difficult, almost an impossible, subject; the latter was +a nautical melodrama, raised by force of imagination and diction +into the region of literature. <span class="correction" title="amended from Imcomparably">Incomparably</span> the most important +of recent additions to the literary drama is Thomas Hardy’s +vast panorama of the Napoleonic wars, entitled <i>The Dynasts</i> +(1904-1908). It is rather an epic in dialogue than a play; but +however we may classify it we cannot but recognize its extraordinary +intellectual and imaginative powers.</p> + +<p><i>United States.</i>—American dramatists have shown on their +own account a progressive tendency, quite as marked as that +which we have been tracing in England. Down to about 1890 +the influence of France had been even more predominant in +America than in England. The only American dramatist of +eminence, Bronson Howard (1842-1908), was a disciple, though +a very able one, of the French school. A certain stirring of native +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page538" id="page538"></a>538</span> +originality manifested itself during the ’eighties, when a series +of semi-improvised farces, associated with the names of two +actor-managers, Harrigan and Hart, depicted low life in New +York with real observation, though in a crude and formless +manner. About the same time a native style of popular melodrama +began to make its appearance—a play of conventional and +negligible plot, which attracted by reason of one or more faithfully +observed character-types, generally taken from country +life. <i>The Old Homestead</i>, written by Denman Thompson, who +himself acted in it, was the most popular play of this class. +Rude as it was, it distinctly foreshadowed that faithfulness +to the external aspects, at any rate, of everyday life, in which +lies the strength of the native American drama. It was at a +sort of free theatre in Boston that James A. Herne (1840-1901) +produced in 1891 his realistic drama of modern life, <i>Margaret +Fleming</i>, which did a great deal to awaken the interest of literary +America in the theatrical movement. Herne, an actor and a +most accomplished stage-manager, next produced a drama of +rural life in New England, <i>Shore Acres</i> (1892), which made an +immense popular success. It was a play of the <i>Old Homestead</i> +type, but very much more coherent and artistic. His next +play, <i>Griffith Davenport</i> (1898), founded on a novel, was a drama +of life in Virginia during the Civil War, admirable in its strength +and quiet sincerity; while in his last work, <i>Sag Harbour</i> (1900), +Herne returned to the study of rustic character, this time in +Long Island. Herne showed human nature in its more obvious +and straightforward aspects, making no attempt at psychological +subtlety; but within his own limits he was an admirable craftsman. +The same preoccupation with local colour is manifest in the +plays of Augustus M. Thomas, a writer of genuine humour and +originality. His localism announces itself in the very titles of +his most popular plays—<i>Alabama</i>, <i>In Mizzoura</i>, <i>Arizona</i>. He +also made a striking success in <i>The Witching Hour</i>, a play dealing +with the phenomena of hypnotism and suggestion. Clyde Fitch +(1865-1909), an immensely prolific playwright of indubitable ability, +after becoming known by some experiments in quasi-historic +drama (notably <i>Nathan Hale</i>, 1898; <i>Barbara Frietchie</i>, 1899), +devoted himself mainly to social drama on the French model, +in which his most notable efforts have been <i>The Climbers</i> (1900), +<i>The Truth</i> (1906), and <i>The Girl with the Green Eyes</i> (1902). In +popular drama, with elaborate scenic illustration, William +Gillette (b. 1856), David Belasco (b. 1859) and Charles Klein +(b. 1867) have done notable work. William Vaughn Moody +(b. 1869) produced in <i>The Great Divide</i> (1907) a play of somewhat +higher artistic pretensions; Eugene Walter in <i>Paid in Full</i> +(1908) and <i>The Easiest Way</i> (1909) dealt vigorously with characteristic +themes of modern life; and Edward Sheldon produced in +<i>Salvation Nell</i> a slum drama of very striking realism. The poetic +side of drama was mainly represented by Percy Mackaye (b. +1875), whose <i>Jeanne d’Arc</i> (1906) and <i>Sappho and Phaon</i> showed +a high ambition and no small literary power. On the whole it +may be said that, though the financial conditions of the American +stage are even more unfortunate than those which prevail in +England, they have failed to check a very strong movement +towards nationalism in drama. Season by season, America +writes more of her own plays, good or bad, and becomes less +dependent on imported work, whether French or English.</p> +<div class="author">(W. A.)</div> + +<p class="center pt2">(g) <i>German Drama.</i></p> + +<p>The history of the German drama differs widely from that +of the English, though a close contact is observable between +them at an early point, and again at relatively recent points, in +their annals. The dramatic literature of Germany, though in its +beginnings intimately connected with the great national movement +of the Reformation, soon devoted its efforts to a sterile +imitation of foreign models; while the popular stage, persistently +suiting itself to a robust but gross taste, likewise largely due to +the influence of foreign examples, seemed destined to a hopeless +decay. The literary and the acted drama were thus estranged +from one another during a period of extraordinary length; +nor was it till the middle of the 18th century that, with the +opening of a more hopeful era for the life and literature of the +nation, the reunion of dramatic literature and the stage began to +accomplish itself. Before the end of the same century the +progress of the German drama in its turn began to influence +that of other nations, and by the widely comprehensive character +of its literature, as well as by the activity of its stage, to invite a +steadily increasing interest.</p> + +<p>It should be premised that in its beginnings the modern +German drama might have seemed likely to be influenced even +more largely than the English or the French by the +copious imitation of classical models which marked +<span class="sidenote">The Latin drama in Germany.</span> +the periods of the Renaissance and the Reformation; +but here the impulse of originality was wanting to +bring about a speedy and gradually a complete emancipation, +and imitative reproduction continued in an all but endless +series. The first German (and indeed the earliest transalpine) +writer to follow in the footsteps of the modern Latin drama of +the Italians was the famous Strassburg humanist Jacob +Wimpheling (1450-1528), whose comedy of <i>Stylpho</i> (1480), an +attack upon the ignorance of the pluralist beneficed clergy, +marks a kind of epoch in the history of German dramatic effort. +It was succeeded by many other Latin plays of various kinds, +among which may be mentioned J. Kerckmeister’s <i>Codrus</i> (1485), +satirizing pedantic schoolmasters; a series of historical dramas +in a moralizing vein, partly on the Turkish peril, as well as of +comedies, by Jacob Locher (1471-1528); two plays by the great +Johann Reuchlin, of which the so-called <i>Henno</i> went through +more than thirty editions; and the <i>Ludus Dianae</i>, with another +play likewise in honour of the emperor Maximilian I., by the +celebrated Viennese scholar Conrad Celtes (1459-1508). Sebastian +Brant’s <i>Hercules in Bivio</i> (1512) is lost; but Wilibald Pirckheimer’s +<i>Eckius dedolatus</i> (1520) survives as a dramatic contribution +to Luther’s controversy with one of his most active opponents. +The <i>Acolastus</i> (1525) of W. Gnaphaeus (<i>alias</i> Fullonius, his +native name was de Volder) should also be mentioned in the +present connexion, as, though a Dutchman by birth, he spent +most of his literary life in Germany. This Terentian version of +the parable of the Prodigal Son was printed in an almost endless +number of editions, as well as in various versions in modern +tongues, among which reference has already been made to the +English, for the use of schools, by J. Palsgrave (1540). Macropedius +(Langhveldt) belongs wholly to the Low Countries. In +Germany the stream of these compositions continued to flow +almost without abatement throughout the earlier half of the +16th century; but in the days of the Reformation it takes a +turn to scriptural subjects, and during the latter part of the +century remains on the whole faithful to this preference.<a name="fa273a" id="fa273a" href="#ft273a"><span class="sp">273</span></a> These +Latin plays may be called school-dramas in the most precise +sense; for they were both performed in the schools and read +in class with commentaries specially composed for them; nor +was it except very reluctantly that in this age the vernacular +drama was allowed to intrude into scholastic circles. It should +be noticed that the Jesuit order, which afterwards proved so +<span class="sidenote">The Jesuit drama.</span> +keenly alive to the influence which dramatic performances +exercise over the youthful mind, only +very gradually abandoned the principle, formally +sanctioned in their <i>Ratio studiorum</i>, that the acting of plays +(these being always in the Latin tongue) should only rarely be +permitted in their seminaries. The flourishing period of the +Jesuit drama begins with the spread of the order in the west +and south-west of the Empire in the last decade of the 16th +century, and then continues, through the vicissitudes of good +and evil, with a curious intermixture of Latin and German +plays, during the whole of the 17th and the better part of the +18th. These productions, which ranged in their subjects from +biblical and classical story to themes of contemporary history +(such as the relief of Vienna by Sobiesky and the peace of Ryswick), +seem generally to bear the mark of their authorship—that +of teachers appointed by their superiors to execute this among +other tasks allotted to them; but, as it seems unnecessary to +return to this special growth, it may be added that the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page539" id="page539"></a>539</span> +extraordinary productiveness of the Jesuit dramatists, and the +steadiness of self-repetition which is equally characteristic of +them, should warn us against underrating its influence upon a +considerable proportion of the nation’s educational life during a +long succession of generations.</p> + +<p>While the scholars of the German Renaissance, who became +so largely the agents of the Reformation, eagerly dramatized +scriptural subjects in the Latin, and sometimes (as in +the case of Luther’s protégé P. Rebhun<a name="fa274a" id="fa274a" href="#ft274a"><span class="sp">274</span></a>) in the native +<span class="sidenote">Beginnings of the vernacular German drama.</span> +tongue, the same influence made itself felt in another +sphere of dramatic activity. Towards the close of the +middle ages, as has been seen, dramatic performances +had in Germany, as in England, largely fallen into the hands of +the civic gilds, and the composition of plays was more especially +cultivated by the master-singers of Nuremberg and other towns. +It was thus that, under the influence of the Reformation, and of +the impulse given by Luther and others to the use of High +German as the popular literary tongue, Hans Sachs, the immortal +<span class="sidenote">Hans Sachs.</span> +shoemaker of Nuremberg, seemed destined to become +the father of the popular German drama. In his +plays, “spiritual,” “secular,” and <i>Fastnachtsspiele</i> +alike, the interest indeed lies in the dialogue rather than in the +action, nor do they display any attempt at development of +character. In their subjects, whether derived from Scripture +or from popular legend and fiction,<a name="fa275a" id="fa275a" href="#ft275a"><span class="sp">275</span></a> there is no novelty, and in +their treatment no originality. But the healthy vigour and +fresh humour of this marvellously fertile author, and his innate +sympathy with the views and sentiments of the burgher class +to which he belonged, were elements of genuine promise—a +promise which the event was signally to disappoint. Though +the manner of Hans Sachs found a few followers, and is recognizable +in the German popular drama even of the beginning of the +17th century, the literature of the Reformation, of which his +works may claim to form part, was soon absorbed in labours of +a very different kind. The stage, after admitting novelties +introduced from Italy or (under Jesuit supervision) from Spain, +was subjected to another and enduring influence. Among the +foreign actors of various nations who flitted through the innumerable +<span class="sidenote">The English comedians.</span> +courts of the empire, or found a temporary +home there, special prominence was acquired, towards +the close of the 16th and in the early years of the 17th +century, by the “English comedians,” who appeared +at Cassel, Wolfenbuttel, Berlin, Dresden, Cologne, &c. Through +these players a number of early English dramas found their way +into Germany, where they were performed in more or less +imperfect versions, and called forth imitations by native authors. +Duke Henry Julius of Brunswick-Luneburg<a name="fa276a" id="fa276a" href="#ft276a"><span class="sp">276</span></a> (1564-1613) and +Jacob Ayrer (a citizen of Nuremberg, where he died, 1605) +represent the endeavours of the early German drama to suit its +still uncouth forms to themes suggested by English examples; +and in their works, and in those of contemporary playwrights, +there reappears no small part of what we may conclude to have +been the “English comedians’” <i>répertoire</i>.<a name="fa277a" id="fa277a" href="#ft277a"><span class="sp">277</span></a> (The converse +influence of German themes brought home with them by the +English actors, or set in motion by their strolling ubiquity, +cannot have been equal in extent, though Shakespeare himself +may have derived the idea of one of his plots<a name="fa278a" id="fa278a" href="#ft278a"><span class="sp">278</span></a> from such a +source). But, though welcome to both princes and people, the +exertions of these foreign comedians, and of the native imitators +who soon arose in the earliest professional companies of actors +known in Germany, instead of bringing about a union between +the stage and literature, led to a directly opposite result. The +popularity of these strollers was owing partly to the (very real) +blood and other horrors with which their plays were deluged, +partly to the buffoonery with which they seasoned, and the +various tricks and feats with which they diversified, their performances. +The representatives of the English clowns had +learnt much on their way from their brethren in the Netherlands, +where in this period the art of grotesque acting greatly flourished. +Nor were the aids of other arts neglected,—to this day in Germany +professors of the “equestrian drama” are known by the popular +appellation of “English riders.” From these true descendants +of the mimes, then, the professional actors in Germany inherited +a variety of tricks and traditions; and soon the favourite +figures of the popular comic stage became conventional, and +were stereotyped by the use of masks. Among these an acknowledged +supremacy was acquired by the native <i>Hans Wurst</i> +(Jack Pudding)—of whose name Luther disavowed the invention, +and who is known already to Hans Sachs—the privileged buffoon, +and for a long series of generations the real lord and master, of +the German stage. If that stage, with its grossness and ribaldry, +<span class="sidenote">Separation between the stage and literature.</span> +seemed likely to become permanently estranged from +the tastes and sympathies of the educated classes, +the fault was by no means entirely its own and that +of its patron the populace. The times were evil times +for a national effort of any kind; and poetic literature +was in all its branches passing into the hands of scholars who +were often pedants, and whose language was a jargon of learned +affectations. Thus things continued, till the awful visitation +of the Thirty Years’ War cast a general blight upon the national +life, and the traditions of the popular theatre were left to the +guardianship of the marionettes (<i>Puppenspiele</i>)!</p> + +<p>When, in the midst of that war, German poets once more +began to essay the dramatic form, the national drama was left +outside their range of vision. M. Opitz, who holds an +honoured place in the history of the German language +<span class="sidenote">The literary drama of the 17th century.</span> +and literature, in this branch of his labours contented +himself with translations of classical dramas and of +Italian pastorals—among the latter one of Rinuccini’s +<i>Daphne</i>, with which the history of the opera in Germany begins. +A. Gryphius, though as a comic dramatist lacking neither vigour +nor variety, and acquainted with Shakespearian<a name="fa279a" id="fa279a" href="#ft279a"><span class="sp">279</span></a> as well as Latin +and Italian examples, chiefly devoted himself to the imitation +of Latin, earlier French, and Dutch tragedy, the rhetorical +dialogue of which he effectively reproduced in the Alexandrine +metre.<a name="fa280a" id="fa280a" href="#ft280a"><span class="sp">280</span></a> Neither the turgid dramas of D. C. von Lohenstein +(1665-1684), for whose <i>Cleopatra</i> the honour of having been the +first German tragedy has been claimed, nor even the much +healthier comedies of Chr. Weise (1642-1708) were brought upon +the stage; while the religious plays of J. Klay (1616-1656) are +mere recitations connected with the Italian growth of the +<i>oratorio</i>. The frigid allegories commemorative of contemporary +events, with which the learned from time to time supplied the +theatre, and the pastoral dramas with which the idyllic poets of +Nuremberg—“the shepherds of the Pegnitz”—after the close of +the war gratified the peaceful longings of their fellow-citizens, +were alike mere scholastic efforts. These indeed continued in +the universities and <i>gymnasia</i> to keep alive the love of both +dramatic composition and dramatic representation, and to +encourage the theatrical taste which led so many students into +the professional companies. But neither these dramatic exercises +nor the <i>ludi Caesarei</i> in which the Jesuits at Vienna revived +the pomp and pageantry, and the mixture of classical and +Christian symbolism, of the Italian Renaissance, had any influence +upon the progress of the popular drama.</p> + +<p>The history of the German stage remains to about the second +decennium of the 18th century one of the most melancholy, +as it is in its way one of the most instructive, chapters +of theatrical history. Ignored by the world of letters, +<span class="sidenote">The stage before its reform.</span> +the actors in return deliberately sought to emancipate +their art from all dependence upon literary material. +Improvisation reigned supreme, not only in farce, where <i>Hans +Wurst</i>, with the aid of Italian examples, never ceased to charm +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page540" id="page540"></a>540</span> +his public, but in the serious drama likewise (in which, however, +he also played his part) in those <i>Haupt- und Staatsactionen</i> (high-matter-of-state-dramas), +the plots of which were taken from +the old stores of the English comedians, from the religious drama +and its sources, and from the profane history of all times. The +hero of this period is “Magister” J. Velthen (or Veltheim), +who at the head of a company of players for a time entered the +service of the Saxon court, and, by reproducing comedies of +Molière and other writers, sought to restrain the licence which he +had himself carried beyond all earlier precedent, but who had +to fall back into the old ways and the old life. His career exhibits +the climax of the efforts of the art of acting to stand alone; +after his death (c. 1693) chaos ensues. The strolling companies, +which now included actresses, continued to foster the popular +love of the stage, and even under its most degraded form to uphold +its national character against the rivalry of the opera, and that of +the Italian <i>commedia dell’ arte</i>. From the latter was borrowed +Harlequin, with whom <i>Hans Wurst</i> was blended, and who became +a standing figure in every kind of popular play.<a name="fa281a" id="fa281a" href="#ft281a"><span class="sp">281</span></a> He established +his sway more especially at Vienna, where from about 1712 the +first permanent German theatre was maintained. But for the +actors in general there was little permanence, and amidst miseries +of all sorts, and under the growing ban of clerical intolerance, +the popular stage seemed destined to hopeless decay. A certain +vitality of growth seems, under clerical guidance, to have +characterized the plays of the people in Bavaria and parts of +Austria.</p> + +<p>The first endeavours to reform what had thus apparently +passed beyond all reach of recovery were neither wholly nor +generally successful; but this does not diminish the +honour due to two names which should never be +<span class="sidenote">F. K. Neuber, Gottsched, and the Leipzig school.</span> +mentioned without respect in connexion with the +history of the drama. Friederike Karoline Neuber’s +(1697-1760) biography is the story of a long-continued +effort which, notwithstanding errors and weaknesses, +and though, so far as her personal fortunes were concerned, +it ended in failure, may almost be described as heroic. As directress +of a company of actors which from 1727 had its headquarters +at Leipzig (hence the new school of acting is called the Leipzig +school), she resolved to put an end to the formlessness of the +existing stage, to separate tragedy and comedy, and to extinguish +Harlequin. In this endeavour she was supported by the Leipzig +professor J. Chr. Gottsched, who induced her to establish French +tragedy and comedy as the sole models of the regular drama. +Literature and the stage thus for the first time joined hands, +and no temporary mischance or personal misunderstanding can +obscure the enduring significance of the union. Not only were the +abuses of a century swept away from a representative theatre, +but a large number of literary works, designed for the stage, were +produced on it. It is true that they were but versions or imitations +from the French (or in the case of Gottsched’s <i>Dying Cato</i> +from the French and English),<a name="fa282a" id="fa282a" href="#ft282a"><span class="sp">282</span></a> and that at the moment of the +regeneration of the German drama new fetters were thus imposed +upon it, and upon the art of acting at the same time. But the +impulse had been given, and the beginning made. On the one +hand, men of letters began to subject their dramatic compositions +to the test of performance; the tragedies and comedies of J. E. +Schlegel, the artificial and sentimental comedies of Chr. F. +Gellert and others, together with the vigorous popular comedies +of the Danish dramatist Holberg, were brought into competition +with translations from the French. On the other hand, the +<span class="sidenote">Ekhof</span> +Leipzig school exercised a continuous effect upon the +progress of the art of acting, and before long K. Ekhof +began a career which made his art a fit subject for the critical +study of scholars, and his profession one to be esteemed by +honourable men.</p> + +<p>Among the authors contributing to Mme. Neuber’s Leipzig +enterprise had been a young student destined to complete, after +a very different fashion and with very different aims, the work +which she and Gottsched had begun. The critical genius of G. +<span class="sidenote">Lessing.</span> +E. Lessing is peerless in its comprehensiveness, as in its +keenness and depth; but if there was any branch of +literature and art which by study and practice he made pre-eminently +his own, it was that of the drama. As bearing upon +the progress of the German theatre, his services to its literature, +both critical and creative, can only be described as inestimable. +The <i>Hamburgische Dramaturgie</i>, a series of criticisms of plays +and (in its earlier numbers) of actors, was undertaken in furtherance +of the attempt to establish at Hamburg the first national +German theatre (1767-1769). This fact alone would invest +these papers with a high significance; for, though the theatrical +enterprise proved abortive, it established the principle upon +which the progress of the theatre in all countries depends—that +for the dramatic art the immediate theatrical public is no +sufficient court of appeal. But the direct effect of the <i>Dramaturgie</i> +was to complete the task which Lessing had in previous +writings begun, and to overthrow the dominion of the arbitrary +French rules and the French models established by Gottsched. +Lessing vindicated its real laws to the drama, made clear the +difference between the Greeks and their would-be representatives, +and established the claims of Shakespeare as the modern master +of both tragedy and comedy. His own dramatic productivity +was cautious, tentative, progressive. His first step was, by his +<i>Miss Sara Sampson</i> (1755), to oppose the realism of the English +domestic drama to the artificiality of the accepted French +models, in the forms of which Chr. F. Weisse (1726-1804) was +seeking to treat the subjects of Shakespearian plays.<a name="fa283a" id="fa283a" href="#ft283a"><span class="sp">283</span></a> Then, +in his <i>Minna von Barnhelm</i> (1767), which owed something to +Farquhar, he essayed a national comedy drawn from real life, +and appealing to patriotic sentiments as well as to broad human +sympathies. It was written in prose (like <i>Miss Sara Sampson</i>), +but in form held a judicious mean between French and English +examples.</p> + +<p>The note sounded by the criticisms of Lessing met with a +ready response, and the productivity displayed by the nascent +dramatic literature of Germany is astonishing, both +in the efforts inspired by his teachings and in those +<span class="sidenote">Efforts of the theatre and of literature.</span> +which continued to controvert or which aspired +to transcend them. On the stage, Harlequin and +his surroundings proved by no means easy to suppress, +more especially at Vienna, the favourite home of frivolous +amusement; but even here a reform was gradually effected, +and, under the intelligent rule of the emperor Joseph II., a +national stage grew into being. The mantle of Ekhof fell upon +the shoulders of his eager younger rival, F. L. Schröder, who +was the first to domesticate Shakespeare upon the German stage. +In dramatic literature few of Lessing’s earlier contemporaries +produced any works of permanent value, unless the religious +dramas of F. G. Klopstock—a species in which he had been +preceded by J. J. Bodmer—and the patriotic <i>Bardietten</i> of the +same author be excepted. S. Gessner, J. W. L. Gleim, and G. K. +Pfeffel (1736-1809) composed pastoral plays. But a far more +potent stimulus prompted the efforts of the younger generation. +The translation of Shakespeare, begun in 1762 by C. M. Wieland, +whose own plays possess no special significance, and completed +in 1775 by Eschenburg, which furnished the text for many of +Lessing’s criticisms, helps to mark an epoch in German literature. +Under the influence of Shakespeare, or of their conceptions of +his genius, arose a youthful group of writers who, while worshipping +their idol as the representative of nature, displayed but +slight anxiety to harmonize their imitations of him with the +demands of art. The notorious <i>Ugolino</i> of H. W. von Gerstenberg +seemed a premonitory sign that the coming flood might merely +rush back to the extravagances and horrors of the old popular +stage; and it was with a sense of this danger in prospect that +Lessing in his third important drama, the prose tragedy <i>Emilia +Galotti</i> (1772), set the example of a work of incomparable nicety +in its adaptation of means to end. But successful as it proved, +it could not stay the excesses of the <i>Sturm und Drang</i> period +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page541" id="page541"></a>541</span> +which now set in. Lessing’s last drama, <i>Nathan der Weise</i> +(1779), was not measured to the standard of the contemporary +stage; but it was to exercise its influence in the progress of +time—not only by causing a reaction in tragedy from prose to +blank verse (first essayed in J. W. von Brawe’s <i>Brutus</i>, 1770), +but by ennobling and elevating by its moral and intellectual +grandeur the branch of literature to which in form it +belongs.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the young geniuses of the <i>Sturm und Drang</i> had +gone forth, as worshippers rather than followers of Shakespeare, +to conquer new worlds. The name of this group of +writers, more remarkable for their collective significance +<span class="sidenote">The Sturm und Drang.</span> +than for their individual achievements, was derived +from a drama by one of the most prolific of their +number, M. F. von Klinger;<a name="fa284a" id="fa284a" href="#ft284a"><span class="sp">284</span></a> other members of the fraternity +were J. A. Leisewitz<a name="fa285a" id="fa285a" href="#ft285a"><span class="sp">285</span></a> (1752-1806), M. R. Lenz<a name="fa286a" id="fa286a" href="#ft286a"><span class="sp">286</span></a> and F. Müller<a name="fa287a" id="fa287a" href="#ft287a"><span class="sp">287</span></a> +the “painter.” The youthful genius of the greatest of German +poets was itself under the influences of this period, when it +produced the first of its masterpieces. But Goethe’s <i>Götz von +Berlichingen</i> (1773), both by the choice and treatment of its +national theme, and by the incomparable freshness and originality +of its style, holds a position of its own in German dramatic +literature. Though its defiant irregularity of form prevented its +complete success upon the stage, yet its influence is far from +being represented by the series of mostly feeble imitations to +which it gave rise. The <i>Ritterdramen</i> (plays of chivalry) had +their day like similar fashions in drama or romance; but the +permanent effect of <i>Götz</i> was, that it crushed as with an iron +hand the last remnants of theatrical conventionality (those of +costume and scenery included), and extinguished with them +the lingering respect for rules and traditions of dramatic composition +which even Lessing had treated with consideration. +Its highest significance, however, lies in its having been the first +great dramatic work of a great national poet, and having +definitively associated the national drama with the poetic glories +of the national literature.</p> + +<p>Thus, in the classical period of that literature, of which Goethe +and Schiller were the ruling stars, the drama had a full share +of the loftiest of its achievements. Of these, the +dramatic works of Goethe vary so widely in form and +<span class="sidenote">Goethe.</span> +character, and connect themselves so intimately with the +different phases of the development of his own self-directed +poetic genius, that it was impossible for any of them to become +the starting-points of any general growths in the history of the +German drama. His way of composition was, moreover, so +peculiar to himself—conception often preceding execution by +many years, part being added to part under the influence of +new sentiments and ideas and views of art, flexibly followed by +changes of form—that the history of his dramas cannot be +severed from his general poetic and personal biography. His +<i>Clavigo</i> and <i>Stella</i>, which succeeded <i>Götz</i>, are domestic dramas +in prose; but neither by these, nor by the series of charming +pastorals and operas which he composed for the Weimar court, +could any influence be exercised upon the progress of the national +drama. In the first conception of his <i>Faust</i>, he had indeed +sought the suggestion of his theme partly in popular legend, +partly in a domestic motive familiar to the authors of the <i>Sturm +und Drang</i> (the story of Gretchen); the later additions to the +First Part, and the Second Part generally, are the results of +metaphysical and critical studies and meditations belonging +to wholly different spheres of thought and experience. The +dramatic unity of the whole is thus, at the most, external only; +and the standard of judgment to be applied to this wondrous +poem is not one of dramatic criticism. <i>Egmont</i>, originally +designed as a companion to <i>Götz</i>, was not completed till many +years later; there are few dramas more effective in parts, but +the idea of a historic play is lost in the elaboration of the most +graceful of love episodes. In <i>Iphigenia</i> and <i>Tasso</i>, Goethe +exhibited the perfection of form of which his classical period had +enabled him to acquire the mastery; but the sphere of the +action of the former (perfect though it is as a dramatic action), +and the nature of that of the latter, are equally remote from +<span class="sidenote">Schiller.</span> +the demands of the popular stage. Schiller’s genius, +unlike Goethe’s, was naturally and consistently suited +to the claims of the theatre. His juvenile works, <i>The Robbers</i>, +<i>Fiesco</i>, <i>Kabale und Liebe</i>, vibrating under the influence of an +age of social revolution, combined in their prose form the truthful +expression of passion with a considerable admixture of extravagance. +But, with true insight into the demands of his art, +and with unequalled single-mindedness and self-devotion to it, +Schiller gradually emancipated himself from his earlier style; +and with his earliest tragedy in verse, <i>Don Carlos</i>, the first period +of his dramatic authorship ends, and the promise of the second +announces itself. The works which belong to this—from the +<i>Wallenstein</i> trilogy to <i>Tell</i>—are the acknowledged masterpieces +of the German poetic drama, treating historic themes reconstructed +by conscious dramatic workmanship, and clothing their +dialogue in a noble vestment of rhetorical verse. The plays of +Schiller are the living embodiment of the theory of tragedy +elaborated by Hegel, according to which its proper theme is the +divine, or, in other words, the moving ethical, element in human +action. In one of his later plays, <i>The Bride of Messina</i>, Schiller +attempted a new use of the chorus of Greek tragedy; but the +endeavour was a splendid error, and destined to exercise no +lasting effect. The reaction against Schiller’s ascendancy began +with writers who could not reconcile themselves with the cosmopolitan +and non-national elements in his genius, and is still +represented by eminent critics; but the future must be left to +settle the contention.</p> + +<p>Schiller’s later dramas had gradually conquered the stage, +over which his juvenile works had in this time triumphantly +passed, but on which his <i>Don Carlos</i> had met with a +cold welcome. For a long time, however, its favourites +<span class="sidenote">The popular stage.</span> +were authors of a very different order, who suited +themselves to the demands of a public tolerably indifferent +to the literary progress of the drama. After popular +tastes had oscillated between the imitators of <i>Gotz</i> and those of +<i>Emilia Galotti</i>, they entered into a more settled phase, as the +establishment of standing theatres at the courts and in the large +towns increased the demand for good “acting” plays. Famous +actors, such as Schröder and A. W. Iffland, sought by translations +or compositions of their own to meet the popular likings, which +largely took the direction of that irrepressible favourite of +theatrical audiences, the sentimental domestic drama.<a name="fa288a" id="fa288a" href="#ft288a"><span class="sp">288</span></a> But the +most successful purveyor of such wares was an author who, +though not himself an actor, understood the theatre with a +professional instinct—August von Kotzebue. His productivity +ranged from the domestic drama and comedy of all kinds to +attempts to rival Schiller and Shakespeare in verse; and though +his popularity (which ultimately proved his doom) brought +upon him the bitterest attacks of the romantic school and other +literary authorities, his self-conceit is not astonishing, and the +time has come for saying that there is some exaggeration in +the contempt which has been lavished upon him by posterity.<a name="fa289a" id="fa289a" href="#ft289a"><span class="sp">289</span></a> +Nor should it be forgotten that German literature had so far +failed to furnish the comic stage with any successors to <i>Minna +von Barnhelm</i>; for Goethe’s efforts to dramatize characteristic +events or figures of the Revolutionary age<a name="fa290a" id="fa290a" href="#ft290a"><span class="sp">290</span></a> must be dismissed +as failures, not from a theatrical point of view only. The joint +efforts of Goethe and Schiller for the Weimar stage, important in +many respects for the history of the German drama, at the same +time reveal the want of a national dramatic literature sufficient +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page542" id="page542"></a>542</span> +to supply the needs of a theatre endeavouring to satisfy the +demands of art.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the so-called romantic school of German literature +was likewise beginning to extend its labours to original dramatic +composition. From the universality of sympathies +proclaimed by this school, to whose leaders Germany +<span class="sidenote">The romantic school.</span> +owed its classical translation of Shakespeare,<a name="fa291a" id="fa291a" href="#ft291a"><span class="sp">291</span></a> and +an introduction to the dramatic literatures of so many +ages and nations,<a name="fa292a" id="fa292a" href="#ft292a"><span class="sp">292</span></a> a variety of new dramatic impulses might be +expected; while much might be hoped for the future of the +national drama (especially in its mixed and comic species) from +the alliance between poetry and real life which they preached, +and which some of them sought personally to exemplify. But in +practice universality presented itself as peculiarity or even as +eccentricity; and in the end the divorce between poetry and +real life was announced as authoritatively as their union had +been. Outside this school, the youthful talent of Th. Körner, +whose early promise as a dramatist<a name="fa293a" id="fa293a" href="#ft293a"><span class="sp">293</span></a> might perhaps have ripened +into a fulness enabling him not unworthily to occupy the seat +left vacant by his father’s friend Schiller, was extinguished by a +patriotic death. The efforts of M. von Collin (1779-1824) in the +direction of the historical drama remained isolated attempts. +But of the leaders of the romantic school, A. W.<a name="fa294a" id="fa294a" href="#ft294a"><span class="sp">294</span></a> and F. von +Schlegel<a name="fa295a" id="fa295a" href="#ft295a"><span class="sp">295</span></a> contented themselves with frigid classicalities; and +L. Tieck, in the strange alembic of his <i>Phantasus</i>, melted legend +and fairy-tale, novel and drama,<a name="fa296a" id="fa296a" href="#ft296a"><span class="sp">296</span></a> poetry and satire, into a compound, +enjoyable indeed, but hardly so in its entirety, or in many +of its parts, to any but the literary mind.</p> + +<p>F. de La Motte Fouqué infused a spirit of poetry into the +chivalry drama. Klemens Brentano was a fantastic dramatist +unsuited to the stage. Here a feeble outgrowth of the +romanticists, the “destiny dramatists” Z. Werner<a name="fa297a" id="fa297a" href="#ft297a"><span class="sp">297</span></a>—the +<span class="sidenote">Later dramatists.</span> +most original of the group—A. Müllner,<a name="fa298a" id="fa298a" href="#ft298a"><span class="sp">298</span></a> and +Baron C. E. v. Houwald,<a name="fa299a" id="fa299a" href="#ft299a"><span class="sp">299</span></a> achieved a temporary +<i>furore</i>; and it was with an attempt in the same direction<a name="fa300a" id="fa300a" href="#ft300a"><span class="sp">300</span></a> +that the Austrian dramatist F. Grillparzer began his long career. +He is assuredly, what he pronounced himself to be, the foremost +of the later dramatic poets of Germany, unless that tribute be +thought due to the genius of H. von Kleist, who in his short life +produced, besides other works, a romantic drama<a name="fa301a" id="fa301a" href="#ft301a"><span class="sp">301</span></a> and a rustic +comedy<a name="fa302a" id="fa302a" href="#ft302a"><span class="sp">302</span></a> of genuine merit, and an historical tragedy of singular +originality and power.<a name="fa303a" id="fa303a" href="#ft303a"><span class="sp">303</span></a> Grillparzer’s long series of plays includes +poetic dramas on classical themes<a name="fa304a" id="fa304a" href="#ft304a"><span class="sp">304</span></a> and historical subjects from +Austrian history,<a name="fa305a" id="fa305a" href="#ft305a"><span class="sp">305</span></a> or treated from an Austrian point of view. +The romantic school, which through Tieck had satirized the +drama of the <i>bourgeoisie</i> and its offshoots, was in its turn satirized +by Count A. von Platen-Hallermund’s admirable imitations of +Aristophanic comedy.<a name="fa306a" id="fa306a" href="#ft306a"><span class="sp">306</span></a> Among the objects of his banter were +the popular playwright E. Raupach, and K. Immermann, a +true poet, who is, however, less generally remembered as a +dramatist. F. Hebbel<a name="fa307a" id="fa307a" href="#ft307a"><span class="sp">307</span></a> is justly ranked high among the foremost +later dramatic poets of his country, few of whom equal him in +intensity. The eminent lyrical (especially ballad) poet L. Uhland +left behind him a large number of dramatic fragments, but little +or nothing really complete. Other names of literary mark are +those of C. D. Grabbe, J. Mosen, O. Ludwig<a name="fa308a" id="fa308a" href="#ft308a"><span class="sp">308</span></a> (1813-1865), a +dramatist of great power, and “F. Halm” (Baron von Münch-Bellinghausen) +(1806-1871), and, among writers of a more +modern school, K. Gutzkow,<a name="fa309a" id="fa309a" href="#ft309a"><span class="sp">309</span></a> G. Freytag,<a name="fa310a" id="fa310a" href="#ft310a"><span class="sp">310</span></a> and H. Laube.<a name="fa311a" id="fa311a" href="#ft311a"><span class="sp">311</span></a> +L. Anzengruber, a writer of real genius though restricted range, +imparted a new significance to the Austrian popular drama,<a name="fa312a" id="fa312a" href="#ft312a"><span class="sp">312</span></a> +formerly so commonplace in the hands of F. Raimund and +J. Nestroy.</p> + +<p>During the long period of transition which may be said to have +ended with the establishment of the new German empire, the +German stage in some measure anticipated the developments +which more spacious times were to witness in +<span class="sidenote">The German stage of the latter half of the 19th century.</span> +the German drama. The traditions of the national +theatre contemporary with the great epoch of the +national literature were kept alive by a succession of +eminent actors—such as the nephews of Ludwig +Devrient, himself an artist of the greatest originality, +whose most conspicuous success, though nature had fitted him for +Shakespeare, was achieved in Schiller’s earliest play.<a name="fa313a" id="fa313a" href="#ft313a"><span class="sp">313</span></a> Among +the younger generation of Devrients the most striking personality +was that of Emil; his elder brother Karl August, husband of +Wilhelmine Schröder-Devrient, the brilliant star of the operatic +stage, and their son Friedrich, were also popular actors; yet +another brother, Eduard, is more widely remembered as the +historian of the German stage. Partly by reason of the number +and variety of its centres of intellectual and artistic life, Germany +was long enabled both to cherish the few masterpieces of its own +drama, and, with the aid of a language well adapted for translation, +to give admittance to the dramatic masterpieces of other +nations also, and to Shakespeare in particular, without going far +in the search for theatrical novelty or effect. But a change +came over the spirit of German theatrical management with the +endeavours of H. Laube, from about the middle of the century +onwards, at Vienna (and Leipzig), which avowedly placed the +demands of the theatre as such above those of literary merit +or even of national sentiment. In a less combative spirit, F. +Dingelstedt, both at Munich, which under King Maximilian he +had made a kindly nurse of German culture, and, after his +efforts there had come to an untimely end,<a name="fa314a" id="fa314a" href="#ft314a"><span class="sp">314</span></a> at Weimar and at +Vienna, raised the theatre to a very high level of artistic achievement. +The most memorable event in the annals of his managements +was the production on the Weimar stage of the series of +Shakespeare’s <i>histories</i>. At a rather later period, of which the +height extended from 1874 to 1890, the company of actors in +the service, and under the personal direction, of Duke George +of Saxe-Meiningen, created a great effect by their performances +both in and outside Germany—not so much by their artistic +improvements in scenery and decoration, as by the extraordinary +perfection of their <i>ensemble</i>. But no dramaturgic achievement +in the century could compare in grandeur either of conception or +of execution with Richard Wagner’s Bayreuth performances, +where, for the first time in the history of the modern stage, the +artistic instinct ruled supreme in all the conditions of the work +and its presentment. Though the <i>Ring of the Nibelungs</i> and its +successors belong to opera rather than drama proper, the importance +of their production (1876) should be overlooked by no +student of the dramatic art. Potent as has been the influence +of foreign dramatic literatures—whether French or Scandinavian—and +that of a movement which has been common to them all, +and from which the German was perhaps the least likely to +exclude itself, the most notable feature in the recent history of +the German drama has been its quick response to wholly new +demands, which, though the attempt was made with some +persistence, could no longer be met without an effort to span the +widths and sound the depths of a more spacious and more +self-conscious era.<a name="fa315a" id="fa315a" href="#ft315a"><span class="sp">315</span></a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page543" id="page543"></a>543</span></p> + +<p class="center pt2">(h) <i>Dutch Drama.</i></p> + +<p>Among other modern European dramas the Dutch is interesting +both in its beginnings, which to all intents and purposes form +part of those of the German, and because of the special influence +of the so-called chambers of the <i>rederykers</i> (rhetoricians), from +the early years of the 15th century onwards, which bear some +resemblance to the associations of the master-singers in contemporary +higher Germany. The earliest of their efforts, +which so effectively tempered the despotism of both church and +state, seem to have been of a dramatic kind; and a manifold +variety of allegories, moralities and comic entertainments +(<i>esbatementen</i> or comedies, <i>kluiten</i> and <i>factien</i> or farces) enhanced +the attractions of those popular pageants in which the Netherlands +surpassed all other countries of the North. The Low +Countries responded more largely to the impulse of the +Renaissance than, with some local exceptions, any other of the +Germanic lands. They necessarily had a considerable share +in the cultivation of the modern Latin drama; and, while the +author of <i>Acolastus</i> may be claimed as its own by the country +of his adoption as well as by that of his birth, G. M. Macropedius +(Langhveldt) (c. 1475-1508), who may be regarded as the foremost +Latin dramatist of his age, was born and died at Hertogenbosch +or in its immediate vicinity. Macropedius, who belonged +to the fraternity of the Common Life, was a writer of great +realistic power as well as of remarkable literary versatility.<a name="fa316a" id="fa316a" href="#ft316a"><span class="sp">316</span></a> +The art of acting flourished in the Low Countries even during +the troubles of the great revolt; but the birth of the regular +drama was delayed till the advent of quieter times. Dutch +dramatic literature begins, under the influence of the classical +studies cherished in the seats of learning founded before and after +the close of the war, with the classical tragedies of S. Koster +(c. 1585-c. 1650). The romantic dramas and farces of Gerbrand +Bredero (1585-1618) and the tragedies of P. Hooft (1581-1647) +belong to the same period; but its foremost dramatic poet was +J. van den Vondel, who from an imitation of classical models +passed to more original forms of dramatic composition, including +a patriotic play and a dramatic treatment of part of what +was to form the theme of <i>Paradise Lost</i>.<a name="fa317a" id="fa317a" href="#ft317a"><span class="sp">317</span></a> But Vondel had no +successor of equal mark. The older form of Dutch tragedy—in +which the chorus still appeared—was, especially under the influence +of the critic A. Pels, exchanged for a close imitation of +the French models, Corneille and Racine; nor was the attempt +to create a national comedy successful. Thus no national Dutch +drama was permanently called into life.</p> + +<p class="center pt2">(i) <i>Scandinavian Drama.</i></p> + +<p>Still more distinctly, the dramatic literature of the Scandinavian +peoples springs from foreign growths. In Denmark, +where the beginnings of the drama in the plays of +the schoolmaster Chr. Hansen recall the mixture of +<span class="sidenote">Denmark.</span> +religious and farcical elements in contemporary German efforts, +the drama in the latter half of the 16th century remained essentially +scholastic, and treated scriptural or classical subjects, +chiefly in the Latin tongue. J. Ranch (1539-1607) and H. S. +Sthen were authors of this type. But often in the course of the +17th century, German and French had become the tongues of +Danish literature and of the Danish theatre; in the 18th Denmark +could boast a comic dramatist of thorough originality +and of a wholly national cast. L. Holberg, one of the most noteworthy +comic poets of modern literature, not only marks an +epoch in the dramatic literature of his native land, but he +contributed to overthrow the trivialities of the German stage +in its worst period, which he satirized with merciless humour,<a name="fa318a" id="fa318a" href="#ft318a"><span class="sp">318</span></a> +and set an example, never surpassed, of a series of comedies<a name="fa319a" id="fa319a" href="#ft319a"><span class="sp">319</span></a> +deriving their types from popular life and ridiculing with healthy +directness those vices and follies which are the proper theme +of the most widely effective species of the comic drama. Among +his followers, P. A. Heiberg is specially noted. Under the +influence of the Romantic school, whose influence has nowhere +proved so long-lived as in the Scandinavian north, A. Ohlenschläger +began a new era of Danish literature. His productivity, +which belongs partly to his native and partly to German literary +history, turned from foreign<a name="fa320a" id="fa320a" href="#ft320a"><span class="sp">320</span></a> to native themes; and other +writers followed him in his endeavours to revive the figures of +<span class="sidenote">The modern Norwegian drama.</span> +Northern heroic legend. But these themes have in their +turn given way in the Scandinavian theatre to subjects +coming nearer home to the popular consciousness, +and treated with a direct appeal to the common +experience of human life, and with a searching insight into the +actual motives of human action. The most remarkable movement +to be noted in the history of the Scandinavian drama, +and one of the most widely effective of those which mark the +more recent history of the Western drama in general, had its +origin in Norway. Two Norwegian dramatists, H. Ibsen and +Björnsterne Björnson, standing as it were side by side, though +by no means always judging eye to eye, have vitally influenced +the whole course of modern dramatic literature in the direction +of a fearlessly candid and close delineation of human nature. +The lesser of the pair in inventive genius, and in the power of +exhibiting with scornful defiance the conflict between soul and +circumstance, but the stronger by virtue of the conviction of +hope which lies at the root of achievement, is Björnson.<a name="fa321a" id="fa321a" href="#ft321a"><span class="sp">321</span></a> Ibsen’s +long career as a dramatist exhibits a succession of many changes, +but at no point any failure in the self-trust of his genius. His +early masterpieces were dramatic only in form.<a name="fa322a" id="fa322a" href="#ft322a"><span class="sp">322</span></a> His world-drama +of <i>Emperor and Galilean</i> was still unsuited to a stage +rarely trodden to much purpose by idealists of Julian’s type. +The beginnings of his real and revolutionary significance as a +dramatist date from the production of his first plays of contemporary +life, the admirable satirical comedy <i>The Pillars of +Society</i> (1877), the subtle domestic drama <i>A Doll’s House</i> (1879), +and the powerful but repellent <i>Ghosts</i> (1881),<a name="fa323a" id="fa323a" href="#ft323a"><span class="sp">323</span></a> which last, with +the effects of its appearance, modern dramatic literature may +even to this day be said to have failed altogether to assimilate. +Ibsen’s later prose comedies—(verse, he writes, has immensely +damaged the art of acting, and a tragedy in iambics belongs to the +species Dodo)—for the most part written during an exile which +accounts for the note of isolation so audible in many of them, +succeeded one another at regular biennial intervals, growing more +and more abrupt in form, cruel in method, and intense in elemental +dramatic force. The prophet at last spoke to a listening +world, but without the amplitude, the grace and the wholeheartedness +which are necessary for subduing it. But it may be +long before the art which he had chosen as the vehicle of his +comments on human life and society altogether ceases to show +the impress of his genius.</p> + +<p class="center pt2">(j) <i>Drama of the Slav Peoples.</i></p> + +<p>As to the history of the Slav drama, only a few hints can be +here given. Its origins have not yet—at least in works accessible +to Western students—been authoritatively traced. The Russian +drama in its earliest or religious beginnings is stated to have +been introduced from Poland early in the 12th century; and, +again, it would seem that, when the influence of the Renaissance +touched the east of Europe, the religious drama was cultivated +in Poland in the 16th, but did not find its way into Russia +till the 17th century. It is probable that the species was, like so +many other elements of culture, imported into the Carpathian +lands in the 15th or 16th century from Germany. How far +indigenous growths, such as the Russian popular puppet-show +called <i>vertep</i>, which about the middle of the 17th century began +to treat secular and popular themes, helped to foster dramatic +tendencies and tastes, cannot here be estimated. The regular +drama of eastern Europe is to all intents and purposes of Western +origin. Thus, the history of the Polish drama may be fairly +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page544" id="page544"></a>544</span> +dated as beginning with the reign of the last king of Poland, +Stanislaus II. Augustus, who in 1765 solemnly opened a national +<span class="sidenote">Polish.</span> +theatre at Warsaw. This institution was carried on +till the fatal year 1794, and saw the production of +a considerable number of Polish plays, mostly translated or +adapted, but in part original—as in the case of one or two of +those from the active pen of the secretary to the educational +commission, Zablonski. But it was not till after the last partition +that, paradoxically though not wholly out of accordance with +the history of the relations between political and literary +history, the attempts of W. Bogulawski and J. N. Kaminski to +establish and carry on a Polish national theatre were crowned +with success. Its literary mainstay was a gifted Franco-Pole, +Count Alexander Fredro (1793-1876), who in the period between +the Napoleonic revival and the long exodus fathered a long-lived +species of modern Polish comedy, French in origin (for Fredro +was a true disciple of Molière), and wholly out of contact with +the sentiment that survived in the ashes of a doomed nation.<a name="fa324a" id="fa324a" href="#ft324a"><span class="sp">324</span></a> +His complaint as to the exiguity of the Polish literary public—a +brace of theatres and a bookseller’s handcart—may have been +premature; but a national drama was most certainly impossible +in a denationalised and dismembered land, in whose historic +capital the theatre in which Polish plays continued to be produced +seemed garrisoned by Cossack officers.</p> + +<p>Much in the same way, though with a characteristic difference, +the Russian regular drama had its origin in the cadet corps at +St Petersburg, a pupil of which, A. Sumarokov (1718-1777), +has been regarded as the founder of the modern +<span class="sidenote">Russian.</span> +Russian theatre. As a tragic poet he seems to have imitated +Racine and Voltaire, though treating themes from the national +history, among others the famous dramatic subject of the False +Demetrius. He also translated <i>Hamlet</i>. As a comic dramatist +he is stated to have been less popular than as a tragedian; yet +it is in comedy that he would seem to have had the most noteworthy +successors. Among these it is impossible to pass by the +empress Catherine II., whose comedies seem to have been satirical +sketches of the follies and foibles of her subjects, and who in one +comedy as well as in a tragedy had the courage to imitate +Shakespeare. Comedy aiming at social satire long continued +to temper the conditions of Russian society, and had representatives +of mark in such writers as A. N. Ostrovsky of Moscow and +Griboyedov, the author of <i>Gore et uma</i>.</p> + +<p>In any survey of the Slav drama that of the Czech peoples, +whose national consciousness has so fully reawakened, must not +be overlooked. A Czech theatre was called into life at Prague +as early as the 18th century; and in the 19th its demands, +centring in a sense of nationality, were met by J. N. Stepinek +(1783-1844), W. C. Klicpera (1792-1859) and J. C. Tyl (1808-1856); +and later writers continued to make use of the stage for +a propaganda of historical as well as political significance.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—The following works treat the general theory of +the drama and the dramatic art, together with the principles of +dramaturgy and of the art of acting. Works which have reference +to the drama of a particular period or of a particular nation only are +mentioned separately. Works which deal with special authors +only have been intentionally omitted in this bibliography, as being +mentioned in the articles in the several authors.</p> + +<p>Aristotle’s <i>Poetics</i> (text and transl. by S. H. Butcher, London, +1895; transl. by T. Twining, London, 1812; see also Donaldson’s +<i>Theatre of the Greeks</i>); H. Baumgart, <i>Aristoteles, Lessing, u. Goethe. +Über das ethische u. ästhetische Princip der Tragödie</i> (Leipzig, 1877); +H. A. Bulthaupt, <i>Dramaturgie des Schauspiels</i> (4 vols., Oldenburg +u. Leipzig, 1893-1902); L. Campbell, <i>Tragic Drama in Aeschylus, +Sophocles and Shakespeare</i> (London, 1904); P. Corneille, <i>Discours du +poëme dramatique—de la tragédie—des trois unités, Œuvres</i>, vol. i. +(Paris, 1862); W. L. Courtney, <i>The Idea of Tragedy in Ancient and +Modern Drama</i> (Westminster, 1900); Diderot, <i>De la poésie dramatique</i>. +<i>Entretiens sur le Fils Naturel, Œuvres complètes</i>, vii. (Paris, +1875); J. Dryden, <i>Essay of Dramatic Poesy</i> and other critical +essays (<i>Essays of J. Dryden</i>, ed. W. P. Ker, 2 vols., Oxford, 1900); +G. Freytag, <i>Die Technik des Dramas</i> (5th ed., Leipzig, 1886); +G. W. F. Hegel, <i>Vorlesungen über Ästhetik</i>, ed. H. G. Hotho, bd. 3, +chap. iii. c. <i>Die dramatische Poesie</i> (Werke, x. 3; Berlin, 1838); +G. Larroumet, <i>Études d’histoire et de critique dramatiques</i>, 2 sér. +(Paris, 1892-1899); G. E. Lessing, <i>Hamburgische Dramaturgie</i>. +<i>Erlautert von F. Schroter u. R. Thiele</i> (Halle, 1877); <i>Materialien zu +Lessing’s Hamburgische Dramaturgie, von W. Cosack</i> (Paderborn, +1876); G. H. Lewes, <i>On Actors and the Art of Acting</i> (London, 1875); +Sir T. Martin, <i>Essays on the Drama</i> (London, 1874); K. Mantzius, +<i>History of Theatrical Art in Ancient and Modern Times</i>, transl. by +L. von Cossel (London, 1903, &c.); G. Meredith, <i>Essay on Comedy</i> +(Westminster, 1897); R. Prolss, <i>Katechismus der Dramaturgie</i> +(Leipzig, 1877); H. T. Rotscher, <i>Die Kunst der dramatischen Darstellung</i> +(3 vols., Berlin, 1841-1846); <i>Jahrbucher fur dramatische +Kunst u. Literatur</i> (Berlin and Frankfort, 1848-1849); P. de Saint-Victor, +<i>Les Deux Masques, tragédie—comédie</i> (3rd ed., 3 vols., Paris, +1881, &c.); Saint-Marc Girardin, <i>Cours de littérature dramatique</i> +(7th ed., 5 vols., Paris, 1868); A. W. von Schlegel, <i>Lectures on +Dramatic Art and Literature</i> (Eng. transl., London, 1846); Sir W. +Scott, <i>Essays on Chivalry, Romance and the Drama</i> (including his +article “Drama” written for the Supplement to the 4th edition of +the <i>Ency. Brit.</i>, and reprinted in the 5th, 6th, 7th and 8th editions); +F. T. Vischer, <i>Ästhetik</i>, vol. iv. (Stuttgart, 1857).</p> + +<p>The fullest general history of the drama extant is J. L. Klein’s +<i>Geschichte des Dramas</i>, 13 vols. and index (Leipzig, 1865-1886). +See also, for encyclopaedic information, W. Davenport Adams, <i>A +Dictionary of the Drama</i>, vol. i. (London, 1904); C. M. E. Béquet, +<i>Encyclopédie de l’art dramatique</i> (Paris, 1886); A. Pougin, <i>Dictionnaire +historique et pittoresque du théâtre et des arts qui s’y rattachent</i> +(Paris, 1885).</p> + +<p>The drama of the Eastern nations is generally treated in:—A. P. +Brozzi, <i>Teatri e spettacoli dei popoli orientali Ebrei, Arabi, Persani, +Indiani, Cinesi, Giapponesi e Giavanesi</i> (Milan, 1887); Comte J. A. +de Gobineau, <i>Les Religions et les philosophies dans l’Asie centrale</i> +(2nd ed., Paris, 1866).</p> + +<p>The following works deal with the Indian drama:—M. Schuyler, +<i>Bibliography of the Sanskrit Drama</i> (Columbia Univ., Indo-Iranian, +ser. iii., New York, 1906); H. H. Wilson, <i>Select Specimens of the +Theatre of the Hindus</i>, transl. from the original Sanskrit (with introduction +on the dramatic system of the Hindus), 3rd ed., 2 vols. +(London, 1871); S. Levi, <i>Le Théâtre indien</i> (supplements Wilson) +(Paris, 1891).</p> + +<p>For Chinese:—Tscheng-Ki-Tong, <i>Le Théâtre des Chinois</i> (Paris, +1886); see also H. A. Giles, <i>History of Chinese Literature</i> (London, +1901).</p> + +<p>For Japanese:—C. Florenz, <i>Gesch. d. japan. Litteratur</i>, vol. i. 1 +(Leipzig, 1905); see also F. Brinkley, <i>Japan, its History, Arts and +Literature</i>, vol. iii. (Boston and Tokyo, 1901).</p> + +<p>For Persian:—A. Chodzko, <i>Théâtre persan. Choix de téaziés ou +drames, traduits pour la première fois du persan par A. Chodzko</i> (Paris, +1878); E. Montet, <i>Le Théâtre en Perse</i> (Geneva, 1888); Sir L. Pelly, +<i>The Miracle Play of Hasan and Husain, collected from oral tradition; +revised with explanatory notes by A. N. Wollaston</i> (2 vols., London, 1879).</p> + +<p>Of works treating of the ancient Greek and Roman drama only +a small selection can be given here. In the case of the Greek drama, +the chief histories of literature—such as G. Bernhardy’s, K. O. +Muller’s (Eng. tr. by Sir G. C. Lewis, with continuation by J. W. +Donaldson) and G. Murray’s—and general histories—such as Grote’s, +Thirlwall’s, Curtius’s, &c.—should also be consulted; and for the +administration and finance of the Attic theatre, Boeckh’s <i>Public +Economy of Athens</i>, Eng. tr. (London, 1842). Much useful information +will be found in <i>A Companion to Greek Studies</i>, ed. by L. +Whibley (Cambridge, 1905). The standard collective edition of the +ancient Greek dramatic poets is the <i>Poetae scenici Graeci</i>, ed. C. W. +Dindorf (5th ed., Leipzig, 1869), and that of the Comic poets A. +Meineke’s <i>Historia critica comicorum Graecorum. Cum fragmentis</i> +(5 vols., Berlin, 1839-1857). Aristotle’s <i>Poetics</i>, cited above, will +of course be consulted for the theory of the Greek drama in particular; +and much valuable critical matter will be found in passages of +Bentley’s <i>Phalaris</i> (1699), which are reprinted in Donaldson’s <i>Theatre +of the Greeks</i>. The following later works, some of which treat of the +ancient classical drama in general, may be noted:—E. A. Chaignet, +<i>La Tragédie grecque</i> (Paris, 1877); J. Denys, <i>Histoire de la comédie +grecque</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1886); J. W. Donaldson, <i>The Theatre of the +Greeks</i> (7th ed., London, 1860); Du Méril, <i>Histoire de la comédie. +Période primitive</i> (Paris, 1864); <i>Histoire de la comédie ancienne</i> +(Paris, 1869); A. E. Haigh, <i>The Tragic Drama of the Greeks</i> (Oxford, +1896); <i>The Attic Theatre</i> (Oxford, 1898); G. Korting, <i>Gesch. des +Theaters in seinen Beziehungen zur Kunstentwickelung der dramatischen +Dichtkunst</i>, Bd. i. <i>Gesch. des griechischen u. romischen Theaters</i> +(Paderborn, 1897); R. G. Moulton, <i>The Ancient Classical Drama</i> +(Oxford, 1898); M. Patin, <i>Étude sur les tragiques grecs</i> (3 vols., Paris, +1861); C. M. Rapp, <i>Gesch. des griechischen Schauspiels vom Standpunkt +der dramatischen Kunst</i> (Tubingen, 1862); H. Weil, <i>Études +sur le drame antique</i> (Paris, 1897); F. G. Welcker, “Die griechischen +Tragodien, mit Rucksicht auf den epischen Cyklus” (<i>Rhein. Mus.</i> +Suppl. ii.) 3 pts. (Bonn, 1839-1841).</p> + +<p>In addition to the works of individual Roman dramatists, and +critical writings concerning them, see <i>Scaenicae Romanorum poesis +fragmenta</i>, 2 vols. (I. Tragic, II. Comic) ed. by O. Ribbeck (3rd ed. +Leipzig, 1897-1898). W. S. Teuffel’s <i>History of Roman Literature</i>, +Eng. tr. (2 vols., London, 1891-1892), and M. Schanz’ <i>Gesch. der +romischen Litteratur bis Justinian</i> (2 vols., Munich, 1890-1892), may +be consulted for a complete view of the course of the Roman drama. +For its later developments consult Dean Merivale’s <i>History of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page545" id="page545"></a>545</span> +Romans under the Empire</i>, and S. Dill’s <i>Roman Society in the Last +Days of the Western Empire</i> (London, 1898). See also L. Friedländer, +<i>Darstellungen aus der Sittengeschichte Roms</i>, 6th ed., vol. ii. (Leipzig, +1889); M. Meyer, <i>Étude sur le théâtre latin</i> (Paris, 1847); O. Ribbeck, +<i>Die römische Tragödie im Zeitalter der Republik</i> (Leipzig, 1875).</p> + +<p>The following works treat of the medieval drama, religious or +secular, of its origins and of usages connected with it:—H. Anz, <i>Die +lateinischen Magierspiele</i> (Leipzig, 1905); E. K. Chambers, <i>The +Medieval Stage</i> (2 vols., Oxford, 1903), with full bibliography; E. de +Coussemaker, <i>Drames liturgiques du moyen âge</i> (Paris, 1861); du +Méril, <i>Theatri liturgici quae Latina supersunt monumenta</i> (Caen and +Paris, 1849); C. A. Hase, <i>Miracle Plays and Sacred Dramas</i> (Eng. +tr.), (London, 1880); Hilarius, <i>Versus et ludi</i>, ed. Champollion-Figeac +(Paris, 1838); R. Froning, <i>Das Drama des Mittelalters</i> +(3 vols., Stuttgart, 1891, &c.); Edwin Norris, <i>Ancient Cornish +Drama</i> (ed. and tr. 2 vols., 1859); W. Hone, <i>Ancient Mysteries +Described</i> (London, 1823); A. von Keller, <i>Fastnachtsspiele aus dem +15. Jahrhundert</i> (Stuttgart, 1858); C. Magnin, <i>Les Origines du théâtre +moderne</i>, vol. i. only (Paris, 1838); F. J. Mone, <i>Schauspiele des +Mittelalters</i> (2 vols., Karlsruhe, 1846); A. Reiners, <i>Die Tropen-, Prosen-, u. +Präfations-Gesänge</i> (Luxemburg, 1884); J. de Rothschild, +<i>Le Mistère du Viel Testament</i>, ed. J. de Rothschild (6 vols., Paris, +1878-1891); M. Sepet, <i>Le Drame chrétien au moyen âge</i> (Paris, 1878); +<i>Origines catholiques du théâtre moderne</i>. <i>Les drames liturgiques</i> +(Paris, 1901); T. Wright, <i>Early Mysteries and other Latin Poems of +the 12th and 13th Centuries</i> (London, 1838); C. A. G. von Zezschwitz, +<i>Das mittelalterliche Drama</i> (Leipzig, 1881).</p> + +<p>For French medieval drama in particular:—L. Clédat, <i>Le Théâtre +en France au moyen âge</i> (Paris, 1896); E. Fournier, <i>Le Théâtre +français avant la Renaissance</i> (Paris, 1872); <i>Miracles de Notre +Dame par personnages</i>, ed. G. Paris and U. Robert (8 vols., Paris, +1876-1893); L. J. N. Monmerqué and F. Michel, <i>Théâtre français +au moyen âge</i> (Paris, 1839); L. Petit de Julleville, <i>Histoire du +théâtre en France au moyen âge</i> (5 vols., Paris, 1880-1886); E. L. N. +Viollet-le-Duc, <i>Ancien Théâtre français</i> (10 vols., Paris, 1854-1857).</p> + +<p>For the medieval Italian in particular:—A. d’Ancona, <i>Sacre +rappresentazioni dei secoli XIV., XV. e XVI.</i> (Florence, 1872).</p> + +<p>For medieval English in particular:—Ahn, <i>English Mysteries +and Miracle Plays</i> (Trèves, 1867); S. W. Clarke, <i>The Miracle Play +in England</i> (London, 1897); F. W. Fairholt, <i>Lord Mayors’ Pageants</i>, +2 vols. (Percy Soc.) (London, 1843-1844); A. W. Pollard, <i>English +Miracle Plays, Moralities and Interludes</i> (3rd ed., Oxford 1898); +<i>Chester Plays</i> ed. T. Wright, 2 vols. (Shakespeare Soc.) (London, +1843), re-ed. by H. Deimling (part only) (E.E.T.S.) (London, 1893); +<i>Coventry Plays, Ludus Coventriae</i>, ed. J. O. Halliwell (-Phillipps) +(Shakespeare Soc.) (London, 1841); <i>Coventry Plays</i>. <i>Dissertation +on the pageants or mysteries at Coventry</i>, by T. Sharp (Coventry, +1825); <i>Digby Plays</i>, ed. F. J. Furnivall (E.E.T.S.) (London, 1896); +<i>Towneley Mysteries</i>, ed. G. England and A. W. Pollard (E.E.T.S.) +(London, 1897); <i>York Plays</i>, ed. L. T. Smith (Oxford, 1885).</p> + +<p>For the German in particular:—F. J. Mone, <i>Altteutsche Schauspiele</i> +(Quedlinburg, 1841); H. Reidt, <i>Das geistliche Schauspiel des Mittelalters +in Deutschland</i> (Frankfort, 1868); E. Wilken, <i>Gesch. der +geistlichen Spiele in Deutschland</i> (Göttingen, 1872).</p> + +<p>The revival of the classical drama in the Renaissance age is +treated in P. Bahlmann’s <i>Die Erneuerer des antiken Dramas und +ihre ersten dramatischen Versuche</i>, 1314-1478 (Münster, 1896); A. +Chassang’s <i>Des essais dramatiques imités de l’antiquité au XIV^e +et XV^e siècle</i> (Paris, 1852); and in V. de Amitis’ <i>L’Imitazione latina +nella commedia del XVI. secolo</i> (Pisa, 1871).</p> + +<p>Both the medieval and portions of the later drama are treated in +W. Cloetta, <i>Beiträge zur Litteraturgeschichte des Mittelalters und der +Renaissance</i> (2 vols., Halle, 1890-1892); W. Creizenach, <i>Geschichte +des neueren Dramas</i>, vols. i.-iii. (Halle, 1893-1903); R. Prölss, +<i>Geschichte des neueren Dramas</i> (3 vols., Leipzig, 1881-1883). See +also L.-V. Gofflot, <i>Le Théâtre au collège, du moyen âge à nos jours</i>, +Préface par Jules Claretie (Paris, 1907).</p> + +<p>The history of the modern Italian drama, in its various stages, is +treated by A. d’Ancona, <i>Origini del teatro italiano</i> (2nd ed., 2 vols., +Turin, 1891); J. Dornis, <i>Le Théâtre italien contemporain</i> (Paris, 1904); +H. Lyonnet, <i>Le Théâtre en Italie</i> (Paris, 1900); L. Riccoboni, <i>Histoire +du théâtre italien</i> (2 vols., Rome, 1728-1731); J. C. Walker, <i>Historical +Memoir on Italian Tragedy</i> (London, 1799). See also A. Gaspary, +<i>History of Early Italian Literature</i>, transl. by H. Oelsner (London, +1901).</p> + +<p>Some information as to the modern Greek drama is given in +R. Nicolai, <i>Geschichte der neugriechischen Literatur</i> (Leipzig, 1876).</p> + +<p>Modern Spanish drama:—M. A. Fée, <i>Études sur l’ancien théâtre +espagnol</i> (Paris 1873); A. Gassier, <i>Le Théâtre espagnol</i> (Paris, 1898); +G. H. Lewes, <i>The Spanish Drama</i> (London, 1846); H. Lyonnet, <i>Le +Théâtre en Espagne</i> (Paris, 1897); A. Schäffer, <i>Gesch. des spanischen +Nationaldramas</i> (2 vols., Leipzig, 1890); L. de Viel-Castel, <i>Essai +sur le théâtre espagnol</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1882). See also G. Ticknor, +<i>History of Spanish Literature</i> (3 vols., London, 1863).</p> + +<p>Modern Portuguese:—H. Lyonnet, <i>Le Théâtre au Portugal</i> (Paris, +1898); see also K. von Reinhardstoettner’s <i>Portugiesische Literaturgeschichte</i> +(Sammlung Göschen) (Leipzig, 1904), which contains a +useful bibliography.</p> + +<p>Regular French drama (tragedy and comedy):—F. Brunetière, +<i>Les Epoques du théâtre français</i>, 1636-1850 (Paris, 1892); E. Chasles, +<i>La Comédie en France au XVI^{e} siècle</i> (Paris, 1862); E. Faguet, <i>La +Tragédie française au XVI^{e} siècle</i> (Paris, 1883); A. Filon, <i>The +Modern French Drama</i> (London, 1898); V. Fournel, <i>Le Théâtre au +XVII^{e} siècle</i> (Paris, 1892); E. Fournier, <i>Le Théâtre français au +XVI^{e} et au XVII^{e} siècle</i> (2 vols., Paris, s.d.); F. Hawkins, <i>Annals +of the French Stage</i> (London, 1884); H. Lucas, <i>Hist. philosophique +et littéraire du théâtre français depuis son origine</i> (3 vols., Paris); +Parfait, <i>Hist. du théâtre français</i> (15 vols., Paris, 1745-1749); L. +Petit de Julleville, <i>Le théâtre en France depuis ses origines jusqu’à +nos jours</i> (Paris, 1899); E. Rigal, <i>Le théâtre français avant la période +classique</i> (Paris, 1901); E. Roy, <i>Études sur le théâtre français du +XV^{e} et du XVI^{e} siècle</i> (Dijon, 1901).</p> + +<p>The connexion between the Italian and French theatre in the +17th century is traced in L. Moland, <i>Molière et la comédie italienne</i> +(2nd ed., Paris, 1867). See also J. C. Démogeot’s, H. von Laun’s +and Saintsbury’s histories of French Literature.</p> + +<p>Of the ample literature concerned with the modern English drama +the following works may be specially mentioned, as dealing with +the entire range of the English drama, or with more than one of its +periods:—D. E. Baker, <i>Biographia dramatica</i> (continued to 1811 +by J. Reed and S. Jones) (3 vols., London, 1812); J. P. Collier, +<i>History of English Dramatic Poetry</i>, new ed. (3 vols., London, 1879); +C. Dibdin, <i>A complete History of the English Stage</i> (5 vols., London, +1800); J. J. Jusserand, <i>Le Théâtre en Angleterre</i> (2nd ed., Paris, 1881); +G. Langbaine, <i>Lives and Characters of the English Dramatic Poets</i> +(London, 1699); <i>The Poetical Register: or lives and characters of +the English dramatick poets</i> (London, 1719); C. M. Rapp, <i>Studien +über das englische Theater</i>, 2 parts (Tübingen, 1862); “G. S. B.”, +<i>Study of the Prologue and Epilogue in English Literature</i> (London, +1884); <i>The Thespian Dictionary: or dramatic biography of the +18th century</i> (London, 1802); A. W. Ward, <i>History of English +Dramatic Literature to the Death of Queen Anne</i> (2nd ed., 3 vols., +London, 1899); see also the histories of English Literature or Poetry, +by Warton, Taine, ten Brinck, Courthope, Saintsbury, &c.</p> + +<p>The following works contain the most complete lists of English +plays:—W. W. Greg, <i>A List of English Plays written before 1643 and +published before 1700</i> (Bibliogr. Soc.) (London, 1900); J. O. Halliwell +(-Phillipps), <i>Dictionary of Old English Plays</i> (London, 1860); W. C. +Hazlitt, <i>A Manual for the Collector and Amateur of Old English Plays</i> +(London, 1892); R. W. Lowe, <i>Bibliographical Account of English +Dramatic Literature</i> (London, 1888) is a valuable handbook for the +whole of English theatrical literature and matters connected with it. +The unique work of Genest, <i>Some Account of the English Stage from +1660-1830</i> (10 vols., Bath, 1832), includes, with a chronological +series of plays acted on the English stage, notices of unacted plays, +and critical remarks on plays and actors. “A Compleat List” of +English dramatic poets and plays to 1747 was published with T. +Whincop’s <i>Scanderbeg</i> in that year.</p> + +<p>The following are the principal collections of English plays—<i>Ancient +British Drama</i>, ed. Sir W. Scott (3 vols., London, 1810); +<i>Modern British Drama</i>, ed. Sir W. Scott (5 vols., London, 1811); +W. Bang, <i>Materialien zur Kunde des älteren englischen Dramas</i> +(Louvain, 1902, &c.); A. H. Bullen, <i>Collection of Old English Plays</i> +(4 vols., London, 1882); R. Dodsley, <i>A Select Collection of Old Plays</i>, +4th ed. by W. C. Hazlitt (15 vols., London, 1874-1876); <i>Dramatists +of the Restoration</i> (14 vols., Edinburgh, 1872-1879); <i>Early English +Dramatists</i>, ed. J. S. Farmer (London, 1905, &c.); C. M. Gayley, +<i>Representative English Comedies</i> (vol. i., New York, 1903); T. +Hawkins, <i>Origin of the English Drama</i> (3 vols., Oxford, 1773); +Mrs Inchbald, <i>British Theatre</i>, new ed. (20 vols., London, 1824), +<i>Modern Theatre</i> (10 vols., London, 1811), <i>Collection of Farces and +Afterpieces</i> (7 vols., London, 1815); Malone Society publications +(London, 1907, &c.); J. M. Manly, <i>Specimens of the Pre-Shakespearean +Drama</i> (3 vols., London, 1897); <i>Mermaid Series of Old Dramatists</i>, +ed. Havelock Ellis (London, 1887. &c.); <i>Old English Drama</i> (2 vols., +London, 1825); <i>Pearson’s Reprints of Elizabethan and Jacobean +Plays</i> (London, 1871, &c.).</p> + +<p>The following deal with the Elizabethan and Jacobean drama in +especial:—W. Creizenach, <i>Die Schauspiele der englischen Komödianten</i> +(Berlin, 1895); J. W. Cunliffe, <i>The Influence of Seneca on +Elizabethan Tragedy</i> (London, 1893); F. G. Fleay, <i>A Chronicle +History of the London Stage, 1559-1642</i> (London, 1890), <i>A Biographical +Chronicle of the English Drama, 1559-1642</i> (London, 1891); +W. C. Hazlitt, <i>The English Drama and Stage under the Tudor and +Stuart Princes, 1543-1664</i> (London, 1869); W. Hazlitt, <i>Dramatic +Literature of the Age of Elizabeth</i> (Works, ed. A. R. Waller, vol. v.) +(London, 1902); A. F. von Schack, <i>Die englischen Dramatiker vor, +neben, und nach Shakespeare</i> (Stuttgart, 1893); J. A. Symonds, +<i>Shakspere’s Predecessors in the English Drama</i> (London, 1884).</p> + +<p>As to the Latin academical drama of the Elizabethan age see +G. B. Churchill and W. Keller, “Die latein. Universitäts-Dramen +Englands in der Zeit d. Königin Elizabeth” in <i>Jahrbuch der deutschen +Shakespeare-Gesellschaft</i>. For a short bibliography of the Oxford +academical drama, 1547-1663, see the introduction to Miss M. L. +Lee’s edition of <i>Narcissus</i> (London, 1893). A list of Oxford plays +will also be found in <i>Notes and Queries</i>, ser. vii., vol. ii. For a list +of Cambridge plays from 1534 to 1671, the writer of this article is +indebted to Prof. G. C. Moore-Smith of the university of Sheffield.</p> + +<p>For an account of the Mask see R. Brotanek, <i>Die englischen Maskenspiele</i> +(Vienna and Leipzig, 1902); H. A. Evans, <i>English Masques</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page546" id="page546"></a>546</span> +(London, 1897); W. W. Greg, <i>A List of Masques, Pageants, &c.</i> +(Bibliogr. Soc.) (London, 1902).</p> + +<p>As to early London theatres see T. F. Ordish, <i>Early London +Theatres</i> (London, 1894).</p> + +<p>Some information as to puppet-plays, &c., will be found in Henry +Morley’s <i>Memoirs of Bartholomew Fair</i> (London, 1859).</p> + +<p>Among earlier critical essays on the Elizabethan and Stuart +drama should be mentioned those of Sir Philip Sidney, G. Puttenham +and W. Webbe, T. Rymer and Dryden. For recent essays and +notes on the Elizabethan drama in general, see, besides the essays +of Coleridge, Lamb (including the introductory remarks in the +<i>Specimens</i>), Hazlitt, &c., and the remarkable series of articles in the +<i>Retrospective Review</i> (1820-1828), the Publications and Transactions +of the Old and New Shakespeare Societies (1841, &c.; 1874, &c.), +which also contain reprints of early works of great importance for +the history of the Elizabethan drama and stage, such as Henslowe’s +<i>Diary</i>, &c., the <i>Jahrbuch der deutschen Shakespeare-Gesellschaft</i> +(1865, &c.), as well as the German journals <i>Anglia</i>, <i>Englische Studien</i>, +&c., and the <i>Modern Language Review</i> (Cambridge).</p> + +<p>The later English drama from the reopening of the theatres (1660) +is treated in L. N. Chase, <i>The English Heroic Play</i> (New York, 1903); +C. Cibber, <i>Apology for the Life of C. Cibber</i>, written by himself, new +ed. by R. W. Lowe (2 vols., London, 1889), who has also edited +Churchill’s <i>Rosciad</i> and <i>Apology</i> (London, 1891); J. Doran, <i>Their +Majesties’ Servants: annals of the English Stage</i> (3 vols., London, +1888); A. Filon, <i>Le Théâtre anglais: hier, aujourd’hui, demain</i> +(Paris, 1896); W. Hazlitt, <i>A View of the English Stage</i> (<i>Works</i>, ed. +A. R. Waller, vol. viii.) (London, 1903); W. Nicholson, <i>The Struggle +for a Free Stage in London</i> (Westminster, 1907).</p> + +<p>The following treat of the modern German drama in particular +periods:—R. Prölss, <i>Gesch. der deutschen Schauspielkunst von den +Anfangen bis 1850</i> (Leipzig, 1900); R. E. Prutz, <i>Vorlesungen über +die Geschichte des deutschen Theaters</i> (Berlin, 1847); R. Froning, +<i>Das Drama der Reformationszeit</i> (Stuttgart, 1900); C. Heine, <i>Das +Schauspiel der deutschen Wanderbuhne vor Gottsched</i> (Halle, 1889); +J. Minor, <i>Die Schicksalstragodie in ihren Hauptvertretern</i> (Frankfort, +1883); M. Martersteig, <i>Das deutsche Theater im XIX^{ten} Jahrh.</i> +(Leipzig, 1904). See also G. G. Gervinus, <i>Geschichte der deutschen +Dichtung</i> (5th ed., 5 vols., Leipzig, 1871-1874); and the literary +histories of K. Goedeke (<i>Grundriss</i>), A. Koberstein, &c. A special +aspect of the drama in modern Germany is dealt with in P. Bahlmann, +<i>Die lateinischen Dramen von Wimpheling’s Stylpho bis zur Mitte des +XVI^{ten} Jahrhunderts, 1480-1550</i> (Münster, 1893), and the same +author’s <i>Jesuiten-Dramen der niederrheinischen Ordensprovinz</i> +(Leipzig, 1896).</p> + +<p>The standard history of the modern German stage is Eduard +Devrient, <i>Gesch. der deutschen Schauspielkunst</i> (2 vols., Leipzig, +1848-1861); see also R. Prölss, <i>Gesch. der deutschen Schauspielkunst +von den Anfangen bis 1850</i> (Leipzig, 1900); O. G. Flüggen, <i>Biographisches +Buhnen-Lexikon der deutschen Theater</i> (Munich, 1892).</p> + +<p>A good account of the history of the Dutch drama is F. von +Hellwald’s <i>Geschichte des hollandischen Theaters</i> (Rotterdam, 1874). +See also the authorities under J. van den Vondel.</p> + +<p>Information concerning the Danish drama will be found in the +autobiographies of Holberg, Öhlenschläger and Andersen; see also +vol. i. of G. Brandes’s <i>Main Currents in Nineteenth Century Literature</i> +(Eng. tr., London, 1901). As to the modern Norwegian drama see +the same writer’s <i>Ibsen-Bjornson Studies</i> (Eng. tr., London, 1899); +also E. Tissot, <i>Le Drame norvégien</i> (Paris, 1893).</p> + +<p>The Russian drama is treated in P. O. Morozov’s <i>Istoria Russkago +Teatra</i> (<i>History of the Russian Theatre</i>), vol. i. (St Petersburg, 1889); +see also P. de Corvin, <i>Le Théâtre en Russie</i> (Paris, 1890). A. Brückner, +<i>Geschichte der russischen Literatur</i> (Leipzig, 1905), may be consulted +with advantage. Information as to the dramatic portions of other +Slav literatures will be found in A. Pipin and V. Spasovich’s <i>Istoria +Slavianskikh Literatur</i> (<i>History of Slavonic Literatures</i>), German +translation by T. Pech (2 vols., Leipzig, 1880-1884).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. W. W.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Gallicanus</i>, part ii.; <i>Sapientia</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2a" id="ft2a" href="#fa2a"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Gallicanus</i>, part i.; <i>Callimachus</i>; <i>Abraham</i>; <i>Paphnutius</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3a" id="ft3a" href="#fa3a"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The passion-play of Oberammergau, familiar in its present +artistic form to so many visitors, was instituted under special circumstances +in the days of the Thirty Years’ War (1634). Various reasons +account for its having been allowed to survive.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4a" id="ft4a" href="#fa4a"><span class="fn">4</span></a> To the earliest group belong <i>The Castle of Perseverance</i>; <i>Wisdom +who is Christ</i>; <i>Mankind</i>; to the second, or early Tudor group, +Medwell, <i>Nature</i>; <i>The World and the Child</i>; <i>Hycke-Scorner</i>, &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5a" id="ft5a" href="#fa5a"><span class="fn">5</span></a> <i>Magnyfycence</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6a" id="ft6a" href="#fa6a"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>New Custome</i>; N. Woodes, <i>The Conflict of Conscience</i>, &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7a" id="ft7a" href="#fa7a"><span class="fn">7</span></a> <i>Albyon Knight</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft8a" id="ft8a" href="#fa8a"><span class="fn">8</span></a> Rastell, <i>Nature of the Four Elements</i>; Redford, <i>Wit and Science</i>; +<i>The Trial of Treasure</i>; <i>The Marriage of Wit and Science</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft9a" id="ft9a" href="#fa9a"><span class="fn">9</span></a> <i>The Marriage of Wit and Wisdom</i>; <i>The Contention between +Liberality and Prodigality</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft10a" id="ft10a" href="#fa10a"><span class="fn">10</span></a> <i>Jack Juggler</i>; <i>Tom Tiler and his Wife</i>, &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft11a" id="ft11a" href="#fa11a"><span class="fn">11</span></a> <i>The Four P’s</i>, &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft12a" id="ft12a" href="#fa12a"><span class="fn">12</span></a> <i>The Disobedient Child</i> (c. 1560).</p> + +<p><a name="ft13a" id="ft13a" href="#fa13a"><span class="fn">13</span></a> The <span class="grk" title="Christos paschôn">Χριστὀς πάσχων</span>, an artificial Byzantine product, probably +of the 11th century, glorifying the Virgin in Euripidean verse, +was not known to the Western world till 1542.</p> + +<p><a name="ft14a" id="ft14a" href="#fa14a"><span class="fn">14</span></a> Of G. Manzini della Motta’s Latin tragedy on the fall of Antonio +della Scala only a chorus remains. He died after 1389. Probably +to the earlier half of the century belongs the Latin prose drama +<i>Columpnarium</i>, the story of which, though it ends happily, resembles +that of <i>The Cenci</i>. Later plays in Latin of the historic type are the +extant Landivio de’ Nobili’s <i>De captivitate Ducis Jacobi</i> (the <i>condottiere</i> +Jacopo Piccinino, d. 1464); C. Verardi’s <i>Historia Baetica</i> +(the expulsion of the Moors from Granada) (1492), and the game +author’s <i>Ferdinandus</i> (of Aragon) <i>Servatus</i>, which is called a tragi-comedy +because it is neither tragic nor comic. The Florentine +L. Dali’s <i>Hiempsal</i> (1441-1442) remains in MS. A few tragedies on +sacred subjects were produced in Italy during the last quarter of the +15th century, and a little later. Such were the religious dramas +written for his pupils by P. Domizio, on which Politian cast contempt; +and the tragedies, following ancient models, of T. da Prato of Treviso, +B. Campagna of Verona, <i>De passione Redemptoris</i>; and G. F. Conti, +author of <i>Theandrothanatos</i> and numerous vanished plays.</p> + +<p><a name="ft15a" id="ft15a" href="#fa15a"><span class="fn">15</span></a> <i>Imber aureus</i> (Danae), &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft16a" id="ft16a" href="#fa16a"><span class="fn">16</span></a> L. Bruni’s <i>Poliscena</i> (c. 1395); Sicco Polentone’s (1370-1463) +jovial <i>Lusus ebriorum</i> s. <i>De lege bibia</i>; the papal secretary P. Candido +Decembrio’s (1399-1477) non-extant <i>Aphrodisia</i>; L. B. Alberti’s +<i>Philodoxios</i> (1424); Ugolino Pisani of Parma’s (d. before 1462) +<i>Philogenia</i> and <i>Confutatio coquinaria</i> (a merry students’ play); the +<i>Fraudiphila</i> of A. Tridentino, also of Parma, who died after 1470 +and perhaps served Pius II.; Eneo Silvio de’ Piccolomini’s own +verse comedy, <i>Chrisis</i>, likewise in MS., written in 1444; P. Domizio’s +<i>Lucinia</i>, acted in the palace of Lorenzo de’ Medici in 1478, &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft17a" id="ft17a" href="#fa17a"><span class="fn">17</span></a> Mondella, <i>Isifile</i> (1582); Fuligni, <i>Bragadino</i> (1589).</p> + +<p><a name="ft18a" id="ft18a" href="#fa18a"><span class="fn">18</span></a> Home, <i>Douglas</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft19a" id="ft19a" href="#fa19a"><span class="fn">19</span></a> Lazzaroni, <i>Ulisse il giovane</i> (1719).</p> + +<p><a name="ft20a" id="ft20a" href="#fa20a"><span class="fn">20</span></a> <i>Didone abbandonata</i>, <i>Siroe</i>, <i>Semiramide</i>, <i>Artaserse</i>, <i>Demetris</i>, &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft21a" id="ft21a" href="#fa21a"><span class="fn">21</span></a> <i>Cleopatra</i>, <i>Antigone</i>, <i>Octavia</i>, <i>Mirope</i>, &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft22a" id="ft22a" href="#fa22a"><span class="fn">22</span></a> <i>e.g.</i> <i>Bruto I.</i> and <i>II.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft23a" id="ft23a" href="#fa23a"><span class="fn">23</span></a> <i>Filippo</i>; <i>Maria Stuarda</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft24a" id="ft24a" href="#fa24a"><span class="fn">24</span></a> Pellico, <i>Francesca da Rimini</i>; Niccolini, <i>Giovanni da Procida</i>; +<i>Beatrice Cenci</i>; Giacometti, <i>Cola di Rienzi</i> (Giacometti’s masterpiece +was <i>La Marte civile</i>).</p> + +<p><a name="ft25a" id="ft25a" href="#fa25a"><span class="fn">25</span></a> Pyrogopolinices in the <i>Miles Gloriosus</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft26a" id="ft26a" href="#fa26a"><span class="fn">26</span></a> The masked characters, each of which spoke the dialect of the +place he represented, were (according to Baretti) <i>Pantalone</i>, a +Venetian merchant; <i>Dottore</i>, a Bolognese physician; <i>Spaviento</i>, a +Neapolitan braggadocio; <i>Pullicinella</i>, a wag of Apulia; <i>Giangurgulo</i> +and <i>Coviello</i>, clowns of Calabria; <i>Gelfomino</i>, a Roman beau; <i>Brighella</i>, +a Ferrarese pimp; and <i>Arlecchino</i>, a blundering servant of +Bergamo. Besides these and a few other such personages (of whom +four at least appeared in each play), there were the <i>Amorosos</i> or +<i>Innamoratos</i>, men or women (the latter not before 1560, up to +which time actresses were unknown in Italy) with serious parts, +and <i>Smeraldina</i>, <i>Colombina</i>, <i>Spilletta</i>, and other <i>servettas</i> or +waiting-maids. All these spoke Tuscan or Roman, and wore no +masks.</p> + +<p><a name="ft27a" id="ft27a" href="#fa27a"><span class="fn">27</span></a> <i>Pasitea</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft28a" id="ft28a" href="#fa28a"><span class="fn">28</span></a> <i>Amicizia</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft29a" id="ft29a" href="#fa29a"><span class="fn">29</span></a> <i>Milesia</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft30a" id="ft30a" href="#fa30a"><span class="fn">30</span></a> <i>La Lena</i>; <i>Il Negromante</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft31a" id="ft31a" href="#fa31a"><span class="fn">31</span></a> <i>La Cassaria</i>; <i>I Suppositi</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft32a" id="ft32a" href="#fa32a"><span class="fn">32</span></a> Of Machiavelli’s other comedies, two are prose adaptations from +Plautus and Terence, <i>La Clizia</i> (Casina) and <i>Andria</i>; of the two +others, simply called <i>Commedie</i>, and in verse, his authorship seems +doubtful.</p> + +<p><a name="ft33a" id="ft33a" href="#fa33a"><span class="fn">33</span></a> <i>La Cortigiana</i>, <i>La Talanta</i>, <i>Il Ipocrito</i>, <i>Il Filosofo</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft34a" id="ft34a" href="#fa34a"><span class="fn">34</span></a> <i>Momolo Cortesan</i> (<i>Jerome the Accomplished Man</i>); <i>La Bottega +del caffé</i>, &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft35a" id="ft35a" href="#fa35a"><span class="fn">35</span></a> <i>La Vedova scaltra</i> (<i>The Cunning Widow</i>); <i>La Putta onorata</i> +(<i>The Respectable Girl</i>); <i>La Buona Figlia</i>; <i>La B. Sposa</i>; <i>La B. +Famiglia</i>; <i>La B. Madre</i> (the last of which was unsuccessful; “goodness,” +says Goldoni, “never displeases, but the public weary of every +thing”), &c.; and <i>Il Burbero benefico</i>, called in its original French +version <i>Le Bourru bienfaisant</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft36a" id="ft36a" href="#fa36a"><span class="fn">36</span></a> <i>Molière</i>; <i>Terenzio</i>; <i>Tasso</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft37a" id="ft37a" href="#fa37a"><span class="fn">37</span></a> <i>Pamela</i>; <i>Pamela Maritata</i>; <i>Il Filosofo Inglese</i> (<i>Mr Spectator</i>).</p> + +<p><a name="ft38a" id="ft38a" href="#fa38a"><span class="fn">38</span></a> <i>L’ Amore delle tre melarancie</i> (<i>The Three Lemons</i>); <i>Il Corvo</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft39a" id="ft39a" href="#fa39a"><span class="fn">39</span></a> <i>Turandot</i>; <i>Zobeïde</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft40a" id="ft40a" href="#fa40a"><span class="fn">40</span></a> <i>L’ Amore delle tre m.</i> (against Goldoni); <i>L’ Angellino Belverde</i> +(<i>The Small Green Bird</i>), (against Helvetius, Rousseau and Voltaire).</p> + +<p><a name="ft41a" id="ft41a" href="#fa41a"><span class="fn">41</span></a> <i>Aspasia</i>; <i>Polyxena</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft42a" id="ft42a" href="#fa42a"><span class="fn">42</span></a> <i>Ephemeridophobos</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft43a" id="ft43a" href="#fa43a"><span class="fn">43</span></a> <i>Timoleon</i>; <i>Konstantinos Palaeologos</i>; <i>Rhigas of Pherae</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft44a" id="ft44a" href="#fa44a"><span class="fn">44</span></a> <i>The Three Hundred</i>, or <i>The Character of the Ancient Hellene</i> +(Leonidas); <i>The Death of the Orator</i> (Demosthenes); <i>A Scion of +Timoleon</i>, &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft45a" id="ft45a" href="#fa45a"><span class="fn">45</span></a> The term is the same as that used in the old French collective +mysteries (<i>journées</i>).</p> + +<p><a name="ft46a" id="ft46a" href="#fa46a"><span class="fn">46</span></a> In some of his plays (<i>Comedia Serafina</i>; <i>C. Tinelaria</i>) there is a +mixture of languages even stranger than that of dialects in the Italian +masked comedy.</p> + +<p><a name="ft47a" id="ft47a" href="#fa47a"><span class="fn">47</span></a> <i>Necromanticus</i>, <i>Lena</i>, <i>Decepti</i>, <i>Suppositi</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft48a" id="ft48a" href="#fa48a"><span class="fn">48</span></a> <i>Los Engaños</i> (<i>Gli Ingannati</i>).</p> + +<p><a name="ft49a" id="ft49a" href="#fa49a"><span class="fn">49</span></a> <i>Cornelia</i> (<i>Il Negromante</i>).</p> + +<p><a name="ft50a" id="ft50a" href="#fa50a"><span class="fn">50</span></a> Lope, <i>Armelina</i> (Medea and Neptune as <i>deus ex machina</i>—si +modo machina adfuisset).</p> + +<p><a name="ft51a" id="ft51a" href="#fa51a"><span class="fn">51</span></a> <i>Menennos</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft52a" id="ft52a" href="#fa52a"><span class="fn">52</span></a> <i>El Azero de Madrid</i> (<i>The Steel Water of Madrid</i>); <i>Dineros son +Calidad</i> (= <i>The Dog in the Manger</i>), &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft53a" id="ft53a" href="#fa53a"><span class="fn">53</span></a> <i>La Estrella de Sevilla</i> (<i>The Star of Seville</i>, <i>i.e.</i> Sancho the Brave); +<i>El Nuevo Mundo</i> (Columbus), &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft54a" id="ft54a" href="#fa54a"><span class="fn">54</span></a> <i>Roma Abrasada</i> (<i>R. in Ashes</i>—Nero).</p> + +<p><a name="ft55a" id="ft55a" href="#fa55a"><span class="fn">55</span></a> <i>Arauco domado</i> (<i>The Conquest of Arauco</i>, 1560).</p> + +<p><a name="ft56a" id="ft56a" href="#fa56a"><span class="fn">56</span></a> <i>La Moza de cantaro</i> (<i>The Water-maid</i>).</p> + +<p><a name="ft57a" id="ft57a" href="#fa57a"><span class="fn">57</span></a> <i>Las Mocedades</i> (<i>The Youthful Adventures</i>) <i>del Cid</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft58a" id="ft58a" href="#fa58a"><span class="fn">58</span></a> <i>Don Gil de las calzas verdes</i> (<i>D. G. in the Green Breeches</i>).</p> + +<p><a name="ft59a" id="ft59a" href="#fa59a"><span class="fn">59</span></a> <i>El Burlador de Sevilla y Convivado de piedra</i> (<i>The Deceiver of +Seville</i>, <i>i.e.</i> Don Juan, <i>and the Stone Guest</i>).</p> + +<p><a name="ft60a" id="ft60a" href="#fa60a"><span class="fn">60</span></a> <i>El Divino Orfeo</i>, &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft61a" id="ft61a" href="#fa61a"><span class="fn">61</span></a> <i>El Magico prodigioso</i>; <i>El Purgatorio de San Patricio</i>; <i>La +Devocion de la Cruz</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft62a" id="ft62a" href="#fa62a"><span class="fn">62</span></a> <i>El Principe constante</i> (Don Ferdinand of Portugal).</p> + +<p><a name="ft63a" id="ft63a" href="#fa63a"><span class="fn">63</span></a> <i>La Dama duende</i> (<i>The Fairy Lady</i>).</p> + +<p><a name="ft64a" id="ft64a" href="#fa64a"><span class="fn">64</span></a> <i>Vida es sueño</i> (<i>Life is a Dream</i>).</p> + +<p><a name="ft65a" id="ft65a" href="#fa65a"><span class="fn">65</span></a> <i>El Lindo Don Diego</i> (<i>Pretty Don Diego</i>).</p> + +<p><a name="ft66a" id="ft66a" href="#fa66a"><span class="fn">66</span></a> <i>Desden con el desden</i> (<i>Disdain against Disdain</i>).</p> + +<p><a name="ft67a" id="ft67a" href="#fa67a"><span class="fn">67</span></a> Luzan, <i>La Razon contra la mode</i> (La Chaussée, <i>Le Préjugé à la +mode</i>).</p> + +<p><a name="ft68a" id="ft68a" href="#fa68a"><span class="fn">68</span></a> <i>El Delinquente honrado (The Honoured Culprit).</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft69a" id="ft69a" href="#fa69a"><span class="fn">69</span></a> <i>El Sí de las niñas (The Young Maidens’ Consent).</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft70a" id="ft70a" href="#fa70a"><span class="fn">70</span></a> <i>O cioso</i> (<i>The Jealous Man</i>), &c. His <i>Inez de Castro</i> is a tragedy +with choruses, partly founded on the Spanish play of J. Bermudez.</p> + +<p><a name="ft71a" id="ft71a" href="#fa71a"><span class="fn">71</span></a> <i>Don Duardos</i>, <i>Amadis</i>, &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft72a" id="ft72a" href="#fa72a"><span class="fn">72</span></a> <i>Auto das Regateiras</i> (<i>The Market-women</i>), <i>Pratica de compadres</i> +(<i>The Gossips</i>), &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft73a" id="ft73a" href="#fa73a"><span class="fn">73</span></a> <i>Emphatriŏes</i>, <i>Filodemo</i>, <i>Seleuco</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft74a" id="ft74a" href="#fa74a"><span class="fn">74</span></a> <i>Os Estrangeiros</i>, <i>Os Vilhalpandos</i> (<i>The Impostors</i>).</p> + +<p><a name="ft75a" id="ft75a" href="#fa75a"><span class="fn">75</span></a> <i>Eufrosina</i>, <i>Ulyssipo</i> (Lisbon), <i>Aulegrafia</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft76a" id="ft76a" href="#fa76a"><span class="fn">76</span></a> <i>Astarte</i>, <i>Hermione</i>, <i>Megara</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft77a" id="ft77a" href="#fa77a"><span class="fn">77</span></a> These assumptions of names remind us that we are in the period +of the “<i>Arcadias</i>.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft78a" id="ft78a" href="#fa78a"><span class="fn">78</span></a> <i>Catāo</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft79a" id="ft79a" href="#fa79a"><span class="fn">79</span></a> <i>Manoel de Sousa</i>, &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft80a" id="ft80a" href="#fa80a"><span class="fn">80</span></a> <i>Antigone</i> and <i>Electra</i>; <i>Hecuba</i>; and <i>Iphigenia in Aulis</i>. The +<i>Andria</i> was also translated, and in 1540 Ronsard translated the +<i>Plutus</i> of Aristophanes.</p> + +<p><a name="ft81a" id="ft81a" href="#fa81a"><span class="fn">81</span></a> Trissino, <i>Sofonisba</i>, by de Saint-Gelais.</p> + +<p><a name="ft82a" id="ft82a" href="#fa82a"><span class="fn">82</span></a> <i>La Soltane</i> (1561).</p> + +<p><a name="ft83a" id="ft83a" href="#fa83a"><span class="fn">83</span></a> <i>Daïre (Darius).</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft84a" id="ft84a" href="#fa84a"><span class="fn">84</span></a> <i>La Mort de César.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft85a" id="ft85a" href="#fa85a"><span class="fn">85</span></a> <i>Achille</i> (1563).</p> + +<p><a name="ft86a" id="ft86a" href="#fa86a"><span class="fn">86</span></a> <i>Les Lacènes</i>; <i>Marie Stuart or L’Écossaise</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft87a" id="ft87a" href="#fa87a"><span class="fn">87</span></a> <i>La Juive</i>, &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft88a" id="ft88a" href="#fa88a"><span class="fn">88</span></a> <i>Les Corivaux</i> (1573).</p> + +<p><a name="ft89a" id="ft89a" href="#fa89a"><span class="fn">89</span></a> <i>La Reconnue</i> (Le Capitaine Rodomont).</p> + +<p><a name="ft90a" id="ft90a" href="#fa90a"><span class="fn">90</span></a> <i>Les Esbahis.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft91a" id="ft91a" href="#fa91a"><span class="fn">91</span></a> <i>Les Contens</i> (S. Parabosco, <i>I Contenti</i>).</p> + +<p><a name="ft92a" id="ft92a" href="#fa92a"><span class="fn">92</span></a> <i>Les Néapolitaines</i>; <i>Les Désespérades de l’amour</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft93a" id="ft93a" href="#fa93a"><span class="fn">93</span></a> <i>Le Laquais (Il Ragazzo).</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft94a" id="ft94a" href="#fa94a"><span class="fn">94</span></a> <i>Les Tromperies (Gli Inganni).</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft95a" id="ft95a" href="#fa95a"><span class="fn">95</span></a> “L. du Peschier” (de Barry), <i>La Comédie des comédies</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft96a" id="ft96a" href="#fa96a"><span class="fn">96</span></a> <i>L’Amour tyrannique.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft97a" id="ft97a" href="#fa97a"><span class="fn">97</span></a> <i>Agrippine</i>, <i>Le Pédant joué</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft98a" id="ft98a" href="#fa98a"><span class="fn">98</span></a> <i>Marianne.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft99a" id="ft99a" href="#fa99a"><span class="fn">99</span></a> <i>Sophonisbe.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft100a" id="ft100a" href="#fa100a"><span class="fn">100</span></a> <i>Les Bergeries.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft101a" id="ft101a" href="#fa101a"><span class="fn">101</span></a> <i>Mélite</i>; <i>Clitandre</i>, &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft102a" id="ft102a" href="#fa102a"><span class="fn">102</span></a> <i>Le Véritable Saint Genest</i>; <i>Venceslas</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft103a" id="ft103a" href="#fa103a"><span class="fn">103</span></a> Steele, <i>The Lying Lover</i>; Foote, <i>The Liar</i>; Goldoni, <i>Il Bugiardo</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft104a" id="ft104a" href="#fa104a"><span class="fn">104</span></a> Ruiz de Alarcon, <i>La Verdad sospechosa.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft105a" id="ft105a" href="#fa105a"><span class="fn">105</span></a> <i>L’Illusion comique</i> is antithetically mixed.</p> + +<p><a name="ft106a" id="ft106a" href="#fa106a"><span class="fn">106</span></a> <i>Andromaque</i>; <i>Phèdre</i>; <i>Bérénice</i>, &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft107a" id="ft107a" href="#fa107a"><span class="fn">107</span></a> <i>Esther</i>; <i>Athalie</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft108a" id="ft108a" href="#fa108a"><span class="fn">108</span></a> <i>Le Cid</i>; <i>Polyeucte</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft109a" id="ft109a" href="#fa109a"><span class="fn">109</span></a> <i>Esther</i>; <i>Athalie</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft110a" id="ft110a" href="#fa110a"><span class="fn">110</span></a> Corneille, <i>Rodogune</i>; Racine, <i>Phèdre</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft111a" id="ft111a" href="#fa111a"><span class="fn">111</span></a> <i>Brutus</i>; <i>La Mort de César</i>; <i>Sémiramis</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft112a" id="ft112a" href="#fa112a"><span class="fn">112</span></a> <i>Œdipe</i>; <i>Le Fanatisme</i> (<i>Mahomet</i>).</p> + +<p><a name="ft113a" id="ft113a" href="#fa113a"><span class="fn">113</span></a> <i>Adélaïde du Guesclin</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft114a" id="ft114a" href="#fa114a"><span class="fn">114</span></a> <i>L’Orphelin de la Chine</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft115a" id="ft115a" href="#fa115a"><span class="fn">115</span></a> <i>Tanis et Zélide</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft116a" id="ft116a" href="#fa116a"><span class="fn">116</span></a> <i>Les Guèbres</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft117a" id="ft117a" href="#fa117a"><span class="fn">117</span></a> <i>Olimpie</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft118a" id="ft118a" href="#fa118a"><span class="fn">118</span></a> <i>Tancrède</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft119a" id="ft119a" href="#fa119a"><span class="fn">119</span></a> <i>La Mort de César</i>; <i>Zaïre</i> (<i>Othello</i>).</p> + +<p><a name="ft120a" id="ft120a" href="#fa120a"><span class="fn">120</span></a> <i>Hamlet</i>; <i>Le Roi Léar</i>, &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft121a" id="ft121a" href="#fa121a"><span class="fn">121</span></a> The lectures delivered by the late Professor A. Beljame at +Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1905-1906 may be mentioned as +valuable contributions to our knowledge of the growth of Shakespeare’s +influence in France.</p> + +<p><a name="ft122a" id="ft122a" href="#fa122a"><span class="fn">122</span></a> Quinault, <i>L’Amour indiscret</i> (Newcastle and Dryden’s <i>Sir Martin +Mar-all</i>).</p> + +<p><a name="ft123a" id="ft123a" href="#fa123a"><span class="fn">123</span></a> <i>Le Mercure galant</i>; <i>Ésope à la ville</i>; <i>Ésope à la cour</i> (Vanbrugh, +<i>Aesop</i>).</p> + +<p><a name="ft124a" id="ft124a" href="#fa124a"><span class="fn">124</span></a> <i>Le Bal</i> (<i>M. de Pourceaugnac</i>); Geronte in <i>Le Légataire universel</i> +(Argan in <i>Le Malade imaginaire</i>); <i>La Critique du L.</i> (<i>La C. de l’école +des femmes</i>).</p> + +<p><a name="ft125a" id="ft125a" href="#fa125a"><span class="fn">125</span></a> <i>Le Joueur</i>; <i>Le Légataire universel</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft126a" id="ft126a" href="#fa126a"><span class="fn">126</span></a> <i>Crispin rival de son maître</i>; <i>Turcaret</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft127a" id="ft127a" href="#fa127a"><span class="fn">127</span></a> <i>Le Méchant</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft128a" id="ft128a" href="#fa128a"><span class="fn">128</span></a> <i>La Métromanie</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft129a" id="ft129a" href="#fa129a"><span class="fn">129</span></a> <i>Le Jeu de l’amour et du hasard</i>; <i>Le Legs</i>; <i>La Surprise de l’amour</i>; +<i>Les Fausses Confidences</i>; <i>L’Épreuve</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft130a" id="ft130a" href="#fa130a"><span class="fn">130</span></a> <i>Le Philosophe marié</i>; <i>Le Glorieux</i>; <i>Le Dissipateur</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft131a" id="ft131a" href="#fa131a"><span class="fn">131</span></a> <i>La Fausse Antipathie</i>; <i>Le Préjugé à la mode</i>; <i>L’École des amis</i>; +<i>Méluside</i>; <i>Paméla</i>. <i>L’École des mères</i> was the play which Frederick +the Great described as turning the stage into a <i>bureau général de la +fadeur</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft132a" id="ft132a" href="#fa132a"><span class="fn">132</span></a> See especially <i>Nanine</i>, founded on the original <i>Paméla</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft133a" id="ft133a" href="#fa133a"><span class="fn">133</span></a> <i>Le Philosophe sans le savoir</i>; <i>La Gageure imprévue</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft134a" id="ft134a" href="#fa134a"><span class="fn">134</span></a> <i>e.g.</i> <i>Eugénie</i> (the original of Goethe’s <i>Clavigo</i>) and <i>Les Deux Amis</i>, +or <i>Le Négociant de Lyon</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft135a" id="ft135a" href="#fa135a"><span class="fn">135</span></a> <i>Richard Cœur de Lion</i>, &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft136a" id="ft136a" href="#fa136a"><span class="fn">136</span></a> <i>Zémire et Azor</i>; <i>Jeannot et Jeannette</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft137a" id="ft137a" href="#fa137a"><span class="fn">137</span></a> <i>Les Muses galantes</i>; <i>Le Devin du village</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft138a" id="ft138a" href="#fa138a"><span class="fn">138</span></a> <i>Pygmalion</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft139a" id="ft139a" href="#fa139a"><span class="fn">139</span></a> <i>Charles IX, ou l’école des rois</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft140a" id="ft140a" href="#fa140a"><span class="fn">140</span></a> <i>Hernani</i> (1839); <i>Le Roi s’amuse</i>; <i>Ruy Blas</i>; <i>Les Burgraves</i>, &c. +Even in <i>Torquemada</i>, the fruit of its author’s old age, and full of +bombast, the original power has not altogether gone out.</p> + +<p><a name="ft141a" id="ft141a" href="#fa141a"><span class="fn">141</span></a> <i>Chatterton</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft142a" id="ft142a" href="#fa142a"><span class="fn">142</span></a> <i>François le champi</i>; <i>Claudie</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft143a" id="ft143a" href="#fa143a"><span class="fn">143</span></a> <i>Le Gendre de M. Poirier</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft144a" id="ft144a" href="#fa144a"><span class="fn">144</span></a> <i>On ne badine pas avec l’amour</i>, as interpreted by Delaunay, must +always remain the most exquisite type of this inimitable <i>genre</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft145a" id="ft145a" href="#fa145a"><span class="fn">145</span></a> <i>Théâtre de Clara Gazul</i>. <i>La Famille Carvajal</i>, one of these pieces, +treats the same story as that of <i>The Cenci</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft146a" id="ft146a" href="#fa146a"><span class="fn">146</span></a> <i>Lucrèce</i> (1843); <i>L’Honneur et l’argent</i>; <i>Charlotte Corday</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft147a" id="ft147a" href="#fa147a"><span class="fn">147</span></a> <i>La Ciguë</i>; <i>L’Aventurière</i>; <i>Gabrielle</i>; <i>Le Fils de Giboyer</i>, &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft148a" id="ft148a" href="#fa148a"><span class="fn">148</span></a> <i>Valérie</i>; <i>Bertrand et Raton</i>; <i>Le Verre d’eau</i>, &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft149a" id="ft149a" href="#fa149a"><span class="fn">149</span></a> <i>Louis XI.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft150a" id="ft150a" href="#fa150a"><span class="fn">150</span></a> <i>Adrienne Lecouvreur</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft151a" id="ft151a" href="#fa151a"><span class="fn">151</span></a> <i>La Dame aux camélias</i>; <i>Le Demi-monde</i>; <i>Le Supplice d’une +femme</i>; <i>Les Idées de Mme Aubray</i>; <i>L’Étrangère</i>; <i>Francillon</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft152a" id="ft152a" href="#fa152a"><span class="fn">152</span></a> <i>Les Pattes de mouche</i>; <i>Nos bons villageois</i>; <i>Patrie</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft153a" id="ft153a" href="#fa153a"><span class="fn">153</span></a> <i>Le Monde où l’on s’ennuie</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft154a" id="ft154a" href="#fa154a"><span class="fn">154</span></a> <i>Frou-frou</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft155a" id="ft155a" href="#fa155a"><span class="fn">155</span></a> As has been already seen, Sir David Lyndsay’s celebrated <i>Satyre +of the Three Estaits</i>, a dramatic manifesto in favour of the Reformation, +is in form a morality pure and simple.</p> + +<p><a name="ft156a" id="ft156a" href="#fa156a"><span class="fn">156</span></a> <i>Tom Tiler and his Wife</i> (1578); <i>A Knack to know a Knave</i> (c. +1594); <i>Sir Clyomon and Sir Clamydes</i> (misattributed to G. Peele), +(printed 1599).</p> + +<p><a name="ft157a" id="ft157a" href="#fa157a"><span class="fn">157</span></a> An earlier drama by him, <i>Christus redivivus</i>, is said to have been +printed at Cologne.</p> + +<p><a name="ft158a" id="ft158a" href="#fa158a"><span class="fn">158</span></a> <i>Oedipus</i>; <i>Dido</i>; <i>Ulysses redux</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft159a" id="ft159a" href="#fa159a"><span class="fn">159</span></a> By A. Guarna.</p> + +<p><a name="ft160a" id="ft160a" href="#fa160a"><span class="fn">160</span></a> <i>Pax</i>; <i>Troas</i>; <i>Menaechmi</i>; <i>Oedipus</i>; <i>Mostellaria</i>; <i>Hecuba</i>; <i>Amphytruo</i>; +<i>Medea</i>. These fall between 1546 and 1560. The date and +place of the production of William Goldingham of Trinity Hall’s +<i>Herodes</i>, some time after 1567, are unknown.</p> + +<p><a name="ft161a" id="ft161a" href="#fa161a"><span class="fn">161</span></a> The date and place of performance of the Latin <i>Fatum Vortigerni</i> +are unknown; but it was not improbably produced at a later +time than Shakespeare’s <i>Richard II.</i>, which it seems in certain points +to resemble.</p> + +<p><a name="ft162a" id="ft162a" href="#fa162a"><span class="fn">162</span></a> Latin “academical” plays directly imitated from Seneca, but +of unknown date, are <i>Solymannidae</i> (or the story of Solyman II. and +his son Mustapha), and <i>Tomumbeius</i> (Tuman Bey, sultan of Egypt, +1516); yet others exhibit his influence.</p> + +<p><a name="ft163a" id="ft163a" href="#fa163a"><span class="fn">163</span></a> <i>”Supposes” and “Jocasta,”</i> ed. J. W. Cunliffe.</p> + +<p><a name="ft164a" id="ft164a" href="#fa164a"><span class="fn">164</span></a> His <i>Palamon and Arcyte</i> (produced in Christ Church hall, Oxford, +in 1566) is not preserved; or we should be able to compare with +<i>The Two Noble Kinsmen</i> this early dramatic treatment of a singularly +fine theme.</p> + +<p><a name="ft165a" id="ft165a" href="#fa165a"><span class="fn">165</span></a> <i>The History of the Collier.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft166a" id="ft166a" href="#fa166a"><span class="fn">166</span></a> <i>A Historie of Error</i> (1577), one of the many imitations of the +<i>Menaechmi</i>, may have been the foundation of the <i>Comedy of Errors</i>. +In the previous year was printed the old <i>Taming of a Shrew</i>, founded +on a novel of G. F. Straparola. Part of the plot of Shakespeare’s +<i>Taming of the Shrew</i> may have been suggested by <i>The Supposes</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft167a" id="ft167a" href="#fa167a"><span class="fn">167</span></a> <i>Treatise wherein Dicing, Dauncing, Vaine Playes or Enterluds +... are reproved</i>, &c. (1577).</p> + +<p><a name="ft168a" id="ft168a" href="#fa168a"><span class="fn">168</span></a> <i>The School of Abuse.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft169a" id="ft169a" href="#fa169a"><span class="fn">169</span></a> <i>The Anatomy of Abuses.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft170a" id="ft170a" href="#fa170a"><span class="fn">170</span></a> H. Denham, G. Whetstone (the author of <i>Promos and Cassandra</i>), +W. Rankine.</p> + +<p><a name="ft171a" id="ft171a" href="#fa171a"><span class="fn">171</span></a> It may be mentioned that the practice of companies of players, +of one kind or another, being taken into the service of members of +the royal family, or of great nobles, dates from much earlier times +than the reign of Elizabeth. So far back as 1400/1 the corporation +of Shrewsbury paid rewards to the <i>histriones</i> of Prince Henry and +of the earl of Stafford, and in 1408/9 reference is made to the players +of the earl and countess of Arundel, of Lord Powys, of Lord Talbot +and of Lord Furnival.</p> + +<p><a name="ft172a" id="ft172a" href="#fa172a"><span class="fn">172</span></a> <i>The Woman in the Moone</i>; <i>Sapho and Phao</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft173a" id="ft173a" href="#fa173a"><span class="fn">173</span></a> <i>Alexander and Campaspe.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft174a" id="ft174a" href="#fa174a"><span class="fn">174</span></a> <i>Endimion</i>; <i>Mydas</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft175a" id="ft175a" href="#fa175a"><span class="fn">175</span></a> <i>Gallathea.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft176a" id="ft176a" href="#fa176a"><span class="fn">176</span></a> <i>Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft177a" id="ft177a" href="#fa177a"><span class="fn">177</span></a> <i>The Wounds of Civil War.</i> With Greene he wrote <i>A Looking-Glass +for London</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft178a" id="ft178a" href="#fa178a"><span class="fn">178</span></a> <i>Summer’s Last Will and Testament</i> is his sole entire extant play. +<i>Dido, Queen of Carthage</i>, is by him and Marlowe.</p> + +<p><a name="ft179a" id="ft179a" href="#fa179a"><span class="fn">179</span></a> <i>Patient Grissil</i> (with Dekker and Haughton).</p> + +<p><a name="ft180a" id="ft180a" href="#fa180a"><span class="fn">180</span></a> <i>Hoffman, or A Revenge for a Father.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft181a" id="ft181a" href="#fa181a"><span class="fn">181</span></a> <i>Henry VIII.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft182a" id="ft182a" href="#fa182a"><span class="fn">182</span></a> Ford, <i>Perkin Warbeck</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft183a" id="ft183a" href="#fa183a"><span class="fn">183</span></a> <i>Edward IV.</i>; <i>If You Know Not Me</i>, &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft184a" id="ft184a" href="#fa184a"><span class="fn">184</span></a> <i>Henry VIII.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft185a" id="ft185a" href="#fa185a"><span class="fn">185</span></a> <i>The Merry Wives of Windsor.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft186a" id="ft186a" href="#fa186a"><span class="fn">186</span></a> Massinger, <i>The Virgin Martyr</i>; Shirley, <i>St Patrick for Ireland</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft187a" id="ft187a" href="#fa187a"><span class="fn">187</span></a> <i>Cleopatra</i>; <i>Philotas</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft188a" id="ft188a" href="#fa188a"><span class="fn">188</span></a> <i>Darius</i>; <i>Croesus</i>; <i>Julius Caesar</i>; <i>The Alexandraean Tragedy</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft189a" id="ft189a" href="#fa189a"><span class="fn">189</span></a> <i>The Sad Shepherd</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft190a" id="ft190a" href="#fa190a"><span class="fn">190</span></a> <i>The Faithful Shepherdess.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft191a" id="ft191a" href="#fa191a"><span class="fn">191</span></a> <i>The Queen’s Arcadia.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft192a" id="ft192a" href="#fa192a"><span class="fn">192</span></a> <i>Sejanus his Fall</i>; <i>Catiline his Conspiracy</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft193a" id="ft193a" href="#fa193a"><span class="fn">193</span></a> <i>Bussy d’Ambois</i>; <i>The Revenge of B. d’A.</i>; <i>The Conspiracy of +Byron</i>; <i>The Tragedy of B.</i>; <i>Chabot, Admiral of France</i> (with Shirley).</p> + +<p><a name="ft194a" id="ft194a" href="#fa194a"><span class="fn">194</span></a> <i>Arden of Faversham</i>; <i>A Yorkshire Tragedy</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft195a" id="ft195a" href="#fa195a"><span class="fn">195</span></a> <i>A Woman killed with Kindness</i>; <i>The English Traveller</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft196a" id="ft196a" href="#fa196a"><span class="fn">196</span></a> <i>Vittoria Coromboni</i>; <i>The Duchess of Malfi</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft197a" id="ft197a" href="#fa197a"><span class="fn">197</span></a> <i>’Tis Pity She’s a Whore</i>; <i>The Broken Heart</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft198a" id="ft198a" href="#fa198a"><span class="fn">198</span></a> <i>Every Man in his Humour</i>; <i>Every Man out of his Humour</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft199a" id="ft199a" href="#fa199a"><span class="fn">199</span></a> Shadwell, <i>The Humorists</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft200a" id="ft200a" href="#fa200a"><span class="fn">200</span></a> It is impossible in a summary survey to seek to discriminate +by any kind of evidence the respective shares in many Elizabethan +plays, and the respective credit due to them, of the joint writers. +Yet some such inquiry is necessary before judging the claims to +remembrance of highly-gifted dramatists such as William Rowley, +his namesake Samuel, John Day, and not a few others.</p> + +<p><a name="ft201a" id="ft201a" href="#fa201a"><span class="fn">201</span></a> The Latin comedy <i>Victoria</i> by Abraham Fraunce of St John’s was +written some time before 1583, and dedicated to Sir Philip Sidney; +but there is no evidence to show that it was ever acted.</p> + +<p><a name="ft202a" id="ft202a" href="#fa202a"><span class="fn">202</span></a> (Bishop) Hacket’s <i>Loyola</i> was acted at Trinity in 1623.</p> + +<p><a name="ft203a" id="ft203a" href="#fa203a"><span class="fn">203</span></a> <i>Naufragium joculare—The Guardian</i> (rewritten later as <i>The +Cutter of Coleman Street</i>).</p> + +<p><a name="ft204a" id="ft204a" href="#fa204a"><span class="fn">204</span></a> Chapman, Marston (and Jonson), <i>Eastward Hoe</i> (1605); Middleton, +<i>A Game at Chess</i> (1624); Shirley and Chapman, <i>The Ball</i> (1632); +Massinger(?), <i>The Spanish Viceroy</i> (1634).</p> + +<p><a name="ft205a" id="ft205a" href="#fa205a"><span class="fn">205</span></a> <i>Twelfth Night.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft206a" id="ft206a" href="#fa206a"><span class="fn">206</span></a> <i>The Puritan, or the Widow of Watling Street</i>, by “W. S.” (Wentworth +Smith?).</p> + +<p><a name="ft207a" id="ft207a" href="#fa207a"><span class="fn">207</span></a> <i>The Alchemist</i>; <i>Bartholomew Fair</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft208a" id="ft208a" href="#fa208a"><span class="fn">208</span></a> Chapman, <i>An Humorous Day’s Mirth</i>; Marston, <i>The Dutch +Courtesan</i>; Middleton, <i>The Family of Love</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft209a" id="ft209a" href="#fa209a"><span class="fn">209</span></a> Among these was Sir Richard Fanshawe’s English version of the +<i>Pastor fido</i> (1646); after his death were published his translations +of two plays by A. de Mendoza.</p> + +<p><a name="ft210a" id="ft210a" href="#fa210a"><span class="fn">210</span></a> <i>A Short View of Tragedy</i> (1693).</p> + +<p><a name="ft211a" id="ft211a" href="#fa211a"><span class="fn">211</span></a> <i>The Black Prince</i>; <i>Tryphon</i>; <i>Herod the Great</i>; <i>Altemira.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft212a" id="ft212a" href="#fa212a"><span class="fn">212</span></a> <i>The Indian Queen.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft213a" id="ft213a" href="#fa213a"><span class="fn">213</span></a> <i>The Indian Emperor</i>; <i>Tyrannic Love</i>; <i>The Conquest of Granada.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft214a" id="ft214a" href="#fa214a"><span class="fn">214</span></a> <i>Essay of Dramatic Poesy.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft215a" id="ft215a" href="#fa215a"><span class="fn">215</span></a> <i>Essay of Heroic Plays.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft216a" id="ft216a" href="#fa216a"><span class="fn">216</span></a> A direct satirical invective against rhymed tragedy of the +“heroic” type is to be found in Arrowsmith’s comedy <i>Reformation</i> +(1673).</p> + +<p><a name="ft217a" id="ft217a" href="#fa217a"><span class="fn">217</span></a> <i>The Grounds of Criticism in Tragedy.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft218a" id="ft218a" href="#fa218a"><span class="fn">218</span></a> <i>All for Love (Antony and Cleopatra).</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft219a" id="ft219a" href="#fa219a"><span class="fn">219</span></a> <i>Don Sebastian.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft220a" id="ft220a" href="#fa220a"><span class="fn">220</span></a> <i>The Rival Queens</i>; <i>Lucius Junius Brutus</i>; <i>The Massacre of +Paris.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft221a" id="ft221a" href="#fa221a"><span class="fn">221</span></a> <i>Don Carlos</i>; <i>The Orphan</i>; <i>Venice Preserved.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft222a" id="ft222a" href="#fa222a"><span class="fn">222</span></a> <i>Oroonoko</i>; <i>The Fatal Marriage.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft223a" id="ft223a" href="#fa223a"><span class="fn">223</span></a> <i>The Mourning Bride.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft224a" id="ft224a" href="#fa224a"><span class="fn">224</span></a> <i>The Fair Penitent</i>; <i>Jane Shore.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft225a" id="ft225a" href="#fa225a"><span class="fn">225</span></a> A notable influence was exercised upon English comedy as well +as upon other branches of literature by C. de Saint-Evremond, a +soldier and man of fashion who was possessed of great intellectual +ability and of a charming style. Though during his long exile in +England—from 1670 to his death—he never learned English, his +critical works included <i>Remarks on English Comedy</i> (1677), and one +of his own comedies, the celebrated <i>Sir Politick Would-be</i>, professed +to be composed “<i>à la manière angloise</i>.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft226a" id="ft226a" href="#fa226a"><span class="fn">226</span></a> <i>Epsom Wells</i>; <i>The Squire of Alsatia</i>; <i>The Volunteers.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft227a" id="ft227a" href="#fa227a"><span class="fn">227</span></a> A dramatic curiosity of a rare kind would be <i>The Female Rebellion</i> +(1682), which has been, on evidence rather striking at first +sight, attributed to Sir Thomas Browne. It is more likely to have +been by his son.</p> + +<p><a name="ft228a" id="ft228a" href="#fa228a"><span class="fn">228</span></a> <i>The Country Wife</i>; <i>The Plain-Dealer.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft229a" id="ft229a" href="#fa229a"><span class="fn">229</span></a> <i>The Double Dealer.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft230a" id="ft230a" href="#fa230a"><span class="fn">230</span></a> <i>The Recruiting Officer</i>; <i>The Beaux’ Stratagem.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft231a" id="ft231a" href="#fa231a"><span class="fn">231</span></a> <i>A Short View of the Immorality and Profaneness of the English +Stage.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft232a" id="ft232a" href="#fa232a"><span class="fn">232</span></a> Sir Novelty Fashion (Lord Foppington), &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft233a" id="ft233a" href="#fa233a"><span class="fn">233</span></a> <i>The Lying Lover</i>; <i>The Tender Husband.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft234a" id="ft234a" href="#fa234a"><span class="fn">234</span></a> <i>The Conscious Lovers.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft235a" id="ft235a" href="#fa235a"><span class="fn">235</span></a> <i>The Absolute Unlawfulness of Stage Entertainments fully Demonstrated</i>; +<i>The Stage defended</i>, &c. (1726).</p> + +<p><a name="ft236a" id="ft236a" href="#fa236a"><span class="fn">236</span></a> <i>The Siege of Damascus.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft237a" id="ft237a" href="#fa237a"><span class="fn">237</span></a> <i>Mariamne.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft238a" id="ft238a" href="#fa238a"><span class="fn">238</span></a> <i>The Double Falsehood.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft239a" id="ft239a" href="#fa239a"><span class="fn">239</span></a> <i>The Revenge (Othello).</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft240a" id="ft240a" href="#fa240a"><span class="fn">240</span></a> <i>Fatal Curiosity.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft241a" id="ft241a" href="#fa241a"><span class="fn">241</span></a> <i>Irene</i> (1749); <i>The Patriot</i> attributed to Johnson, is by Joseph +Simpson.</p> + +<p><a name="ft242a" id="ft242a" href="#fa242a"><span class="fn">242</span></a> <i>Elfrida</i>; <i>Caractacus</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft243a" id="ft243a" href="#fa243a"><span class="fn">243</span></a> <i>Rosamunda.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft244a" id="ft244a" href="#fa244a"><span class="fn">244</span></a> <i>Love in a Village</i>, &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft245a" id="ft245a" href="#fa245a"><span class="fn">245</span></a> <i>The Waterman</i>, &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft246a" id="ft246a" href="#fa246a"><span class="fn">246</span></a> <i>Pasquin</i>; <i>The Historical Register for 1736.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft247a" id="ft247a" href="#fa247a"><span class="fn">247</span></a> <i>The Golden Rump.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft248a" id="ft248a" href="#fa248a"><span class="fn">248</span></a> The first dramatic performance licensed by the lord chamberlain +after the passing of the act was appropriately entitled <i>The Nest of +Plays</i>, and consisted of three comedies named respectively <i>The +Prodigal Reformed</i>, <i>In Happy Constancy</i> and <i>The Trial of Conjugal +Love</i>. It is a curious fact that in the first decade of the reign of +George III. a severe control of the theatre was very actively exerted +after a positive as well as a negative fashion—objectionable passages +being ruthlessly suppressed and plays actually written and licensed +for the purpose of upholding the existing régime.</p> + +<p><a name="ft249a" id="ft249a" href="#fa249a"><span class="fn">249</span></a> J. Townley, <i>High Life Below Stairs</i> (1759).</p> + +<p><a name="ft250a" id="ft250a" href="#fa250a"><span class="fn">250</span></a> <i>The Minor</i>; <i>Taste</i>; <i>The Author</i>, &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft251a" id="ft251a" href="#fa251a"><span class="fn">251</span></a> This celebrated play was at first persistently attributed to +Miss Elizabeth Carter.</p> + +<p><a name="ft252a" id="ft252a" href="#fa252a"><span class="fn">252</span></a> <i>The School for Lovers.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft253a" id="ft253a" href="#fa253a"><span class="fn">253</span></a> <i>False Delicacy.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft254a" id="ft254a" href="#fa254a"><span class="fn">254</span></a> <i>The Jealous Wife</i>; <i>The Clandestine Marriage.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft255a" id="ft255a" href="#fa255a"><span class="fn">255</span></a> <i>The Heiress.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft256a" id="ft256a" href="#fa256a"><span class="fn">256</span></a> <i>The West Indian</i>; <i>The Jew.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft257a" id="ft257a" href="#fa257a"><span class="fn">257</span></a> <i>The Belle’s Stratagem</i>; <i>A Bold Stroke for a Husband</i>, &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft258a" id="ft258a" href="#fa258a"><span class="fn">258</span></a> <i>The Road to Ruin</i>, &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft259a" id="ft259a" href="#fa259a"><span class="fn">259</span></a> <i>John Bull</i>; <i>The Heir at Law</i>, &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft260a" id="ft260a" href="#fa260a"><span class="fn">260</span></a> <i>Midas</i>; <i>The Golden Pippin.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft261a" id="ft261a" href="#fa261a"><span class="fn">261</span></a> <i>Bertram.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft262a" id="ft262a" href="#fa262a"><span class="fn">262</span></a> <i>Ion.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft263a" id="ft263a" href="#fa263a"><span class="fn">263</span></a> <i>Fazio.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft264a" id="ft264a" href="#fa264a"><span class="fn">264</span></a> <i>Philip van Artevelde.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft265a" id="ft265a" href="#fa265a"><span class="fn">265</span></a> <i>The Death of Marlowe.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft266a" id="ft266a" href="#fa266a"><span class="fn">266</span></a> <i>Becket</i>; <i>The Cup.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft267a" id="ft267a" href="#fa267a"><span class="fn">267</span></a> <i>Merope.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft268a" id="ft268a" href="#fa268a"><span class="fn">268</span></a> <i>The Golden Legend.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft269a" id="ft269a" href="#fa269a"><span class="fn">269</span></a> <i>Love is Enough.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft270a" id="ft270a" href="#fa270a"><span class="fn">270</span></a> <i>Strafford</i>; <i>The Blot on the Scutcheon.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft271a" id="ft271a" href="#fa271a"><span class="fn">271</span></a> <i>Atalanta in Calydon</i>; <i>Bothwell</i>; <i>Chastelard</i>; <i>Mary Stuart.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft272a" id="ft272a" href="#fa272a"><span class="fn">272</span></a> <i>Virginius</i>; <i>The Hunchback.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft273a" id="ft273a" href="#fa273a"><span class="fn">273</span></a> A drama entitled <i>Speculum vitae humanae</i> is mentioned as +produced by Archduke Ferdinand of the Tirol in 1584.</p> + +<p><a name="ft274a" id="ft274a" href="#fa274a"><span class="fn">274</span></a> <i>Susanna</i> (<i>Geistliches Spiel</i>) (1536), &c. Sixt Birk also brought +out a play on the story of <i>Susanna</i>, which he had previously treated +in a Latin form, in the vernacular (1552).</p> + +<p><a name="ft275a" id="ft275a" href="#fa275a"><span class="fn">275</span></a> <i>Siegfried</i>; <i>Eulenspiegel</i>, &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft276a" id="ft276a" href="#fa276a"><span class="fn">276</span></a> <i>Susanna</i>; <i>Vincentius Ladislaus</i>, &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft277a" id="ft277a" href="#fa277a"><span class="fn">277</span></a> <i>Mahomet</i>; <i>Edward III.</i>; <i>Hamlet</i>; <i>Romeo and Juliet</i>, &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft278a" id="ft278a" href="#fa278a"><span class="fn">278</span></a> <i>The Tempest</i> (Ayrer, <i>Comedia v. d. schonen Sidea</i>).</p> + +<p><a name="ft279a" id="ft279a" href="#fa279a"><span class="fn">279</span></a> <i>Herr Peter Squenz</i> (<i>Pyramus and Thisbe</i>); <i>Horribilicribrifax</i> +(Pistol?).</p> + +<p><a name="ft280a" id="ft280a" href="#fa280a"><span class="fn">280</span></a> His son, Christian Gryphius, was author of a curious dramatic +summary (or <i>revue</i>) of German history, both literary and political; +but the title of this school-drama is far too long for quotation.</p> + +<p><a name="ft281a" id="ft281a" href="#fa281a"><span class="fn">281</span></a> One of his <i>aliases</i> was <i>Pickelharnig</i>. In 1702 the electress +Sophia is found requesting Leibniz to see whether a more satisfactory +specimen of this class cannot be procured from Berlin than +is at present to be found at Hanover.</p> + +<p><a name="ft282a" id="ft282a" href="#fa282a"><span class="fn">282</span></a> Deschamps and Addison.</p> + +<p><a name="ft283a" id="ft283a" href="#fa283a"><span class="fn">283</span></a> <i>Richard III.</i>; <i>Romeo and Juliet</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft284a" id="ft284a" href="#fa284a"><span class="fn">284</span></a> <i>Die Zwillinge</i> (<i>The Twins</i>); <i>Die Soldaten</i>, &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft285a" id="ft285a" href="#fa285a"><span class="fn">285</span></a> <i>Julius von Tarent.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft286a" id="ft286a" href="#fa286a"><span class="fn">286</span></a> <i>Der Hofmeister</i> (<i>The Governor</i>), &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft287a" id="ft287a" href="#fa287a"><span class="fn">287</span></a> <i>Genoveva</i>, &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft288a" id="ft288a" href="#fa288a"><span class="fn">288</span></a> Iffland’s best play is <i>Die Jager</i> (1785), which recently still held +the stage. From Mannheim he in 1796 passed to Berlin by desire +of King Frederick William II., who thus atoned for the hardships +which he had allowed the pietistic tyranny of his minister Wollner +to inflict upon the Prussian stage as a whole.</p> + +<p><a name="ft289a" id="ft289a" href="#fa289a"><span class="fn">289</span></a> <i>Die deutschen Kleinstadter</i> is his most celebrated comedy and +<i>Menschenhass und Reue</i> one of the most successful of his sentimental +dramas. According to one classification he wrote 163 plays with +a moral tendency, 5 with an immoral, and 48 doubtful.</p> + +<p><a name="ft290a" id="ft290a" href="#fa290a"><span class="fn">290</span></a> <i>Der Groosskophta</i> (Cagliostro); <i>Der Burgergeneral</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft291a" id="ft291a" href="#fa291a"><span class="fn">291</span></a> A. W. von Schlegel and Tieck’s (1797-1833).</p> + +<p><a name="ft292a" id="ft292a" href="#fa292a"><span class="fn">292</span></a> A. W. von Schlegel, <i>Lectures on Dramatic Art and Literature</i>, &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft293a" id="ft293a" href="#fa293a"><span class="fn">293</span></a> <i>Zriny</i>, &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft294a" id="ft294a" href="#fa294a"><span class="fn">294</span></a> <i>Ion.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft295a" id="ft295a" href="#fa295a"><span class="fn">295</span></a> <i>Alarcos.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft296a" id="ft296a" href="#fa296a"><span class="fn">296</span></a> <i>Kaiser Octavianus</i>; <i>Der gestiefelte Kater</i> (<i>Puss in Boots</i>), &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft297a" id="ft297a" href="#fa297a"><span class="fn">297</span></a> <i>Der 24. Februar</i> (produced on the Weimar stage with Goethe’s +sanction).</p> + +<p><a name="ft298a" id="ft298a" href="#fa298a"><span class="fn">298</span></a> <i>Der 29. Februar</i>; <i>Die Schuld</i> (<i>Guilt</i>).</p> + +<p><a name="ft299a" id="ft299a" href="#fa299a"><span class="fn">299</span></a> <i>Das Bild</i> (<i>The Picture</i>); <i>Der Leuchtthurm</i> (<i>The Lighthouse</i>).</p> + +<p><a name="ft300a" id="ft300a" href="#fa300a"><span class="fn">300</span></a> <i>Die Ahnfrau</i> (<i>The Ancestress</i>).</p> + +<p><a name="ft301a" id="ft301a" href="#fa301a"><span class="fn">301</span></a> <i>Das Kathchen</i> (<i>Kate</i>) <i>von Heilbronn</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft302a" id="ft302a" href="#fa302a"><span class="fn">302</span></a> <i>Der zerbrochene Krug</i> (<i>The Broken Pitcher</i>).</p> + +<p><a name="ft303a" id="ft303a" href="#fa303a"><span class="fn">303</span></a> <i>Prinz Friedrich von Homburg.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft304a" id="ft304a" href="#fa304a"><span class="fn">304</span></a> <i>Sappho</i>, <i>Medea</i>, &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft305a" id="ft305a" href="#fa305a"><span class="fn">305</span></a> <i>Konig Ottokar’s Glück und Ende</i> (<i>Fortune and Fall</i>); <i>Der +Bruderzwist</i> (<i>Fraternal Feud</i>) <i>in Habsburg</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft306a" id="ft306a" href="#fa306a"><span class="fn">306</span></a> <i>Die verhangnissvolle Gabel</i> (<i>The Fatal Fork</i>); <i>Der romantische +Oedipus</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft307a" id="ft307a" href="#fa307a"><span class="fn">307</span></a> <i>Die Nibelungen</i>; <i>Judith</i>, &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft308a" id="ft308a" href="#fa308a"><span class="fn">308</span></a> <i>Der Erbforster.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft309a" id="ft309a" href="#fa309a"><span class="fn">309</span></a> <i>Uriel Acosta</i>; <i>Der Königslieutenant.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft310a" id="ft310a" href="#fa310a"><span class="fn">310</span></a> <i>Die Valentine.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft311a" id="ft311a" href="#fa311a"><span class="fn">311</span></a> <i>Die Karlsschüler.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft312a" id="ft312a" href="#fa312a"><span class="fn">312</span></a> <i>Der Pfarrer von Kirchfeld</i>; <i>Der Meineidbauer</i>; <i>Die Kreuzelschreiber</i>; +<i>Das vierte Gebot</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft313a" id="ft313a" href="#fa313a"><span class="fn">313</span></a> <i>The Robbers</i> (Franz Moor). His next most famous part was Lear.</p> + +<p><a name="ft314a" id="ft314a" href="#fa314a"><span class="fn">314</span></a> In connexion with the production in 1855 of “F. Halm’s” +<i>Fechter von Ravenna</i>, of which the authorship was claimed by a +half-demented schoolmaster.</p> + +<p><a name="ft315a" id="ft315a" href="#fa315a"><span class="fn">315</span></a> As to more recent developments of German theatrical literature +see the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">German Literature</a></span>, and the remarks on the influence +of foreign works in the section on <a><i>Recent English Drama</i></a> above.</p> + +<p><a name="ft316a" id="ft316a" href="#fa316a"><span class="fn">316</span></a> <i>Aluta</i>; <i>Asotus</i>; <i>Hecastus</i>, &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft317a" id="ft317a" href="#fa317a"><span class="fn">317</span></a> <i>Gysbrecht van Aemstel</i>; <i>Lucifer</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft318a" id="ft318a" href="#fa318a"><span class="fn">318</span></a> <i>Ulysses of Ithaca.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft319a" id="ft319a" href="#fa319a"><span class="fn">319</span></a> <i>The Politician-Tinman</i>; <i>Jean de France or Hans Franzen; +The Lying-In</i>, &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft320a" id="ft320a" href="#fa320a"><span class="fn">320</span></a> <i>Aladdin</i>; <i>Corregio.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft321a" id="ft321a" href="#fa321a"><span class="fn">321</span></a> <i>Maria Stuart</i>; <i>A Bankruptcy</i>; <i>Leonarda.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft322a" id="ft322a" href="#fa322a"><span class="fn">322</span></a> <i>Brand</i>; <i>Peer Gynt.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft323a" id="ft323a" href="#fa323a"><span class="fn">323</span></a> <i>Samfundets Stöttere</i>; <i>Et Dukkehjem</i>; <i>Gengangere.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft324a" id="ft324a" href="#fa324a"><span class="fn">324</span></a> <i>Pan Jowialski</i>; <i>Oludki i Poeta</i> (<i>The Misanthrope and the Poet</i>).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DRAMBURG,<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> a town of Germany in the kingdom of Prussia, +on the Drage, a tributary of the Oder, 50 m. E. of Stettin, on +the railway Ruhnow-Neustettin. Pop. 5800. It contains an +Evangelical church, a gymnasium, a hospital and various +administrative offices, and carries on cotton and woollen weaving, +tanning, brewing and distilling.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DRAMMEN,<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> a seaport of Norway, in Buskerud and Jarlsberg-Laurvik +<i>amter</i> (counties), at the head of Drammen Fjord, a +western arm of Christiania Fjord, 33 m. by rail S. W. from +Christiania. Pop. (1900) 23,093. Its situation, at the mouth +of the broad Drammen river, between lofty hills, is very beautiful. +It is the junction of railways from Christiania to Haugsund, +Kongsberg and Hönefos, and to Laurvik and Skien. The town +is modern, having suffered from fires in 1866, 1870 and 1880. +It consists of three parts: Bragernaes on the north, divided by +the river from Strömsö and the port, Tangen, on the south. +The prosperity of Drammen depends mainly on the timber +trade; and saw-milling is an active industry, the logs being +floated down the river from the upland forests. Timber and +wood-pulp are exported (over half of each to Great Britain), +with paper, ice and some cobalt and nickel ore. The chief +imports are British coal and German machinery. Salmon are +taken in the upper reaches of the Drammen.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DRANE, AUGUSTA THEODOSIA<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> (1823-1894), English writer, +was born at Bromley, near Bow, on the 29th of December 1823. +Brought up in the Anglican creed, she fell under the influence of +Tractarian teaching at Torquay, and joined the Roman Catholic +Church in 1850. She wrote, and published anonymously, an +essay questioning the <i>Morality of Tractarianism</i>, which was +attributed to John Henry Newman. In 1852, after a prolonged +stay in Rome, she joined the third order of St Dominic, to which +she belonged for over forty years. She was prioress (1872-1881) +of the Stone convent in Staffordshire, where she died on the 29th +of April 1894. Her chief works in prose and verse are: <i>The +History of Saint Dominic</i> (1857; enlarged edition, 1891); <i>The +Life of St Catherine of Siena</i> (1880; 2nd ed., 1899); <i>Christian +Schools and Scholars</i> (1867); <i>The Knights of St John</i> (1858); +<i>Songs in the Night</i> (1876); and the <i>Three Chancellors</i> (1859), a +sketch of the lives of William of Wykeham, William of Waynflete +and Sir Thomas More.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A complete list of her writings is given in the <i>Memoir of Mother +Francis Raphael, O.S.D., Augusta Theodosia Drane</i>, edited by B. +Wilberforce, O.P. (London, 1895).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DRAPER, JOHN WILLIAM<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> (1811-1882), American scientist, +was born at St Helen’s, near Liverpool, on the 5th of May 1811. +He studied at Woodhouse Grove, at the University of London, +and, after removing to America in 1832, at the medical school of +the University of Pennsylvania in 1835-1836. In 1837 he was +elected professor of chemistry in the University of the City of +New York, and was a professor in its school of medicine in 1840-1850, +president of that school in 1850-1873, and professor of +chemistry until 1881. He died at Hastings, New York, on the +4th of January 1882. He made important researches in photo-chemistry, +made portrait photography possible by his improvements +(1839) on Daguerre’s process, and published a <i>Text-book on +Chemistry</i> (1846), <i>Text-book on Natural Philosophy</i> (1847), <i>Text-book +on Physiology</i> (1866), and <i>Scientific Memoirs</i> (1878) on +radiant energy. He is well known also as the author of <i>The +History of the Intellectual Development of Europe</i> (1862), applying +the methods of physical science to history, a <i>History of the +American Civil War</i> (3 vols., 1867-1870), and a <i>History of the +Conflict between Religion and Science</i> (1874).</p> + +<p>His son, <span class="sc">Henry Draper</span> (1837-1882), graduated at the +University of New York in 1858, became professor of natural +science there in 1860, and was professor of physiology (in the +medical school) and dean of the faculty in 1866-1873. He +succeeded his father as professor of chemistry, but only for a +year, dying in New York on the 20th of November 1882. Henry +Draper’s most important contributions to science were made in +spectroscopy; he ruled metal gratings in 1869-1870, made +valuable spectrum photographs after 1871, and proved the +presence of oxygen in the sun in a monograph of 1877. Edward +C. Pickering carried on his study of stellar spectra with the funds +of the Henry Draper Memorial at Harvard, endowed by his +widow (<i>née</i> Mary Anna Palmer).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See accounts by George F. Barker in <i>Biographical Memoirs of +the National Academy of Science</i>, vols. 2 and 3 (Washington, 1886, +1888).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DRAPER,<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> one who deals in cloth or textiles generally. The +Fr. <i>drap</i>, cloth, from which <i>drapier</i> and Eng. “draper” are +derived, is of obscure origin. It is possible that the Low Lat. +<i>drappus</i> or <i>trappus</i> (the last form giving the Eng. “trappings”) +may be connected with words such as “drub,” Ger. <i>treffen</i>, +beat; the original sense would be fulled cloth. “Drab,” dull, +pale, brown, is also connected, its first meaning being a cloth of +a natural undyed colour. The Drapers’ Company is one of the +great livery companies of the city of London. The fraternity +is of very early origin. Henry Fitz-Alwyn (d. 1212?), the first +mayor of London, is said to have been a draper. The first +charter was granted in 1364. The Drapers’ Gild was one of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page547" id="page547"></a>547</span> +numerous subdivisions of the clothing trade, and appeared to +have been confined to the retailing of woollen cloths, the linen-drapers +forming in the 15th century a separate fraternity, +which disappeared or was merged in the greater company. It +is usual for drapers to combine the sale of “drapery,” <i>i.e.</i> of +textiles generally, with that of millinery, hosiery, &c. In <i>Wills</i> +v. <i>Adams</i> (reported in <i>The Times</i>, London, Nov. 20, 1908), the +term “drapery” in a restrictive covenant was held not to include +all goods that a draper might sell, such as furs or fur-lined goods.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DRAUGHT<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> (from the common Teutonic word “to draw”; +cf. Ger. <i>Tracht</i>, load; the pronunciation led to the variant form +“draft,” now confined to certain specific meanings), the act or +action of drawing, extending, pulling, &c. It is thus applied +to animals used for drawing vehicles or loads, “draught oxen,” +&c., to the quantity of fish taken by one “drag” of a net, to +a quantity of liquid taken or “drawn in” to the mouth, and to +a current of air in a chimney, a room or other confined space. +In furnaces the “draught” is “natural” when not increased +artificially, or “forced” when increased by mechanical methods +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Boiler</a></span>). The water a ship “draws,” or her “draught,” +is the depth to which she sinks in the water as measured from +her keel. The word was formerly used of a “move” in chess or +similar games, and is thus, in the plural, the general English +name of the game known also as “checkers” (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Draughts</a></span>). +The spelling “draft” is generally employed in the following +usages. It is a common term for a written order “drawn on” +a banker or other holder of funds for the payment of money to a +third person; thus a cheque (<i>q.v.</i>) is a draft. A special form of +draft is a “banker’s draft,” an instruction by one bank to another +bank, or to a branch of the bank making the instruction, to pay +a sum of money to the order of a certain specified person. Other +meanings of “draft” are an outline, plan or sketch, or a preliminary +drawing up of an instrument, measure, document, &c., +which, after alteration and amendment, will be embodied in a +final or formal shape; an allowance made by merchants or +importers to those who sell by retail, to make up a loss incurred +in weighing or measuring; and a detachment or body of troops +“drawn off” for a specific purpose, usually a reinforcement +from the depot or reserve units to those abroad or in the field. +For the use of the term “draft” or “draught” in masonry and +architecture see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Drafted Masonry</a></span>.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DRAUGHTS<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> (from A.S. <i>dragan</i>, to draw), a game played with +pieces (or “men”) called draughtsmen on a board marked in +squares of two alternate colours. The game is called Checkers +in America, and is known to the French as <i>Les Dames</i> and to the +Germans as <i>Damenspiel</i>. Though the game is not mentioned in +the <i>Complete Gamester</i>, nor the <i>Académie de jeux</i>, and is styled a +“modern invention” by Strutt, yet a somewhat similar game +was known to the Egyptians, some of the pieces used having +been found in tombs at least as old as 1600 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, and part of +Anect Hat-Shepsa’s board and some of her men are to be +seen in the Egyptian gallery of the British Museum. An +Egyptian vase also shows a lion and an antelope playing at +draughts, with five men each, the lion making the winning move +and seizing the bag or purse that contains the stakes. Plato +ascribes the invention of the game of <span class="grk" title="pessoi">πεσσοί</span>, or draughts, to +Thoth, the Egyptian Hermes Trismegistus, and Homer represents +Penelope’s suitors as playing it (<i>Odyss.</i> i. 107). In one form of +the game as played by the Greeks there were 25 squares, and each +player had 5 men which were probably moved along the lines. +In another there were 4 men and 16 squares with a “sacred +enclosure,” a square of the same size as the others, marked in +the exact centre and bisected by one of the horizontal lines, +which was known as the “sacred line.” From the incident in +the game of a piece hemmed in on this line by a rival piece +having to be pushed forward as a last resort, arose the phrase +“to move the man from the sacred line” as synonymous with +being hard pressed. This and other phrases based on incidents +in the game testify to the vogue the game enjoyed in ancient +Greece. The Roman game of <i>Latrunculi</i> was similar, but there +were officers (kings in modern draughts) as well as men. When +a player’s pieces were all hemmed in he was stale-mated, to +use a chess phrase (<i>ad incitas redactus est</i>), and lost the game. +Other explanations of this phrase are, however, given (see <i>Les +Jeux des anciens</i>, by Becq de Fouquières). The fullest account +of the Roman game is to be found in the <i>De laude Pisonis</i>, +written by an anonymous contemporary of Nero (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Calpurnius, +Titus</a></span>). Unfortunately the texts are full of obscurities, so that +it is difficult to make any definite statements as to how the +game was played.</p> + +<p>As early as the 11th century some form of the game was +practised by the Norsemen, for in the Icelandic saga of Grettir +the Strong the board and men are mentioned more than once.</p> + +<p>The history of the modern forms of the game starts with +<i>El Ingenio o juego de marro, de punto o damas</i>, published by +Torquemada at Valencia in 1547. Another Spaniard, Juan +Garcia Canalejas, is said to have published in 1610 the first +edition of his work, a better-known edition of which appeared +in 1650. The third Spanish classic, that of Joseph Carlos Garcez, +was printed in Madrid in 1684. It is noteworthy that in an +illustration in Garcez’s book the pieces depicted resemble somewhat +some of those used by the Egyptians, and are not unlike +the pawns used in chess.</p> + +<p>In 1668 Pierre Mallet had published the first French work on +the game, and elementary though his knowledge of the game +seems to have been, even in comparison with that of Canalejas +or Garcez, the historical notes, rules and instructions which he +gave, served as a basis for many later works. Mallet wrote on +<i>Le Jeu de dames à la française</i>, which was almost identical with +the modern English game. The old French game is, however, +no longer practised in France, having been superseded by <i>Le +Jeu de dames à la polonaise</i>. Manoury gives reasons for believing +that the latter game originated in Paris about 1727.</p> + +<p>About 1736 a famous player named Laclef published the first +book on Polish draughts, but the first important book on the +game is Manoury’s <i>Jeu de dames à la polonaise</i>, in the production +of which it is said that the author had the assistance of Diderot +and other <i>encyclopédistes</i>. This book, which appeared in 1787, +was to the new game all that Mallet’s was to the old French game, +and until the appearance of Poirson Prugneaux’s <i>Encyclopédie +du jeu de dames</i> in 1855 it remained the standard authority on +so-called Polish draughts. The Polish game early attained +popularity in Holland, and in 1785 the standard Dutch work, +Ephraim van Embden’s <i>Verhandeling over het Damspel</i>, was +produced. In German-speaking countries the progress of the +new game was slower, and the works produced in the first half +of the 19th century generally treat of the older game as well as +the Polish game. This is also the case with Petroff’s book +published in St Petersburg in 1827; and similarly Zongono’s, +which dates from 1832, deals with the new game and with the +older Italian game.</p> + +<p>In 1694 Hyde wrote <i>Historia dami ludi seu latrinculorum</i>, +in which he tried to prove the identity of draughts with <i>ludus +latrinculorum</i>. This work is historical and descriptive, but contains +nothing concerning the game as played in Great Britain. +The authentic history of draughts in England commences with +William Payne’s <i>Introduction to the Game of Draughts</i>, the +dedication of which was written by Samuel Johnson. Payne’s +games and problems were incorporated in a much more important +work, namely Sturges’s <i>Guide to the Game of Draughts</i>, which +appeared in 1800 and has gone through a score of editions. +About this time the game was much practised in both England +and Scotland, but the first important production of the Scottish +school was Drummond’s <i>Scottish Draught Player</i>, the first part +of which dates from 1838, additional volumes appearing in 1851-1853 +and 1861. In 1852 Andrew Anderson published his <i>Game +of Draughts Simplified</i>. A first edition had appeared in 1848, +but the later print is the important one, as it standardized the +laws of the game, fixed the nomenclature of the openings, +introduced a better arrangement of the play, and, since Anderson +was one of the finest players of the game, excelled in accuracy. +In Anderson’s time little was known about the openings commencing +with any move other than 11-15, and it was not until +more than thirty years later that the other openings received +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page548" id="page548"></a>548</span> +more adequate recognition. This was done in Robertson’s +<i>Guide to the Game of Draughts</i>, and perhaps better in Lees’ <i>Guide</i> +(1892).</p> + +<p>Andrew Anderson was the first recognized British champion +player of the game. He and Wyllie, better known as “the herd +laddie,” contested five matches for the honour, Anderson winning +four to Wyllie’s one. After his victory in 1847 Anderson +retired from match play and the title fell to Wyllie, who made +the game his profession and travelled all over the English-speaking +world to play it. In 1872 he successfully defended his +position against Martins, the English champion, and in 1874 +against W. R. Barker, the American champion, but two years +later he was beaten by Yates, a young American. On the latter’s +retirement from the game, the championship lapsed to Wyllie, +who held it successfully until his defeat by Ferrie, the Scottish +champion, in 1894. Two years later Ferrie was beaten in his +turn by Richard Jordan of Edinburgh, who had just gained the +Scottish championship; and the new holder defeated Stewart, +who challenged him in 1897, and successfully defended his title +against C. F. Barker, the American champion, to meet whom he +visited Boston in 1900 and played a drawn match.</p> + +<p>In 1884 the first international match between England and +Scotland took place, and resulted in so decisive a victory for the +northerners that the contest was not renewed for ten years. +The matches played in 1894 and 1899 also went strongly in +favour of the Scots, but in 1903 the Englishmen gained their +first victory.</p> + +<p>In 1905 a British team visited America and defeated a side +representing the United States.</p> + +<p>The tournament for the Scottish championship has been held +annually in Glasgow since 1893. The number and skill of the +Scottish players have given this tournament its pre-eminence; +but if the levelling up of the standards of play in Scotland and +England continues, the competition which is held biennially by +the English Draughts Association is likely to rank as a serious +rival to the Glasgow tourney.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 265px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="caption2">BLACK.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figright"><img style="width:215px; height:213px" src="images/img548.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">WHITE.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>The English Game.</i>—Draughts as played now in English-speaking +countries is a game for two persons with a board and +twenty-four men—twelve white and twelve black—which at +starting are placed as follows: the black men on the squares +numbered 1 to 12, and the white men on the squares numbered +21 to 32 on the diagram below. In printed diagrams the men are +usually shown on the white squares for the sake of clearness, +but in actual play the black squares +are generally used now. In playing +on the black squares the board must +be placed with a black square in the +left-hand corner. The game is played +by moving a man forward, one square +at a time except when making a capture, +along the diagonals to the right +or left. Thus a white man placed +on square 18 in the diagram can +move to 15 or 14. Each player +moves alternately, black always +moving first. If a player touch a +piece he must move that piece and no other. If the piece +cannot be moved, or if it is not the player’s turn to +move, he forfeits the game. As soon as a man reaches +one of the squares farthest from his side of the board, he is +“crowned” by having one of the unused or captured men of +his own colour placed on him, and becomes a “king.” A +king has the power of moving and taking backwards as well as +forwards.</p> + +<p>If a man is on the square adjacent to an opponent’s man, +and there is an unoccupied square beyond, the unprotected +man must be captured and removed from the board. Thus, if +there is a white man on square 18, and a black man on square +14, square 9 being vacant, and white having to move, he +jumps over 14 and remains on square 9, and the man on 14 +is taken up.</p> + +<p>If two or more men are so placed that one square intervenes +between each they may all be taken at one move. Thus if +white having to move has a man on 28, and black men on 24, +16 and 8, the intermediate squares and square 3 being vacant, +white could move from 28 to 3, touching 19 and 12 en route, +and take the men on 24, 16, and 8; but if there is a piece on 7 +and square 10 is vacant, the piece on 7 cannot be captured, +for becoming a king ends the move.</p> + +<p>It is compulsory to take if possible. If a player can take a +man (or a series of men) but makes a move that does not capture +(or does not capture all that is possible), his adversary may allow +the move to stand, or he may have the move retracted and compel +the player to take, or he may allow the move to stand and remove +the piece, that neglected to capture from the board (called +“huffing”). “Huff and move” go together, <i>i.e.</i> the player +who huffs then makes his move. When one player has lost all +his pieces, or has all those left on the board blocked, he loses +the game.</p> + +<p>The game is drawn when neither of the players has sufficient +advantage in force or position to enable him to win.</p> + +<p>The losing game, or “first off the board,” is a form of draughts +not much practised now by expert draught players. The player +wins who gets all his pieces taken first. There is no “huffing”; +a player who can take must do so.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Draughts Openings.</i>—As there are seven possible first moves, with +seven possible replies to each, or forty-nine in all, there is an abundant +variety of openings; but as two of these (9-14, 21-17 and 10-14, 21-17) +are obviously unsound, the number is really reduced to forty-seven. +Much difference of opinion exists regarding the relative strength of +the various openings. It was at one time generally held that for the +black side 11-15 was the best opening move.</p> + +<p>Towards the end of the 19th century this view became much +modified, and though 11-15 still remained the favourite, it was +recognized that 10-15, 9-14 and 11-16 were little, if at all, inferior; +10-14 and 12-16 were rightly rated as weaker than the four moves +named above, whilst 9-13, the favourite of the “unscientific” +player, was found to be weakest of all.</p> + +<p>The white replies to 11-15 have gone through many vicissitudes. +The seven possible moves have each at different times figured as the +general favourite. Thus 24-19, which analysis proved to be the +weakest of the seven, was at one period described by the title of +“Wyllie’s Invincible.” In course of time it came to be regarded as +decidedly weak, and its name was altered to the less pretentious +title of “Second Double Corner.” In the Scottish Tournament of +1894 this opening was played between Ferrie and Stewart, and the +latter won the game with white, introducing new play which has +stood the test of analysis, and so rehabilitating the opening in public +favour. The 21-17 reply to 11-15 was introduced by Wyllie, who +was so successful with it that it became known as the “Switcher.” +This opening perhaps lacks the solid strength of some of the others, +but it so abounds in traps as to be well worthy of its name. The other +five replies to 11-15, namely 24-20, 23-19, 23-18, 22-18 and 22-17, +are productive of games which give equal chances to both sides.</p> + +<p>The favourite replies to 10-15 are 23-18, 22-18 and 21-17, but +they do not appear to be appreciably stronger than the others, with +the possible exception of 24-20.</p> + +<p>In response to 11-16, 23-18 is held to give white a trifling advantage, +but it is more apparent than real. With the exception of 23-19, +which is weak, the other replies are of equal strength, and are only +slightly, if at all, inferior to the more popular 23-18. 9-14 is most +frequently encountered by 22-18, but all white’s replies are good, +except of course 21-17 which loses a man, and 23-18 which weakens +the centre of white’s position.</p> + +<p>Against 10-14 the most popular move is 22-17, which gives white +an advantage. Next in strength come 22-18 and 24-19. 23-18 is +weak.</p> + +<p>The strongest reply to 12-16 is 24-20. The others, except 23-19, +which is weak, give no initial advantage to either side.</p> + +<p>As already mentioned, 9-13 is black’s weakest opening move, +both 22-18 and 24-19 giving white a distinct advantage. Nevertheless +9-13 is a favourite début with certain expert players, especially +when playing with inferior opponents.</p> + +<p>The term “opening” is frequently applied in a more restricted +sense than that used above. When practically all games started with +11-15 it was convenient to assign names to the more popular lines +of play. Thus 11-15, 23-19, 8-11, 22-17, if followed by 11-16, was +called the “Glasgow”; if followed by 9-13, 17-14, the “Laird +and Lady”; if by 3-8, the “Alma.”</p> + +<p>The variety possible in the opening is a fair reply to the objection +sometimes heard that the game does not afford sufficient scope for +variation. As a matter of fact a practically unlimited number of +different games might be played on any one opening.</p> + +<p>The three following games are typical examples of the play arising +from three of the most frequently played openings:—</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page549" id="page549"></a>549</span></p> + +<p class="center pt2">Game No. 1.—“Ayrshire Lassie” Opening.</p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcr">a 11-15</td> <td class="tcr">25-18</td> <td class="tcr">10-15</td> <td class="tcr">22-17</td> <td class="tcr">b 15-18</td> <td class="tcr">24-6 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">a 24-20</td> <td class="tcr">3-8 </td> <td class="tcr">23-19</td> <td class="tcr">13-22</td> <td class="tcr">24-20</td> <td class="tcr">2-9 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">8-11</td> <td class="tcr">26-22</td> <td class="tcr">6-10</td> <td class="tcr">26-17</td> <td class="tcr">18-27</td> <td class="tcr">17-10</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">28-24</td> <td class="tcr">5-9 </td> <td class="tcr">{c & d} 27-23</td> <td class="tcr">11-16</td> <td class="tcr">31-24</td> <td class="tcr">8-11</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">9-13</td> <td class="tcr">30-26</td> <td class="tcr">9-14</td> <td class="tcr">20-11</td> <td class="tcr">16-23</td> <td class="tcc">Drawn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">22-18</td> <td class="tcr">1-5 </td> <td class="tcr">18-9 </td> <td class="tcr">7-16</td> <td class="tcr">20-16</td> <td class="tcc">R. Jordan.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">15-22</td> <td class="tcr">32-28</td> <td class="tcr">5-14</td> <td class="tcr">29-25</td> <td class="tcr">12-19</td> <td class="tcr"> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p>a. 11-15, 24-20 forms the “Ayrshire Lassie” opening, so named +by Wyllie. It is generally held to admit of unusual scope for the +display of critical and brilliant combinations.</p> + +<p>b. 16-20, 25-22, 20-27, 31-24, 8-11, 17-13, 2-6, 21-17, 14-21, +22-17, 21-25, 17-14, 10-17, 19-1. Drawn. R. Jordan.</p> + +<p class="center">(c)</p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcr">26-23</td> <td class="tcr">28-19</td> <td class="tcr">20-16</td> <td class="tcr">7-11</td> <td class="tcr">14-10</td> <td class="tcr">15-10</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">9-14</td> <td class="tcr">2-6 </td> <td class="tcr">6-10</td> <td class="tcr">19-24</td> <td class="tcr">26-23</td> <td class="tcr">23-18</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">18-9 </td> <td class="tcr">20-11</td> <td class="tcr">16-11</td> <td class="tcr">11-18</td> <td class="tcr">10-7 </td> <td class="tcr">10-15</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">5-14</td> <td class="tcr">8-24</td> <td class="tcr">10-15</td> <td class="tcr">24-27</td> <td class="tcr">4-8 </td> <td class="tcr">20-16</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">29-25</td> <td class="tcr">27-20</td> <td class="tcr">11-7 </td> <td class="tcr">18-15</td> <td class="tcr">7-3 </td> <td class="tcr">15-22</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">11-16</td> <td class="tcr">10-15</td> <td class="tcr">14-18</td> <td class="tcr">27-31</td> <td class="tcr">8-12</td> <td class="tcr">16-7 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">20-11</td> <td class="tcr">31-26</td> <td class="tcr">7-3 </td> <td class="tcr">22-18</td> <td class="tcr">3-7 </td> <td class="tcc">Drawn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">7-16</td> <td class="tcr">15-19</td> <td class="tcr">18-23</td> <td class="tcr">31-27</td> <td class="tcr">27-24</td> <td class="tcc">A. B. Scott.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">24-20</td> <td class="tcr">23-16</td> <td class="tcr">3-7 </td> <td class="tcr">18-14</td> <td class="tcr">7-11</td> <td class="tcc">v.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">15-24</td> <td class="tcr">12-19</td> <td class="tcr">23-30</td> <td class="tcr">30-26</td> <td class="tcr">24-20</td> <td class="tcc">R. Jordan.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center">(d)</p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcr">19-16</td> <td class="tcr">7-10</td> <td class="tcr">23-19</td> <td class="tcr">11-15</td> <td class="tcr">16-11</td> <td class="tcr">25-30</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">12-19</td> <td class="tcr">6-1 </td> <td class="tcr">15-24</td> <td class="tcr">27-24</td> <td class="tcr">18-25</td> <td class="tcr">20-16</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">22-17</td> <td class="tcr">9-14</td> <td class="tcr">28-19</td> <td class="tcr">22-25</td> <td class="tcr">17-14</td> <td class="tcc">Drawn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">15-22</td> <td class="tcr">26-23</td> <td class="tcr">8-11</td> <td class="tcr">29-22</td> <td class="tcr">10-17</td> <td class="tcc">R. Jordan.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">24-6 </td> <td class="tcr">11-15</td> <td class="tcr">19-16</td> <td class="tcr">14-18</td> <td class="tcr">21-14</td> <td class="tcr"> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center pt2">Game No. 2.—“Kelso-Cross” Opening.</p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcr">a 10-15</td> <td class="tcr">8-12</td> <td class="tcr">13-22</td> <td class="tcr">5-9 </td> <td class="tcr">14-18</td> <td class="tcr">22-25</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">a 23-18</td> <td class="tcr">25-21</td> <td class="tcr">26-17</td> <td class="tcr">20-16</td> <td class="tcr">17-14</td> <td class="tcr">29-22</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">12-16</td> <td class="tcr">1-6 </td> <td class="tcr">d 19-26</td> <td class="tcr">2-7 </td> <td class="tcr">10-17</td> <td class="tcr">17-26</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">21-17</td> <td class="tcr">32-27</td> <td class="tcr">30-23</td> <td class="tcr">24-19</td> <td class="tcr">21-14</td> <td class="tcr">5-1 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">9-13</td> <td class="tcr">12-16</td> <td class="tcr">15-22</td> <td class="tcr">15-24</td> <td class="tcr">6-10</td> <td class="tcr">26-30</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">17-14</td> <td class="tcr">27-23</td> <td class="tcr">24-19</td> <td class="tcr">23-19</td> <td class="tcr">14-9 </td> <td class="tcr">1-5 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">16-19</td> <td class="tcr">7-10</td> <td class="tcr">9-14</td> <td class="tcr">24-27</td> <td class="tcr">10-14</td> <td class="tcr">30-26</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">24-20</td> <td class="tcr">14-7 </td> <td class="tcr">19-12</td> <td class="tcr">31-24</td> <td class="tcr">19-15</td> <td class="tcr">5-9 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">6-9 </td> <td class="tcr">3-10</td> <td class="tcr">11-15</td> <td class="tcr">9-13</td> <td class="tcr">14-17</td> <td class="tcr">26-23</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">b 27-24</td> <td class="tcr">c 22-17</td> <td class="tcr">28-24</td> <td class="tcr">24-20</td> <td class="tcr">9-5 </td> <td class="tcc">Drawn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcc">R. Jordan.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>a. These two moves form the “Kelso-Cross” opening.</p> + +<p>b. 27-23 is also a strong line for white to adopt.</p> + +<p>c. 30-25, 4-8, 18-14, 9-27, 22-18, 15-22, 24-15, 11-18, 20-4, +27-32, 26-17, 13-22, 4-8, 22-26, and black appears to have a winning +advantage. R. Jordan.</p> + +<p>d. Taking the piece on 18 first seems to lose, thus:—</p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcr">15-22</td> <td class="tcr">e 9-13</td> <td class="tcr">13-17</td> <td class="tcr">6-9 </td> <td class="tcr">5-14</td> <td class="tcr"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">24-8 </td> <td class="tcr">17-14</td> <td class="tcr">23-18</td> <td class="tcr">14-10</td> <td class="tcr">10-7 </td> <td class="tcc">White</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">4-11</td> <td class="tcr">10-17</td> <td class="tcr">17-21</td> <td class="tcr">9-14</td> <td class="tcr">2-6 </td> <td class="tcc">wins.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">31-27</td> <td class="tcr">21-14</td> <td class="tcr">28-24</td> <td class="tcr">18-9 </td> <td class="tcr">7-2 </td> <td class="tcc">Dallas.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>e. 2-7, 27-24, 22-26, 23-18, 26-31, 18-15, 11-18, 20-2, 9-13, +2-9, 5-14, 24-19, 13-22, 30-26. White wins.</p> + +<p class="center pt2">Game No. 3.—“Dundee” Opening.</p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcr">12-16</td> <td class="tcr">11-15</td> <td class="tcr">c 8-12</td> <td class="tcr">4-8 </td> <td class="tcr">9-14</td> <td class="tcr">1-26</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">24-20</td> <td class="tcr">20-11</td> <td class="tcr">17-13</td> <td class="tcr">18-15</td> <td class="tcr">26-22</td> <td class="tcr">31-22</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">8-12</td> <td class="tcr">7-16</td> <td class="tcr">5-9 </td> <td class="tcr">2-7 </td> <td class="tcr">14-17</td> <td class="tcr">19-23</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">28-24</td> <td class="tcr">24-20</td> <td class="tcr">22-18</td> <td class="tcr">30-26</td> <td class="tcr">21-14</td> <td class="tcr">13-9 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">9-14</td> <td class="tcr">b 16-19</td> <td class="tcr">15-22</td> <td class="tcr">10-14</td> <td class="tcr">18-23</td> <td class="tcr">12-19</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">22-17</td> <td class="tcr">23-16</td> <td class="tcr">25-18</td> <td class="tcr">29-25</td> <td class="tcr">27-18</td> <td class="tcr">9-6 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">3-8 </td> <td class="tcr">12-19</td> <td class="tcr">14-23</td> <td class="tcr">14-18</td> <td class="tcr">6-10</td> <td class="tcr">7-11</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">a 26-22</td> <td class="tcr">20-16</td> <td class="tcr">27-18</td> <td class="tcr">32-27</td> <td class="tcr">15-6 </td> <td class="tcc">Drawn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcc">R. Jordan.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>a. This move is the favourite at this point on account of its +“trappiness,” but 25-22 is probably stronger, thus: 25-22, 16-19, +24-15, 11-25, 29-22, 8-11, 17-13, 11-16, 20-11, 7-16, and white +can with advantage continue by 27-24, 22-17, 23-19 or 22-18.</p> + +<p>b. 15-19, 20-11, 8-15, 23-16, 12-19, 17-13, 5-9, 30-26, 4-8, +27-23, 8-12, 23-16, 12-19, 31-27, 1-5, 27-23, 19-24, 32-27, 24-31, +22-17. White wins. C. F. Barker.</p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcr">c 8-11</td> <td class="tcr">27-18</td> <td class="tcr">15-18</td> <td class="tcr">14-10</td> <td class="tcr">24-27</td> <td class="tcr">7-10</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">16-7 </td> <td class="tcr">15-22</td> <td class="tcr">14-10</td> <td class="tcr">19-24</td> <td class="tcr">31-24</td> <td class="tcr">27-31</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">2-11</td> <td class="tcr">25-18</td> <td class="tcr">6-15</td> <td class="tcr">10-7 </td> <td class="tcr">16-20</td> <td class="tcr">10-26</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">22-18</td> <td class="tcr">10-15</td> <td class="tcr">17-14</td> <td class="tcr">18-23</td> <td class="tcr">3-7 </td> <td class="tcr">31-22</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">14-23</td> <td class="tcr">18-14</td> <td class="tcr">11-16</td> <td class="tcr">7-3 </td> <td class="tcr">20-27</td> <td class="tcr">30-25</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr" colspan="6">Drawn. R. Stewart v. R. Jordan.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Problem No. 1 is the simplest form of that known to draughts-players +as the “First Position.” It is of more frequent occurrence +in actual play than any other end-game, and is, besides, typical of +a class of draughts problems which may be described as analytical, +in contradistinction to “strokes.”</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="caption2">Problem No. 1, by Wm. Payne.<br />BLACK.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="center"><img style="width:217px; height:215px" src="images/img549a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption2">WHITE.<br />White to move and win.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Solution:—</p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcr">27-32</td> <td class="tcr">18-15</td> <td class="tcr">15-11</td> <td class="tcr">11-15</td> <td class="tcr">28-32</td> <td class="tcr">19-24</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">28-24</td> <td class="tcr">2-28-24</td> <td class="tcr">12-16</td> <td class="tcr">19-24</td> <td class="tcr">27-31</td> <td class="tcc">White</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">23-18</td> <td class="tcr">32-28</td> <td class="tcr">28-32</td> <td class="tcr">32-28</td> <td class="tcr">15-19</td> <td class="tcc">wins.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">3-a-24-28</td> <td class="tcr">1-24-20</td> <td class="tcr">16-19</td> <td class="tcr">24-27</td> <td class="tcr">31-26 </td></tr> +</table> + +<p>a. 12-16 same as Var. I. at 5th move.</p> + +<p class="center">Var. I.</p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcr">24-27</td> <td class="tcr">18-15</td> <td class="tcr">19-16</td> <td class="tcr">28-32</td> <td class="tcr">8-12</td> <td class="tcr">15-11</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">15-18</td> <td class="tcr">b 16-20</td> <td class="tcr">18-23</td> <td class="tcr">8-12</td> <td class="tcr">23-18</td> <td class="tcc">White</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">12-16</td> <td class="tcr">15-18</td> <td class="tcr">16-11</td> <td class="tcr">32-27</td> <td class="tcr">12-8 </td> <td class="tcc">wins.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">28-32</td> <td class="tcr">24-19</td> <td class="tcr">23-19</td> <td class="tcr">12-8 </td> <td class="tcr">18-15</td> <td class="tcr"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">27-24</td> <td class="tcr">32-28</td> <td class="tcr">11-8 </td> <td class="tcr">27-23</td> <td class="tcr">8-12</td> <td class="tcr"> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p>b. 24-28 same as Var. II. at 1st move.</p> + +<p>Var. II. 12-16, 15-11, 16-19, 32-27, 28-32, 27-31, 32-28, 11-16, +19-23, 16-19. White wins.</p> + +<p>Var. III. 24-19, 32-28, c 19-16, 28-24, 16-11, 24-20, 11-8, 18-15. +White wins.</p> + +<p>c. 12-16, 28-32, 19-24 or 16-20, same as Var. II. at 5th and 9th +moves respectively. White wins.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="caption2">Problem No. 2.<br />BLACK.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="center"><img style="width:211px; height:210px" src="images/img549b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption2">WHITE.<br />White to move and win.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Problem No. 2 is a fine example of another class of problems, +namely, “strokes.” It is formed from the “Paisley” opening, +thus:—</p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcr">11-16</td> <td class="tcr">22-17</td> <td class="tcr">11-16</td> <td class="tcr">26-19</td> <td class="tcr">9-13</td> <td class="tcr">15-10</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">24-19</td> <td class="tcr">9-13</td> <td class="tcr">25-21</td> <td class="tcr">4-8 </td> <td class="tcr">25-22</td> <td class="tcr">a 2-7 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">8-11</td> <td class="tcr">17-14</td> <td class="tcr">6-9 </td> <td class="tcr">29-25</td> <td class="tcr">7-11 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">28-24</td> <td class="tcr">10-17</td> <td class="tcr">23-18</td> <td class="tcr">13-17</td> <td class="tcr">19-15 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">16-20</td> <td class="tcr">21-14</td> <td class="tcr">16-23</td> <td class="tcr">31-26</td> <td class="tcr">12-16</td> <td class="tcr"> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p>a. This forms the position on the diagram. The solution is as +follows:—</p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcr">27-23</td> <td class="tcr">7-14</td> <td class="tcr">18-9 </td> <td class="tcr">14-23</td> <td class="tcr">26-3 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">20-27</td> <td class="tcr">9-6 </td> <td class="tcr">5-14</td> <td class="tcr">21-7 </td> <td class="tcr">27-31</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">14-9 </td> <td class="tcr">1-10</td> <td class="tcr">23-18</td> <td class="tcr">3-10</td> <td class="tcr">3-7 </td></tr> +</table> + +<p>White wins. Jacques and Campbell.</p> + +<p><i>Other Varieties.</i>—The forms of draughts practised on the European +continent differ in some respects from the English variety, chiefly +in respect of the power assigned to a man after “crowning.” The +game of <i>Polish Draughts</i> is played in France, Holland, Belgium and +Poland, where it has entirely superseded <i>Le Jeu de dames à la +française</i>. It is played on a board of 100 squares with 20 men a side. +The men move and capture as in English draughts, except that in +capturing they move either forward or backward. A crowned man +becomes a queen, and can move any number of squares along the +diagonal. In her capture she takes any unguarded man or queen +in any diagonal she commands, leaping over the captured man or +queen and remaining on any unoccupied square she chooses of the +same diagonal, beyond the piece taken. But if there is another unguarded +man she is bound to choose the diagonal on which it can be +taken. For example (using an English draught-board) place a +queen on square 29 and adverse men at squares 22, 16, 24, 14. The +queen is bound to move from 29 to 11, 20, 27, and having made the +captures to remain at 9 or 5, whichever she prefers. The capturing +queen or man must take all the adverse pieces that are <i>en prise</i>, or +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page550" id="page550"></a>550</span> +that become so by the uncovering of any square from which a piece +has been removed during the capture, <i>e.g.</i> white queen at square 7, +black at squares 10, 18, 19, 22 and 27, the queen captures at 10, +22, 27 and 19, and the piece at 22 being now removed, she must go +to 15, take the man at 18, and stay at 22, 25 or 29. In consequence +of the intricacy of some of these moves, it is customary to remove +every captured piece as it is taken. If a man arrives at a crowning +square when taking, and he can still continue to take, he must do so, +and not stay on the crowning square as at draughts. Passing a +crowning square in taking does not entitle him to be made a queen. +In capturing, the player must choose the direction by which he can +take the greatest number of men or queens, or he may be huffed. +Numerical power is the criterion, <i>e.g.</i> three men must be taken in +preference to two queens. If the numbers are equal and one force +comprises more queens than the other, the player may take whichever +lot he chooses. This form of draughts, played on a board of 144 +squares with 30 men a side, is extensively practised by British +soldiers in India.</p> + +<p>The German <i>Damenspiel</i> is Polish draughts played on a board of +the same size and with the same number of men as in the English +game. It is sometimes called Minor Polish draughts, and is practised +in Germany and Russia.</p> + +<p>The <i>Italian game</i> differs from the English in two important +particulars—a man may not take a king, and when a player has the +option of capturing pieces in more than one way he must take in the +manner which captures most pieces. There is a difference too in the +placing of the board, the black square in the corner of the board +being at the player’s right hand, but until a king is obtained the +differences from the English system are unimportant in practice.</p> + +<p>In <i>Spanish draughts</i> the board is set as for the Italian game. The +men move as in English draughts, but, in capturing, the largest +possible number of pieces must be taken, and the king has the same +powers as in the Polish game. The game does not differ essentially +from the English game until a king is obtained, and many games from +Spanish works will be found incorporated in English books. Sometimes +the game is played with 11 men and a king, or 10 men and +2 kings a side, instead of the regulation 12 men.</p> + +<p><i>Turkish draughts</i> differs widely from all other modern varieties +of the game. It is played on a board of 64 squares, all of which are +used in play. Each player has 16 pieces, which are not placed on +the two back rows of squares, as in chess, but on the second and third +back rows. The pieces do not move diagonally as in other forms +of the game, but straight forward or to the right or left horizontally. +The king has the same command of a horizontal or vertical row of +squares that the queen in Polish draughts has over a diagonal. +Capturing is compulsory, and the greatest possible number of pieces +must be taken, captured pieces being removed one at a time as taken.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Falkener’s <i>Games Ancient and Oriental</i>; Lees’ +<i>Guide to the Game of Draughts</i>; Drummond’s <i>Scottish Draught Players</i> +(Kear’s reprint); Gould’s <i>Memorable Matches</i> and <i>Book of Problems</i>, +&c. The <i>Draughts World</i> is the principal magazine devoted to the +game. In Dunne’s <i>Draught Players’ Guide and Companion</i> a section +is devoted to the non-English varieties.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. M. M. D.; R. J.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DRAUPADI<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span>, in Hindu legend, the daughter of Drupada, +king of Panchala, and wife of the five Pandava princes. She is +an important character in the <i>Mahabharata</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DRAVE<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Drava</span> (Ger. <i>Drau</i>, Hung. <i>Dráva</i>, Lat. <i>Dravus</i>), +one of the principal right-bank affluents of the Danube, flowing +through Austria and Hungary. It rises below the Innichner Eck, +near the Toblacher Feld in Tirol, at an altitude of a little over +4000 ft., runs eastward, and forms the longest longitudinal +valley of the Alps. The Drave has a total length of 450 m., +while the length of its Alpine valley to Marburg is 150 m., and to +its junction with the Mur 250 m. Owing to its great extent and +easy accessibility the valley of the Drave was the principal road +through which the invading peoples of the East, as the Huns, +the Slavs and the Turks, penetrated the Alpine countries. The +Drave flows through Carinthia and Styria, and enters Hungary +near Friedau, where up to its confluence with the Danube, at +Almas, 14 m. E. of Esseg, it forms the boundary between that +country and Croatia-Slavonia. At its mouth the Drave attains +a breadth of 1055 ft. and a depth of 20 ft. The Drave is navigable +for rafts only from Villach, and for steamers from Bárcs, +a distance of 95 m. The principal affluents of the Drave are: +on the left the Isel, the Gurk, the Lavant, and the largest of all, +the Mur; and on the right the Gail and the Drann.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DRAVIDIAN<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> (Sanskrit <i>Draviḍa</i>), the name given to a collection +of Indian peoples, and their family of languages<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> comprising all +the principal forms of speech of Southern India. Their territory, +which also includes the northern half of Ceylon, extends northwards +up to an irregular line drawn from a point on the Arabian +Sea about 100 m. below Goa along the Western Ghats as far as +Kolhapur, thence north-east through Hyderabad, and farther +eastwards to the Bay of Bengal. Farther to the north we find +Dravidian dialects spoken by small tribes in the Central Provinces +and Chota Nagpur, and even up to the banks of the Ganges in +the Rajmahal hills. A Dravidian dialect is, finally, spoken by +the Brāhūīs of Baluchistan in the far north-west. The various +Dravidian languages, with the number of speakers returned at +the census of 1901, are as follows:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 40%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Tamil</td> <td class="tcr">17,494,901</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Malayālam</td> <td class="tcr">6,022,131</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Kanarese</td> <td class="tcr">10,368,515</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Tulu</td> <td class="tcr">535,210</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Kodagu</td> <td class="tcr">39,191</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Toda</td> <td class="tcr">805</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Kōta</td> <td class="tcr">1,300</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Kuruχ</td> <td class="tcr">609,721</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Malto</td> <td class="tcr">60,777</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Gōndī</td> <td class="tcr">1,125,479</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Kui</td> <td class="tcr">494,099</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Telugu</td> <td class="tcr">20,697,264</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Brāhūī</td> <td class="tcr">48,589</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">—————</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">Total</td> <td class="tcr">57,497,982</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Of these Tamil and Malayālam can be considered as two +dialects of one and the same language, which is, in its turn, +closely related to Kanarese. Tulu, Kodagu, Toda and Kōta +can be described as lying between Tamil-Malayālam and +Kanarese, though they are more nearly related to the latter +than to the former. The same is the case with Kuruχ and Malto, +while Kui and Gōndī gradually approach Telugu, which latter +language seems to have branched off from the common stock +at an early date. Finally, the Brāhūī dialect of Baluchistan has +been so much influenced by other languages that it is no longer +a pure Dravidian form of speech.</p> + +<p>The Dravidian languages have for ages been restricted to the +territory they occupy at the present day. Moreover, they are +gradually losing ground in the north, where they meet with +Aryan forms of speech. If we compare the caste tables and the +language tables in the Indian census of 1901 we find that only +1,125,479 out of the 2,286,913 Gōnds returned were stated to +speak the Dravidian Gōndī. Similarly only 1505 out of 17,187 +Kōlāms entered their language as Kōlāmī. Such tribes are +gradually becoming Hinduized. Their language adopts an ever-increasing +Aryan element till it is quite superseded by Aryan +speech. In the north-eastern part of the Dravidian territory, +to the east of Chanda and Bhandara, the usual state of affairs +is that Dravidian dialects are spoken in the hills while Aryan +forms of speech prevail in the plains. The Dravidian Kui thus +stands out as an isolated island in the sea of Aryan speech.</p> + +<p>This process has been going on from time immemorial. The +Dravidians were already settled in India when the Aryans +arrived from the north-west. The fair Aryans were at once struck +by their dark hue, and named them accordingly <i>kṛiṣṇa tvac</i>, +the black skin. In the course of time, however, the two races +began to mix, and it is still possible to trace a Dravidian element +in the Aryan languages of North India.</p> + +<p>The teaching of anthropology is to the same effect. Most +speakers of Dravidian languages belong to a distinct anthropological +type which is known as the Dravidian. “The Dravidian +race,” says Sir H. Risley, “the most primitive of the Indian +types, occupies the oldest geological formation in India, the +medley of forest-clad ranges, terraced plateaus, and undulating +plains which stretches, roughly speaking, from the Vindhyas +to Cape Comorin. On the east and west of the peninsular area +the domain of the Dravidian is conterminous with the Ghats, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page551" id="page551"></a>551</span> +while farther north it reaches on one side to the Aravallis and +on the other to the Rajmahal hills.”</p> + +<p>This territory is the proper home of the race. A strong +Dravidian element can, however, also be traced in the population +of northern India. In Kashmir and Punjab, where the Aryans +had already settled in those prehistoric times when the Vedic +hymns were composed, the prevailing type is the Aryan one. The +same is the case in Rajputana. From the eastern frontier of the +Punjab, on the other hand, and eastwards, a Dravidian element +can be traced. This is the case in the valleys of the Ganges +and the Jumna, where the Aryans only settled at a later period. +Anthropologists also state that there is a Dravidian element in +the population of western India, from Gujarat to Coorg.</p> + +<p>It is thus probable that Dravidian languages have once been +spoken in many tracts which are now occupied by Aryan forms +of speech. The existence of a Dravidian dialect in Baluchistan +seems to show that Dravidian settlers have once lived in those +parts. The tribe in question, the Brāhūīs, are, however, now +Eranians and not Dravidians by race, and it is not probable +that there has ever been a numerous Dravidian population in +Baluchistan. The Brāhūīs are most likely the descendants of +settlers from the south.</p> + +<p>There is no indication that the Dravidians have entered India +from outside or superseded an older population. For all practical +purposes they can accordingly be considered as the aborigines +of the Deccan, whence they appear to have spread over part of +northern India. Their languages <span class="correction" title="amended from 'from'">form</span> an isolated group, and +it has not been possible to prove a connexion with any other +family of languages. Such attempts have been made with +reference to the Munda family, the Tibeto-Burman languages, +and the dialects spoken by the aborigines of the Australian +continent. The arguments adduced have not, however, proved +to be sufficient, and only the Australian hypothesis can still +lay claim to some probability. Till it has been more closely +tested we must therefore consider the Dravidian family as an +isolated group of languages, with several characteristic features +of its own.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The pronunciation is described as soft and mellifluous. Abruptness +and hard combinations of sounds are avoided. There is, for +example, a distinct tendency to avoid pronouncing a short consonant +at the end of a word, a very short vowel being often added after it. +Thus the pronoun of the third person singular, which is <i>avan</i>, “he,” +in Tamil, is pronounced <i>avanu</i> in Kanarese; the Sanskrit word +<i>vāk</i>, “speech,” is borrowed in the form <i>vāku</i> in Tamil; the word +<i>gurram</i>, “horse,” is commonly pronounced <i>gurramu</i> in Telugu, and +so on. Combinations of consonants are further avoided in many +cases where speakers of other languages do not experience any +difficulty in pronouncing them. This tendency is well illustrated +by the changes undergone by some borrowed words. Thus the +Sanskrit word <i>brāhmaṇa</i>, “a Brahmin,” becomes <i>barāmaṇa</i> in +Kanarese and <i>pirāmaṇa</i> in Tamil; the Sanskrit <i>Dramiḍa</i>, “Dravidian,” +is borrowed by Tamil under the form <i>Tirāmiḍa</i>. <i>Dramiḍa</i>, +which also occurs as <i>Draviḍa</i>, is in its turn developed from an older +<i>Damiḷa</i>, which is identical with the word <i>Tamiṛ</i>, Tamil.</p> + +<p>The forms <i>pirāmaṇa</i> and <i>Tirāmiḍa</i> in Tamil illustrate another +feature of Dravidian enunciation. There is a tendency in all of +them, and in Tamil and Malayālam it has become a law, against +any word being permitted to begin with a stopped voiced consonant +(<i>g</i>, <i>j</i>, <i>ḍ</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>b</i>), the corresponding voiceless sounds (<i>k</i>, <i>c</i>, <i>ṭ</i>, <i>t</i>, <i>p</i>, respectively) +being substituted. In the middle of a word or compound, +on the other hand, every consonant must be voiced. Thus the +Sanskrit word <i>danta</i>, “tooth,” has been borrowed by Tamil in the +form <i>tandam</i>, and the Telugu <i>anna</i>, “elder brother,” <i>tammulu</i>, +“younger brother,” become when compounded <i>annadammulu</i>, +“elder and younger brothers.”</p> + +<p>There is no strongly marked accent on any one syllable, though +there is a slight stress upon the first one. In some dialects this +equilibrium between the different parts of a word is accompanied +by a tendency to approach to each other the sound of vowels in +consecutive syllables. This tendency, which has been called the +“law of harmonic sequence,” is most apparent in Telugu, where +the short <i>u</i> of certain suffixes is replaced by <i>i</i> when the preceding +syllable contains one of the vowels <i>i</i> (short and long) and <i>ei</i>. Compare +the dative suffix <i>ku</i>, <i>ki</i>, in <i>gurramu-ku</i>, “to a horse”; but +<i>tammuni-ki</i>, “to a younger brother.” This tendency does not, +however, play a prominent rôle in the Dravidian languages.</p> + +<p>Words are formed from roots and bases by means of suffixed +formative additions. The root itself generally remains unchanged +throughout. Thus from the Tamil base <i>per</i>, “great,” we can form +adjectives such as <i>per-iya</i> and <i>per-um</i>, “great”; verbs such as +<i>per-u-gu</i>, “to become increased”; <i>per-u-kku</i>, “to cause to increase,” +and so on.</p> + +<p>Many bases can be used at will as nouns, as adjectives, and as +verbs. Thus the Tamil <i>kaḍu</i> can mean “sharpness,” “sharp,” and +“to be sharp.” Other bases are of course more restricted in their +respective spheres.</p> + +<p>The inflection of words is effected by agglutination, <i>i.e.</i> various +additions are suffixed to the base in order to form what we would +call cases and tenses. Such additions have probably once been +separate words. Most of them are, however, now only used as +suffixes. Thus from the Tamil base <i>kōn</i>, “king,” we can form an +accusative <i>kōn-ei</i>, a verb <i>kōn-en</i>, “I am king,” and so on.</p> + +<p>Dravidian nouns are divided into two classes, which Tamil grammarians +called high-caste and casteless respectively. The former +includes those nouns which denote beings endowed with reason, +the latter all others. Gender is only distinguished in the former +class, while all casteless nouns are neuter. The gender of animals +(which are irrational) must accordingly be distinguished by using +different words for the male and the female, or else by adding words +meaning male, female, respectively, to the name of the animal—processes +which do not, strictly speaking, fall under the head of +grammar.</p> + +<p>There are two numbers, the singular and the plural. The latter +is formed by adding suffixes. It, however, often remains unmarked +in the case of casteless nouns.</p> + +<p>Cases are formed by adding postpositions and suffixes, usually +to a modified form of the noun which is commonly called the oblique +base. Thus we have the Tamil <i>maram</i>, “tree”; <i>maratt-āl</i>, “from +a tree”; <i>maratt-u-kku</i>, “to a tree”; <i>vīḍu</i>, “a house”; <i>vīṭṭ-āl</i>, +“from a house.” The case terminations are the same in the singular +and in the plural. The genitive, which precedes the governing noun, +is often identical with the oblique base, or else it is formed by adding +suffixes.</p> + +<p>The numeral system is decimal and higher numbers are counted in +tens; thus Tamil <i>pattu</i>, “ten”; <i>iru-badu</i>, “two tens,” “twenty.”</p> + +<p>The personal pronoun of the first person in most dialects has a +double form in the plural, one including and the other excluding the +person addressed. Thus, Tamil <i>nām</i>, “we,” <i>i.e.</i> I and you; <i>nāṅgal</i>, +“we,” <i>i.e.</i> I and they.</p> + +<p>There is no relative pronoun. Relative clauses are effected by +using relative participles. Thus in Telugu the sentence “the book +which you gave to me” must be translated <i>mīru nāku iccina pus-takamu</i>, +<i>i.e.</i> “you me-to given book.” There are several such +participles in use. Thus from the Telugu verb <i>koṭṭa</i>, “to strike,” +are formed <i>koṭṭ-ut-unna</i>, “that strikes,” <i>koṭṭ-i-na</i>, “that struck,” +<i>koṭṭē</i>, “that would strike,” “that usually strikes.” By adding +pronouns, or the terminations of pronouns, to such forms, nouns are +derived which denote the person who performs the action. Thus +from Telugu <i>koṭṭē</i> and <i>vāḍu</i>, “he,” is formed <i>koṭṭē-vāḍu</i>, “one who +usually strikes.” Such forms are used as ordinary verbs, and the +usual verbal forms of Dravidian languages can broadly be described +as such nouns of agency. Thus, the Telugu, <i>koṭṭināḍu</i>, “he struck,” +can be translated literally “a striker in the past.”</p> + +<p>Verbal tenses distinguish the person and number of the subject +by adding abbreviated forms of the personal pronouns. Thus in +Kanarese we have <i>māḍid-enu</i>, “I did”; <i>māḍid-i</i>, “thou didst”; +<i>māḍid-evu</i>, “we did”; <i>māḍid-aru</i>, “they did.”</p> + +<p>One of the most characteristic features of the Dravidian verb +is the existence of a separate negative conjugation. It usually has +only one tense and is formed by adding the personal terminations +to a negative base. Thus, Kanarese <i>māḍ-enu</i>, “I did not”; <i>māḍ-evu</i>, +“we did not”; <i>māḍ-aru</i>, “they did not.”</p> + +<p>The vocabulary has adopted numerous Aryan loan-words. This +was a necessary consequence of the early connexion with the superior +Aryan civilization.</p> + +<p>The oldest Dravidian literature is largely indebted to the Aryans +though it goes back to a very early date. Tamil, Malayālam, +Kanarese and Telugu are the principal literary languages. The +language of literature in all of them differs considerably from the +colloquial. The oldest known specimen of a Dravidian language +occurs in a Greek play which is preserved in a papyrus of the +2nd century <span class="sc">a.d.</span> The exact period to which the indigenous literature +can be traced back, on the other hand, has not been fixed with +certainty.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Bishop R. Caldwell, <i>A Comparative Grammar of +the Dravidian or South-Indian Family of Languages</i> (London, 1856; +2nd edition, 1875); Dr Friedrich Müller, <i>Reise der österreichischen +Fregatte Novara um die Erde in den Jahren 1857, 1858, 1859, unter +den Befehlen des Commodore B. von Wüllerstorff-Urbair: Linguistischer +Theil.</i> (Wien, 1867, pp. 73 and ff.); Dr Friedrich Müller, +<i>Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft</i>, vol. iii. (Wien, 1884), pp. 106 and +ff.; G. A. Grierson, <i>Linguistic Survey of India</i>, vol. iv. “Munda +and Dravidian Languages” (Calcutta, 1906), pp. 277 and ff. by +Sten Konow.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(S. K.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> In Dravidian words a line above a vowel shows that it is long. +The dotted consonants ṭ, ḍ, and ṇ are pronounced by striking the tip +of the tongue against the centre of the hard palate. The dotted ḷ +is distinguished from l in a similar way. Its sound, however, differs +in the different districts. A Greek χ marks the sound of <i>ch</i> in +“loch”; <i>ṣ</i> is the English <i>sh</i>; <i>c</i> the <i>ch</i> in “church”; and <i>ṛi</i> is an +<i>r</i> which is used as a vowel. In the list of Dravidian languages the +names are spelt fully, with all the necessary diacritical marks. In +the rest of the article dots under consonants have been omitted in +these words.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DRAWBACK<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span>, in commerce, the paying back of a duty previously +paid upon the exportation of excisable articles or upon the +re-exportation of foreign goods. The object of a drawback is to +enable commodities which are subject to taxation to be exported +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page552" id="page552"></a>552</span> +and sold in a foreign country on the same terms as goods from +countries where they are untaxed. It differs from a bounty in +that the latter enables commodities to be sold abroad at less +than their cost price; it may occur, however, under certain +conditions that the giving of a drawback has an effect equivalent +to that of a bounty, as in the case of the so-called sugar bounties +in Germany (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sugar</a></span>). The earlier tariffs contained elaborate +tables of the drawbacks allowed on the exportation or re-exportation +of commodities, but so far as the United Kingdom +is concerned the system of “bonded warehouses” practically +abolished drawbacks, as commodities can be warehoused (placed +“in bond”) until required for subsequent exportation.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DRAWING<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span>, in art. Although the verb “to draw” has various +meanings, the substantive <i>drawing</i> is confined by usage to its +artistic sense, delineation or design. The word “draw,” from a +root common to the Teutonic languages (Goth, <i>dragan</i>, O.H.G. +<i>drahan</i>, Mod. Ger. <i>tragen</i>, which all have the sense of “carry,” +O. Norse <i>draga</i>, A.S. <i>drazan</i>, <i>drazen</i>, “draw,” cf. Lat. <i>trahere</i>), +means to pull or “drag” (a word of the same origin) as distinct +from the action of pushing. It is thus used of traction generally, +whether by men, animals or machines. The same idea is preserved +in “drawing” as applied to the fine arts. We do not +usually say, or think, that a sculptor is drawing when he is using +his chisel, although he may be expressing or defining forms, +nor that an engraver is drawing when he is pushing the burin +with the palm of the hand, although the result may be the +rendering of a design. But we do say that an artist is drawing +when he uses the lead pencil, and here we have a motion bearing +some resemblance to that of traction generally. The action of +the artist in drawing the pencil point with his fingers along the +paper is analogous, <i>e.g.</i>, to that of a horse or man drawing a +pole over soft ground and leaving a mark behind. The same +analogy may be observed between two of the senses in which the +<span class="correction" title="amended from Frech">French</span> verb <i>tirer</i> is frequently employed. This word, the origin +of which is quite uncertain, was formerly used by good writers +in the two senses of the verb to draw. Thus Lafontaine says, +“Six forts chevaux <i>tiraient</i> un coche”; and Caillières wrote, +“Il n’y a pas longtemps que je me suis fait <i>tirer</i> par Rigaud,” +meaning that Rigaud had drawn or painted his portrait. At the +present day the verb <i>tirer</i> has fallen into disuse amongst cultivated +Frenchmen with regard to drawing and painting, but it is +still universally used for all kinds of design and even for photography +by the common people. The cultivated use it still for +printing, as for example “cette gravure sera tirée à cent exemplaires,” +in the sense of pulling. A verb much more nearly +related to the English verb <i>to draw</i> is the French <i>traire</i> (Lat. +<i>trahere</i>), which has <i>trait</i> for its past participle. <i>Traire</i> is now +used exclusively for milking cows and other animals, and though +the analogy between this and artistic drawing is not obvious at +first, nevertheless there is a certain analogy of motion, since the +hand passing down the teat draws the milk downwards. The +word <i>trait</i> is much more familiar in connexion with art as “les +traits du visage,” the natural markings of the face, and it is very +often used in a figurative sense, as we say “traits of character.” +It is familiar in the English <i>portrait</i>, derived from <i>protrahere</i>. +The ancient Romans used words which expressed more clearly +the conception that drawing was done in line (<i>delineare</i>) or in +shade (<i>adumbrare</i>), though there are reasons for believing that +the words were often indiscriminately applied. Although the +modern Italians have both <i>traire</i> and <i>trarre</i>, they use <i>delineare</i> +still <span class="correction" title="amended from 'is'">in</span> the sense of artistic drawing, and also <i>adombrare</i>. The +Greek verb <span class="grk" title="graphein">γράφειν</span> appears in English in “graphic” and in +many compounds, such as photograph, &c. It is worth observing +that the Greeks seem to have considered drawing and writing +(<i>q.v.</i>) as essentially the same process, since they used the same +word for both. This points to the early identity of the two arts +when drawing was a kind of writing, and when such writing as +men had learned to practise was essentially what we should +call drawing, though of a rude and simple kind. Even in the +present day picture writing is not unfrequently resorted to by +travellers as a means of making themselves intelligible. There +is also a kind of art which is writing in the modern sense and +drawing at the same time, such as the work of the medieval +illuminators in their manuscripts.</p> +<div class="author">(X.)</div> + +<p><i>The Art of Drawing.</i>—Rather than attempt here a historical +survey of the various so-called “styles” of drawing, or write a +personal appreciation of them, it seems of greater use to give a +logical account of drawing as an art, applicable to all times and +countries. Reference to the teaching of drawing will be occasionally +given rather to illustrate the argument than with a view to +its being of practical use.</p> + +<p>At the outset a distinction must be made between drawing as +a means of symbolic or literary expression and drawing as the +direct and only means of expressing the beauty of form. If +Pharaoh wants to have it known that a hundred ducks were +consumed at one meal in his court, he employs a draughtsman +to register the fact on a frieze by picturing a row of cooks occupied +in preparing the hundred ducks. The artist in this case does not +represent the scene as he must have known it in the kitchen, +with all its variety of movement and composition (as an early +Greek vase painter conceived the interior of a vase factory), +but all he does and is required to do is to give the sufficient +number of figures and ducks. The more uniform the figures the +greater will be the effect of number. Drawing has been employed +here to tell a story, and it succeeds in so far as it tells the spectator +plainly what could be told, perhaps less conveniently, in words. +It matters not whether the figures and objects be feelingly +rendered and harmoniously composed. So, to-day, a child, or +any one who has a simple trick of symbolizing figures and objects +in nature, can describe any event or moral by this process, +provided the plot be not too elaborate to be expressed by a +scene, or series of scenes, enacted by dumb symbolic figures. +It is plain that the amusing pictures in <i>Punch</i> or <i>Fliegende +Blätter</i> would be none the more amusing if they were done by the +hand of Michelangelo, nor would the mystic designs of Blake +be more full of meaning if drawn by Rembrandt, for in neither +case do these works depend upon any subtle rendering of the +forms of nature for their success, but upon the dramatic or +intellectual imagination of the man who conceived them. When +the witty or ethical man is at the same time a master draughtsman +his work has two values, the “literary” content and the +beauty of his drawing of natural objects. But it must be borne +in mind that these values are fundamentally distinct; so much +so that the spectator who has no appreciation of the forms of +nature enjoys the story told and remains blind to the qualities +of draughtsmanship, whilst the lover of nature’s forms may or +may not trouble to unravel the literary plot but finds perfect +satisfaction in the drawing. By far the greater part of illustration, +and of artistic production generally, must be classed as +symbolic art. Magazine stories to-day are sometimes illustrated +even by photography, for the hand of the artist is not required. +Symbolic art describes indirectly and in a necessarily limited +scope what literature can do directly and with unlimited powers. +The only content of symbolic drawing is its literary meaning; +as drawing it may be quite worthless.</p> + +<p>Pure drawing, however, whether it represent a dramatic +event or a knee-joint, has a content that cannot be expressed +by words, and is not necessarily directed towards literary expression. +Just as a fragment of good sculpture pleases the +connoisseur without any reference either to the whole original +or to its spiritual significance, fine drawing can appeal to the +lover of nature independently of indirect considerations.</p> + +<p>What is the content of pure drawing? It is held by some +that drawing or monochrome can suggest colour, and many +people, some consciously, others unconsciously, attempt to +represent in drawings the colours of figures and landscape. It +seems a strange aberration to argue that by different intensities +of the one colour various other colours can be suggested: it +would not be more unreasonable to maintain that E flat and F +could be suggested by striking the note G with varying strength. +Now the draughtsman employs various intensities of his monochrome +as light and shade by which to give roundness to his +forms. But if on the same drawing he uses the same means in +his attempt to express colour, a conflict would be at once set up +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page553" id="page553"></a>553</span> +between that which makes for form and that which would make for colour, +and the result would generally be a confusion. Again, let one attempt to +give red hair to a monochrome drawing of a man, and if the red be plain +and unmistakable to all who are not the artist’s accomplices, then the +artist has succeeded; otherwise it is bootless to treat of colour and +colour values (which of course must depend upon the existence of colour) +in monochrome. Apart from theory, if we examine the drawings, etchings +and monochromes of great artists, where do we find them attempting to +give colour or colour values? The hundreds of costume studies by +Rembrandt might have been done from white plaster models, and there are +only a few exceptions where a man has, for instance, a black hat or +cloak. But in these few instances the “colour” tone is applied with such +discretion that the true representation of the form is scarcely, perhaps +only theoretically, impaired: they certainly have gained nothing in +colour value because no specific colour is manifest in them. In +Rembrandt’s, Claude’s or Turner’s drawings of landscapes the formation +of the country, the architecture, &c., is expressed by line, light and +shade, and enhanced by shadows cast from clouds and trees. If, in the +drawings of masters, we should find objects darker or lighter than their +position in the light would warrant, they have value (perhaps not quite +a legitimate one) for balancing the composition as a flat pattern. They +were never intended to suggest colour, nor do they. Yet, in spite of the +failure to succeed, and contrary to logical argument and the practice of +great draughtsmen, the student of most of the schools of Europe and +America still persists in doing the hair dark, and, by attempting to +give colour values to the clothes, breaks up the consistency of the +whole. For the same reason that the sculptor uses uniformly coloured +material in order that the natural light and shade may have full +opportunity of making his forms manifest to the spectator, the +draughtsman confines himself to giving light and shade only. If a +monochrome has “colour tones,” the effect is similar to that produced by +a draped statue made out of variously coloured marbles—an inartistic +jumble.</p> + +<p>As the immediate purpose and content of drawing there remains the +representation of form only. Drawing is, therefore, essentially the same +activity as sculpture, and has no additional scope. “Pupils,” says +Donatello, “I give you the whole art of sculpture when I tell you to +draw” (cited by Holroyd, <i>Michel Angelo</i>, p. 2 95), and the only +practical teaching of drawing might be summed up by the inversion of the +above.</p> + +<p>Now if everything in nature—men, mountains or clouds—were as flat +targets, <i>i.e.</i> two-dimensional, drawing could be legitimately reduced to +a mechanical process,—to trace their contours upon a glass screen or +even photograph them would be all that would be required. Indeed, +provided the size of the drawing, the local colour and the texture be +the same as those of the original, a complete illusion would be the +result, in fact the proper end of one’s labours. But the presence of the +third dimension in all objects causes light and shade, which in their +turn bring about radical changes of the local colour, even in uniformly +coloured objects. Now since drawing cannot suggest colour, local or +atmospherical, any attempt to effect an illusion by a monochrome is at +once defeated. If the end of drawing were to approach imitation or +illusion as nearly as possible, how is it that a mere “sketch” by a +master draughtsman can be for itself as valuable as his highly finished +drawing? And surely a masterly outline drawing of a figure or landscape +does not pretend to be an illusion. If then the draughtsman does not, +and cannot hope to imitate nature, he is compelled to state only his +ideas of it, ideas of three-dimensional form. For this reason only +drawing must be treated as an art, and not as a mechanical act of +getting an illusion.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="3"><img style="width:900px; height:344px" src="images/img553.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="f80">(From a Greek vase in the British +Museum (E. 46).</span><br /> +<span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span></td> +<td class="caption"><span class="f80">(From <i>Bulletino arch. Napol</i>. (1843, tom. 1, tav. 7).</span><br /> +<span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span></td> +<td class="caption"><span class="f80">(From a drawing by Michelangelo (1854, 5, 13, i.),<br /> +Print Room, British Museum).</span><br /> +<span class="sc"> Fig. 3.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>It is interesting to trace in the history of an indigenous art the +development of drawing that shall ultimately express ideas of +three-dimensional form. Prof. Emanuel Loewy, in his <i>Rendering of Nature +in Early Greek Art</i>, demonstrates how the early Greek sculpture (and +that of all primitive peoples, children and ungifted artists) shows an +aversion from depth. Their reliefs are of the flattest description, +almost raised contours, and their figures in the round have at first +only one aspect, or flat façade, so to speak, then three and four +aspects, and finally at the date of Lysippus the figures are fully +rounded out, and the members project at liberty in all directions. Then +for the first time Greek sculpture showed a complete conception of the +body’s corporeity (<i>Körperlichkeit</i>). The primitive artist, however well +he may be <i>intellectually</i> aware of the three dimensions of an object, +does not fully apprehend its true aspect as offered to the eye from one +point of view. Following this conclusion, it is easy to see also in the +drawing of the early Greeks, children and so on, the same lack of idea +of the third dimension. The figures on the vases of the “finest period” +(about 475 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>), despite occasional foreshortenings, have, when +considered as representations of solid forms, a papery appearance. They +have not half the draughtsmanship shown by the latter period of the vase +industry, where the figures, though careless, stereotyped and +ill-composed, come forwards (to use Prof. Loewy’s description of later +sculpture), go backwards, twist and turn in space in a manner which +cannot be excelled. The reproductions in figs. 1, 2, 3 will illustrate +the development. The primitive draughtsman is at first bound by the +silhouette. Later, he desires to fill out the interior, but this cannot +be done without in great part modifying his contour lines, because they +are generally merely indications of the disappearing and reappearing +inner modelling, <i>i.e.</i> of the figure’s third dimension. Finally, the +draughtsman in full possession of a feeling for the corporeity of the +object will determine his contour entirely from within, a procedure +which is the exact opposite to that of his first beginnings. He +conceives the length, breadth and depth of an object and all its parts +as solid wholes. To him a body in violent foreshortening is as easy as a +simple +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page554" id="page554"></a>554</span> +profile, and, though it may not be as attractive, it is perhaps +more interesting because its contours are more bound up with, +and dependent upon, the inner modelling; in other words, it has +more depth. The draughtsman’s idea of a form in nature is +not a “flat idea,” but one containing three dimensions. This +idea he seeks to express either by line alone or by light and shade. +If an artist has not a three-dimensional “grasp” of forms, +and, like a child, confines himself to the primitive tracing of the +silhouette, his compositions may be of excellent flat pattern, +and equal to any of the designs of ancient carpets or early Greek +vases; but in the light of the above argument, and when compared +with the productions of mature draughtsmen of all ages and +countries, they cannot be said to be complete drawings, any +more than the early unifacial statues of the Greeks can be called +true plastic, simply because in neither case has the artist yet +reached the highest possible development of corporeous conception, +by which truly to interpret the solid objects of nature as +we know them, and as master draughtsmen see them.</p> + +<p>An attempt should be made to explain the psycho-physiological +process that must take place in the mind of the real +draughtsman. When we look at an object in nature we know +its length and breadth by the flat image on the retina; we see +also the light and shade, which at once gives us a correct idea +of the object’s depth or relief. But we do not, nor could we, +have this idea from the flat image on the retina alone, <i>i.e.</i> from +the mere perception of the light and shade: our knowledge of +its depth is the result of experience, <i>i.e.</i> of our having from +infancy remarked a certain dispensation of light and shade on, +and peculiar to, every form we have touched or traversed, and +so, by association and inference, being early enabled to have +ideas of the depth of things by their various arrangements of +lights and darks without having to touch or traverse them. +Nevertheless the act (generally, but by no means always, an +unconscious one) of visually touching a form must necessarily +take place before we can apprehend the third dimension of a form. +It is, then, by the combination of the ideas derived from pure +vision and the ideas derived from touch that we know the +length, breadth and depth of a solid form. We have shown that +the art of drawing is not an imitation, but an expression of the +artist’s ideas of form; therefore all drawing of forms that merely +reproduces the image on the retina, and leaves unconsulted +the ideas of touch, is incomplete and primitive, because it does +not express a conception of form which is the result of an association +of the two senses; in other words, it does not contain an idea +of the object’s relief or solidity. And all teaching of drawing +that does not impress upon the student the necessity of combining +the sense of vision with that of touch is erroneous, for it is +thereby limiting him to a mechanical task, viz. the tracing of the +flat image on the retina, which could be equally well done by +mechanical means, or by photography alone.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 430px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:381px; height:145px" src="images/img554.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 4.</td></tr></table> + +<p>In most of the schools of Europe and America it is true that +great stress is laid upon the importance of giving life-like relief to +drawings, but the +method by which +the students are +allowed to get +the relief is by +employing the +sense of vision +only. Tracing the +silhouette of the +figure as minutely as possible, they then fill it out with inner-modelling, +which also is done by vision alone, for the lights +and darks of the original are copied down as so many flat +patterns fitted together and gradated like a child’s puzzle, +and are not used merely as indication by which to “feel” the +depth of the object. Such a procedure is as if in drawing a +brick of which three sides were visible, one were first to draw +the entire contour (fig. 4, a), the subtle perspective of which he +might get correct with some mechanical apparatus or by infinite +mechanical pains, and then fill up the interior with its “shading” +(fig. 4, b). The method would be plainly laborious, unintelligent +and unedifying, and in drawing the most complicated foreshortened +forms of the human body it would seem still more +illogical. That this principle of instruction does not help the +student to grasp the three-dimensional character properly can +be proved by the twenty-minute studies of the average student +who in his fourth year has won a gold medal for an astounding +piece of life-like stippling. They are still unintelligent contour +tracings, as if of cardboard figures, with a few irrelevant patches +of dark here and there within the silhouette.</p> + +<p>But high modelling that would make for illusion of reality is not +the first aim of draughtsmanship, nor have the best draughtsmen +employed it save by exception. Michelangelo, Ingres, Holbein +and Rembrandt have shown us that it is possible to give sufficient +relief with a mere outline drawing. Again, the desire for salience +often blunts the student’s sense of the real character of the forms +he is rounding out. So his elaborately modelled portrait may +look very “life-like,” but when compared with the original it will +generally be seen that the whole and each of the individual forms +of the drawing lack the peculiar character of those of the original. +It is by carefully watching for the character of each fresh variety +in figure and feature that great draughtsmen have excelled, and +not by “life-like” relief, or even a sophisticated exposition of +anatomical details at the expense of character. Can it be +seriously maintained that a masterly sudden grasp of true formal +character can be developed in a student by a system in which he +patiently spends many days and weeks in stippling into plastic +appearance one drawing which has originally been “laid in” by a +mechanical process?</p> + +<p>It has been shown that to attempt to make an illusion of nature +is neither within the power of monochrome nor has been the +chief aim of draughtsmen, but that the art of drawing consists in +giving a plain statement of one’s ideas, be they slight or studied, +of the solid forms of nature. But the question may still be asked: +Why is it that a rigorously accurate and finished drawing by a +student or artist with <i>no</i> such ideas or conception is not good +drawing, containing as it must do all that can be seen in the +original, missing only its complete illusion? Why, in a word, is +not a photograph a work of art?</p> + +<p>The common explanation of the above important question is +that the artist “selects and eliminates from the forms of nature.” +But surely this is the principle of the caricaturist and virtuoso? +A beautiful drawing, however slight, is but the precipitate of the +whole in the artist’s mind. And a highly finished drawing by a +master does not show even any apparent selection or elimination. +The adoption of the principle of selection to differentiate art from +mechanical reproduction is fundamentally vicious, and could be +shown to be wholly inapplicable to the so-called formative arts. +Nor could the theory of “selection” be used as a principle of +teaching, for if to the first question the pupil would make, “What +am I to select?” it were answered, “Only the important things,” +then the next question, “What are the important things?” could +be answered only by saying, “That alone the real artist knows, +but cannot teach.” Certainly there are important things that +can be taught the student in the initial stage of “laying-in” a +figure, but <i>when</i> to begin selecting or eliminating no teacher +could tell him, simply because he must be aware that a true +draughtsman can afford to eliminate nothing when the truth of +the whole is at stake. The artist’s conception and its expression +may be slight or elaborate, but in neither case can selection or +elimination take place, for a true conception must be founded +upon the character of the whole, which is determined by the +entire complex of all the parts.</p> + +<p>To explain the essential difference between art and mechanical +drawing or mechanical reproduction, a more applicable theory +must be found. Compare the art of telling a story. If, to +describe an incident in the street you had the entire affair reenacted +on the same spot, you would have but made a mechanical +reproduction of it, leaving the spectator to simplify the affair, and +construct his <i>own</i> conception of it. You have not given <i>your</i> +ideas of the event, and so you have not made a work of art. So, if +a man draws an object detail for detail by any mechanical +process, or traces over its photograph, he has but reduplicated +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page555" id="page555"></a>555</span> +the real aspect of the object, and has failed to give the spectator a +simple and intelligible idea of it. Starting out with the generous +notion of giving all, that there may be “something for everyone,” +he has given nothing. He did not originally form an intelligible +and simplified idea of the figure, so how can his drawing be +expected to give one to others?</p> + +<p>But how can forms be made <i>more</i> simple and intelligible than +by reproducing their aspect with absolute accuracy? Our +combined sense of vision and touch comprehends very easily +certain elementary solid forms, the sphere, the cube, the pyramid +and the cylinder. No forms but these, and their modifications, +can be apprehended by the mind in one and the same act of +vision. Every complex form, even so simple as that of a kidney, +for instance, must be first broken up into its component parts +before it can be fully apprehended or remembered. Analogously +with the above, Prof. Wundt has shown how the mind can +apprehend <i>as separate units</i> any number, of marbles for instance, +up to five, after which every number must be split up into lots of +twos, threes, fours and fives, or twenties, thirties and so on, +before it can realize the full content of that number in one and the +same mental picture. So the only way to receive an intelligible +idea of a complex form, such as a human figure, is first to discover +in the figure itself, and then in all its parts, only modifications of +the above elementary solid forms, and the drawing of a conception +thus informed must needs be a very clear and intelligible +one. The more the artist is capable and practised, the more +clearly will he conceive and distinguish in nature each subtle +modification of these elementary forms, their direction, their +relation to, and their dependence upon one another. The only +difference between a good draughtsman and a bad one is the +degree of subtlety of his apprehension. Unless the draughtsman +has seen some such clear forms in his original, his labour to +produce a work of art will be grievous and fruitless. All good +drawing is stamped with this kind of structural insight. The +more the artist adheres to nature, and the more finished his +drawing, the more will the lines and forms that he makes be, so to +speak, <i>in excess</i> of those of nature, or dull imitation or photography. +It is not to be supposed that able draughtsmen work, or +need ever have worked, consciously in this manner. It is, +indeed, the virtue peculiar to the artist, as interpreter of form, +that he instinctively comprehends the real elemental character of +complex forms, whilst the majority of people (on the showing of +their own drawings) entertain but confused or <i>no</i> ideas of them. +It is because a good drawing reduces the chaos of ideas supplied +by the raw material of nature, to one intelligible manner of +seeing it, that all lovers of nature welcome it with joy. It is this +process of discovery and interpretation that marks the essential +difference between art and mechanical drawing or reproduction. +Art gives intelligible ideas of the forms of nature, mechanism +attempts to reduplicate their aspects.</p> + +<p>There are some who hold that drawing is not exclusively a +matter of interpreting form, but that great artists have their own +“personalities” which they infuse into their work. They will +ask, How is it otherwise to be explained that two equally good +draughtsmen will invariably make different drawings of the same +figure? Is it not for the same reason that one man will divide up +a row of eight marbles into groups of four, and another into five +and three? The subjectivity of experience governs the different +conceptions that good draughtsmen will form of the same object. +Accordingly as a draughtsman feels form so will he draw it, and it +is only because our sense apparatuses are more or less similarly +constituted that we can understand and appreciate one another’s +conceptions.</p> + +<p>But if the master draughtsman gives the true character of +his model’s form, why is it that his drawings are not pleasing to +all alike? Whence the doubts and criticism that have been +called forth by all original artists? If we first examine the +attitude of the average man, artist or layman, towards nature, +we can better explain his attitude towards works of art. The +average man or artist has not a highly developed appreciation of +form <i>per se</i>, whether it be the form of natural or manufactured +objects. And it would seem that he is still less a disinterested +spectator of the forms and features of his fellow beings and +animals, their movements, their colour, their value in a room or +landscape. He has sentimental, moral or intellectual preferences. +In other words, he likes or dislikes only those faces or +figures which hundreds of personal associations have taught +him to like or dislike. The riding man’s admiration for the look +of a particular horse is based upon the fact that it looks like “a +horse to go,” and hence it is what he calls beautiful, while the +artist, in the capacity of artist and not of sportsman, is not +particular in his choice of horse-flesh, but finds each animal +equally interesting for itself alone. Consequently in art any face, +figure or object that does not come into the category of what +the average man cares for is condemned by him even as it would +be in real life, since he is no lover of form for form’s sake, but +provided the subject or moral be pleasing the quality of the +draughtsmanship is of small account. The picture of a dwarf, +or of an anatomy lesson, or of a group of ordinary bourgeois +folk would not really please him, even though he were told that +the work was by Velazquez, Rembrandt or Manet. We have +only to listen to the common criticism of works of art to know +that it is founded upon personal predilection only. We do not +hear such personal criticism upon drawings of landscape, not +because artists do them better, but because natural landscape +has no interest for any one other than for its form, or, at least, +people do not hold such definite personal likes or dislikes with +regard to its various manifestations. But the artist, though his +own personal predilections may, and generally do, lead him to +work within that agreeable <i>milieu</i>, has, in the capacity of artist, +no subjective prejudices; indeed, if he had them, he could not +represent them by line, light and shade. He seeks always new +varieties of form; hence his subjects, and his manner of posing +them, are often unpleasing to the man who is busy with other +affairs, and has no great experience of nature’s forms. Let a good +draughtsman make a successful likeness of the mother of some +average man, and the latter will be delighted, but it by no means +follows that he will delight in a drawing of the wife of the artist, +though done by the same hand and with equal skill.</p> + +<p>If drawing is the art of giving one’s ideas of the forms of +nature, then all criticism of drawing must be based upon the +question, “How far does such and such a work show an intimate +knowledge of or intelligent visualization of the forms we know +in nature?” and no other principle of judgment can be applicable +to all drawing alike. Hence only those who have by natural +endowment a clear sense of the forms of things, and who have +made more than ordinary study of them, are in a position to +apply to drawings the above criterion with any approach to +infallibility. It is a fact that there are, and always have been, +a certain number of people who agree perfectly in their appreciation +of the works of certain draughtsmen of different times and +countries, and who can state reasons for their appreciation in +definite and almost identical terms, for it is based upon knowledge +and experience. To such people all fine draughtsmanship owes +its public fame, and its immortality lies in their safe keeping.</p> + +<p>It may be argued that each has a right to his own opinion +about form and its representation, on the supposed ground that +we all see form in different ways. But there is a fallacy in this +argument. If we take the average man’s drawing of any form +more complex than a loaf of bread as a fair and only testimony +of his power of visualization of forms, we must conclude that most +of us see not differently, but <i>wrongly</i>, or rather confusedly and +disconnectedly, and that some can visualize form scarcely at all. +If this be true, the average person’s sight and ability to judge +drawing is seriously diminished. If, then, drawing can be judged +and appreciated only by knowledge and experience of the forms +of nature, no critical formula could be made out so as to enable +a child or savage or ordinary civilized adult to estimate or enjoy +it. If it be argued that drawings are to be judged from some +abstract or symbolic point of view, independently of its subtle +representation of form, then incompetent drawing might be as +beautiful as the competent, which would be absurd. However, +if the competent characterization of form were admitted as at +least the first condition of beautiful drawing, it would follow +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page556" id="page556"></a>556</span> +that any abstract value it might have must be wholly dependent +upon the manner in which form is represented, and so it would +be superfluous to judge it by any standard other than the direct, +definite and concrete one of form. Abstract beauty, since no +one has yet defined it agreeably to all, is, apparently, with those +who affect a feeling for it, a matter of individual taste, and +therefore cannot be questioned. But the clear visualization of +the forms of nature is based upon a special endowment and +knowledge, and can be criticized by demonstration. People +may differ in their tastes, but they may not, nor do they, differ +upon questions of real knowledge. Drawing, as the activity of +giving one’s ideas of form, must therefore be judged not by taste +but by knowledge.</p> + +<p>In view of the purpose and content of drawing as here demonstrated, +there is no other principle of judgment that is relevant. +Yet we often hear drawing judged by criteria which are founded +upon no such concrete base but upon certain vague abstractions; +or, again, upon a literary or moral base which could be applicable +only to symbolic art.</p> + +<p>It is said that this or that draughtsman excels in “beauty of +line.” Now in spite of the labours of many painters and theorists, +it cannot reasonably be held that one purely abstract line or +curve is more beautiful than another, for the simple reason that +people have no common ground upon which to establish the +nature of abstract beauty. It may be, however, that even as +certain simple forms are more easily apprehended than complex +ones, there is the same distinction with regard to lines. If then +an artist of clean vision sees in an object of reality such clear +characteristic lines, he draws them not for their abstract beauty, +but merely because by them alone can he express his idea of +the form before him. The early Greek vase painters, and all +great artists of primitive periods, being attracted only by the +silhouette, became very subtle to observe nature’s outlines in +their most intelligible character, and to this capacity is due their +“beauty of line,” and not to any preconceived notion of an +abstract line of perfect beauty, and nowhere will “beauty of +line” be found on Greek vases, or elsewhere, that is not informed +by, and does not express, a fine conception of nature’s contours. +So too in later three-dimensional drawing there is no beauty of +line which does not intelligibly express not only the directions +and angles of the main contour, but the inner modelling, <i>i.e.</i> +the relief of the figure. It is only a superficial judgment that +would prefer one drawing to another, even if both may be equally +good, because the line of one is neat and the other “tormented.” +Contour being <i>in nature</i> an ideal line between one form and +another, it is illogical to treat it or criticize it in a <i>drawing</i> as an +actual and specific thing, apart from the forms that make it +and are made by it. If an artist drew a dragon with deliberate +disregard for animal construction, his drawing would be silly, +and only by a profound knowledge of the forms of nature could +it be made to have beautiful lines. Truth to nature is always +originality, and it is the only originality worth the name.</p> + +<p>Again, some people judge one drawing as better than another +in that it shows more “individuality” or “temperament.” Now +a man’s individuality is, presumably, a vague feeling in our +minds produced by the net result of the ways in which he sees, +hears, loves, thinks and so on, so that we could not tell a man’s +individuality from any single one of his manifestations. With +his entire work as an artist before us, <i>i.e.</i> his manner of seeing, +we could do no more than infer, with the help of outside data, +from the subjects he chooses, and the neatness or boldness of his +line, something about his general character, and that with small +degree of certainty. To regard a man’s works of art, or indeed +any of his manifestations, from this point of view, is, after all, +nothing but a kind of inquisitive cheiromancy. Those who +pretend to like the drawings of Watteau or Michelangelo “because +they show more individuality” than the incompetent work of a +beginner or poor artist cannot be skilled in their own business, +because the lady who tells your character by your handwriting +finds as much individuality in bad writing as in good,—sometimes +even more. It may be entertaining to some to guess at the +artist’s character from his works by this process of inference +and comparison, but it is unreasonable to imagine that “individuality,” +as such, can be made a serious criterion of aesthetic +judgment. The only individuality a draughtsman can show +directly by his drawing is his individual way of conceiving the +forms of nature, and even this is immaterial provided the +conception and drawing be good.</p> + +<p>A word or two are necessary upon “style,” which unfortunate +word has made much mystery in criticism. The great draughtsmen +of every time and country are known by their own words, +as well as their works, to have been infinitely respectful to the +form of every detail in nature. Their drawings always recall +to our minds reality as we ourselves have seen it (provided we +have studied from nature and not from pictures). The drawing +of a hand, for instance, by Hokusai, Ingres or Dürer, revives +in us our own impressions of the forms and aspects of real hands. +In short there is manifest in all good drawings, whatever their +difference of medium or superficial appearance, an entire dependence +upon the forms of nature. Hence we cannot imagine +that they were conceived and executed with the conscious +effort to obtain some abstract style independent of the material +treated. The style they plainly have can spring from this +common quality, their truthful and well understood representation +of forms. Style, then, is the expression of a clear understanding +of the material from which the artist works. Unless +a drawing shows this understanding it would be as impossible +as it would be gratuitous to argue that it could have style. But +it would seem that some people mean by style nothing more +than the mere superficial appearance of the work. They would +have a draughtsman draw “in the style of Holbein,” but not +“in the style” of Rembrandt. This kind of preference, as +remarked above, is superficial, for it overlooks the main issue +and purpose of drawing, viz. the representation, by any means +whatever, of the artist’s ideas of form. It is as though one +should prefer a letter from Holbein to one from Rembrandt, +though both were equally expressive, simply because Holbein’s +handwriting was prettier than Rembrandt’s. Each draughtsman +manifests a kind of handwriting peculiar to himself even in +his most faithful rendering of form; and by this we can immediately +recognize the artist; many, for instance Hogarth and +some Japanese, seem to have let their quirks, full stops +and so on, get the upper hand at the expense of serious, +sensitive draughtsmanship.</p> + +<p>It is fair to suppose that all abstract principles of aesthetic +judgment, such as beauty of line, personality, style, nobility +of thought, romanticism, are merely pretexts set up by people +who would still affect to admire the drawings of recognized +masters when they have neither the knowledge of, nor the care +for, the forms of nature by virtue of which alone these drawings +are what they are, and by which alone they can be immediately +appreciated.</p> +<div class="author">(J. R. Fo.)</div> + +<p><i>Drawing-Office Work.</i>—In modern engineering, few pieces of +mechanism are ever produced in the shops until their design has +been settled in the “drawing office,” and embodied in suitable +drawings showing general and detailed views. This is a broad +statement to which there are exceptions, to be noted presently.</p> + +<p>Drawing-office work is divisible into four principal groups. +First, there is the actual designing, by far the most difficult +work, which is confined to relatively few well-paid men. The +qualifications necessary for it are a good scientific, mathematical +and engineering training, and a specialized experience gathered +in the particular class of mechanism to which the designing +relates. Second, there is the work of the rank and file who take +instructions from the chiefs, and elaborate the smaller details and +complete the drawings. Third, there are the tracers, either +youths or girls, who copy drawings on tracing paper without +necessarily understanding them. Fourth, there is a printing +department in which phototypes are produced on sensitized +paper from tracings.</p> + +<p>The character of the drawings used includes the general +drawings, or those which show a mechanism complete; and the +detailed drawings, which illustrate portions isolated from their +connexions and relationships. The first are retained in the office +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page557" id="page557"></a>557</span> +for reference, and copies are only sent out to the men who have to +assemble or erect and complete mechanisms. The second are +distributed to the several shops and departments where sectional +portions are being prepared, as pattern shop, smithy, turnery, +machine shop, &c. General drawings are, as a rule, drawn to a +small scale, ranging say from <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span> in. to 1 in. to the foot; but +details are either to actual size, or to a large scale, as from 1½ in. +to the foot or 3 in. or 6 in. to the foot.</p> + +<p>A large number of minutiae are omitted from general drawings, +but in the detailed ones that are sent into the shops nothing is +apparently too trivial for insertion. In this respect, however, +there is much difference observable in the practice of different +firms, and in the best practice of the present compared with that +of former years. In the detailed drawings issued by many firms +now, every tiny element and section is not only drawn to actual +size, but also fully dimensioned, and the material to be used is +specified in every case. This practice largely adds to the work of +the drawing-office staff, but it pays.</p> + +<p>The present tendency therefore is to throw more responsibility +than of old on the drawing-office staff, in harmony with the +tendency towards greater centralization of authority. Much of +detail that was formerly left to the decision of foremen and +skilled hands is now determined by the drawing-office staff. +Heterogeneity in details is thus avoided, and the drawings reflect +accurately and fully the past as well as the present practice of the +firm. To so great an extent is this the case that the preparation +of the tools, appliances, templets, jigs and fixtures used in the +shops is often now not permitted to be undertaken until proper +drawings have been prepared for them, though formerly the +foreman’s own hand sketches generally sufficed. The practice of +turret work has been contributory to this result. In many +establishments now the designing of shop tools and fixtures is +done in a department of the office specially set apart for that +kind of work.</p> + +<p>The growing specialization of the engineer’s work is reflected +in the drawing office. Specialists are sought after, and receive +the highest rates of pay. A man is required to be an expert in +some one branch, as electric cranes or hydraulic machines, steel +works plant, lathes, or heavy or light machine tools. The days +are past in which all-round men were in request. In those firms +which manufacture a large range of machinery, the drawing-office +staff is separated into departments, each under its own +chief, and there is seldom any transference of men from one to +another.</p> + +<p>Although in the majority of instances designs and drawings are +completed before the manufacture is undertaken, exceptions to +this rule occur in connexion with the work of standardizing +machines and motors, for repetitive and interchangeable manufacture +on a large scale. Here it is so essential to secure the most +minute economies in manufacture that the first articles made +are of a more or less experimental character. Only after no +further improvement seems for the time being possible are the +drawings made or completed for standard use and reference. +In some modern shops even standardized drawings are scarcely +used, but their place is taken by the templets, jigs and fixtures +which are employed by the workmen as their sole guides in +machining and assembling parts. By the employment of these +aids locations and dimensions are embodied and fixed absolutely +for any number of similar parts; reference to drawings thus +becomes unnecessary, and they therefore fall into disuse.</p> + +<p>The mechanical work of the drawing office is confined strictly +to orthographic projections and sections of objects. Perspective +views are of no value, though occasionally an object is +sketched roughly in perspective as an aid to the rapid grasp of an +idea. Drawings involve plans, elevations, and sectional views, +in vertical and angular relations.</p> + +<p>There are a good many conventionalities adopted which have +no correspondences in fact, with the object of saving the draughtsman’s +time; or else, as in the case of superposition of plans and +sections, to show in one view what would otherwise require two +drawings. Among the convenient conventionalities are the +indications of toothed wheels by their pitch lines only, of screws +by parallel lines and by diagonal shade lines; and of rivets, +bolts and studs by their centres only. The adoption of this +practice never leads to error.</p> + +<p>In the preliminary preparation of drawings in pencil no +distinction is made between full or unbroken lines, and dotted +or centre lines, and the actual outlines of the objects. These +differences are made when the inking-in is being done. Indian +or Chinese ink is used, because it does not run when colours are +applied. There are conventional colours used to indicate +different materials. But colouring is not adopted so much as +formerly, because of the practice of making sun prints instead of +the more expensive tracings for the multiplication of drawings. +When tracings are coloured the colour is applied on the back +instead of on the side where the ink lines are drawn.</p> + +<p>The economical importance of the printing department of the +drawing office cannot be overestimated. Before its introduction +drawings could only be reproduced by laborious tracing on paper +or cloth, the first being flimsy, the second especially liable to +absorb grease from the hands of the workmen. By the sun +copying processes (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sun Copying</a></span>) any number of prints can be +taken from a single tracing. But even the fickle sun is being +displaced by electricity, so that prints can be made by night as +well as day, on cloudy days as well as on bright ones. Twenty +minutes of bright sunshine is required for a print, but the electric +light produces the same result within five minutes. Prints are +blue, white or brown. The advantage of white is that they can +be coloured. But the majority are blue (white lines on blue +ground). All can be had on stout, thin or medium paper.</p> + +<p>An innovation in drawing-office equipment is that of vertical +boards, displacing horizontal or sloping ones. They have the +advantage that the draughtsman is able to avoid a bending +posture at his work. The objection on the ground that the tee-square +must be held up constantly with one hand is overcome by +supporting and balancing it with cords and weights.</p> +<div class="author">(J. G. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DRAWING AND QUARTERING,<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> part of the penalty anciently +ordained in England for treason. Until 1870 the full punishment +for the crime was that the culprit be dragged on a hurdle to the +place of execution; that he be hanged by the neck but not till +he was dead; that he should be disembowelled or drawn and his +entrails burned before his eyes; that his head be cut off and his +body divided into four parts or quartered. This brutal penalty +was first inflicted in 1284 on the Welsh prince David, and on +Sir William Wallace a few years later. In Richard III.’s reign +one Collingbourne, for writing the famous couplet “The Cat, the +Rat and Lovel the Dog, Rule all England under the Hog,” was +executed on Tower Hill. Stow says, “After having been hanged, +he was cut down immediately and his entrails were then extracted +and thrown into the fire, and all this was so speedily done that +when the executioners pulled out his heart he spoke and said +’Jesus, Jesus.’” Edward Marcus Despard and his six accomplices +were in 1803 hanged, drawn and quartered for conspiring +to assassinate George III. The sentence was last passed (though +not carried out) upon the Fenians Burke and O’Brien in 1867. +There is a tradition that Harrison the regicide, after being +disembowelled, rose and boxed the ears of the executioner.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DRAWING-ROOM<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> (a shortened form of “with-drawing room,” +the longer form being usual in the 16th and 17th centuries), the +English name generally employed for a room used in a dwelling-house +for the reception of company. It originated in the setting +apart of such a room, as the more private and exclusive preserve +of the ladies of the household, to which they withdrew from the +dining-room. The term “drawing-room” is also used in a special +sense of the formal receptions or “courts” held by the British +sovereign or his representative, at which ladies are presented, as +distinguished from a “levee,” at which men are presented.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DRAYTON, MICHAEL<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> (1563-1631), English poet, was born +at Hartshill, near Atherstone, in Warwickshire in 1563. Even +in childhood it was his great ambition to excel in writing verses. +At the age of ten he was sent as page into some great family, +and a little later he is supposed to have studied for some time +at Oxford. Sir Henry Goodere of Powlesworth became his +patron, and introduced him to the countess of Bedford, and for +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page558" id="page558"></a>558</span> +several years he was esquire to Sir Walter Aston. How the early +part of his life was spent, however, we possess no means of +ascertaining. It has been surmised that he served in the army +abroad. In 1590 he seems to have come up to London, and to +have settled there.</p> + +<p>In 1591 he produced his first book, <i>The Harmony of the Church</i>, +a volume of spiritual poems, dedicated to Lady Devereux. The +best piece in this is a version of the Song of Solomon, executed +with considerable richness of expression. A singular and now +incomprehensible fate befell the book; with the exception of +forty copies, seized by the archbishop of Canterbury, the whole +edition was destroyed by public order. It is probable that he +had come up to town laden with poetic writings, for he published +a vast amount within the next few years. In 1593 appeared +<i>Idea: The Shepherd’s Garland</i>, a collection of nine pastorals, +in which he celebrated his own love-sorrows under the poetic +name of Rowland. The circumstances of this passion appear +more distinctly in the cycle of 64 sonnets, published in 1594, +under the title of <i>Idea’s Mirror</i>, by which we learn that the lady +lived by the river Ankor in Warwickshire. It appears that he +failed to win his “Idea,” and lived and died a bachelor. In +1593 appeared the first of Drayton’s historical poems, <i>The Legend +of Piers Gaveston</i>, and the next year saw the publication of +<i>Matilda</i>, an epical poem in rhyme royal. It was about this time, +too, that he brought out <i>Endimion and Phoebe</i>, a volume which +he never republished, but which contains some interesting +autobiographical matter, and acknowledgments of literary help +from Lodge, if not from Spenser and Daniel also. In his <i>Fig +for Momus</i>, Lodge has reciprocated these friendly courtesies. +In 1596 Drayton published his long and important poem of +<i>Mortimerades</i>, which deals with the Wars of the Roses, and is a +very serious production in <i>ottava rima</i>. He afterwards enlarged +and modified this poem, and republished it in 1603 under the +title of <i>The Barons’ Wars</i>. In 1596 also appeared another +historical poem, <i>The Legend of Robert, Duke of Normandy</i>, with +which <i>Piers Gaveston</i> was reprinted. In 1597 appeared <i>England’s +Heroical Epistles</i>, a series of historical studies, in imitation of +those of Ovid. These last poems, written in the heroic couplet, +contain some of the finest passages in Drayton’s writings.</p> + +<p>With the year 1597 the first half of the poet’s literary life closes. +He had become famous by this rapid production of volumes, and +he rested on his oars. It would seem that he was much favoured +at the court of Elizabeth, and he hoped that it would be the +same with her successor. But when, in 1603, he addressed a +poem of compliment to James I., on his accession, it was ridiculed, +and his services rudely rejected. His bitterness of spirit found +expression in a satire, <i>The Owl</i>, which he printed in 1604, although +he had no talent in this kind of composition. Not much more +entertaining was his scriptural narrative of <i>Moses in a Map of +his Miracles</i>, a sort of epic in heroics printed the same year. +In 1605 Drayton reprinted his most important works, that is to +say, his historical poems and the <i>Idea</i>, in a single volume which +ran through eight editions during his lifetime. He also collected +his smaller pieces, hitherto unedited, in a volume undated, but +probably published in 1605, under the title of <i>Poems Lyric and +Pastoral</i>; these consisted of odes, eclogues, and a fantastic +satire called <i>The Man in the Moon</i>. Some of the odes are +extremely spirited. In this volume he printed for the first time +the famous <i>Ballad of Agincourt</i>.</p> + +<p>He had adopted as early as 1598 the extraordinary resolution +of celebrating all the points of topographical or antiquarian +interest in the island of Great Britain, and on this laborious work +he was engaged for many years. At last, in 1613, the first part +of this vast work was published under the title of <i>Poly-Olbion</i>, +eighteen books being produced, to which the learned Selden +supplied notes. The success of this great work, which has since +become so famous, was very small at first, and not until 1622 +did Drayton succeed in finding a publisher willing to undertake +the risk of bringing out twelve more books in a second part. +This completed the survey of England, and the poet, who had +hoped “to crown Scotland with flowers,” and arrive at last at +the Orcades, never crossed the Tweed. In 1627 he published +another of his miscellaneous volumes, and this contains some +of his most characteristic and exquisite writing. It consists of +the following pieces: <i>The Battle of Agincourt</i>, an historical poem +in <i>ottava rima</i> (not to be confused with his ballad on the same +subject), and <i>The Miseries of Queen Margaret</i>, written in the +same verse and manner; <i>Nimphidia, the Court of Faery</i>, a most +joyous and graceful little epic of fairyland; <i>The Quest of Cinthia</i> +and <i>The Shepherd’s Sirena</i>, two lyrical pastorals; and finally +<i>The Moon Calf</i>, a sort of satire. Of these <i>Nimphidia</i> is perhaps +the best thing Drayton ever wrote, except his famous ballad on +the battle of Agincourt; it is quite unique of its kind and full of +rare fantastic fancy.</p> + +<p>The last of Drayton’s voluminous publications was <i>The Muses’ +Elizium</i> in 1630. He died in London on the 23rd of December +1631, was buried in Westminster Abbey, and had a monument +placed over him by the countess of Dorset, with memorial lines +attributed to Ben Jonson. Of the particulars of Drayton’s life +we know almost nothing but what he himself tells us; he +enjoyed the friendship of some of the best men of the age. +He corresponded familiarly with Drummond; Ben Jonson, +William Browne, George Wither and others were among his +friends. There is a tradition that he was a friend of Shakespeare, +supported by a statement of John Ward, once vicar of Stratford-on-Avon, +that “Shakespear, Drayton and Ben Jonson had a +merry meeting, and it seems, drank too hard, for Shakespear +died of a feavour there contracted.” In one of his poems, an +“elegy” or epistle to Mr Henry Reynolds, he has left some +valuable criticisms on poets whom he had known. He was even +engaged in the labour of the dramatists; at least he had a +share, with Munday, Chettle and Wilson, in writing <i>Sir John +Oldcastle</i>, which was printed in 1600. That he was a restless and +discontented, as well as a worthy, man may be gathered from his +own admissions.</p> + +<p>The works of Drayton are bulky, and, in spite of the high place +that he holds in critical esteem, it cannot be pretended that he +is much read. For this his ponderous style is much to blame. +The <i>Poly-Olbion</i>, the most famous but far from the most successful +of his writings, is tedious and barren in the extreme. +It was, he tells us, a “Herculean toil” to him to compose it, +and we are conscious of the effort. The metre in which it is +composed, a couplet of alexandrines, like the French classical +measure, is wholly unsuited to the English language, and becomes +excessively wearisome to the reader, who forgets the learning and +ingenuity of the poet in labouring through the harsh and overgrown +lines. His historical poems, which he was constantly rewriting +and improving, are much more interesting, and often +rise to a true poetic eloquence. His pastorals are brilliant, but +overladen with colour and sweet to insipidity. He is, with the +one magnificent exception of “Since there’s no help, come let +us kiss and part,” which was first printed in 1619, an indifferent +sonneteer. The poet with whom it is most natural to compare +him is Daniel; he is more rough and vigorous, more varied and +more daring than the latter, but Daniel surpasses him in grace, +delicacy and judgment. In their elegies and epistles, however, +the two writers frequently resemble each other. Drayton, +however, approaches the very first poets of the Elizabethan era +in his charming <i>Nimphidia</i>, a poem which inspired Herrick +with his sweet fairy fancies and stands alone of its kind in +English literature; while some of his odes and lyrics are inspired +by noble feeling and virile imagination.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In 1748 a folio edition of Drayton’s complete works was published +under the editorial supervision of William Oldys, and again in 1753 +there appeared an issue in four volumes. But these were very unintelligently +and inaccurately prepared. A complete edition of +Drayton’s works with variant readings was projected by Richard +Hooper in 1876, but was never carried to a conclusion; a volume of +selections, edited by A. H. Bullen, appeared in 1883. See especially +Oliver Elton, <i>Michael Drayton</i> (1906).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. G.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DREAM<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> (from a root <i>dreug</i>, connected with Germ. <i>trügen</i>, to +deceive), the state of consciousness during sleep; it may also +be defined as a hallucination or illusion peculiarly associated +with the condition of sleep, but not necessarily confined to that +state. In sleep the withdrawal of the mind from the external +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page559" id="page559"></a>559</span> +world is more complete and the objectivity of the dream images +is usually unquestioned, whereas in the waking state the +hallucination is usually recognized as such; we may, however, +be conscious that we are dreaming, and thus in a measure be +aware of the hallucinatory character of our percepts. The +physiological nature of sleep (<i>q.v.</i>; see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Muscle and Nerve</a></span>) +and of dreaming is obscure. As a rule the control over the +voluntary muscles in dreams is slight; the sleep-walker is the +exception and not the rule, and the motor activity represented +in the dream is seldom realized in practice, largely, no doubt, +because we are ignorant, under these circumstances, of the +spatial relations of our bodies. Among the psychological +problems raised by dreams are the condition of attention, which +is variously regarded as altogether absent or as fixed, the extent +of mental control, and the relation of ideas and motor impulses. +There is present in all dreams a certain amount of dissociation +of consciousness, or of obstructed association, which may +manifest itself in the preliminary stage of drowsiness by such +phenomena as the apparent transformation or inversion of the +words of a book. We may distinguish two types of dreams, +(a) representative or centrally initiated, (b) presentative or +due to the stimulation of the end organs of sense. In both cases, +the dream having once been initiated, we are concerned with a +process of reasoning, <i>i.e.</i> the combination of ideas suggested by +resemblances or other associative elements. The false reasoning +of dreams is due in the first place to the absence, to a large extent, +of the memory elements on which our ordinary reasoning +depends, and, secondly, to the absence of sensory elements.</p> + +<p><i>Objectivity of Dreams.</i>—In waking life we distinguish ideas or +mental images from real objects by the fact that we are able +under normal circumstances to dismiss the former at will. In +sleep, on the other hand, we have, in the first place, no real objects +with which to compare the images, which therefore take on a +character of reality comparable to the hallucination of waking +life; moreover, powers of visualization and other faculties are +enhanced in sleep, so that the strength of dream images considerably +exceeds those of the mental images of the ordinary +man; changes in powers of attention, volition and memory +help to increase the hallucinatory force of the dream. In the +second place, the ideas of our dreams are presented in the form +of images, which we are unable to dismiss; we therefore +mistake them for realities, exactly as the sufferer from delirium +tremens in waking life is apt to regard his phantoms as real.</p> + +<p><i>Relations of Dreaming and Sleep.</i>—It has been maintained by +Hamilton and others (see below, Modern Views) that dreams +invariably accompany sleep, and that we always find ourselves +dreaming when we are awakened. But even if it were true +that dreams were invariably experienced at the moment of +waking, this would not by any means establish the invariable +concomitance of dreams and sleep of all sorts; at most it would +show that imperfect sleep is a condition of dreaming; in the +same way, dreams before wakening, known to have taken place +either from the recollection of the dreamer or from the observation +of another person, may clearly be due to imperfect wakening, +followed by a deepening of sleep. It is, however, by no means +true that awakening from sleep is invariably accompanied by a +dream; in considering the question it must be recollected that +it is complicated by the common experience of very rapid +forgetfulness of even a vivid and complicated dream, only the +fact of having dreamt remaining in the memory; it is clear +that amnesia may go so far that even the fact of dreaming may +be forgotten. On the whole, however, there appear to be no +good grounds for the assertion that we always dream when we +are asleep. On the other hand, there is no proof that partial +awakening is a necessary condition of dreaming.</p> + +<p><i>Representative Dreams.</i>—Centrally initiated dreams may be due +to a kind of automatic excitation of the cerebral regions, especially +in the case of those clearly arising from the occupations or +sensations of the day or the hours immediately preceding the +dream. To the same cause we may attribute the recalling of +images apparently long since forgotten. Some of these revivals +of memory may be due to the fact that links of association which +are insufficient to restore an idea to consciousness in the waking +state may suffice to do so in sleep. Just as a good visualizer in +his waking moments may call up an object never clearly seen +and yet distinguish the parts, so in sleep, as L. F. A. Maury +(1817-1892) and others have shown, an image may be more +distinct in a dream than it was when originally presented (see +also below, Memory).</p> + +<p><i>Presentative Dreams.</i>—The dreams due to real sensations, more +or less metamorphosed, may arise (a) from the states of the +internal organs, (b) from muscular states, (c) from subjective +sensations due to the circulation, &c., or (d) from the ordinary +cause of the action of external stimuli on the organs of sense.</p> + +<p>(a) The state of the stomach, heart, &c., has long been recognized +as important in the causation of dreams (see below, <a>Classical +Views</a>). The common sensation of flying seems to be due in +many cases to the disturbance of these organs setting up sensations +resembling those felt in rapidly ascending or descending, +as in a swing or a lift. Indigestion is a frequent cause of nightmare—the +term given to oppressive and horrible dreams—and +bodily discomfort is sometimes translated into the moral region, +giving rise to the dream that a murder has been committed. +(b) Dreams of flying, &c., have also been attributed to the +condition of the muscles during sleep; W. Wundt remarks that +the movements of the body, such as breathing, extensions of the +limbs and so on, must give rise to dream fancies; the awkward +position of the limbs may also excite images. (c) Especially +important, probably, for the dreams of the early part of the +night are the retinal conditions to which are due the <i>illusions +hypnagogiques</i> of the preliminary drowsy stage; but probably +Ladd goes too far in maintaining that entoptic stimuli, either +intra- or extra-organic in origin, condition all dreams. <i>Illusions +hypnagogiques</i>, termed popularly “faces in the dark,” of which +Maury has given a full account, are the not uncommon sensations +experienced, usually visual and seen with both open and closed +eyes, in the interval between retiring to rest and actually falling +asleep; they are comparable to the crystal-gazing visions of +waking moments; though mainly visual they may also affect +other senses. Besides the eye the ear may supply material for +dreams, when the circulation of the blood suggests rushing +waters or similar ideas. (d) It is a matter of common observation +that the temperature of the surface of the body determines in +many cases the character of the dreams, the real circumstances, +as might be expected from the general character of the +dream state, being exaggerated. In the same way the pressure +of bed-clothes, obstruction of the supply of air, &c., +may serve as the starting-point of dreams. The common dream +of being unclothed may perhaps be due to this cause, the +sensations associated with clothing being absent or so far +modified as to be unrecognizable. In the same way the absence +of foot-gear may account for some dreams of flying. It is +possible to test the influence of external stimuli by direct +experiment; Maury made a number of trials with the aid of an +assistant.</p> + +<p><i>Rapidity of Dreams.</i>—It has often been asserted that we +dream with extreme rapidity; but this statement is by no +means borne out by experiment. In a trial recorded by J. +Clavière the beginning of the dream was accurately fixed by the +sounding of an alarm clock, which rang, then was silent for +22 seconds, and then began to ring continuously; the dream +scene was in a theatre, and he found by actual trial that the time +required in ordinary life for the performance of the scenes during +the interval of silence was about the same as in ordinary life. +Spontaneous dreams seem to show a different state of things; +it must be remembered that (1) dreams are commonly a succession +of images, the number of which cannot be legitimately +compared with the number of extra-organic stimuli which would +correspond to them in ordinary life; the real comparison is +with mental images; and (2) the rapidity of association varies +enormously in ordinary waking life. No proof, therefore, that +some dreams are slow can show that this mentation in others +is not extremely rapid. The most commonly quoted case is +one of Maury’s; a bed-pole fell on his neck, and (so it is stated) +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page560" id="page560"></a>560</span> +he dreamt of the French Revolution, the scenes culminating in +the fall of the guillotine on his neck; this has been held to show +that (1) dreams are extremely rapid; and (2) we construct a +dream story leading up to the external stimulus which is assumed +to have originated the dream. But Maury’s dream was not +recorded till many years after it had occurred; there is nothing +to show that the dream, in this as in other similar cases, was not +in progress when the bed-pole fell, which thus by mere coincidence +would have intervened at the psychological moment; Maury’s +memory on waking may have been to some extent hallucinatory. +But there are records of waking states, not necessarily abnormal, +in which time-perception is disturbed and brief incidents seem +interminably long; on the other hand, it appears from the +experiences of persons recovered from drowning that there is +great rapidity of ideation before the extinction of consciousness; +the same rapidity of thought has been observed in a fall from a +bicycle.</p> + +<p><i>Reason in Dreams.</i>—Studies of dreams of normal individuals +based on large collections of instances are singularly few in +number; such as there are indicate great variations in the +source of dream thoughts and images, in the coherence of the +dream, and in the powers of memory. In ordinary life attention +dominates the images presented; in dreams heterogeneous and +disconnected elements are often combined; a resemblance need +not even have been consciously recognized for the mind to combine +two impressions in a dream; for example, an aching tooth +may (according to the dream) be extracted, and found to resemble +rocks on the sea-shore, which had not struck the waking mind +as in any way like teeth. Incongruence and incoherence are not, +however, a necessary characteristic of dreams, and individuals +are found whose dream ideas and scenes show a power of +reasoning and orderliness equal to that of a scene imagined or +experienced in ordinary life. In some cases the reasoning power +may attain a higher level than that of the ordinary conscious +life. In a well-authenticated case Professor Hilprecht was able +in a dream to solve a difficulty connected with two Babylonian +inscriptions, which had not previously been recognized as complementary +to each other; a point of peculiar interest is the +dramatic form in which the information came to him—an old +Babylonian priest appeared in his dream and gave him the clue +to the problem (see also below, Personality).</p> + +<p><i>Memory in Dreams.</i>—Although prima facie the dream memory +is fragmentary and far less complete than the waking memory, +it is by no means uncommon to find a revival in sleep of early, +apparently quite forgotten, experiences: more striking is the +recollection in dreams of matters never supraliminally (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Subliminal Self</a></span>) apperceived at all.</p> + +<p>The relation between the memory in dreams and in the +hypnotic trance is curious: suggestions given in the trance may +be accepted and then forgotten or never remembered in ordinary +life; this does not prevent them from reappearing occasionally +in dreams; conversely dreams forgotten in ordinary life may be +remembered in the hypnotic trance. These dream memories +of other states of consciousness suggest that dreams are sometimes +the product of a deeper stratum of the personality than +comes into play in ordinary waking life. It must be remembered +in this connexion that we judge of our dream consciousness by +our waking recollections, not directly, and our recollection of +our dreams is extraordinarily fragmentary; we do not know +how far our dream memory really extends. Connected with +memory of other states is the question of memory in dreams of +previous dream states; occasionally a separate chain of memory, +analogous to a secondary personality, seems to be formed. We +may be also conscious that we have been dreaming, and subsequently, +without intermediate waking, relate as a dream the +dream previously experienced. In spite of the irrationality of +dreams in general, it by no means follows that the earlier and +later portions of a dream do not cohere; we may interpolate an +episode and again take up the first motive, exactly as happens +in real life. The strength of the dream memory is shown by the +recurrence of images in dreams; a picture, the page of a book, +or other image may be reproduced before our eyes several times +in the course of a dream without the slightest alteration, although +the waking consciousness would be quite incapable of such a feat +of visualizing. In this connexion may be mentioned the phenomenon +of redreaming; the same dream may recur either on +the same or on different nights; this seems to be in many cases +pathological or due to drugs, but may also occur under normal +conditions.</p> + +<p><i>Personality.</i>—As a rule the personality of the dreamer is +unchanged; but it also happens that the confusion of identity +observed with regard to other objects embraces the dreamer +himself; he imagines himself to be some one else; he is alternately +actor and observer; he may see himself playing a part +or may divest himself of his body and wander incorporeally. +Ordinary dreams, however, do not go beyond a splitting of +personality; we hold conversations, and are intensely surprised +at the utterances of a dream figure, which, however, is merely +an <i>alter ego</i>. As in the case of Hilprecht (see above) the information +given by another part of the personality may not only +appear but actually be novel.</p> + +<p><i>Supernormal Dreams.</i>—In addition to dreams in which there +is a revival of memory or a rise into consciousness of facts +previously only subliminally cognized, a certain number of dreams +are on record in which telepathy (<i>q.v.</i>) seems to play a part; +much of the evidence is, however, discounted by the possibility +of hallucinatory memory. Another class of dreams (prodromic) +is that in which the abnormal bodily states of the dreamer are +brought to his knowledge in sleep, sometimes in a symbolical +form; thus a dream of battle or sanguinary conflict may presage +a haemorrhage. The increased power of suggestion which is +the normal accompaniment of the hypnotic trance may make +its appearance in dreams, and exercise either a curative influence +or act capriciously in producing hysteria and the tropic changes +known as “stigmata.” We may meet with various forms of +hyperaesthesia in dreams; quite apart from the recovery of +sight by those who have lost it wholly or in part (see below, +Dreams of the Blind), we find that the powers of the senses may +undergo an intensification, and, <i>e.g.</i>, the power of appreciating +music be enormously enhanced in persons usually indifferent to +it. Mention must also be made of the experience of R. L. +Stevenson, who tells in <i>Across the Plains</i> how by self-suggestion +he was able to secure from his dreams the motives of some of his +best romances.</p> + +<p><i>Voluntary Action in Dreams.</i>—Connected with dreams voluntarily +influenced is the question of how far dreams once initiated +are modifiable at the will of the dreamer. Some few observers, +like F. W. H. Myers and Dr F. van Eeden, record that they can +at longer or shorter intervals control their actions in their +dreams, though usually to a less extent than their imagined +actions in waking life. Dr van Eeden, for example, tells us that +he has what he calls a “clear dream” once a month and is able +to predetermine what he will do when he becomes aware that +he is dreaming.</p> + +<p><i>Dreams of Children.</i>—Opinions differ widely as to the age at +which children begin to dream; G. Compayré maintains that +dreaming has been observed in the fourth month, but reflex +action is always a possible explanation of the observed facts. +S. de Sanctis found that in boys of eleven only one out of eight +said that he dreamt seldom, as against four out of seven at the +age of six; but we cannot exclude the possibility that dreams +were frequent but forgotten. If correct, the observation suggests +that dreams appear comparatively late. Individual cases of +dreaming, or possibly of waking hallucination, are known as +early as the age of two and a half years; according to de Sanctis +dreams occur before the fifth year, but are seldom remembered; +as a rule the conscious dream age begins with the fourth year; +speech or movement, however, in earlier years, though they may +be attributed to reflex action, are more probably due to dreams.</p> + +<p><i>Dreams of the Old.</i>—In normal individuals above the age of +sixty-five de Sanctis found dreams were rare; atmospheric +influences seem to be important elements in causing them; +memory of them is weak; they are emotionally poor, and deal +with long past scenes.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page561" id="page561"></a>561</span></p> + +<p><i>Dreams of Adults.</i>—Any attempt to record or influence our +dreams may be complicated by (a) direct suggestion, leading to +the production of the phenomena for which we are looking, and +(b) indirect suggestion leading to the more lively recollection of +dreams in general and of certain dreams in particular. Consequently +it cannot be assumed that the facts thus ascertained +represent the normal conditions. According to F. Heerwagen’s +statistics women sleep more lightly and dream more than men; +the frequency of dreams is proportional to their vividness; +women who dream sleep longer than those who do not; dreams +tend to become less frequent with advancing age. The total +number of remembered dreams varies considerably with different +observers, some attaining an average of ten per night. The +senses mainly active in dreams are, according to one set of +experiments, vision in 60%, hearing in 5%, taste in 3%, and +smell in 1.5%, where the dreamers had looked at coloured +papers before falling asleep; when taste or smell had been +stimulated, the visual dreams fell to about 50%, and the sense +stimulated was active twice as often as it would otherwise be; +dreams in which motion was a prominent feature were 10% of +the former class, 14% and 18% of the two latter. Experiments +by J. Mourly Vold show even more distinctly the influence of +suggestion both as to the form, visual or otherwise, and the +content (colours and forms of objects) of dreams. According to +most observers dreams are most vivid and frequent between the +ages of 20 and 25, but H. Maudsley puts the maximum between +30 and 35. De Sanctis got replies from 165 men and 55 women: +the proportion between the sexes closely agrees with the results +attained by Heerwagen and M. W. Calkins; 13% of men and +33% of women said they always dreamt, 27% and 45% often, +50% and 13% rarely, and the remainder (precisely the same +percentage for men and women—9.09) either did not dream or +did not remember that they dreamt. Nearly twice as many +women as men had vivid dreams; in the matter of complication +of the dream experiences the sexes are about equal; daily life +supplies more material in the dreams of men; nearly twice as +many women as men remember their dreams clearly, a fact +which hangs together to some extent with the vividness of the +dreams, though it by no means follows that a vivid dream is well +remembered. There are great variations in the emotional +character of dreams; some observers report twice as many +unpleasant dreams as the reverse; in other cases the emotions +seem to be absent; others again have none but pleasing dreams. +Individual experience also varies very largely as to the time +when most dreams are experienced; in some cases the great +majority are subsequent to 6.30 A.M.; others find that quite half +occur before 4.0 A.M.</p> + +<p><i>Dreams of the Neuropathic, Insane, Idiots, &c.</i>—Much attention +has been given to the dreams of hysterical subjects. It appears +that their dreams are specially liable to exercise an influence over +their waking life, perhaps because they do not distinguish them, +any more than their waking hallucinations, from reality. P. +Janet maintains that the cause of hysteria may be sought in a +dream. The dreams of the hysterical have a tendency to recur. +Epileptic subjects dream less than the hysterical, and their dreams +are seldom of a terrifying nature; certain dreams seem to take the +place of an epileptic attack. Dreaming seems to be rare in +idiots. De Sanctis divides paranoiacs into three classes: (a) +those with systematized delusions, (b) those with frequent +hallucinations, and (c) degenerates;—the dreams of the first +class resemble their delusions; the second class is distinguished +by the complexity of its dreams; the third by their vividness, by +their delusions of megalomania, and by their influence on daily +life. Alcoholic subjects have vivid and terrifying dreams, +characterized by the frequent appearance of animals in them, and +delirium tremens may originate during sleep.</p> + +<p><i>Dreams of the Blind, Deaf, &c.</i>—As regards visual dreams the +blind fall into three classes—(1) those who are blind from birth or +become blind before the age of five; (2) those who become blind +at the “critical age” from five to seven; (3) those who become +blind after the age of seven. The dreams of the first class are +non-visual; but in the dreams of Helen Keller there are traces of +a visual content; the second class sometimes has visual dreams; +the third class does not differ from normal persons, though visual +dreams may fade away after many years of blindness. In the +case of the partially blind the clearness of vision in a dream +exceeds that of normal life when the partial loss of sight occurred +in the sixth or later years. The education of Helen Keller is +interesting from another point of view; after losing the senses of +sight and hearing in infancy she began her education at seven +years and was able to articulate at eleven; it is recorded +that she “talked” in her dreams soon after. This accords +with the experience of normal individuals who acquire a foreign +language. Her extraordinary memory enables her to recall +faintly some traces of the sunlit period of her life, but they +hardly affect her dreams, so far as can be judged. The dreams of +the blind, according to the records of F. Hitschmann, present +some peculiarities; animals as well as man speak; toothache and +bodily pains are perceived as such; impersonal dreaming, +taking the form of a drama or reading aloud, is found; and he +had a strong tendency to reproduce or create verse.</p> + +<p><i>Dreams of Animals.</i>—We are naturally reduced to inference in +dealing with animals as with very young children; but various +observations seem to show that dreams are common in older dogs, +especially after hunting expeditions; in young dogs sleep seems to +be quieter; dogs accustomed to the chase seem to dream more +than other kinds.</p> + +<p><i>Dreams among the Non-European Peoples.</i>—In the lower +stages of culture the dream is regarded as no less real and its +personages as no less objective than those of the ordinary waking +life; this is due in the main to the habit of mind of such peoples +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Animism</a></span>), but possibly in some measure also to the occurrence +of veridical dreams (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Telepathy</a></span>). In either case the savage +explanation is animistic, and animism is commonly assumed to +have been developed very largely as a result of theorising +dreams. Two explanations of a dream are found among the +lower races: (1) that the soul of the dreamer goes out, and visits +his friends, living or dead, his old haunts or unfamiliar scenes and +so on; or (2) that the souls of the dead and others come to visit +him, either of their own motion or at divine command. In +either of the latter cases or at a higher stage of culture when the +dream is regarded as god-sent, though no longer explained in +terms of animism, it is often regarded as oracular (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Oracle</a></span>), +the explanation being sometimes symbolical, sometimes simple.</p> + +<p>There are two classes of dreams which have a special importance +in the lower cultures: (1) the dream or vision of the initiation +fast; and (2) the dream caused by the process known as +incubation, which is often analogous to the initiation fast. In +many parts of North America the individual Indian acquires a +tutelary spirit, known as <i>manito</i> or <i>nagual</i>, by his initiation +dream or vision; the idea being perhaps that the spirit by the act +of appearing shows its subjection to the will of the man. +Similarly, the magician acquires his familiar in North America, +Australia and elsewhere by dreaming of an animal. Incubation +consists in retiring to sleep in a temple, sometimes on the top of a +mountain or other unusual spot, in order to obtain a revelation +through a dream. Fasting, continence and other observances +are frequently prescribed as preliminaries. Certain classes of +dreams have, especially in the middle ages, been attributed to the +influence of evil spirits (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Demonology</a></span>).</p> + +<p><i>Classical and Medieval Views of Dreams.</i>—Side by side with the +prevalent animistic view of dreams we find in antiquity and +among the semi-civilized attempts at philosophical or physiological +explanations of dreams. Democritus, from whom the +Epicureans derived their theory, held the cause of them to be +the simulacra or phantasms of corporeal objects which are +constantly floating about the atmosphere and attack the soul +in sleep—a view hardly distinguishable from animism. Aristotle, +however, refers them to the impressions left by objects seen with +the eyes of the body; he further remarks on the exaggeration +of slight stimuli when they are incorporated into a dream; a +small sound becomes a noise like thunder. Plato, too, connects +dreaming with the normal waking operations of the mind; +Pliny, on the other hand, admits this only for dreams which take +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page562" id="page562"></a>562</span> +place after meals, the remainder being supernatural. Cicero, +however, takes the view that they are simply natural occurrences +no more and no less than the mental operations and sensations +of the waking state. The pathological side of dreams attracted +the notice of physicians. Hippocrates was disposed to admit +that some dreams might be divine, but held that others were +premonitory of diseased states of the body. Galen took the same +view in some of his speculations.</p> + +<p>Symbolical interpretations are combined with pathological +no less than animistic interpretations of dreams; they are +also extremely common among the lower classes in Europe at +the present day, but in this case no consistent explanation of +their importance for the divination of future events is usually +discoverable. Among the Greeks Plato in the <i>Timaeus</i> (ch. xlvi, +xlvii) explains dreams as prophetic visions received by the lower +appetitive soul through the liver; their interpretation requires +intelligence. The Stoics seem to have held that dreams may be +a divine revelation and more than one volume on the interpretation +of dreams has come down to us, the most important being +perhaps the <span class="grk" title="Oneirokritika">Όνειροκριτικά</span> of Daldianus Artemidorus. We find +parallels to this in a Mussulman work by Gabdorrachaman, +translated by Pierre Vattier under the name of <i>Onirocrite +mussulman</i>, and in the numerous books on the interpretation of +dreams which circulate at the present day. In Siam dream books +are found (<i>Intern. Archiv für Anthr.</i> viii 150); one of the +functions of the Australian medicine man is to decide how a +dream is to be interpreted.</p> + +<p><i>Modern Views.</i>—The doctrine of Descartes that existence +depended upon thought naturally led his followers to maintain +that the mind is always thinking and consequently that dreaming +is continuous. Locke replied to this that men are not always +conscious of dreaming, and it is hard to be conceived that the +soul of the sleeping man should this moment be thinking, while +the soul of the waking man cannot recollect in the next moment +a jot of all those thoughts. That we always dream was maintained +by Leibnitz, Kant, Sir W. Hamilton and others; the +latter refutes the argument of Locke by the just observation +that the somnambulist has certainly been conscious, but fails +to recall the fact when he returns to the normal state.</p> + +<p>It has been commonly held by metaphysicians that the nature +of dreams is explained by the suspension of volition during +sleep; Dugald Stewart asserts that it is not wholly dormant +but loses its hold on the faculties, and he thus accounts for the +incoherence of dreams and the apparent reality of dream images.</p> + +<p>Cudworth, from the orderly sequence of dream combinations +and their novelty, argues that the state arises, not from any +“fortuitous dancings of the spirits,” but from the “phantastical +power of the soul.” According to K. A. Scherner, dreaming +is a decentralization of the movement of life; the ego becomes +purely receptive and is merely the point around which the +peripheral life plays in perfect freedom. Hobbes held that +dreams all proceed from the agitation of the inward parts of a +man’s body, which, owing to their connexion with the brain, +serve to keep the latter in motion. For Schopenhauer the cause +of dreams is the stimulation of the brain by the internal regions +of the organism through the sympathetic nervous system. +These impressions the mind afterwards works up into quasi-realities +by means of its forms of space, time, causality, &c.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—For full lists of books and articles see J. M. +Baldwin’s <i>Dictionary of Philosophy</i>, bibliography volume (1906), +and S. de Sanctis, <i>I Sogni</i>, also translated in German with additions +as <i>Die Träume</i>. Important works are—Binz, <i>Über den Traum</i>, +Giessler <i>Aus den Tiefen des Traumlebens</i>, Maury, <i>Le Sommeil et les +rêves</i>, Radestock, <i>Schlaf und Traum</i>, Tessié, <i>Les Rêves</i>, Spitta, +<i>Schlaf und Traumzustande</i>. For super-normal dreams see F. W. H. +Myers, <i>Human Personality</i>, vol i, and <i>Proc S P R</i> viii 362. For +voluntary dreams see <i>Proc. S P R</i> iv 241, xvii. 112. On prophetic +dreams see <i>Monist</i>, xi 161, <i>Bull. Soc. Anth.</i> (Paris, 1901), 196, +(1902), 228, <i>Rev. de synthèse historique</i> (1901), 151, &c. On incubation +see Deubner, <i>De incubatione</i>, Maury, La Magie. On the +dreams of American Indians see <i>Handbook of American Indians</i> +(Washington, 1907), s v “Dreams” and “Manito.” On the +interpretation of dreams see Freud, <i>Die Traumdeutung</i>. Other works +are F. Greenwood, <i>Imagination in Dreams</i>, Hutchinson, <i>Dreams +and their Meanings</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(N. W. T.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DREDGE<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> <span class="sc">and</span> <b>DREDGING.</b> The word “dredge” is used +in two senses. (1) From Mid. Eng. <i>dragie</i>, through Fr. <i>dragée</i>, +from Gr. <span class="grk" title="tragêmata">τραγήματα</span>, sweetmeats, it means a confection of sugar +formed with seeds, bits of spice or medicinal agents. The word +in this sense is obsolete, but survives in “dredger,” a box with a +perforated top used for sprinkling such a sugar-mixture, flour +or other powdered substance. “Dredge” is also a local term +for a mixed crop of oats and barley sown together (“maslin” +or “meslin,” cf. Fr. <i>dragée</i>), and in mining is applied to ore +of a mixed value. (2) Connected with “drag,” or at least derived +from the same root, dredge or dredger is a mechanical appliance +for collecting together and drawing to the surface (“dredging”) +objects and material from the beds of rivers or the bottom of the +sea. In the following account the operations of dredging in this +sense are discussed (1) as involved in hydraulic engineering, (2) +in connexion with the work of the naturalist in marine biology.</p> + +<p class="center pt2 sc">1. Hydraulic Engineering</p> + +<p>Dredging is the name given by engineers to the process of +excavating materials under water, raising them to the surface +and depositing them in barges, or delivering them through a +shoot, a longitudinal conveyor, or pipes, to the place where it is +desired to deposit them. It has long been useful in works of +marine and hydraulic engineering, and has been brought in +modern times to a state of high perfection.</p> + +<p>The employment of dredging plant and the selection of special +appliances to be used in different localities and in varying +circumstances require the exercise of sound judgment on the +part of the engineer. In rivers and estuaries where the bottom +is composed of light soils, and where the scour of the tide can be +governed by training walls and other works constructed at +reasonable expense, so as to keep the channel clear without +dredging, it is manifest that dredging machinery with its large +cost for working expenses and for annual upkeep should be as +far as possible avoided. On the other hand, where the bottom +consists of clay, rock or other hard substances, dredging must, +in the first instance at any rate, be employed to deepen and +widen the channel which it is sought to improve. In some +instances, such as the river Mississippi, a deep channel has for +many years been maintained by jetties, with occasional resort +to dredging to preserve the required channel section and to +hasten its enlargement. The bar of the river Mersey is 11 m. +from land, and the cost of training works would be so great as to +forbid their construction; but, by a capital expenditure of +£120,000 and an annual expense of £20,000 for three years, the +depth of water over the bar at low tide has been increased by +dredging from 11 ft. to 27 ft., the channel being 1500 ft. wide.</p> + +<p><i>”Bag and Spoon” Dredger.</i>—The first employment of +machinery for dredging is, like the discovery of the canal lock, +claimed by Holland and Italy, in both of which countries it is +believed to have been in use before it was introduced into +Britain. The Dutch, at an early period, used what is termed +the “bag and spoon” dredger for cleansing their canals. The +“spoon” consisted of a ring of iron about 2 ft. in diameter +flattened and steeled for about a third of its circumference and +having a bag of strong leather attached to it by leathern thongs. +The ring and bag were fixed to a pole which was lowered to the +bottom from the side of a barge moored in the canal or river. +The “spoon” was then dragged along the bottom by a rope +made fast to the iron ring actuated by a windlass placed at the +other end of the barge, the pole being prevented from rising by a +hitched rope which caused the “spoon” to penetrate the bottom +and fill the bag. When the “spoon” reached the end of the barge +where the windlass was placed, the winding was still continued, +and the suspended rope being nearly perpendicular the “bag” +was raised to the gunwale of the barge and the excavated +material emptied into the barge. The “bag” was then hauled +back to the opposite end to be lowered for another supply. This +system is still in use, but is only adaptable to a limited depth of +water and a soft bottom; it has been largely used in canals and +frequently in the Thames. At the Fosdyke Canal in Lincolnshire +135,000 tons were raised in the manner described. According +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page563" id="page563"></a>563</span> +to J. J. Webster (<i>Proc. Inst. C. E.</i> vol. 89), the first application +of steam power for dredging operations was to a “spoon +& bag” dredger for cleansing Sunderland harbour, the engine +being made by Messrs Boulton & Watt of Soho, Birmingham.</p> + +<p><i>Dredging by Bucket between Two Lighters.</i>—Another plan of +dredging, practised at an early period in rivers of considerable +breadth, was to moor two barges, one on each side of the river. +Between them was slung an iron dredging bucket, which was +attached to both barges by chains wound on the barrels of a +crab winch worked by six men in one barge and round a simple +windlass worked by two men in the other barge. The bucket, +being lowered at the side of the barge carrying the windlass, +was drawn across the bottom of the river by the crab winch on +the other barge; and having been raised and emptied, it was +hauled across by the opposite windlass for repetition of the +process. This process was in use in the River Tay until 1833.</p> + +<p><i>Bucket Ladder Dredgers.</i>—The earliest record of a bucket +ladder dredger is contained in the first paper of the first volume +(1836) of the <i>Transactions</i> of the Institution of Civil Engineers. +This machine was brought into use at the Hull Docks about +1782. The bucket chain was driven by two horses working a +horse-gear on the deck of the vessel. The buckets were constructed +of <span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span> in. bars of iron spaced <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span> in. apart, and were 4 ft. +long, 13 in. deep, 12 in. wide at the mouth and about 6 in. wide +at the bottom. This dredger raised about 30 tons per hour at the +cost of 2½d. per ton, which covered the wages of three men working +the dredger, eight men working the lighters and the keep of three +horses. A dredger of this kind and power would only work in +ballast, mud or other soft material, but the machine was gradually +improved and increased in capacity and power by different +manufacturers until it became a very efficient machine in skilful +hands, excavating and raising material from depths of 5 ft. to +60 ft. of water at a cost not very different from, and in many +cases less than, that at which the same work could be performed +on land. With the powerful dredgers now constructed, almost +all materials, except solid rock or very large boulders, can be +dredged with ease. Loose gravel is perhaps the most favourable +material to work in, but a powerful dredger will readily break up +and raise indurated beds of gravel, clay and boulders, and has +even found its way through the surface of soft rock, though it +will not penetrate very far into it. In some cases steel diggers +alternating with the buckets on the bucket frame have been +successfully employed. The construction of large steam dredgers +is now carried on by many engineering firms. The main feature +of the machine is the bucket ladder which is hung at the top end +by eye straps to the frame of the vessel, and at the lower end by +a chain reived in purchase blocks and connected to the hoisting +gear, so that the ladder may be raised and lowered to suit the +varying depths of water in which the dredger works. The upper +tumbler for working the bucket chain is generally square or +pentagonal in form and made of steel with loose steel wearing +pieces securely bolted to it. The tumbler is securely keyed to +the steel shaft which is connected by gearing and shafting to +the steam engine, a friction block being inserted at a convenient +point to prevent breakage should any hidden obstacle causing +unusual strain be met with in the path of the buckets. The +lower tumbler is similar in construction to the upper tumbler, +but is usually pentagonal or hexagonal in shape. The buckets +are generally made with steel backs to which the plating of the +buckets is riveted; the cutting edge of the buckets consists of a +strong steel bar suitably shaped and riveted to the body. The +intermediate links are made of hammered iron or steel with +removable steel bushes to take the wear of the connecting pins, +which are also of steel. The hoisting gear may be driven either +from the main engine by frictional gearing or by an independent +set of engines. Six anchors and chains worked by powerful steam +crabs are provided for regulating the position of the dredger in +regard to its work.</p> + +<p><i>Barge-loading Dredgers</i> used formerly to be provided with two +ladders, one on each side of the vessel, or contained in wells +formed in the vessel near each side. Two ladders were adopted, +partly to permit the dredger to excavate the material close to a +quay or wall, and partly to enable one ladder to work while the +other was being repaired. Bucket ladder dredgers are now, +however, generally constructed with one central ladder working +in a well; frequently the bucket ladder projects at either the +head or stern of the vessel, to enable it to cut its own way through +a shoal or bank, a construction which has been found very useful. +In one modification of this method the bucket ladder is supported +upon a traversing frame which slides along the fixed framing of +the dredger and moves the bucket ladder forward as soon as it +has been sufficiently lowered to clear the end of the well. In +places where a large quantity of dredging has to be done, a +stationary dredger with three or four large hopper barges proves +generally to be the most economical kind of plant. It has, +however, the disadvantage of requiring large capital expenditure, +while the dredger and its attendant barges take up an amount +of space which is sometimes inconvenient where traffic is large +and the navigable width narrow. The principal improvements +made in barge-loading dredgers have been the increase in the +size of the buckets and the strength of the dredging gear, the +application of more economical engines for working the machinery, +and the use of frictional gearing for driving the ladder-hoisting +gear. It is very important that the main drive be fitted with +the friction blocks or clutches before alluded to.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Up to the year 1877 dredgers were seldom made with buckets +of a capacity exceeding 9 cub. ft., but since that time they have been +gradually increased in capacity. In the dredger “Melbourne,” +constructed by Messrs William Simons & Co. to the design and +specification of Messrs Coode, Son & Matthews, about the year 1886, +the buckets had a capacity of 22 cub. ft., the dredger being capable +of making 37 ft. of water. The driving power consists of two pairs of +surface-condensing engines, each of 250 i.h.p., having cylinders 20 in. +and 40 in. in diameter respectively, with a 30 in. stroke, the boiler +pressure being 90 ℔ per sq. in. The vessel is 200 ft. long by 36 ft. +wide and 11 ft. 6 in. deep, and is driven by twin screw propellers. +The gearing is arranged so that either pair of engines can be employed +for dredging. The speed under steam is 7 knots, and in free-getting +material 800 tons per hour can be dredged with ease. On +one occasion the dredger loaded 400 tons in 20 minutes. The speed +of the bucket chain is 83 lineal ft. per minute. The draught of the +dredger in working trim is 7 ft. forward and 9 ft. aft. The efficiency +of the machine, or the net work in raising materials compared with +the power exerted in the cylinders, is about 25%. The dredged +material is delivered into barges moored alongside. Contrasting +favourably with former experience, the “Melbourne” worked for +the first six months without a single breakage. She is fitted with +very powerful mooring winches, a detail which is of great importance +to ensure efficiency in working.</p> + +<p>The “St Austell” (Plate I. fig. 3), a powerful barge-loading +dredger 195 ft. long by 35 ft. 6 in. beam by 13 ft. deep, fitted with +twin-screw compound surface-condensing propelling engines of +1000 i.h.p., either set of engines being available for dredging, was +constructed for H.M. Dockyard, Devonport, by Messrs Wm. Simons +& Co. in 1896. This dredger loaded thirty-five 500-ton hopper +barges in the week ending April 2, 1898, dredging 17,500 tons of +material in the working time of 29 hours 5 minutes.</p> + +<p>An instance of a still larger and more powerful dredger is the +“Develant,” constructed by Messrs Wm. Simons & Co., for Nicolaiev, +South Russia. She is a bow-well, barge-loading, bucket ladder +dredger, with a length of 186 ft., a breadth, moulded, of 36 ft., and a +depth, moulded, of 13 ft. The bucket ladder is of sufficient length +to dredge 36 ft. below the water level. The buckets are exceptionally +large, each having a capacity of 36 cub. ft., or fully two tons weight of +material, giving a lifting capacity of 1890 tons per hour. At the +dredging trials 2000 tons of spoil were lifted in one hour with an +expenditure of 250 i.h.p. The propelling power is supplied by one +pair of compound surface-condensing marine engines of 850 i.h.p., +having two cylindrical boilers constructed for a working pressure +of 120 ℔ per sq. in. Each boiler is capable of supplying steam to +either the propelling or dredging machinery, thus allowing the vessel +to always have a boiler in reserve. On the trials a speed of 8½ knots +was obtained. The bucket ladder, which weighs over 100 tons, exclusive +of dredgings, is raised and lowered by a set of independent +engines. For manœuvring, powerful winches driven by independent +engines are placed at the bow and stern. The vessel is fitted +throughout with electric light, arc lamps being provided above the +deck to enable dredging to be carried on at night. Steam steering +gear, a repairing shop, a three-ton crane, and all the latest appliances +are installed on board.</p> + +<p>The “Dérocheuse” (Plate II. fig. 12), constructed by Messrs +Lobnitz & Co., is a good example of the dredger fitted with their +patent rock cutters, as used on the Suez Canal. These rock cutters +consist of stamps passing down through the bottom of the dredger, +slightly in advance of the bucket chain, and are employed for breaking +up rock in front of the bucket ladder so that it may be raised by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page564" id="page564"></a>564</span> +buckets afterwards. This system of subaqueous rock cutting plant, on +Messrs Lobnitz’s patent system, was effectively employed in deepening +the Manchester Ship Canal, and removed a considerable length +of rock, increasing the depth of water from 26 ft. to 28 ft. at a cost +of about 9d. per cub. yd. A full and illustrated description of this +plant, and of a similar plant supplied to the Argentine Government, +was published in <i>Engineering</i> of August 17, 1906. An illustration +of a bucket of 54 cub. ft. capacity constructed by Messrs Lobnitz +& Co. is given (Plate II fig. 11), from which some idea of the size +of dredging machinery as developed in recent practice may be obtained. +In regard to the depth of water that can be obtained by +dredging, it is interesting to note that the dredger “Diver,” constructed +by Messrs. Hunter & English for Mr Samuel Williams of +London, is capable of working in 60 ft. of water. In this vessel an +ingenious arrangement was devised by Mr Williams, by which part +of the weight of the dredger was balanced while the ladder itself +could be drawn up through the bucket well and placed upon the +deck, enabling a long ladder to be used for a comparatively short +vessel. The “Tilbury” dredger, also constructed by Messrs Hunter +& English, was able to dredge to a depth of 45 ft. below the surface +of the water.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Hopper Barges.</i>—To receive the materials excavated by barge-loading +dredgers, steam hopper barges are now generally +employed, capable of carrying 500 tons or more of excavation +and of steaming loaded at a speed of about 9 m. per hour. These +hopper barges are made with hinged flaps in their bottoms, +which can be opened when the place of deposit is reached and +the dredgings easily and quickly discharged.</p> + +<p>Good examples of these vessels are the two steam hopper barges +built for the Conservators of the river Thames in 1898. The +dimensions are: length 190 ft., breadth 30 ft., depth 13 ft. +3 in., hopper capacity 900 tons. They are propelled by a set of +triple expansion engines of 1200 i.h.p., with two return-tube +boilers having a working pressure of 160 ℔. Special appliances +are provided to work the hopper doors by steam power from +independent engines placed at the forward end of the hopper. +A steam windlass is fixed forward and a steam capstan aft. The +vessels are fitted with cabins for the officers and crew. On +their trial trip, the hoppers having their full load, a speed of +11 knots was obtained, the coal consumption being 1.44 ℔ +per i.h.p.</p> + +<p><i>Methods of Dredging.</i>—In river dredging two systems are +pursued. One plan consists in excavating a series of longitudinal +furrows parallel to the axis of the stream; the other in dredging +cross furrows from side to side of the river. It is found that +inequalities are left between the longitudinal furrows when that +system is practised, which do not occur, to the same extent, in +side or cross dredging; and cross dredging leaves a more uniform +bottom. In either case the dredger is moored from the head +and stern by chains about 250 fathoms in length. These chains +in improved dredgers are wound round windlasses worked by +the engine, so that the vessel can be moved ahead or astern by +simply throwing them into or out of gear. In longitudinal +dredging the vessel is worked forward by the head chain, while +the buckets are at the same time performing the excavation, so +that a longitudinal trench is made in the bottom of the river. +After proceeding a certain length, the dredger is stopped and +permitted to drop down and commence a new longitudinal +furrow, parallel to the first one. In cross dredging, on the other +hand, the vessel is supplied with four additional moorings, two +on each side, and these chains are, like the head and stern chains, +wound round barrels worked by steam power. In cross dredging +we may suppose the vessel to be moored at one side of the +channel to be excavated. The bucket frame is set in motion, +but instead of the dredger being drawn forward by the head chain, +she is drawn across the river by the starboard chains, and, having +reached the extent of her work in that direction, she is then +drawn a few feet forward by the head chain, and the bucket +frame being still in motion the vessel is hauled across by the +port chains to the side whence she started. By means of this +transverse motion of the dredger a series of cross cuts is made; +the dredger takes out the whole excavation from side to side +to a uniform depth and leaves no protuberances such as are +found to exist between the furrows in longitudinal dredging, +even when it is executed with great care. The two systems +will be understood by reference to fig. 1, where A and B are the +head and stern moorings, and C, D, E and F the side moorings. +The arc e f represents the course of the vessel in cross dredging; +while in longitudinal dredging, as already explained, she is +drawn forward towards A, and again dropped down to commence +a new longitudinal furrow.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:433px; height:172px" src="images/img564.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—Diagram showing Moorings for Transverse Dredging.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Hopper Dredgers.</i>—In places where barge-loading dredgers +are inconvenient, owing to confined space and interference with +navigation, and where it is necessary to curtail capital expenditure, +hopper dredgers are convenient and economical. These +dredgers were first constructed by Messrs. Wm. Simons & Co. +of Renfrew, who patented and constructed what they call the +“Hopper Dredger,” combining in itself the advantages of a +dredger for raising material and a scow hopper vessel for conveying +it to the place of discharge, both of which services are +performed by the same engines and the same crew.</p> + +<p>The vessel for this type of dredger is made of sufficient length +and floating capacity to contain its own dredgings, which it +carries out to the depositing ground as soon as its hopper is full. +Considerable time is of course occupied in slipping and recovering +moorings, and conveying material to the depositing ground, +but these disadvantages are in many instances counterbalanced +by the fact that less capital is required for plant and that less +room is taken up by the dredger. If the depositing ground is +far away, the time available for dredging is much curtailed, +but the four-screw hopper dredger constructed by Messrs Wm. +Simons & Co. for Bristol has done good work at the cost of +5d. per ton, including wages, repairs, coals, grease, sundries and +interest on the first cost of the plant, notwithstanding that the +material has to be taken 10 m. from the Bristol Dock. She can +lift 400 tons of stiff clay per hour from a depth of 36 ft. below +the water line, and the power required varies from 120 i.h.p. +to 150 i.h.p., according to the nature of the material. The +speed is 9 knots, and 4 propellers are provided, two at the head +and two at the stern, to enable the vessel to steam equally well +either way, as the river Avon is too narrow to permit her to be +turned round.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The hopper dredger “La Puissante” (Plate I. fig. 4), constructed +by Messrs Wm. Simons & Co. for the Suez Canal Co. for the improvement +of Port Said Roads, is a fine example of this class of dredger. +She is 275 ft. long by 47 ft. beam by 19 ft. deep. The hopper capacity +is 2000 tons, and the draught loaded 16 ft. 5 in. The maximum +dredging depth is 40 ft., and the minimum dredging depth is only +limited by the vessel’s draught, she being able to cut her own way. +The bucket ladder works through the well in the stern and weighs with +buckets 120 tons. The buckets have each a capacity of 30 cub. ft. +and raised on trial 1600 tons per hour. The dredger is propelled by +two sets of independent triple expansion surface-condensing engines +of 1800 i.h.p. combined, working with steam at 160 ℔ pressure, +supplied by two mild steel multitubular boilers. Each set of engines +is capable of driving the buckets independently at speeds of 16 and +20 buckets per minute. The bucket ladder is fitted with buffer +springs at its upper end to lessen the shock when working in a seaway. +The dredger can deliver the dredged material either into its +own hopper or into barges lying on either side. The vessel obtained +a speed of 9¾ knots per hour on trial. The coal consumption during +6 hours’ steaming trial was 1.66 ℔ per i.h.p. hour. Fig. 9 (Plate I.) +shows a still larger hopper dredger by the same constructors.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Dredgers fitted with Long Shoot or Shore Delivering Apparatus.</i>—The +first instance of dredgers being fitted with long shoots was +in the Suez Canal. The soil in the lakes was very variable, the +surface being generally loose mud which lay in some places in +the sand, but frequently more or less on hard clay. Resort was +had to shoots 230 ft. long, supported on pontoons connected +with the hull of the dredger. The sand flowed away with a +moderate supply of water to the shoots when they were fixed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page565" id="page565"></a>565</span> +at an inclination of about 1 in 20, but when the sand was mixed +with shells these formed a coating which prevented the stream +of water from washing out the shoot, and even with an inclination +of 1 in 10 material could not be delivered. A pair of endless +chains working down the long shoot overcame the difficulty, +and also enabled hard clay in lumps to be dealt with. One +dredger turned out about 2000 cub. yds. of thick clay in 15 hours, +and when the clay was not hard it could deliver 150,000 cub. yds. +in a month for several consecutive months.</p> + +<p>Shore delivery has been successfully effected by raising the +material by buckets in the ordinary way and delivering it into +a vertical cylinder connected with floating jointed pipes through +which the dredgings pass to the shore. This, of course, can only +be done where the place of deposit is near the spot where the +material is dredged. Two plans have been satisfactorily employed +for this operation. At the Amsterdam Canal the stuff was +discharged from the buckets into a vertical cylinder, and after +being mingled with water by a revolving Woodford pump was +sent off under a head of pressure of 4 or 5 ft. to the place of +deposit in a semi-fluid state through pipes made of timber, +hooped with iron. These wooden pipes were made in lengths +of about 15 ft., connected with leather joints, and floated on the +surface of the water. A somewhat similar process was also +employed on the Suez Canal.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A dredger (Plate I. fig. 5), constructed by Messrs Hunter & English +for reclamation works on Lake Copais in Greece was fitted with delivery +belts running on rollers in steel lattice frames on each side of +the vessel supported by masts and ropes. It could deliver 100 cub. +metres per hour at 85 ft. from the centre of the dredger, at a cost of +1.82d. per cub. metre for working expenses, with coal at 45s. per ton, +including 0.66d. per cub. metre for renewal of belts, upon which the +wear and tear was heavy.</p> + +<p>Another instance of the successful application of shore delivery +apparatus is that of a dredger for Lake Titicaca, Peru, constructed +by Messrs Hunter & English, which was fitted with long shoots on +both sides, conveying the dredged material about 100 ft. from the +centre of the dredger upon either side. The shoots were supported +by shear-legs and ropes, and were supplied with water from a centrifugal +pump in the engine room. This dredger could excavate and +deliver 120 cub. yds. per hour at a cost of 1.725d. per cub. yd. with coal +costing 40s. per ton. If coal had been available at the ordinary rate +in England of 20s. per ton, the cost of the dredging and delivery +would have been 0.82d. per cub. yd. for wages, coal, oil, &c., but +not including the salary of the superintendent.</p> + +<p>An interesting example of a shore delivering dredger is a light +draught dredger constructed by Messrs Hunter & English for the +Lakes of Albufera at the mouth of the river Ebro in Spain (Plate I. +fig. 6). The conditions laid down for this dredger were that it should +float in 18 in. of water and deliver the dredged material at 90 ft. +from the centre of its own hull. In order to meet these requirements +the vessel was made of steel plates <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span> in. thick, and longitudinal +girders from end to end of the vessel, the upward strain of flotation +being conveyed to them from the skin plating by transverse bulkheads +at short intervals. The dredger was 94 ft. long, 25 ft. wide, +and 3 ft. deep, and the height of the top tumbler above the water +was 25 ft. When completed the dredger drew 17 in. of water. The +dredgings were delivered by the buckets upon an endless belt, driven +from the main compound surface-condensing engine, which ran over +pulleys supported upon a steel lattice girder, the outer end of which +rested upon an independent pontoon. This belt delivered the +dredgings at 90 ft. from the centre of the dredger round an arc of +180°. The dredger delivered 125 cub. yds. per hour of compact clay +at a cost of 1.16d. per cub. yd. or 0.86d. per ton for wages, coal and +stores. Another method of delivering dredgings is that of pneumatic +delivery, introduced by Mr F. E. Duckham, of the Millwall +Dock Co., by which the dredgings are delivered into cylindrical +tanks in the dredger, closed by air-tight doors, and are expelled by +compressed air either into the sea or through long pipes to the land. +The Millwall Dock dredger is 113 ft. long, with a beam of 17 ft. and +a depth of 12 ft. The draught loaded is 8 ft. It contains two +cylindrical tanks, having a combined capacity of 240 cub. yds., and +is fitted with compound engines of about 200 i.h.p., with a 20 in. +air-compressing cylinder. The discharge pipe is 15 in. diameter by +150 yds. long. The nozzles of the air-injection pipes must not be +too small, otherwise the compressed air, instead of driving out the +material, simply pierces holes through it and escapes through the +discharging pipe, carrying with it all the liquid and thin material in +the tanks. The cost of working the Millwall Dock dredger is given +by Mr Duckham at 1.75d. per cub. yd. of mud lifted, conveyed +and deposited on land 450 ft. from the water-side, for working expenses +only. This dredger is believed to be the first machine constructed +with a traversing ladder, as suggested by Captain Gibson +when dock-master of the Millwall Docks.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Blasting combined with Dredging.</i>—In some cases it has been +found that the bottom is too hard to be dredged until it has +been to some extent loosened and broken up. Thus at Newry, +John Rennie, after blasting the bottom in a depth of from 6 to +8 ft. at low water, removed the material by dredging at an +expense of from 4s. to 5s. per cub. yd. The same process was +adopted by Messrs Stevenson at the bar of the Erne at Ballyshannon, +where, in a situation exposed to a heavy sea, large +quantities of boulder stones were blasted, and afterwards raised +by a dredger worked by hand at a cost of 10s. 6d. per cub. yd. +Sir William Cubitt also largely employed blasting in connexion +with dredging on the Severn (see <i>Proc. Inst. C.E.</i> vol. iv. p. 362). +The cost of blasting and dredging the marl beds is given as being +4s. per cub. yd. A combination of blasting and dredging was +employed in 1875 by John Fowler of Stockton at the river Tees. +The chief novelty was in the barge upon which the machinery +was fixed. It was 58 ft. by 28 ft. by 4 ft., and had eight legs +which were let down when the barge was in position. The +legs were then fixed to the barge, so that on the tide falling it +became a fixed platform from which the drilling was done. +Holes were bored and charged, and when the tide rose the legs +were heaved up and the barge removed, after which the shots +were discharged. There were 24 boring tubes on the barge, +and that was the limit which could at any time be done in one +tide. The area over which the blasting was done measured +500 yds. in length by 200 in breadth, a small part being uncovered +at low water. The depth obtained in mid-channel was +14 ft. at low water, the average depth of rock blasted being about +4 ft. 6 in. The holes, which were bored with the diamond drill, +varied in depth from 7 to 9 ft., the distance between them +being 10 ft. Dynamite in tin canisters fired by patent fuse was +used as the explosive, the charges being 2 ℔ and under. The +rock is oolite shale of variable hardness, and the average time +occupied in drilling holes 5 ft. deep was 12 minutes. The +dredger raised the blasted rock. The cost for blasting, lifting +and discharging at sea was about 4s. per cub. yd., including +interest on dredging and other plant employed. The dredger +sometimes worked a face of blasted material of from 7 to 8 ft. +The quantity blasted was 110,000 cub. yds., and the contract +for blasting so as to be lifted by the dredger was 3s. 1d. per cub. +yd. A similar plan was adopted at Blyth Harbour (see <i>Proc. +Inst. C.E.</i> vol. 81, p. 302). The cost of the explosives per cub. +yd. was 1s. 4d., of boring 1s. 9d. per cub. yd., and of dredging +3s. per cub. yd., including repairs, but nothing for the use of +plant. The whole cost worked out at 6s. 1d. per cub. yd. on +the average.</p> + +<p><i>Sand-pump Dredgers.</i>—Perhaps the most important development +which has taken place in dredging during recent years has +been the employment of sand-pump dredgers, which are very +useful for removing sandy bars where the particular object is to +remove quickly a large quantity of sand or other soft material. +They are, however, apt to make large holes, and are therefore +not fitted for positions where it is necessary to finish off the +dredging work to a uniform flat bottom, for which purpose +bucket dredgers are better adapted. Pump dredgers are, however, +admirable and economical machines for carrying out the +work for which they are specially suited.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In the discussion upon Mr J. J. Webster’s paper upon “Dredging-Appliances” +(<i>Proc. Inst. C.E.</i> vol. 89) at the Institution of Civil +Engineers in 1886, Sir John Coode stated that he had first seen sand-pump +dredgers at the mouth of the Maas in Holland. The centrifugal +pump was placed against the bulkheads in the after part of the +vessel, and the sand and water were delivered into a horizontal +breeches-piece leading into two pipes running along the full length +of the hopper. The difficulty of preventing the sand from running +overboard was entirely obviated by its being propelled by the pump +through these pipes, the bottoms of which were perforated by a series +of holes. In addition, there were a few small flap-doors fixed at +intervals, by means of which the men were able to regulate the +discharge. On being tested, the craft pumped into its hopper 400 +tons of sand in 22 minutes. The coamings round the well of the +hoppers were constructed with a dip, and when the hopper was full +the water ran over in a steady stream on either side. The proportion +of sand delivered into the hopper was about 20% of the total +capacity of the pump. The dredger was constructed by Messrs +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page566" id="page566"></a>566</span> +Smit of Kinderdijk, near Rotterdam. In the same discussion +Mr A. A. Langley, then engineer to the Great Eastern railway, gave +particulars of a sand pump upon the Bazin system, which had been +used successfully at Lowestoft. The boat was 60 ft. long by 20 ft. +wide, and the pump was 2 ft. in diameter, with a two-bladed disk. +The discharge pipe was 12 in. in diameter. The pump raised 400 +tons of sand, gravel and stones per hour as a maximum quantity, +the average quantity being about 200 tons per hour. The depth +dredged was from 7 ft. to 25 ft. The pump was driven by a double-cylinder +engine, having cylinders of 9 in. diameter by 10 in. stroke, +and making 120 revolutions per minute. An important improvement +was made by fitting the working faces of the pump with india-rubber, +which was very successful and largely reduced the wear and tear. +The cost of the dredging at Lowestoft was given by Mr Langley at +2d. per ton, including delivery 2 m. out at sea. The quantity +dredged was about 200,000 tons per annum.</p> + +<p>One of the earliest pumps to be applied to dredging purposes was +the Woodford, which consisted of a horizontal disk with two or +more arms working in a case somewhat similar to the ordinary +centrifugal pump. The disk was keyed to a vertical shaft which was +driven from above by means of belts or other gear coupled to an +ordinary portable engine. The pump within rested on the ground; +the suction pipe was so arranged that water was drawn in with the +sand or mud, the proportions being regulated to suit the quality of +the material. The discharge pipe was rectangular and carried a +vertical shaft, the whole apparatus being adjustable to suit different +depths of water. This arrangement was very effective, and has been +used on many works. Burt & Freeman’s sand pump, a modification +of the Woodford pump, was used in the construction of the Amsterdam +Ship Canal, for which it was designed. The excavations from +the canal had to be deposited on the banks some distance away from +the dredgers, and after being raised by the ordinary bucket dredger, +instead of being discharged into the barges, they were led into a +vertical chamber on the top side of the pump, suitable arrangements +being made for regulating the delivery. The pump was 3½ ft. in +diameter, and made about 230 revolutions per minute. The water +was drawn up on the bottom side and mixed with the descending +mud on the top side, and the two were discharged into a pipe 15 in. +in diameter. The discharge pipe was a special feature, and consisted +of a series of wooden pipes jointed together with leather hinges +and floated on buoys from the dredger to the bank. In some cases +this pipe was 300 yds. long, and discharged the material 8 ft. above +the water level. Each dredger and pump was capable of discharging +an average of 1500 cub. yds. per day of 12 hours. Schmidt’s +sand pump is claimed to be an improvement on the Burt & Freeman +pump. It consists of a revolving wheel 6 ft. in diameter, with cutters +revolving under a hood which just allows the water to pass underneath. +To the top side of the hood a 20 in. suction pipe from an +ordinary centrifugal pump is attached. The pump is driven by two +16 in. by 20 in. cylinders, at 134 revolutions per minute, the boiler +pressure being 95 ℔ per sq. in. This apparatus is capable of excavating +sticky blue clayey mud, and will deliver the material at +500 to 650 yds. distance. The best results are obtained when the +mixture of mud and water is as 1 to 6.5. The average quantity +excavated per diem by the apparatus is 1300 cub. yds., the maximum +quantity being 2500 cub. yds.</p> + +<p>Kennard’s sand pump is entirely different from the pumps already +described, and is a direct application of the ordinary lift pump. A +wrought iron box has a suction pipe fitted at the bottom, rising about +half way up the inside of the box; on the top of the box is fitted the +actual pump and the flap valves. The apparatus is lowered by +chains, and the pump lowered from above. As soon as the box is +filled with sand it is raised, the catches holding up the bottom +released, and the contents discharged into a punt.</p> + +<p>Sand-pump dredgers, designed and arranged by Mr Darnton +Hutton, were extensively used on the Amsterdam Ship Canal. A +centrifugal pump with a fan 4 ft. in diameter was employed, the +suction and delivery pipes, each 18 in. in diameter, being attached +to an open wrought-iron framework. The machine was suspended +between guides fixed to the end of the vessel, which was fitted with +tackle for raising, lowering and adjusting the machine. The vessel +was fitted with a steam engine and boiler for working and manipulating +the pumps and the heavy side chains for the guidance of the +dredger. The engine was 70 h.p., and the total cost of one dredger +was £8000. The number of hands required for working this sand-pump +dredger was one captain, one engineer, one stoker and four +sailors. Each machine was capable of raising about 1300 tons of +material per day, the engines working at 60 and the pump at 180 +revolutions per minute. The sand was delivered into barges alongside +the dredger. The cost of raising the material and depositing +it in barges was about 1d. per ton when the sand pumps were working, +but upon the year’s work the cost was 2.4d. per cub. yd. for +working expenses and repairs, and 1.24d. per cub. yd. for interest +and depreciation at 10% upon the cost of the plant, making a total +cost for dredging of 3.64d. per cub. yd. The cost for transport was +3.588d. per cub. yd., making a total cost for dredging and transport +of 7.234d. per cub. yd. Dredging and transport on the same works +by an ordinary bucket dredger and barges cost 8.328d. per cub. yd.</p> + +<p>Two of the largest and most successful instances of sand-pump +dredgers are the “Brancker” and the “G. B. Crow,” belonging +to the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board. Mr A. G. Lyster gave +particulars of the work done by these dredgers in a paper read before +the Engineering Congress in 1899. They are each 320 ft. long, 47 ft. +wide and 20.5 ft. deep, the draught loaded being 16 ft. They are +fitted with two centrifugal pumps, each 6 ft. in diameter, with 36 in. +suction and delivery pipes, united into a 45 in. diameter pipe, hung +by a ball and socket joint in a trunnion, so as to work safely in a seaway +when the waves are 10 ft. high. The suction pipe is 76 ft. long +and will dredge in 53 ft. of water. The eight hoppers hold 3000 tons, +equivalent when solid to 2000 cub. yds.; they can be filled in three-quarters +of an hour and discharged in five minutes. Mr Lyster +stated that up to May 1899, the quantity removed from bar and +main-channel shoals amounted to 41,240,360 tons, giving a width +of channel of 1500 ft. through the bar, with a minimum depth of +27 ft. The cost of dredging on the bar by the “G. B. Crow” during +1898, when 4,309,350 tons of material were removed, was 0.61d. +per ton for wages, supplies and repairs. These figures include all +direct working costs and a proportion of the charge for actual +superintendence, but no allowance for interest on capital cost or +depreciation. On an average, 20% of the sand and mud that are +raised escapes over the side of the vessel. Mr Lyster has, however, +to a considerable extent overcome this difficulty by a special +arrangement added to the hoppers (see <i>Proc. Inst. C.E.</i> vol. 188).</p> + +<p>At the Engineering Conference, 1907, Mr Lyster read a note in +which he stated that the total quantity of material removed from +the bar of the Mersey, from the Crosby channel, and from other +points of the main channel by the “G. B. Crow” and “Brancker” +suction dredgers amounted to 108,675,570 tons up to the 1st of May +1907. “In the note of 1899 (he added) it was pointed out that the +Mersey was a striking instance of the improvement of a river by +dredging rather than by permanent works, and the economy of the +system as well as the advantage which its elasticity and adaptability +to varying circumstances permit, was pointed out.... +The most recent experience, which has resulted in the adoption of +the proposal to revet the Taylor’s bank, indicates that the dredging +method has its limitations and cannot provide for every contingency +which is likely to arise; at the same time, the utility and economy +of the dredging system is in no way diminished.... Having +regard to the ever-increasing size of vessels, a scheme for new docks +and entrances on a very large scale received the authority of parliament +during the session of 1905-1906 In this scheme it was considered +necessary to make provision for vessels of 1000 ft. in length +and 40 ft. in draught, and having regard to this prospective growth +of vessels it has been determined still further to deepen and improve +the outer channel of the Mersey. No fixed measure of improvement +has been decided on, but after careful survey of existing conditions +and a comparison with probable requirements, it has been determined +to construct a dredger of 10,000 tons capacity, provided with pumping +power equivalent to about three times that of any existing +dredgers. By the use of this vessel it is anticipated that it will be +possible to deal with very much larger quantities of sand at a cheaper +rate, and to 10 ft. greater depth than the existing plant permits.”</p> + +<p>The vessel in question was launched on the Mersey from the yard +of Messrs Cammell, Laird & Co. in October 1908, and was named +the “Leviathan.” Her length is 487 ft., beam 69 ft., and depth +30 ft. 7 in. Her dredging machinery consists of four centrifugal +pumps driven by four sets of inverted triple expansion engines, and +connected to four suction tubes 90 ft. long and 42 in. in internal +diameter. Her propelling machinery, consisting of two sets of triple +expansion engines, is capable of driving her at a speed of 10 knots.</p> + +<p>Another powerful and successful sand-pump dredger, “Kate” +(Plate I. fig. 7), was built in 1897 by Messrs Wm. Simons & Co. Ltd. +for the East London Harbour Board, South Africa. Its dimensions +are: length 200 ft., breadth 39 ft., depth 14 ft. 6 in., hopper capacity +1000 tons. The pumping arrangements for filling the hopper with +sand or discharging overboard consist of two centrifugal pumps, +each driven from one of the propelling engines. The suction pipes +are each 27 in. in diameter, and are so arranged that they may be +used for pumping either forward or aft, as the state of the weather +may require. Four steam cranes are provided for manipulating the +suction pipes. Owing to the exceptional weather with which the +vessel had to contend, special precautions were taken in designing +the attachments of the suction pipes to the vessel. The attachment +is above deck and consists of a series of joints, which give a perfectly +free and universal movement to the upper ends of the pipes. The +joints, on each side of the vessel, are attached to a carriage, which +is traversed laterally by hydraulic gear. By this means the pipes +are pushed out well clear of the vessel’s sides when pumping, and +brought inboard when not in work. Hydraulic cushioning cylinders +are provided to give any required resistance to the fore and aft +movements of the pipes. When the vessel arrived at East London +on the 18th of July 1897, there was a depth of 14 ft. on the bar at +high tide. On the 10th of October, scarcely three months afterwards, +there was a depth of 20 ft. on the bar at low water. Working 22 days +in rough weather during the month of November 1898, the “Kate” +raised and deposited 2½ m. at sea 60,000 tons of dredgings. Her +best day’s work (12 hours) was on the 7th of November, when she +dredged and deposited 6440 tons.</p> + +<p>A large quantity of sand-pump dredging has been carried out at +Boulogne and Calais by steam hopper pump dredgers, workable when +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page567" id="page567"></a>567</span> +the head waves are not more than 3 ft. high and the cross waves not +more than 1½ ft. high. The dredgings are taken 2 m. to sea, and the +price for dredging and depositing from 800,000 to 900,000 cub. +metres in 5 or 6 years was 7.25d. per cub. yd. The contractor offered +to do the work at 4.625d. per cub. yd. on condition of being allowed +to work either at Calais or Boulogne, as the weather might permit. +Sand-pump dredging has also been extensively carried out at the +mouth of the ports of Amsterdam, Rotterdam and on the north coast +of France by sand dredgers constructed by Messrs L. Smit & Son +and G. & K. Smit. The largest dredger, the “Amsterdam,” is +141 ft. by 27 ft. by 10 ft. 8 in., and has engines of 190 i.h.p. The +hopper capacity is 10,600 cub. ft., and the vessel can carry 600 tons +of dredgings. The pump fan is 6 ft. 3 in. in diameter by 10 in. wide, +the plates being of wrought iron, and makes 130 revolutions a minute. +The pump can raise 230 cub. ft. a minute from a depth of 33 ft., +which, taking the proportion of 1 of sand to 7 of water, gives a +delivery of 29 cub. ft. of sand per minute. The hopper containing +10,600 cub. ft. was under favourable circumstances filled in 40 +minutes. The vessels are excellent sea boats.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Combined Bucket-Ladder and Sand-Pump Dredgers.</i>—Bucket +ladders and sand pumps have also been fitted to the same +dredger. A successful example of this practice is furnished by +the hopper dredger “Percy Sanderson” (Plate I. fig. 8), constructed +under the direction of Sir C. A. Hartley, engineer of +the Danube Commission for the deepening of the river Danube +and the Sulina bar. This dredger is 220 ft. by 40 ft. by 17 ft. +2 in., and has a hopper capacity for 1250 tons of dredgings. +The buckets have each a capacity of 25 cub. ft., and are able +to raise 1000 tons of ordinary material per hour. The suction +pump, which is driven by an independent set of triple expansion +engines, is capable of raising 700 tons of sand per hour, and of +dredging to a depth of 35 ft. below the water-line. The lower +end of the suction pipe is controlled by special steam appliances +by which the pipe can be brought entirely inboard. The “Percy +Sanderson” raises and deposits on an average 5000 tons of +material per day.</p> + +<p><i>Grab Dredgers.</i>—The grab dredger was stated by Sir Benjamin +Baker (<i>Proc. Inst. C.E.</i> vol. 113, p. 38) to have been invented by +Gouffé in 1703, and was worked by two ropes and a bar. Various +kinds of apparatus have been designed in the shape of grabs or +buckets for dredging purposes. These are usually worked by a +steam crane, which lets the open grab down to the surface of +the ground to be excavated and then closes it by a chain which +forces the tines into the ground; the grab is then raised by the +crane, which deposits the contents either into the hopper of the +vessel upon which the crane is fixed or into another barge.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The Priestman grab has perhaps been more extensively used than +any other apparatus of this sort. It is very useful for excavating +mud, gravel and soft sand, but is less effective with hard sand or +stiff clay—a general defect in this class of dredger. It is also capable +of lifting large loose pieces of rock weighing from 1 to 2 tons. A +dredger of this type, with grab holding 1 ton of mud, dredged during +six days, in 19 ft. of water, an average of 52½ tons and a maximum +of 68½ tons per hour, and during 12 days, in 16 ft. of water, an +average of 48 tons and a maximum of 58 tons per hour, at a cost of +1.63d. per ton, excluding interest on the capital and depreciation. +The largest dredger to which this apparatus has been applied is the +grab bucket hopper dredger “Miles K. Burton” (Plate I. fig. 9), +belonging to the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board. It is equipped +with 5 grabs on Morgan’s patent system, which is a modification of +Priestman’s, the grabs being worked by 5 hydraulic cranes. It +raised and deposited, 12 to 15 m. at sea, 11 loads of about 1450 tons +each with a double shift of hands, at a cost of about 1s. 5d. per cub. +yd. of spoil, including the working expenses for wages of crew, fuel +and stores. Mr R. A. Marillier of Hull has stated that “the efficiency +of these grabs is not at all dependent upon the force of the blow in +falling for the penetration and grip in the material, as they do their +work very satisfactorily even when lowered quite gently on to the +material to be cut out, the jaws being so framed as to draw down +and penetrate the material as soon as the upward strain is put on +the lifting chain. Even in hard material the jaws penetrate so +thoroughly as to cause the bucket to be well filled. The grab is found +to work successfully in excavating hard clay from its natural bed +on dry land.” It is claimed on behalf of grabs that they lift a smaller +proportion of water than any other class of dredger.</p> + +<p>Since the beginning of the 20th century considerable advance has +been made in the use of Priestman grabs, not only for dredging and +excavating (for which work they were originally designed), but also +in discharging bulk cargo. The first quadruple dredger used by the +Liverpool Docks Board had grabs of a capacity of 30 cub. ft., but +subsequently second and third quadruple dredgers were put to work +in the Liverpool Docks, with grabs having a capacity of 70 and 100 +cub. ft. respectively. In discharging coal at Southampton, Havre, +Erith, as well as at the coaling station at Purfleet on the Thames, +grabs having a capacity of about 80 cub. ft. are in constant use. +Perhaps the most difficult kind of bulk cargo to lift is “Narvick” +iron ore, which sets into a semi-solid body in the holds of the vessels, +and for this purpose one of the largest grabs, having about 150 cub. +ft. capacity and weighing about 8 tons, has been adopted. This grab +was designed as a result of experiments extending over a long period +in lifting iron ore. It is fitted with long, forged, interlocked steel +teeth for penetrating the compact material, which is very costly to +remove by hand labour. The Priestman grab is made to work with +either one or two chains or wire ropes. Grabs worked with two +chains or ropes have many advantages, and are therefore adopted +for large undertakings.</p> + +<p>Wild’s single chain half-tine grab works entirely with a single +chain, and has been found very useful in excavating the cylinders in +Castries harbour. Upon experimenting with an ordinary grab a +rather curious condition of things was observed with respect to +sinking. On penetrating the soil to a certain depth the ground was +found as it were nested, and nothing would induce the grab to sink +lower. Sir W. Matthews suggested that a further set of external +tines might possibly get over this difficulty. A new grab having been +made with this modification, and also with a large increase of +weight—all the parts being of steel—it descended to any required +depth with ease, the outside tines loosening the ground effectually +whilst the inside bucket or tines picked up the material.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Miscellaneous Appliances.</i>—There are several machines or +appliances which perhaps can hardly be called dredgers, although +they are used for cleansing and deepening rivers and harbours.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Kingfoot’s dredger, used for cleansing the river Stour, consisted +of a boat with a broad rake fitted to the bow, capable of adjustment +to different depths. At the sides of the boat were hinged two wings +of the same depth as the rake and in a line with it. When the rake +was dropped to the bottom of the river and the wings extended to +the side, they formed a sort of temporary dam, and the water began +to rise gradually. As soon as a sufficient head was raised, varying +from 6 to 12 in., the whole machine was driven forward by the +pressure, and the rake carried the mud with it. Progress at the rate +of about 3 m. an hour was made in this manner, and to prevent the +accumulation of the dredgings, operations were begun at the mouth +of the river and carried on backwards. The apparatus was very +effective and the river was cleansed thoroughly, but the distance +travelled by the dredger must have been great.</p> + +<p>In 1876 J. J. Rietschoten designed a “propeller dredger” for +removing the shoals of the river Maas. It consisted of an old gunboat +fitted with a pair of trussed beams, one at each side, each of +which carried a steel shaft and was capable of being lowered or +raised by means of a crab. An ordinary propeller 3 ft. 6 in. in +diameter was fixed to the lower end of the shaft, and driven by bevel +gear from a cross shaft which derived its motion by belting from +the fly-wheel of a 12 h.p. portable engine. The propellers were +lowered until they nearly reached the shoals, and were then worked +at 150 revolutions per minute. This operation scoured away the +shoal effectively, for in about 40 minutes it had been lowered about +3 ft. for a space of 150 yds. long by 8 yds. wide.</p> + +<p>A. Lavalley in 1877 designed an arrangement for the harbour of +Dunkirk to overcome the difficulty of working an ordinary bucket-ladder +dredger when there is even a small swell. A pump injects +water into the sand down a pipe terminating in three nozzles to stir +up the sand, and another centrifugal pump draws up the mixed +sand and water and discharges it into a hopper, the pumps and all +machinery being on board the hopper. To allow for the rising and +falling of the vessel—either by the action of the tide or by the swell—the +ends of the pipes are made flexible. The hopper has a capacity +of 190 cub. yds., and is propelled and the pumps worked by an engine +of 150 i.h.p. From 50 to 80 cub. yds. per hour can be raised by this +dredger.</p> + +<p>The “Aquamotrice,” designed by Popie, and used on the +Garonne at Agen, appears to be a modification of the old bag and +spoon arrangement. A flat-bottomed boat 51½ ft. long by 6½ ft. +wide was fitted at the bow with paddles, which were actuated by the +tide. Connected with the paddles was a long chain, passing over a +pulley on uprights and under a roller, and a beam was attached to +the chain 14 ft. 8 in. long, passing through a hole in the deck. At +the end of the beam was an iron scoop 2 ft. wide and 2 ft. 6 in. deep. +When the tide was strong enough it drew the scoop along by means +of the paddles and chains, and the scoop when filled was opened by +a lever and discharged. About 65 cub. yds. of gravel could be +raised by the apparatus in 12 hours. When the tide failed the +apparatus was worked by men.</p> + +<p>The Danube Steam Navigation Co. removed the shingle in the +shallow parts of the river by means of a triangular rake with wrought-iron +sides 18 ft. long, and fitted with 34 teeth of chilled cast iron +12 in. deep. This rake was hung from the bow of a steamer 180 ft. +long by 21 ft. beam, and dragged across the shallows, increasing the +depth of water in one instance from 5 ft. 6 in. to 9 ft., after passing +over the bank 355 times.</p> + +<p>A combination of a harrow and high pressure water jets, arranged +by B. Tydeman, was found very efficacious in removing a large +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page568" id="page568"></a>568</span> +quantity of mud which accumulated in the Tilbury Dock basin, +which has an area of about 17 acres, with a depth of 26 ft. at low-water +spring tides. In the first instance chain harrows merely were +used, but the addition of the water jets added materially to the +success of the operation. The system accomplished in six tides +more than was done in twelve tides without the water jets which +worked at about 80 lb pressure per sq. in. at the bottom of the dock.</p> + +<p>Ive’s excavator consists of a long weighted spear, with a sort of +spade at the end of it. The spade is hinged at the top, and is capable +of being turned at right angles to the spear by a chain attached to +the end of the spear. The spade is driven into the ground, and after +releasing the catch which holds it in position during its descent, it is +drawn up at right angles to the spear by the chain, carrying the +material with it. Milroy’s excavator is similar, but instead of having +only one spade it generally has eight, united to the periphery of an +octagonal iron frame fixed to a central vertical rod. When these +eight spades are drawn up by means of chains, they form one flat +table or tray at right angles to the central rod. In operation the +spades hang vertically, and are dropped into the material to be +excavated; the chains are then drawn up, and the table thus formed +holds the material on the top, which is lifted and discharged by +releasing the spade. This apparatus has been extensively used both +in Great Britain and in India for excavating in bridge cylinders.</p> + +<p>The clam shell dredger consists of two hinged buckets, which when +closed form one semi-cylindrical bucket. The buckets are held +open by chains attached to the top of a cross-head, and the machine +is dropped on to the top of the material to be dredged. The chains +holding the bucket open are then released, while the spears are held +firmly in position, the buckets being closed by another chain. +Bull’s dredger, Gatmell’s excavator, and Fouracre’s dredger are +modifications with improvements of the clam shell dredger, and +have all been used successfully upon various works.</p> + +<p>Bruce & Batho’s dredger, when closed, is of hemispherical form, +the bucket being composed of three or four blades. It can be worked +by either a single chain or by means of a spear, the latter being +generally used for stiff material. The advantage of this form of +dredger bucket is that the steel points of the blades are well adapted +for penetrating hard material. Messrs Bruce & Batho also designed +a dredger consisting of one of these buckets, but worked entirely +by hydraulic power. This was made for working on the Tyne. +The excavator or dredger is fixed to the end of a beam which is +actuated by two hydraulic cylinders, one being used for raising the +bucket and the other for lowering it; the hydraulic power is supplied +by the pumps in the engine-room. The novelty in the design is the +ingenious way in which the lever in ascending draws the shoot under +the bucket to receive its contents, and draws away again as the +bucket descends. The hydraulic cylinder at the end of the beam +is carried on gimbals to allow for irregularities on the surface being +dredged. The hydraulic pressure is 700 ℔ per sq. in., and the pumps +are used in connexion with a steam accumulator.</p> + +<p>An unloading apparatus was designed by Mr A. Manning for the +East & West India Dock Co. for unloading the dredged materials +out of barges and delivering it on the marsh at the back of the bank +of the river Thames at Crossness, Kent. A stage constructed of +wooden piles commanded a series of barge beds, and the unloading +dredger running from end to end of the stage, lifted and delivered +the materials on the marsh behind the river wall at the cost of 1 d. +per cub. yd.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Dredging on the River Scheldt below Antwerp.</i>—This dredging +took place at Krankeloon and the Belgian Sluis under the direction +of L. Van Gansberghe. At Melsele there is a pronounced +bend in the river, causing a bar at the Pass of Port Philip, +and just below the pass of Lillo there is a cross-over in the current, +making a neutral point and forming a shoal. After dredging to +8 metres (26.24 ft.) below low tide, in clay containing stone +and ferruginous matter, a sandstone formation was encountered, +which was very compact and difficult to raise. A suction +dredger being unsuited to the work, a bucket-ladder dredger +was employed. The dredging was commenced at Krankeloon +in September 1894 and continued to the end of 1897. A depth +of 6 metres (19.68 ft.) was excavated at first, but was afterwards +increased to 8 metres (26.24 ft.). The place of deposit was at +first on lands acquired by the State, 2.17 m. above Krankeloon, +and placed at the disposal of the contractor. The dredgings +excavated by the bucket-ladder dredger were deposited in scows, +which were towed to the front of the deposit ground and discharged +by a suction pump fixed in a special boat, moored close +to the bank of the river. The material brought by the suction +dredger in its own hull was discharged by a plant fixed upon the +dredger itself. In both instances the material was deposited at +a distance of 1640 ft. from the river, the spoil bank varying +in depth from 2 to 7 metres. The water thrown out behind +the dyke with the excavated material returned to the river, +after settlement, by a special discharge lock built under the dyke. +After 1896 the material was delivered into an abandoned pass +by means of barges with bottom hopper doors or by the suction +dredger. One suction dredger and three bucket-ladder dredgers +were employed upon the work, and a vessel called “Scheldt I.” +used for discharging the material from the scows. Four tugboats +and twenty scows were also employed.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The largest dredger, “Scheldt III.,” was 147.63 ft. long by 22.96 +ft. wide by 10.98 ft. deep, and had buckets of 21.18 cub. ft. capacity. +The output per hour was 10,594 cub. ft. This dredger had also a +complete installation as a suction dredger, the suction pipe being +2 ft. diameter. The fan of the centrifugal pump was 5.25 ft. diameter, +and was driven by the motor of the bucket ladder. The three bucket +dredgers worked with head to the ebb tide. They could also work +with head to the flood tide, but it took so long a time to turn them +about that it was impracticable. The work was for from 13 to 14 +hours a day on the ebb tide. The effective daily excavation +averaged 4839 cub. yds. Each dredger was fitted with six anchors. +The excavated cut was 164 ft. wide by 6.56 ft. deep. “Scheldt III.” +was capable of lifting a mass 9.84 ft. thick. The suction dredger +“Scheldt II.” was of the multiple type, and is stated to be unique +in construction. It can discharge material from a scow alongside, +fill its own hopper with excavations, discharge its own load upon the +bank or into a scow by different pipes provided for the purpose, and +discharge its own load through hopper doors. The machinery is +driven by a triple expansion engine of 300 i.h.p. working the propeller +by a clutch. Owing to the rise and fall in the tide of 23 ft. +the suction pipe is fitted with spherical joints and a telescopic +arrangement. The vessel is 157.5 ft. by 28.2 ft. by 12.8 ft. The +diameter of the pump is 5.25 ft. The wings of the pump are curved, +the surface being in the form of a cylinder parallel to the axis of +rotation, the directrix of which is an arc of a circle of 2.62 ft. radius +with the straight part beyond. The suction and discharge pipes are +2 ft. diameter. A centrifugal pump is provided for throwing water +into the scows to liquefy the material during discharge. The dredger, +which is fitted with electric lights for work at night, is held by two +anchors, to prevent lurching backwards and forwards; it can work +on the flood as well as on the ebb tide, and can excavate to a depth +of 42.65 ft., the output depending upon the nature of the material. +With good material it can fill its tanks in thirty minutes. To empty +the tanks by suction and discharge upon the bank over the dyke +takes about fifty minutes, depending upon the height and distance +to which the material requires to be delivered. The daily work has +averaged eighteen hours, ten trips being made when the distance +from the dredging ground to the point of delivery is about 1 m. +When the dredged material is discharged into the Scheldt, a quantity +of 5886 cub. yds. has been raised and deposited in a day, the mean +quantity being 4700 cub. yds. When the distance of transportation +is increased to 2½ m., six voyages were made in a day, and the day’s +work amounted to 3530 cub. yds.</p> +</div> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:522px; height:247px" src="images/img568.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—Diagram showing Action of Lobnitz Gold Dredger.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Gold Dredgers.</i>—Dredgers for excavating from river beds soil +containing gold are generally fitted with a screen and elevator. +They have been extensively designed and built by Messrs +Lobnitz & Co. (fig. 2) and also by Messrs Hunter & English.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The writer is indebted to the <i>Proceedings</i> of the Institution of +Civil Engineers, and especially to the paper of Mr J. J. Webster +(<i>Proc. Inst. C.E.</i> vol. 89), for much valuable information upon the +subject treated. He is also indebted to many manufacturers who +have furnished him with particulars and photographs of dredging +plant.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. H.*)</div> + +<p class="noind pt2 f80 sc">Plate I.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:399px; height:250px" src="images/img568a1.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:400px; height:252px" src="images/img568a2.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>—Barge-loading dredger, “St Austell,” constructed for +the British Government by Wm. Simons & Co.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>—Stern-well hopper-dredger “La Puissante,” by Wm. +Simons & Co. Length 275 ft., breadth 47 ft., depth 19 ft.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:402px; height:252px" src="images/img568a3.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:403px; height:254px" src="images/img568a4.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>—Dredger constructed for the Lake Copais Co. +by Hunter & English.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>—Light-draught dredger, with delivery apparatus working +round an arc of 210°, by Hunter & English.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:402px; height:262px" src="images/img568a5.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:400px; height:260px" src="images/img568a6.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>—Twin-screw sand-pump dredger, “Kate,” built for the +East London Harbour Board by Wm. Simons & Co.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>—Twin-screw hopper-dredger, “Percy Sanderson,” built +for the European Danube Commission by Wm. Simons & Co.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:387px; height:259px" src="images/img568a7.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:400px; height:200px" src="images/img568a8.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span>—Twin-screw grab-dredger, “Miles K. Burton,” +built for the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board by Wm. +Simons & Co.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span>—Hopper-dredger, “David Dale,” with buckets of 54 +cub. ft. capacity (see fig. 11) built for the North Eastern Railway +Company by Lobnitz & Co.</td></tr></table> + + +<p class="noind pt2 f80 sc">Plate II.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:850px; height:551px" src="images/img568b1.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span>—BUCKETS OF 5 AND 54 CUBIC FEET CAPACITY COMPARED.<br /> +The latter, the largest ever made, were for the hopper-dredger “David Dale” (Plate I. fig. 10), built by Lobnitz & Co.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:850px; height:561px" src="images/img568b2.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span>—MODEL OF ROCK-CUTTING DREDGER, “DEROCHEUSE.”<br /> +Built for special work on the Suez Canal by Lobnitz & Co. Length 180 ft., breadth 40 ft., depth 12 ft.</td></tr></table> + + +<p class="center pt2 sc">2. Marine Biology</p> + +<p>The naturalist’s dredge is an instrument consisting essentially +of a net or bag attached to a framework of iron which forms the +mouth of the net. When in use as the apparatus is drawn over +the sea-bottom mouth forwards, some part of the framework +passes beneath objects which it meets and so causes them to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page569" id="page569"></a>569</span> +enter the net. It is intended for the collection of animals and +plants living on or near the sea-bottom, or sometimes of specimens +of the sea-bottom itself, for scientific purposes.</p> + +<p>Until the middle of the 18th century, naturalists who studied +the marine fauna and flora relied for their materials on shore +collection and the examination of the catches of fishing boats. +Their knowledge of creatures living below the level of low spring +tides was thus gained only from specimens cast up in storms, or +caught by fishing gear designed for the capture of certain edible +species only. The first effort made to free +marine biology from these limitations was +the use of the dredge, which was built +much on the plan of the oyster dredge.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:145px; height:250px" src="images/img569a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span>—Otho +Frederick Müller’s +Dredge (1770).</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>The Oyster Dredge.</i>—At first naturalists made +use of the ordinary oyster dredge, which is +constructed as follows. The frame is an iron +triangle, the sides being the round iron “arms” +of the dredge, the base a flat bar called the +shere or lip, which is sloped a little, not perpendicular +to the plane of the triangle; an +iron bar parallel to the base joins the arms. +The net is fastened to the parallel bars and +the portion of the arms between them, and +consists of two parts: that attached to the +shere is of round iron rings linked together by +smaller ones of wire lashings, that attached +to the upper bar is of ordinary network. +Where these two portions of the bag meet a +wooden beam is fastened. In use the frame is towed forward by its +apex: the shere passes below oysters, &c., which pass back on to the +iron netting. The length of each side of the triangular frame is about +6 ft., the width of the shere 3 in. and the height of the mouth just +under a foot. The rings vary in size, but are usually some 2½ in. in +diameter. The weight is about 60 ℔. This dredge was soon abandoned: +its weight was prohibitive for small boats, from which the +naturalist usually worked, its wide rings allowed precious specimens +to fall through, and its shallow net favoured the washing out of light +objects on hauling through the moving water of the surface. Moreover, +it sometimes fell on its back and was then useless, although +when the apex or towing point was weighted no great skill is needed +to avoid this.</p> + +<p>Otho Müller used a dredge (fig. 13) consisting of a net with a +square iron mouth, each of whose sides was furnished with a thin +edge turned slightly away from the dredge’s centre. As any one of +these everted lips could act as a scraper it was a matter of indifference +which struck the bottom when the dredge +was lowered. The chief defect of the instrument +was the ease with which light objects +could be washed out on hauling, owing to +the size of the mouth. However, with this +instrument Müller obtained from the often +stormy Scandinavian seas all the material for +his celebrated <i>Zoologia Danica</i>, a description +of the marine fauna of Denmark and +Norway which was published with excellent +coloured plates in 1778; and historical +interest attaches to the dredge as the first +made specially for scientific work.</p> + +<p><i>Ball’s Dredge.</i>—About 1838 a dredge devised +by Dr Ball of Dublin was introduced. +It has been used all over the world, and is +so apt for its purpose that it has suffered +very little modification during its 70 years +of life. It is known as Ball’s dredge or more +generally simply “the dredge.”</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 230px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:176px; height:379px" src="images/img569b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 14.</span>—Ball’s +Naturalist’s Dredge.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Ball’s dredge (fig. 14) consists of a rectangular +net attached to a rectangular +frame much longer than high, and furnished +with rods stretching from the four corners +to meet at a point where they are attached +to the dredge rope. It differs from Müller’s +dredge in the slit-like shape of the opening, +which prevents much of the “washing out” suffered by the earlier +pattern, and in the edges. The long edges only are fashioned as +scrapers, being wider and heavier than Müller’s, especially in later +dredges. The short edges are of round iron bar.</p> + +<p>Like Müller’s form, Ball’s dredge will act whichever side touches +the bottom first, as its frame will not remain on its short edge, and +either of the long edges acts as a scraper. The scraping lips thicken +gradually from free edge to net; they are set at 110° to the plane of +the mouth, and in some later patterns curve outwards instead of +merely sloping. All dredge frames are of wrought iron.</p> + +<p>The thick inner edges of the scrapers are perforated by round +holes at distances of about an inch, and through these strong iron +rings about an inch in diameter are passed, and two or three similar +rings run on the short rods which form the ends of the dredge-frame. +A light iron rod, bent to the form of the dredge opening, usually runs +through these rings, and to this rod and to the rings the mouth of +the dredge-bag is securely attached by stout cord or strong copper +wire. Various materials have been used for the bag, the chief of +which are hide, canvas and netting. The hide was recommended +by its strength, but it is now abandoned. Canvas bags fill quickly +with mud or sand and then cease to operate: on the other hand +wide mesh net fails to retain small specimens. Probably the most +suitable material is hand-made netting of very strong twine, the +meshes half an inch to the side, the inter-spaces contracting to a +third of an inch across when the twine is thoroughly soaked, with an +open canvas or “bread-bag” lining to the last 6 in. of the net. A +return to canvas covering has latterly occurred in the small dredge +called the mud-bag, trailed behind the trawl of the “Albatross” +for obtaining a sample of the bottom, and in the conical dredge.</p> + +<p>The dimensions of the first dredges were as follows: Frame about +12 in. by about 4 in.; scraping lips about 2 in. wide; all other iron +parts of round iron bar <span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span> in. diameter; bag rather more than 1 ft. +long. These small dredges were used from rowing boats. Larger +dredges were subsequently made for use from yawls or cutters. +The mouth of these was 18 by 5 in., the scraping lips about 2 in. +wide and bag 2 ft. deep; such a dredge weighs about 20 ℔. The +dredge of the “Challenger” had a frame 4 ft. 6 in. by 1 ft. 3 in. and +the bag had a length of 4 ft. 6 in.; the “Porcupine” used a dredge +of the same size weighing 225 ℔. Doubtless the size of Ball’s dredge +would have grown still more had it not been proved by the +“Challenger” expedition that for many purposes trawls could be +used advantageously instead of dredges.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Operation of the Dredge from Small Vessels.</i> For work round +the coasts of Europe, at depths attainable from a row-boat or +yawl, probably the best kind of line is bolt-rope of the best +Russian hemp, not less than 1½ in. in circumference, containing +18 to 20 yarns in 3 strands. Each yarn should be nearly a +hundredweight, so that the breaking strain of such a rope ought +to be about a ton. Of course it is never voluntarily exposed to +such a strain, but in shallow water the dredge is often caught +among rocks or coral, and the rope should be strong enough in +such a case to bring up the boat, even if there were some little +way on. It is always well, when dredging, to ascertain the +approximate depth with the lead before casting the dredge; and +the lead ought always to be accompanied by a registering +thermometer, for the subsequent haul of the dredge will gain +greatly in value as an observation in geographical distribution, +if it be accompanied by an accurate note of the bottom temperature. +For depths under 100 fathoms the amount of rope +paid out should be at least double the depth; under 30 fathoms, +where one usually works more rapidly, it should be more nearly +three times; this gives a good deal of slack before the dredge if +the boat be moving very slowly, and keeps the lip of the dredge +well down. When there is anything of a current, from whatever +cause, it is usually convenient to attach a weight, varying from +14 ℔ to half a hundredweight, to the rope 3 or 4 fathoms in front +of the dredge. This prevents in some degree the lifting of the +mouth of the dredge; if the weight be attached nearer the dredge +it is apt to injure delicate objects passing in.</p> + +<p>In dredging in sand or mud, the dredge-rope may simply be +passed through the double eye formed by the ends of the two +arms of the dredge-frame; but in rocky or unknown ground it is +better to fasten the rope to the eye of one of the arms only, and to +tie the two eyes together with three or four turns of rope-yarn. +This stop breaks much more readily than the dredge-rope, so that +if the dredge get caught it is the first thing to give way under the +strain, and in doing so it often alters the position of the dredge so +as to allow of its extrication.</p> + +<p>The dredge is slipped gently over the side, either from the bow +or from the stern—in a small boat more usually the latter—while +there is a little way on, and the direction which the rope +takes indicates roughly whether the dredge is going down +properly. When it reaches the ground and begins to scrape, an +experienced hand upon the rope can usually detect at once a +tremor given to the dredge by the scraper passing over the +irregularities of the bottom. The due amount of rope is then +paid out, and the rope hitched to a bench or rowlock-pin. The +boat should move very slowly, probably not faster than a mile an +hour. In still water or with a very slight current the dredge of +course anchors the boat, and oars or sails are necessary; but if +the boat be moving at all it is all that is required. It is perhaps +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page570" id="page570"></a>570</span> +most pleasant to dredge with a close-reefed sail before a light +wind, with weights, against a very slight tide or current; but +these are conditions which cannot be commanded. The dredge +may remain down from a quarter of an hour to twenty minutes, +by which time, if things go well, it ought to be fairly filled. In +dredging from a small boat the simplest plan is for two or three +men to haul in, hand over hand, and coil in the bottom of the +boat. For a large yawl or yacht, and for depths over 50 fathoms, +a winch is a great assistance. The rope takes a couple of turns +round the winch, which is worked by two men, while a third hand +takes it from the winch and coils it down.</p> + +<p>It is easier to operate a dredge from a steam vessel than a +sailing boat, but if the steamer is of any size great care should be +taken that the dredge does not move too rapidly.</p> + +<p>Two ingenious cases of dredging under unusual conditions are +worthy of mention, one case from shore, one from ice. In the +Trondligem Fjord, Canon A. M. Norman in 1890 worked by +hauling the dredge up the precipitous shores of the fjord. The +dredge was shot from a boat close to the shore, to which after +paying out some hundreds of fathoms of line it returned. The +dredge was then hauled from the top of the cliffs up whose side it +scraped. Hitches against projecting rocks were frequent and +were overcome by suddenly paying out line for a time. The +dredge was lifted into a boat when it reached the surface of the +sea. The other case occurred during the Antarctic expedition of +the “Discovery.” Hodgson dropped loops of line along cracks +which occasionally formed in the ice. The ice always joined up +again, but with the line below it; and a hole being cleared at +each place at which the end of the line emerged, the dredge could +be worked between them.</p> + +<p>The dredge comes up variously freighted according to the +locality, and the next step is to examine its contents and to store +the objects of search for future use. In a regularly organized +dredging expedition a frame or platform is often erected with a +ledge round it to receive the contents of the dredge, but it does +well enough to capsize it on an old piece of tarpaulin. There +are two ways of emptying the dredge; we may either turn it up +and pour out its contents by the mouth, or we may have a +contrivance by which the bottom of the bag is made to unlace. +The first plan is the simpler and the one more usually adopted; +the second has the advantage of letting the mass slide out more +smoothly and easily, but the lacing introduces rather a damaging +complication, as it is apt to loosen or give way. Any objects +visible on the surface of the heap are now carefully removed, and +placed for identification in jars or tubs of sea-water, of which +there should be a number secured in some form of bottle basket, +standing ready. The heap should not be much disturbed, for the +delicate objects contained in it have already been unavoidably +subjected to a good deal of rough usage, and the less friction +among the stones the better.</p> + +<p><i>Examination of the Catch. Sifting.</i>—The sorting of the catch +is facilitated by sifting. The sieves used in early English expeditions +were of various sizes and meshes, each sieve having a finer +mesh than the sieve smaller than itself. In use the whole were +put together in the form of a nest, the smallest one with the +coarsest mesh being on top. A little of the dredge’s contents +were then put in the top sieve, and the whole set moved gently up +and down in a tub of sea water by handles attached to the bottom +one. Objects of different sizes are thus left in different sieves. +A simple but effective plan is to let the sieves of various sized +mesh fit accurately on each other like lids, the coarsest on top, +and to pour water upon material placed on the top one. In the +United States Bureau of Fisheries ship “Albatross” these +sieves are raised to form a table and the water is led on them +from a hose: the very finest objects or sediments are retained by +the waste water escaping from a catchment tub by muslin bags +let into its sides. Any of these methods are preferable to sifting +by the agitation of a sieve hung over the side, as in the last +anything passing through the sieve is gone past recall.</p> + +<p><i>Preservation of Specimens.</i>—The preservation of specimens +will of course depend on the purpose for which they are intended. +For microscopic observation formaldehyde has some advantages. +It can be stored in 40% solution and used in 2%, thus saving +space, and it preserves many animals in their colours for a time: +formalin preparations do not, however, last as well as do those in +spirit. The suitable fluids for various histological inquiries are +beyond the scope of the present article; but for general marine +histology Bles’ fluid is useful, being simple to prepare and not +necessitating the removal of the specimen to another fluid. It is +composed of 70% alcohol 90 parts, glacial acetic acid 7 parts, +4% formaldehyde 7 parts.</p> + +<p>The scientific value of a dredging depends mainly upon two +things, the care with which the objects procured are preserved and +labelled for future identification and reference, and the accuracy +with which all the circumstances of the dredging—the position, +the depth, the nature of the ground, the date, the bottom-temperature, +&c.—are recorded. In the British Marine Biological +Association’s work in the North Sea, a separate sheet of a printed +book with carbon paper and duplicate sheets (which remain +always on the ship) is used for the record of the particulars of +each haul; depth, gear, &c., being filled into spaces indicated in +the form. This use of previously prepared forms has been found +to be a great saving of time and avoids risk of omission. Whether +labelled externally or not, all bottles should contain parchment +or good paper labels written with a soft pencil. These cannot +be lost. The more fully details of reference number of station, +gear, date, &c., are given the better, as should a mistake be made +in one particular it can frequently be traced and rectified by +means of the rest.</p> + +<p><i>Growth of Scope of Operations.</i>—At the Birmingham meeting +of the British Association in 1839 an important committee was +appointed “for researches with the dredge with a view to the +investigation of the marine zoology of Great Britain, the <span class="correction" title="amended from illlustration">illustration</span> +of the geographical distribution of marine animals, and the +more accurate determination of the fossils of the Pliocene period.” +Of this committee Edward Forbes was the ruling spirit, and +under the genial influence of his contagious enthusiasm great +progress was made during the next decade in the knowledge +of the fauna of the British seas, and many wonderfully pleasant +days were spent by the original committee and by many others +who from year to year were “added to their number.” Every +annual report of the British Association contains communications +from the English, the Scottish, or the Irish branches of the +committee; and in 1850 Edward Forbes submitted its first +general report on British marine zoology. This report, as might +have been anticipated from the eminent qualifications of the +reporter, was of the highest value; and, taken along with his +remarkable memoirs previously published, “On the Distribution +of the Mollusca and Radiata of the Aegean Sea,” and “On the +Zoological Relations of the existing Fauna and Flora of the +British Isles,” may be said to mark an era in the progress of +human thought.</p> + +<p>The dredging operations of the British Association committee +were carried on generally under the idea that at the 100-fathom +line, by which amateur work in small boats was practically +limited, the zero of animal life was approached—a notion which +was destined to be gradually undermined, and finally overthrown. +From time to time, however, there were not wanting +men of great skill and experience to maintain, with Sir James +Clark Ross, that “from however great a depth we may be +enabled to bring up mud and stones of the bed of the ocean we +shall find them teeming with animal life.” Samples of the sea-bottom +procured with great difficulty and in small quantity +from the first deep soundings in the Atlantic, chiefly by the use +of Brooke’s sounding machine, an instrument which by a neat +contrivance disengaged its weights when it reached the bottom, +and thus allowed a tube, so arranged as to get filled with a sample +of the bottom, to be recovered by the sounding line, were eagerly +examined by microscopists; and the singular fact was established +that these samples consisted over a large part of the bed of the +Atlantic of the entire or broken shells of certain foraminifera. +Dr Wallich, the naturalist to the “Bulldog” sounding expedition +under Sir Leopold M’Clintock, reported that star-fishes, +with their stomachs full of the deep-sea foraminifera, had come +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page571" id="page571"></a>571</span> +up from a depth of 1200 fathoms on a sounding line; and doubts +began to be entertained whether the bottom of the sea was in +truth a desert, or whether it might not present a new zoological +region open to investigation and discovery, and peopled by a +peculiar fauna suited to its special conditions.</p> + +<p>In the year 1867, while the question was still undecided, +two testing investigations were undertaken independently. In +America Count L. F. de Pourtales (1824-1880), an officer employed +in the United States Coast Survey under Benjamin Peirce, +commenced a series of deep dredgings across the Gulf Stream off +the coast of Florida, which were continued in the following year, +and were productive of most valuable results; and in Great +Britain the Admiralty, on the representation of the Royal Society, +placed the “Lightning,” a small gun-vessel, at the disposal of a +small committee to sound and dredge in the North Atlantic +between Shetland and the Faröe Islands.</p> + +<p>In the “Lightning,” with the help of a donkey-engine +for winding in, dredging was carried on with comparative ease +at a depth of 600 fathoms, and at that depth animal life was +found to be still abundant. The results of the “Lightning’s” +dredgings were regarded of so great importance to science that +the Royal Society pressed upon the Admiralty the advantage +of continuing the researches, and accordingly, during the years +1869 and 1870, the gun-boat “Porcupine” was put under the +orders of a committee consisting of Dr W. B. Carpenter, Dr +Gwyn Jeffreys, and Professor (afterwards Sir Charles) Wyville +Thomson, one or other of whom superintended the scientific work +of a series of dredging trips in the North Atlantic to the north +and west of the British Islands, which occupied two summers.</p> + +<p>In the “Porcupine,” in the summer of 1869, dredging was +carried down successfully to a depth of 2435 fathoms, upwards +of two miles and a half, in the Bay of Biscay, and the dredge +brought up well-developed representatives of all the classes of +marine invertebrates. During the cruises of the “Porcupine” +the fauna of the deep water off the western coasts of Great +Britain and of Spain and Portugal was tolerably well ascertained, +and it was found to differ greatly from the fauna of shallow +water in the same region, to possess very special characters, and +to show a very marked relation to the faunae of the earlier +Tertiary and the later Cretaceous periods.</p> + +<p>In the winter of 1872, as a sequel to the preliminary cruises +of the “Lightning” and “Porcupine,” by far the most considerable +expedition in which systematic dredging had ever been +made a special object left Great Britain. H.M.S. “Challenger,” +a corvette of 2306 tons, with auxiliary steam working to 1234 +h.p., was despatched to investigate the physical and biological +conditions of the great ocean basins.</p> + +<p>The “Challenger” was provided with a most complete and +liberal organization for the purpose; she had powerful deck +engines for hauling in the dredge, workrooms, laboratories and +libraries for investigating the results on the spot, and a staff of +competent naturalists to undertake such investigations and to +superintend the packing and preservation of the specimens +reserved for future study. Since the “Challenger” expedition +the use of wire rope has enabled far smaller vessels to undertake +deep sea work. The “Challenger,” however, may be said to have +established the practicability of dredging at any known depth.</p> + +<p><i>Operating Dredges and Trawls in deep Seas.</i>—Dredging operations +from large vessels in deep seas present numerous difficulties. +The great weight of the ship makes her motion, whether +of progress or rolling, irresistible to the dredge. The +latter tends to jump, therefore, which both lowers its +efficiency and causes it to exert a sudden strain on +the dredge rope.</p> + +<p>The efficiency or evenness of dredging was secured, +therefore, by the special device of fastening a heavy +weight some 200 or 300 fathoms from the dredge end +of the dredge rope. This was either lowered with the +dredge or sent down after by means of a “messenger,” +a ring of rope fixed round, but running freely on, the +dredge rope. The latter plan was used on the “Challenger”; +the weights were six 28 ℔ leads in canvas +covers: their descent was arrested by a toggle or wooden cross-bar +previously attached to the rope at the desired point. When, however, +the rope used is of wire this front weight is unnecessary.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The possibility of sudden strain necessitates a constant watching +of the dredge rope, as the ship’s engines may at any moment be +needed to ease the tension by stopping the vessel’s way, and the +hauling engines by paying out more rope. The use of accumulators +both renders the strain more gradual and gives warning of an +increase or decrease; indeed they can be calibrated and used as +dynamometers to measure the strain. One of the best forms of +accumulator consists of a pile of perforated rubber disks, which +receive the strain and become compressed in doing so. The arrangement +is in essence as follows. The disks form a column resting on +a cross-bar or base, from which two rods pass up one on each side of +the column. Another cross-bar rests on the top disk, and from it a +rod passes freely down the centre perforation of disks and base. +Eyes are attached to the lower end of this rod and to a yoke connecting +the side rods at the top: a pull exerted on these eyes is thus +modified by the elasticity of the dredge. In the “Porcupine” and +other early expeditions the accumulator was hung from the main +yard arm, and the block through which the dredge rope ran suspended +from it. In more recent ships a special derrick boom is +rigged for this block, and a second accumulator is sometimes inserted +between the topping lift by which this is raised and the end of the +boom.</p> + +<p>The margin of safety of steel wire rope is much larger than is that +of hempen rope, a fact of importance both in towing in a rough sea +and in hauling. Galvanized steel wire with a hempen core was first +used by Agassiz on the “Blake.” He states that his wire weighed +one pound per fathom, against two pounds per fathom of hempen +rope, and had a breaking strain nearly twice that of hempen rope, +which bore two tons. Thus in hauling the wire rope has both greater +capability and less actual strain. It has also the advantages of +occupying a mere fraction (<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">9</span>) of the storage space needed for rope, +of lasting much longer, and its vibrations transmit much more rapid +and minute indications of the conduct of the dredge.</p> + +<p>Wire rope is kept wound on reels supplied with efficient brakes to +check or stop its progress, and an engine is often fitted for winding +it in and veering it out. From the reel it passes to the drum of the +hauling engine, round which it takes some few turns; care is taken +by watching or by the use of an automatic regulator (Tanner) that +it is taken at a rate equal to that at which it is moving over the side. +From the hauling engine it passes over leading wheels (one of which +should preferably be a registering wheel and indicate the amount of +rope which has passed it), and so it reaches the end of the derrick +boom.</p> +</div> + +<p>The dredge is lowered from the derrick boom, which has been +previously trained over to windward so that its end is well clear +of the ship, while the ship is slowly moving forward. The rope +is checked until the net is seen to be towing clear, and then +lowered rapidly. Where a weight is used in front of the trawl +Captain Calver successfully adopted the plan of backing after +sufficient line had been paid out: the part of the rope from +weight to surface thus became more vertical, while the shorter +remainder, previously in line with it, sank to the bottom without +change of relative position of weight and dredge. The ship was +then ready for towing. When no front weight is used the +manœuvre is unnecessary.</p> + +<p>There should be a relation maintained between speed of vessel +onward and of rope downward, or a foul haul may result owing +to the gear capsizing (in the case of a trawl), or getting the net +over the mouth (in a dredge). The most satisfactory method of +ensuring this relation seems to be so to manage the two speeds +that the angle made by the dredge rope is fairly constant. This +angle can be observed with a simple clinometer. The following +table abridged from Tanner most usefully brings together the +requisite angles with other useful quantities.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Depth of water.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Speed of ship<br />while shooting<br />dredge or trawl.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Length of<br />rope<br />required.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Angle of dredge<br />rope while<br />lowering trawl.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Angle of dredge<br />rope while<br />dragging trawl.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">Fathoms.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Knots.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Fathoms.</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"> 100</td> <td class="tcc rb">3 </td> <td class="tcc rb"> 200</td> <td class="tcc rb">60</td> <td class="tcc rb">55</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"> 200</td> <td class="tcc rb">3 </td> <td class="tcc rb"> 400</td> <td class="tcc rb">60</td> <td class="tcc rb">55</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"> 400</td> <td class="tcc rb">3 </td> <td class="tcc rb"> 700</td> <td class="tcc rb">60</td> <td class="tcc rb">52</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"> 600</td> <td class="tcc rb">2¾</td> <td class="tcc rb">1000</td> <td class="tcc rb">55</td> <td class="tcc rb">50</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"> 800</td> <td class="tcc rb">2½</td> <td class="tcc rb">1200</td> <td class="tcc rb">50</td> <td class="tcc rb">44</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1000</td> <td class="tcc rb">2½</td> <td class="tcc rb">1500</td> <td class="tcc rb">50</td> <td class="tcc rb">40</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1500</td> <td class="tcc rb">2¼</td> <td class="tcc rb">2166</td> <td class="tcc rb">50</td> <td class="tcc rb">40</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">2000</td> <td class="tcc rb">2 </td> <td class="tcc rb">2670</td> <td class="tcc rb">45</td> <td class="tcc rb">35</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">3000</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2 </td> <td class="tcc rb bb">4000</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">40</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">35</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page572" id="page572"></a>572</span></p> + +<p>The speed of towing, always slow, may be assumed to be approximately +correct if the appropriate angle is maintained. Hauling +should at first be slow from great depths, but may increase in +speed as the gear rises.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For further details of deep-sea dredging, especially of the hauling +machinery and management of the gear, the special reports of the +various expeditions must be consulted. Commander Tanner, U.S.N., +has given in <i>Deep Sea Exploration</i> (1897) a very full and good account +of the equipment of an exploring ship; and to this book the present +article is much indebted.</p> +</div> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 240px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:191px; height:410px" src="images/img572a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 15.</span>—Deep-sea +Dredge, with Tangle Bar.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Modifications and Additions to the Dredge.</i>—From 1818, when +Sir John Ross brought up a fine Astrophyton from over 800 +fathoms on a sounding line in Baffin’s Bay, instances gradually +accumulated of specimens being obtained from great depths +without nets or traps. The naturalists of the “Porcupine” +and other expeditions found that echinoderms, corals and sponges +were often carried up adhering to the outer surface of the dredge +and the last few fathoms of dredge rope. In order to increase +the effectiveness of this method of capture a bar was fastened +to the bottom of the dredge, to which bunches of teased-out +hemp were tied. In this way specimens of the greatest interest, +and frequently of equal importance with those in the dredge +bag, were obtained. The tangle bar +was at first attached to the back of the +net. From the “Challenger” expedition +onward it has been fixed behind the +net by iron bars stretching back from +the short sides of the dredge frame +which pass through eyes in their first +ends (fig. 15). The swabs are thus +unable to fold over the mouth of the +dredge. Rope lashings to the lips of +the dredge are sometimes added, and a +weight is tied to the larger bar to keep +it down.</p> + +<p>Occasionally the tangle bar is used +alone (Agassiz), and one form (Tanner) +has two bars, stretching back like the +side strokes of the letter A from a strong +steel spring in the form of an almost +complete circle. The whole is pulled +forward from a spherical sinker fastened +in front of the spring apex; and should +the apex enter a crevice between rock +masses, the side bars are closed by the +pressure instead of catching and bringing up. This is said to +be a very useful instrument among corals.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>The Blake Dredge.</i>—In the soft ooze which forms the bottom of +deep seas the common dredge sinks and digs much too deeply for its +ordinary purpose, owing partly to its chief weight bearing on the frame +only, partly to its everted lips. To obviate these defects Lieutenant +Commander Sigsbee of the “Blake” devised the Blake dredge. Its +novel features were the frame and lips. The former was in the form +of a skeleton box; that is, a rectangle of iron bars was placed at the +back as well as the front or mouth of the net and four more iron bars +connected the two rectangles. The lips instead of being everted +were in parallel planes—those, namely, of the top and bottom of the +net. The effect of this was to minimize digging and somewhat +spread the incidences of the weight. Another advantage was that +the net being constantly distended by its frame, and, moreover, +protected top and bottom by an external shield of canvas, quite +delicate specimens reached the surface uninjured. The dredge +weighed 80 ℔ and was 4 ft. square and 9 in. deep.</p> + +<p><i>Rake Dredges.</i>—These are devices for collecting burrowing +creatures without filling the dredge with the soil in which they live. +Holt used, at Plymouth, a dredge whose side bars and lower lip were +of iron, the latter armed with forward and downward pointing teeth +which stirred up the sand and its denizens in front of the dredge +mouth. The upper lip of the dredge was replaced by a bar of wood. +The bag was of cheese-cloth or light open canvas, and the whole was +of light construction. The apparatus was very useful in capturing +small burrowing crustacea. The Chester rake dredge is a Blake +dredge in front of which is secured a heavy iron rectangle with teeth +placed almost at right angles to its long sides and in the plane of the +rectangle. Each of these instruments has a width along the scraping +edge of about 3 ft.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:349px; height:544px" src="images/img572b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 16.</span>—Conical Dredge being hoisted in.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Triangular and Conical Dredges.</i>—Two other dredges are worthy +of mention. The triangular dredge, much resembling Müller’s but +with a triangular mouth, and hung by chains from its angles, is an +old fashion now not in general use. It is, however, very useful for +rocky ground. At the Plymouth marine laboratory was also devised +the conical dredge (1901), the circular form being the suggestion of +Garstang. This dredge (fig. 16) was intended for digging deeply. +It is of wrought iron, and of the following dimensions: diameter of +mouth 16 in., length +33 in., depth of ring +at mouth 9 in. Its +weight is 67 ℔. As +at first used the +spaces between the +bars are closed by +wire netting; if used +for collecting bottom +samples it is furnished +with a lining +of strong sail-cloth.</p> + +<p>Its weight and the +small length of edge +in contact with the +ground cause this +dredge to dig well, +and enable the user +to obtain many +objects which though +quite common are of +rare occurrence in an +ordinary dredge. +Thus on the Brown +Ridges, a fishing-ground +west of Holland, +although <i>Donax +vittalus</i> is known +from examination of +fish stomachs to be +abundant, it is rarely +taken except in the +conical dredge: the +same is true of <i>Echinocyamus +pusillus</i>, +which is in many +parts of the North +Sea abundant in bottom samples and in no ordinary dredgings. +With the sail-cloth lining the conical dredge fills in about 10 minutes +on most ground, and no material washing out of fine sediment occurs +on hauling. In shallow seas such as the North Sea commercial +beam and other trawls are now used as quantitative instruments in +the estimation of the fish population, especially of the <i>Pleuronectidae</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Use of Small Trawls for Dredging.</i>—Although these trawls do not +here concern us, certain adaptations of small beam trawls for biological +exploration are of such identical use with the dredge, and +differ from it so little in structure and size, that they may be here +described.</p> + +<p>A small beam trawl was first used from the “Challenger” (fig. 17). +It was sent down in 600 fathoms off Cape St Vincent, the reason for +its use being the frequency with which the dredge sank into the sea-bottom +and there remained until hauling. The experiment was +entirely successful. The sinking of the net was avoided, the net +had a much greater spread than the dredge, and in addition to +invertebrates it captured several fish. After this the trawl was +frequently used instead of the dredge. Indeed tangle bar, dredge +and trawl form a series which are fitted +for use on the roughest, moderately rough +and fairly firm, and the softest ground +respectively, although the dredge can be +used almost anywhere.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 220px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:123px; height:230px" src="images/img572c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="f80">From Sir Charles Wyville +Thomson’s <i>Voyage of the +“Challenger.”</i> By permission +of Macmillan & Co., Ltd.</span><br /><br /> +<span class="sc">Fig. 17.</span>—Trawl of the +“Challenger.”</td></tr></table> + +<p>The frame of the “Challenger” trawl consisted +of a 15 ft. wooden beam which in use +was drawn over the sea-bed on two runners +resembling those of a sledge, by means of +two ropes or bridles attached to eyes in the +front of the runners or “trawl heads.” A +net 30 ft. long was suspended by one side +to the beam by half-a-dozen stops. The +remainder of the net’s mouth was of much +greater length than the beam, and was +weighted with close-set rolls of sheet lead; +it thus dragged along the bottom in a curve +approximately to a semicircle, behind the +beam. The net tapers towards the hinder +end, and contains a second net with open +bottom, which, reaching about three-quarters +of the way down the main net, acts as a +valve or pocket. Both heels (or hinder ends) of the trawl heads and +the tail of the net were weighted to assist the net in digging sufficiently +and to maintain its balance—an important point, since if the +trawl lands on its beam the net’s mouth remains closed, and nothing +is caught.</p> + +<p>The main differences of this trawl from the dredge are the replacement +of scraping lip by ground rope, the position of this ground rope +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page573" id="page573"></a>573</span> +and the greater size of the mouth. The absence of a lip makes it +less effective for burrowing and sessile creatures, but the weighted +ground rope nevertheless secures them to a very surprising extent. +The position of the ground rope is an important feature, as any free +swimming creature not disturbed until the arrival of the ground +rope cannot escape by simply rising or “striking” up. This and +the greater spread make the trawl especially suitable for the collection +of fishes and other swiftly moving animals. The first haul of +the “Challenger” trawl brought up fishes, and most of our knowledge +of fish of the greatest depths is due to it.</p> + +<p>A tendency to return to the use of the small beam trawl for deep-sea +work has lately shown itself. That used by Tanner on the +“Albatross” has runners more heart-shaped than the “Challenger’s” +instrument; the net is fastened to the downward and backward +sloping edge of the runner as well as to the beam, being thus fixed +on three sides instead of one; and a Norwegian glass float is fastened +in a network cover to that part of the net which is above and in front +of the ground rope in use, to assist in keeping the opening clear. +These floats can stand the pressure at great +depths, and do not become waterlogged as do +cork floats. The largest “Albatross” trawl has +a beam 11 ft. long, runners 2 ft. 5 in. high, and +its frame weighs 275 ℔.</p> + +<p><i>Agassiz or Blake Trawl.</i>—This is generally +considered to possess advantages over the preceding, +and is decidedly better for those not +experts in trawling. Its frame (fig. 18) consists +of two iron runners each the shape of a capital +letter D, joined by iron rods or pipes which +connect the middle of each stroke with the +corresponding point on the other letter. The +net is a tapering one, its mouth being a strong +rope bound with finer rope for protection till +the whole reaches a thickness of some 2 in. It +is fastened to the frame at four points only, the +ends of the curved rods, and thus has a rectangular +opening.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:97px; height:274px" src="images/img573.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="f80">From Alexander E. +Agassiz’s <i>Three Cruises +of the “Blake.”</i> By permission +of Houghton, +Mifflin & Co.</span><br /><br /> +<span class="sc">Fig. 18.</span>—Agassiz +or Blake Trawl.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The chief advantage of this frame is that it +does not matter in the least which side lands +first on the bottom; it is to the other trawls +what Ball’s dredge is to an oyster dredge. The +course can also be altered during shooting or +towing the Blake trawl with far greater ease +than is the case with others. An Agassiz trawl very successful +in the North Sea has the following dimensions: length of the connecting +rods and therefore of the mouth 8 ft., height of runners and +of mouth 1 ft. 9 in., extreme length of runners 2 ft., length of net +11 ft. 3 in., weight of whole trawl 94 ℔, 63 of which are due to the +frame.</p> +</div> + +<p>It is instructive to note how closely our knowledge of bottom-living +forms has been associated with the instruments of capture +in use. As long as small vessels were used in dredging, the belief +that life was limited to the regions accessible to them was widely +spread. The first known denizens of great depths were the +foraminifera and few echinoderms brought up by various sounding +apparatus. Next with the dredge and tangles the number +of groups obtained was much greater. As soon as trawls were +adopted fish began to make their appearance. The greatest gaps +in our knowledge still probably occur in the large and swiftly +moving forms, such as fish and cephalopods. As we can hardly +hope to move apparatus swiftly over the bottom in great depths, +the way in which improvement is possible probably is that of +increasing the spread of the nets; and a start in this direction +appears to have been made by Dr Petersen, who has devised a +modified otter sieve which catches fish at all events very well, +and has been operated already at considerable depths.</p> + +<p>Of the economy of quite shallow seas, however, we are still +largely ignorant. Much as has been learnt of the bionomics +of the sea, it is but a commencement; and this is of course +especially true of deep seas. The dredge and its kindred have, +however, in less than a century enabled naturalists to compile an +immense mass of knowledge of the structure, development, +affinities and distribution of the animals of the sea-bed, and in +the most accessible seas to produce enumerations and morphological +accounts of them of some approach to completeness.</p> +<div class="author" style="clear: both;">(J. O. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DRELINCOURT, CHARLES<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> (1595-1669), French Protestant +divine, was born at Sedan on the 10th of July 1595. In 1618 +he undertook the charge of the French Protestant church at +Langres, but failed to receive the necessary royal sanction, and +early in 1620 he removed to Paris, where he was nominated +minister of the Reformed Church at Charenton. He was the +author of a large number of works in devotional and polemical +theology, several of which had great influence. His <i>Catechism</i> +(<i>Catéchisme ou instruction familière</i>, 1652) and his <i>Christian’s +Defense against the Fears of Death</i> (<i>Consolations de l’âme fidèle +contre les frayeurs de la mort, 1651</i>) became well known in England +by means of translations, which were very frequently reprinted. +It has been said that Daniel Defoe wrote his fiction of Mrs Veal +(<i>A True Relation of the Apparition of Mrs Veal</i>), who came from +the other world to recommend the perusal of <i>Drelincourt on +Death</i>, for the express purpose of promoting the sale of an English +translation of the <i>Consolations</i>; Defoe’s contribution is added +to the fourth edition of the translation (1706). Another popular +work of his was <i>Les Visites charitables pour toutes sortes de +personnes affligées</i> (1669). Drelincourt’s controversial works were +numerous. Directed entirely against Roman Catholicism, they +did much to strengthen and consolidate the Protestant party in +France. He died on the 3rd of November 1669.</p> + +<p>Several of his sons were distinguished as theologians or +physicians. Laurent (1626-1681) became a pastor, and was the +author of <i>Sonnets chrétiens sur divers sujets</i> (1677); Charles +(1633-1697) was professor of physic at the university of Leiden, +and physician to the prince of Orange; Peter (1644-1722) was +ordained a priest in the Church of England, and became dean of +Armagh.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DRENTE<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span>, a province of Holland, bounded N. and N.E. by +Groningen, S.E. by the Prussian province of Hanover, S. and +S.W. by Overysel, and N.W. by Friesland; area, 1128 sq. m.; +pop. (1900) 149,551. The province of Drente is a sandy plateau +forming the kernel of the surrounding provinces. The soil +consists almost entirely of sand and gravel, and is covered with +bleak moorland, patches of wood, and fen. This is only varied +by the strip of fertile clay and grass-land which is found along +the banks of the rivers, and by the areas of high fen in the south-eastern +corner and on the western borders near Assen. The +surface of the province is a gentle slope from the south-west +towards the north-east, where it terminates in the long ridge of +hills known as the Hondsrug (Dog’s Back) extending along the +eastern border into Groningen. The watershed of the province +runs from east to west across the middle of the province, along +the line of the Orange canal. The southern streams are all +collected at two points on the southern borders, namely, at +Meppel and Koevorden, whence they communicate with the +Zwarte Water and the Vecht respectively by means of the +Meppeler Diep and the Koevorden canal. The Steenwyker Aa, +however, enters the Zuider Zee independently. The northern +rivers all flow into Groningen. The piles of granite rocks somewhat +in the shape of cromlechs which are found scattered about +this province, and especially along the western edge of the +Hondsrug, have long been named <i>Hunebedden</i>, from a popular +superstition that they were “Huns’ beds.” Possibly the word +originally meant “beds of the dead,” or tombs.</p> + +<p>Two industries have for centuries been associated with the +barren heaths and sodden fens so usually found together on the +sand-grounds, namely, the cultivation of buckwheat and peat-digging. +The work is conducted on a regular system of fen +colonization, the first operation being directed towards the +drainage of the country. This is effected by means of drainage +canals cut at regular intervals and connected by means of cross +ditches. These draining ditches all have their issue in a main +drainage canal, along which the transport of the peat and peat-litter +takes place and the houses of the colonists are built. The +heathlands when sufficiently drained are prepared for cultivation +by being cut into sods and burnt. This system appears to have +been practised already at the end of the 17th century. After +eight years, however, the soil becomes exhausted, and twenty +to thirty years are required for its refertilization. The cultivation +of buckwheat on these grounds has decreased, and large +areas which were formerly thus treated now lie waste. Potatoes, +rye, oats, beans and peas are also largely cultivated. In connexion +with the cultivation of potatoes, factories are established +for making spirits, treacle, potato-meal, and straw-paper. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page574" id="page574"></a>574</span> +Furthermore, agriculture is everywhere accompanied on the +sand-grounds by the rearing of sheep and cattle, which assist +in fertilizing the soil. Owing to the meagreness of their food these +animals are usually thin and small, but are quickly restored +when placed on richer grounds. The breeding of pigs is also +widely practised on the sand-grounds, as well as forest culture. +Of the fen-colonies in Drente the best known are those of +Frederiksoord and Veenhuizen.</p> + +<p>Owing to the general condition of poverty which prevailed +after the French evacuation in the second decade of the 19th +century, attention was turned to the means of industry offered +by the unreclaimed heath-lands in the eastern provinces, and +in 1818 the Society of Charity (<i>Maatschappij van <span class="correction" title="amended from Weldadigkeid">Weldadigheid</span></i>) +was formed with Count van den Bosch at its head. This society +began by establishing the free agricultural colony of Frederiksoord, +about 10 m. N. of Meppel, named after Prince Frederick, +son of William I., king of the Netherlands. An industrious +colonist could purchase a small farm on the estate and make himself +independent in two years. In addition to this, various industries +were set on foot for the benefit of those who were not +capable of field work, such as mat and rope making, and jute and +cotton weaving. In later times forest culture was added, and the +Gerard Adriaan van Swieten schools of forestry, agriculture and +horticulture were established by Major van <span class="correction" title="amended from Sweiten">Swieten</span> in memory +of his son. A Reformed and a Roman Catholic church are also +attached to the colony. To this colony the Society of Charity +later added the adjoining colonies of Willemsoord and Kolonie +VII. in Overysel, and Wilhelminasoord partly in Friesland. +The colony of Veenhuizen lies about 7 m. N.W. of Assen, and +was founded by the same society in 1823. In 1859, however, +the Veenhuizen estates were sold to the government for the +purpose of a penal establishment for drunkards and beggars.</p> + +<p>Owing to its geographical isolation, the development of Drente +has remained behind that of every other province in the Netherlands, +and there are few centres of any importance, either +agricultural or industrial. Hence the character and customs of +the people have remained peculiarly conservative. Assen is the +chief town. In the south Meppel and Koevorden absorb the +largest amount of trade. Hoogeveen, situated between these +two, owes its origin to the fen reclamation which was begun here +in 1625 by Baron van Echten. In the following year it was +erected into a barony which lasted till 1795. The original +industry has long since moved onwards to other parts, but the +town remains a prosperous market centre, and has a considerable +industrial activity. Extensive fir woods have been laid out in +the neighbourhood. Zuidlaren is a picturesque village at the +northern end of the Hondsrug, with an important market. The +railway from Amsterdam to Groningen traverses Drente; branch +lines connect Meppel with Leeuwarden and Assen with Delfzÿl.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—The early history of Drente is obscure. That it +was inhabited at a remote date is proved by the prehistoric +sepulchral mounds, the <i>Hunebedden</i> already mentioned. In the +5th and 6th centuries the country was overrun by Saxon tribes, +and later on was governed by counts under the Frankish and +German kings. Of these only three are recorded, Eberhard +(943-944), Balderic (1006) and Temmo (1025). In 1046 the +emperor Henry III. gave the countship to the bishop and chapter +of Utrecht, who governed it through the burgrave, or châtelain, +of Koevorden, a dignity which became hereditary after 1143 in +the family of Ludolf or Roelof, brother of Heribert of Bierum, +bishop of Utrecht (1138-1150). This family became extinct +in the male line about 1232, and was succeeded by Henry I. +of Borculo (1232-1261), who had married the heiress of Roelof III. +of Koevorden. In 1395 Reinald IV. (d. 1410) of Borculo-Koevorden +was deposed by Bishop Frederick of Utrecht, and the +country was henceforth administered by an episcopal official +(<i>amptman</i>), who was, however, generally a native. With its +popularly elected assembly of twenty-four Etten (<i>jurati</i>) Drente +remained practically independent. This state of things continued +till 1522, when it was conquered by Duke Charles of +Gelderland, from whom it was taken by the emperor Charles V. +in 1536, and became part of the Habsburg dominions.</p> + +<p>Drente took part in the revolt of the Netherlands, and being +a district covered by waste heath and moor was, on account of +its poverty and sparse population, not admitted into the union +as a separate province, and it had no voice in the assembly of the +states-general. It was subdued by the Spaniards in 1580, but +reconquered by Maurice of Nassau in 1594. During the years +that followed, Drente, though unrepresented in the states-general, +retained its local independence and had its own stadtholder. +William Louis of Nassau-Siegen (d. 1620) held that +office, and it was held later by Maurice, Frederick Henry, +William II. and William III., princes of Orange. At the general +assembly of 1651 Drente put forward its claim to admission as a +province, but was not admitted. After the deaths of William II. +(1650) and of William III. (1702) Drente remained for a term of +years without a stadtholder, but in 1722 William Charles Henry +of the house of Nassau-Siegen, who, through the extinction of +the elder line, had become prince of Orange, was elected stadtholder. +His descendants held that office, which was declared +hereditary, until the French conquest in 1795. In the following +year Drente at length obtained the privilege, which it had long +sought, of being reckoned as an eighth province with representation +in the states-general. Between 1806 and 1813 Drente, +with the rest of the Netherlands, was incorporated in the French +empire, and, with part of Groningen, formed the department +of Ems Occidental. With the accession of William I. as king of +the Netherlands it was restored to its old position as a province +of the new kingdom.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DRESDEN<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span>, a city of Germany, capital of the kingdom of +Saxony, 71 m. E.S.E. from Leipzig and 111 m. S. from Berlin +by railway. It lies at an altitude of 402 ft. above the Baltic, +in a broad and pleasant valley on both banks of the Elbe. The +prospect of the city with its cupolas, towers, spires and the copper +green roofs of its palaces, as seen from the distance, is one of +striking beauty. On the left bank of the river are the Altstadt +(old town) with four old suburbs and numerous new suburbs, +and the Friedrichstadt (separated from the Altstadt by a long +railway viaduct); on the right, the Neustadt (new town), +Antonstadt, and the modern military suburb Alberstadt. Five +fine bridges connect the Altstadt and Neustadt. The beautiful +central bridge—the Alte or Augustusbrücke—with 16 arches, +built in 1727-1731, and 1420 ft. long, has been demolished (1906) +and replaced by a wider structure. Up-stream are the two +modern Albert and Königin Carola bridges, and, down-stream, +the Marien and the Eisenbahn (railway) bridges. The streets +of the Alstadt are mostly narrow and somewhat gloomy, those +of the Neustadt more spacious and regular.</p> + +<p>On account of its delightful situation and the many objects of +interest it contains, Dresden is often called “German Florence,” +a name first applied to it by the poet Herder. The richness of +its art treasures, the educational advantages it offers, and its +attractive surroundings render it a favourite resort of people +with private means. There are a large number of foreign residents, +notably Austro-Hungarians and Russians, and also a +considerable colony of English and Americans, the latter amounting +to about 1500. The population of the city on the 1st of +December 1905 was 516,996, of whom 358,776 lived on the +left bank (Altstadt) and 158,220 on the right (Neustadt). The +royal house belongs to the Roman Catholic confession, but the +bulk of the inhabitants are Lutheran Protestants.</p> + +<p>Dresden is the residence of the king, the seat of government +for the kingdom of Saxony, and the headquarters of the XII. +(Saxon) Army Corps. Within two decades (1880-1900) the capital +almost at a single bound advanced into the front rank of German +commercial and industrial towns; but while gaining in prosperity +it has lost much of its medieval aspect. Old buildings in the +heart of the Altstadt have been swept away, and their place +occupied by modern business houses and new streets. Among +the public squares in the Altstadt must be mentioned the +magnificent Theaterplatz, with a fine equestrian statue of King +John, by Schilling; the Altmarkt, with a monument commemorative +of the war of 1870-71; the Neumarkt, with a +bronze statue of King Frederick Augustus II., by E. J. Hähnel; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page575" id="page575"></a>575</span> +the Postplatz, adorned by a Gothic fountain, by Semper; and +the Bismarckplatz in the Anglo-American quarter. In the +Neustadt are the market square, with a bronze equestrian statue +of Augustus the Strong; the Kaiser Wilhelmplatz; and the +Albertplatz. The continuous Schloss-, See- and Prager-Strasse, +and the Wilsdruffer- and König Johann-Strasse are the main +streets in the Altstadt, and the Hauptstrasse in the Neustadt.</p> + +<p>The most imposing churches include the Roman Catholic +Hofkirche, built (1739-1751) by C. Chiaveri, in rococo style, with +a tower 300 ft. high. It contains a fine organ by Silbermann and +pictures by Raphael Mengs and other artists, the outside being +adorned with 59 statues by Mattielli. On the Neumarkt is the +Frauenkirche, with a stone cupola rising to the height of 311 ft.; +close to the Altmarkt, the Kreuzkirche, rebuilt after destruction +by fire in 1897, also with a lofty tower surmounted by a cupola; +and near the Postplatz the Sophienkirche, with twin spires. +In the Neustadt is the Dreikönigskirche (dating from the +18th century) with a high pinnacled tower. Among more +modern churches may be mentioned: in the Altstadt, the +Johanneskirche, with a richly decorated interior; the Lukaskirche; +and the Trinitatiskirche; and in the Neustadt, the +Martin Luther-Kirche and the new garrison church. Apart +from the chapels in the royal palaces, Dresden contains in all 32 +churches, viz. 21 Evangelical, 6 Roman Catholic, a Reformed, a +Russian, an English (erected by Gilbert Scott) with a graceful spire, +a Scottish (Presbyterian), and an American (Episcopal) church, +the last a handsome building, with a pretty parsonage attached.</p> + +<p>Of secular buildings, the most noteworthy are grouped in the +Altstadt near the river. The royal palace, built in 1530-1535 +by Duke George (and thus called Georgenschloss), was thoroughly +restored, and in some measure rebuilt between 1890 and 1902, +in German Renaissance style, and is now an exceedingly handsome +structure. The Georgentor has been widened, and through it, +and beneath the royal apartments, vehicular traffic from the +centre of the town is directed to the Augustusbrücke. The whole +is surmounted by a lofty tower—387 ft.—the highest in Dresden. +The interior is splendidly decorated. In the palace chapel are +pictures by Rembrandt, Nicolas Poussin, Guido Reni and +Annibale Caracci. The adjoining Prinzen-Palais on the Taschenberg, +built in 1715, has a fine chapel, in which are various works +of S. Torelli; it has also a library of 20,000 volumes. The +Zwinger, begun in 1711, and built in the rococo style, forms an +enclosure, within which is a statue of King Frederick Augustus I. +It was intended to be the vestibule to a palace, but now contains +a number of collections of great value. Until 1846 it was open +at the north side; but this space has since been occupied by +the museum, a beautiful Renaissance building, the exterior of +which is adorned by statues of Michelangelo, Raphael, Giotto, +Dante, Goethe and other artists and poets by Rietschel and +Hähnel, and it contains the famous picture gallery. The Brühl +palace, built in 1737 by Count Brühl, the minister of Augustus II., +has been in some measure demolished to make room for the new +Ständehaus (diet house), with its main façade facing the Hofkirche; +before the main entrance there is an equestrian statue +(1906) of King Albert. Close by is the Brühl Terrace, approached +by a fine flight of steps, on which are groups, by Schilling, +representing Morning, Evening, Day and Night. The terrace +commands a view of the Elbe and the distant heights of Loschwitz +and the Weisser Hirsch, but the prospect has of late years +become somewhat marred, owing to the extension of the town +up the river and to the two new up-stream bridges. The Japanese +palace in the Neustadt, built in 1715 as a summer residence for +Augustus II., receives its name from certain oriental figures +with which it is decorated; it is sometimes called the Augusteum +and contains the royal library. Among other buildings of note +is the Hoftheatre, a magnificent edifice in the Renaissance +style, built after the designs of Semper, to replace the theatre +burnt in 1869, and completed in 1878. A new town hall of huge +dimensions, also in German Renaissance, with an octagon tower +400 ft. in height, stands on the former southern ramparts of the +inner town, close to the Kreuzkirche. In the Altstadt the most +striking of the newer edifices is the Kunstakademie, constructed +from designs by K. Lipsius in the Italian Renaissance style, +1890-1894. The Albertinum, formerly the arsenal, built in +1559-1563, was rebuilt 1884-1889, and fitted up as a museum +of oriental and classical antiquities, and as the depository of the +state archives. On the right bank of the Elbe in Neustadt stand +the fine buildings of the ministries of war, of finance, justice, +the interior and education. The public monuments of Dresden +also include the Moritz Monument, a relief dedicated by the elector +Augustus to his brother Maurice, a statue of Weber the composer +by Rietschel, a bronze statue of Theodor Körner by Hähnel, the +Rietschel monument on the Brühl Terrace by Schilling, a bust +of Gutzkow, and a statue of Bismarck on the promenade. In +the suburbs which encircle the old town are to be noted the vast +central Hauptbahnhof (1893-1898) occupying the site of the old +Böhmischer railway station, the new premises of the municipal +hospital and the Ausstellungs-Halle (exhibition buildings).</p> + +<p>The chief pleasure-ground of Dresden is the Grosser Garten, +in which there are a summer theatre, the Reitschel museum, +and a château containing a museum of antiquities. The +latter is composed chiefly of objects removed from the churches +in consequence of the Reformation. Near the château is the +zoological garden, formed in 1860, and excellently arranged. +A little to the south of Dresden, on the left bank of the Elbe, +is the village Räcknitz, in which is Moreau’s monument, erected +on the spot where he was mortally wounded in 1813. The mountains +of Saxon Switzerland are seen from this neighbourhood.</p> + +<p><i>Art.</i>—Dresden owes a large part of its fame to its extensive +artistic, literary and scientific collections. Of these the most +valuable is its splendid picture gallery, founded by Augustus I. +and increased by his successors at great cost. It is in the museum, +and contains about 2500 pictures, being especially rich in specimens +of the Italian, Dutch and Flemish schools. The gem of the +collection is Raphael’s “Madonna di San Sisto,” for which a room +is set apart. There is also a special room for the “Madonna” +of the younger Holbein. Other paintings with which the name +of the gallery is generally associated are Correggio’s “La Notte” +and “Mary Magdalene”; Titian’s “Tribute Money” and +“Venus”; “The Adoration” and “The Marriage in Cana,” +by Paul Veronese; Andrea del Sarto’s “Abraham’s Sacrifice”; +Rembrandt’s “Portrait of Himself with his Wife sitting on his +Knee”; “The Judgment of Paris” and “The Boar Hunt,” by +Rubens; Van Dyck’s “Charles I., his Queen, and their Children.”</p> + +<p>Of modern painters, this magnificent collection contains +masterpieces by Defregger, Vautier, Makart, Munkacsy, Fritz +von Uhde, Böcklin, Hans Thoma; portraits by Leon Pohle, +Delaroche and Sargent; landscapes by Andreas and Oswald +Achenbach and allegorical works by Sascha Schneider. In +separate compartments there are a number of crayon portraits, +most of them by Rosalba Carriera, and views of Dresden by +Canaletto and other artists. Besides the picture gallery the +museum includes a magnificent collection of engravings and +drawings. There are upwards of 400,000 specimens, arranged +in twelve classes, so as to mark the great epochs in the history +of art. A collection of casts, likewise in the museum, is designed +to display the progress of plastic art from the time of the Egyptians +and Assyrians to modern ages. This collection was begun +by Raphael Mengs, who secured casts of the most valuable +antiques in Italy, some of which no longer exist.</p> + +<p>The Japanese palace contains a public library of more than +400,000 volumes, with about 3000 MSS. and 20,000 maps. It is +especially rich in the ancient classics, and in works bearing on +literary history and the history of Germany, Poland and France. +There are also a valuable cabinet of coins and a collection of +ancient works of art. A collection of porcelain in the “Museum +Johanneum” (which once contained the picture gallery) is made +up of specimens of Chinese, Japanese, East Indian, Sèvres and +Meissen manufacture, carefully arranged in chronological order. +There is in the same building an excellent Historical Museum. +In the Grüne Gewölbe (Green Vault) of the Royal Palace, so +called from the character of its original decorations, there is an +unequalled collection of precious stones, pearls and works of art in +gold, silver, amber and ivory. The objects, which are about 3000 +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page576" id="page576"></a>576</span> +in number, are arranged in eight rooms. They include the regalia +of Augustus II. as king of Poland; the electoral sword of Saxony; +a group by Dinglinger, in gold and enamel, representing the court +of the grand mogul Aurungzebe, and consisting of 132 figures +upon a plate of silver 4 ft. 4 in. square; the largest onyx known, +6<span class="spp">2</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> in. by 2¼ in.; a pearl representing the dwarf of Charles II. +of Spain; and a green brilliant weighing 40 carats. The royal +palace also has a gallery of arms consisting of more than 2000 +weapons of artistic or historical value. In the Zwinger are the +zoological and mineralogical museums and a collection of instruments +used in mathematical and physical science. Among other +collections is that of the Körner museum with numerous +reminiscences of the Goethe-Schiller epoch, and of the wars of +liberation (1813-15), and containing valuable manuscripts and +relics. Founded by Hofrath Dr Emil Peschel, it has passed into +the possession of the city.</p> + +<p><i>Education.</i>—Dresden is the seat of a number of well-known +scientific associations. The educational institutions are numerous +and of a high order, including a technical high school (with about +1100 students), which enjoys the privilege of conferring the +degrees of doctor of engineering, doctor of technical sciences, +&c., a veterinary college, a political-economic institution +(Gehestiftung), with library, a school of architects, a royal and +four municipal gymnasia, numerous lower grade and popular +schools, the royal conservatorium for music and drama, and a +celebrated academy of painting. Dresden has several important +hospitals, asylums and other charitable institutions.</p> + +<p><i>Music and the Theatres.</i>—Besides the two royal theatres, +Dresden possesses several minor theatres and music halls. The +pride of place in the world of music is held by the orchestra +attached to the court theatre. Founded by Augustus II., it has +become famous throughout the world, owing to the masters who +have from time to time been associated with it—such as Paër, +Weber, Reissiger and Wagner. Symphony and popular concerts +are held throughout the year in various public halls, and, during +the winter, concerts of church music are frequently given in the +Protestant Kreuz- and Frauen-Kirchen, and on Sundays in the +Roman Catholic church.</p> + +<p><i>Communications and Industries.</i>—Dresden lies at the centre of +an extensive railway system, which places it in communication +with the chief cities of northern and central Germany as well as +with Austria and the East. Here cross the grand trunk lines +Berlin-Vienna, Chemnitz-Görlitz-Breslau. It is connected by +two lines of railway with Leipzig and by local lines with neighbouring +smaller towns. The navigation on the Elbe has of recent +years largely developed, and, in addition to trade by river with +Bohemia and Magdeburg-Hamburg, there is a considerable +pleasure-boat traffic during the summer months. The communications +within the city are maintained by an excellent +system of electric trams, which bring the more distant suburbs +into easy connexion with the business centre. A considerable +business is done on the exchange, chiefly in local industrial +shares, and the financial institutions number some fifty banks, +among them branches of the Reichs Bank and of the Deutsche +Bank. Among the more notable industries may be mentioned +the manufacture of china (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ceramics</a></span>), of gold and silver +ornaments, cigarettes, chocolate, coloured postcards, perfumery, +straw-plaiting, artificial flowers, agricultural machinery, paper, +photographic and other scientific instruments. There are several +great breweries; corn trade is carried on, and an extensive business +is done in books and objects of art.</p> + +<p><i>Surroundings.</i>—The environs of the city are delightful. To +the north are the vine-clad hills of the Lössnitz commanding +views of the valley of the Elbe from Dresden to Meissen; behind +them, on an island in a lake, is the castle of Moritzburg, the +hunting box of the king of Saxony. On the right bank of the +Elbe, 3 m. above the city, lies the village of Loschwitz, where +Schiller, in the summer of 1786, wrote the greater part of his +<i>Don Carlos</i>: above it on the fringe of the Dresdner Heide, the +climatic health resort Weisser-Hirsch; farther up the river +towards Pirna the royal summer palace Pillnitz; to the south +the Plauensche Grund, and still farther the Rabenauer Grund.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—Dresden (Old Slav <i>Drezga</i>, forest, <i>Drezgajan</i>, forest-dwellers), +which is known to have existed in 1206, is of Slavonic +origin, and was originally founded on the right bank of the Elbe, +on the site of the present Neustadt, which is thus actually the <i>old</i> +town. It became the capital of Henry the Illustrious, margrave +of Meissen, in 1270, but belonged for some time after his death, +first to Wenceslaus of Bohemia, and next to the margrave of +Brandenburg. Early in the 14th century it was restored to the +margrave of Meissen. On the division of Saxony in 1485 it +fell to the Albertine line, which has since held it. Having been +burned almost to the ground in 1491, it was rebuilt; and in the +16th century the fortifications were begun and gradually extended. +John George II., in the 17th century, formed the Grosser Garten, +and otherwise greatly improved the town; but it was in the first +half of the 18th century, under Augustus I. and Augustus II., who +were kings of Poland as well as electors of Saxony, that Dresden +assumed something like its present appearance. The Neustadt, +which had been burned down in the 17th century, was founded +anew by Augustus I.; he also founded Friedrichstadt. The town +suffered severely during the Seven Years’ War, being bombarded +in 1760. Some damage was also inflicted on it in 1813, when +Napoleon made it the centre of his operations; one of the buttresses +and two arches of the old bridge were then blown up. The dismantling +of the fortifications had been begun by the French in +1810, and was gradually completed after 1817, the space occupied +by them being appropriated to gardens and promenades. Many +buildings were completed or founded by King Anthony, from +whom Antonstadt derives its name. Dresden again suffered +severely during the revolution of 1849, but all traces of the +disturbances which then took place were soon effaced. In 1866 it +was occupied by the Prussians, who did not finally evacuate it +until the spring of the following year. Since that time numerous +improvements have been carried out.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Lindau, <i>Geschichte der Haupt- und Residenzstadt Dresden</i> +(2 vols., Dresden, 1884-1885); Prölss, <i>Geschichte des Hoftheaters +in Dresden</i> (Dresden, 1877); Schumann, <i>Führer durch die königl. +Sammlungen zu Dresden</i> (1903); Woerl, <i>Führer durch Dresden</i>; +Daniel, <i>Deutschland</i> (1894).</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Battle of Dresden.</span> The battle of Dresden, the last of the +great victories of Napoleon, was fought on the 26th and 27th +of August 1813. The intervention of Austria in the War of +Liberation, and the consequent advance of the Allies under the +Austrian field-marshal Prince Schwarzenberg from Prague upon +Dresden, recalled Napoleon from Silesia, where he was engaged +against the Prussians and Russians under Blücher. Only by a +narrow margin of time, indeed, was he able to bring back sufficient +troops for the first day’s battle. He detached a column under +Vandamme to the mountains to interpose between Schwarzenberg +and Prague (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Napoleonic Campaigns</a></span>); the rest of the +army pressed on by forced marches for Dresden, around which +a position for the whole army had been chosen and fortified, +though at the moment this was held by less than 20,000 men +under Gouvion St Cyr, who retired thither from the mountains, +leaving a garrison in Königstein, and had repeatedly sent reports +to the emperor as to the allied masses gathering to the southward. +The battle of the first day began late in the afternoon, +for Schwarzenberg waited as long as possible for the corps of +Klenau, which formed his extreme left wing on the Freiberg +road. At last, about 6 p.m. he decided to wait no longer, and +six heavy columns of attack advanced against the suburbs +defended by St Cyr and now also by the leading troops of the +main army. Three hundred guns covered the assault, and +Dresden was set on fire in places by the cannonade, while the +French columns marched unceasingly over the bridges and +through the Altstadt. On the right the Russians under Wittgenstein +advanced from Striesen, the Prussians under Kleist through +the Grosser Garten, whilst Prussians under Prince Augustus and +Austrians under Colloredo moved upon the Moczinski redoubt, +which was the scene of the most desperate fighting, and was +repeatedly taken and retaken. The attack to the westward was +carried out by the other Austrian corps; Klenau, however, was +still far distant. In the end, the French defences remained +unshaken. Ney led a counter-attack against the Allies’ left, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page577" id="page577"></a>577</span> +the Moczinski redoubt was definitely recaptured from Colloredo, +and the Prussians were driven out of the Grosser Garten. The +<i>coup</i> of the Allies had failed, for every hour saw the arrival of +fresh forces on the side of Napoleon, and at length the Austrian +leader drew off his men to the heights again. He was prepared +to fight another battle on the morrow—indeed he could scarcely +have avoided it had he wished to do so, for behind him lay the +mountain defiles, towards which Vandamme was marching with +all speed.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:524px; height:483px" src="images/img577.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table> + +<p>Napoleon’s plan for the 27th was, as usual, simple in its outline. +As at Friedland, a ravine separated a part of the hostile line of +battle from the rest. The villages west of the Plauen ravine and +even Löbda were occupied in the early morning by General +Metzko with the leading division of Klenau’s corps from Freiberg, +and upon Metzko Napoleon intended first to throw the weight +of his attack, giving to Victor’s infantry and the cavalry of +Murat, king of Naples, the task of overwhelming the isolated +Austrians. The centre, aided by the defences of the Dresden +suburbs, could hold its own, as the events of the 26th had +shown, the left, now under Ney, with whom served Kellermann’s +cavalry and the Young Guard, was to attack Wittgenstein’s +Russians on the Pirna road. Thus, for once, Napoleon decided +to attack both flanks of the enemy. His motives in so doing +have been much discussed by the critics; Vandamme’s movements, +it may be suggested, contributed to the French emperor’s +plan, which if carried out would open the Pirna road. Still, +the left attack may have had a purely tactical object, for in +that quarter was the main body of the Prussians and Russians, +and Napoleon’s method was always to concentrate the fury of +the attack on the heaviest masses of the enemy, <i>i.e.</i> the best +target for his own artillery. A very heavy rainstorm during the +night seriously affected the movements of troops on the following +day, but all to Napoleon’s advantage, for his more mobile +artillery, reinforced by every horse available in and about +Dresden, was still able to move where the Allied guns sank in +mud. Further, if the cavalry had to walk, or at most trot, through +the fields the opposing infantry was almost always unable to fire +their muskets. “You cannot fire; surrender,” said Murat to +an Austrian battalion in the battle. “Never,” they replied; +“you cannot charge us.” On the appearance of Murat’s horse +artillery, however, they had to surrender at once. Under such +conditions, Metzko, unsupported either by Klenau or the main +army beyond the ravine, was an easy victim. Victor from Löbda +drove in the advanced posts and assaulted the line of villages +Wolfnitz-Töltschen; Metzko had to retire to the higher ground +S.W. of the first line, and Murat, with an overwhelming cavalry +force from Cotta and Burgstädl, outflanked his left, broke up +whole battalions, and finally, with the assistance of the renewed +frontal attack of Victor’s infantry, annihilated the division. +The Austrian corps of Gyulai arrived too late to save it. A few +formed bodies escaped across the ravine, but Metzko and three-fourths +of his men were killed or taken prisoners.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile Ney on the other flank, with his left on the Pillnitz +road and his right on the Grosser Garten, had opened his attack. +The Russians offered a strenuous resistance, defending Seidnitz, +Gross Döbritz and Reick with their usual steadiness, and Ney was +so far advanced that several generals at the Allied headquarters +suggested a counter-attack of the centre by way of Strehlen, +so as to cut off the French left from Dresden. This plan was +adopted, but, owing to various misunderstandings, failed of +execution. Thus the Allied centre remained inactive all day, +cannonaded by the Dresden redoubts. One incident only, but +that of great importance, took place here. The tsar, the king +of Prussia, Schwarzenberg and a very large headquarter staff +watched the fighting from a hill near Räcknitz and offered an +easy mark to the French guns. In default of formed bodies to +fire at, the latter had for a moment ceased fire; Napoleon, +riding by, half carelessly told them to reopen, and one of their +first shots, directed at 2000 yards range against the mass of +officers on the sky-line, mortally wounded General Moreau, who +was standing by the emperor Alexander. A council of war +followed. The Allied sovereigns were for continuing the fight; +Schwarzenberg, however, knowing the exhaustion of his troops +decided to retreat. As at Bautzen, the French cavalry was +unable to make any effective pursuit.</p> + +<p>The forces engaged were 96,000 French, Saxons, &c., and +200,000 Austrians, Russians and Prussians. The French losses +were about 10,000, or a little over 10%, those of the Allies +38,000 killed, wounded and prisoners (the latter 23,000) or 19%. +They lost also 15 colours and 26 guns.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DRESS<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> (from the Fr. <i>dresser</i>, to set out, arrange, formed from +Lat. <i>directus</i>, arranged, <i>dirigere</i>, to direct, arrange), a substantive +of which the current meaning is that of clothing or costume in +general, or, specifically, the principal outer garment worn by a +woman (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Costume</a></span>). The verb “to dress” has various +applications which can be deduced from its original meaning. +It is thus used not only of the putting on of clothing, but of the +preparing and finishing of leather, the preparation of food for +eating, the application of cleansing and healing substances or of +bandages, &c., to a wound, the drawing up in a correct line of a +body of troops, and, generally, adorning or decking out, as of +a ship with flags. In the language of the theatre the “dresser” +is the person who looks after the actor’s wardrobe and assists +him in the changing of his costumes. For the printer’s use of +“dresser” see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Typography</a></span>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DRESSER<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span>, in furniture, a form of sideboard. The name is +derived from the Fr. <i>dressoir</i>, a piece of furniture used to range or +<i>dresser</i> the more costly appointments of the table. The appliance +is the direct descendant of the credence and the buffet, and is, +indeed, a much more legitimate inheritor of their functions than +the modern sideboard, which, as we know it, is practically an +18th-century invention. It developed into its present shape +about the second quarter of the 17th century, and has since then +changed but little. As a piece of movable furniture it was +made rarely, if at all, after the beginning of the 19th century +until the revival of interest in what is called “farmhouse +furniture” at the very beginning of the 20th century led in +the first place to the construction of many imitation antique +dressers from derelict pieces of old oak, and especially from +panels of chests, and in the second to the making of avowed +imitations. The dresser conformed to a model which varied +only in detail and in ornament. Its simple and agreeable form +consisted of a long and rather narrow table or slab, with drawers +or cupboards beneath and a tall upright closed-in back arranged +with a varying number of shallow shelves for the reception of +plates; hooks for mugs were often fixed upon the face of these +shelves. Towards the end of the 17th century small cupboards +were often added to the superstructure. The majority of these +dressers were made of oak, but when, early in the Georgian period +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page578" id="page578"></a>578</span> +mahogany came into general use, they were frequently inlaid +with that wood; holly and box were also used for inlaying, most +frequently in the shape of plain bands or lines. A peculiarly +effective combination of oak and mahogany is found in the +dressers, as in other “farmhouse furniture,” made on the borders +of Staffordshire and Shropshire. The excellence of the work of +this kind in that district and in the country lying west of it may +perhaps explain the expression “Welsh dresser,” which is now +no more than a trade term, not necessarily suggestive of the +place of origin, and applied to all dressers of this type. They are +most frequently found in the houses of small yeomen and substantial +farmers, into which fashion penetrated slowly. The dresser +is now most familiar as necessary plenishing of the kitchen, in +which it is invariably a fixture. In form it is essentially identical +with the movable variety, but it is usually much larger, is made +of deal or other soft wood, and the superstructure has no back.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DREUX<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span>, a town of north-western France, capital of an +arrondissement in the department of Eure-et-Loir, 27 m. N.N.W. +of Chartres by rail. Pop. (1906) 8209. It is situated on the +Blaise, which at this point divides into several arms. It is +overlooked from the north by an eminence on which stands a +ruined medieval castle; within the enclosure of this building +is a gorgeous chapel, begun in 1816 by the dowager duchess of +Orleans, and completed and adorned at great cost by Louis +Philippe. It contains the tombs of the Orleans family, chief +among them that of Louis Philippe, whose remains were removed +from England to Dreux in 1876. The sculptures on the tombs +and the stained glass of the chapel windows are masterpieces +of modern art. The older of the two hôtels-de-ville of Dreux +was built in the early 16th century, chiefly by Clément Métezau, +the founder of a famous family of architects, natives of the +town. It is notable both for the graceful carvings of the façade +and for the fine staircase and architectural details of the interior. +The church of St Pierre, which is Gothic in style, contains good +stained glass and other works of art. The town has a statue of +the poet Jean de Rotrou, born there in 1609. Dreux is the seat +of a subprefect. Among the public institutions are tribunals of +first instance and of commerce, and a communal college. The +manufacture of boots and shoes, metal-founding and tanning, +are carried on, and there is trade in wheat and other agricultural +products and poultry.</p> + +<p>Dreux was the capital of the Gallic tribe of the <i>Durocasses</i>. +In 1188 it was taken and burnt by the English; and in 1562 +Gaspard de Coligny, and Louis I., prince of Condé, were defeated +in its vicinity by Anne de Montmorency and Francis, duke of +Guise. In 1593 Henry IV. captured the town after a fortnight’s +siege. It was occupied by the Germans on the 9th of October +1870, was subsequently evacuated, and was again taken, on the +17th of November, by General Von Tresckow. In the 10th +century Dreux was the chief town of a countship, which Odo, +count of Chartres, ceded to king Robert, and Louis VI. gave to +his son Robert, whose grandson Peter of Dreux, younger brother +of Count Robert III., became duke of Brittany by his marriage +with Alix, daughter of Constance of Brittany by her second +husband Guy of Thouars. By the marriage of the countess +Jeanne II. with Louis, viscount of Thouars (d. 1370), the Capetian +countship of Dreux passed into the Thouars family. In 1377 +and 1378, however, two of the three co-heiresses of Jeanne, +Perronelle and Marguerite, sold their shares of the countship +to King Charles V. Charles VI. gave it to Arnaud Amanien +d’Albret, but took it back in order to give it to his brother Louis +of Orleans (1407); later he gave it back to the lords of Albret. +Francis of Cleves laid claim to it in the 16th century as heir of +the d’Albrets of Orval, but the parlement of Paris declared the +countship to be crown property. It was given to Catherine de’ +Medici (1539), then to Francis, duke of Alençon (1569); it was +pledged to Charles de Bourbon, count of Soissons, and through +him passed to the houses of Orleans, Vendôme and Condé.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DREW<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span>, the name of a family of American actors. <span class="sc">John +Drew</span> (1827-1862) was born in Dublin and made his first New +York appearance in 1846. He played Irish and light comedy +parts with success in all the American cities, and was manager +of the Arch Street theatre in Philadelphia. He visited England +in 1855, and Australia in 1859, and died in Philadelphia. His +wife, <span class="sc">Louise Lane Drew</span> (1820-1897), was the daughter of a +London actor, and in 1827 went to America, appearing as the +Duke of York to the elder Booth’s Richard III., and as Albert +to Edwin Forrest’s William Tell. After this she starred as a +child actress, and then as leading lady. She had been twice +married before she became Mrs Drew in 1850. <span class="correction" title="amended from Fom">From</span> 1861 to +1892 she had the management of the Arch Street theatre in +Philadelphia. In 1880 she toured with Joseph Jefferson in his +elaborate revival of <i>The Rivals</i>, playing Mrs Malaprop to perfection. +She had three children, John, Sidney and Georgiana, +wife of Maurice Barrymore (1847-1905), and mother of +Lionel and Ethel Barrymore, all actors. The eldest son, <span class="sc">John +Drew</span> (b. 1853), began his stage career under his mother’s +management in Philadelphia as Plumper in <i>Cool as a Cucumber</i>, +on the 22nd of March 1873; and after playing with Edwin +Booth and others, became leading man in Augustin Daly’s +company in 1879. His association with this company, and with +Ada Rehan as the leading lady, constituted a brilliant period +in recent stage history, his Petruchio being only one, though +perhaps the most striking, of a series of famous impersonations. +In 1892 he left Daly’s company, and began a career as a “star.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DREW, SAMUEL<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> (1765-1833), English theologian, was born +in the parish of St Austell, in Cornwall, on the 6th of March 1765. +His father was a poor farm labourer, and could not afford to +send him to school long enough even to learn to read and write. +At ten he was apprenticed to a shoemaker, and at twenty he +settled in the town of St Austell, first as manager for a shoemaker, +and in 1787 began business on his own account. He had already +gained a reputation in his narrow circle as a keen debater and a +jovial companion, and it is said that he had several smuggling +adventures. He was first aroused to serious thought in 1785 by +a funeral sermon preached over his elder brother by Adam +Clarke. He joined the Methodists, was soon employed as a +class leader and local preacher, and continued to preach till +a few months before his death. His opportunities of gaining +knowledge were very scanty, but he strenuously set himself to +make the most of them. It is stated that an accidental introduction +to Locke’s great essay determined the ultimate direction +of his studies. In 1798 the first part of Thomas Paine’s <i>Age of +Reason</i> was put into his hands; and in the following year he +made his first appearance as an author by publishing his <i>Remarks</i> +on that work. The book was favourably received, and was +republished in 1820. Drew had begun to meditate a greater +attempt before he wrote his <i>Remarks on Paine</i>; and, encouraged +by the antiquary John Whitaker, he published his <i>Essay on +the Immateriality and Immortality of the Soul</i> in 1802. This +work made the “Cornish metaphysician,” as he was called, +widely known, and for some time it held a high place in the +judgment of the religious world as a conclusive argument on +its subject. A fifth edition appeared in 1831. Drew continued +to work at his trade till 1805, when he entered into an engagement +with Dr Thomas Coke, a prominent Wesleyan official, which +enabled him to devote himself entirely to literature. In 1809 +he published his <i>Essay on the Identity and General Resurrection +of the Human Body</i>, perhaps the most original of his works, +which reached a second edition in 1822. In 1814 he completed +a history of Cornwall begun by F. Hitchins. In 1819 he removed +to Liverpool, being appointed editor of the <i>Imperial Magazine</i>, +then newly established, and in 1821 to London, the business +being then transferred to the capital. Here he filled the post +of editor till his death, and had also the supervision of all +works issued from the Caxton Press. He was an unsuccessful +competitor for the Burnett prize offered in 1811 for an essay on +the existence and attributes of God. The work which he then +wrote, and which in his own judgment was his best, was published +in 1820, under the title of <i>An Attempt to demonstrate from Reason +and Revelation the Necessary Existence, Essential Perfections, and +Superintending Providence of an Eternal Being, who is the Creator, +the Supporter, and the Governor of all Things</i> (2 vols. 8 vo). This +procured him the degree of M.A. from the university of Aberdeen. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page579" id="page579"></a>579</span> +Among Drew’s lesser writings are a <i>Life of Dr Thomas Coke</i> +(1817), and a work on the deity of Christ (1813). He died at +Helston in Cornwall on the 29th of March 1833. He was a man +of strong mind, honourable spirit and affectionate disposition, +energetic both in speech and in writing.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A memoir of his life by his eldest son appeared in 1834.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DREWENZ<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span>, a river of Germany, a right-bank tributary of the +Vistula. It rises on the plateau of Hohenstein in East Prussia, +5 m. S.W. of the town of Hohenstein. After passing through +the lake of Drewenz (7 m. long), it flows S.W. through flat +marshy country, and forms, from just below the town of Strassburg +to that of Leibitsch, a distance of 30 m., the frontier +between Prussia and Russian Poland. After a course of 148 m. +it enters the Vistula from the right, a little above the fortress of +Thorn. It is navigable only for rafts. Lake Drewenz is connected +with Elbing (and so with the Baltic) by the navigable +Elbing-Oberland Canal.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DREXEL, ANTHONY JOSEPH<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> (1826-1893), American banker, +was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 13th of September +1826. He was the son of Francis M. Drexel (1792-1863), a +native of Austrian Tirol, who emigrated to America in 1817, and, +after some years spent as a portrait-painter, became a banker +and the founder of the house of Drexel & Company. Anthony, +who entered his father’s counting-house in 1839, eventually, with +his brothers Francis and Joseph, succeeded to the control of +the business, and organized the banking houses of Drexel, +Morgan & Company, New York, of which his brother Joseph W. +(1833-1888) was long the resident head, and of Drexel, Harjes +& Company, Paris. In 1864 he joined his friend George W. Childs +in the purchase of the Philadelphia <i>Public Ledger</i>, and with him +in 1892 founded the Printers’ Home for union men at Colorado +Springs. In 1891 he founded, and endowed with $2,000,000, +the Drexel Institute of Art, Science and Industry in Philadelphia, +the buildings for which he constructed at a cost of $750,000. +This institution provides technical instruction for both night and +day classes and public lecture courses, and has a good museum +and a library of 35,000 volumes. Drexel died at Carlsbad, +Germany, on the 30th of June 1893.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DREYFUS, ALFRED<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> (1859-  ), French soldier, of Jewish +parentage, the scandal of whose condemnation for treason and +subsequent rehabilitation convulsed French political life between +1894 and 1899, and only ended in 1906, was born in Mülhausen, +Upper Alsace, removing to Paris in 1874. After going through +the usual course of military instruction with credit, he became +a sous-lieutenant in the artillery in 1882, and was promoted +captain in 1889; and, after passing through the <i>École de Guerre</i> +with distinction, he was appointed to the general staff. His name +was, however, unknown to the general public till he was arrested +on the 15th of October 1894 on a charge of selling military +secrets to Germany, condemned, publicly degraded (January 4, +1895), and transported (March 10) to the Ile du Diable, French +Guiana. The story of the subsequent proceedings in this celebrated +case is told in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Anti-Semitism</a></span>, and need not +here be repeated. It was not till 1899 that the unfortunate +prisoner was brought back to France for retrial by court-martial, +and even then, so strong was the anti-Semitic and military +prejudice, he was again found guilty “with extenuating circumstances” +at Rennes (September 9), though ten days later he +was “pardoned” by President Loubet. It was not till the Cour +de Cassation ordered a further investigation, and on the 12th +of July 1906 decided that his conviction had been based on a +forgery and that Dreyfus was innocent, that the agitation came +to a final conclusion. He was then restored to his rank in the +army and promoted major. But the anti-Semitic and anti-Dreyfusard +spirit in certain French circles could not easily be +quelled even then; and on the occasion of the translation of the +remains of Emile Zola (Dreyfus’s determined champion) to the +Pantheon on the 4th of June 1908, Major Dreyfus was shot at +and wounded by a fanatical journalist named Gregori, who was +subsequently acquitted by a Paris jury of the charge of attempted +murder, his own plea being that he had merely intended a +“demonstration.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Dreyfus’s own <i>Five Years of my Life</i> (1901), and literature +cited under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Anti-Semitism</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DRIBURG,<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> a town and spa of Germany, in Prussian Westphalia, +pleasantly situated on the Aa and the railway Soest-Höxter-Berlin. +Pop. 2600. It has an Evangelical and a Roman +Catholic church and some glass manufactures. It is celebrated +for its saline-ferruginous springs, discovered in 766, and since +1779 largely frequented in summer. In the vicinity are the ruins +of Iburg, a castle destroyed by Charlemagne in 775, and bestowed +by him upon the bishopric of Paderborn.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DRIFFIELD<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (officially Great Driffield), a market town in the +Buckrose parliamentary division of the East Riding of Yorkshire, +England, 19½ m. N. by W. from Hull, the junction of several +branch lines of the North Eastern railway. Pop. of urban +district (1901) 5766. It is pleasantly situated at the foot of the +Wolds, and is connected with Hull by a navigable canal. The +church of All Saints is of various dates from Norman onwards. +The town is the centre of a rich agricultural district, and large +markets and fairs are held. There are works for the manufacture +of oil-cake. Driffield is of high antiquity, and numerous tumuli +are seen in the vicinity, while there is an excellent private +antiquarian museum in the town.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DRIFT<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> (from “drive”), a verb or noun used in various +connexions with the sense of propelled motion, especially (but +not necessarily) of an aimless sort, undirected. Thus it is possible +to speak of a snow-drift, an <span class="correction" title="amended from accumlation">accumulation</span> driven by the wind; +of a ship drifting out of its course; of the drift of a speech, <i>i.e.</i> +its general tendency. The word is also used in some technical +senses, more immediately resulting from the action of driving +something in. But the most important technical use of the word +is in geology, as introduced by C. Lyell in 1840 in place of +“Diluvium.” The earlier geologists had been in the habit of +dividing the Quaternary deposits into an older Diluvium and a +younger Alluvium; the latter is still employed in England, +but the former has dropped out of use, though it is still retained +by some continental writers. The Alluvium was distinguished +from Diluvium by the fact that its mammalian fossils were +representatives of still living forms, but it is a matter of great +difficulty to separate these two divisions in practice. “The term +drift is now applied generally to the Quaternary deposits, which +consist for the most part of gravel, sand, loam or brickearth and +clay; it naturally refers to strata laid down at some distance +from the rocks to whose destruction they are largely due; but, +although applied to river deposits, the word drift is more appropriately +used in reference to the accumulations of the Glacial +period.</p> + +<p>“The occurrence of stones and boulders far removed from their +parent source early attracted the attention of geologists, but +for a long period the phenomena, now known as of glacial +origin, were unexplained, and the drifts were looked upon as +little more than ‘extraneous rubbish,’ the product of geological +agents, quite distinct from those which helped to form the more +’solid’ rocks that underlie them.” (See H. B. Woodward, <i>The +Geology of England and Wales</i>, 2nd ed., 1887.) The conception +of an underlying “solid” geological structure covered by a +superficial mantle of “drift” is still retained for certain practical +purposes; thus, the Geological Survey of Great Britain issues +many of the maps in two forms, the “Solid Edition,” showing +the “solid geology,” which embraces all igneous rocks and the +stratified rocks older than Pleistocene, and the “Drift Edition,” +which shows only such older strata as are unobscured by drift.</p> + +<p>In writing and in conversation the geological expression +“drift” is now usually understood to mean Glacial drift, +including boulder clay and all the varieties of sand, gravel and +clay deposits formed by the agency of ice sheets, glaciers and +icebergs. But in the “Drift” maps many other types of deposit +are indicated, such, for instance, as the ordinary modern alluvium +of rivers, and the older river terraces (River-drift of various ages), +including gravels, brickearth and loam; old raised sea beaches +and blown-sand (Aeolian-drift); the “Head” of Cornwall and +Devon, an angular detritus consisting of stones with clay or +loam; clay-with-flints, rainwash (landwash), scree and talus; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page580" id="page580"></a>580</span> +the “Warp,” a marine and estuarine silt and clay of the Humber; +and also beds of peat and diatomite.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Glacial Period</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pleistocene</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Boulder Clay</a></span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. A. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DRILL.<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> (1) A tool for boring or making holes in hard substances, +such as stone, metal, &c. (an adaptation in the 17th +century from the Dutch <i>dril</i> or <i>drille</i>, from <i>drillen</i>, to turn, +bore a hole; according to the New English Dictionary the +word is not to be connected with the English “thrill”). The word +<i>drillen</i> was used in Dutch, German and Danish, from the 17th +century for training in military exercises and was adopted into +English in the same sense. The origin of the application seems +to be in the primary sense of “to turn round,” from the turning +of the troops in their evolutions and from the turning of the +weapons in the soldiers’ hands. Drill is, formally, the preparation +of soldiers for their duties in war by the practice or rehearsal +of movements in military order and the handling of arms, and, +psychologically, the method of producing in the individual soldier +habits of self-control and of mechanically precise actions under disturbing +conditions, and of rendering the common instinctive will +of a body of men, large or small, amenable to the control of, and +susceptible to a stimulus imparted by its commander’s will.</p> + +<p>(2) A furrow made in the soil in which seed may be sown, +and a machine used for sowing seed in such furrows (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sowing</a></span>). +The word is somewhat doubtful in origin. It may be the same +as an obsolete word “drill,” to trickle, flow in drops, also a +small stream or flow of water, a rill, and is possibly an altered +form of “trill.”</p> + +<p>(3) In zoology, the native name of a large short-tailed west +African baboon, <i>Papio leucophaeus</i>, closely allied to the mandrill +(<i>q.v.</i>), but distinguished by the absence of brilliant blue and +scarlet on the jaws of the fully adult males.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 190px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:144px; height:120px" src="images/img580.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table> + +<p>(4) The name of a fabric made in both linen and cotton, and +commonly bleached and finished stiff. The word is a shortened +form of “drilling,” from the German <i>drillich</i>, or “three-threaded,” +and is so named because the weave originally used +in its construction is what is termed the three-leaf twill, nine +repeats of which appear in the accompanying figure, while +immediately below the design is an intersection +of all the nine threads with the first +pick. It is essentially a warp-faced fabric; +that is, the upper surface is composed mostly +of warp threads. In the figure it will be seen +that two out of every three threads appear +on the surface, and, by introducing a greater +number of threads per inch than picks per inch, the weft is made +to occupy a still more subordinate position so far as the upper +surface of the cloth is concerned. Although the weave shown +is still extensively used in this branch, there are others, <i>e.g.</i> the +4-thread and the 5-thread weaves, which are employed for the +production of this cloth. Large quantities of drill are shipped +to the Eastern markets and to other sub-tropical centres, from +which it is sold for clothing. In temperate climates it forms a +satisfactory material for ladies’ and children’s summer clothing, +and it is used by chefs, hairdressers, provision merchants, grocers, +buttermen, painters and decorators, &c., while many of the long +jackets or overalls, such as those worn by many mill and factory +managers, are made from the same material.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DRINKING VESSELS.<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> <a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The use of special vessels for drinking +purposes may fairly be assumed to have had a natural origin +and development. From a practical point of view it would soon +be found desirable to provide vessels for liquids in addition to +those serving to hold food. As in many other commonplace +details of modern life, we must turn to the primitive races to +understand how our present conditions were reached. In almost +all parts of the world many of the products of nature are capable +of serving such purposes, with little or no change at the hands +of man; in tropical and sub-tropical climates the coco-nut and +the gourd or calabash require but little change to adapt them +as the most convenient of drinking utensils; the eggs of the +larger birds, such as the ostrich or the emu, shells, like the +nautilus and other univalves, as well as the deeper bivalves, +are equally convenient. Such natural objects are in fact used +by the uncivilized tribes of Africa, America and Polynesia, as +well as, in some cases, by the white races who have intruded +into those parts of the world, and adopted some of the native +habits. In Paraguay, for example, the so-called “Paraguay +tea,” an infusion of the <i>yerba maté</i> (<i>Ilex paraguayensis</i>), is drunk +through a tube from a small gourd held in the hand, and often +handsomely mounted in silver or even gold. In the same way, +as we shall see, civilized man has adopted nearly all the natural +forms that were found convenient by the savage, altering and +adorning them in accordance with the taste of the time or +country where they were used.</p> + +<p>Another line of development, however, has been found to be +the natural outcome of the human mind. Nothing could form +a more practical drinking cup than the half of a coco-nut shell +or part of a gourd. Such cups, however, in the countries where +the plants producing them are common, would be easily obtained, +and every one, rich or poor, could possess one or more. In order, +therefore, to distinguish the chief’s possessions from those of +his inferiors, his cup is often made with great labour, from some +more intractable material, wood or stone, though in practically +the same form as that of the natural object.</p> + +<p>Among European races in medieval times the same lines have +been followed, though for different reasons. Human ingenuity, +though perhaps originally inspired by natural forms, +is apt to turn aside into more artificial channels. +<span class="sidenote">Early drinking cups.</span> +The invention of the potter’s art (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ceramics</a></span>), +where the plastic nature of the raw material renders it +capable of infinite changes of form, gave rise to types of vessels +having no obvious or necessary relation to the productions of +nature. In Britain and in northern Europe generally, the +interments of the races of the Neolithic and Bronze Ages have +furnished vessels of pottery of a beaker-like form, to which the +name of “drinking-cups” has been given. It must be confessed +that the evidence for attributing such a use to them is slender, +and mainly consists of the fact that their thin lips would render +them better adapted for the purpose than the other pottery +vessels found with them, some of which, on equally slight +grounds, have been called food vessels. The general use and +acceptance of the term by two generations of archaeologists is, +however, an adequate reason for a passing mention in this place. +In the later prehistoric times of Europe vessels of gold, bronze +and other materials, including amber, were made, sometimes of +elegant forms, and would seem to have been used as drinking +vessels; still, this is again an assumption, though a fairly probable +one. A small gold cup with handle was found in a barrow +at Rillaton, Cornwall; one of amber of a similar form was found +at Hove, and a third of shale near Honiton. All of these doubtless +may be referred to the Bronze Age.</p> + +<p>Schliemann found many drinking vessels in his exploration +of the superimposed cities of Troy. A pretty form is that found +in the first city. It is of clay, and closely resembles +an early Victorian tea cup on a high foot. This form +<span class="sidenote">New forms found by Schliemann.</span> +is of interest, as Schliemann discovered the same both +at Tiryns and Mycenae, five from the latter site being +of gold, while the type also occurs from Ialysus in Rhodes in +association with bronze swords. This Trojan cup was found at +a depth of 50 ft. below the present surface and about 18 ft. below +the stratum of what Schliemann claimed to be the Homeric +Troy. In his second city appears a different type of ware, +somewhat fantastic in form, one vessel being in the form of a +sow, while others foreshadow the <i>crater</i> and <i>amphora</i> of later +and more familiar Greek wares.</p> + +<p>But the drinking vessel to which Schliemann draws most +attention is the tall cup of a trumpet form furnished with two +earlike loop handles. This curious and original type occurs +also in the Third (or Homeric), Fourth and Sixth Cities, with +little if any change. Schliemann devotes some pages to the +discussion of the form, in which he sees the <span class="grk" title="depas amphikypellon">δέπας ἀμφικύπελλον</span><a name="fa2c" id="fa2c" href="#ft2c"><span class="sp">2</span></a> +of Homer, which has been more usually understood to mean +an hour-glass shaped cup, in which the distinguishing feature +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page581" id="page581"></a>581</span> +was two cups, not two handles. He applies the same term to a +drinking vessel of a very different form, found with several others +in the Third City. This is a sauce-boat shaped vessel<a name="fa3c" id="fa3c" href="#ft3c"><span class="sp">3</span></a> of gold, +made with a lip for pouring or drinking at either end, and with +two loop handles. This equals those previously mentioned in +originality of form; with it were found others of gold, silver +and electrum (<i>i.e.</i> 4 parts of gold to 1 of silver). Of these three +were shaped like 18th-century coffee cups but wanting handles. +In the Sixth City appear forms more nearly approaching those of +later times, particularly prototypes of the <i>cantharus</i> and <i>scyphus</i>.</p> + +<p>These discoveries in the various strata of Troy may be taken +as the analogues in the Mediterranean and hither Asia of the +later Stone and Bronze Ages of northern Europe, with an +allowance of some centuries of greater antiquity for the former.</p> + +<p>It is not proposed in this article to deal with the ceramic and +metallic drinking vessels of the Greeks and Romans, of what +is generally known as the classical period (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ceramics</a></span> and +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Plate</a></span>). It may be mentioned, however, that both on the Rhine +and in various places in Britain, notably at Castor in Northamptonshire +and in the New Forest, were factories where large +numbers of <i>pocula</i> or drinking cups were made; those made on +the Rhine and at Castor bearing legends to indicate their use. +Many of these are to be seen in the British Museum and in the +Wallraf-Richartz Museum in Cologne.</p> + +<p>After the decline of Roman power, the Gothic and Scandinavian +races who replaced the Romans in central and northern Europe +brought with them their own forms and types of drinking +vessels. These, from about the 4th century, replaced +<span class="sidenote">Gothic and Scandinavian types.</span> +the well-known Roman vessels. The northern +barbarians were as great drinkers as fighters, and their +literature recites with equal zest the richness of their drinking +cups as the power and deadly qualities of their arms. Fortunately +the practice of burying with the dead warrior all his +property, or at least as much of it as he would be supposed to +need, has preserved to our day the actual vessels in use by the +pagan northmen who pervaded northern Europe from the +4th century onward. Saxon graves in Britain have furnished +great numbers of drinking cups and horns, in many cases quite +unbroken. From the remains, of which the chief series are in +the British and Liverpool Museums, we can learn a great deal +to amplify the references in literature. The richest single +interment that has yet been found was within the present churchyard +at Taplow. Here under a huge mound lay buried a Saxon +chieftain surrounded by his belongings; arms defensive and +offensive, his drinking cups, and even his game of draughts. +The drinking vessels consisted of five cows’ horns and four glass +cups. The former were of great size, 2 ft. long, richly mounted +at the mouth and at the point with silver bands embossed and +gilt. The glasses also were of great size and of a type familiar +in Saxon interments. Each was of a trumpet shape, with a +small foot, while the sides were ornamented with hollow pointed +tubes bent downwards, and open on the inner side, so that the +liquid would fill them. Such a plan is most unpractical, and it +must have been very difficult to keep the vessels clean. Glasses +of this uncommon form have not been found elsewhere than in +Saxon graves, either in England or in the north of the continent. +Other types are perhaps nearly as characteristic, though of simpler +construction. One of these is a simple cone of glass, sometimes +quite plain, at others ornamented with an applied spiral glass +thread, or more rarely with festoons of white glass embedded +in the body of the vessel. A third form is a plain cup or bowl +widely expanded at the mouth and with a rounded base, so +that it could only be set down when empty, in fact a true +“tumbler.” This feature is in fact a very common one in the +drinking vessels of the Saxon race. There are many other +varieties, plain cylindrical goblets, generally with ornamental +glass threads on the outside, and a more usual type has a rounded +body somewhat of the shape of an orange with a wide plain +mouth. Many of all these classes were found in the famous +cemetery known as the King’s Field at Faversham in Kent (the +relics from which are now in the British Museum), at Chessel +Down in the Isle of Wight, and in the cemetery within the +ancient camp on High Down, near Worthing. In Belgium, +France and Germany the same types occur, and even as far +north as Scandinavia, where they are found in association with +Roman coins of the 4th century. On the continent, however, +additional types are found that do not occur in Britain—one +of these is a drinking glass in the form of a hunting horn with +glass threads forming an ornamental design on the outside. +From the wide distribution of these types, it seems certain +that they sprang originally from a common centre, and the slender +evidence available on the subject seems to point to that centre +having been somewhere on the lower Rhine. Although glass +seems to have been popular and by no means rare as a material +for drinking vessels, other materials also were used. A large +number of the smaller pottery vessels would serve such a purpose, +and in one grave at Broomfield in Essex two small wooden cups +were found which, from their small size and thinness, were no +doubt used for liquid.</p> + +<p>Of the later Saxon domestic utensils nothing remains, the +habit of burying such objects with the dead having ceased on +the gradual introduction of Christianity through the country. +Manuscripts are our only resource, and they are not only of great +rarity, but in the main rudely and conventionally drawn in their +details. In those of the 9th to the 11th century various simple +forms are seen, some resembling our modern tumbler in shape, +others like a dice box. Horns as drinking vessels certainly +retained their popularity at all times, surviving especially among +the northern nations, and many of the vessels of this form were +no doubt actual horns, though horn-shaped vessels were often +made of other materials. Until we come to the 13th and 14th +centuries there is an absolute dearth of the actual objects used +in domestic life. And here we begin with plate used in the +service of the church.</p> + +<p>The drinking vessel possessing the most unbroken history is +doubtless the chalice of the Christian Church.<a name="fa4c" id="fa4c" href="#ft4c"><span class="sp">4</span></a> Like other +ceremonial objects it was no doubt differentiated from +the drinking cups in ordinary use by a gradual transition, +<span class="sidenote">Church vessels.</span> +and in the early centuries it is unlikely that it +differed either in form or material from the ordinary domestic +vessel of the time. Figures of such vessels, apparently with a +symbolic intention, are found upon early Christian tombstones, +and it has been contended that the vessel indicated the grave +of a priest. While this may be the case, the similarity of the +vessel represented to the ordinary non-liturgical form renders +the conclusion somewhat weak. Among objects found under +conditions which lend colour to their specific use as chalices are +the bottoms of glass vessels found inserted in plaster in the +Catacombs at Rome; but here again the Jesuit Padre Garrucci +was unable to find any evidence to support such a conclusion. +It is not in fact until the 6th century that the sacred vessel +would appear to have assumed a definite form. From about that +time date the lost golden chalices of Monza, representations +of which still exist in that city; and the famous chalice of +Gourdon in the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris is probably of +about the same time. All of these are two-handled with a vase-shaped +body and supported on a high foot; and thus quite +unlike the more recent medieval types. Two glass vases of +exactly this two-handled form are in the Slade collection at the +British Museum, and may well have been chalices. Another +chalice, in the same collection, of the 6th or 7th century, was +found with a silver treasure at Lampsacus on the Hellespont. +It is of silver, with a cylindrical body and small expanding +foot; with it were found a number of silver spoons and dishes, +the former inscribed with the names of Apostles, Greek hexameters +and lines from Virgil’s Eclogues. No doubt the whole +was the treasure of a monastery, buried and never reclaimed. +So far as evidence exists for the form of the chalice, the vase-shape +with two handles seems to have been mainly succeeded +by a goblet with straight sides and without handles; these latter +in great part disappeared. Then came the rounded cup-shaped +bowl as seen in the well-known Kremsmünster chalice. An +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page582" id="page582"></a>582</span> +interesting silver vessel, probably a chalice, found at Trewhiddle +in Cornwall, is in the British Museum. It is of plain semi-oviform +shape, and dates from the 9th century. The 13th century +chalice was usually a broad somewhat shallow cup, on a conical +base, and squat in its general lines as compared with those of +later date. These gradually became taller, and with a bowl +smaller in proportion, following the tendency of the civil vessels +towards more elegant lines. Both civil and religious vessels +eventually carried this tendency to an extreme point, so that in +the 17th century the continental chalices and standing cups +had lost all sense of true artistic proportions; the bowl of the +chalice had greatly shrunk in size while the foot had become +huge and highly elaborate, both in general form and in ornamental +details. In Britain chalices ceased to be used in the English +church in the reign of Edward VI., and were replaced by communion +cups. These were much plainer in make, recalling in +their outlines the goblet form of about a thousand years earlier, +the sides of the bowl being concave, or nearly straight, as opposed +to the convexity of the chalice, while the paten was reversed +over the mouth and so arranged as to form a closely fitting cover. +With the beginning of the 17th century English communion +cups again followed the civil fashion in adapting the outline of +the Venetian drinking glass, a shape which has survived to our +own days.</p> + +<p>The materials of which chalices were made in the early +centuries seem to have been as various as those of ordinary +vessels. Glass was undoubtedly a favourite substance, perhaps +from its lending itself readily to scrupulous cleanliness; but +wood, horn, ivory and similar materials were undoubtedly in +use, and were from time to time condemned as improper by the +Fathers of the Church. Pewter was in common use, and it was +not an unusual practice in the 12th and 13th centuries to place +sacramental vessels, of this or more precious metal, in the grave +of an ecclesiastic. Bronze was also used, and the Kremsmünster +chalice is of that metal, which was a favourite one in the Celtic +church. But gold or silver chalices were no doubt always +preferred when they could be obtained.</p> + +<p>It may be mentioned here that it was a common practice +in the 16th century and later in England for laymen to make +gifts to the church of vessels of an entirely domestic character +for use in the service. Many of these from their associations, +and in the character of the designs upon them, were entirely +unsuited for such purposes, and in our own time, when a healthy +desire has sprung up for the proper investigation of such matters, +many such unsuitable vessels have been withdrawn from use. +Domestic plate, however, being much more highly appreciated +by collectors, there has been a regrettable tendency on the part +of the holders of such pieces to sell them to the highest bidders; +the tendency is to be deplored, for while they remain the property +of the church, they are a national asset; if sold by auction, +there is a great probability of their going abroad.</p> + +<p>It would seem fairly certain that the ordinary drinking vessel +of medieval times was, like the trenchers of wood, turned on the +lathe. Of these the commoner varieties have entirely +disappeared, having become useless from distortion +<span class="sidenote">Medieval vessels for common uses.</span> +or other damage. Such as have come down to our +own time owe their preservation to the added refinement +of a silver mount. Vessels of this kind are known as +<i>mazer</i> bowls, a word of uncertain origin, but undoubtedly, +in the medieval sense, indicating wood of some more +<span class="sidenote">Mazers.</span> +or less valuable kind, and not improbably, in the 16th +century, maple or a wood of that appearance. Spenser in the +“Shepherd’s Kalendar” speaks of “a mazer ywrought of the +maple warre.” Although such vessels are mentioned in the +inventories and other contemporary records as far back as the +12th century, no example is known to exist of an earlier date +than the 14th century, of which date there are two in the possession +of Harbledown hospital. This type of drinking vessel +was in common use in well-to-do households until the 16th +century, when a change of fashion and the greater luxury and +refinement dictated the adoption of more elegant and complex +forms. The ordinary mazer was a shallow bowl (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Plate</a></span>, +Plate II.) about 6 in. in diameter, with a broad expanding +rim of silver gilt often engraved with a motto in black letter +or Lombardic capitals, at times referring to the function of +the cup, such as:—</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“In the name of the Trinity</p> +<p class="i05">Fille the Kup and drinke to me.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">or,</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“Potum et nos benedicat Agios.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">Within the bowl, in the centre is often found a circular medallion +called a “print” with some device upon it, engraved and filled +with enamel. The reason of this addition may conceivably +be found in the fact that such bowls were sometimes made from +the lower half of a gourd or calabash, in the centre of which +would be a rough projection whence the fibres of the fruit had +diverged. A rarer form of mazer has the characters just mentioned +and in addition is mounted upon a high foot, bringing +it nearer to the category of standing cups or “hanaps.” The +famous Scrope mazer belonging to York Minster (early 15th +century) stands upon three small feet. Of the hanap type +examples are in the possession of Pembroke College, Cambridge +(the Foundress’ Cup), and All Souls’ College, Oxford, the former +an exceedingly fine specimen, of the third quarter of the 15th +century. The form dictated originally by the simple wooden +cup was at times carried out entirely in silver, or even in stone, +mazer-like cups being found either entirely in metal or with +the main portion made of serpentine or some other ornamental +stone. An example of the former from the Hamilton Palace +collection, as well as several ordinary mazers, are to be seen in +the British Museum. The types above described are of English +origin, with the exception of that made entirely of silver, which is +thought to be French. Most of the continental forms differed +from the English, and were more elaborately finished. One of +the finest is that which belonged to Louis de Male, last count of +Flanders. It is an exceedingly thin, shallow bowl of fine-grained +wood, with a cover of the same make. The latter is surmounted +by a silver figure of a falcon holding a shield in its mouth with +the arms of the count. The foot is of silver with lozenge-shaped +panels inserted, bearing in enamel the arms of the count. A +German form of the 16th century consisted of a depressed +sphere of wood for the bowl, with a silver rim, and a cover +formed of a similarly shaped sphere, called in France a “creusequin.” +Such mazers were furnished in addition with a short +metal handle turned up at the end, a feature unknown in the +English types. All of these again are to be seen in the British +Museum series.</p> + +<p>Although the use of wooden vessels more or less elaborately +mounted was continued well into the 16th century as a fashion, +many other materials of far greater value were in use +among the wealthy long before that time. Crystal, +<span class="sidenote">Hanaps.</span> +agate and other hard stones, ivory, Chinese porcelain, as well as +more ordinary wares, were all in use, as well as the precious +metals. The inventories of the 14th and 15th centuries are full +of entries showing that such precious cups were fairly common. +Of gold cups of any antiquity naturally but few remain; the +intrinsic value of the metal probably is a sufficient explanation. +One of the most important in existence is however preserved +in the British Museum, viz. the royal gold cup of the kings of +England and France. It is of nearly pure gold with a broad +bowl and a high foot, the cover pyramidal. The whole is ornamented +with translucent enamels of the most perfect quality, +and with a little damage in one part, absolutely well preserved. +The subjects represented on it are scenes from the life of St +Agnes, in two rows, one on the cover and one outside the bowl; +on the foot are the symbols of the four Evangelists, and around +the base a coronal of leaves alternating with pearls; the cover +originally had a similar adjunct, but it has unfortunately been +cut away. This is the only piece of royal plate of the treasures +of the kings of England and France that now remains, and its +history has been traced from the time it was made, about the +year 1380, to the present time. It was made by one of the +goldsmiths of the luxurious Duc de Berri, the brother of Charles +V. of France, no doubt to offer as a gift to the king, whose +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page583" id="page583"></a>583</span> +birthday was St Agnes’ day. It was, however, never presented, +probably owing to the death of Charles V. in 1380. The duc +de Berri was not on friendly terms with his nephew Charles VI., +but on their being reconciled he presented the young king with +this cup. The troubles of his reign led to the invasion of France +by Henry V. of England, and the ultimate appointment of his +brother, John, duke of Bedford, as regent. The necessities +of the half-insane Charles doubtless caused this cup and other +valuables to pass into the possession of the regent in exchange +for ready money, for it appears in the duke of Bedford’s will, +under which it passed into the treasury of Henry VI. There +it remained and appears in all subsequent royal inventories +up to the time of James I. This monarch, whose motto was +“Beati pacifici,” received with joy the embassy sent from +Spain in the year 1610 to conclude the first treaty of peace with +England since the Armada, and showered upon the envoy, Don +Juan de Velasco, constable of Castile, the most lavish and +extravagant gifts. The constable, in fact, was so impressed by +the warmth of his reception that he printed an account of his +embassy, and from this work the main story of the cup has +eventually been traced. On his return to Spain the constable, +a piously disposed man, presented this cup, with many other +valuable gifts, to the convent of Santa Clara Medina de Pomar +at Burgos, of which his sister was Superior. Although it was a +domestic vessel, a “hanap” in fact, the constable elected that +it should be consecrated and made use of as a chalice at great +festivals. And so it continued to be used from the early years of +the 17th century until about the year 1882, when the convent +having fallen upon evil times, it was decided to sell this precious +relic. A priest from the Argentine being at the time in Burgos, +it was confided to him to sell in Paris, and he deposited the sum +of £100 by way of security. This was all that the unfortunate +nuns at Burgos ever received in return for their chalice, for +they never saw the priest again. He took the cup to Paris, +arriving in the month of September, when the majority of the +well-to-do are away from town. After many failures to dispose +of it, he ultimately succeeded in selling it to Baron Jerome +Pichon for the sum of about £400, practically its weight in gold. +The baron, after vainly trying to resell it at various sums from +£20,000 downwards, eventually parted with it to Messrs Wertheimer +of Bond Street for £8000, and that firm very liberally +ceded it to Sir Wollaston Franks for the same sum, and it was +finally secured by a subscription for the British Museum.</p> + + +<p class="noind f80 pt2 sc">Plate I.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 900px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:291px; height:332px" src="images/img582a1.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:291px; height:334px" src="images/img582a2.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:271px; height:327px" src="images/img582a3.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—ROMAN GLASS CUP. With representation +of a chariot race. Found at Colchester.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—TEUTONIC GLASS CUP. From a grave at Selzen, Rhenish Hesse.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>—SAXON GLASS “TUMBLER.”</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 900px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:411px; height:208px" src="images/img582a4.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:410px; height:210px" src="images/img582a5.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>—FRANKISH GLASS DRINKING HORN. Bingerbrück.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>—SAXON COW’S HORN. Mounted in silver. Taplow.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 900px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:195px; height:519px" src="images/img582a6.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:400px; height:486px" src="images/img582a7.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:242px; height:529px" src="images/img582a8.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>—SAXON TRUMPET-SHAPED DRINKING VESSEL. With hollow tubular ornamentation.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>—THE ROYAL GOLD ENAMELLED HANAP. Made about 1380.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>—SARACENIC ENAMELLED GOBLET. With French silver mountings. Fourteenth century.</td></tr></table> + + +<p class="noind f80 pt2 sc">Plate II.<br /> +All the objects represented on these two plates are in the British Museum.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="tccm"> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:106px; height:966px" src="images/img582b1.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>—A GLASS “YARD OF ALE” (English). Eighteenth century.</td></tr></table> + + </td> + +<td class="tccm"> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 720px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:370px; height:529px" src="images/img582b2.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:319px; height:482px" src="images/img582b3.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—VENETIAN GLASS GOBLET. With enamelled decoration. Fifteenth century.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—ENGLISH “BLACKJACK.” With initials of Charles I. and date 1646.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 720px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:327px; height:166px" src="images/img582b4.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:414px; height:166px" src="images/img582b5.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>—THE ROCHESTER MAZER. Presented by Brother Robert Peacham. Sixteenth century.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>—CHINESE CUP. Carved from rhinoceros horn. Eighteenth century.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 720px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:281px; height:422px" src="images/img582b6.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:147px; height:416px" src="images/img582b7.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:222px; height:417px" src="images/img582b8.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>—ENGLISH GLASS TANKARD. Bearing the Arms of Lord Burleigh.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>—COCO-NUT CUP. German, about 1600.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>—SWISS “TANZENMANN.” Seventeenth century.</td></tr></table> + + </td></tr></table> + +<p>Such is the story of one of the most remarkable “hanaps” +in existence. The word “hanap” is translated by Cotgrave in his +French dictionary of 1660 as “a drinking cup or goblet,” and +probably was intended to mean what would be called a standing +cup, that is, raised on a foot, to distinguish it from a bowl of the +mazer class. Such vessels were chiefly used to ornament the +dinner table or sideboard, in the way that loving-cups are now +used at civic banquets, where, almost alone in fact, the ancient +ceremonial of the table is still observed to some extent; and the +loving-cup is the direct descendant of the hanap of the middle +ages.</p> + +<p>Of all the ornaments of the table in medieval times the most conspicuous +was probably the “nef.” This was in the form of a ship +(<i>navis</i>), as its name implies, and originally was designed +to hold the table utensils of the host—knives, napkins, +<span class="sidenote">Nefs.</span> +and at times even the wine. Some of the later examples which +alone survive are carried out with the greatest elaboration, the +sails and rigging being carefully finished and with a number of +figures on the deck. The reason for the existence of such an +article of table furniture was doubtless the fear of poison. As +in course of time this became less, the nef changed its character, +and became either a mere ornament, or sometimes was capable +of being used as a drinking vessel. The former, however, was +much more common, and the number of nefs that can be practically +used as drinking cups is small.</p> + +<p>In the 15th and 16th centuries the shapes, decoration and +materials of drinking vessels were almost endless. A favourite +object to be so adapted was an ostrich egg, and many can be +seen in museums in elaborate silver mounts; coco-nuts were also +used in the same way, and Chinese and other Oriental wares +then of great variety, were often turned into cups and vases by +<span class="sidenote">16th-century types.</span> +ingeniously devised silver mounting. The use of drinking +vessels either formed of actual horns or of other +materials was common in the 15th and 16th centuries, +especially in the north. They were usually provided +with feet so as to serve as standing cups, and some of them were +mounted with great richness. An excellent example is the +famous drinking-horn in the possession of Queen’s College, +Oxford, dating from the 14th century. The medieval beliefs +about “griffins’ claws” still survived to this late date, and a +horn cup in the British Museum bears the inscription “Ein +Greifen Klau bin ich genannt, In Asia, Africa wohl bekannt.” +Another horn, probably that of an ibex, is in the same institution, +and has a silver mount inscribed “Gryphi unguis divo Cuthberto +dunelmensi sacer.” The elegant natural curve of the horn adds +greatly to the charm of the vessel. In Germany the ingenuity +of the silversmith was turned in the direction of making vessels +in the forms of animals, at times in allusion to the coat of arms +of the patron. Stags, lions, bears and various birds are often +found; the head generally removable so as to form a small cup +Switzerland and south Germany had a special type, in the form +of the figure of a peasant, generally in wood, carrying on his back +a large basket, which edged with silver formed the drinking cup. +This type is only found in wine-growing districts, the basket +being used for carrying grapes. In Germany such cups are called +“Buttenmann,” in Switzerland “Tanzenmann.” The royal and +princely museums of Germany contain great numbers of such +vessels, the Green Vault in Dresden in particular, while a good +number are to be seen in our own great museums. A curious +fancy, combining instruction with conviviality, was to make cups +in the form of a globe, terrestrial or celestial, which are still useful +as showing the state of geographical or astronomical knowledge +at the time. Several of those made in the 16th century are still +in existence, one in the British Museum, a second at Nancy, and +others are in Copenhagen and Zurich and in private collections. +The upper half of the globe is removable, leaving the lower as +the drinking cup. Ivory both from the beauty of its colour and +the evenness of its structure has been a favourite material for +drinking vessels at all times, and would seem to have been +continuously used from the earliest period, whether derived from +Asia or Africa, while the semi-fossil mammoth ivory of Siberia +has not been neglected. In general, however, the vessels made +from this material presented no essential differences of form from +those in wood, until the art of lathe-turning attained great +perfection, when a wide field was opened for ingenuity and even +extravagance of form. The most remarkable examples of the +possibilities of this kind of mechanical skill are seen in the +productions of the Nuremberg turners of the 17th century, whose +elaborate and entirely useless <i>tours de force</i> comprise among many +other things standing cups of ivory sometimes 2 ft. high, exemplifying +every eccentricity of which the lathe is capable. Peter +Zick (d. 1632) and his three sons were celebrated for such work. +Several pieces, doubtless from their hands, are in the British +Museum.</p> + +<p>The use of glass cups was not common in England until the +16th century, Venice having practically the monopoly of the +supply. A silver-mounted glass goblet which belonged +to the great Lord Burghley is, however, in the British +<span class="sidenote">Glass cups.</span> +Museum, where there is also a very large series of +Venetian drinking glasses of various kinds, clear and lace glass +as well as some of the 15th-century goblets with enamelled +designs, now of the greatest rarity. The relations of Venice with +the East were of so intimate a character that the earlier forms of +Venetian glasses were nearly identical with those of the Mahommedan +East.</p> + +<p>A common type of Arab drinking glass resembled our modern +tumbler (a beaker), but gradually expanding in a curve towards +the mouth, and often enamelled. The enamelled designs were +at times related to the purpose of the vessel, figures drinking and +the like, but more commonly bore either a mark of ownership, +such as the armorial device of an emir, or some simple decorative +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page584" id="page584"></a>584</span> +design. This simple form probably has its origin in the horn +cup made from the base of a cow’s horn and closed at the smaller +end. The later forms in the late 15th century and after, followed +the fashion in other materials, and were raised on a tall foot, +so that from the 16th century onwards the type of wine glass +has hardly changed, except in details. An interesting variety +in one detail is seen in the German fashion of providing an +elaborate silver stand into which the foot of such an ordinary-shaped +glass was made to fit. Frequently, as might be expected, +such stands are found without glasses, and their use then seems +difficult to explain.</p> + +<p>Another characteristic German type is the “wiederkom,” a +vessel more conspicuous for capacity than for its artistic qualities. +It is usually a cylindrical vessel of green glass often holding as +much as a quart, elaborately enamelled with coats of arms and +views of well-known places; and at times when the cup was a +wedding gift the figures of the bride and bridegroom are seen +upon it.</p> + +<p>A very fanciful kind of cup was known in England as a “yard +of ale,” a long tube of glass generally shaped like a coach horn, +but ending sometimes in three prongs as a trident, the opening +in the latter being at the end of the handle, which was about a +yard in length.</p> + +<p>Small silver cups were often made in dozens with various +devices, differing in each, such as the signs of the zodiac, the +occupations of the months, or figures of the classical gods and +goddesses, engraved upon them.</p> + +<p>The tankard came into fashion in the 16th century, a practical, +but seldom graceful object. At first some attempt was made, by +shaping the sides, to attain to some artistic quality, but usually +the tankard from the late 16th century to the present time is +found with straight sides, either vertical or contracting towards +the top, which is of course always furnished with a hinged lid.</p> + +<p>A material that has one obvious merit, that of being practically +unbreakable, is leather, and drinking cups were often made of it. +The flagon called a “black jack” is the best-known, +and examples are very common, mostly of the 17th +<span class="sidenote">17th and 18th century types.</span> +and 18th centuries. A quaint fashion was to have +a leather cup made in the form of a lady’s shoe; this, +however, was confined to Germany and might be thought in +somewhat questionable taste.</p> + +<p>In the 17th and 18th centuries a great impetus was given to +the production of curious drinking vessels in pottery. In England +at various potting centres a great number of cups called “tygs” +were made: capacious mugs with several handles, three or four, +round the sides, so that the cup could be readily passed from one +to the other. Many of these have quaint devices and inscriptions +upon them. Another favourite plan is to make a jug with open-work +round the neck and a variety of spouts, one only communicating +with the liquid. These “puzzle jugs” no doubt +caused a good deal of amusement when attempted by a novice, +who would inevitably spill some of the contents.</p> + +<p>The horn of the rhinoceros is much favoured by the Chinese +as a material for drinking cups often of a somewhat archaic form. +The dense structure of the horn is well adapted for the purpose, +and its beautiful amber hue makes the vessel a very agreeable +object to the eye. The usual form is of a boat shape on a square +foot, and the carved decoration is often copied from that of the +bronze vessels of the earlier dynasties. Others are treated in a +freer and more naturalistic manner, the bowl being formed as +the flower of the magnolia, and the entire horn, at times more +than 2 ft. in length, is utilized in carrying out the design. One +of this kind is in the Victoria and Albert Museum. Cups of +the former type are commonly found imitated in ivory-white +porcelain, and are known as “libation cups.” Rhinoceros horn +is held by the Chinese to be an antidote against poison, a belief +shared by other nations.</p> + +<p>There is but little to be said about the vessels used in the +drinking of tea and coffee. In Europe the type has practically +remained unchanged since the introduction of tea and coffee +drinking, except that in the 18th century the tea-cups imported +from China had no handles, and were generally thinner than the +<span class="sidenote">Tea and coffee cups.</span> +coffee cups. In Japan there is a ceremonious way of drinking +tea, known as <i>Cha no yu</i>. Here powdered green tea is used; +the party assembles in a small pavilion in a garden, +and the tea is made in accordance with a rigid etiquette. +The infusion is stirred with a whisk in a rudely +fashioned bowl, holding about a pint, and passed from +one guest to another. The bowls are of very thick pottery, +never of porcelain, and the most valued kind is that made in +Korea. In the drinking of rice spirit (saké) in Japan small wide +shallow cups are used, made generally of porcelain, but sometimes +of finely lacquered wood. Both kinds are usually ornamented +with elaborate and sometimes allusive designs.</p> + +<p>Among savage races the most peculiar drinking ceremony is +that of kava drinking in Polynesia, principally in the Fijian, +Tongan and Samoan groups. The best description +of the process is given in Mariner’s <i>Tonga</i>. The +<span class="sidenote">Savage utensils.</span> +principal vessel is usually a large bowl, sometimes +measuring 2 or 3 ft. in diameter, cut from a solid block of wood. +It has four short legs and an ear at one side to which a rope of +coco-nut fibre is generally attached. The liquid is prepared in +this bowl and ladled out in small cups often made of coco-nut +shells, and these are handed round with great ceremony. Both +the bowl and the cups become coated in the inside with a highly +polished layer, pale blue in colour; but this beautiful tint fades +when the vessel is out of use, and it is therefore very rarely seen +in specimens in Europe. The kava itself is prepared from the +root of a tree of the pepper family (<i>Piper methysticum</i>); the +root is cut into pieces of a convenient size, and these are given +to young men and women of the company, who masticate them, +and the lumps thus shredded are placed in the large bowl, water +is poured over them, and the mass is strained with great care by +wringing it in strips of the inner bark of the <i>hibiscus</i>. The liquor +is slightly intoxicating.</p> + +<p>If the Polynesian method of preparing kava as a drink is +distasteful to our ideas, the favourite drinking bowl of the old +Tibetans is even more so. Friar Odoric (14th century), quoted +by Yule, describes how the Tibetan youth “takes his father’s +head and straightway cooks and eats it, and of the skull he makes +a goblet from which he and all his family always drink devoutly +to the memory of the deceased father.” This recalls Livy’s +account of the Boii in Upper Italy, who made a drinking vessel +of the head of the Roman consul Postumus. Among the +Tibetans skulls are still used, but generally for libations only; +for this purpose great care is exercised in the selection of the +skull, and the “points” of a good skull are well understood by +the Lamas.</p> +<div class="author">(C. H. Rd.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The verb “to drink” is Common Teut.; cf. Ger. <i>trinken</i>, &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2c" id="ft2c" href="#fa2c"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Plate</a></span>, Plate I.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3c" id="ft3c" href="#fa3c"><span class="fn">3</span></a> See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Plate</a></span>, Plate I.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4c" id="ft4c" href="#fa4c"><span class="fn">4</span></a> For two illustrations see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Plate</a></span>, Plate II.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DRIPSTONE,<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> in architecture, a projecting moulding weathered +on the upper surface and throated underneath so as to form a +drip. The term is more correctly applied to a string course. +When carried round an arch its more correct description would +be a hood (<i>q.v.</i>). When employed inside a building it serves +a decorative purpose only.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DRISLER, HENRY<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> (1818-1897), American classical scholar, +was born on the 27th of December 1818, on Staten Island, New +York. He graduated at Columbia College in 1839, taught classics +in the Columbia grammar school for four years, and was then +appointed tutor in classics in the college. In 1845 he became +adjunct professor of Latin and Greek there, in 1857 was appointed +to the new separate chair of Latin language and literature, and +ten years later succeeded Dr Charles Anthon as Jay professor +of Greek language and literature. He was acting president in +1867 and in 1888-1889, and from 1890 to his retirement as +professor emeritus in 1894 was dean of the school of arts. He +died in New York City on the 30th of November 1897. Dr +Drisler completed and supplemented Dr Anthon’s labours as +an editor of classical texts. His criticisms and corrections of +Liddell and Scott’s <i>Greek-English Lexicon</i>, of which he brought +out a revised American edition in 1846, won his name a place on +the title-page of the British edition in 1879, and in 1870 he +published a revised and enlarged edition of Yonge’s <i>English-Greek +Lexicon</i>. He was ardently opposed to slavery, and +brilliantly refuted <i>The Bible View of Slavery</i>, written by Bishop +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page585" id="page585"></a>585</span> +J. H. Hopkins of Vermont, in a <i>Reply</i> (1863), which meets the +bishop on purely Biblical ground and displays the wide range of +Dr Drisler’s scholarship.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DRIVER, SAMUEL ROLLES<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (1846-  ), English divine +and Hebrew scholar, was born at Southampton on the 2nd of +October 1846. He was educated at Winchester and New College, +Oxford, where he had a distinguished career, taking a first class +in Literae Humaniores in 1869. He was awarded the Pusey and +Ellerton scholarship in 1866, the Kennicott scholarship in 1870 +(both Hebrew), and the Houghton Syriac prize in 1872. From +1870 he was a fellow, and from 1875 also a tutor, of New College, +and in 1883 succeeded Pusey as regius professor of Hebrew and +canon of Christ Church. He was a member of the Old Testament +Revision Committee (1876-1884) and examining chaplain to the +bishop of Southwell (1884-1904); received the honorary degrees +of doctor of literature of Dublin (1892), doctor of divinity of +Glasgow (1901), doctor of literature of Cambridge (1905); and +was elected a fellow of the British Academy in 1902. Dr Driver +devoted his life to the study, both textual and critical, of the +Old Testament. Among his numerous works are commentaries +on Joel and Amos (1897); Deuteronomy (1902); Daniel (1901); +Genesis (1909); the Minor Prophets, Nahum to Malachi (1905); +Job (1905); Jeremiah (1906); Leviticus (1894 Hebrew text, +1898 trans. and notes); Samuel (Hebrew text, 1890). Among +his more general works are: <i>Treatise on the Use of the Tenses in +Hebrew</i> (1892); <i>Isaiah, his Life and Times</i> (1893); <i>Introd. to +the Literature of the Old Test.</i> (1897, ed. 1909); <i>Sermons on Subjects +connected with the Old Testament</i> (1892); <i>The Parallel Psalter</i> +(1904); <i>Heb. and Eng. Lexicon of the O.T.</i> (in collaboration, +1906); <i>Modern Research as illustrating the Bible</i> (1909); articles +in the <i>Ency. Brit.</i>, <i>Ency. Bibl.</i> and Hastings’ <i>Dict. of the Bible</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DRIVING<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> (from “to drive,” <i>i.e.</i> generally to propel, force +along or in, a word common in various forms to the Teutonic +languages), a word used in a restricted sense for the art of controlling +and directing draught animals from a coach or other +conveyance or movable machine to which they are harnessed +for the purpose of traction. This has been an occupation practised +since domesticated animals were first put to this use. In +various parts of the world a number of different animals have +been, and still are, so employed; of these the horse, ox, mule +and ass are the most common, though their place is taken by +the reindeer in northern latitudes, and by the Eskimo dog in +arctic and antarctic regions. The driving of each of these +requires special skill, only to be acquired by practice combined +with knowledge of the characteristics peculiar to the several +animals employed. The most accomplished driver of spirited +horses would probably be in difficulties if called upon to drive +sixteen or twenty dogs in an arctic sledge, or a team of oxen +or mules drawing the guns of a mountain battery; and the adept +in either of these branches of the art might provoke the compassion +of a farmer from Lincolnshire or Texas by his attempts +to manage a pair of Clydesdale horses in the plough or the +reaping machine.</p> + +<p>Under all these different conditions driving is a work of +utility, of economic value to civilized society. But from very +early times driving, especially of horses, has also been regarded +as a sport or pastime. This probably arose in the first instance +from its association with battle. In the earliest historical +records, such as the Old Testament and the Homeric poems, +the driver of the chariot fills a place of importance in the economy +of war; and on his skill and efficiency the fate of kings, and even +of kingdoms, must often have depended. The statement in the +Book of Kings that Jehu the son of Nimshi was recognized from +a distance by his style of driving appears to indicate that the +warrior himself on occasion took the place of the professional +charioteer; and although it would be unsafe to infer from the +story that the pleasure derived from the occupation was his +motive for doing so, the name of this king of Israel has become +the eponym of drivers. Among the Greeks at an equally early +period driving was a recognized form of sport, to the popularity +of which Horace afterwards made allusion. Racing between +teams of horses harnessed to war-chariots took the place occupied +by saddle-horse racing and American trotting races (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Horse-Racing</a></span>) +in the sport of modern times. The element of danger +doubtless gave pleasurable excitement to chariot racing and +kept alive its association with incidents familiar in war; just +as at a later period, when the institution of chivalry had given +the armed knight on horseback a conspicuous place in medieval +warfare, the tournament became the most popular sport of the +aristocracy throughout Europe.</p> + +<p>This element of danger cannot be said to enter usually into +the enjoyment of driving at the present day. Though accidents +occasionally happen, the pastime is practically unattended by +serious risk; and the source of the pleasure it affords the driver +must be sought in the skill it requires, combined with the love +of the horse which is common to sportsmen, and of exercise of +power. The art of driving as practised to-day for pleasure +without profit, and without the excitement of racing, is of quite +modern development. Oliver Cromwell, indeed, met with a +mishap in Hyde Park while driving a team of four horses presented +to him by the count of Oldenburg, which was the subject +of more than one satirical allusion by contemporary royalist +writers; but two things were needed before much enjoyment +could be found in driving apart from utility. These were the +invention of carriages on springs, and the construction of roads +with smooth and solid surface. The former did not come into +general use till near the end of the 18th century, and it was +about the same period that the engineering skill of Thomas +Telford and the invention of John London Macadam combined +to provide the latter. The influence on driving of these two +developments was soon apparent. Throughout the 18th century +stage-coaches, ponderous unwieldy vehicles without springs, +had toiled slowly over rough and deeply rutted tracks as a +means of communication between different parts of Great +Britain; but those who made use of them did so as a matter +of necessity and not for enjoyment. But by the beginning +of the 19th century the improvement in carriage-building +and road-construction alike had greatly diminished the discomfort +of travel; and interest in driving for its own sake grew +so rapidly that in 1807 the first association of amateur coachmen +was formed. This was the Bensington Driving Club, the forerunner +of many aristocratic clubs for gentlemen interested in +driving as a pastime.</p> + +<p>In modern driving one, two or four horses are usually employed. +When a greater number than four is put in harness, as +in the case of the state equipages of royal personages on occasions +of ceremony, the horses are not driven but are controlled by +“postillions” mounted on the near-side horse of each pair. +When two horses are used they may either be placed side by +side, in “double harness,” which is the commoner mode of driving +a pair of horses, or one following the other, in a “tandem.” +Four horses, or “four-in-hand,” are harnessed in two pairs, +one following the other, and called respectively the “leaders” +and the “wheelers”—the same terms being used for the two +horses of a tandem.</p> + +<p>Though it is a less difficult accomplishment to drive a single +horse than a tandem or four-in-hand, or even a pair, it nevertheless +requires both knowledge and the skill that practice alone +confers. The driver should have some knowledge of equine +character, and complete familiarity with every part of the +harness he uses, and with the purpose which each buckle or +strap is intended to serve. The indefinable quality known +in horsemanship as “good hands” is scarcely less desirable +on the box-seat than in the saddle. It is often said to be unattainable +by those who do not possess it by nature; but though +this may be true to some extent, “good hands” are partly at +least the result of learning the correct position for the arm and +hand that holds the reins. The reins are held in the left hand, +which should be kept at about the level of the lowest button +of the driver’s waistcoat, and near the body though not pressed +against it. The driving hand should never be reached forward +more than a few inches, nor raised as high as the breast. The +upper arm should lie loosely against the side, the forearm horizontal +across the front of the body, forming a right angle or +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page586" id="page586"></a>586</span> +thereabouts at the elbow-joint, the wrist very slightly bent inwards, +and the back of the hand and knuckles facing outwards +towards the horses. In this position the three joints of the arm +form a kind of automatic spring that secures the “give” to the +movement of the horse’s mouth which, in conjunction with +firmness, is a large part of what is meant by “good hands.” +But this result is only obtained if the reins be also held with +the proper degree of bearing on the bit. What the proper degree +may be depends greatly on the character of the horses and the +severity of the bit. Pulling horses must be restrained by a +strong draw on their bits, such as would bring other animals +to a standstill. But under no circumstances, no matter how +sluggish the horses may be, should the reins be allowed to lie +slack; for if this is done the horse receives no support in the +event of a sudden stumble, and no control if he shies unexpectedly. +The driver should therefore always just “feel his +horse’s mouth” as lightly as possible; he then has the animal +well under control in readiness for every emergency, while +avoiding such a pull on the mouth as would cause a high-spirited +horse to chafe and fret. Well-broken carriage horses should +always be willing to run into their bits, and those that draw +back when lightly held in hand should be kept up to the bit +with the whip.</p> + +<p>These principles are common to all branches of the art of +driving, whether of one, two or four horses. When they are +observed no great difficulty confronts the coachman who is +content with single or double harness, provided he has acquired +the eye for pace and distance, and the instinctive realization +of the length of the carriage behind him, without which he may +suffer collision with other vehicles, or allow insufficient room in +turning a corner or entering a gateway. For before he can have +had the practice by which alone this knowledge is to be gained, +the beginner will have learnt such elementary facts as that his +horses must be held well in hand going down hill and given +their heads on an ascent, and that on no account should the +horse’s mouth be “jobbed” by the driver jerking the reins; +he will also have learnt a good deal about the character and +temperament of the horse, on which so much of the art of driving +depends, and which can best be studied on the box-seat and +not at all in the library. If he has pursued this study with any +degree of insight, he will have learnt further to be sparing in +the use of the hand-brake with which most modern carriages are +provided. This apparatus is most useful in case of emergency, +or for taking weight off the carriage on a really steep descent; +but the habit which too many coachmen fall into of using the +brake on every trifling decline should be avoided. Its effect +is that the horses are continually doing collar-work, and are +thus deprived of the relief which ought to be given them by +occasional light pole or shaft work instead.</p> + +<p>When the ambition of the amateur coachman leads him to +attempt a tandem or four-in-hand he enters on a much more +complex department of the art of driving. In the +first place he has now four reins instead of two to +<span class="sidenote">Tandem and four-in-hand.</span> +manipulate, and the increase of weight on his hand, +especially when four horses are being driven, requires +considerable strength of wrist to support it without tiring. It is +of the first importance, moreover, that he should know instinctively +the position in his hand of each of the reins, and be able +automatically and instantaneously to lay a finger on any one of +them. The driver who has to look at his reins to find the off-side +leader’s rein, or who touches the near-side wheeler’s in mistake +for it, is in peril of a catastrophe. It is therefore essential that +the reins should be correctly disposed between the fingers of +the left hand, and that the driver should as quickly as possible +accustom himself to handle them automatically. This is somewhat +more difficult in driving tandem than in driving four-in-hand, +because in the latter case there is greater spread of the +reins in front of the hand than with tandem, where the reins lie +much more nearly parallel one above the other. The actual +holding of the reins is the same in both cases. The coachman +should be careful to take the reins in his hand before mounting +to the box-seat, as otherwise his team may make a start without +his having the means to control them. It is customary to hitch +the reins, ready for him to take them, on the outside terret (the +ring on the pad through which the rein runs) of the wheeler—the +off-side wheeler in four-in-hand. Standing on the ground +beside the off-side wheel of his carriage, ready to mount to the +box-seat, the coachman, after drawing up his reins till he almost +feels the horses’ mouths, must then let out about a foot of slack +in his off-side reins, in order that when on his seat he may find +all the reins as nearly as possible equal in length in his hand. +He mounts with them disposed in his right hand precisely as they +will be in his left when ready to start. The leaders’ reins should +be separated by the forefinger, and the wheelers’ by the middle +finger. The near-leader’s rein will then be uppermost of the +four, between the forefinger and thumb; then between the +forefinger and middle finger are two reins together—the off-leader’s +and the near-wheeler’s in the order named; while at +the bottom, between the middle and third fingers, is the off-wheeler’s +rein. It will be found that held thus the reins spread +immediately in front of the hand in such a way that each several +rein, and each pair of reins—two near-side, two off-side, two +wheelers’ or two leaders’—can be conveniently manipulated; +and the proficient driver can instinctively and instantaneously +grasp any of them he chooses with his right hand without having +to turn his eyes from the road before him to the reins in his hand. +Having seated himself on the box and transferred the reins, thus +disposed, from the right to the left hand, the coachman should +shorten them till he just feels his wheelers’ mouths and holds +back his leaders sufficiently to prevent them quite tightening +their traces; then, when he has taken the whip from its socket +in his right hand, he is ready to start. This is an operation +requiring careful management, to secure that leaders and +wheelers start simultaneously; for if the leaders start first they +will be drawn up sharp by their bits, or, what is worse, if their +reins have not been sufficiently shortened they will jump into +their collars and possibly break a swinging bar, and in either case +they will be fretted and disconcerted and will possibly in consequence +either kick or rear; if the wheelers start before the +leaders they will ram the swinging bars under the tails of the +latter, with results equally unfortunate. The worst possible +method of starting is suddenly to give the horses their heads and +use the whip. But no positive rule can be laid down, for it is +just one of those points which depend largely on familiarity +with the horses forming the team. Horses even moderately +accustomed to the work will generally start best in obedience +to the voice, and their attention may simultaneously be aroused +by gently feeling their mouths. When once started the driver +should at once see that his team is going straight. If the leaders +and wheelers are not exactly on the same line, this or that rein +must be shortened or lengthened as the case may require; and +it is to be noticed that as the near-wheeler’s and off-leader’s +reins lie together between the same fingers, a simultaneous +shortening or lengthening of these two reins will usually produce +the desired result. With rare exceptions, reins should be +shortened or lengthened by pushing them back or drawing them +forward with the right hand from in front of the driving hand, +and not from behind it. As soon as the team is in motion the +leaders may be let out till they draw their traces taut; but +draught should be taken off them on falling ground or while +rounding a corner. Good drivers touch the reins as little as +possible with the whip-hand, and nothing is less workmanlike +than for a coachman to act as if he were an angler continually +letting out or reeling in his line. In rounding a corner a loop of +an inch or two of the leaders’ rein on the side to which the turn +is to be made is taken up by the right hand and placed under +the left thumb. This “points the leaders,” who accordingly +make the required turn, while at the same time the right hand +bears lightly on the wheelers’ rein of the opposite side, to prevent +them making the turn too sharply for safety to the coach behind +them. As soon as the turn is made—and all this applies equally +to the passing of other vehicles or obstacles on the road—the +driver’s left thumb releases the loop, which runs out of itself, +and the team returns to the straight formation. A circumstance +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page587" id="page587"></a>587</span> +useful to bear in mind is that the swinging bars are wider than +the maximum width of the coach; consequently the driver +knows that wherever the swinging bars can pass through with +safety—and as they are before his eyes the calculation is easy—the +coach will safely follow.</p> + +<p>A necessary part of driving four horses or tandem is the proper +use of the whip. The novice, before beginning to drive, should +acquire the knack—which can only be learnt by +practical instruction and experiment—of catching +<span class="sidenote">The use of the whip.</span> +up the thong of the whip on to the stick by a flick +of the wrist. With practice this is done almost automatically +and without looking at the whip. It is not merely an ornamental +accomplishment, but a necessary one; for in no other way can +the whip be kept in constant readiness for use either on wheelers +or leaders as the need of the moment may dictate. The point +of the thong is confined in the whip-hand when striking the +wheelers (which should be done in front of the pad), and is +released for reaching the leaders. Considerable dexterity is +required in using the whip on the leaders without at the same +time touching, or at all events alarming or fretting, the wheelers. +The thong of the whip should reach the leaders from beneath +the swinging bar; and proficient “whips” can unerringly strike +even the near leader from under the off-side bar without disturbing +the equanimity of any other member of the team. This +demands great skill and accuracy; but no coachman is competent +to drive four horses until he is able to touch with the whip any +particular horse that may require it, and no other.</p> + +<p>Essential as is proficiency in the use of the whip when driving +four horses, it is even more imperative for the driver of tandem. +For in four-in-hand the leaders act in some measure as a restraint +upon each other’s freedom of action, whereas the leader in +tandem is entirely independent and therefore more difficult to +control. If he takes it into his head to turn completely round +and face the driver, there is no effectual means of preventing +him. It is here that a prompt and accurate use of the whip is +important. A sharp cut with the thong of the whip on the side +to which he is turning will often drive the leader back into his +place. But it must be done instantaneously, and the driver +who has got his thong coiled round the stick of his whip, or who +cannot make certain of striking the horse on precisely the +desired spot, will miss the opportunity and may find his team +in a sad mess, possibly with disastrous results. If the leader, +in spite of a stroke from the whip at the right moment and on the +right spot, still persists in turning, the only thing to be done is +to turn the wheeler also; and then when the tandem has been +straightened, to turn the horses back once more to their original +direction. For this reason it is never safe to harness a tandem +to a four-wheeled vehicle; because if it should be necessary to +turn the wheeler sharply round, the fore-carriage would probably +lock and the trap be overturned. Of comparatively recent years +a great improvement has been effected in the harnessing of a +tandem by the introduction of swinging bars similar to those +used in four-in-hand. Formerly the leading traces in tandem +drew direct from tugs on the wheeler’s hames, or less frequently +from the stops on the shafts. This left a considerable length +of trace which, when draught was taken off the leader, hung +slack between the two horses; with the result that either of +them might get a leg over the leading trace, with dangerous +consequences. In the more modern arrangement short traces +attached to the wheeler’s tugs hold a bar, which is kept in place +by a few inches of chain from the kidney-link on the wheeler’s +collar. This bar is connected by short traces or chains with +a second bar to which the leader’s true traces are hooked in the +usual way, allowing him a comfortable distance clear of the bar +precisely as in four-in-hand. The leader thus draws as before +from the wheeler’s tugs; but the length of trace is broken up +by the two swinging bars, and as these are prevented from +falling low by their attachment to the wheeler’s collar, the +danger from a too slack leading trace is reduced to a minimum; +though care is needed when the leader is not pulling to prevent +the bar falling on his hocks.</p> + +<p>Expert tandem driving, owing to the greater freedom of the +leader from control, is a more difficult art than the driving of +four horses, in spite of the fact that the weight on the hand is +much less severe; but the general principles of the two are the +same. In Great Britain, however, the coach-and-four is the more +popular. It is more showy than tandem; it keeps alive the +romantic associations of the days when the stagecoach was the +ordinary means of locomotion; and a coach, or “drag,” accommodates +a larger party of passengers to a race-meeting or other +expedition for pleasure than a dogcart. But for those whose +means do not permit the more costly luxury of a four-horse +team, a tandem will be found to make all the demand on skill +and nerve which, in combination with the taste for horses, +makes the art of driving a source of enjoyment.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Donald Walker, <i>British Manly Exercises: in which Riding, +Driving, Racing are now first described</i> (London, 1834); Fuller, <i>Essay +on Wheel Carriages</i> (London, 1828); William Bridges Adams, +<i>English Pleasure Carriages: their Origin, History, Materials, Construction</i> +(London, 1837); <i>The Equestrian: A Handbook of Horsemanship, +containing Plain Rules for Riding, Driving and the Management +of the Horse</i> (London, 1854); a Cavalry Officer, <i>The Handy Horse +Book; or Practical Instruction in Driving and the Management of the +Horse</i> (London, 1865-1867, 1871-1881); H. J. Helm, <i>American +Roadsters and Trotting Horses</i> (Chicago, 1878); E. M. Stratton, +<i>The World on Wheels</i> (New York, 1878); J. H. Walsh (“Stonehenge”), +<i>Riding and Driving</i> (London, 1863); James A. Garland, +<i>The Private Stable</i> (2nd ed., Boston, 1902); the Duke of Beaufort, +<i>Driving</i> (The Badminton Library, London, 1889), containing a +bibliography; F. H. Huth, <i>Works on Horses and Equitation: A +Bibliographical Record of Hippology</i> (London, 1887).</p> +</div><div class="author">(R. J. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DROGHEDA<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span>, a municipal borough, seaport and market town, +on the southern border of Co. Louth, Ireland, in the south +parliamentary division, on the river Boyne, about 4 m. from its +mouth in Drogheda Bay, and 31½ m. N. by W. from Dublin on +the Great Northern main line. Pop. (1901) 12,760. It occupies +both banks of the river; but the northern division is the larger +of the two, and has received greater attention in modern times. +The ancient fortifications, still extant in the beginning of the +19th century, have disappeared almost entirely, but of the four +gateways one named after St Lawrence remains nearly perfect, +consisting of two loopholed circular towers; and there are +considerable ruins of another, the West or Butler Gate. Among +the public buildings are a mansion-house or mayoralty, with a +suite of assembly rooms attached; and the Tholsel, a square +building with a cupola. St Peter’s chapel formerly served as +the cathedral of the Roman Catholic archbishopric of Armagh; +and in the abbey of the Dominican nuns there is still preserved +the head of Oliver Plunkett, the archbishop who was executed +at Tyburn in 1681 on an unfounded charge of treason. There +was formerly an archiepiscopal palace in the town, built by +Archbishop Hampton about 1620; and the Dominicans, the +Franciscans, the Augustinians, the Carmelites and the knights +of St John have monastic establishments. Of the Dominican +monastery (1224) there still exists the stately Magdalen tower; +while of the Augustinian abbey of St Mary d’Urso (1206) there +are the tower and a fine pointed arch. At the head of the educational +institutions there is a classical school endowed by Erasmus +Smith. There is also a blue-coat school, founded about 1727 +for the education of freemen’s sons. The present building was +erected in 1870. Benjamin Whitworth, M.P., was a generous +benefactor to the town, who built the Whitworth Hall, furnished +half the funds for the construction of waterworks, established +a cotton factory, and is commemorated by a statue in the Mall. +The industrial establishments comprise cotton, flax and flour +mills, sawmills, tanneries, salt and soap works, breweries, +chemical manure and engineering works. The town is the +headquarters of the valuable Boyne salmon-fishery. A brisk +trade is carried on mainly in agricultural produce, especially +with Liverpool (which is distant 135 m. due E.) and with Glasgow. +Many works of improvement have been effected from time to +time in the harbour, the quays of which occupy both sides of the +river, the principal, 1000 yds. in length, being on the north side. +Here is a depth of 21 ft. at the highest and 14 ft. at the lowest +tides. The tide reaches 2½ m. above the town to Oldbridge; +and barges of 50 tons burden can proceed 19 m. inland to Navan. +The river is crossed by a bridge for ordinary traffic, and by a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page588" id="page588"></a>588</span> +fine railway viaduct. The town is governed by a mayor, 6 +aldermen and 18 councillors.</p> + +<p>In the earliest notices the town of Drogheda is called Inver-Colpa +or the Port of Colpa; the present name signifies “The +Bridge over the Ford.” In 1152 the place is mentioned as the +seat of a synod convened by the papal legate, Cardinal Paparo; +in 1224 it was chosen by Lucas de Netterville, archbishop of +Armagh, for the foundation of the Dominican friary of which +there are still remains; and in 1228 the two divisions of the +town received separate incorporation from Henry III. But +there grew up a strong feeling of hostility between Drogheda +<i>versus Uriel</i> and Drogheda <i>versus Midiam</i>, in consequence of +trading vessels lading their cargoes in the latter or southern +town, to avoid the pontage duty levied in the former or northern +town. At length, after much blood had been shed in the dispute, +Philip Bennett, a monk residing in the town, succeeded by his +eloquence, on the festival of Corpus Christi, 1412, in persuading +the authorities of the two corporations to send to Henry IV. +for a new charter sanctioning their combination, and this was +granted on the 1st of November. Drogheda was always considered +by the English a place of much importance. In the reign +of Edward III. it was classed along with Dublin, Waterford and +Kilkenny as one of the four staple towns of Ireland. Richard II. +received in its Dominican monastery the submissions of O’Neal, +O’Donnell and other chieftains of Ulster and Leinster. The +right of coining money was bestowed on the town, and parliaments +were several times held within its walls. In the reign +of Edward IV. the mayor received a sword of state and an +annuity of £20, in recognition of the services rendered by the +inhabitants at Malpus Bridge against O’Reilly; the still greater +honour of having a university with the same privileges as that +of Oxford remained a mere paper distinction, owing to the +poverty of the town and the unsettled state of the country; +and an attempt made by the corporation in modern times to +resuscitate their rights proved unsuccessful. In 1495 Poyning’s +laws were enacted by a parliament held in the town. In the +civil wars of 1641 the place was besieged by O’Neal and the +Northern Irish forces; but it was gallantly defended by Sir +Henry Tichbourne, and after a long blockade was relieved by +the Marquess of Ormond. The same nobleman relieved it a +second time, when it was invested by the Parliamentary army +under Colonel Jones. In 1649 it was captured by Cromwell, +after a short though spirited defence; and nearly every individual +within its walls, without distinction of age or sex, was put to +the sword. Thirty only escaped, who were afterwards transported +as slaves to Barbados. In 1690 it was garrisoned by +King James’s army; but after the decisive battle of the Boyne +(<i>q.v.</i>) it surrendered to the conqueror without a struggle, in +consequence of a threat that quarter would not be granted if +the town were taken by storm.</p> + +<p>Drogheda ceased to be a parliamentary borough in 1885, +and a county of a town in 1898. Before 1885 it returned one +member, and before the Union in 1800 it returned four members +to the Irish parliament.</p> + +<p>From the close of the 12th century, certainly long before the +Reformation and for some time after it, the primates of Ireland +lived in Drogheda. Being mostly Englishmen, they preferred +to reside in the portion of their diocese within the gate, and +Drogheda, being a walled town, was less liable to attack from +the natives. From 1417 onwards Drogheda was their chief +place of residence and of burial. Its proximity to Dublin, the +seat of government and of the Irish parliament, in which the +primates were such prominent figures, induced them to prefer +it to <i>Ardmacha inter Hibernicos</i>. Archbishop O’Scanlain, who +did much in the building of the cathedral at Armagh, preferred +to live at Drogheda, and there he was buried in 1270. Near +Drogheda in later times was the primates’ castle and summer +palace at Termonfeckin, some ruins of which remain. In +Drogheda itself there is now not a vestige of the palace, except +the name “Palace Street.” It stood at the corner of the main +street near St Lawrence’s gate, and its grounds extended back +to St Peter’s church. The primates of the 15th century were +buried in or near Drogheda. After the Reformation five in +succession lived in Drogheda and there were buried, though +there is now nothing to fix the spot where any of them lies. The +last of these—Christopher Hampton—who was consecrated to +the primacy in 1613, repaired the ruined cathedral of Armagh. +He built a new and handsome palace at Drogheda, and he +repaired the old disused palace at Armagh and bestowed on it a +demesne of 300 acres.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DROIT<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (Fr. for “right,” from Lat. <i>directus</i>, straight), a legal +title, claim or due; a term used in English law in the phrase +<i>droits of admiralty</i>, certain customary rights or perquisites +formerly belonging to the lord high admiral, but now to the crown +for public purposes and paid into the exchequer. These <i>droits</i> +(see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wreck</a></span>) consisted of flotsam, jetsam, ligan, treasure, +deodand, derelict, within the admiral’s jurisdiction; all fines, +forfeitures, ransoms, recognizances and pecuniary punishments; +all sturgeons, whales, porpoises, dolphins, grampuses and such +large fishes; all ships and goods of the enemy coming into any +creek, road or port, by durance or mistake; all ships seized +at sea, salvage, &c., with the share of prizes—such shares being +afterwards called “tenths,” in imitation of the French, who +gave their admiral a <i>droit de dixième</i>. The <i>droits of admiralty</i> +were definitely surrendered for the benefit of the public by Prince +George of Denmark, when lord high admiral of England in 1702. +American law does not recognize any such <i>droits</i>, and the disposition +of captured property is regulated by various acts of +Congress.</p> + +<p>The term <i>droit</i> is also used in various legal connexions (for +<i>French law</i>, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">France</a></span>: <i>Law</i>), such as the <i>droit</i> of angary (<i>q.v.</i>), +the <i>droit d’achat</i> (right of pre-emption) in the case of contraband +(<i>q.v.</i>), the feudal <i>droit de bris</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wreck</a></span>), the <i>droit de régale</i> or +ancient royal privilege of claiming the revenues and patronage +of a vacant bishopric, and the feudal droits of seignory generally.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DROITWICH,<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> a market town and municipal borough in the +Droitwich parliamentary division of Worcestershire, England, +5½ m. N.N.E. of Worcester, and 126 m. N.W. by W. from London +by the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 4201. It is served +by the Bristol-Birmingham line of the Midland railway, and by +the Worcester-Shrewsbury line of the Great Western. It stands +on the river Salwarpe, an eastern tributary of the Severn. There +is connexion with the Severn by canal. There are three parish +churches, St Andrew, St Peter and St Michael, of which the two +first are fine old buildings in mixed styles, while St Michael’s +is modern. The principal occupation is the manufacture of the +salt obtained from the brine springs or <i>wyches</i>, to which the +town probably owes both its name and its origin. The springs +also give Droitwich a considerable reputation as a health resort. +There are Royal Brine baths, supplied with water of extreme +saltness, St Andrew’s baths, and a private bath hospital. The +water is used in cases of gout, rheumatism and kindred diseases. +Owing to the pumping of the brine for the salt-works there is a +continual subsidence of the ground, detrimental to the buildings, +and new houses are mostly built in the suburbs. In the pleasant +well-wooded district surrounding Droitwich the most noteworthy +points are Hindlip Hall, 3 m. S., where (in a former mansion) +some of the conspirators in the Gunpowder Plot defied search +for eight days (1605); and Westwood, a fine hall of Elizabethan +and Carolean date on the site of a Benedictine nunnery, a mile +west of Droitwich, which offered a retreat to many Royalist +cavaliers and churchmen during the Commonwealth. Droitwich +is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, +1856 acres.</p> + +<p>A Roman villa, with various relics, has been discovered here, +but it is doubtful how far the Romans made use of the brine +springs. Droitwich (<i>Wic</i>, <i>Salturic</i>, <i>Wich</i>) probably owed its +origin to the springs, which are mentioned in several charters +before the Conquest. At the time of the Domesday Survey all +the salt springs belonged to the king, who received from them a +yearly farm of £65, but the manor was divided between several +churches and tenants-in-chief. The burgesses of Droitwich are +mentioned in the Domesday Survey, but they probably only +had certain franchises in connexion with the salt trade. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page589" id="page589"></a>589</span> +town is first called a borough in the pipe roll of 2 Henry II., +when an aid of 20s. was paid, but the burgesses did not receive +their first charter until 1215, when King John granted them +freedom from toll throughout the kingdom and the privilege of +holding the town at a fee-farm of £100. The burgesses appear +to have had much difficulty in paying this large farm; in 1227 +the king pardoned twenty-eight marks of the thirty-two due as +tallage, while in 1237 they were £23 in arrears for the farm. +They continued, however, to pay the farm until the payment +gradually lapsed in the 18th century. In medieval times +Droitwich was governed by two bailiffs and twelve jurats, the +former being elected every year by the burgesses; Queen Mary +granted the incorporation charter in 1554 under the name of +the bailiffs and burgesses. James I. in 1625 granted another +and fuller charter, which remained the governing charter until +the Municipal Reform Act. King John’s charter granted the +burgesses a fair on the feast of SS. Andrew and Nicholas lasting +for eight days, but Edward III. in 1330 granted instead two fairs +on the vigil and day of St Thomas the Martyr and the vigil and +day of SS. Simon and Jude. Queen Mary granted three new +fairs, and James I. changed the market day from Monday +to Friday.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DRÔME,<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> a department in the south-east of France, formed of +parts of Dauphiné and Provence, and bounded W. by the Rhone, +which separates it from Ardèche, N. and N.E. by Isère, E. by +Hautes-Alpes, S.E. by Basses-Alpes, and S. by Vaucluse; +area 2533 sq. m.; pop. (1906) 297,270. Drôme is traversed +from east to west by numerous rivers of the Rhone basin, chief +among which are the Isère in the north, the Drôme in the centre +and the Aygues in the south. The left bank of the Rhone is +bordered by alluvial plains and low hills, but to the east of this +zone the department is covered to the extent of two-thirds of +its surface by spurs of the Alps, sloping down towards the west. +To the north of the Drôme lie the Vercors and the Royans, a +region of forest-clad ridges running uniformly north and south. +South of that river the mountain system is broken, irregular and +intersected everywhere by torrents. The most easterly portion +of the department, where it touches the mountains of the +Dévoluy, contains its culminating summit (7890 ft.). North +of the Isère stretches a district of low hills terminating on the +limits of the department in the Valloire, its most productive +portion. The climate, except in the valleys bordering the +Rhone, is cold, and winds blow incessantly. Snow is visible +on the mountain-tops during the greater part of the year.</p> + +<p>The agriculture of the department is moderately prosperous. +The main crops are wheat, which is grown chiefly on the banks +of the Isère and Rhone, oats and potatoes. Large flocks of sheep +feed on the pastures in the south; cattle-raising is carried on +principally in the north-east. Good wines, among which the +famous Hermitage growth ranks first, are grown on the hills and +plains near the Rhone and Drôme. Fruit culture is much +practised. Olives and figs are grown in the south; the cultivation +of mulberries and walnuts is more widely spread. In the +rearing of silkworms Drôme ranks high in importance among +French departments. The Montélimar district is noted for its +truffles, which are also found elsewhere in the department. +The mineral products of Drôme include lignite, blende, galena, +calamine, freestone, lime, cement, potter’s clay and kaolin. +Brick and tile works, potteries and porcelain manufactories +exist in several localities. The industries comprise flour-milling, +distilling, wood-sawing, turnery and dyeing. The chief textile +industry is the preparation and weaving of silk, which is carried +on in a number of towns. Woollen and cotton goods are also +manufactured. Leather working and boot-making, which are +carried on on a large scale at Romans, are important, and the +manufacture of machinery, hats, confectionery and paper +employs much labour. Drôme exports fruit, oil, cheese, wine, +wool, live stock and its manufactured articles; the chief import +is coal. It is served by the Paris-Lyon railway, and the Rhone +and Isère furnish over 100 m. of navigable waterway. The canal +de la Bourne, the only one in the department, is used for purposes +of irrigation only. Drôme is divided into the arrondissements +of Valence, Die, Montélimar and Nyons, comprising 29 cantons +and 379 communes. The capital is Valence, which is the seat of +a bishopric of the province of Avignon. The department forms +part of the académie (educational division) of Grenoble, where +its court of appeal is also located, and of the region of the +XIV. army corps.</p> + +<p>Besides Valence, the chief towns of the department are Die, +Montélimar, Crest and Romans (<i>qq.v.</i>). Nyons is a small industrial +town with a medieval bridge and remains of ramparts. Suze-la-Rousse +is dominated by a fine château with fortifications of the +12th and 14th centuries; in the interior the buildings are in +the Renaissance style. At St Donat there are remains of the +palace of the kings of Cisjuran Burgundy; though but little of +the building is of an earlier date than the 12th century, it is the +oldest example of civil architecture in France. The churches of +Léoncel, St Restitut and La Garde-Adhémar, all of Romanesque +architecture, are also of antiquarian interest. St Paul-Trois-Châteaux, +an old Roman town, once the seat of a bishopric, +has a Romanesque cathedral. At Grignan there are remains +of the Renaissance château where Madame de Sévigné died. +At Tain there is a sacrificial altar of <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 184.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DROMEDARY<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> (from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="dromas, dromados">δρομάς, δρομάδος</span>, running, +<span class="grk" title="dramein">δραμεῖν</span>, to run), a word applied to swift riding camels of either +the Arabian or the Bactrian species. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Camel</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DROMORE,<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> a market town of Co. Down, Ireland, in the west +parliamentary division, on the upper Lagan, 17½ m. S.W. of +Belfast by a branch of the Great Northern railway. Pop. of +urban district (1901) 2307. It is in the linen manufacturing +district. The town is of high antiquity, and was the seat of +a bishopric, which grew out of an abbey of Canons Regular +attributed to St Colman in the 6th century, and was united in +1842 to Down and Connor. The town and cathedral were wholly +destroyed during the insurrection of 1641, and the present church +was built by Bishop Jeremy Taylor in 1661, who is buried here, +as also is Thomas Percy, another famous bishop of the diocese, +who laid out the fine grounds of the palace. Remains of a castle +and earthworks are to be seen, together with a large rath or +encampment known as the Great Fort. The town gives its name +to a Roman Catholic diocese.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DROMOS<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> (Gr. for running-place), in architecture, the name +of the entrance passage leading down to the beehive tombs in +Greece, open to the air and enclosed between stone walls.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DRONE,<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> in music<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (corresponding to Fr. <i>bourdon</i>; Ger. +<i>Summer</i>, <i>Stimmer</i>, <i>Hummel</i>; Ital. <i>bordone</i>), the bass pipe or +pipes of the bagpipe, having no lateral holes and therefore giving +out the same note without intermission as long as there is wind +in the bag, thus forming a continuous pedal, or drone bass. +The drone consists of a jointed pipe having a cylindrical bore and +usually terminating in a bell. During the middle ages bagpipes +are represented in miniatures with conical drones,<a name="fa2d" id="fa2d" href="#ft2d"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and M. +Praetorius<a name="fa3d" id="fa3d" href="#ft3d"><span class="sp">3</span></a> gives a drawing of a bagpipe, which he calls <i>Grosser +Bock</i>, having two drones ending in a curved ram’s horn. The +drone pipe has, instead of a mouthpiece, a socket fitted with +a reed, and inserted into a stock or short pipe immovably fixed +in an aperture of the bag. The reed is of the kind known as +beating reed or <i>squeaker</i>, prepared by making a cut in the direction +of the circumference of the pipe and splitting back the reed from +the cut towards a joint or knot, thus leaving a flap or tongue +which vibrates or beats, alternately opening and closing the +aperture. The sound is produced by the stream of air forced +from the bag by the pressure of the performer’s arm causing the +reed tongue to vibrate over the aperture, thus setting the whole +column of air in vibration. Like all cylindrical pipes with reed +mouthpiece, the drone pipe has the acoustic properties of the +closed pipe and produces a note of the same pitch as that of an +open pipe twice its length. The conical drones mentioned above +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page590" id="page590"></a>590</span> +would, therefore, speak an octave higher than a cylindrical +drone of the same length. The drones are tuned by means of +sliding tubes at the joints.</p> + +<p>The drones of the old French <i>cornemuse</i> played in concert +with the <i>hautbois de Poitou</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bagpipe</a></span>), and differing from +the shepherd’s <i>cornemuse</i> or <i>chalémie</i>, formed an exception to +this method of construction, being furnished with double reeds +like that of the oboe. The drones of the musette and of the +union pipes of Ireland are also constructed on an altogether +different plan. Instead of having long cumbersome pipes, +pointing over the shoulder, the musette drones consist of a short +barrel containing lengths of tubing necessary for four or five +drones, reduced to the most compact form and resembling the +rackett (<i>q.v.</i>). The narrow bores are pierced longitudinally +through the thickness of the barrel in parallel channels communicating +with each other in twos or threes, and so arranged as to +provide the requisite length for each drone. The reeds are double +reeds all set in the wooden stock within the bag. By means +of regulating slides (called in English <i>regulators</i> and in French +<i>layettes</i>), which may be pushed up and down in longitudinal +grooves round the circumference of the barrel, the length of +each drone tube can be so regulated that a simple harmonic +bass consisting of the common chord is obtainable. In the +union pipes the drones are separate pipes having keys played +by the elbow, which correspond to the sliders in the musette +drone and produce the same kind of harmonic bass. The modern +Egyptian arghool consists of a kind of clarinet with a drone +attached to it by means of waxed thread; in this case the +beating reed of the drone is set in vibration directly by the +breath of the performer, who takes both mouthpieces into his +mouth, without the medium of a wind reservoir. Mersenne +gave very clear descriptions of the construction of cornemuse +and musette, with clear illustrations of the reeds and stock.<a name="fa4d" id="fa4d" href="#ft4d"><span class="sp">4</span></a> +There are allusions in the Greek classics which point to the +existence of a pipe with a drone, either of the arghool or the +bagpipe type.<a name="fa5d" id="fa5d" href="#ft5d"><span class="sp">5</span></a></p> +<div class="author">(K. S.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For the “drone,” the male of the honey bee, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bee</a></span>. The +musical sense, both for the noise made and for the instrument, comes +from the buzzing of the bee.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2d" id="ft2d" href="#fa2d"><span class="fn">2</span></a> British Museum, Add. MS. 12,228 (Italian work), <i>Roman du +Roy Meliadus</i>, 14th century, fol. 221 b., and Add. MS. 18,851, end +15th century (Spanish work illustrated by Flemish artists), fol. 13.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3d" id="ft3d" href="#fa3d"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Syntagma musicum. Theatrum instrumentorum</i>, pl. xi. No. 6.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4d" id="ft4d" href="#fa4d"><span class="fn">4</span></a> <i>L’Harmonie universelle</i> (Paris, 1636-1637), t. ii. bk. 5, pp. 282-287 +and p. 305.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5d" id="ft5d" href="#fa5d"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Plato, <i>Crito</i>, 54; Aristophanes, <i>Acharnians</i>, 865, where some +musicians are in derision dubbed “bumblebee pipers.” See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bagpipe</a></span>; +also Kathleen Schlesinger, “Researches into the Origin of +the Organs of the Ancients,” <i>Intern. mus. Ges.</i> vol. ii. (1901), Sammelband +ii. pp. 188-202.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DRONFIELD,<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> an urban district in the north-eastern parliamentary +division of Derbyshire, England, 6 m. S. of Sheffield, +on the Midland railway. Pop. (1901) 3809. It lies on the small +river Drone, a tributary of the Rother, in a busy industrial +district in which are numerous coal-mines, and there are iron +foundries and manufactures of tools and other iron and steel +goods. The church of St John the Baptist, with a lofty spire, +is a good example of Decorated work, with Perpendicular +additions.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DROPSY<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> (contracted from the old word <i>hydropisy</i>, derived +from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="udrôps">ὕδρωψ</span>; <span class="grk" title="udôr">ὕδωρ</span>, water, and <span class="grk" title="ôps">ὤψ</span>, appearance), the +name given to a collection of simple serous fluid in all or any of +the cavities of the body, or in the meshes of its tissues. Dropsy +of the subcutaneous connective tissue is termed <i>oedema</i> when +it is localized and limited in extent; when more diffuse it is +termed <i>anasarca</i>; the term <i>oedema</i> is also applied to dropsies +of some of the internal organs, notably to that of the lungs. +<i>Hydrocephalus</i> signifies an accumulation of fluid within the +ventricles of the brain or in the arachnoid cavity; <i>hydrothorax</i>, +a collection of fluid in one or both pleural cavities; <i>hydropericardium</i>, +in the pericardium; <i>ascites</i>, in the peritoneum; and, +when <i>anasarca</i> is conjoined with the accumulation of fluid in +one or more of the serous cavities, the dropsy is said to be +general (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pathology</a></span>).</p> + +<p>Dropsy (excluding “epidemic dropsy,” for which see below) +is essentially a symptom and not a specific disease, and is merely +an exaggeration of a certain state of health. Fluid, known as +lymph, is continually passing through the capillary walls into +the tissues, and in health this is removed as fast as it is exuded, +in one or more of three ways: part of it is used in the nutrition +of the tissues, part is returned to the general circulation by the +veins, and part by the lymphatics. Any accumulation constitutes +dropsy and is a sign of disease, though not a disease in +itself. The serous effusions due to inflammation are not included +under the term dropsy. A dropsical fluid varies considerably in +composition according to its position in the body, but varies +only slightly according to the disease which has given rise to +it. Its specific gravity ranges between 1008 and 1018; the +mineral salts present are the same and in about the same proportion +as those of blood, nor do they vary with the position of +the exudation. The quantity of albumin, however, depends much +on the position of the fluid, and slightly on the underlying +disease. In oedema the fluid contains only traces, whereas a +pleural or peritoneal effusion is always highly albuminous. +Also an effusion due to heart disease contains more albumin +than one due to kidney disease. In appearance it may be +colourless, greenish or reddish from the presence of blood pigment, +or yellowish from the presence of bile pigment; transparent or +opalescent or milky from the presence of fatty matter derived +from the chyle. The membrane from which the dropsical fluid +escapes is healthy, or at least not inflamed, and only somewhat +sodden by long contact with the fluid—the morbid condition +on which the transudation depends lying elsewhere.</p> + +<p>The simplest cause of dropsy is purely mechanical, blood +pressure being raised beyond a certain point owing to venous +obstruction. This may be due to thrombosis of a vein as in +phlegmasia dolens (white leg), retardation of venous circulation +as in varicose veins, or obstruction of a vein due to the pressure +of an aneurism or tumour. Cardiac and renal dropsy are more +complicated in origin, but cardiac dropsy is probably due to +diminished absorption, and renal dropsy, when unassociated +with heart failure, to increased exudation. But the starting +point of acute renal dropsy, of the dropsy sometimes occurring +in diabetes, and that of chlorosis is the toxic condition of the +blood. For accounts of the various local dropsies see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hydrocephalus</a></span>; +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ascites</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Liver</a></span>, &c.; general dropsy, or dropsy +which depends on causes acting on the system at large, is due +chiefly to diseases of the heart, kidneys or lungs, occasionally +on lardaceous disease, more rarely still on diabetes or one of the +anaemias.</p> + +<p>Broadly speaking, 50% of cases of general dropsy are due to +disease of the heart or aorta, and 25% to renal troubles. The +natural tendency of all diseases of the heart is to transfer the +blood pressure from the arteries to the veins, and, so soon as this +has reached a sufficient degree, dropsy in the form of local +<i>oedema</i> commences to appear at whatever may be the most +depending part of the body—the instep and ankle in the upright +position, the lower part of the back or the lungs if the patient +be in bed—and this tends gradually to increase till all the cavities +of the body are invaded by the serous accumulation. The +diseases of the lungs which produce dropsy are those which +obstruct the passage of the blood through them, such as emphysema +and fibrosis, and thus act precisely like disease of the +heart in transferring the blood pressure from the arteries to the +veins, inducing dropsy in exactly a similar manner. The dropsy +of renal disease is dependent for the most part on an excess of +exudation, due largely to an increase of arterial and cardiac +tension. This in its turn produces arterial thickening and +cardiac hypertrophy, which, if the case be sufficiently prolonged, +brings about a natural removal of the fluid. In kidney cases, +in the absence of cardiac disease, the dropsy will be found to +appear first about the loose cellular tissue surrounding the eyes, +where the vessels, turgid with watery blood, have less efficient +support. The dropsy of chlorosis is very similar to renal dropsy, +a toxic condition of blood being present in both; also other +forms of anaemia, as also hydraemia, tend to produce or assist +in the production of dropsical effusions.</p> + +<p>For the treatment of dropsy the reader is referred to the +articles on the several diseases of which it is a symptom. Briefly, +however, tapping of the abdomen or puncture of the legs are +constantly resorted to in severe cases. Dehydration by diet +is very valuable under certain circumstances when the dropsy +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page591" id="page591"></a>591</span> +is other than renal. And there is the routine treatment by +drugs, purgative, diaphoretic and diuretic as the symptoms of +the case may demand.</p> + +<p>It may be well to mention that there are certain affections +which may be termed <i>spurious dropsies</i>, such as <i>ovarian dropsy</i>, +which is only a cystic disease of the ovary; <i>hydrometria</i>, dropsy +of the uterus, due to inflammatory occlusion of the os uteri; +<i>hydronephrosis</i>, dropsy of the kidney, due to obstruction of the +ureter, and subsequent distension of these organs by serous +accumulations; other hollow organs may also be similarly +affected.</p> + +<p>Having no known relation to the preceding is <i>epidemic dropsy</i>, +the first recorded outbreak of which occurred in Calcutta in the +year 1877. It disappeared during the hot weather of the following +year, only to recur over a wider area in the cold months of 1878 +to 1879, and once again in the cold of 1879 to 1880. Since then +only isolated cases have been recorded in the immediate neighbourhood +of Calcutta, though epidemics have broken out in +other places both by land and sea. At the end of 1902 an +outbreak occurred in the Barisal gaol, Bengal, in which nearly +one-third of the cases ended fatally. Dropsy was an invariable +feature of the disease, and was either the first symptom or +occurred early. The lower limbs were first affected, trunk and +upper limbs later in severe cases, the face very rarely. It was +accompanied by pyrexia, gastro-enteritis, deep-seated pains in +limbs and body, and burning and pricking of the skin. Various +rashes appeared early in the attack, while eczema, desquamation +and even ulceration supervened later. Anaemia was very marked, +giving rise in Mauritius to the name of acute anaemic dropsy. +The duration of the disease was very variable, the limits being +three weeks and three months. Death was often sudden, +resulting chiefly from cardiac and respiratory complications. +The cause of the disease has remained obscure, but there is +reason to suppose that it was originally imported from the +Madras famine tracts.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DROPWORT,<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> in botany, the common name for a species of +<i>Spiraea</i>, <i>S. filipendula</i> (nat. ord. <i>Rosaceae</i>), found in dry pastures. +It is a perennial herb, with much divided radical leaves and an +erect stem 2 to 3 ft. high bearing a loose terminal inflorescence +of small white flowers, closely resembling those of the nearly +allied species <i>S. Ulmaria</i>, or meadowsweet.</p> + +<p>Water Dropwort, <i>Oenanthe crocata</i> (nat. ord. <i>Umbelliferae</i>), +is a tall herbaceous plant growing in marshes and ditches. The +stem, which springs from a cluster of thickened roots, is stout, +branched, hollow and 2 to 5 ft. high; the leaves are large and +pinnately divided, and the flowers are borne in a compound +umbel, the long rays bearing dense partial umbels of small +white flowers. The plant, which is very poisonous, is often +mistaken for celery.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DROSHKY<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> (Russ. <i>drozhki</i>, diminutive of <i>drogi</i>, a wagon), +a light four-wheeled uncovered carriage used in Russia. Properly +it consists of two pairs of wheels joined by a board. This +forms a seat for the passengers who sit sideways, while the driver +sits astride in front. The word <i>Droschke</i>, however, is applied +especially in Germany to light carriages generally which ply +for hire.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DROSTE-HÜLSHOFF, ANNETTE ELISABETH,<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> <span class="sc">Freiin von</span> +(1797-1848), German poet, was born at the family seat of +Hülshoff near Münster in Westphalia on the 10th of January +1797. Her early mental training was largely influenced by her +cousin, Clemens August, Freiherr von Droste zu Vischering, +who, as archbishop of Cologne, became notorious for his extreme +ultramontane views (see below); and she received a more +liberal education than in those days ordinarily fell to a woman’s +lot. After prolonged visits among the intellectual circles at +Coblenz, Bonn and Cologne, she retired to the estate of Ruschhaus +near Münster, belonging to her mother’s family. In 1841, +owing to delicate health, she went to reside in the house of her +brother-in-law, the well-known scholar, Joseph, Freiherr von +Lassberg (1770-1855), at Schloss Meersburg on the Lake of +Constance, where she met Levin Schücking (<i>q.v.</i>); and there +she died on the 24th of May 1848. Annette von Droste-Hülshoff +is, beyond doubt, the most gifted and original of German women +poets. Her verse is strong and vigorous, but often unmusical +even to harshness; one looks in vain for a touch of sentimentality +or melting sweetness in it. As a lyric poet, she is at her best +when she is able to attune her thoughts to the sober landscape +of the Westphalian moorlands of her home. Her narrative +poetry, and especially <i>Das Hospiz auf dem Grossen St Bernard</i> +and <i>Die Schlacht im Loener Bruch</i> (both 1838), belongs to the +best German poetry of its kind. She was a strict Roman Catholic, +and her religious poems, published in 1852, after her death, +under the title <i>Das geistliche Jahr, nebst einem Anhang religiöser +Gedichte</i>, enjoyed great popularity.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Annette von Droste-Hülshoff’s <i>Gedichte</i> were first published in +1844 during her lifetime, and a number of her poems were translated +into English by Thomas Medwin. The most complete edition of her +works is that in 4 vols. edited by E. von Droste-Hülshoff (Münster, +1886). The <i>Ausgewählte Gedichte</i> were edited by W. von Scholz +(Leipzig, 1901). See Levin Schücking, <i>Annette von Droste-Hülshoff, +ein Lebensbild</i> (2nd ed., Hanover, 1871)—her letters to L. Schücking +were published at Leipzig in 1893; also H. Hueffer, <i>Annette von +Droste-Hülshoff und ihre Werke</i> (Gotha, 1887), and W. Kreiten, +<i>Annette von Droste-Hülshoff</i> (2nd ed., Paderborn, 1900).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DROSTE-VISCHERING, CLEMENS AUGUST,<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron von</span> +(1773-1845), German Roman Catholic divine, was born at +Münster on the 21st of January 1773. He was educated in his +native town and entered the priesthood in 1798; in 1807 the +local chapter elected him vicar-general. This office he resigned +in 1813 through his opposition to Napoleon, but assumed it +again after the battle of Waterloo (1815) until a disagreement +with the Prussian government in 1820 led to his abdication. +He remained in private life until 1835, when he was appointed +archbishop of Cologne. Here again his zeal for the supremacy +of the church led him to break the agreement between the state +and the Catholic bishops which he had signed at his installation, +and he was arrested by the Prussian government in November +1837. A battle of pamphlets raged for some time; Droste was +not re-installed but was obliged to accept a coadjutor. His +chief works were: <i>Über die Religionsfreiheit der Katholiken</i> +(1817), and <i>Über den Frieden unter der Kirche und den Staaten</i> +(1843).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Carl Mirbt’s article in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyk. für prot. +Theol.</i> v. 23.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DROUAIS, JEAN GERMAIN<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> (1763-1788), French historical +painter, was born at Paris on the 25th of November 1763. His +father, François Hubert Drouais, and his grandfather, Hubert +Drouais, were well-known portrait painters; and it was from his +father that he received his first artistic instruction. He was afterwards +entrusted to the care of Brenet, an excellent teacher, though +his own pictures did not take high rank. In 1780 David, who had +just returned from Rome, opened a school of painting in Paris, +and Drouais was one of his earliest and most promising pupils. +He adopted the classical style of his master, and gave his whole +time to study—painting during the day, and spending a great +part of every night in designing. For weeks together it is said +that he never left his studio. In 1783 he was admitted to compete +for the great prize of painting offered by the Academy, the +subject being the “Widow of Nain.” After inspecting the works +of his fellow-competitors, however, he lost hope and destroyed +his own canvas, but was consoled by the assurance of his master +David that had he not done so he would have won the prize. +Next year he was triumphantly successful, the “Woman of +Canaan at the Feet of Christ,” with which he gained the prize, +being compared by competent critics with the works of Poussin. +He was carried shoulder high by his fellow-students through the +streets to his mother’s house, and a place was afterwards found +for his picture in the Louvre. His success making him only +the more eager to perfect himself in his art, he accompanied +David to Rome, where he worked even more assiduously than in +Paris. He was most strongly influenced by the remains of ancient +art and by the works of Raphael. Goethe, who was at Rome +at the time it was finished, has recorded the deep impression +made by his “Marius at Minturno,” which he characterizes as +in some respects superior to the work of David, his master. The +last picture which he completed was his “Philoctetus on the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page592" id="page592"></a>592</span> +Island of Lemnos.” He died on the 15th of July 1788. A +monument to his memory was erected by his fellow-students +in the church of Santa Maria in the Via Lata.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DROUET, JEAN BAPTISTE<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> (1763-1824), French Revolutionist, +chiefly noted for the part he played in the arrest of +Louis XVI. at Varennes, was born at Sainte-Menehould. He +served for seven years in the army, and afterwards assisted his +father, who was post-master of his native town. The carriages +conveying the royal family on their flight to the frontier stopped +at his door on the evening of the 21st of June 1791; and the +passengers, travelling under assumed names, were recognized +by Drouet, who immediately took steps which led to their arrest +and detection on reaching Varennes. For this service the +Assembly awarded him 30,000 francs, but he appears to have +declined the reward. In September 1792 he was elected deputy +to the Convention, and took his place with the most violent +party. He voted the death of the king without appeal, showed +implacable hostility to the Girondins, and proposed the slaughter +of all English residents in France. Sent as commissioner to the +army of the north, he was captured at the siege of Maubeuge +and imprisoned at Spielberg till the close of 1795. He then +became a member of the Council of Five Hundred, and was +named secretary. Drouet was implicated in the conspiracy of +Babeuf, and was imprisoned; but he made his escape into +Switzerland, and thence to Teneriffe. There he took part in +the successful resistance to the attempt of Nelson on the island, +in 1797, and later visited India. The first empire found in him +a docile sub-prefect of Sainte-Menehould. After the second +Restoration he was compelled to quit France. Returning +secretly he settled at Macon, under the name of Merger and a +guise of piety, and preserved his incognito till his death on the +11th of April 1824.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See G. Lenotre, <i>Le Drame de Varennes</i> (Paris, 1905).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DROWNING AND LIFE SAVING.<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> To “drown” (a verb used +both transitively and intransitively, of which the origin, though +traced to earlier forms, is unknown) is to suffer or inflict death +by submersion in water, or figuratively to submerge entirely +in water or some other liquid. As a form of ancient capital +punishment, the method of drowning is referred to at the end +of this article, but the interest of the subject is mainly associated +with rescue-work in cases of accident.</p> + +<p>Death from drowning is the result of asphyxia, due to the +stoppage of a supply of fresh air to the lungs. There is a certain +amount of stationary air in the lungs, and into this is diffused +oxygen from the fresh air taken in, while the carbonic acid which +it has taken from the blood through the walls of the capillaries +is driven out. This process of exchange is ever proceeding, the +whole of it being regulated from the nervous centre at the base +of the brain. When a person gets under water and cannot swim, +there is a natural tendency to struggle, and in the efforts to +respire water is drawn into the windpipe and cough is brought +on. This expels the air from the lungs with the water which +threatened to suffocate him, and as further efforts are made to +respire more water is taken in and has to be swallowed. Meanwhile, +the oxygen in the lungs is gradually diminishing, the +quantity of carbonic acid is increasing, and at length the air in +the lungs becomes too impure to effect an exchange with the +blood. Then the blood passing into the heart becomes venous +and the heart begins to send out venous instead of arterial +blood to all parts of the body. Immediately a dull, sickening +pain becomes apparent at the base of the neck, and insensibility +rapidly ensues. This arises from the affection of the respiratory +nerve centre. In a short space of time the face becomes dark +and congested through the veins being gorged with blood, and +the heart ultimately ceases to beat.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 390px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:344px; height:302px" src="images/img592a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—1st Release Method.</td></tr></table> + +<p>When a person unable to swim falls into the water, he usually +rises to the surface, throws up his arms and calls for help. This, +with the water swallowed, will make him sink, and if the arms +are moved above the head when under water, he will, as a natural +consequence, sink still lower. The struggle will be prolonged a +few seconds, and then probably cease for a time, allowing him +to rise again, though perhaps not sufficiently high to enable him +to get another breath of air. If still conscious, he will renew his +struggle, more feebly perhaps, but with the same result. As +soon as insensibility occurs, the body sinks altogether, owing +to the loss of air and the filling of the stomach with water. There +is a general belief that a drowning person must rise three times +before he finally sinks, +but this is a fallacy. +The question whether +he rises at all, or how +often he does so, entirely +depends upon +circumstances. A man +may get entangled +among weeds, which +prevent his coming +to the surface, or he +may die through heart +failure from the shock +or fright of entering +the water.</p> + +<p>On seeing a person +struggling in the +water in danger of drowning, no time should be lost in going +to his assistance, for he may sink at once, and then there is +danger of missing the body when searching under water for +it, or it may get entangled among weeds and then the rescuer’s +task is rendered doubly dangerous. Before diving in to the +rescue the boots and heavy clothing should be discarded +if possible, and in cases where a leap has to be made from +a height, such as a bridge, high embankment, vessel or +pier, or where the depth of the water is not known, it is best +to drop in feet first. Where weeds abound there is always +danger of entanglement, and therefore progress should be made +in the direction of the stream. When approaching a drowning +man there is always the danger of being clutched, but a swimmer +who knows the right way to deal with a man in the water can +easily avoid this; but if through some mistake he finds himself +seized by the drowning person, a necessary thing for the swimmer +to do is to take advantage of his knowledge of the water and +keep uppermost, as this weakens the drowning person and makes +the effort of effecting a release much easier than would otherwise +be the case. To the Royal Life Saving Society in England is +due the credit of disseminating, throughout the entire world, +the ideas of swimmers, based on practical experience, as to the +safest methods which should be adopted for release and rescue, +and their methods, as well as the approved ones for resuscitation, +are now taught in almost every school and college.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 395px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:321px; height:273px" src="images/img592b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—2nd Release Method.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:316px; height:343px" src="images/img593a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>—3rd Release Method.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:345px; height:138px" src="images/img593b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>—Easiest method of carrying +a person not struggling.</td></tr></table> + +<p>If the rescuer be held by the wrists, he must turn both arms +simultaneously against the drowning person’s thumbs, and +bring his arms at right angles to the body, thus dislocating the +thumbs of the drowning person if he does not leave go (fig. 1). +If he be clutched +round the neck he +must take a deep +breath and lean well +over the drowning +person, at the same +time placing one hand +in the small of his +back, then raise the +other arm in line with +the shoulder, and +pass it over the +drowning person’s +arm, then pinch the +nostrils close with +the fingers, and at +the same time place the palm of the hand on the chin and push +away with all possible force. By the firm holding of the nose the +drowning person is made to open his mouth for breathing, and +as he will then be under water, choking ensues and he gives way +to the rescuer, who then gains complete control (fig. 2). One of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page593" id="page593"></a>593</span> +the most dangerous clutches is that round the body and arms +or round the body only. When so tackled the rescuer should +lean well over the drowning person, take a breath as before, and +either withdraw both arms in an upward direction in front of +his body, or else act in the same way as when releasing oneself +when clutched round +the neck. In any case +one hand must be placed +on the drowning man’s +shoulder, and the palm +of the other hand +against his chin, and at +the same time one knee +should be brought up +against the lower part +of his chest. Then, +with a strong and sudden +push, the arms and +legs should be stretched +out straight and the +whole weight of the +body thrown backwards. +This sudden and totally +unexpected action will +break the clutch and leave the rescuer free to get hold of the +drowning person in such a manner as to be able to bring him to +land (fig. 3).</p> + +<p>There are several practical methods of carrying a person +through the water, the easiest assistance to render being that +to a swimmer attacked by cramp or exhaustion, or a drowning +person who may be obedient and remain quiet when approached +and assured of safety. Then the person assisted should place +his arms on the rescuer’s shoulders, close to the neck, with the +arms at full stretch, lie on his back perfectly still, with the +head well back. The +rescuer will then be +uppermost, and having +his arms and legs +free can, with the +breast stroke, make +rapid progress to the +shore; indeed a good +pace can easily be +made (fig. 4). In</p> + +<p>this, as in the other methods afterwards described, every care +should be taken to keep the face of the drowning person above +the water. All jerking, struggling or tugging should be avoided, +and the stroke of the legs be regular and well timed, thus husbanding +strength for further effort. The drowning person being +able to breathe with freedom is reassured, and is likely to cease +struggling, feeling that he is in safe hands.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:412px; height:200px" src="images/img593c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>—1st Rescue Method.</td></tr></table> + +<p>When a drowning person is not struggling, but yet seems +likely to do so when approached, the best method of rescue is +to swim straight up, turn him on his back, and then place the +hands on either side of his face. Then the rescuer should lie +on his back, holding the drowning man in front of him, and swim +with the back stroke, always taking care to keep the man’s face +above water (fig. 5). If the man be struggling and in a condition +difficult to manage, he should be turned on his back as before, +and a firm hold taken of his arms just above his elbows. Then +the man’s arms should be drawn up at right angles to his body +and the rescuer should start swimming with the back stroke +(fig. 6). He should take particular care not to go against the +current or stream, and thereby avoid exhaustion. If the arms +be difficult to grasp, or the struggling so violent as to prevent a +firm hold, the rescuer should slip his hands under the armpits +of the drowning person, +and place them +on his chest or round +his arms, then raise +them at right angles +to his body, thus placing +the drowning person +completely in his +power. The journey +to land can then be +made by swimming +on the back as in the +other methods (fig. 7). In carrying a person through the water, it +will be of much advantage to keep his elbows well out from the +sides, as this expands the chest, inflates the lungs and adds to his +buoyancy. The legs should be kept well up to the surface and +the whole body as horizontal as possible. This avoids a drag +through the water, and will considerably help the rescuer. In +some cases it may happen that the drowning person has sunk to +the bottom and does not rise again. In that event the rescuer +should look for bubbles rising to the surface before diving in. +In still water the bubbles rise perpendicularly; in running water +they rise obliquely, so that the rescuer must look for his object +higher up the stream than where the bubbles rise. It is also +well to remember that in running water a body may be carried +along by the current and must be looked for in the direction in +which it flows. When a drowning person is recovered on the +bottom, the rescuer should seize him by the head or shoulders, +place the left foot on the ground and the right knee in the small +of his back, and then, with a vigorous push, come to the surface.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 395px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:345px; height:203px" src="images/img593d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>—2nd Rescue Method.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:336px; height:252px" src="images/img593e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>—3rd Rescue Method.</td></tr></table> + +<p>When the rescuer reaches land with an insensible person, no +time should be lost in sending for a medical man, but in the +meantime an attempt to induce artificial respiration may be +made. The first recorded cases of resuscitating the apparently +drowned are mentioned in the notes to William Derham’s +<i>Physico-Theology</i>, as having occurred at Troningholm and Oxford, +about 1650. In 1745 Dr J. Fothergill read a paper on the subject +before the Royal Society. It dealt with the recovery of a man +dead in appearance by distending the lungs by Mr William +Tossack, surgeon in Alloa, in 1744. In 1767 several cases of +resuscitation were reported in Switzerland, and shortly after a +society was formed at Amsterdam for recovery of the apparently +drowned, and to instruct the common people as to the best +manner of treating them when rescued, and to reward the people +for their services. In 1773 Dr A. Johnson suggested the formation +of a similar society in England, and Dr Thomas Cogan +translated the memoirs +of the Amsterdam +society. Dr William +Hawes secured a copy +and tried to form a +society. There was, +however, a strong prejudice +against the idea, +but he publicly offered +rewards to persons who, +between Westminster +and London Bridges, +should rescue drowning +persons and bring them +to certain places on shore in order that resuscitation might be +attempted. In this way he was instrumental in the saving of +several lives, and paid the rewards out of his own pocket, until +his zeal brought him sympathy and the Royal Humane Society +was founded. This was in 1774. The system then in vogue was +a means of inducing artificial respiration by inserting the pipe +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page594" id="page594"></a>594</span> +of a pair of bellows into one nostril and closing the other. Air +was forced into the lungs and then expelled by pressing the chest, +thus imitating respiration. Dr Hawes used for his resuscitation +work a kind of cradle, in which the subject was placed, and then +raised over a furnace. Bleeding, holding up by the heels, rolling +on casks, &c. were at various times resorted to. Simple means +are often as effective as the official ones. In 1891 a subject was +restored in Australia by being held over a smoky fire, which is +the native method of restoring life; while a few years back, +at an English riverside town, a patient was saved by the placing +of a handkerchief over his mouth and the alternate blowing into +and drawing air out of the lungs until natural breathing was +restored.</p> + +<p>One of the oldest methods of resuscitation was that of Dr +Marshall Hall (1790-1857), introduced in 1856. In this method +the operator takes his place at the patient’s left side, and places +a roll of clothing or pillow (which must be the same length as +that used in the previous methods), so that it may be in position +under the chest when the patient is turned over. The assistant +at the head pays particular attention to the patient’s arms, +that they may not be laid upon or twisted at the wrists, elbows, +hands or shoulders. The patient is then turned face downwards, +with the body reclining over the pillow, the operator makes a +firm pressure with the hand upon the back, between and on the +shoulder blades, he then pulls the patient slowly up on to the side +towards himself. Once in position, the operator pushes the +patient back again until the face is downward, when the pressure +on the back is to be repeated. These three movements must be +continued at the rate of about fifteen times a minute, until +natural breathing has been restored.</p> + +<p>Then came the methods of Dr H. R. Silvester and Dr Benjamin +Howard, of New York.</p> + +<p>When using the Silvester method, or, for the matter of that, +any other method, the first thing to do is to send for medical +assistance. Dr Silvester recommended that the patient should +not be carried face downwards or held up by his feet. All rough +usage should be avoided, especially twisting or bending of limbs, +and the patient must not be allowed to remain on the back unless +the tongue is pulled forward. In the event of respiration not +being entirely suspended when a person is lifted out of the water, +it may not be necessary to imitate breathing, but natural respiration +may be assisted by the application of an irritant substance +to the nostrils and tickling the nose. Smelling-salts, pepper and +snuff may be used, or hot and cold water alternately dashed on +the face or chest. Provided no sign of life can be seen or felt or +the heart’s action heard, promotion of breathing, <i>not</i> circulation +must be the first aim and effort. Lay the patient flat on his back, +with the head at a slightly higher level than the feet. Remove +all tight clothing about the neck, chest and abdomen, and loosen +the braces, belts or corsets. The operator taking his place at +the head, with an assistant on one side, will turn the patient over +until he is lying face downwards, his head resting upon one arm. +He should then, after the assistant has given one or two sharp +blows with the open hand between the shoulder blades, wipe and +clear the mouth, throat and nostrils of all matter that may +prevent the air from entering the lungs, using a handkerchief +for this purpose. This being done, the patient should be turned +upon his back, the tongue pulled forward and kept in position +by means of a dry cloth, handkerchief or piece of string tied +round the jaw. Every care must be taken not to let it fall back +into the mouth and thus obstruct the air passages. When this +work has been accomplished (it should only last a few seconds) +the operator at the head should lift the patient, handling the +head and shoulders very carefully, in order that the assistant +may place a roll of clothing or pillow under the shoulder blades. +The roll being placed in position, the operator will lean forward +and grasp the arms below the elbows. He will then draw the +patient’s arms steadily upwards and outwards, above the head, +until fully extended in line with the body. Having held the arms +in this position for about one second, the operator will carry them +back again and press them firmly against the side and front of +the chest for another second. By these means an exchange of +air is produced in the lungs similar to that effected by natural +respiration. These movements must be repeated carefully and +deliberately about fifteen times a minute, and persevered in. +When natural respiration is once established, the operator should +cease to imitate the movements of breathing, and proceed with +the treatment for <i>the promotion of warmth and circulation</i>.</p> + +<p>Friction over the surface of the body must be at once resorted +to, using handkerchiefs, flannels, &c., so as to propel the blood +along the veins towards the heart, while the operator attends +to the mouth, nose and throat. The friction along the legs, +arms and body should all be towards the heart and should be +continued after the patient has been wrapped in blankets or +some dry clothing. As soon as possible, the patient should be +removed to the nearest house and further efforts made to promote +warmth by the application of hot flannels to the pit of the +stomach, and bottles or bladders of hot water, heated bricks, &c. +to the armpits, between the thighs and to the soles of the feet. +If there be pain or difficulty in breathing, apply a hot linseed +meal poultice to the chest. On the restoration of life, a teaspoonful +of warm water should be given; and then, if the power of +swallowing has returned, very small quantities of wine, warm +brandy and water, beef tea or coffee administered, the patient +kept in bed, and a disposition to sleep encouraged. The patient +should be carefully watched for some time to see that breathing +does not fail, and, should any signs of failure appear, artificial +respiration should at once be resumed. While the patient is +in the house, care should be taken to let the air circulate freely +about the room and all overcrowding should be prevented.</p> + +<p>In the Howard method there are only two movements; its +knowledge is said to be necessary in case the patient’s arm +be in any way injured, or a more vigorous method than the +“Silvester” deemed necessary, <i>but care should be exercised not to +injure the patient by too forcible pressure</i>. The patient is laid on +his back, the roll is larger than that used in the Silvester method, +and is placed farther under the back in order that the lower part +of the chest may be highest. After adjusting the roll, the operator +kneels astride of the patient, while his assistant goes to the +head, lifts the patient’s arms beyond the head, and holds them +to the ground, cleans the mouth and nose, and attends to the +tongue. The operator, with his fingers spread well apart, taking +care that the thumbs do not press into the pit of the stomach, +grasps the most compressible part of the lower ribs, and with +both hands applies pressure firmly by leaning over the patient; +then he springs back, lifting his hands off the patient. Artificial +respiration is thus effected, and continued at the rate of about +fifteen times a minute. When natural breathing has been +restored, the treatment is the same as in the Silvester method.</p> + +<p>These methods have now been superseded by the Schäfer +method, which has been taken up by the Royal Life Saving +Society, a body instituted in 1891 for the promotion of technical +education in life saving and resuscitation of the apparently +drowned. The Schäfer method has much to recommend it, +owing to its extreme simplicity and the ease with which the +physical operations necessary to carry on artificial respiration +may be performed, hardly any muscular exertion being required. +It involves no risk of injury to the congested liver or to any +other organ, and as the patient is laid face downwards, there is +no possibility of the air passages being blocked by the falling +back of the tongue into the pharynx. The water and mucus can +also be expelled much more readily from the air passages through +the mouth and nostrils.</p> + +<p>It was due to the happy selection of Professor E. A. Schäfer, +as chairman of a committee appointed by the Royal Medical & +Chirurgical Society for the investigation of the methods in use +for resuscitation of the apparently drowned, that the new +method was devised. This committee made many experiments +upon the cadaver but failed to arrive at any definite conclusion +by that means. The necessity then appeared of thorough +investigation of the subject by experiments upon animals, so +that the phenomena attendant upon drowning might be better +known, and the various methods of resuscitation properly tried. +These experiments were made in Edinburgh by Professor +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page595" id="page595"></a>595</span> +Schäfer, with the co-operation of Dr P. T. Herring, and the +results obtained were embodied in the report of the committee, +which was presented to the Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society +in 1904, and published as a supplement to volume 86 of the +<i>Transactions</i> of the society. As the direct outcome of these +experiments, Professor Schäfer was led to believe that a pressure +method of resuscitation was not only simpler to perform but +also more efficacious than any other. This conclusion was put +to the test by measurements of the results obtained upon the +normal human subject by the various methods in vogue; from +these measurements, which were published in the <i>Proceedings</i> +of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in December 1903, it appeared +that when such pressure is exerted in the prone +position the highest degree of efficiency as well as +simplicity is obtained. The description of this method +was communicated to the Royal Medical and Chirurgical +Society, and was published in the following year +(1904) in volume 87 of the <i>Transactions</i> of the +society.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:363px; height:189px" src="images/img595a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig 8.</span>.—Schäfer method of treatment of the apparently drowned. +Position A.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Thus it came about that by investigating the +phenomena of drowning, and the means of resuscitation +in dogs, and by applying the results obtained to +man, the method which the society now advocates +as the best was arrived at. In the experiments +referred to, it was found necessary to drown 38 +dogs, all but two of which were from first to last in +a complete state of anaesthesia, the two exceptions having +been simply drowned without anaesthesia. It is important +that the public should understand that the evolution of a +method which will probably be the means of saving thousands +of lives has resulted from the painless sacrifice of less +than 40 dogs, a number which would doubtless in any case +have been destroyed by drowning or some other form of suffocation, +but without the benefit of the anaesthetics which were +employed in the experiments.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:366px; height:164px" src="images/img595b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span>—Schäfer method of treatment of the apparently drowned. +Position B.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Professor Schäfer describes the method as follows:—Lay the +subject face downwards on the ground, then without stopping +to remove the clothing the operator should at once place himself +in position astride or at one side of the subject, facing his head +and kneeling upon one or both knees. He then places his +hands flat over the lower part of the back (on the lowest ribs), +one on each side (fig. 8), and then gradually throws the weight +of his body forward on to them so as to produce firm pressure +(fig. 9)—which must not be violent, or upon the patient’s chest. +By this means the air, and water if any, are driven out of the +patient’s lungs. Immediately thereafter the operator raises +his body slowly so as to remove the pressure, but the hands are +left in position. This forward and backward movement is +repeated every four or five seconds; in other words, the body +of the operator is swayed slowly forwards and backwards upon +the arms from twelve to fifteen times a minute, and should be +continued for at least half an hour, or until the natural respirations +are resumed. Whilst one person is carrying out artificial +respiration in this way, others may, if there be opportunity, +busy themselves with applying hot flannels to the body and +limbs, and hot bottles to the feet, but no attempt should be +made to remove the wet clothing or to give any restoratives by +the mouth until natural breathing has recommenced.</p> + +<p>In his paper read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh in +December 1903 Professor Schäfer gave the following table of the +relative exchanges of air under different methods:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Mode of Respiration.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Number<br />per<br />minute.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Amount of air<br />exchanged per<br />respiration.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Amount of air<br />exchanged per<br />minute.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Natural respiration (supine)</td> <td class="tcl rb">13</td> <td class="tcl rb">489 c.c.</td> <td class="tcl rb">6.460 c.c.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Natural  ”  (prone)</td> <td class="tcl rb">12.5</td> <td class="tcl rb">422 ”</td> <td class="tcl rb">5.240 ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Prone (pressure), “Schäfer”</td> <td class="tcl rb">13</td> <td class="tcl rb">520 ”</td> <td class="tcl rb">6.760 ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Supine (pressure), “Howard”</td> <td class="tcl rb">13.6</td> <td class="tcl rb">295 ”</td> <td class="tcl rb">4.020 ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Rolling (with pressure), “Marshall Hall”</td> <td class="tcl rb">13</td> <td class="tcl rb">254 ”</td> <td class="tcl rb">3.300 ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Rolling (without pressure), “Marshall Hall”</td> <td class="tcl rb">12</td> <td class="tcl rb">192 ”</td> <td class="tcl rb">2.300 ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Traction (with pressure), “Silvester”</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">12.8</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">178 ”</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">2.280 ”</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>These experiments all tend to show that by far the most +efficient method of performing artificial respiration is that of +intermittent pressure upon the lower ribs with the subject in the +prone position or face downward. It is also the easiest to perform, +requiring practically no exertion, as the weight of the operator’s +body produces the effect, and the swinging forwards and backwards +of the body some thirteen times a minute, which alone +is required, is by no means fatiguing, and has the further great +advantage that it can be effectively carried out by one person.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Taylor, <i>Medical Jurisprudence</i>; “Description of a simple +and efficient method of performing artificial respiration in the human +subject, especially in cases of drowning,” by E. A. Schäfer, F.R.S. +(vol. 87, <i>Medico-Chirurgical Society’s Transactions</i>); “The relative +efficiency of certain methods of performing artificial respiration in +man,” by E. A. Schäfer, F.R.S. (vol. 23, part i. <i>Proceedings of the +Royal Society of Edinburgh</i>); <i>A Method for the Treatment of the +Apparently Drowned</i>, by R. S. Bowles (London, 1903); <i>Handbook +of Instruction</i>, Royal Life Saving Society (London, 1908).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. Hy.)</div> + +<p><i>Penal Use of Drowning.</i>—As a form of capital punishment, +drowning was once common throughout Europe, but it is now +only practised in Mahommedan countries and the Far East. +Tacitus states that the ancient Germans hanged criminals of +any rank, but those of the low classes were drowned beneath +hurdles in fens and bogs. The Romans also drowned convicts. +The Lex Cornelia ordained that parricides should be sewn in a +sack with a dog, cock, viper and ape, and thrown into the sea. +The law of ancient Burgundy ordered that an unfaithful wife +should be smothered in mud. The Anglo-Saxon punishment +for women guilty of theft was drowning. So usual was the +penalty in the middle ages that grants of life and death jurisdiction +were worded to be “<i>cum fossa et furca</i>” (<i>i.e.</i> “with +drowning-pit and gallows”). The owner of Baynard’s Castle, +London, in the reign of John, had powers of trying criminals, +and his descendants long afterwards claimed the privileges, +the most valued of which was the right of drowning in the Thames +traitors taken within their jurisdiction. Drowning was the punishment +ordained by Richard Cœur de Lion for any soldier of his +army who killed a fellow-crusader during the passage to the +Holy Land. Drowning was usually reserved for women as being +the least brutal form of death-penalty, but occasionally a male +criminal was so executed as a matter of favour. Thus in Scotland +in 1526 a man convicted of theft and sacrilege was ordered to +be drowned “by the queen’s special grace.” In 1611 a man +was drowned at Edinburgh for stealing a lamb, and in 1623 +eleven gipsy women suffered there. By that date the penalty +was obsolete in England. It survived in Scotland till 1685 +(the year of the drowning of the Wigtoun martyrs). The last +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page596" id="page596"></a>596</span> +execution by drowning in Switzerland was in 1652, in Austria +1776, in Iceland 1777; while in France during the Revolution +the penalty was revived in the terrible <i>Noyades</i> carried out by the +terrorist Jean Baptiste Carrier at Nantes. It was abolished in +Russia at the beginning of the 18th century.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DROYSEN, JOHANN GUSTAV<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> (1808-1884), German historian, +was born on the 6th of July 1808 at Treptow in Pomerania. +His father, Johann Christoph Droysen, was an army chaplain, in +which capacity he was present at the celebrated siege of Kolberg +in 1806-7. As a child young Droysen witnessed some of the +military operations during the War of Liberation, for his father +was pastor at Greifenhagen, in the immediate neighbourhood of +Stettin, which was held by the French during the greater part of +1813. The impressions of these early years laid the foundation +of the ardent attachment to Prussia which distinguished him, +like so many other historians of his generation. He was educated +at the gymnasium of Stettin and at the university of Berlin; +in 1829 he became a master at the Graue Kloster (or Grey Friars), +one of the oldest schools in Berlin; besides his work there he +gave lectures at the university, from 1833 as <i>privat-dozent</i>, and +from 1835 as professor, without a salary. During these years +he was occupied with classical antiquity; he published a translation +of Aeschylus and a paraphrase of Aristophanes, but the +work by which he made himself known as a historian was his +<i>Geschichte Alexanders des Grossen</i> (Berlin, 1833, and other +editions), a book which still remains probably the best work +on the subject. It was in some ways the herald of a new school +of German historical thought, for it shows that idealization of +power and success which he had learnt from the teaching of Hegel. +It was followed by other volumes dealing with the successors +of Alexander, published under the title of <i>Geschichte des Hellenismus</i> +(Hamburg, 1836-1843). A new and revised edition of the +whole work was published in 1885; it has been translated into +French, but not into English.</p> + +<p>In 1840 Droysen was appointed professor of history at Kiel. +He was at once attracted into the political movement for the +defence of the rights of the Elbe duchies, of which Kiel was +the centre. Like his predecessor F. C. Dahlmann, he placed +his historical learning at the service of the estates of Schleswig-Holstein +and composed the address of 1844, in which the estates +protested against the claim of the king of Denmark to alter +the law of succession in the duchies. In 1848 he was elected +a member of the Frankfort parliament, and acted as secretary +to the committee for drawing up the constitution. He was a +determined supporter of Prussian ascendancy, and was one of +the first members to retire after the king of Prussia refused +the imperial crown in 1849. During the next two years he continued +to support the cause of the duchies, and in 1850, with +Carl Samwer, he published a history of the dealings of Denmark +with Schleswig-Holstein, <i>Die Herzogthümer Schleswig-Holstein +und das Königreich Dänemark seit dem Jahre 1806</i> (Hamburg, +1850). A translation was published in London in the same +year under the title <i>The Policy of Denmark towards the Duchies +of Schleswig-Holstein</i>. The work was one of great political +importance, and had much to do with the formation of German +public opinion on the rights of the duchies in their struggle with +Denmark.</p> + +<p>After 1851 it was impossible for him to remain at Kiel, and he +was appointed to a professorship at Jena; in 1859 he was called +to Berlin, where he remained till his death. In his later years he +was almost entirely occupied with Prussian history. In 1851 +he brought out a life of Count Yorck von Wartenburg (Berlin, +1851-1852, and many later editions), one of the best biographies +in the German language, and then began his great work on the +<i>Geschichte der preussischen Politik</i> (Berlin, 1855-1886). Seven +volumes were published, the last not till after his death. It +forms a complete history of the growth of the Prussian monarchy +down to the year 1756. This, like all Droysen’s work, shows a +strongly marked individuality, and a great power of tracing the +manner in which important dynamic forces worked themselves +out in history. It was this characteristic quality of comprehensiveness +that also gave him so much influence as a teacher.</p> + +<p>Droysen, who was twice married, died in Berlin on the 19th +of June 1884. His eldest son, Gustav, is the author of several +well-known historical works, namely, <i>Gustav Adolf</i> (Leipzig, +1869-1870); <i>Herzog Bernhard von Weimar</i> (Leipzig, 1885); +an admirable <i>Historischer Handatlas</i> (Leipzig, 1885), and several +writings on various events of the Thirty Years’ War. Another +son, Hans Droysen, is the author of some works on Greek history +and antiquities.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See M. Duncker, <i>Johann Gustav Droysen, ein Nachruf</i> (Berlin, +1885); and Dahlmann-Waitz, <i>Quellenkunde der deutschen Geschichte</i> +(Leipzig, 1906).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. W. He.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DROZ, ANTOINE GUSTAVE<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> (1832-1895), French man of +letters, son of the sculptor J. A. Droz (1807-1872), was born in +Paris on the 9th of June 1832. He was educated as an artist, +and began to exhibit in the Salon of 1857. A series of sketches +dealing gaily and lightly with the intimacies of family life, +published in the <i>Vie parisienne</i> and issued in book form as +<i>Monsieur, Madame et Bébé</i> (1866), won for the author an immediate +and great success. <i>Entre nous</i> (1867) was built on a +similar plan, and was followed by some psychological novels: +<i>Le Cahier bleu de Mlle Cibot</i> (1868); <i>Autour d’une source</i> (1869); +<i>Un Paquet de lettres</i> (1870); <i>Babolein</i> (1872); <i>Les Étangs</i> (1875); +<i>L’Enfant</i> (1885). His <i>Tristesses et sourires</i> (1884) is a delicate +analysis of the niceties of family intercourse and its difficulties. +Droz’s first book was translated into English under the title of +<i>Papa, Mamma and Baby</i> (1887). <i>Un Été à la campagne</i>, a book +which caused considerable scandal, was erroneously attributed +to him. He died on the 22nd of October 1895.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DROZ, FRANÇOIS-XAVIER JOSEPH<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> (1773-1850), French +writer on ethics and political science, was born on the 31st of +October 1773 at Besançon, where his family had furnished +men of considerable mark to the legal profession. His own legal +studies led him to Paris in 1792; he arrived on the very day +after the dethronement of the king, and was present during the +massacres of September; on the declaration of war he joined +the volunteer <i>bataillon</i> of the Doubs, and for the next three years +served in the Army of the Rhine. Receiving his discharge on +the score of ill-health, he obtained a much more congenial post +in the newly-founded <i>école centrale</i> of Besançon; and in 1799 +he made his first appearance as an author by an <i>Essai sur l’art +oratoire</i> (Paris, Fructidor, An VII.), in which he acknowledges +his indebtedness more especially to Hugh Blair. Removing to +Paris in 1803, he became intimate not only with the like-minded +Ducis, but also with the sceptical Cabanis; and it was on this +philosopher’s advice that, in order to catch the public ear, he +produced the romance of <i>Lina</i>, which Sainte-Beuve has characterized +as a mingled echo of Florian and <i>Werther</i>. Like several +other literary men of the time, he obtained a post in the revenue +office known as the <i>Droits réunis</i>; but from 1814 he devoted +himself exclusively to literature and became a contributor to +various journals. Already favourably known by his <i>Essai sur +l’art d’être heureux</i> (Paris, 1806), his <i>Éloge de Montaigne</i> (1812), and +his <i>Essai sur le beau dans les arts</i> (1815), he not only gained the +Monthyon prize in 1823 by his work <i>De la philosophie morale ou +des différents systèmes sur la science de la vie</i>, but also in 1824 +obtained admission to the Académie Française. The main +doctrine inculcated in this last treatise is that society will never +be in a proper state till men have been educated to think of +their duties and not of their rights. It was followed in 1825 by +<i>Application de la morale à la philosophie et à la politique</i>, and +in 1829 by <i>Économie politique, ou principes de la science +des richesses</i>, a methodical and clearly written treatise, which +was edited by Michel Chevalier in 1854. His next and greatest +work was a <i>Histoire du règne de Louis XVI</i> (3 vols., Paris, 1839-1842). +As he advanced in life Droz became more and more +decidedly religious, and the last work of his prolific pen was +<i>Pensées du Christianisme</i> (1842). Few have left so blameless a +reputation: in the words of Sainte-Beuve, he was born and he +remained all his life of the race of the good and the just.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Guizot, <i>Discours académiques</i>; Montalembert, “Discours de +réception,” in <i>Mémoires de l’Académie française</i>; Sainte-Beuve, +<i>Causeries du lundi</i>, t. iii.; Michel Chevalier, Notice prefixed to the +<i>Économie politique</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page597" id="page597"></a>597</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">DRUG,<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> a district and town of British India, in the Chhattisgarh +division of the Central Provinces. The district was formed +in 1906 out of portions of the districts of Bilaspur and Raipur. +It has an area of 3807 sq. m., and the population on that area +in 1901 was 628,885, showing a heavy decrease in the preceding +decade, owing to the famines of 1897 and 1900. The district +is a long narrow tract, with lofty ridges of gravel in the centre +and north, but otherwise consisting of open rolling country. +The Tendula and Seonath are the principal rivers. Rich black +soil covers a large part of the district, and rice, wheat and other +crops are grown. The main line of the Bengal-Nagpur railway +passes through the district. Drug, the capital of the district, +is on the railway, 685 m. from Bombay, and had in 1901 a population +of 4002. Bell-metal-founding and cotton-weaving are +carried on.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DRUG<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> (from Fr. <i>drogue</i>, a word common in Romance languages, +cf. Span. and Ital. <i>droga</i>; the origin of the word is obscure, but +may possibly be connected with Dutch <i>droog</i>, dry), any organic +and inorganic substance used in the preparation of medicines, +by itself or in combination with others, and either prepared by +some method or used in a natural state (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pharmacology</a></span> +and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pharmacopoeia</a></span>). In a particular sense “drug” is often +used synonymously for narcotics or poisonous substances, and +hence “to drug” means to stupefy or poison. The word is also +applied to any article for which there is no sale, or of which the +value has greatly depreciated—a “drug in the market.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DRUIDISM,<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> the name usually given to the religious system +of the ancient inhabitants of Gaul and the British Islands. The +word Druid (Lat. <i>druida</i>) probably represents a Gaulish <i>druid-s</i>, +Irish <i>drúi</i>, gen. sing. <i>drúad</i>. On the analogy of Irish <i>súi<su-vid-s</i> +the word has been analysed into <i>dru-vid-</i>, “very knowing, +wise.” The ancient Welsh form of the word does not exist. +Welsh <i>derwydd</i> and <i>dryw</i> are probably to be regarded as of recent +coinage, as also the Breton forms <i>drouiz</i>, <i>druz</i>. The important +part played by the oak in the religious cults of other countries +suggests a connexion with Greek <span class="grk" title="drus">δρῦς</span>, oak, but this etymology +is rather in disfavour at the present time.</p> + +<p>We find in Caesar the first and at the same time the most +circumstantial account of the Druids to be met with in the +classical writers. He tells us that all men of any rank and +dignity in Gaul were included among the Druids or the nobles. +In other words, the Druids constituted the learned and the +priestly class, and they were in addition the chief expounders +and guardians of the law. We are, however, informed by +Diodorus and Strabo that this class was composed of Druids, bards +and soothsayers. Hence Caesar seems to assign more extensive +functions to the Druids than they actually possessed. The +substance of Caesar’s account is as follows. On those who +refused to submit to their decisions they had the power of inflicting +severe penalties, of which excommunication from society +was the most dreaded. As they were not a hereditary caste and +enjoyed exemption from service in the field as well as from payment +of taxes, admission to the order was eagerly sought after +by the youth of Gaul. The course of training to which a novice +had to submit was protracted, extending sometimes over twenty +years. All instruction was communicated orally, but for +ordinary purposes they had a written language in which they +used the Greek characters. The president of the order, whose +office was elective and who enjoyed the dignity for life, had +supreme authority among them. They taught that the soul was +immortal. Astrology, geography, physical science and natural +theology were their favourite studies.</p> + +<p>Britain was the headquarters of Druidism, but once every +year a general assembly of the order was held within the territories +of the Carnutes in Gaul. The Gauls were accustomed to +offer human sacrifices, usually criminals. Cicero remarks on +the existence among the Gauls of augurs or soothsayers, known +by the name of Druids, with one of whom, Divitiacus, an Aeduan, +he was acquainted. Diodorus informs us that a sacrifice acceptable +to the gods must be attended by a Druid, for they are the +intermediaries. Before a battle they often throw themselves +between two armies to bring about peace. They are said to +have had a firm belief in the immortality of the soul and in +metempsychosis, a fact which led several ancient writers to +conclude that they had been influenced by the teaching of the +Greek philosopher Pythagoras.</p> + +<p>A rescript of Augustus forbade Roman citizens to practise +druidical rites. In Strabo we find the Druids still acting as +arbiters in public and private matters, but they no longer deal +with cases of murder. Under Tiberius the Druids were suppressed +by a decree of the senate, but this had to be renewed by +Claudius in <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 54. In Mela we find the Druids teaching in the +depths of a forest or in caverns. In Pliny their activity is limited +to the practice of medicine and sorcery. According to this +writer the Druids held the mistletoe in the highest veneration. +Groves of oak were their chosen retreat. Whatever grew on +that tree was thought to be a gift from heaven, more especially +the mistletoe. When thus found, the mistletoe was cut with a +golden knife by a priest clad in a white robe, two white bulls +being sacrificed on the spot. Tacitus, in describing the attack +made on the island of Mona (Anglesea) by the Romans under +Suetonius Paulinus, represents the legionaries as being awe-struck +on landing by the appearance of a band of Druids, who, +with hands uplifted towards heaven, poured forth terrible +imprecations on the heads of the invaders. The courage of the +Romans, however, soon overcame such fears; the Britons were +put to flight; and the groves of Mona, the scene of many a +sacrifice and bloody rite, were cut down.</p> + +<p>After this the continental Druids disappear entirely, and are +only referred to on very rare occasions. Ausonius, for instance, +apostrophizes the rhetorician Attius Patera as sprung from a +race of Druids.</p> + +<p>When we turn to the British Islands we find, as we should +expect, no traces of the Druids in England and Wales after the +conquest of Anglesea mentioned above, except in the story of +Vortigern as recounted by Nennius. After being excommunicated +by Germanus the British leader invites twelve Druids to +assist him. These probably came from North Britain. In +Irish literature, however, the Druids are frequently mentioned, +and their functions in the island seem to correspond fairly well +to those of their Gaulish brethren described by classical writers. +The functions of Caesar’s Druids we here find distributed amongst +Druids, bards and poets (<i>fili</i>), but even in very early times the +poet has usurped many of the duties of the Druid and finally +supplants him with the spread of Christianity. The following +is the position of the Druid in the pagan literature. The most +important documents are contained in MSS. of the 12th century, +but the texts themselves go back in large measure to about +<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 700. In the heroic cycles the Druids do not appear to have +formed any corporation, nor do they seem to have been exempt +from military service. Cathbu (Cathbad), the Druid connected +with Conchobar, king of Ulster, in the older cycle is accompanied +by a number of youths (100 according to the oldest version) +who are desirous of learning his art, though what this consisted +in we are not told. The Druids are represented as being able +to foretell the future and to perform magic. Before setting out +on the great expedition against Ulster, Medb, queen of Connaught, +goes to consult her Druid, and just before the famous heroine +Derdriu (Deirdre) is born, Cathbu prophesies what sort of a +woman she will be. We may cite two instances of the magical +skill of the Druids. The hero Cuchulinn has returned from the +land of the fairies after having been enticed thither by a fairy-woman +named Fand, whom he is now unable to forget. He is +given a potion by some Druids, which banishes all memory of his +recent adventures and which also rids his wife Emer of the pangs +of jealousy. More remarkable still is the story of Etain. This +lady, now the wife of Eochaid Airem, high-king of Ireland, was +in a former existence the beloved of the god Mider, who again +seeks her love and carries her off. The king has recourse to his +Druid Dalān, who requires a whole year to discover the haunt +of the couple. This he accomplished by means of four wands of +yew inscribed with ogam characters. The following description +of the band of Cathbu’s Druids occurs in the epic tale, the +<i>Cattle-spoiling of Cualnge</i> (Cooley): “The attendant raises his +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page598" id="page598"></a>598</span> +eyes towards heaven and observes the clouds and answers the +band around him. They all raise their eyes towards heaven, +observe the clouds, and hurl spells against the elements, so that +they arouse strife amongst them and clouds of fire are driven +towards the camp of the men of Ireland.” We are further told +that at the court of Conchobar no one had the right to speak +before the Druids had spoken. In other texts the Druids are +able to produce insanity.</p> + +<p>In the religious literature they are almost exclusively represented +as magicians and diviners opposing the Christian missionaries, +though we find two of them acting as tutors to the daughters +of Laegaire, the high-king, at the coming of St Patrick. They +are represented as endeavouring to prevent the progress of St +Patrick and St Columba by raising clouds and mist. Before the +battle of Culdremne (561) a Druid made an <i>airbe drúad</i> (fence +of protection?) round one of the armies, but what is precisely +meant by the phrase is obscure. The Irish Druids seem to have +had a peculiar tonsure. The word <i>drúi</i> is always used to render +the Latin <i>magus</i>, and in one passage St Columba speaks of Christ +as his Druid.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See D’Arbois de Jubainville, <i>Les Druides et les dieux celtiques à +forme d’animaux</i> (Paris, 1906), and <i>Introduction à l’étude de la +littérature celtique</i> (Paris, 1883); P. W. Joyce, <i>A Social History of +Ancient Ireland</i> (London, 1903).</p> +</div><div class="author">(E. C. Q.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DRUIDS, ORDER OF,<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> a friendly society founded, as an +imitation of the ancient Druids, in London in 1781. They +adopted Masonic rites and spread to America (1833) and Australia. +Their lodges are called “Groves.” In 1872 the Order +was introduced into Germany. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Friendly Societies</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DRUM<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> (early forms <i>drome</i> or <i>dromme</i>, a word common to many +Teut. languages, cf. Dan. <i>tromme</i>, Ger. <i>Trommel</i>: the word is +ultimately the same as “trumpet,” and is probably onomatopoeic +in origin; it appears late in Eng. about the middle of the 16th +century), the name given to the well-known musical instrument +(see below) and also to many objects resembling it in shape. +Thus it is used of any receptacle of similar shape, as a “drum” +of oil, &c.; in machinery, of a revolving cylinder, round which +belting is passed; of the <i>tympanum</i> or cylindrically shaped +middle ear, and specially of the membrane that closes the +external auditory meatus; and, in architecture, of the substructure +of a dome when raised to some height above the +pendentives. The architectural drum had a twofold object; +first, to give greater elevation to the dome externally so that it +should rise well above the surrounding building, and secondly, +to allow of the interior being lighted with vertical windows cut +in the drum, instead of forming penetrations in the dome itself, +as in St Sophia, Constantinople. The term is also applied to the +circular blocks of stone, which in columns of large dimensions +were built with a series of drums. At Selinus in Sicily some of +these great circular blocks are found on the road between the +quarries and the temples; they vary from 8 to 10 ft. in diameter, +being about 6 ft. high. The term <i>frusta</i> is sometimes applied to +them.</p> + +<p>In music the drum (Fr. <i>tambour</i>; Ger. <i>Trommel</i>; Ital. <i>tamburo</i>) +is an instrument of percussion common in some form to all +nations and ages. It consists of a frame or vessel forming a +resonant cavity, over one or both ends of which is stretched a +skin or vellum set in vibration by direct percussion of hand or +stick. Drums fall into two divisions according to the nature of +their sonority:—(1) instruments producing sounds of definite +musical pitch, and qualified thereby to take part in the harmony +of the orchestra, such as the kettledrum (<i>q.v.</i>); (2) instruments +of indefinite sonorousness, and therefore excluded from the +harmony of the orchestra; such are the bass drum, the side +or snare drum, the tenor drum, the tambourine, all used for +marking the rhythm and adding tone colour.</p> + +<p>Drums are further divided into three classes according to +special features of construction:—(1) instruments having a +skin stretched over one end of the resonant cavity, the other +being open, such as the tambourine (<i>q.v.</i>) and the <i>darabukkeh</i> +or Egyptian drum, shaped like a mushroom; (2) instruments +consisting of a cup-shaped receptacle of metal, wood or earthenware +entirely closed by a skin or vellum stretched across the +opening, as in the kettledrum; (3) a receptacle in the shape of a +cylinder closed at both ends by skins, as in the bass drum, side +drum, &c.</p> + +<p>Skin or parchment only acquires the elasticity requisite to +produce vibration by tension; the vibrations of the parchment +are taken up by the air enclosed in the receptacle, which thus +reinforces the sound produced by the parchment. The <i>tone</i> of +the instrument whether definite or indefinite depends upon the +dimensions of the vellum, the shape of the resonant receptacle, +and the method of percussion. The <i>intensity</i> of the sound +depends upon the degree of percussive force used and the diameter +of the vellum in proportion to the dimensions of the +resonant receptacle; the material of which the latter consists +has little or no influence on the tone of the instrument. The +<i>pitch</i> of the sound is determined by the dimensions of the vellum +taken in conjunction with the degree of tension, the pitch +varying in acuteness directly with the degree of tension and +inversely with the size of the vellum.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 357px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:307px; height:378px" src="images/img598a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—Military Bass Drum (Besson & Co.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>The <i>bass drum</i> or Turkish drum (Fr. <i>grosse caisse</i>; Ger. <i>Grosse +Trommel</i>; Ital. <i>gran cassa</i> or <i>tamburo grande</i>) consists of a +short cylinder of very wide diameter covered at both ends by +vellum stretched over thin hoops, which in turn are kept in place +by larger hoops fitting +tightly over them. At +regular intervals in the +two large hoops are +bored holes through +which passes an endless +cord stretched in zig-zag +round the cylinder and +connecting the two +hoops. The tension of +the vellum is controlled +by means of leather +braces which are made +to slide up and down +the zig-zag of cord, +slackening or tightening +the large hoops, and +with them the vellum, +at the will of the performer. +Systems of rods +and screws are also used +for the purpose. The +bass drum is mounted on a stand when used in the orchestra. +The sound is produced by striking the centre of the vellum on +the one end of the drum with a stick having a large soft round +knob composed of wood covered with cork, sponge or felt. The +bass drum cannot be tuned since it gives out no definite note, but +the pitch may be varied, according as a rich full tone or a +mere dull thud be required, by tightening or loosening the +braces; the instrument can, moreover, be muffled by covering +it with a piece of cloth. The music for the bass drum is generally +written on a stave with a bass clef, <img style="width:80px; height:34px" src="images/img598b.jpg" alt="" />, the C being +merely used to show the rhythm and accents. Sometimes +the stave is dispensed with, a single note on a single +line being sufficient. The bass drum has a place in every +orchestra, although it is used but sparingly to accentuate the +rhythm. It is possible to make gradations in <i>forte</i> and <i>piano</i> +on the bass drum, and to play quavers and semi-quavers in +moderate <i>tempo</i>. A roll is sometimes played by holding a short +stick, furnished with a knob at each end, in the middle and +striking in quick succession with each knob alternately; two +kettledrum sticks answer the purpose still better. It is understood +that the cymbals play the same music as the bass drum +unless the composer has written <i>senza piatti</i> over the part. +Wagner did not once score for the bass drum after he composed +<i>Rienzi</i>, but Verdi, Gounod, Berlioz and Sullivan used it effectively. +The bass drum was formerly known as the <i>long drum</i>, +the cylinder being long in proportion to the diameter.</p> + +<p>The <i>side</i> or <i>snare drum</i> (Fr. <i>tambour militaire</i>; Ger. <i>Militärtrommel</i>; +Ital. <i>tamburo militare</i>) is an instrument consisting of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page599" id="page599"></a>599</span> +a small wooden or brass cylinder with a vellum at each end. +The parchments are lapped over small hoops and pressed firmly +down by larger hoops. As in the bass drum, these and the +vellums are tightened or slackened by means of cords and leather +braces, or by a system of rods and screws. Across the lower head +are stretched two or more catgut strings called snares, which +produce a rattling sound at each stroke on the upper head, +owing to the sympathetic vibration of the lower head which +jars against the snares. The upper head, set in vibration by +direct percussion from the sticks, induces sympathetic vibrations +in the air contained within the resonating receptacle, and these +vibrations are communicated to the lower head. The presence +of the snares across the diameter of the latter produces a phenomenon +which gives the side drum its peculiar timbre, changing +the nature of the vibrations, now no longer free: the snares +form a kind of nodal contact, inducing double the number of +vibrations and a sound approximately an octave higher than +would be the case were the heads left to vibrate freely. Moreover, +the vibrations of the upper head being weaker, the latter +is compelled to vibrate synchronously with the lower vellum.<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:455px; height:203px" src="images/img599a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—Guards pattern Side Drum<br />(Besson & Co.).</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>—Regulation Side Drum<br />(Besson & Co.).</td></tr></table> + +<p>The side drum, so called because it is worn at the side, is +struck in the centre by two small wooden sticks with elongated +heads or knobs of hard wood, producing a hard rasping sound +when the drum is played singly and in close proximity to the +hearer; when, however, several drums are played simultaneously +or with other instruments the effect is brilliant and exhilarating. +The roll is produced by striking two blows alternately with each +hand quite regularly and very rapidly, the result being a rattling +tremolo. This roll (“daddy-mammy”) is very difficult to +acquire, and requires long practice. The side drum can be +muffled by loosening the snares or by inserting a piece of silk +or cloth between the snares and the parchment. An impressive +effect is produced by a continued roll on muffled drums in funeral +marches. The notation for the side drum is similar to that in use +for the bass drum; the value of the note is alone of importance; +the place of the note on the staff is immaterial and purely a +matter of custom. In orchestral scores, a single line is often +used, or the part for side and bass drum is written on the same +staff. A great variety of rhythmical figures can be played on the +side drum, such as</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:516px; height:103px" src="images/img599b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table> + +<p>The <i>tenor drum</i> (Fr. <i>caisse roulante</i>; Ger. <i>Roll-</i> or <i>Rührtrommel</i>; +Ital. <i>tamburo rulante</i>) is similar to the side drum but has a larger +cylinder of wood and no snares; consequently its timbre lacks +the brilliancy and incisiveness of the side drum. It is used for +the roll in military bands, in some theatre orchestras, and on the +stage.</p> + +<p>The <i>tambourin de Provence</i> is a small drum with a long cylinder +of narrow diameter used in the Basque provinces with a small +pipe (<i>galoubet</i>) having three holes. The drum is beaten with one +stick only, the performer steadying it with the hand which fingers +the pipe. The tambourin and galoubet are in fact a survival of +the pipe and tabor (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<p>The popularity of all kinds of drums in the most ancient +civilizations is established beyond a doubt by the numerous +representations of the instrument in a variety of shapes and +sizes on the monuments and paintings of Egypt, Assyria, +India and Persia. The <i>tympanon</i>, under which name seem to +have been included tambourines and kettledrums, as well as +the dulcimer (during the middle ages), was in use among Greeks +and Romans chiefly in the worship of Cybele and Bacchus; it +was introduced through the medium of the Roman civilization +into western Europe. It is often said that the drum was introduced +by the crusaders, but it was certainly known in England +long before the crusades, for Bede (<i>Musica practica</i>) mentions +it in his list of instruments, and Cassiodorus (ii. p. 507) describes +it. The side drum was, until the reign of Elizabeth, of a much +larger size than now and was held horizontally and beaten on +one head only. It is not known at what date snares were added; +Praetorius (<i>Syntagma musicum</i>, 1618) and Mersenne (<i>L’Harmonie +universelle</i>, Paris, 1636) both mention them. A drawing of a side +drum showing a snare appears in a book<a name="fa2e" id="fa2e" href="#ft2e"><span class="sp">2</span></a> from the printing press +of J. Badius Ascensius (1510); the instrument also has cords +and braces. Another woodcut of the same century is given as +frontispiece to an edition of Flavius Vegetius Renatus.<a name="fa3e" id="fa3e" href="#ft3e"><span class="sp">3</span></a> An actual +side drum with two curved drumsticks belonging to the ancient +Egyptians was found during the excavations conducted at Thebes +in 1823.<a name="fa4e" id="fa4e" href="#ft4e"><span class="sp">4</span></a> It measured 1½ ft. in height by 2 ft. in diameter; the +tension of the heads was regulated by cords braced by means of +catgut encircling both ends of the drum, and wound separately +round each cord so that these could be tightened or slackened +at will by pulling the catgut bands closer together or pushing +them farther apart. The Berlin Museum possesses some ancient +Egyptian straight drumsticks with handle and knob. Drums +were used at the battle of Halidon Hill (1333). An old ballad +celebrating Edward III.’s victory on this occasion appears in a +chronicle of the 14th century, preserved in the British Museum +(Harl. MS. 4690),</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“This was do with merry sowne.</p> +<p class="i05">With pipes trumpes and tabers thereto.</p> +<p class="i05">And loud clariones they blew also.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">A prose account of the battle in the same MS. states that the +“Englische mynstrelles beaten their tabers and blewen their +trompes and pipers pipenede loude and made a great schowte +upon the Skottes.”</p> + +<p>Froissart, under date 1338, gives details of the means taken +by the Scots to intimidate the soldiers of Edward III.<a name="fa5e" id="fa5e" href="#ft5e"><span class="sp">5</span></a> Having +mentioned their great horns, he adds, “ils font si grand’ noise +avec grands tambours qu’ils ont aussi.” The same chronicler, +describing the triumphal entry of Edward III. into Calais (1347), +gives the following list of instruments used: “trompes, tambours, +nacaires, chalemies, muses.”<a name="fa6e" id="fa6e" href="#ft6e"><span class="sp">6</span></a></p> + +<p>Drums were used in the British army in the 16th century to +give signals in war and peace-side drums by the infantry and +dragoons, and kettledrums by the cavalry.<a name="fa7e" id="fa7e" href="#ft7e"><span class="sp">7</span></a> In the reign of +Henry VIII. two drummers were allowed to every company of +100 men. The chief drum beats used by the infantry in the +17th century<a name="fa8e" id="fa8e" href="#ft8e"><span class="sp">8</span></a> were <i>call</i>, <i>troop</i>, <i>preparative</i>, <i>march</i>, <i>battaile</i> and +<i>retreat</i>; these were later<a name="fa9e" id="fa9e" href="#ft9e"><span class="sp">9</span></a> changed to <i>general</i>, <i>réveillé</i>, <i>assembly</i> +or <i>troop</i>, <i>tattoo</i>, <i>chamade</i>, &c. The side drum was admitted into +the orchestra in the 17th century, when Marais (1636-1728) +scored for it in his opera <i>Alcione</i>.</p> +<div class="author">(K. S.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See Victor Mahillon, <i>Catalogue descriptif</i> (Ghent, 1880), vol. i. +pp. 19 and 20.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2e" id="ft2e" href="#fa2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Joannes Mauburnius, <i>Rosetum exercitiorum spiritualium et +sacrarum meditationum</i> (Paris, 1510), Alphabetum, ix.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3e" id="ft3e" href="#fa3e"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Vier Bücher der Ritterschaft; mit manicherleyen gerüsten</i>, &c.; +(Augsburg, 1534).</p> + +<p><a name="ft4e" id="ft4e" href="#fa4e"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Carl Engel, <i>The Music of the Most Ancient Nations</i> (London, +1864), p. 219.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5e" id="ft5e" href="#fa5e"><span class="fn">5</span></a> <i>Chron.</i> ii. p. 737, see also Grose’s <i>Military Antiquities</i>, ii. 41.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6e" id="ft6e" href="#fa6e"><span class="fn">6</span></a> See Froissart in J. A. Buchon, <i>Panthéon litt.</i> (Paris, 1837), vol. i. +cap. 322, p. 273.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7e" id="ft7e" href="#fa7e"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Sir John Smythe, <i>A Brief Discourse</i> (London, 1594), pp. 158-159.</p> + +<p><a name="ft8e" id="ft8e" href="#fa8e"><span class="fn">8</span></a> Lieut.-Col. W. Bariffe, <i>Militarie Discipline, or the Young +Artilleryman</i> (London, 1643).</p> + +<p><a name="ft9e" id="ft9e" href="#fa9e"><span class="fn">9</span></a> Sir James Turner, <i>Pallas armata</i> (1685), xxi. 302.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page600" id="page600"></a>600</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DRUMMOND, HENRY<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> (1786-1860), English banker, politician +and writer, best known as one of the founders of the Catholic +Apostolic or “Irvingite” Church, was born at the Grange, near +Alresford, Hampshire, on the 5th of December 1786. He was the +eldest son of Henry Drummond, a prominent London banker, +by a daughter of the first Lord Melville. He was educated at +Harrow and at Christ Church, Oxford, but took no degree. His +name is permanently connected with the university through the +chair of political economy which he founded in 1825. He +entered parliament in early life, and took an active interest from +the first in nearly all departments of politics. Thoroughly +independent and often eccentric in his views, he yet acted +generally with the Conservative party. His speeches were often +almost inaudible but were generally lucid and informing, and on +occasion caustic and severe. From 1847 until his death in +1860 he represented West Surrey in parliament. Drummond +took a deep interest in religious subjects, and published numerous +books and pamphlets on such questions as the interpretation of +prophecy, the circulation of the Apocrypha, the principles of +Christianity, &c., which attracted considerable attention. In +1817 he met Robert Haldane at Geneva, and continued his +movement against the Socinian tendencies then prevalent in +that city. In later years he was intimately associated with the +origin and spread of the Catholic Apostolic Church. Meetings +of those who sympathized with the views of Edward Irving +were held for the study of prophecy at Drummond’s seat, +Albury Park, in Surrey; he contributed very liberally to the +funds of the new church; and he became one of its leading +office-bearers, visiting Scotland as an “apostle” and being +ordained as an “angel” for that kingdom. The numerous +works he wrote in defence of its distinctive doctrines and practice +were generally clear and vigorous, if seldom convincing. He +died on the 20th of February 1860.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DRUMMOND, HENRY<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> (1851-1897), Scottish evangelical +writer and lecturer, was born in Stirling on the 17th of August +1851. He was educated at Edinburgh University, where he +displayed a strong inclination for physical and mathematical +science. The religious element was an even more powerful +factor in his nature, and disposed him to enter the Free Church +of Scotland. While preparing for the ministry, he became for +a time deeply interested in the evangelizing mission of Moody +and Sankey, in which he actively co-operated for two years. In +1877 he became lecturer on natural science in the Free Church +College, which enabled him to combine all the pursuits for which +he felt a vocation. His studies resulted in his writing <i>Natural +Law in the Spiritual World</i>, the argument of which was that the +scientific principle of continuity extended from the physical +world to the spiritual. Before the book issued from the press +(1883), a sudden invitation from the African Lakes Company +drew Drummond away to Central Africa. Upon his return in +the following year he found himself famous. Large bodies of +serious readers, alike among the religious and the scientific +classes, discovered in <i>Natural Law</i> the common standing-ground +which they needed; and the universality of the demand proved, +if nothing more, the seasonableness of its publication. Drummond +continued to be actively interested in missionary and other +movements among the Free Church students. In 1888 he +published <i>Tropical Africa</i>, a valuable digest of information. +In 1890 he travelled in Australia, and in 1893 delivered the +Lowell Lectures at Boston. It had been his intention to reserve +them for mature revision, but an attempted piracy compelled +him to hasten their publication, and they appeared in 1894 +under the title of <i>The Ascent of Man</i>. Their object was to vindicate +for altruism, or the disinterested care and compassion +of animals for each other, an important part in effecting “the +survival of the fittest,” a thesis previously maintained by +Professor John Fiske. Drummond’s health failed shortly afterwards, +and he died on the 11th of March 1897. His character +was full of charm. His writings were too nicely adapted to the +needs of his own day to justify the expectation that they would +long survive it, but few men exercised more religious influence +in their own generation, especially on young men.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DRUMMOND, THOMAS<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> (1797-1840), British inventor and +administrator, was born at Edinburgh on the 10th of October +1797, and was educated at the high school there. He was +appointed to a cadetship at the Royal Military Academy, +Woolwich, in 1813; and in 1815 he entered the Royal Engineers. +In 1819, when meditating the renunciation of military service +for the bar, he made the acquaintance of Colonel T. F. Colby +(1784-1852), from whom in the following year he received an +appointment on the trigonometrical survey of Great Britain. +During his winters in London he attended the chemical lectures +of W. T. Brande and M. Faraday at the Royal Institution, and +the mention at one of these of the brilliant luminosity of lime +when incandescent suggested to him the employment of the lime +light for making distant surveying stations visible. In 1825, +when he was assisting Colby in the Irish survey, his lime-light +apparatus (“Drummond light”) was put to a practical test, +and enabled observations to be completed between Divis +mountain, near Belfast, and Slieve Snaght, a distance of 67 m. +About the same time he also devised an improved heliostat, and +in 1829 he was employed in adopting his light for lighthouse +purposes. In 1831 he entered political life and was appointed +superintendent of the boundary commission. Four years later +he was made under-secretary of state for Ireland, where he +proved himself a most successful administrator, and did much +to promote law and order. It was he who in 1838 told the Irish +landlords that “property has its duties as well as its rights.” +In 1836 he proposed the appointment of a commission on railways +in Ireland, and took a large share in its work, which resulted +in the recommendation, not, however, carried out, that the state +should construct a system of lines throughout the island. +Drummond’s health was undermined by overwork, and he died +at Dublin on the 15th of April 1840.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Life</i> by J. F. M’Lennan (1867); <i>Life and Letters</i> by R. Barry +O’Brien (1889); and Sir T. A. Larcom in <i>Papers on the Duties of the +Royal Engineers</i>, vol. iv. (1840).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DRUMMOND, WILLIAM<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> (1585-1649), called “of Hawthornden,” +Scottish poet, was born at Hawthornden, near Edinburgh, +on the 13th of December 1585. His father, John Drummond, was +the first laird of Hawthornden; and his mother was Susannah +Fowler, sister of William Fowler (<i>q.v.</i>), poet and courtier. +Drummond received his early education at the high school of +Edinburgh, and graduated in July 1605 as M.A. of the recently +founded university of Edinburgh. His father was a gentleman +usher at the English court (as he had been at the Scottish court +from 1590) and William, in a visit to London in 1606, describes +the festivities in connexion with the visit of the king of Denmark. +Drummond spent two years at Bourges and Paris in the study +of law; and, in 1609, he was again in Scotland, where, by the +death of his father in the following year, he became laird of +Hawthornden at the early age of twenty-four. The list of books +he read up to this time is preserved in his own handwriting. +It indicates a strong preference for imaginative literature, and +shows that he was keenly interested in contemporary verse. +His collection (now in the library of the university of Edinburgh) +contains many first editions of the most famous productions of +the age. On finding himself his own master, Drummond naturally +abandoned law for the muses; “for,” says his biographer in +1711, “the delicacy of his wit always run on the pleasantness +and usefulness of history, and on the fame and softness of +poetry.” In 1612 began his correspondence with Sir William +Alexander of Menstrie, afterwards earl of Stirling (<i>q.v.</i>), which +ripened into a life-long friendship after Drummond’s visit to +Menstrie in 1614.</p> + +<p>Drummond’s first publication appeared in 1613, an elegy on +the death of Henry, prince of Wales, called <i>Teares on the Death +of Meliades</i> (<i>Moeliades</i>, 3rd edit. 1614). The poem shows the +influence of Spenser’s and Sidney’s pastoralism. In the same +year he published an anthology of the elegies of Chapman, +Wither and others, entitled <i>Mausoleum</i>, or <i>The Choisest Flowres +of the Epitaphs</i>. In 1616, the year of Shakespeare’s death, +appeared <i>Poems: Amorous, Funerall, Divine, Pastorall: in +Sonnets, Songs, Sextains, Madrigals</i>, being substantially the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page601" id="page601"></a>601</span> +story of his love for Mary Cunningham of Barns, who was about +to become his wife when she died in 1615. The poems bear +marks of a close study of Sidney, and of the Italian poets. He +sometimes translates direct from the Italian, especially from +Marini. <i>Forth Feasting: A Panegyricke to the King’s Most +Excellent Majestie</i> (1617), a poem written in heroic couplets of +remarkable facility, celebrates James’s visit to Scotland in that +year. In 1618 Drummond began a correspondence with Michael +Drayton. The two poets continued to write at intervals for +thirteen years, the last letter being dated in the year of Drayton’s +death. The latter had almost been persuaded by his “dear +Drummond” to print the later books of <i>Poly-Olbion</i> at Hart’s +Edinburgh press. In the winter of 1618-1619, Drummond had +included Ben Jonson in his circle of literary friends, and at +Christmas 1618 was honoured with a visit of a fortnight or more +from the dramatist. The account of their conversations, long +supposed to be lost, was discovered in the Advocates’ Library, +Edinburgh, by David Laing, and was edited for the Shakespeare +Society in 1842 and printed by Gifford & Cunningham. The +conversations are full of literary gossip, and embody Ben’s +opinion of himself and of his host, whom he frankly told that +“his verses were too much of the schooles, and were not after +the fancie of the time,” and again that he “was too good and +simple, and that oft a man’s modestie made a fool of his witt.” +But the publication of what was obviously intended merely +for a private journal has given Jonson an undeserved reputation +for harsh judgments, and has cast blame on Drummond for +blackening his guest’s memory.</p> + +<p>In 1623 appeared the poet’s fourth publication, entitled +<i>Flowers of Sion: By William Drummond of Hawthornedenne: +to which is adjoyned his Cypresse Grove</i>. From 1625 till 1630 +Drummond was probably for the most part engaged in travelling +on the Continent. In 1627, however, he seems to have been +home for a short time, as, in that year, he appears in the entirely +new character of the holder of a patent for the construction of +military machines, entitled “Litera Magistri Gulielmi Drummond +de Fabrica Machinarum Militarium, Anno 1627.” The same +year, 1627, is the date of Drummond’s munificent gift (referred +to above) of about 500 volumes to the library of the university +of Edinburgh.</p> + +<p>In 1630 Drummond again began to reside permanently at +Hawthornden, and in 1632 he married Elizabeth Logan, by +whom he had five sons and four daughters. In 1633 Charles +made his coronation-visit to Scotland; and Drummond’s pen +was employed in writing congratulatory speeches and verses. +As Drummond preferred Episcopacy to Presbytery, and was an +extremely loyal subject, he supported Charles’s general policy, +though he protested against the methods employed to enforce +it. When Lord Balmerino was put on his trial on the capital +charge of retaining in his possession a petition regarded as a +libel on the king’s government, Drummond in an energetic +“Letter” (1635) urged the injustice and folly of the proceedings. +About this time a claim by the earl of Menteith to the earldom +of Strathearn, which was based on the assertion that Robert III., +husband of Annabella Drummond, was illegitimate, roused the +poet’s pride of blood and prompted him to prepare an historical +defence of his house. Partly to please his kinsman the earl +of Perth, and partly to satisfy his own curiosity, the poet made +researches in the genealogy of the family. This investigation +was the real secret of Drummond’s interest in Scottish history; +and so we find that he now began his <i>History of Scotland during +the Reigns of the Five Jameses</i>, a work which did not appear till +1655, and is remarkable only for its good literary style. His next +work was called forth by the king’s enforced submission to the +opposition of his Scottish subjects. It is entitled <i>Irene: or a +Remonstrance for Concord, Amity, and Love amongst His Majesty’s +Subjects</i> (1638), and embodies Drummond’s political creed of +submission to authority as the only logical refuge from democracy, +which he hated. In 1639 Drummond had to sign the Covenant +in self-protection, but was uneasy under the burden, as several +political squibs by him testify. In 1643 he published <span class="grk" title="Skiamachia">Σκιαμαχία</span>: +<i>or a Defence of a Petition tendered to the Lords of the Council of +Scotland by certain Noblemen and Gentlemen</i>, a political pamphlet +in support of those royalists in Scotland who wished to espouse +the king’s cause against the English parliament. Its burden is +an invective on the intolerance of the then dominant Presbyterian +clergy.</p> + +<p>His later works may be described briefly as royalist pamphlets, +written with more or less caution, as the times required. Drummond +took the part of Montrose; and a letter from the Royalist +leader in 1646 acknowledged his services. He also wrote a +pamphlet, “A Vindication of the Hamiltons,” supporting the +claims of the duke of Hamilton to lead the Scottish army which +was to release Charles I. It is said that Drummond’s health +received a severe shock when news was brought of the king’s +execution. He died on the 4th of December 1649. He was +buried in his parish church of Lasswade.</p> + +<p>Drummond’s most important works are the <i>Cypresse Grove</i> +and the poems. The <i>Cypresse Grove</i> exhibits great wealth of +illustration, and an extraordinary command of musical English. +It is an essay on the folly of the fear of death. “This globe of +the earth,” says he, “which seemeth huge to us, in respect of +the universe, and compared with that wide pavilion of heaven, +is less than little, of no sensible quantity, and but as a point.” +This is one of Drummond’s favourite moods; and he uses +constantly in his poems such phrases as “the All,” “this great +All.” Even in such of his poems as may be called more distinctively +Christian, this philosophic conception is at work.</p> + +<p>A noteworthy feature in Drummond’s poetry, as in that of +his courtier contemporaries Ayton (<i>q.v.</i>), Lord Stirling and +others, is that it manifests no characteristic Scottish element, +but owes its birth and inspiration rather to the English and +Italian masters. Drummond was essentially a follower of +Spenser, but, amid all his sensuousness, and even in those lines +most conspicuously beautiful, there is a dash of melancholy +thoughtfulness—a tendency deepened by the death of his first +love, Mary Cunningham. Drummond was called “the Scottish +Petrarch”; and his sonnets, which are the expression of a +genuine passion, stand far above most of the contemporary +Petrarcan imitations. A remarkable burlesque poem <i>Polemo-Middinia +inter Vitarvam et Nebernam</i> (printed anonymously in +1684) has been persistently, and with good reason, ascribed to +him. It is a mock-heroic tale, in dog-Latin, of a country feud +on the Fifeshire lands of his old friends the Cunninghams.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Drummond’s <i>Poems</i>, with <i>Cypresse Grove</i>, the <i>History</i>, and a few +of the minor tracts, were collected in 1656 and edited by Edward +Phillips, Milton’s nephew. <i>The Works of William Drummond, of +Hawthornden</i> (1711), edited by Bishop Sage and Thomas Ruddiman, +contains a life by the former, and some of the poet’s letters. A +handsome edition of the <i>Poems</i> was printed by the Maitland Club +in 1832. Later editions are by Peter Cunningham (1833), by +William R. Turnbull in “The Library of Old Authors” (1856), and +by W. C. Ward (1894) for “The Muses’ Library.” The standard +biography of Drummond is by David Masson (1873). Extracts from +the Hawthornden MSS. preserved in the Library of the Society of +Antiquaries of Scotland were printed by David Laing in <i>Archaeologia +Scotica</i>, vol. iv.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DRUNKENNESS,<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> a term signifying generally a state resulting +from excessive drinking, and usually associated with alcoholic +intoxication, or alcohol poisoning. It may represent either an +<i>act</i> or a <i>habit</i>, the latter consisting in frequent repetitions of the +former. As an act it may be an accident, most usually arising +from the incautious use of one or other of the commonly employed +intoxicating agents; as a habit (as in the form of chronic +alcoholism) it is one of the most degrading forms of vice which +can result from the enfeeblement of the moral principle by +persistent self-indulgence.</p> + +<p>What appears to be “intoxication” may arise from many +different causes (<i>e.g.</i> epilepsy, fractured skull, intracranial +haemorrhage, and the toxaemic coma of diabetes and uraemia), +and the close resemblance between the pathological and the +toxic phenomena has been the cause of many untoward accidents. +Cold alone may produce such peculiar effects that Captain Parry +said in his <i>Journal</i>, “I cannot help thinking that many a man +may have been punished for intoxication who was only suffering +from the benumbing effects of frost; for I have more than once +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page602" id="page602"></a>602</span> +seen our people in a state so exactly resembling that of the most +stupid intoxication, that I should certainly have charged them +with the offence had I not been quite sure that no possible means +were afforded them on Melville Island to procure anything +stronger than snow water.” The same confusion is frequently +found in cases which come before the police-courts, people being +arrested as “drunk and disorderly” who can prove that the +symptoms were not due to over-indulgence in drink at all. +Some individuals have, moreover, a special idiosyncrasy or +susceptibility to alcohol, due to heredity or to one of the sequelae +of sunstroke or cranial injury. The children of drunkards are +usually very susceptible to the poison, becoming intoxicated by +a far smaller quantity than is needed by a normal person.</p> + +<p>But, as a rule, the phenomena of drunkenness are actually +due to excessive consumption of some intoxicating liquid. +The physiological action of all such agents may be described as +a cumulative production of paralysis of various parts of the +nervous system, but this effect results only in doses of a certain +amount—a dose which varies with the agent, the race and the +individual. Even the cup so often said to “cheer, but not +inebriate,” cannot be regarded as altogether free from the last-named +effect. Tea-sots are well known to be affected with +palpitation and irregularity of the heart, as well as with more +or less sleeplessness, mental irritability and muscular tremors, +which in some culminate in paralysis; while positive intoxication +has been known to be the result of the excessive use of strong tea. +In short, from tea to haschisch we have, through hops, alcohol, +tobacco and opium, a sort of graduated scale of intoxicants, +which stimulate in small doses and narcotize in larger,—the +narcotic dose having no stimulating properties whatever, and +only appearing to possess them from the fact that the agent can +only be gradually taken up by the blood, and the system thus +comes primarily under the influence of a stimulant dose. In +certain circumstances and with certain agents—as in the production +of chloroform narcosis—this precursory stage is capable +of being much abbreviated, if not altogether annihilated; while +with other agents—as tea—the narcotic stage is by no means +always or readily produced.</p> + +<p>No subject in modern times has led to more extreme opinions +than this of indulgence in “intoxicants” to any degree whatever. +It is well to remember that (in spite of apparently authoritative +modern views to the contrary) there is not a shadow of proof +that the moderate use of any one of these agents as a stimulant +has any definite tendency to lead to its abuse; it is otherwise +with their employment as narcotics, which, once indulged in, is +almost certain to lead to repetition, and to a more or less rapid +process of degradation, though there are many exceptions to +this latter statement. It is interesting to know that a former +English judge, who lived to nearly ninety years of age, believed he +had prolonged his life and added greatly to his comfort by the +moderate use of ether, which he was led to employ because +neither wine nor tobacco agreed with him; while the immoderate +use of the same agent has given rise to a most deleterious form +of drunkenness, both in parts of Ireland and in some of the large +industrial centres in Great Britain.</p> + +<p>Various modern biologists have discussed, with more or less +acceptance in certain circles, the historical conditions in various +races and in different countries as to the use and abuse of intoxicants, +and have drawn varying conclusions from their +theories. It has even been contended, with much show of learned +authority, that since drunkenness leads to disease and early +death, the proneness to strong drink in the long run causes the +elimination of the unfit, and results in a general sobering of the +community, a race being therefore temperate in proportion to +its past sufferings through alcohol. But on this subject it may +be said that, at least, no agreement has been reached.</p> + +<p>The effects of intoxicants are variously modified by the temperament +of the individual and the nature of the inebriant. +When that is alcohol, its action on an average individual is first +to fill him with a serene and perfect self-complacency. His +feelings and faculties are exalted into a state of great activity +and buoyancy, so that his language becomes enthusiastic, and +his conversation vivacious if not brilliant. The senses gradually +become hazy, a soft humming seems to fill the pauses of the +conversation, and modify the tones of the speaker, a filmy haze +obscures the vision, the head seems lighter than usual, the +equilibrium unstable. By-and-by objects appear double, or flit +confusedly before the eyes; judgment is abolished, secretiveness +annihilated, and the drunkard pours forth all that is +within him with unrestrained communicativeness; he becomes +boisterous, ridiculous, and sinks at length into a mere animal. +Every one around him, the very houses, trees, even the earth +itself, seem drunken and unstable, he alone sober, till at last the +final stage is reached, and he falls on the ground insensible—<i>dead +drunk</i> (alcoholic coma)—a state from which, after profound +slumber, he at last awakes feverish, exhausted, sick and giddy, +with ringing ears, a throbbing heart and a violent headache.</p> + +<p>The poison primarily affects the cerebral lobes, and the other +parts of the cerebro-spinal system are consecutively involved, till +in the state of <i>dead-drunkenness</i> the only parts not invaded by +a benumbing paralysis are those automatic centres in the medulla +oblongata which regulate and maintain the circulation and +respiration. But even these centres are not unaffected; the +paralysis of these as of the other sections of the cerebro-spinal +system varies in its incompleteness, and at times becomes +complete, the coma of drunkenness terminating in death. More +usually the intoxicant is gradually eliminated, and the individual +restored to consciousness, a consciousness disturbed by the +secondary results of the agent he has abused, which vary with +the nature of that agent. Whether, however, directly or indirectly +through the nervous system, the stomach suffers in +every case; thus nutrition is interfered with by the defective +ingestion of food, as well as by the mal-assimilation of that +which is ingested; and from this cause, as well as by the peculiar +local action of the various poisons, the various organic degenerations +are induced (cirrhosis of the liver, &c.) which in most cases +shorten the drunkard’s days.</p> + +<p>The primary discomforts of an act of drunkenness are readily +removed for the time by a repetition of the cause. Thus what +has been an act may readily become a habit, all the more readily +that each repetition more and more enfeebles both the will and +the judgment, till they become utterly unfit to resist the +temptation to indulgence supplied by the knowledge of the +temporary relief to suffering which is sure to follow, and in spite +of the consciousness that each repetition of the act only forges +their chains more tightly. From this condition there is no hope +of relief but in enforced abstinence; any one in this condition +must be regarded as temporarily insane (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Insanity</a></span> and +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Neuropathology</a></span>), and ought to be placed in an inebriate +asylum till he regain sufficient self-control to enable him to +overcome his love for drink. Numerous “cures” have been +started in recent years, which have often succeeded in individual +cases. An anti-alcoholic serum obtained from alcoholized +horses has been advocated by Dr Sapelier.</p> + +<p>For the law concerning drunkenness the reader is referred to +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Inebriety, Law of</a></span>. Its prevalence as a vice has varied considerably +according to the state of education or comfort in +different classes of society. In considering the extent to which +intemperance has prevailed, the statistics of prosecutions upon +which such comparisons are usually based are far from being +completely satisfactory, but, inasmuch as they constitute the +only possible data for such comparisons, we are compelled to +accept them. The following table gives the average number +of persons per 1000 of the population proceeded against for +drunkenness in England and Wales for quinquennial periods, +dating from 1857, the first year of the Judicial Statistics:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 30%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc">1857-1861</td> <td class="tcc">4.28</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1862-1866</td> <td class="tcc">4.78</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1867-1871</td> <td class="tcc">5.47</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1872-1876</td> <td class="tcc">7.83</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1877-1881</td> <td class="tcc">7.25</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1882-1886</td> <td class="tcc">6.90</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1887-1891</td> <td class="tcc">6.19</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1892-1896</td> <td class="tcc">5.84</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1897-1901</td> <td class="tcc">6.42</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1902-1906</td> <td class="tcc">6.51</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page603" id="page603"></a>603</span></p> + +<p>The figures, it will be seen, show a steady decline from 1872-1876 +(when the consumption of alcohol was quite abnormal) +to 1892-1896. After that year, however, the figures again rose. +The increase was especially marked in 1899, when a tide of +exceptional prosperity was again accompanied by great drunkenness. +It is also disquieting to discover that the average number +of prosecutions for drunkenness in the three years 1897-1899 +was 51% higher than the average for 1857-1861, and 35% +higher than the average for 1862-1866. That the increase was +partly due to more efficient police administration is probable, +but that this is not a complete explanation of the figures is +made evident by an analysis of the general statistics of crime +during the same period, from which it may be seen that, while +crime generally (excluding drunkenness) decreased 28% in +England and Wales since 1857-1861, drunkenness increased +51%. Speaking generally, it may be said that in the United +Kingdom drunkenness appears chiefly prevalent in the seaport +and mining districts. If a line be drawn from the mouth of the +Severn to the Wash, it will be found that the “black” counties, +without exception, lie to the north-west of this line. The worst +counties in England and Wales in the matter of drunkenness +are Northumberland, Durham and Glamorganshire, while +Pembrokeshire and Lancashire follow close behind. The most +sober counties, on the other hand, are Cambridgeshire, Suffolk, +Oxfordshire and Wiltshire. Averages based upon the returns +of entire counties do not, however, afford a complete guide to +the distribution of drunkenness, inasmuch as offences are not +equally distributed over the whole area of a county. A heavy +ratio of drunkenness in a small district may often give a county +an unfavourable position in the general averages, notwithstanding +favourable conditions in the rest of its area.</p> + +<p>Analysis of the prosecutions for drunkenness shows that about +24% of the total number of offences are committed by women. +In the larger towns the proportion, as a rule, is higher. In +London, 38% of the drunkenness is attributable to women; +in Manchester, 36%; in Belfast and Glasgow, 32%. In +Liverpool, on the other hand, the proportion is only 24%. +The much-controverted question as to whether intemperance +is increasing among women can hardly, however, be decided +by an appeal to the criminal statistics. So far as these statistics +throw any light at all upon the question, they suggest important +local differences. A more direct clue is afforded by the registrar-general’s +annual returns of deaths directly attributed to intemperance. +The figures are given below. In order to eliminate +accidental variations, the comparison is based upon the average +mortality during consecutive periods:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Years.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Average No. of deaths<br />(England and Wales).</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Males<br />per cent.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Females<br />per cent.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1877-1881</td> <td class="tcc rb">1071</td> <td class="tcc rb">69</td> <td class="tcc rb">31</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1882-1886</td> <td class="tcc rb">1320</td> <td class="tcc rb">66</td> <td class="tcc rb">34</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1887-1891</td> <td class="tcc rb">1710</td> <td class="tcc rb">64</td> <td class="tcc rb">36</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1892-1896</td> <td class="tcc rb">2044</td> <td class="tcc rb">61</td> <td class="tcc rb">39</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1897-1899</td> <td class="tcc rb">2577</td> <td class="tcc rb">61</td> <td class="tcc rb">39</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">1899</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2871</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">60</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">40</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>For the ten years ending 1904, out of 26,426 deaths from +alcoholism, 59.34% were males and 40.66% females.</p> + +<p>The figures are certainly striking. They show, it will be noticed, +that out of every 100 deaths from alcoholic excess in England +and Wales women contributed nine more at the end of the +century then they did in 1880. If, instead of taking the total +number of deaths, we take the ratio per million persons living, +the increase is seen even more clearly:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Years.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Males per<br />million living.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Females per<br />million living.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1877-1881</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 60</td> <td class="tcc rb">25</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1882-1886</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 67 </td> <td class="tcc rb">32</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1887-1891</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 79</td> <td class="tcc rb">42</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1892-1896</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 86</td> <td class="tcc rb">51</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1897-1899</td> <td class="tcc rb">103 </td> <td class="tcc rb">63</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">1899</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">112</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">70</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>It appears that, while the ratio of mortality from alcoholic +excess increased 87% among males during the last two +decades of the century, among females it increased by no less +than 180%.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Liquor Laws</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Temperance</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DRURY, SIR WILLIAM<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> (1527-1579), English statesman and +soldier, was a son of Sir Robert Drury of Hedgerley in Buckinghamshire, +and grandson of another Sir Robert Drury (d. 1536), +who was speaker of the House of Commons in 1495. He was +born at Hawstead in Suffolk on the 2nd of October 1527, and +was educated at Gonville Hall, Cambridge. Fighting in France, +Drury was taken prisoner in 1544; then after his release he +helped Lord Russell, afterwards earl of Bedford, to quell a rising +in Devonshire in 1549, but he did not come to the front until +the reign of Elizabeth. In 1559 he was sent to Edinburgh to +report on the condition of Scottish politics, and five years +later he became marshal and deputy-governor of Berwick. Again +in Scotland in January 1570, it is interesting to note that the +regent James Stewart, earl of Murray, was proceeding to keep +an appointment with Drury in Linlithgow when he was mortally +wounded, and it was probably intended to murder the English +envoy also. After this event Drury led two raids into Scotland; +at least thrice he went to that country on more peaceable errands, +during which, however, his life was continually in danger from +assassins; and he commanded the force which compelled +Edinburgh Castle to surrender in May 1573. In 1576 he was +sent to Ireland as president of Munster, where his stern rule +was very successful, and in 1578 he became lord justice to the +Irish council, taking the chief control of affairs after the departure +of Sir Henry Sidney. The rising of the earl of Desmond had +just broken out when Sir William died in October 1579.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Drury’s letters to Lord Burghley and others are invaluable for the +story of the relations between England and Scotland at this time.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DRUSES,<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Druzes</span> (Arab. <i>Druz</i>), a people of mid-Syria (for +the derivation of the name see History section below), distributed +nowadays into three isolated groups, of which the most numerous +inhabits Jebel Hauran (Jebel Druz), E. of Jordan (about 55,000); +the second, the <i>cazas</i> of Shuf and Metn in Lebanon (about +50,000); the third, the <i>cazas</i> of Hasbeya, Rasheya, W. al Ajem, +Homs, Hamadiyeh and Selimiyeh in Anti-Lebanon and Hermon +(about 45,000). The first group, which has been greatly increased +by migrants from the second, since the establishment of the +privileged Lebanon province (1861) under Christian auspices, +lives apart from other peoples in semi-independence. The +second is now confined to the southern Lebanon, and even there +is greatly outnumbered by Maronites, who, in the whole “Mountain,” +stand to Druses as 9 to 2. The third is counterbalanced +everywhere by a large population of Moslem and Orthodox +Syrians. The Hauran, therefore, has become the stronghold +of the Druses, offering nowadays the best field for studying +their peculiar customs and religion; and the group there still +increases at the expense of the other groups, despite efforts on +the part of the Ottoman government to check Druse migration +by both conciliatory and repressive measures. The actual +distinction of the Druses, as a racial unity, despite their dispersion, +depends so exclusively on the peculiarity of their common +religion, that it will be well at once to give an account of Druse +creed and practice as they are understood to stand at the present +day. How this religion may have grown up and come to be +theirs will be considered later.</p> + +<p><i>Religion.</i>—Druse religion is a secret faith, and the following +account is given with all reserves. There are many indications +that a more primitive cult, containing elements of Nature +worship, preceded it, and still survives in the popular practices +of the more remote Druse districts, <i>e.g.</i> in the eastern Hauran. +The <i>Muwahhidin</i> (Unitarians), as the Druses call themselves, +believe that there is one and only one God, indefinable, incomprehensible, +ineffable, passionless. He has made himself known +to men by successive incarnations, of which the last was Hakim, +the sixth Fatimite caliph. How many these incarnations have +been is stated variously; but seventy, one for each period of +the world, seems the best-attested number. Jesus appears to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page604" id="page604"></a>604</span> +be accepted as one such incarnation, but not Mahomet, although +it is agreed that, in his time, the “Universal Intelligence” +(see later) was made flesh, in the person of Mikdad al-Aswad. +No further incarnation can now take place: in Hakim a final +appeal was made to mankind, and after the door of mercy had +stood open to all for twenty-six years, it was finally and for ever +closed. When the tribulation of the faithful has reached its +height, Hakim will reappear to conquer the world and render +his religion supreme. Druses, believed to be dispersed in China, +will return to Syria. The combined body of the Faithful will +take Mecca, and finally Jerusalem, and all the world will accept +the Faith. The first of the creatures of God is the Universal +Intelligence or Spirit, impersonated in Hamza, Hakim’s vizier. +This Spirit was the creator of all subordinate beings, and alone +has immediate communion with the Deity. Next in rank, and +equally supporting the throne of the Almighty, are four Ministering +Spirits, the Soul, the Word, the Right Wing and the Left +Wing, who, in Hakim’s time, were embodied respectively in +Ismael Darazi, Mahommed ibn Wahab, Selama ibn Abd al-Wahal +and Baha ud-Din; and beneath these again are spiritual +agents of various ranks. The material world is an emanation +from, and a “mirror” of, the Divine Intelligence. The number +of human beings admits neither of increase nor of decrease, +and a regular process of metempsychosis goes on continually. +The souls of the virtuous pass after death into ever new incarnations +of greater perfection, till at last they reach a point at +which they can be re-absorbed into the Deity itself; those of +the wicked may be degraded to the level of camels or dogs. All +previous religions are mere types of the true, and their sacred +books and observances are to be interpreted allegorically. The +Gospel and the Koran are both regarded as inspired books, but +not as religious guides. The latter function is performed solely +by the Druse Scriptures. As the admission of converts is no +longer permitted, the faithful are enjoined to keep their doctrine +secret from the profane; and in order that their allegiance may +not bring them into danger, they are allowed (like Persian +mystics) to make outward profession of whatever religion is +dominant around them. To this latter indulgence is to be +attributed the apparent indifferentism which leads to their +joining Moslems in prayers and ablutions, or sprinkling themselves +with holy water in Maronite churches. Obedience is required +to the seven commandments of Hamza, the first and greatest +of which enjoins truth in words (but only those of Druse speaking +with Druse); the second, watchfulness over the safety of the +brethren; the third, absolute renunciation of every other +religion; the fourth, complete separation from all who are in +error; the fifth, recognition of the unity of “Our Lord” in all +ages; the sixth, complete resignation to his will; and the +seventh, complete obedience to his orders. Prayer, however, +is regarded as an impertinent interference with the Creator; +while, at the same time, instead of the fatalistic predestination +of Mahommedanism, the freedom of the human will is distinctly +maintained. Not only is the charge of secrecy rigidly obeyed +in regard to the alien world, but full initiation into the deeper +mysteries of the creed is permitted only to a special class designated +<i>Akils</i>, (Arabic <i>‘Akl</i>, intelligence), in contradistinction from +whom all other members of the Druse community, whatever +may be their position or attainments, are called <i>Jahel</i>, the +Ignorant. About 15% of the adult population belong to the +order of Akils. Admission is granted to any Druse of either +sex who expresses willingness to conform to the laws of the +society, and during a year of probation gives sufficient proof of +sincerity and stability of purpose. There appears to be no +formal distinction of rank among the various members; and +though the amir, Beshir Shehab, used to appoint a sheikh of the +Akils, the person thus distinguished obtained no primacy over +his fellows. Exceptional influence depends upon exceptional +sanctity or ability. All are required to abstain from tobacco +and wine; the women used not to be allowed to wear gold or +silver, or silk or brocade, but this rule is commonly broken now; +and although neither celibacy nor retirement from the affairs +of the world is either imperative or customary, unusual respect +is shown to those who voluntarily submit themselves to ascetic +discipline. While the Akils mingle frankly with the common +people, and are remarkably free from clerical pretension, they +are none the less careful to maintain their privileges. They +are distinguished by the wearing of a white turban, emblematic +of the purity of their life. Their food must be purchased with +money lawfully acquired; and lest they should unwittingly +partake of any that is ceremonially unclean, they require those +Jahels, whose hospitality they share, to supply their wants from +a store set apart for their exclusive use. The ideal Akil is grave, +calm and dignified, with an infinite capacity of keeping a secret, +and a devotion that knows no limits to the interests of his +creed. On Thursday evening, the commencement of the weekly +day of rest, the members of the order meet together in the +various districts, probably for the reading of their sacred books +and consultation on matters of ecclesiastical or political importance. +Their meeting-houses, <i>khalwas</i>, are plain, unornamented +edifices. These have property attached to them, the revenues +of which are consecrated to the relief of the poor and the demands +of hospitality. In the eastern Hauran, there are hill-top +shrines containing each a black stone, on which rugs, &c., are +hung, and these seem to perpetuate features of pre-Islamic +Arabian cult, including the sacrifice of animals, <i>e.g.</i> goats. They +are held in reverence by the Bedouins. The women assemble +in the <i>khalwas</i> at the same time as the men, a part of the space +being fenced off for them by a semi-transparent black veil. +Even while the Akils are assembled, strangers are readily enough +admitted to the <i>khalwas</i>; but as long as these are present the +ordinary ceremonies are neglected, and the Koran takes the +place of the Druse Scriptures. It has been frequently asserted +that the image of a calf is kept in a niche, and traces of phallic +and gynaecocratic worship have been vaguely suspected; +but there is no authentic information in support of either statement. +The calf, if calf there be, is probably a symbol of the +execrable heresy of Darazi, who is frequently styled the calf by +his Orthodox opponents. Ignorance is the mother of suspicion +as well as of superstition; and accordingly the Christian inhabitants +of the Lebanon have long been persuaded that the +Druses in their secret assemblies are guilty of the most nefarious +practices. For this allegation, so frequently repeated by European +writers, there seems to be little evidence; and it is certain +that the sacred books of the religion contain moral teaching of a +high order on the whole.</p> + +<p>As a formulated creed, the Druse system is not a thousand +years old. In the year <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 996 (386 A.H.) Hakim Biamrillahi +(<i>i.e.</i> he who judges by the command of God), sixth of the Fatimite +caliphs (third in Egypt), began to reign; and during the next +twenty-five years he indulged in a tyranny at once so terrible +and so fantastic that little doubt can be entertained of his +insanity. He believed that he held direct intercourse with the +deity, or even that he was an incarnation of the divine intelligence; +and in <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1016 (407 <span class="sc">a.h.</span>) his claims were made known +in the mosque at Cairo, and supported by the testimony of +Ismael Darazi. The people showed such bitter hostility to the +new gospel that Darazi was compelled to seek safety in flight; +but even in absence he was faithful to his god, and succeeded +in winning over certain ignorant inhabitants of Lebanon. According +to the Druses, this great conversion took place in <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1019 +(410 <span class="sc">a.h.</span>). Meanwhile the endeavours of the caliph to get +his divinity acknowledged by the people of Cairo continued. +The advocacy of Hasan ibn Haidara Fergani was without +avail; but in 1017 (408 <span class="sc">a.h.</span>) the new religion found a more +successful apostle in the person of Hamza ibn Ali ibn Ahmed, +a Persian mystic, felt-maker by trade, who became Hakim’s +vizier, gave form and substance to his creed, and by an ingenious +adaptation of its various dogmas to the prejudices of existing +sects, finally enlisted an extensive body of adherents. In 1020 +(411 A.H.) the caliph was assassinated by contrivance of his +sister Sitt ul-Mulk; but it was given out by Hamza that he had +only withdrawn for a season, and his followers were encouraged to +look forward with confidence to his triumphant return. Darazi, +who had acted independently in his apostolate, was branded +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page605" id="page605"></a>605</span> +by Hamza as a heretic, and thus, by a curious anomaly, he is +actually held in detestation by the very sect which perhaps +bears his name. The propagation of the faith in accordance +with Hamza’s initiation was undertaken by Ismael ibn Mahommed +Tamimi, Mahommed ibn Wahab, Abul-Khair Selama ibn +Abd al-Wahal ibn Samurri, and Moktana Baha ud-Din, the +last of whom became known by his writings from Constantinople +to the borders of India. In two letters addressed to the emperors +Constantine VIII. and Michael the Paphlagonian he +endeavoured to prove that the Christian Messiah reappeared +in the person of Hamza.</p> + +<p>It is possible, even probable, that the segregation of the +Druses as a people dates only from the adoption of Hamza’s +creed. But when it is recalled that other inhabitants of the +same mountain system, <i>e.g.</i> the Maronites, the Ansarieh, the +Metawali and the “Isma‘ilites,” also profess creeds which, like +the Druse system, differ from Sunni Islam in the important +feature of admitting incarnations of the Deity, it is impossible +not to suspect that Hamza’s emissaries only gave definition and +form to beliefs long established in this part of the world. Many +of the fundamental ideas of Druse theology belong to a common +West Asiatic stock; but the peculiar history of the Mountain +is no doubt responsible for beliefs, held elsewhere by different +peoples, being combined there in a single creed. Some allowance, +too, must be made for the probability that Hamza’s system owed +something to doctrines Christian and other, with which the metropolitan +position of Cairo brought Fatimite society into contact.</p> + +<p><i>History</i>—There is good reason to regard the Druses as, racially, +a mixture of refugee stocks, in which the Arab largely predominates, +grafted on to an original mountain population of Aramaic +blood and Incarnationist tendencies. The latter is represented +more purely by the Maronites (<i>q.v.</i>). The native tradition +regards an immigration of Hira Arabs into S. Lebanon, under +Khalid ibn Walid in the 9th century, as the beginning of Druse +distinctiveness and power; but it also accepts Turkoman and +Kurdish elements in the original Druse state. About the same +time, or a little later (in the reign of Saladin), it believes that +Hermon was colonized by a population of 15,000 Hira and +Yemenite Arabs, who had sojourned awhile in Hauran. The +name Druse is met with first in Benjamin of Tudela (c. <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1170), +and its origin has been much disputed. Some authorities see +in it a descriptive epithet, derived from Arabic <i>darasa</i> (those +who <i>read</i> the Book), or <i>darisa</i> (those in <i>possession</i> of Truth) +or <i>durs</i> (the <i>clever</i> or <i>initiated</i>); but more connect it with the +name of the first missionary, Ismael <i>Darazi</i>.</p> + +<p>As soon as we begin to know anything of the Druses they were +living in a feudal state of society, as village communities under +<i>sheikhs</i>, themselves generally subordinate to one or more amirs. +In the time of the first crusades the main power was in the hands +of the Arslan family, which, however, suffered so severely in +wars with the Franks, that it was superseded by the Tnuhs, who, +holding Beirut and nearly all the Phoenician coast, came into +conflict with the sultans of Egypt. One of these latter, Malik +Ashraf, about <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1300, forced outward compliance with Sunni +Islam on the Mountain, after defeating the Druses at Ain Sofar. +Meanwhile, however, the <i>Maan</i> family, lately immigrant from +N. Arabia, was growing in power, and throwing in its lot with the +Osmanli invaders in the reign of Selim I., it was promoted to the +supreme amirate about 1517. Fakr ud-Din Maan II. increased +Druse dominion until it included all the N. Syrian region from +the edge of the Antioch plain to Acre, with part of the eastern +desert, dominated by his castle at Tadmor (Palmyra), and the +important towns of Latakia, Tripoli, Beirut and Saida; and +forming further ambitious designs, he intrigued with Christians +and broke with the Turks. In 1614 the pasha of Damascus +moved against him with a large force, and compelled him to fly +from Syria. He sought the courts of Tuscany and Naples and +tried to enlist Frank sympathies, inventing (probably) the +curious myth, so often credited since, that the Druses are of +crusading origin and owe their name to the counts of Dreux.<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +He landed again at Saida in 1619 and recovered his old position. +But in 1633 Kuchuk Ahmed Pasha was sent against him with +a large army, and succeeded in capturing him with his sons. +The family was sent to Constantinople, and two years later +strangled. The dynasty struggled on till the end of the century, +amid civil war, in which the parties seem to have been divided +by the earlier Arab factions of Kaisites (Qaisites) and Yemenites, +the Maan belonging to the latter.</p> + +<p>The Shehab family, originally Hira Arabs, which had governed +Hauran under the early caliphs of Damascus, and thereafter +held power in Hermon, intermarried with the Maan; and in the +latter’s day of weakness sided with the Kaisi faction and obtained +the supreme amirate of the Mountain. But it appears never to +have professed the Druse creed, remaining Sunnite. Haidar +Shehab, third of the line, inflicted a notable defeat on the pasha of +Saida (capital of an Ottoman eyalet since 1688) and the Yemenite +Druses at Ain Dara, near Zahleh, in 1711, and proceeded to +consolidate Shehab power, breaking up the old feudal society +and substituting for the sheikhs <i>mukatajis</i> (tax-contractors), +who had penal jurisdiction. The Yemenite Druses thereupon +emigrated in large numbers to the Hauran, and laid the foundation +of Druse power there. The Turks recognized the <i>status quo</i>, +and made terms with the Shehab amir in 1748; but his power +was none too well secured against the opposition of the Kurdish +<i>Jumblat</i> family, even though he was supported by the <i>Talhuk</i>, +<i>Abd al-Malik</i> and <i>Yezbeki</i> families; and it appears that some +members of the Shehab joined the Maronite faith in the middle +of the 18th century, causing a suspicion of secret apostasy to +fall on all the family.</p> + +<p>It is said that the amir Beshir, who succeeded about 1786, was +himself a crypto-Christian. This remarkable man, who ruled +the Mountain for fifty-four years, maintained his power by taking +the side of one rebel pasha after another, betraying each in turn, +and cultivating relations with European admirals. His earliest +ally was Ahmed “Jezzar,” who established himself in Acre in +contumacious independence late in the 18th century. Beshir +supported Jezzar against Napoleon in 1799 and earned the +friendship of Sir Sidney Smith. Falling out with Jezzar, Beshir +fled to Cairo in 1805, attached himself to Mehemet Ali, and +returned to take up the reins. Once more chased out by the +Turks, he was again in the Mountain in 1823, allied with Abdallah, +on whom Jezzar’s mantle had ultimately fallen at Acre, and +maintaining friendly relations with the “English Princess,” +Lady Hester Stanhope. He now finally worsted the Jumblat. +The invasion of Syria by Mehemet Ali in 1831 caused Beshir to +desert Abdallah and throw in his lot with Ibrahim Pasha; but +he was not cordially followed by the Druses in general, and had +good excuse for revolt in 1839, and intrigue with the British +admiral in 1840. Ibrahim, however, by his possession of Druse +hostages, restrained the amir, and after the bombardment of +Acre, the Turks called him to account for his record of rebellion +and treachery. He fled to Malta on a British ship, but was +induced to go to Constantinople, where he died in 1851.</p> + +<p>His successor, Beshir al-Kassim, openly joined the Maronites, +and instigating these against the malcontents of his own people, +brought enmities, which had been growing for a century, to a +head, and initiated a devastating internecine warfare which was +to continue for twenty years. The state of the Lebanon went +from bad to worse, and at last, in January 1842, the Turkish +government appointed Omar Pasha as administrator of the +Druses and Maronites, with a council of four chiefs from each +party; but the pasha, attempting to effect a disarming, was +besieged in November in the castle of Beit ed-Din by the Druses +under Shibli el-Arrian. At the instigation of the European +powers he was recalled in December, and the Druses and Maronites +were placed under separate <i>kaimakams</i> (governors), who, +it was stipulated, were not to be of the family of Shehab. Disturbances +again broke out in 1845, the native <i>mukatajis</i> refusing +to obey the <i>kaimakams</i>. The Maronites flew to arms, but with +the assistance of the Turks their opponents carried the day. +A superficial pacification effected by Shekib Effendi, the Ottoman +commissioner, lasted only till his departure; and the Porte +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page606" id="page606"></a>606</span> +was obliged to despatch a force of 12,000 men to the Lebanon. +Forty of the chiefs were seized, the people was nominally disarmed, +and in 1846 a new constitution was inaugurated, by +which the <i>kaimakam</i> was to be assisted by two Druses, two +Maronites, four Greeks, two Turks and one Metawali. All, +however, was in vain: the conflict was continued through 1858, +1859 and 1860; and the disturbance culminated in the famous +Damascus massacre (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Syria</a></span>). The European powers now +determined to interfere; and, by a protocol of the 3rd of May +1860, it was decided that the Lebanon should be occupied by a +force of 20,000 men, of whom half were to be French. A body +of troops was accordingly landed on the 16th of August under +General Beaufort d’Hautpoul; and Fuad Pasha, who had been +appointed Turkish commissioner with full powers, proceeded +to bring the leaders of the massacres to justice. The French +occupation continued till the 5th of June 1861, and the French +and English squadrons cruised on the coast for several months +after. In accordance with the recommendation of the European +powers the Porte determined to appoint a Christian governor +not belonging to the district, and independent of the pasha of +Beirut, to hold office for three years. The choice fell on Daud +Pasha, an Armenian Catholic, who was installed on the 4th of +July. In spite of many difficulties, and especially the ambitious +conduct of the Maronite Jussuf Karam, he succeeded in restoring +order; and by the formation of a military force from the inhabitants +of the Lebanon he rendered unnecessary the presence +of the Turkish soldiery.</p> + +<p>The privileged province of Lebanon (<i>q.v.</i>) was finally constituted +by the Organic Statute of the 6th of September 1864, +and the subsequent history of the Lebanon Druses is one of +gradual withdrawal from the jurisdiction of that state, in which +they see their ancient independence irretrievably compromised, +and their religion subordinated to Christian supremacy. Many +now emigrate, when occasion offers, to America.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, the Hauran, the old seat of the Shehab family +and Hermon Druses, had been steadily receiving a Druse influx, +since the day of Ain Dara (see above). Towards the close of the +18th century some 600 families left Lebanon for the Hauran, +in discontent with the rule of the Shehab dynasty, and their +place and property were taken by 1500 families driven out of +Jebel Ansarieh by Topal Ali in 1811. The Hauran Druses +increased by the middle of the 19th century to 7000 souls. They +had successfully resisted Ibrahim, the Egyptian, in 1839 in the +Lija, and asserted complete independence of the Turks, living +under a theocratic government directed by the chief Akil in +Suweda. A great effort, made by Kibrisli Pasha in 1852 to +subdue the Hauran, came to nothing. In 1879 the population +numbered 20,000, and by a murderous raid attracted the attention +of Midhat Pasha, then vali of the province of Syria. After +experiencing one disaster he defeated their forces and imposed a +<i>kaimakam</i>, at first drawn from the Talhuks, but subsequently +chosen from the Atrash family of Kunawat. But the Druses +still refused to pay taxes, to serve in the Ottoman army, or to +recognize the <i>kaimakam</i>, and maintained their contumacy under +the lead of the Jumblat, till 1896; when, as the result of a +military expedition under Tahir Pasha and a great defeat at +Ijun, a compromise was arrived at, under which the Druses +agreed to pay taxes, but to serve in their own territory only as a +frontier guard. The government was put into the hands of a +mutessarif resident at Sheikh Saad, under whom are <i>kaimakams</i> +at Suweda and Salkhad. Since that epoch there has been +comparative peace between the Druses and the government, +largely because the latter, having learned wisdom, leaves the +people very much to itself, maintaining only a small garrison of +regular troops, and enlisting Druse police for service in Jebel +Druz itself. The Druses are allowed to carry on their feuds +with the Bedouins of the E. Desert as they will, so long as they +do not disturb western districts. With the recent opening out +of the W. Hauran by railway, the Druse sheikhs are beginning +to acquire commercial ambitions, and to desire peace.</p> + +<p>The Hauran Druses are a vigorous, independent folk, with a +well-deserved reputation for courage, very astute, and hospitable +to Europeans, especially the British, with whom they have an +old tradition of friendship. But, like most persecuted but semi-independent +peoples, they are both cruel, and, by our standards, +treacherous. They are a handsome race, the women being often +beautiful. The latter no longer carry the head-horn which used +to support the veil dropped over the face out of doors. But +their dress is still black with the exception of red slippers, and +the veil is never abandoned, not even, it is said, during sleep. +An English lady, who has been much among them, states that +the Druse women of the Hauran never unveiled before her. +The men wear a <i>tarbush</i> with white roll, a black under-robe +with white girdle, a short loose jacket, and when necessary an +<i>aba</i> or parti-coloured cloak over all. They go habitually armed +with scimitar and half-moon axe, besides gun or rifle.</p> + +<p>Polygamy is forbidden. Marriage retains certain traces of +the original system of capture; but Druse women enjoy much +consideration, and are comparatively well educated, dignified +and free in their bearing in spite of their close veiling. As has +been stated above, they join the men in religious functions. +Divorce is easy and can be initiated by the woman; but remarriage +of the pair can only be effected by the good offices +of a proxy (as in Moslem societies, after a third divorce). Burial +takes place in family mausoleums, walled up after each interment; +but Akils are buried in their own houses. The body is laid on its +side, with its face to the south (Mecca).</p> + +<p>Education is widely spread, and there is a considerable religious +literature, much of which is known in Europe. A copy of the +<i>Book of the Testimonies to the Mysteries of the Unity</i>, consisting +of seventy treatises in four folio volumes, was found in the +house of the chief Akil at Bakhlin, and presented in 1700 to +Louis XIV. by Nusralla ibn Gilda, a Syrian doctor. Other +manuscripts are to be found at Rome in the Vatican, at Oxford +in the Bodleian, at Vienna, at Leiden, at Upsala and at Munich; +and Dr J. L. Porter got possession of seven standard works of +Druse theology while at Damascus. The Munich collection was +presented to the king of Bavaria by Clot Bey, the chief physician +in the Egyptian army during its occupation of Syria; and for a +number of the other manuscripts we are indebted to the elder +Niebuhr. A history of the Druse nation by the amir Haidar +Shehab is quoted by Urquhart.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Adler, “Druze Catechism,” in <i>Museum Cuficum +Borgianum</i> (1782); Silvestre de Sacy, <i>Exposé de la religion des Druses</i> +(1838); Ph. Wolff, <i>Reise in das gelobte Land</i>, and <i>Die Drusen und ihre +Vorläufer</i> (1842); C. H. Churchill, <i>Ten Years’ Residence in Mount +Lebanon</i> (3 vols., 1853); G. W. Chasseaud, <i>The Druzes of the Lebanon</i> +(1855); E. G. Ray, <i>Voyage dans le Haouran, exécuté pendant les +années 1857 et 1858</i>; C. H. Churchill, <i>The Druzes and Maronites +under the Turkish Rule from 1840 to 1860</i> (London, 1862); H. Guys, +<i>Le Théogonie des Druses</i> (1863), and <i>La Nation Druse</i> (1864); +M. von Oppenheim, <i>Vom Mittelmeer</i>, &c. (1899); Gertrude L. Bell, +<i>The Desert and the Sown</i> (1907).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(D. G. H.; G. Be.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Sophisticated Druses still sometimes claim connexion with +Rosicrucians, and a special relation to Scottish freemasons.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DRUSIUS<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">van den Driesche</span>), <b>JOHANNES</b> (1550-1616), +Protestant divine, distinguished specially as an Orientalist and +exegete, was born at Oudenarde, in Flanders, on the 28th of June +1550. Being designed for the church, he studied Greek and +Latin at Ghent, and philosophy at Louvain; but his father +having been outlawed for his religion, and deprived of his estate, +retired to England, where the son followed him in 1567. He +found an admirable teacher of Hebrew in Chevalier, the celebrated +Orientalist, with whom he resided for some time at +Cambridge. In 1572 he became professor of Oriental languages +at Oxford. Upon the pacification of Ghent (1576) he returned +with his father to their own country, and was appointed professor +of Oriental languages at Leiden in the following year. In 1585 +he removed to Friesland, and was admitted professor of Hebrew +in the university of Franeker, an office which he discharged with +great honour till his death, which happened in February 1616. +He acquired so extended a reputation as a professor that his +class was frequented by students from all the Protestant countries +in Europe. His works prove him to have been well skilled in +Hebrew and in Jewish antiquities; and in 1600 the states-general +employed him, at a salary of 400 florins a year, to write notes +on the most difficult passages in the Old Testament; but this +work was not published until after his death. As the friend of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page607" id="page607"></a>607</span> +Arminius, he was charged by the orthodox and dominant party +with unfairness in the execution of the task, and the last sixteen +years of his life were therefore somewhat embittered by controversy. +He carried on an extensive correspondence with the +learned in different countries; for, besides letters in Hebrew, +Greek and other languages, there were found amongst his papers +upwards of 2000 written in Latin. He had a son, John, who +died in England at the age of twenty-one, and was accounted +a prodigy of learning. He had mastered Hebrew at the age of +nine, and Scaliger said that he was a better Hebrew scholar than +his father. He wrote a large number of letters in Hebrew, +besides notes on the Proverbs of Solomon and other works.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Paquot states the number of the printed works and treatises of +the elder Drusius at forty-eight, and of the unprinted at upwards +of twenty. Of the former more than two-thirds were inserted in +the collection entitled <i>Critici sacri, sive annolata doctissimorum +virorum in Vetus et Novum Testamentum</i> (Amsterdam, 1698, in 9 +vols. folio, or London, 1660, in 10 vols. folio). Amongst the works +of Drusius not to be found in this collection may be mentioned—(1) +<i>Alphabetum Hebraicum vetus</i> (1584, 4to); (2) <i>Tabulae in grammaticam +Chaldaicam ad usum juventutis</i> (1602, 8vo); (3) An edition +of Sulpicius Severus (Franeker, 1807, 12mo); (4) <i>Opuscula quae ad +grammaticam spectant omnia</i> (1609, 4to); (5) <i>Lacrymae in obitum +J. Scaligeri</i> (1609, 4to); and (6) <i>Grammatica linguae sanctae nova</i> +(1612, 4to).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DRUSUS, MARCUS LIVIUS,<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> Roman statesman, was colleague +of Gaius Gracchus in the tribuneship, 122 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> The proposal +of Gracchus (<i>q.v.</i>) to confer the full franchise on the Latins had +been opposed not only by the senate, but also by the mob, who +imagined that their own privileges would thereby be diminished. +Drusus threatened to veto the proposal. Encouraged by this, +the senatorial party put up Drusus to outbid Gracchus. Gracchus +had proposed to found colonies outside Italy; Drusus provided +twelve in Italy, to each of which 3000 citizens were to be sent. +Gracchus had proposed to distribute allotments to the poorer +citizens subject to a state rent-charge; Drusus promised them +free of all charge, and further that they should be inalienable. +In addition to the franchise, immunity from corporal punishment +(even in the field) was promised the Latins. The absence of +Gracchus, and the inefficiency of his representative at Rome, +led to the acceptance of these proposals, which were never +intended to be carried. Drusus himself declined all responsibility +in connexion with carrying them out. He was rewarded +for his services by the consulship (112), and the title of <i>patronus +senatus</i>. He received Macedonia for his province, where he +distinguished himself in a campaign against the Scordisci, whom +he drove across the Danube, being the first Roman general who +reached that river. It is possible that he is the Drusus mentioned +by Plutarch as having died in 109, the year of his censorship.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Appian, <i>Bell. Civ.</i> i. 23; Plutarch, <i>Gaius Gracchus</i>, 8-11; Florus +iii. 4; A. H. J. Greenidge, <i>Hist. of Rome</i>, vol. i. (1904).</p> +</div> + +<p>His son, <span class="sc">Marcus Livius Drusus</span>, became tribune of the +people in 91 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> He was a thoroughgoing conservative, wealthy +and generous, and a man of high integrity. With some of the +more intelligent members of his party (such as Marcus Scaurus +and L. Licinius Crassus the orator) he recognized the need of +reform. At that time an agitation was going on for the transfer +of the judicial functions from the equites to the senate; Drusus +proposed as a compromise a measure which restored to the +senate the office of judices, while its numbers were doubled by +the admission of 300 equites. Further, a special commission +was to be appointed to try and sentence all judices guilty of +taking bribes. But the senate was lukewarm, and the equites, +whose occupation was threatened, offered the most violent +opposition. In order, therefore, to catch the popular votes, +Drusus proposed the establishment of colonies in Italy and +Sicily, and an increased distribution of corn at a reduced rate. +By help of these riders the bill was carried. Drusus now sought +a closer alliance with the Italians, promising them the long-coveted +boon of the Roman franchise. The senate broke out +into open opposition. His laws were abrogated as informal, +and each party armed its adherents for the civil struggle which +was now inevitable. Drusus was stabbed one evening as he was +returning home. His assassin was never discovered.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Rome: <i>History</i>, ii. “The Republic” (Period C); also Appian, +<i>Bell. Civ.</i> i. 35; Florus iii. 17; Diod. Sic. xxxvii. 10; Livy, <i>Epit.</i> +70; Vell. Pat. ii. 13.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DRUSUS, NERO<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> <a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> <span class="bold">CLAUDIUS</span> (38-9 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>) Roman general, +son of Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia Drusilla, stepson of +Augustus and younger brother of the emperor Tiberius. Having +held the office of quaestor and acted as praetor for his brother +during the latter’s absence in Gaul, he began (in 15 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>) the +military career which has made his name famous. In conjunction +with Tiberius, he carried on a successful campaign against the +Raeti and Vindelici, who, although repulsed from Italy, continued +to threaten the frontiers of Gaul. The credit of the decisive +victory, however, must be assigned to Tiberius. Two of the +<i>Odes</i> of Horace (iv. 4 and 14) were written to glorify the exploits +of the brothers. In 13 Drusus was sent as governor to the +newly organized province of the three Gauls, where considerable +discontent had been aroused by the exactions of the Roman +governor Licinius. Drusus made a fresh assessment for taxation +purposes, and summoned the Gallic representatives to a meeting +at Lugdunum to discuss their grievances. It was of great +importance to pacify the Gauls, in order to have his hands free +to deal with the German tribes, one of which, the Sugambri, +on the right bank of the Rhine, had seized the opportunity, +during the absence of Augustus, to cross the river (12). Drusus +drove them back and pursued them through the island of the +Batavi and the land of the Usipetes (Usipes, Usipii) to their +own territory, which he devastated. Sailing down the Rhine, +he subdued the Frisii and, in order to facilitate operations against +the Chauci, dug a canal (Fossa Drusiana) leading from the +Rhenus (Rhine) to the Isala (Yssel)<a name="fa2g" id="fa2g" href="#ft2g"><span class="sp">2</span></a> into the lacus Flevus (Zuidersee) +and the German Ocean. Making his way along the Frisian +coast, he conquered the island of Burchanis (<i>Borkum</i>), defeated +the Bructeri in a naval engagement on the Amisia (<i>Ems</i>), and +went on to the mouth of the Visurgis (<i>Weser</i>) to attack the Chauci. +On the way back his vessels grounded on the shallows, and were +only got off with the assistance of the Frisii. Winter being close +at hand, the campaign was abandoned till the following spring, +and Drusus returned to Rome with the honour of having been +the first Roman general to reach the German Ocean.</p> + +<p>In his second campaign (11), Drusus defeated the Usipetes, +threw a bridge over the Luppia (<i>Lippe</i>), attacked the Sugambri, +and advanced through their territory and that of the Tencteri and +Chatti as far as the Weser, where he gained a victory over the +Cherusci. Lack of provisions, the approach of winter, and an +inauspicious portent prevented him from crossing the Weser. +While making his way back to the Rhine he fell into an ambuscade, +but the carelessness of the enemy enabled him to inflict a +crushing defeat upon them. In view of future operations, he +built two castles, one at the junction of the Luppia and Aliso +(<i>Alme</i>), the other in the territory of the Chatti on the Taunus, +near Moguntiacum (<i>Mainz</i>).</p> + +<p>The third campaign (10) was of little importance. The Chatti +had joined the Sugambri in revolt; and, after some insignificant +successes, Drusus returned with Augustus and Tiberius to Rome, +and was elected consul for the following year. In spite of +unfavourable portents at Rome, he determined to enter upon his +fourth and last campaign (9) without delay. He attacked and +defeated the Chatti, Suebi, Marcomanni and Cherusci, crossed +the Weser and penetrated as far as the Albis (<i>Elbe</i>). Here trophies +were set up to mark the farthest point ever reached by a Roman +army. Various measures were taken to secure the possession +of the conquered territory: fortresses were erected along the Elbe, +Weser and Maas (<i>Meuse</i>, <i>Mosa</i>); a flotilla was placed upon the +Rhine and a dam built upon the right arm of its estuary to increase +the flow of water into the canal mentioned above. Drusus +was said to have been deterred from crossing the Elbe by the +sudden appearance of a woman of supernatural size, who predicted +his approaching end. On his return, probably between +the Elbe and the Saale (<i>Sala</i>), his horse stumbled and threw him. +His leg was fractured and he died thirty days after the accident, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page608" id="page608"></a>608</span> +on the 14th of September. Suetonius mentions an absurd rumour +that he had been poisoned by order of Augustus, because he had +refused to obey the order for his recall. The body was carried to +the winter quarters of the army, whence it was escorted by +Tiberius to Rome, the procession being joined by Augustus at +Ticinum (Pavia). Tiberius delivered an oration over the remains +in the Forum, whence they were conveyed to the Campus +Martius and cremated, and ashes being deposited in the mausoleum +of Augustus.</p> + +<p>Drusus was one of the most distinguished men of his time. +His agreeable manners, handsome person and brilliant military +talents gained him the affection of the troops, while his sympathy +with republican principles, endeared him to the people. It is +not too much to say that, had he and his son lived long enough, +they might have brought about the abolition of the monarchy. +Although the successes of Drusus, resulting in the subjection +of the German tribes from the Rhine to the Elbe, were too rapid +to be lasting, they brought home the fact of the existence of +the Romans to many who had never heard their name. For +his victories he received the title of Germanicus. He married +Antonia, the daughter of Marcus Antonius the triumvir, by whom +he had three children: Germanicus, adopted by Tiberius; +Claudius, afterwards emperor; and a daughter Livilla.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The chief ancient authorities for the life of Drusus are Dio Cassius, +the epitomes of Livy, Suetonius (<i>Claudius</i>), Tacitus (portions of the +<i>Annals</i>), Florus (whose chief source is Livy), Velleius Paterculus, and +the <i>Consolatio ad Liviam</i>. The German campaigns were described +in the last books of Livy and the lost <i>Bella Germaniae</i> of the elder +Pliny. As would naturally be expected, they have produced an +extensive literature in Germany, J. Asbach’s “Die Feldzüge des +Nero Claudius Drusus” (<i>Rhein. Jahrb.</i> lxxxv. 14-30) being especially +recommended; see also Mommsen’s <i>History of the Roman +Provinces</i>, i.; Merivale, <i>History of the Romans under the Empire</i>, +ch. 36; A. Stein in Pauly-Wissowa’s <i>Realencyclopädie</i> (1899), where +other authorities are given; J. C. Tarver, <i>Tiberius the Tyrant</i> +(1902).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Originally Decimus.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2g" id="ft2g" href="#fa2g"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The district extending from Westervoort to Doesborgh.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DRUSUS CAESAR<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> (c. 15 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>-<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 23), commonly called Drusus +junior, to distinguish him from his uncle Nero Claudius Drusus, +was the only son of the emperor Tiberius by his first wife Vipsania +Agrippina. After having held several curule offices, he was +consul elect in <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 14, the year of Augustus’s death. His father, +on his accession to the throne, immediately sent him to put down +a mutiny of the troops in Pannonia, a task which he successfully +accomplished (Tacitus, <i>Annals</i>, i. 24-30). As governor of Illyricum +(17), he set the Germanic tribes against one another, and +encouraged Catualda, chief of the Gothones, to drive out Marbod +(Maroboduus), king of the Marcomanni. On his return Drusus +was consul a second time (21) and in the following year received +the tribunician authority from Tiberius, which practically indicated +him as heir to the throne. Sejanus, who also aspired +to the supreme power, determined to remove Drusus. He +endeavoured to poison Tiberius’s mind against him, seduced +Drusus’s wife and persuaded her to assist him in murdering her +husband. Her physician Eudemus prepared and the eunuch +Lygdus administered a slow poison, from the effects of which +Drusus died after a lingering illness. Although Tiberius is said +to have received the news of his death with indifference, there is +no reason to suppose that he had any hand in it; indeed, he +seems to have entertained a genuine affection for his son. Drusus +was a man of violent passions, a drunkard and a debauchee, +but not entirely devoid of better feelings, as is shown by his +undoubtedly sincere grief at the death of Germanicus. The +cunning and reserve which he exhibited on occasion were probably +due to the instructions or influence of Tiberius (<i>Annals</i>, +iii. 8), since he was himself naturally frank and open, and for this +reason, notwithstanding his vices, more popular than his father. +He revelled in bloody gladiatorial displays, and the sharpest +swords used on such occasions were called “Drusine.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Tacitus, <i>Annals</i>, i. 76, iv. 8-11; Dio Cassius lvii. 13, 14; +Suetonius, <i>Tiberius</i>, 62; J. C. Tarver, <i>Tiberius the Tyrant</i> (1902).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DRYADES,<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Hamadryades</span>, in Greek mythology, nymphs +of trees and woods. Each particular tree (<span class="grk" title="drus">δρῦς</span>) was the home of +its own special Dryad, who was supposed to be born and to +die with it (<span class="grk" title="hama">ἅμα</span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DRYANDER, JONAS<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> (1748-1810), Swedish botanist, was born +in 1748. By his uncle, Dr Lars Montin, to whom his education +was entrusted, he was sent to the university of Gothenburg, +whence he removed to Lund. After taking his degree there in +1776, he studied at Upsala under Linnaeus, and then became +for a time tutor to a young Swedish nobleman. He next visited +England, and, on the death of his friend Dr Daniel Charles +Solander (1736-1782), succeeded him as librarian to Sir Joseph +Banks. He was librarian to the Royal Society and also to the +Linnean Society. Of the latter, in 1788, he was one of the +founders, and, when it was incorporated by royal charter in 1802, +he took a leading part in drawing up its laws and regulations. +He was vice-president of the society till his death, which took +place in London on the 19th of October 1810. Besides papers +in the Transactions of the Linnean and other societies, Dryander +published <i>Dissertatio gradualis fungos regno vegetabili vindicans</i> +(Lund, 1776), and <i>Catalogus bibliothecae historico-naturalis +Josephi Banks, Bart.</i> (London, 1796-1800, 5 vols.). He also +edited the first and part of the second edition of W. Aiton’s +<i>Hortus Kewensis</i> and W. Roxburgh’s <i>Plants of the Coast of +Coromandel</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DRYBURGH ABBEY,<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> a monastic ruin in the extreme south-west +of Berwickshire, Scotland, about 5 m. S.E. of Melrose, and +1¼ m. E. of St Boswells station on the North British railway’s +Waverley route from Edinburgh to Carlisle. The name has been +derived from the Gaelic <i>darach bruach</i>, “oak bank,” in allusion +to the fact that the Druids once practised their rites here. The +abbey occupies the spot where, about 522, St Modan, an Irish +Culdee, established a sanctuary—a secluded position on a tongue +of land washed on three sides by the Tweed. Founded in 1150 +by David I.—though it has also been ascribed to Hugh de +Morville (d. 1162), lord of Lauderdale and constable of Scotland—it +enjoyed great prosperity until 1322, when it was partially +destroyed by the English under Edward II. It suffered again at +the hands of Richard II. in 1385, and was reduced to ruin during +the expedition of the earl of Hertford in 1545. After the Reformation +the estate was erected into a temporal lordship and given +(1604) by James VI. to John Erskine, 2nd earl of Mar. At a later +date it was sold, but reverted to a branch of the Erskines in +1786, when it was acquired by the 11th earl of Buchan. In 1700 +the abbey lands belonged to Thomas Haliburton, Scott’s great-grandfather, +and, but for an extravagant grand-uncle who became +bankrupt and had to part with the property, they would have +descended to Sir Walter by inheritance. “We have nothing left +of Dryburgh,” he said, “but the right of stretching our bones +there.” The style in general is Early English, but the west door +and the restored entrance from the nave to the cloisters are fine +examples of transitional Norman. Though in various stages of +decay, nearly every one of the monastic buildings is represented +by a fragment. Of the cruciform church—190 ft. long by 75 +broad at the transepts—there remain some of the outer walls, +a segment of the choir, the east aisle of the north transept, the +stumps of some of the pillars of the nave, the west gable, the +south transept and its adjacent chapel of St Modan. The most +beautiful of these relics is St Mary’s aisle of the north transept, +in which were buried Sir Walter Scott (1832), his wife, son, his +son-in-law John Gibson Lockhart, and his ancestors, the Haliburtons +of New Mains. Sir Walter’s tomb is a plain block of +polished Peterhead granite, inscribed only with his name and the +dates of his birth and death. The next aisle is the burial-place +of the Erskines of Shielhill and the Haigs of Bemersyde. On +the south side of the church, at a lower level, stand the cloisters, +about 100 ft. square, bounded on the west by the dungeons, +on the south-west by the cellars and refectory, in the west wall +of which is an exquisite ivy-clad rose window, and on the east +by the chapter-house, on a still lower level. The chapter-house, +a lofty building with vaulted roof, is the most complete structure +of the group, and adjoining it on the south are, first the abbot’s +parlour and then the library, the three apartments communicating +with each other, and constituting the oldest portion of the +abbey. In the grounds are many venerable trees, a yew near the +chapter-house being at least coeval with the abbey.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page609" id="page609"></a>609</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">DRYDEN, JOHN<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> (1631-1700), English poet, born on or about +the 9th of August 1631, at Aldwinkle, in Northamptonshire, +was of Cumberland stock, though his family had been settled +for three generations in Northamptonshire, had acquired estates +and a baronetcy, and intermarried with landed families in that +county. His great-grandfather, who first carried the name south, +and acquired by marriage the estate of Canons Ashby, is said +to have known Erasmus, and to have been so proud of the great +scholar’s friendship that he gave the name of Erasmus to his +eldest son. The name Erasmus was borne by the poet’s father, +the third son of Sir Erasmus Dryden. The leanings and connexions +of the family were Puritan and anti-monarchical. Sir +Erasmus Dryden went to prison rather than pay loan money to +Charles I.; the poet’s uncle, Sir John Dryden, and his father +Erasmus, served on government commissions during the Commonwealth. +His mother’s family, the Pickerings, were still more +prominent on the Puritan side. Sir Gilbert Pickering, his cousin, +was chamberlain to the Protector, and was summoned to Cromwell’s +House of Lords in 1657. A trustworthy tradition asserts +that John Dryden was born at the rectory of Aldwinkle All +Saints, of which his maternal grandfather, Henry Pickering, +was rector.</p> + +<p>Dryden’s education was such as became a scion of these +respectable families of squires and rectors, among whom the +chance contact with Erasmus had left a certain tradition of +scholarship. His father, whose own fortune, added to his wife’s, +was not large, procured for the poet, who was the eldest of +fourteen children, admission to Westminster school as a king’s +scholar, under the famous Dr Busby. Some elegiac verses which +Dryden wrote there on the death of a schoolfellow, Henry, Lord +Hastings, son of the earl of Huntingdon, in 1649, were published +in <i>Lacrymae Musarum</i>, among other elegies by “divers persons +of nobility and worth” in commemoration of the same event. +He appeared soon after again in print, among writers of commendatory +verses to a friend of his, John Hoddesdon, who +published a volume of <i>Epigrams</i> in 1650. Dryden’s contribution +is signed “John Dryden of Trinity C.,” as he had gone up from +Westminster to Cambridge in May 1650. He was elected a +scholar of Trinity on the Westminster foundation in October of +the same year, and took his degree of B.A. in 1654. The only +recorded incident of his college residence is some unexplained +act of disobedience to the vice-master, for which he was “put +out of commons” and “gated” for a fortnight. His father died +in 1654, leaving him master of two-thirds of a small estate near +Blakesley, worth about £60 a year. The next three years he is +said to have spent at Cambridge. In any case they were spent +somewhere in study; for his first considerable poem bears +indisputable marks of scholarly habits, as well as of a command +of verse that could not have been acquired without practice.</p> + +<p>The middle of 1657 is given as the date of his leaving the +university to take up his residence in London. In one of his +many subsequent literary quarrels, it was said by Shadwell that +he had been clerk to Sir Gilbert Pickering, his cousin, who was +chamberlain to Cromwell; and nothing is more likely than that +he obtained some employment under his powerful cousin when +he came to London. He is said to have lived at first in the house +of his first publisher, Herringman, with whom he was connected +till 1679, when Jacob Tonson began to publish his books. He +first emerged from obscurity with his <i>Heroic Stanzas</i> (1659) to the +memory of the Protector. That these stanzas should have made +him a name as a poet does not appear surprising when we compare +them with Waller’s verses on the same occasion. Dryden took +some time to consider them, and it was impossible that they +should not give an impression of his intellectual strength. Donne +was his model; it is obvious that both his ear and his imagination +were saturated with Donne’s elegiac strains when he wrote; +yet when we look beneath the surface we find unmistakable +traces that the pupil was not without decided theories that ran +counter to the practice of the master. It is plainly not by +accident that each stanza contains one clear-cut brilliant point. +The poem is an academic exercise, and it seems to be animated +by an under-current of strong contumacious protest against the +irregularities tolerated by the authorities. Dryden had studied +the ancient classics for himself, and their method of uniformity +and elaborate finish commended itself to his robust and orderly +mind. In itself the poem is a magnificent tribute to the memory +of Cromwell.</p> + +<p>To those who regard the poet as a seer with a sacred mission, +and refuse the name altogether to a literary manufacturer to +order, it comes with a certain shock to find Dryden, the hereditary +Puritan, the panegyrist of Cromwell, hailing the return of King +Charles in <i>Astraea Redux</i> (1660), deploring his long absence, +and proclaiming the despair with which he had seen “the rebel +thrive, the loyal crost.” <i>A Panegyric on the Coronation</i> followed +in 1661. From a literary point of view also, <i>Astraea Redux</i> is +inferior to the <i>Heroic Stanzas</i>.</p> + +<p>Dryden was compelled to supplement his slender income by +his writings. He naturally first thought of tragedy,—his own +genius, as he has informed us, inclining him rather to that species +of composition; and in the first year of the Restoration he wrote +a tragedy on the fate of Henry, duke of Guise. But some friends +advised him that its construction was not suited to the requirements +of the stage, so he put it aside, and used only one scene +of the original play later on, when he again attempted the subject +with a more practised hand. Having failed to write a suitable +tragedy, he next turned his attention to comedy, although, as +he admitted, he had little natural turn for it. “I confess,” +he said, in a short essay in his own defence, printed before <i>The +Indian Emperor</i>, “my chief endeavours are to delight the age +in which I live. If the humour of this be for low comedy, small +accidents and raillery, I will force my genius to obey it, though +with more reputation I could write in verse. I know I am not +so fitted by nature to write comedy; I want that gaiety of +humour which is required to it. My conversation is slow and +dull; my humour saturnine and reserved; in short, I am none +of those who endeavour to break jests in company or make +repartees. So that those who decry my comedies do me no +injury, except it be in point of profit; reputation in them is the +last thing to which I shall pretend.” He was really as well as +ostentatiously a playwright; the age demanded comedies, and +he endeavoured to supply the kind of comedy that the age +demanded. His first attempt was unsuccessful. Bustle, intrigue +and coarsely humorous dialogue seemed to him to be part of the +popular demand; and, looking about for a plot, he found something +to suit him in a Spanish source, and wrote <i>The Wild +Gallant</i>. The play was acted in February 1663, by Thomas +Killigrew’s company in Vere Street. It was not a success, and +Pepys showed good judgment in pronouncing the play “so +poor a thing as ever I saw in my life.” Dryden never learned +moderation in his humour; there is a student’s clumsiness and +extravagance in his indecency; the plays of Etheredge, a man +of the world, have not the uncouth riotousness of Dryden’s. +Of this he seems to have been conscious, for when the play was +revived, in 1667, he complained in the epilogue of the difficulty +of comic wit, and admitted the right of a common audience to +judge of the wit’s success. Dryden, indeed, took a lesson from +the failure of <i>The Wild Gallant</i>; his next comedy, <i>The Rival +Ladies</i>, also founded on a Spanish plot, produced before the end +of 1663, and printed in the next year, was correctly described by +Pepys as “a very innocent and most pretty witty play,” though +there was much in it which the taste of our time would consider +indelicate. But he never quite conquered his tendency to +extravagance. <i>The Wild Gallant</i> was not the only victim. <i>The +Assignation, or Love in a Nunnery</i>, produced in 1673, shared +the same fate; and even as late as 1680, when he had had twenty +years’ experience to guide him, <i>The Kind Keeper, or Mr Limberham</i> +was prohibited, after three representations, as being too +indecent for the stage. Dislike to indecency we are apt to think +a somewhat ludicrous pretext to be made by Restoration playgoers, +and probably there was some other reason for the sacrifice +of <i>Limberham</i>; still there is a certain savageness in the spirit +of Dryden’s indecency which we do not find in his most licentious +contemporaries. The undisciplined force of the man carried +him to an excess from which more dexterous writers held back.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page610" id="page610"></a>610</span></p> + +<p>After the production of <i>The Rival Ladies</i> in 1663, Dryden +assisted Sir Robert Howard in the composition of a tragedy in +heroic verse, <i>The Indian Queen</i>, produced with great splendour +in January 1664. He married Lady Elizabeth Howard, Sir +Robert’s sister and daughter of the 1st earl of Berkshire, on the +1st of December 1663. Lady Elizabeth’s reputation was somewhat +compromised before this union, which was not a happy one, +and there is some evidence for the scandal in a letter written by +her before her marriage to Philip, 2nd earl of Chesterfield. <i>The +Indian Queen</i> was a great success, one of the greatest since the +reopening of the theatres. This was in all likelihood due much +less to the heroic verse and the exclusion of comic scenes from +the tragedy than to the magnificent scenic accessories—the +battles and sacrifices on the stage, the spirits singing in the air, +and the god of dreams ascending through a trap. The novelty +of these Indian spectacles, as well as of the Indian characters, +with the splendid Queen Zempoalla, acted by Mrs Marshall in +a real Indian dress of feathers presented to her by Mrs Aphra +Behn, as the centre of the play, was the chief secret of the success +of <i>The Indian Queen</i>. These melodramatic properties were so +marked a novelty that they could not fail to draw the town. +Dryden was tempted to return to tragedy; he followed up +<i>The Indian Queen</i> with <i>The Indian Emperor, or the Conquest of +Mexico by the Spaniards</i>, which was acted in 1665, and also proved +a success.</p> + +<p>But Dryden was not content with writing tragedies in rhymed +verse. He took up the question of the propriety of rhyme in +serious plays immediately after the success of <i>The Indian Queen</i>, +in the preface to an edition (1664) of <i>The Rival Ladies</i>. In that +first statement of his case, he considered the chief objection to +the use of rhyme, and urged his chief argument in its favour. +Rhyme was not natural, some people had said; to which he +answers that it is as natural as blank verse, and that much of +its unnaturalness is not the fault of the rhyme but of the writer, +who has not sufficient command of language to rhyme easily. +In favour of rhyme he has to say that it at once stimulates the +imagination, and prevents it from being too discursive in its +flights.</p> + +<p>During the Great Plague, when the theatres were closed, and +Dryden was living at Charlton, Wiltshire, at the seat of his +father-in-law, the earl of Berkshire, he occupied a considerable +part of his time in thinking over the principles of dramatic composition, +and threw his conclusions into the form of a dialogue, +which he called an <i>Essay of Dramatick Poesie</i> and published in +1668. The essay takes the form of a dialogue between Neander +(Dryden), Eugenius (Charles, Lord Buckhurst, afterwards earl +of Dorset), Crites (Sir R. Howard), and Lisideius (Sir C. Sedley), +who is made responsible for the famous definition of a play as a +“just and lively image of human nature, representing its passions +and humours, and the changes of fortune to which it is subject, +for the delight and instruction of mankind.” Dryden’s form +is of course borrowed from the ancients, and his main source +is the critical work of Corneille in the prefaces and discourses +contained in the edition of 1660, but he was well acquainted +with the whole body of contemporary French and Spanish +criticism. Crites maintains the superiority of the classical +drama; Lisideius supports the exacting rules of French dramatic +writing; Neander defends the English drama of the preceding +generations, including, in a long speech, an examination of +Ben Jonson’s <i>Silent Woman</i>. Neander argues, however, that +English drama has much to gain by the observance of exact +methods of construction without abandoning entirely the liberty +which English writers had always claimed. He then goes on to +defend the use of rhyme in serious drama. Howard had argued +against the use of rhyme in a “preface” to <i>Four New Plays</i> +(1665), which had furnished the excuse for Dryden’s essay. +Howard replied to Dryden’s essay in a preface to <i>The Duke of +Lerma</i> (1668). Dryden at once replied in a masterpiece of +sarcastic retort and vigorous reasoning, <i>A Defence of an Essay of +Dramatique Poesie</i>, prefixed to the second edition (1668) of <i>The +Indian Emperor</i>. It is the ablest and most complete statement of +his views about the employment of rhymed couplets in tragedy.</p> + +<p>Before his return to town at the end of 1666, when the theatres +(which had been closed during the disasters of 1665 and 1666) +were reopened, Dryden wrote a poem on the Dutch war and the +Great Fire entitled <i>Annus Mirabilis</i>. The poem is in quatrains, +the metre of his <i>Heroic Stanzas</i> in praise of Cromwell, which +Dryden chose, he tells us, “because he had ever judged it more +noble and of greater dignity both for the sound and number +than any other verse in use amongst us.” The preface to the +poem contains an interesting discussion of what he calls “wit-writing,” +introduced by the remark that “the composition of all +poems is or ought to be of wit.” His description of the Great +Fire is a famous specimen of this wit-writing, much more +careless and daring, and much more difficult to sympathize +with, than the graver conceits in his panegyric of the Protector. +In <i>Annus Mirabilis</i> the poet apostrophizes the newly +founded Royal Society, of which he had been elected a member +in 1662.</p> + +<p>From the reopening of the theatres in 1666 till November +1681, the date of his <i>Absalom and Achitophel</i>, Dryden produced +nothing but plays. The stage was his chief source of income. +<i>Secret Love, or the Maiden Queen</i>, a tragi-comedy, produced in +March 1667, was based on an episode in the <i>Artamène, ou le +Grand Cyrus</i> of Mlle de Scudéry, the historical original of the +“Maiden Queen” being Christina, queen of Sweden. The prologue +claims that the piece is written with pains and thought, +by the exactest rules, with strict observance of the unities, +and “a mingled chime of Jonson’s humour and of Corneille’s +rhyme”; but it owed its success chiefly to the charm of Nell +Gwyn’s acting in the part of Florimel. It is noticeable that +only the more passionate parts of the dialogue are rhymed, +Dryden’s theory apparently being that rhyme is then demanded +for the elevation of the style. His next play, <i>Sir Martin Mar-all, +or the Feigned Innocence</i>, an adaptation in prose of the duke +of Newcastle’s translation of Molière’s <i>L’Étourdi</i>, was produced +at the Duke’s theatre, without the author’s name, in 1667. It +was about this time that Dryden became a retained writer +under contract for the King’s theatre, receiving from it £300 +or £400 a year, till it was burnt down in 1672, and about £200 +for six years more till the beginning of 1678. His co-operation +with Davenant in a new version (1667) of Shakespeare’s <i>Tempest</i>—for +his share in which Dryden can hardly be pardoned on the +ground that the chief alterations were happy thoughts of Davenant’s, +seeing that he affirms he never worked at anything with +more delight—must also be supposed to be anterior to the +completion of his contract with the Theatre Royal. He was +engaged to write three plays a year, and he contributed only +ten plays during the ten years of his engagement, finally exhausting +the patience of his partners by joining in the composition +of a play for the rival house. In adapting <i>L’Étourdi</i>, +Dryden did not catch Molière’s lightness of touch; his alterations +go towards making the comedy into a farce. Perhaps all the +more on this account <i>Sir Martin Mar-all</i> had a great run at +the theatre in Lincoln’s Inn Fields. There is always a certain +coarseness in Dryden’s humour, apart from the coarseness of +his age,—a certain forcible roughness of touch which belongs +to the character of the man. His <i>An Evening’s Love, or the Mock +Astrologer</i>, an adaptation from <i>Le Feint Astrologue</i> of the younger +Corneille, produced at the King’s theatre in 1668, seemed to +Pepys “very smutty, and nothing so good as <i>The Maiden Queen</i> +or <i>The Indian Emperor</i> of Dryden’s making.” Evelyn thought +it foolish and profane, and was grieved “to see how the stage +was degenerated and polluted by the licentious times.” <i>Ladies +à la Mode</i>, another of Dryden’s contract comedies, produced in +1668, was “so mean a thing,” Pepys says, that it was only once +acted, and Dryden never published it. Of his other comedies, +<i>Marriage à la Mode</i> (produced 1672), <i>The Assignation, or Love +in a Nunnery</i> (1673), <i>The Kind Keeper, or Mr Limberham</i> (1678), +only the first was moderately successful.</p> + +<p>While Dryden met with such indifferent success in his willing +efforts to supply the demand of the age for low comedy, he +struck upon a really popular and profitable vein in heroic +tragedy. <i>Tyrannic Love, or the Royal Martyr</i>, a Roman play +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page611" id="page611"></a>611</span> +dealing with the persecution of the Christians by Maximin, in +which St Catherine is introduced, and with her some supernatural +machinery, was produced in 1669. It is in rhymed couplets, +but the author again did not trust solely for success to them; +for, besides the magic incantations, the singing angels, and the +view of Paradise, he made Nell Gwyn, who had stabbed herself +as Valeria, start to life again as she was being carried off the +stage, and speak a riotous epilogue, in violent contrast to the +serious character of the play. <i>Almanzor and Almahide, or the +Conquest of Granada</i>, a tragedy in two parts, was written in 1669 +to 1670. The historical background is taken chiefly from Mlle de +Scudéry’s romance of <i>Almahide</i>, but Dryden borrows freely from +other books of hers and her contemporaries. This piece seems +to have given the crowning touch of provocation to the wits, +who had never ceased to ridicule the popular taste for these +extravagant heroic plays. Dryden almost invited burlesque +in his epilogue to the second part of <i>The Conquest of Granada</i>, +in which he charged the comedy of the Elizabethan age with +coarseness and mechanical humour, and its conceptions of +love and honour with meanness, and claimed for his own time +and his own plays an advance in these respects. <i>The Rehearsal</i>, +written by the duke of Buckingham, with the assistance, it +was said, of Samuel Butler, Martin Clifford, Thomas Sprat and +others, and produced in 1671, was a severe and just punishment +for this boast. Davenant was originally the hero, but on his +death in 1668 the satire was turned upon Dryden, who is here +unmercifully ridiculed under the name of Bayes, the name being +justified by his appointment in 1670 as poet laureate and historiographer +to the king (with a pension of £300 a year and a butt +of canary wine). It is said that <i>The Rehearsal</i> was begun in +1663 and ready for representation before the plague. But this +probably only means that Buckingham and his friends had +resolved to burlesque the absurdities of Davenant’s operatic +heroes in <i>The Siege of Rhodes</i>, and the extravagant heroics of +<i>The Indian Queen</i>. Materials accumulated upon them as the +fashion continued, and by the time Dryden had produced his +<i>Tyrannic Love</i>, and his <i>Conquest of Granada</i>, he had so established +himself as the chief offender as to become naturally the central +figure of the burlesque. Later Dryden fully avenged himself +on Buckingham by his portrait of Zimri in <i>Absalom and Achitophel</i>. +His immediate reply is contained in the preface “Of +Heroic Plays” and the “Defence of the Epilogue,” printed in +the first edition (1672) of his <i>Conquest of Granada</i>. In these, so +far from laughing with his censors, he addresses them from the +eminence of success. “But I have already swept the stakes; +and, with the common good fortune of prosperous gamesters, +can be content to sit quietly; to hear my fortune cursed by some, +and my faults arraigned by others, and to suffer both without +reply.” Heroic verse, he assures them, is so established that few +tragedies are likely henceforward to be written in any other +metre. In the course of a year or two <i>The Conquest of Granada</i> +was attacked also by Elkanah Settle, on whom Dryden revenged +himself later, making him the “Doeg” of the second part of +<i>Absalom and Achitophel</i>.</p> + +<p>His next tragedy, <i>Amboyna</i> (1673), an exhibition of certain +atrocities committed by the Dutch on English merchants in +the East Indies, put on the stage to inflame the public mind in +view of the Dutch war, was written, with the exception of a few +passages, in prose, and those passages in blank verse. An opera +which he wrote in rhymed couplets, called <i>The State of Innocence, +and Fall of Man</i>, an attempt to turn part of <i>Paradise Lost</i> into +rhyme, as a proof of its superiority to blank verse, was prefaced +by an “Apology for Heroique Poetry and Poetique Licence,” +and entered at Stationers’ Hall in 1674, but it was never acted. +The redeeming circumstance about the performance is the +admiration professed by the adapter for his original, which he +pronounces “undoubtedly one of the greatest, most noble and +most sublime poems which either this age or nation has produced.” +Dryden is said to have had the elder poet’s leave “to +tag his verses.” In <i>Aurengzebe</i>, which was Dryden’s last, and +also his best, rhymed tragedy, he borrowed from contemporary +history, for the Great Mogul was still living. In the prologue +he confessed that he had grown weary of his long-loved mistress +rhyme and retracted, with characteristic frankness, his disparaging +contrast of the Elizabethan with his own age. But the stings +of <i>The Rehearsal</i> had stimulated him to do his utmost to justify +his devotion to his mistress, and he claims that <i>Aurengzebe</i> is +“the most correct” of his plays. It was entered at Stationers’ +Hall and probably acted in 1675, and published in the following +year.</p> + +<p>After the production of <i>Aurengzebe</i> he seems to have rested +for an interval from writing, enabled to do so, probably by an +additional pension of £100 granted to him by the king. During +this interval he would seem to have reconsidered the principles +of dramatic composition, and to have made a particular study of +the works of Shakespeare. The fruits of this appeared in <i>All +for Love, or the World Well Lost</i>, a version of the story of Antony +and Cleopatra, produced in 1678, which must be regarded as +a very remarkable departure for a man of his age, and a wonderful +proof of undiminished openness and plasticity of mind. In his +previous writings on dramatic theory, Dryden, while admiring +the rhyme of the French dramatists as an advance in art, did +not give unqualified praise to the regularity of their plots; he +was disposed to allow the irregular structure of the Elizabethan +dramatists, as being more favourable to variety both of action +and of character. But now, in frank imitation of Shakespeare, +he abandoned rhyme, and, if we might judge from <i>All for Love</i>, +and the precepts laid down in his “Grounds of Criticism in +Tragedy,” prefixed to <i>Troilus and Cressida</i> (1679), the chief +point in which he aimed at excelling the Elizabethans was in +giving greater unity to his plot. He upheld still the superiority +of Shakespeare to the French dramatists in the delineation of +character, but he thought that the scope of the action might be +restricted, and the parts bound more closely together with +advantage. <i>All for Love</i> and <i>Antony and Cleopatra</i> are two +excellent plays for the comparison of the two methods. Dryden +gave all his strength to <i>All for Love</i>, writing the play for himself, +as he said, and not for the public. Carrying out the idea expressed +in the title, he represents the two lovers as being more +entirely under the dominion of love than Shakespeare’s Antony +and Cleopatra. Shakespeare’s Antony is moved by other impulses +than the passion for Cleopatra; it is his master motive, +but it has to maintain a struggle for supremacy; “Roman +thoughts” strike in upon him even in the very height of the +enjoyment of his mistress’s love, he chafes under the yoke, and +breaks away from her of his own impulse at the call of spontaneously +reawakened ambition. Dryden’s Antony is so deeply sunk +in love that no other impulse has power to stir him; it takes +much persuasion and skilful artifice to detach him from Cleopatra +even in thought, and his soul returns to her violently before the +rupture has been completed. On the other hand, Dryden’s +Cleopatra is so completely enslaved by love for Antony that she +is incapable of using the calculated caprices and meretricious +coquetries which Shakespeare’s Cleopatra deliberately practises +as the highest art of love, the surest way of maintaining her +empire over her great captain’s heart. It is with difficulty that +Dryden’s Cleopatra will agree, on the earnest solicitation of a +wily counsellor, to feign a liking for Dolabella to excite Antony’s +jealousy, and she cannot keep up the pretence through a few +sentences. The characters of the two lovers are thus very much +contracted, indeed almost overwhelmed, beneath the pressure of +the one ruling motive. And as Dryden thus introduces a greater +regularity of character into the drama, so he also very much +contracts the action, in order to give probability to this temporary +subjugation of individual character. The action of Dryden’s +play takes place wholly in Alexandria, within the compass of +a few days; it does not, like Shakespeare’s, extend over several +years, and present incessant changes of scene. Dryden chooses, +as it were, a fragment of a historical action, a single moment +during which motives play within a narrow circle, the culminating +point in the relations between his two personages. He devotes +his whole play, also, to those relations; only what bears upon +them is admitted. In Shakespeare’s play we get a certain +historical perspective, in which the love of Antony and Cleopatra +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page612" id="page612"></a>612</span> +appears in its true proportions beneath the firmament that +overhangs human affairs. In Dryden’s play this love is our +universe; all the other concerns of the world retire into a +shadowy, indistinct background. If we rise from a comparison +of the plays with an impression that the Elizabethan drama is a +higher type of drama, taking Dryden’s own definition of the +word as “a just and lively image of human nature,” we rise also +with an impression of Dryden’s power such as we get from +nothing else that he had written since his <i>Heroic Stanzas</i>, twenty +years before.</p> + +<p>It was twelve years before Dryden produced another tragedy +worthy of the power shown in <i>All for Love</i>. <i>Don Sebastian</i> was +acted and published in 1690. In the interval, to sum up briefly +Dryden’s work as a dramatist, he wrote <i>Oedipus</i> (pr. 1679) and +<i>The Duke of Guise</i> (pr. 1683) in conjunction with Nathaniel Lee; +<i>Troilus and Cressida</i> (1679); <i>The Spanish Friar</i> (1681); <i>Albion +and Albanius</i>, an opera (1685); <i>Amphitryon</i> (1690). In <i>Troilus +and Cressida</i> he follows Shakespeare closely in the plot, but the +dialogue is rewritten throughout, and not for the better. The +versification and the language of the first and the third acts of +<i>Oedipus</i>, which with the general plan of the play were Dryden’s +contribution to the joint work, bear marked evidence of his +recent study of Shakespeare. The <i>Duke of Guise</i> provided an +obvious parallel with contemporary English politics. Henry III. +was identified with Charles II., and Monmouth with the duke. +The lord chamberlain refused to license it until the political +situation was less disturbed. The plot of <i>Don Sebastian</i> is more +intricate than that of <i>All for Love</i>. It has also more of the +characteristics of his heroic dramas; the extravagance of +sentiment and the suddenness of impulse remind us occasionally +of <i>The Indian Emperor</i>; but the characters are much more +elaborately studied than in Dryden’s earlier plays, and the verse +is sinewy and powerful. It would be difficult to say whether <i>Don +Sebastian</i> or <i>All for Love</i> is his best play; they share the palm +between them. Dryden’s subsequent plays are not remarkable. +Their titles and dates are—<i>King Arthur</i>, an opera (1691), for +which Purcell wrote the music; <i>Cleomenes</i> (1692); <i>Love +Triumphant</i> (1694).</p> + +<p>Soon after Dryden’s abandonment of heroic couplets in tragedy, +he found new and more congenial work for his favourite instrument +in satire. As usual the idea was not original to Dryden, +though he struck in with his majestic step and energy divine, +and immediately took the lead. The pioneer was Mulgrave in +his <i>Essay on Satire</i>, an attack on Rochester and the court, +which was circulated in MS. in 1679. Dryden himself was +suspected of the authorship, and it is not impossible that he gave +some help in revising it; but it is not likely that he attacked +the king on whom he was dependent for the greater part of his +income, and Mulgrave in a note to his <i>Art of Poetry</i> in 1717 +expressly asserts Dryden’s ignorance. Dryden, however, was +attacked in Rose Street, Covent Garden, and severely cudgelled +by a company of ruffians who were generally supposed to have +been hired by Rochester. In the same year Oldham’s satire on +the Jesuits had immense popularity, chiefly owing to the excitement +about the Popish plot. Dryden took the field as a satirist +towards the close of 1681, on the side of the court, at the moment +when Shaftesbury, baffled in his efforts to exclude the duke of +York from the throne as a papist, and secure the succession of +the duke of Monmouth, was waiting his trial for high treason. +<i>Absalom and Achitophel</i> produced a great stir. Nine editions +were sold in rapid succession in the course of a year. There was +no compunction in Dryden’s ridicule and invective. Delicate +wit was not one of Dryden’s gifts; the motions of his weapon +were sweeping, and the blows hard and trenchant. The advantage +he had gained by his recent studies of character was fully +used in his portraits of Shaftesbury and Buckingham, Achitophel +and Zimri. In these portraits he shows considerable art in the +introduction of redeeming traits to the general outline of +malignity and depravity. It is not impossible that the fact +that his pension had not been paid since the beginning of 1680 +weighed with him in writing this satire to gain the favour of the +court. In a play produced in 1681, <i>The Spanish Friar</i>, he had +written on the other side, gratifying the popular feeling by +attacking the Roman Catholic priesthood.</p> + +<p>Three other satires followed <i>Absalom and Achitophel</i>, one of +them hardly inferior in point of literary power. <i>The Medall</i>; a +<i>Satyre against Sedition</i> (March 1682) was written in ridicule of +the medal struck to commemorate Shaftesbury’s acquittal. +Then Dryden had to take vengeance on the literary champions +of the Whig party who had opened upon him with all their +artillery. Their leader, Shadwell, had attacked him in <i>The +Medal of John Bayes</i>, which Dryden answered in October 1682 +by <i>Mac Flecknoe, or a Satyr upon the True-Blew Protestant Poet, +T.S.</i> This satire, in which Shadwell filled the title-rôle, served +as the model of the <i>Dunciad</i>. To the second part of <i>Absalom +and Achitophel</i> (November 1682), written chiefly by Nahum Tate, +he contributed a long passage of invective against Robert +Ferguson, one of Monmouth’s chief advisers, Elkanah Settle, +Shadwell and others. <i>Religio Laici</i>, which appeared in the same +month, though nominally an exposition of a layman’s creed, +and deservedly admired as such, was not without a political +purpose. It attacked the Papists, but declared the “fanatics” +to be still more dangerous.</p> + +<p>Dryden’s next poem in heroic couplets was in a different strain. +On the accession of James, in 1685, he became a Roman Catholic. +There has been much discussion as to whether this conversion +was or was not sincere. It can only be said that the coincidence +between his change of faith and his change of patron was suspicious, +and that Dryden’s character for consistency is certainly +not of a kind to quench suspicion. The force of the coincidence +cannot be removed by such pleas as that his wife had been a +Roman Catholic for several years, or that he was converted by +his son, who was converted at Cambridge, even if there were +any evidence for these statements. Scott defended Dryden’s conversion,—as +Macaulay denounced it, from party motives. It is +worth while, however, to notice that in his earlier defence of the +English Church he exhibits a desire for the definite guidance of a +presumably infallible creed, and the case for the Roman Church +brought forward at the time may have appeared convincing to a +mind singularly open to new impressions. At the same time +nothing can be clearer than that Dryden always regarded his +literary powers as a means of subsistence, and had little scruple +about accepting a brief on any side. <i>The Hind and the Panther</i>, +published in 1687, is an ingenious argument for Roman Catholicism, +put into the mouth of “a milk-white hind, immortal and +unchanged.” There is considerable beauty in the picture of this +tender creature, and its enemies in the forest are not spared. +One can understand the admiration that the poem received +when such allegories were in fashion. It was the chief cause +of the veneration with which Dryden was regarded by Pope, +who, himself educated in the Roman Catholic faith, was taken +as a boy of twelve to see the veteran poet in his chair of honour +and authority at Wills’s coffee-house. It was also very open to +ridicule, and was treated in this spirit by Prior and Montagu, the +future earl of Halifax, in <i>The Hind and the Panther transversed +to the story of the Country Mouse and the City Mouse</i>. Dryden’s +other literary services to James were a savage reply to Stillingfleet—who +had attacked two papers published by the king +immediately after his accession, one said to have been written +by his late brother in advocacy of the Church of Rome, the +other by his late wife explaining the reasons for her conversion—and +a translation of a life of Xavier in prose. He had written +also a panegyric of Charles, <i>Threnodia Augustalis</i>, and a poem +in honour of the birth of James II.’s heir, under the title of +<i>Britannia rediviva</i> (1688).</p> + +<p>Dryden did not abjure his new faith on the Revolution, and +so lost his office and pension as laureate and historiographer +royal. For this act of constancy he deserves credit, if the new +powers would have considered his services worth having after +his frequent apostasies. His rival Shadwell reigned in his stead. +Dryden was once more thrown mainly upon his pen for support. +He turned again to the stage and wrote the plays already enumerated. +A great feature in the last decade of his life was his +translations from the classics. <i>Ovid’s Epistles translated</i> appeared +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page613" id="page613"></a>613</span> +in 1680; and numerous translations from Virgil, Horace, +Ovid, Lucretius and Theocritus appeared in the four volumes +of <i>Miscellany Poems</i>—<i>Miscellany Poems</i> (1684), <i>Sylvae</i> (1685), +<i>Examen poeticum</i> (1693), <i>The Annual Miscellany</i> (1694 by the +“most eminent hands”); in 1693 was published the verse +translation of the <i>Satires</i> of Juvenal and of Persius by “Mr +Dryden and several other eminent hands,” which contained his +“Discourse concerning the Original and Progress of Satire”; +and in 1697 Jacob Tonson published his most important translation, +<i>The Works of Virgil</i>. The book, which was the result of +three years’ labour, was a vigorous, rather than a close, rendering +of Virgil into the style of Dryden. Among other notable poems +of this period are the two “Songs for St Cecilia’s Day,” written +for a London musical society for 1687 and 1697, and published +separately. The second of these is the famous ode on “Alexander’s +Feast.” The well-known paraphrase of <i>Veni, Creator +Spiritus</i> was posthumously printed, and his “Ode to the memory +of Anne Killigrew,” called by Dr Johnson the noblest ode in the +language, was written in 1686.</p> + +<p>His next work was to render some of Chaucer’s and Boccaccio’s +tales and Ovid’s <i>Metamorphoses</i> into his own verse. These translations +appeared in November 1699, a few months before his +death, and are known by the title of <i>Fables, Ancient and Modern</i>. +The preface, which is an admirable example of Dryden’s prose, +contains an excellent appreciation of Chaucer, and, incidentally, +an answer to Jeremy Collier’s attack on the stage. Thus +a large portion of the closing years of Dryden’s life was spent +in translating for bread. He had a windfall of 500 guineas from +Lord Abingdon for a poem on the death of his wife in 1691, +and he received liberal presents from his cousin John Driden +and from the duke of Ormonde, but generally he was in considerable +pecuniary straits. Besides, his three sons held various +posts in the service of the pope at Rome, and he could not +well be on good terms with both courts. However, he was not +molested in London by the government, and in private he was +treated with the respect due to his old age and his admitted +position as the greatest of living English poets. He held a small +court at Wills’s coffee-house, where he spent his evenings; +here he had a chair by the fire in winter and by the window in +summer; Congreve, Vanbrugh and Addison were among his +admirers, and here Pope saw the old poet of whom he was to be +the most brilliant disciple. He died at his house in Gerrard +Street, London, on the 1st of May 1700 and was buried on the +13th of the month in Westminster Abbey. Dryden’s portrait, +by Sir G. Kneller, is in the National Portrait Gallery.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—<i>The Comedies, Tragedies and Operas written by +John Dryden, Esq.</i> (2 vols., 1701) was published by Tonson, who +also issued the poet’s <i>Dramatick Works</i> (6 vols., 1717), edited +by Congreve. <i>Poems on Various Occasions and Translations from +Several Authors</i> (1701), also published by Tonson, was very incomplete, +and although other editions followed there was no satisfactory collection +until the edition of the <i>Works</i> (18 vols., 1808, 2nd ed. 1821) +by Sir Walter Scott, who supplied historical and critical notes with a +life of the author. This, as revised and corrected by G. Saintsbury +(18 vols., Edinburgh, 1882-1893), remains the standard edition. +<i>His Critical and Miscellaneous Prose Works</i> (4 vols., 1800) were +edited by Edmund Malone, who collected industriously the materials +for a life of Dryden. Convenient partial modern editions are the +<i>Poetical Works</i> (Globe edition, 1870) edited by W. D. Christie with +an excellent “life”; <i>The Best Plays of John Dryden</i> (Mermaid +series, 2 vols.), edited by G. Saintsbury; and <i>Essays of John Dryden</i> +(2 vols., 1900, Oxford), edited by W. P. Ker. Besides the critical +and biographical matter in these editions see Dr Johnson’s <i>Lives +of the Poets; Dryden</i> (English Men of Letters series, 1881), by G. +Saintsbury; A. Beljame, <i>Le Public et les hommes de lettres en Angleterre +1660-1744</i> (2nd ed. Paris, 1897); A. W. Ward, <i>History of +English Dramatic Literature</i> (new ed. 1899), vol. iii. pp. 346-392; +J. Churton Collins, <i>Essays and Studies</i>; W. J. Courthope, <i>History +of English Poetry</i>, vol. iv. (1903), chap, xiv., and L. N. Chase, +<i>The English Heroic Play</i> (New York, 1903). See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">English +Literature</a></span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. M.; M. Br.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DRYOPITHECUS<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="drys">δρῦς</span>, oak, <span class="grk" title="pithêkos">πίθηκος</span>, ape, “the ape of the +oak-woods”), the name of an extinct ape or monkey from +Miocene deposits of France, believed to be allied to the baboons, +but perhaps with some affinity to the higher apes.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DRY ROT,<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> a fungoid disease in timber which occasions the +destruction of its fibres, and reduces it eventually to a mass of dry +dust. It is produced most readily in a warm, moist, stagnant +atmosphere, while common or wet rot is the result of the exposure +of wood to repeated changes of climatic conditions. The most +formidable of the dry rot fungi is the species <i>Merulius lacrymans</i>, +which is particularly destructive of coniferous wood; other +species are <i>Polyporus hybridus</i>, which thrives in oak-built ships, +and <i>P. destructor</i> and <i>Thelephora puteana</i>, found in a variety of +wooden structures.</p> + +<p>The felling of trees when void of fresh sap, as a means of obviating +the rotting of timber, is a practice of very ancient origin. +Vitruvius directs (ii. cap. 9) that, to secure good timber, trees +should be cut to the pith, so as to allow of the escape of their +sap, which by dying in the wood would injure its quality; also +that felling should take place only from early autumn until the +end of winter. The supposed superior quality of wood cut in +winter, and the early practice in England of felling oak timber at +that season, may be inferred from a statute of James I., which +enacted “that no person or persons shall fell, or cause to be felled, +any oaken trees meet to be barked, when bark is worth 2s. a cart-load +(timber for the needful building and reparation of houses, +ships or mills only excepted), but between the first day of April +and last day of June, not even for the king’s use, out of barking +time, except for building or repairing his Majesty’s houses or +ships.” In giving testimony before a committee of the House +of Commons in March 1771, Mr Barnard of Deptford expressed +it as his opinion that to secure durable timber for shipbuilding, +trees should be barked in spring and not felled till the succeeding +winter. In France, so long ago as 1669, a royal decree limited +the felling of timber from the 1st of October to the 15th of April; +and, in an order issued to the commissioners of forests, Napoleon +I. directed that the felling of naval timber should take place only +from November 1 to March 15, and during the decrease of the +moon, on account of the rapid decay of timber, through the +fermentation of its sap, if cut at other seasons. The burying +of wood in water, which dissolves out or alters its putrescible +constituents, has long been practised as a means of seasoning. +The old “Resistance” frigate, which went down in Malta +harbour, remained under water for some months, and on being +raised was found to be entirely freed from the dry rot fungus that +had previously covered her; similarly, in the ship “Eden,” +the progress of rot was completely arrested by 18 months’ +submergence in Plymouth Sound, so that after remaining a +year at home in excellent condition she was sent out to the +East Indies. It was an ancient practice in England to place +timber for thrashing-floors and oak planks for wainscotting in +running water to season them. Whale and other oils have been +recommended for the preservation of wood; and in 1737 a +patent for the employment of hot oil was taken out by a +Mr Emerson.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For the modern processes of preserving timber see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Timber</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUALISM<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> (from rare Lat. <i>dualis</i>, containing two, from <i>duo</i>), +a philosophical term applied to all theories which attempt to +explain facts by reference to two coexistent principles. The +term plays an important part in metaphysical, ethical and +theological speculation.</p> + +<p><i>In Metaphysics.</i>—Metaphysical dualism postulates the eternal +coexistence of mind and matter, as opposed to monism +both idealistic and materialistic. Two forms of this dualism +are held. On the one hand it is said that mind and matter +are absolutely heterogeneous, and, therefore, that any causal +relation between them is <i>ex hypothesi</i> impossible. On the other +hand is a hypothetical dualism, according to which it is held +that mind cannot bridge over the chasm so far as to <i>know</i> matter +<i>in itself</i>, though it is compelled by its own laws of cause and +effect to postulate matter as the origin, if not the motive cause, +of its sensations. It follows that, for the thinking mind, matter +is a necessary hypothesis. Hence the theory is a kind of monism, +inasmuch as it confessedly does not assert the existence of matter +save as an intellectual postulate for the thinking mind. Matter, +in other words, must be assumed to exist, though mind cannot +know it <i>in itself</i>. From this question there emerges a second +and more difficult problem. Consciousness, it is held, is of two +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page614" id="page614"></a>614</span> +main kinds, sensation and reason. Sensation alone is insufficient +to explain all our intellectual phenomena; all sensation is +momentary and individual (cf. Empiricism). How then are we +to account for memory and the principles of necessity, similarity, +universality? It is argued that there must be in the mind an +enduring, primary faculty whereby we retain, compare and +group the presentations of sense. This faculty is <i>a priori</i>, +transcendental, and entirely separate from all the data of experience +and sense-perception. Here then we have a dualism +within experience. The mind is not to be regarded as a sensitized +film which automatically records the impressions of the senses. +It contains within itself this modifying critical faculty which +reacts upon and arranges the sense-given presentations.</p> + +<p><i>In Ethics and Theology.</i>—In the domain of morals, dualism +postulates the separate existence of Good and Evil, as principles +of existence. In theology the appearance of dualism is sporadic +and has not the fundamental, determining importance which it +has in metaphysics. It is a result rather than a starting-point. +The old Zoroastrianism, and those Christian sects (<i>e.g.</i> Manichaeism) +which were influenced by it, postulate two contending +deities Ormuzd and Ahriman (Good and Evil), which war +against one another in influencing the conduct of men. So, in +Christianity, the existence of Satan as an evil influence, antagonistic +to God, involves a kind of dualism. But generally speaking +this dualism is permissive, inasmuch as it is always held that God +will triumph over Satan in His own time. So in Zoroastrianism +the dualism is not ultimate, for Ahriman and Ormuzd are +represented as the twin sons of Zervana Akarana, <i>i.e.</i> limitless +time, wherein both will be finally absorbed. The postulate of an +Evil Being arises from the difficulty, at all times acutely felt by +a certain type of mind, of reconciling the existence of evil with +the divine attributes of perfect goodness, full knowledge and +infinite power. John Stuart Mill (<i>Essay on Religion</i>) preferred +to disbelieve in the omnipotence of God rather than forgo the +belief in His goodness. It follows from such a view that Satan +is not the creation of God, but rather a power coeval in origin, +over whose activity God has no absolute control.</p> + +<p><i>In Theology.</i>—Dualism is also used in a special theological +sense to describe a doctrine of the Nestorian heresy. According +to this doctrine the personality of Christ is twofold; the divine +Logos dwells as a distinct personality in the man Jesus Christ, +the union of the two natures being analogous to the relation +between the believer and the indwelling Holy Spirit.</p> + +<p><i>History of the Doctrine.</i>—The earliest European thinkers +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ionian School of Philosophy</a></span>) endeavoured to reduce +all the facts of the universe to a single material origin, such as +Fire, Water, Air. It is only gradually that there appears any +recognition of a spiritual principle exercising a modifying or +causal influence over inert matter. Anaxagoras was the first +to postulate the existence of Reason (<span class="grk" title="nous">νοῦς</span>) as the source of +change and progress. Yet even he did not conceive this Reason +as incorporeal; it was in reality only the most highly rarefied +form of matter in existence. In Plato for the first time we find +a truly dualistic conception of the universe. Asserting that +Ideas alone really exist, he yet found it necessary to postulate +a second principle of not-being, the groundwork of sensuous +existence and of imperfection and evil. Herein he identified +metaphysics and ethics, combining the good with the truly +existent and evil with the non-existent. Aristotle rebels against +this conception and substitutes the idea of <span class="grk" title="prôtê hylê">πρώτη ὕλη</span> and development. +Nevertheless he does not escape from the dualism of +Form and Matter, <span class="grk" title="nous">νοῦς</span> and <span class="grk" title="hylê">ὕλη</span>. The scholastic philosophers +naturally held dualistic views resulting from their extreme +devotion to formalism. This blind dualism found its natural +consequence in the revolt of the Renaissance thinkers, Bruno +and Paracelsus, who asserted the unity of mind and matter in +all existence and were the precursors of the more intelligent +monism of Leibnitz and the scientific metaphysics of his successors. +The birth of modern physical science on the other +hand in the investigations of Bacon and Descartes obscured the +metaphysical issue by the predominance of the mechanical +principles of natural philosophy. They attempted to explain +the fundamental problems of existence by the unaided evidence +of the new natural science. Thus Descartes maintained the +absolute dualism of the <i>res cogitans</i> and the <i>res extensa</i>. Spinoza +realized the flaw in the division and preferred to postulate +behind mind and matter a single substance (<i>unica substantia</i>) +while Leibnitz explained the universe as a harmony of spiritual +or semispiritual principles. Kant practically abandons the +problem. He never really establishes a relation between pure +reason and things-in-themselves (<i>Dinge an sich</i>), but rather seeks +refuge in a dualism within consciousness, the transcendental +and the empirical. Since Kant there are, therefore, two streams +of dualism, dealing, one with the radical problem of the relation +between mind and matter, the other with the relation between +the pure rational and the empirical elements within consciousness. +To the first problem there is one obvious and conclusive answer, +namely that matter in itself is inherently unthinkable and comes +within the vision of the mind only as an intellectual presentation. +It follows that philosophy is in a sense both dualist and monist; +it is a cosmic dualism inasmuch as it admits the possible existence +of matter as a hypothesis, though it denies the possibility of any +true knowledge of it, and is hence in regard of the only possible +knowledge an idealistic monism. It is a self-destructive dualism, +a confessedly one-sided monism, agnostic as to the fundamental +problem. To the second problem there are two main answers, +that of Associationism which denies to the mind any <i>a priori</i> +existence and asserts that sensation is the only source of knowledge, +and that which admits the existence of both transcendental +and empirical knowledge.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUALLA,<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> one of the principal negro peoples of Cameroon +estuary, West Africa. When the Germans established themselves +in that region, the Dualla were under many petty chiefs, whose +domains were usually restricted to one village. Over these were +two greater chiefs, Bell (Mbeli) and Akwa, representing the +principal families of the tribe. The Dualla are physically a +fine race. They are proud of their racial purity, and it was +formerly usual for all half-caste children to be strangled at birth. +The Dualla tattoo themselves, the women the whole body, the +men the face only. They also pull out their eyelashes, which +they believe prevent sharp sight. The monarchical system is +more developed among the Dualla than any other of the peoples +of Cameroon. The kings, many of whom have grown rich through +trade, retain part of their former power, subject to the German +government. The Dualla, who are laborious, industrious and +capable of great physical endurance, are great traders and are +proportionately prosperous. The average price for a wife among +the Dualla is from £90 to £120; but sometimes a great deal more +is paid. Girls are usually betrothed young and may be divorced +if sterile. The penalty for adultery is a fine imposed on the +seducer; if he cannot pay he becomes the husband’s slave. +Cannibalism as a religious rite was formerly common among +the Dualla. All accessions to power were preceded by a sacrifice, +a king having no authority till his hands were stained with blood. +The religion is fetish blended with ancestor-worship, and certain +secret societies exist among them which seem to have a religious +connexion. The dead are buried within the hut, which is abandoned +shortly afterwards; slaves were formerly buried with +men of importance. Missionary efforts have yielded many +converts, and some churches have been built. Many of the +natives can read. The Dualla are in possession of an interesting +code, in accordance with which messages can be sent and even +conversations maintained by means of drums, or rather gongs, +giving two notes. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cameroon</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DU BARRY, MARIE JEANNE BÉCU,<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> Comtesse (1746-1793), +French adventuress, mistress of Louis XV., was the +natural daughter of a poor woman of Vaucouleurs, and was +born there on the 19th of August 1746. Placed in a convent in +Paris at an early age, she received a very slight education, +learning little but the catechism and drawing; and at the age +of sixteen entered a milliner’s shop in the rue St Honoré. Subsequently +she lived as a courtesan under the name of Mdlle Lange. +Her great personal charms led the adventurer Jean, comte du +Barry, to take her into his house in order to make it more +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page615" id="page615"></a>615</span> +attractive to the dupes whose money he won by gambling. Her +success surpassing his expectations, his hopes took a higher +flight, and through Lebel, valet de chambre of Louis XV., and +the duc de Richelieu, he succeeded in installing her as mistress +of the king. In order to present her at court it was necessary to +find a title for her, and as Count Jean du Barry was married +himself his brother Guillaume offered himself as nominal +husband. The comtesse du Barry was presented at court on +the 22nd of April 1769, and became official mistress of the king. +Her influence over the monarch was absolute until his death, +and courtiers and ministers were in favour or disgrace with him +in exact accordance with her wishes. The duc de Choiseul, who +refused to acknowledge her, was disgraced in 1771; and the +duc d’Aiguillon, who had the reputation of being her lover, +took his place, and in concert with her governed the monarch. +Louis XV. built for her the magnificent mansion of Luciennes. +At his death in 1774 an order of his successor banished her to +the abbey of Pont-aux-Dames, near Meaux, but, the queen +interceding for her, the king in the following year gave her +permission to reside at Luciennes with a pension. Here she led +a retired life with the comte de Cossé-Brissac, and was visited +there by Benjamin Franklin and the emperor Joseph II., among +many other distinguished men. Having gone to England in 1792 +to endeavour to raise money on her jewels, she was on her return +accused before the Revolutionary Tribunal of having dissipated +the treasures of the state, conspired against the republic, and +worn, in London, “mourning for the tyrant.” She was condemned +to death on the 7th of December 1793, and beheaded +the same evening. Her contemporaries, scorning her low birth +rather than her vices, attributed to her a malicious political rôle +of which she was at heart incapable, and have done scant justice +to her quick wit, her frank but gracious manners, and her seductive +beauty. The volume of <i>Lettres et Anecdotes</i> (1779) which +bears her name was not written by her.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See E. and J. de Goncourt, <i>La du Barry</i> (Paris, 1880); C. Vatel, +<i>Histoire de Madame du Barry</i> (1882-1883), based on sources; R. +Douglas, <i>The Life and Times of Madame du Barry</i> (London, 1896).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DU BARTAS, GUILLAUME DE SALUSTE,<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> <span class="sc">Seigneur</span> (1544-1590), +French poet, was born near Auch in 1544. He was +employed by Henry IV. of France in England, Denmark and +Scotland; and he commanded a troop of horse in Gascony, +under the marshal de Martingan. He was a convinced Huguenot, +and cherished the idea of writing a great religious epic in which +biblical characters and Christian sentiment were to supplant +the pagan <i>mise en scène</i> then in fashion. His first epic, <i>Judith</i>, +appeared in a volume entitled <i>La Muse chrétienne</i> (Bordeaux, +1573). This was followed five years later by his principal work, +<i>La Sepmaine</i>, a poem on the creation of the world. This work +was held by admirers of du Bartas to put him on a level with +Ronsard, and thirty editions of it were printed within six years +after its appearance. Its religious tone and fanciful style made +it a great favourite in England, where the author was called the +“divine” du Bartas, and placed on an equality with Ariosto. +Spenser, Hall and Ben Jonson, all speak in the highest terms of +what seems to us a most uninteresting poem. King James VI. +of Scotland tried his “prentice hand” at the translation of du +Bartas’s poem <i>L’Uranie</i>, and the compliment was returned by +the French writer, who translated, as <i>La Lepanthe</i>, James’s poem +on the battle of Lepanto. Du Bartas began the publication of +the <i>Seconde Semaine</i> in 1584. He aimed at a great epic which +should stretch from the story of the creation to the coming of +the Messiah. Of this great scheme he only executed a part, +marked by a certain elevation of style, but he did not succeed in +acclimatizing the religious epic in France. The work is spoiled +by a constant tendency to moralize, and is filled with the indiscriminate +information that passed under the name of science +in the 16th century. Du Bartas, perhaps more than any other +writer, brought the Ronsardist tradition into dispute. He +introduced many unwieldy compounds foreign to the genius +of the French language, and in his borrowings from old French, +from provincial dialects and from Latin, he failed to show the +sure instinct and prudence of Ronsard and du Bellay. He was +also guilty of reduplicating the first syllables of words, producing +such expressions as <i>pépétiller</i>, <i>sousouflantes</i>. Du Bartas died +in July 1590 in Paris from wounds received at the battle of +Ivry.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Joshua Sylvester translated the <i>Sepmaine</i> in 1598; other English +translations from du Bartas are <i>The Historie of Judith ...</i> (1584), +by Thomas Hudson; of portions of the “Weeks” (1625) by William +Lisle (1569-1637), the Anglo-Saxon scholar; <i>Urania</i> (1589), by +Robert Ashley (1565-1641); and Sir Philip Sidney (see Florio’s +dedication of the second book of his translation of Montaigne to +Lady Rich) wrote a translation of the first “Week,” which is lost. +The <i>Œuvres complètes</i> of du Bartas were printed at Paris (1579), +Paris and Bordeaux (1611). See also G. Pellissier, <i>La Vie et les œuvres +de du Bartas</i> (1883).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUBAWNT,<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Doobaunt</span> (Indian <i>Toobaung</i>, <i>i.e.</i> turbid), a +river of Mackenzie and Keewatin districts, Canada. It rises in +Wholdaia (or Daly) Lake, in 104° 20′ W. and 60° 15′ N., and +flows northward to its confluence with the Thelon river, and +thence eastward to Chesterfield Inlet, an arm of Hudson Bay. +It passes through numerous lake-expansions, including Dubawnt +Lake, with an area of 1700 sq. m. and an altitude of 500 ft. above +the sea; Aberdeen, altitude 130 ft.; and Baker, 30 ft. From +the head of Wholdaia Lake to the head of Chesterfield Inlet is +750 m. and thence to the west coast of Hudson Bay 125 m. The +river is shallow, and banks and bed are chiefly composed of +boulders; grassy slopes, however, occur at intervals along its +banks, especially on the shores of Dubawnt Lake, and are the +feeding grounds of large bands of cariboo. Discovered in 1770 +by Samuel Hearne, the Dubawnt was explored by J. B. Tyrrell +in 1893, and the Thelon by David Hanbury in 1899.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Annual Report of the Geological Survey of Canada for 1896 +(printed 1898).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUBBO,<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> a municipal town of Lincoln county, New South +Wales, Australia, on the Macquarie river, 278 m. by rail N.W. of +Sydney. Pop. (1901) 3409. It is a flourishing manufacturing +town in a pastoral district, in part also cultivated. Coal and +copper are found in the neighbourhood.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DU BELLAY, GUILLAUME,<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> <span class="sc">Sieur de Langey</span> (1491-1543), +French soldier and diplomat, was born at the château of Glatigny, +near Montmirail, in 1491. His father, Louis du Bellay-Langey +was a younger son of the Angevin family of du Bellay, which +from the 14th century was distinguished in the service of the +dukes of Anjou and afterwards of the kings of France; and +Louis had six sons, who were among the best servants of Francis I. +Guillaume, the eldest, is one of the most remarkable figures of +the time; a brave soldier, a humanist and a historian, he was +above all the most able diplomat at the command of Francis I., +prodigiously active, and excelling in secret negotiations. He +entered the military service at an early age, was taken prisoner +at Pavia (1525) and shared the captivity of Francis I. His skill +and devotion attached him to the king. His missions to Spain, +Italy, England and Germany were innumerable; sent three +times to England in 1529-1530, he was occupied with the execution +of the treaty of Cambrai and also with the question of +Henry VIII.’s divorce, and with the help of his brother Jean, +then bishop of Paris, he obtained a decision favourable to Henry +VIII. from the Sorbonne (July 2, 1530). From 1532 to 1536, +though he went three times to England, he was principally +employed in uniting the German princes against Charles V.; +in May 1532 he signed the treaty of Scheyern with the dukes +of Bavaria, the landgrave of Hesse, and the elector of Saxony, +and in January 1534 the treaty of Augsburg. During the war +of 1537 Francis I. sent him on missions to Piedmont; he was +governor of Turin from December 1537 till the end of 1539, and +subsequently replacing Marshal d’Annebaut as governor of the +whole of Piedmont, he displayed great capacity in organization. +But at the end of 1542, overwhelmed by work, he was compelled +to return to France, and died near Lyons on the 9th of January +1543. Rabelais, an eye-witness, has left a moving story of his +death (<i>Pantagruel</i>, iii. ch. 21, and iv. ch. 27). He was buried +in the cathedral of Le Mans, where a monument was erected +to his memory, with the inscription, “Ci gît Langey, dont la +plume et l’épée Ont surmonté Cicéron et Pompée”; Charles V. +is said to have remarked that Langey, by his own unaided efforts, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page616" id="page616"></a>616</span> +did more mischief and thwarted more schemes than all the +French together.</p> + +<p>Guillaume du Bellay was the devoted protector of freedom +of thought; without actually joining the reformers, he defended +the innovators against their fanatical opponents. In 1534-1535 +he even tried, unsuccessfully, to bring about a meeting +between Francis I. and Melanchthon; and in 1541 he intervened +in favour of the Vaudois. Rabelais was the most famous of his +clients, and followed him to Piedmont from 1540 to 1542. +Guillaume was himself a valuable historian, and a clear and +precise writer. He imitated Livy in his <i>Ogdoades</i>, a history of +the rivalry between Francis I. and the emperor from 1521, of +which, though he had no time to finish it, important fragments +remain, inserted by his brother Martin du Bellay (d. 1559) in +his <i>Mémoires</i> (1569). The celebrated <i>Instructions</i>, reprinted as +<i>Traité de la discipline militaire</i> in 1554 and 1592, was formerly +attributed to him, but it has been proved that he could not have +written it (see Bayle, <i>Dict. Hist.</i> i. 502, and Jähns, <i>Geschichte der +Kriegswissenschaften</i>, i. 498 seq.); this work, however, is of the +highest value for the study of the military art of the 16th century; +in 1550 an Italian, in 1567 a Spanish, and in 1594 and 1619 +German translations were published.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also the edition of Martin du Bellay’s <i>Mémoires</i> by Michaud +and Poujoulat (1838), and Bourrilly’s <i>Fragments de la première +Ogdoade</i> (Paris, 1905). There is an excellent study of Guillaume +du Bellay by V. L. Bourrilly (Paris, 1905).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. I.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DU BELLAY, JEAN<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> (c. 1493-1560), French cardinal and +diplomat, younger brother of Guillaume du Bellay, appears as +bishop of Bayonne in 1526, member of the privy council in 1530, +and bishop of Paris in 1532. Supple and clever, he was well +fitted for a diplomatic career, and carried out several missions +in England (1527-1534) and Rome (1534-1536). In 1535 he +received his cardinal’s hat; in 1536-1537 he was nominated +“lieutenant-general” to the king at Paris and in the Île de +France, and was entrusted with the organization of the defence +against the imperialists. When Guillaume du Bellay went to +Piedmont, Jean was put in charge of the negotiations with the +German Protestants, principally through the humanist Johann +Sturm and the historian Johann Sleidan. In the last years of the +reign of Francis I., cardinal du Bellay was in favour with the +duchesse d’Étampes, and received a number of benefices—the +bishopric of Limoges (1541), archbishopric of Bordeaux (1544), +bishopric of Le Mans (1546); but his influence in the council was +supplanted by that of Cardinal de Tournon. Under Henry II., +being involved in the disgrace of all the servants of Francis I., he +was sent to Rome (1547), and he obtained eight votes in the conclave +which followed the death of Pope Paul III. After three quiet +years passed in retirement in France (1550-1553), he was charged +with a new mission to Pope Julius III. and took with him to Rome +his young cousin the poet Joachim du Bellay (<i>q.v.</i>). He lived +in Rome thenceforth in great state. In 1555 he was nominated +bishop of Ostia and dean of the Sacred College, an appointment +which was disapproved of by Henry II. and brought him into +fresh disgrace, lasting till his death in Rome on the 16th of +February 1560. Less resolute and reliable than his brother +Guillaume, the cardinal had brilliant qualities, and an open and +free mind. He was on the side of toleration and protected the +reformers. Budaeus was his friend, Rabelais his faithful secretary +and doctor; men of letters, like Étienne Dolet, and the poet +Salmon Macrin, were indebted to him for assistance. An orator +and writer of Latin verse, he left three books of graceful Latin +poems (printed with Salmon Macrin’s <i>Odes</i>, 1546, by R. Estienne), +and some other compositions, including <i>Francisci Francorum +regis epistola apologetica</i> (1542). His voluminous correspondence, +mostly in MS., is remarkable for its <i>verve</i> and picturesque +quality.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—The Bibliothèque Nationale at Paris has numerous +unpublished letters of Jean du Bellay. See also Ribier, <i>Lettres +et mémoires d’estat</i> (Paris, 1666); V. L. Bourrilly and P. de Vaissière, +<i>Ambassade de Jean du Bellay en Angleterre</i>, vol. i. (Paris, 1905); +marquis de la Jonquière, <i>Le Cardinal du Bellay</i> (Alençon, 1887); +Heulhard, <i>Rabelais, ses voyages en Italie</i> (Paris, 1891); Chamard, +<i>Joachim du Bellay</i> (Lille, 1900); V. L. Bourrilly, <i>Guillaume du +Bellay</i> (Paris, 1905); “Jean du Bellay, les protestants et la Sorbonne” +in the <i>Bulletin du Protestantisme français</i> (1903, 1904); and “Jean +Sleidan et le Cardinal du Bellay,” in the <i>Bulletin, &c.</i> (1901, 1906).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. I.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DU BELLAY, JOACHIM<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> (c. 1522-1560), French poet and +critic, member of the Pléiade, was born<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> at the château of La +Turmelière, not far from Liré, near Angers, being the son of Jean +du Bellay, seigneur de Gonnor, cousin-german of the cardinal +Jean du Bellay and of Guillaume du Bellay. Both his parents +died while he was still a child, and he was left to the guardianship +of his elder brother, René du Bellay, who neglected his education, +leaving him to run wild at La Turmelière. When he was twenty-three, +however, he received permission to go to Poitiers to study +law, no doubt with a view to his obtaining perferment through +his kinsman the Cardinal Jean du Bellay. At Poitiers he came +in contact with the humanist Marc Antoine Muret, and with +Jean Salmon Macrin (1490-1557), a Latin poet famous in his +day. There too he probably met Jacques Peletier du Mans, who +had published a translation of the <i>Ars poëtica</i> of Horace, with a +preface in which much of the programme advocated later by the +Pléiade is to be found in outline.</p> + +<p>It was probably in 1547 that du Bellay met Ronsard in an +inn on the way to Poitiers, an event which may justly be regarded +as the starting-point of the French school of Renaissance poetry. +The two had much in common, and immediately became fast +friends. Du Bellay returned with Ronsard to Paris to join the +circle of students of the humanities attached to Jean Daurat +(<i>q.v.</i>) at the Collège de Coqueret. While Ronsard and Antoine de +Baïf were most influenced by Greek models, du Bellay was more +especially a Latinist, and perhaps his preference for a language +so nearly connected with his own had some part in determining +the more national and familiar note of his poetry. In 1548 +appeared the <i>Art poétique</i> of Thomas Sibilet, who enunciated +many of the ideas that Ronsard and his followers had at heart, +though with essential differences in the point of view, since he +held up as models Clément Marot and his disciples. Ronsard +and his friends dissented violently from Sibilet on this and other +points, and they doubtless felt a natural resentment at finding +their ideas forestalled and, moreover, inadequately presented. +The famous manifesto of the Pléiade, the <i>Deffence et illustration +de la langue françoyse</i> (1549), was at once a complement and a +refutation of Sibilet’s treatise. This book was the expression +of the literary principles of the Pléiade as a whole, but although +Ronsard was the chosen leader, its redaction was entrusted to +du Bellay. To obtain a clear view of the reforms aimed at by +the Pléiade, the <i>Deffence</i> should be further considered in connexion +with Ronsard’s <i>Abrégé d’art poétique</i> and his preface to +the <i>Franciade</i>. Du Bellay maintained that the French language +as it was then constituted was too poor to serve as a medium +for the higher forms of poetry, but he contended that by proper +cultivation it might be brought on a level with the classical +tongues. He condemned those who despaired of their mother +tongue, and used Latin for their more serious and ambitious +work. For translations from the ancients he would substitute +imitations. Not only were the forms of classical poetry to be +imitated, but a separate poetic language and style, distinct from +those employed in prose, were to be used. The French language +was to be enriched by a development of its internal resources and +by discreet borrowing from the Latin and Greek. Both du Bellay +and Ronsard laid stress on the necessity of prudence in these +borrowings, and both repudiated the charge of wishing to latinize +their mother tongue. The book was a spirited defence of poetry +and of the possibilities of the French language; it was also a +declaration of war on those writers who held less heroic views.</p> + +<p>The violent attacks made by du Bellay on Marot and his +followers, and on Sibilet, did not go unanswered. Sibilet replied +in the preface to his translation (1549) of the <i>Iphigenia</i> of Euripides; +Guillaume des Autels, a Lyonnese poet, reproached +du Bellay with ingratitude to his predecessors, and showed the +weakness of his argument for imitation as opposed to translation +in a digression in his <i>Réplique aux furieuses défenses de Louis +Meigret</i> (Lyons, 1550); Barthélemy Aneau, regent of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page617" id="page617"></a>617</span> +Collège de la Trinité at Lyons, attacked him in his <i>Quintil Horatian</i> +(Lyons, 1551), the authorship of which was commonly attributed +to Charles Fontaine. Aneau pointed out the obvious inconsistency +of inculcating imitation of the ancients and depreciating +native poets in a work professing to be a defence of the French +language. Du Bellay replied to his various assailants in a preface +to the second edition (1550) of his sonnet sequence <i>Olive</i>, with +which he also published two polemical poems, the <i>Musagnaeomachie</i>, +and an ode addressed to Ronsard, <i>Contre les envieux +poètes</i>. <i>Olive</i>, a collection of love-sonnets written in close +imitation of Petrarch, first appeared in 1549. With it were +printed thirteen odes entitled <i>Vers lyriques</i>. Olive has been +supposed to be an anagram for the name of a Mlle Viole, but +there is little evidence of real passion in the poems, and they +may perhaps be regarded as a Petrarcan exercise, especially +as, in the second edition, the dedication to his lady is exchanged +for one to Marguerite de Valois, sister of Henry II. Du Bellay +did not actually introduce the sonnet into French poetry, but +he acclimatized it; and when the fashion of sonneteering became +a mania he was one of the first to ridicule its excesses.</p> + +<p>About this time du Bellay had a serious illness of two years’ +duration, from which dates the beginning of his deafness. He had +further anxieties in the guardianship of his nephew. The boy +died in 1553, and Joachim, who had up to this time borne the +title of sieur de Liré, became seigneur of Gonnor. In 1549 he had +published a <i>Recueil de poësies</i> dedicated to the Princess Marguerite. +This was followed in 1552 by a version of the fourth book of +the <i>Aeneid</i>, with other translations and some occasional poems. +In the next year he went to Rome as one of the secretaries of +Cardinal du Bellay. To the beginning of his four and a half years’ +residence in Italy belong the forty-seven sonnets of his <i>Antiquités +de Rome</i>, which were rendered into English by Edmund Spenser +(<i>The Ruins of Rome</i>, 1591). These sonnets were more personal +and less imitative than the <i>Olive</i> sequence, and struck a note +which was revived in later French literature by Volney and +Chateaubriand. His stay in Rome was, however, a real exile. +His duties were those of an intendant. He had to meet the +cardinal’s creditors and to find money for the expenses of the +household. Nevertheless he found many friends among Italian +scholars, and formed a close friendship with another exiled poet +whose circumstances were similar to his own, Olivier de Magny. +Towards the end of his sojourn in Rome he fell violently in love +with a Roman lady called Faustine, who appears in his poetry +as Columba and Columbelle. This passion finds its clearest +expression in the Latin poems. Faustine was guarded by an +old and jealous husband, and du Bellay’s eventual conquest +may have had something to do with his departure for Paris at +the end of August 1557. In the next year he published the poems +he had brought back with him from Rome, the Latin <i>Poemata</i>, +the <i>Antiquités de Rome</i>, the <i>Jeux rustiques</i>, and the 191 sonnets +of the <i>Regrets</i>, the greater number of which were written in Italy. +The <i>Regrets</i> show that he had advanced far beyond the theories of +the <i>Deffence</i>. The simplicity and tenderness specially characteristic +of du Bellay appear in the sonnets telling of his unlucky passion +for Faustine, and of his nostalgia for the banks of the Loire. +Among them are some satirical sonnets describing Roman +manners, and the later ones written after his return to Paris +are often appeals for patronage. His intimate relations with +Ronsard were not renewed; but he formed a close friendship +with the scholar Jean de Morel, whose house was the centre of a +learned society. In 1559 du Bellay published at Poitiers <i>La +Nouvelle Manière de faire son profit des lettres</i>, a satirical epistle +translated from the Latin of Adrien Turnèbe, and with it <i>Le Poète +courtisan</i>, which introduced the formal satire into French poetry. +These were published under the pseudonym of J. Quintil du +Troussay, and the courtier-poet was generally supposed to be +Melin de Saint-Gelais, with whom du Bellay had always, however, +been on friendly terms.</p> + +<p>A long and eloquent <i>Discours au roi</i> (detailing the duties of a +prince, and translated from a Latin original written by Michel +de l’Hôpital, now lost) was dedicated to Francis II. in 1559, +and is said to have secured for the poet a tardy pension. In +Paris he was still in the employ of the cardinal, who delegated +to him the lay patronage which he still retained in the diocese. +In the exercise of these functions Joachim quarrelled with +Eustache du Bellay, bishop of Paris, who prejudiced his relations +with the cardinal, less cordial since the publication of the outspoken +<i>Regrets</i>. His chief patron, Marguerite de Valois, to whom +he was sincerely attached, had gone to Savoy. Du Bellay’s health +was weak; his deafness seriously hindered his official duties; +and on the 1st of January 1560 he died. There is no evidence that +he was in priest’s orders, but he was a clerk, and as such held +various preferments. He had at one time been a canon of Notre +Dame of Paris, and was accordingly buried in the cathedral. +The statement that he was nominated archbishop of Bordeaux +during the last year of life is unauthenticated by documentary +evidence and is in itself extremely improbable.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—The best edition of the works of J. du Bellay is +<i>Œuvres françaises</i> (2 vols., 1866-1867), edited with introduction and +notes by C. Marty-Laveaux in his <i>Pléiade française</i>. His <i>Œuvres +choisies</i> were published by L. Becq de Fouquières in 1876. The chief +source of his biography is his own poetry, especially the Latin elegy +addressed to Jean de Morel, “<i>Elegia ad Janum Morellum Ebredunensem, +Pyladem suum</i>,” printed with a volume of <i>Xenia</i> (Paris, 1569). +A study of his life and writings by H. Chamard, forming vol. viii. +of the <i>Travaux et mémoires de l’université de Lille</i> (Lille, 1900), contains +all the available information and corrects many common errors. See +also Sainte-Beuve, <i>Tableau de la poésie française au XVI^{e} siècle</i> +(1828); <i>La Défense et illust. de la langue française</i> (1905), with biographical +and critical introduction by Léon Séché, who also wrote +<i>Joachim du Bellay, documents nouveaux et inédits</i> (1880), and published +in 1903 the first volume of a new edition of the <i>Œuvres; +Lettres de Joachim du Bellay</i> (1884), edited by P. de Nolhac; G. +Wyndham, <i>Ronsard and La Pléiade</i> (1906); H. Belloc, <i>Avril</i> (1905); +A. Tilley, <i>The Literature of the French Renaissance</i> (2 vols., 1904).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For the date of his birth, commonly given as 1525, see H. +Chamard, <i>Joachim du Bellay</i> (Lille, 1900).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUBLIN,<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> a county of Ireland in the province of Leinster, +bounded N. by Co. Meath, E. by the Irish Sea, S. by Wicklow, +and W. by Kildare and Meath. With the exception of Louth +and Carlow, Dublin is the smallest county in Ireland, having an +area of 218,873 acres, or about 342 sq. m. The northern portion +is flat, and the soil good, particularly on the borders of Meath; +but on the southern side the land rises into elevations of considerable +height. The mountains are chiefly covered with heath, +except where a subsidence in the ground affords a nucleus for +the formation of bog, with which about 2000 acres are covered. +There are also a few small tracts of bog in the northern part of +the county. The mountain district is well adapted for timber. +The northern coast of the county from Balbriggan to Howth +has generally a sandy shore, and affords only the small harbours +of Balbriggan and Skerries. In the promontory of Howth, the +coast suddenly assumes a bolder aspect; and between the town +of Howth and the rocky islet of Ireland’s Eye an unsuccessful +artificial harbour was constructed. Kingstown harbour on the +south side of Dublin Bay superseded this, and is by far the best +in the county. Dalkey Island, about 22 acres in extent, lies +about midway between Kingstown harbour and the beautiful +bay of Killiney. North of Howth lies Lambay Island, about 600 +acres in area. Shell fish, especially lobsters, are taken here in +abundance. Small islets lie farther north off Skerries; the most +interesting of which is that known as Inispatrick, reputed as the +first landing-place of St Patrick, and having the ruins of a church +said to be the saint’s first foundation, though it shares this +reputation with other sites. Ireland’s Eye, off Howth, is a very +picturesque rock with about 54 acres of grass land. It has +afforded great room for geological disquisition. The chief river +in the county is the Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow mountains +about 12 m. S.W. of Dublin, and, after running about 50 m., +empties itself into Dublin Bay. The course of the river is so +tortuous that 40 m. may be traversed and only 10 gained in +direction. The scenery along the banks of the Liffey is remarkably +beautiful. The mountains which occupy the southern +border of the county are the extremities of the great group +belonging to the adjacent county Wicklow. The principal +summits are the group containing Glendoo (1919 ft.) and Two +Rock (1699 ft.) within the county, and the border group of +Kippure, reaching in that summit a height of 2475 ft. The +grandest features of these hills are the great natural ravines +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page618" id="page618"></a>618</span> +which open in them, the most extraordinary being the Scalp +through which the traveller passes from Dublin to Wicklow.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Geology.</i>—On the north a Silurian upland stretches, falling to the +sea at Balbriggan, where fossiliferous strata contain contemporaneous +volcanic rocks. A limestone of Bala age comes out under shales and +andesites in the promontory of Portrane, and rocks of the same +series occur in the bold island of Lambay, associated with a large +mass of dark green porphyritic andesite (the “Lambay porphyry”). +Silurian rocks reappear at Tallaght in the south-west, where the +granite of Leinster rises through them, forming a moorland 2000 ft. +in height only a few miles south of Dublin. Old Red Sandstone, +seen at Donabate and Newcastle, leads up into Carboniferous Limestone, +which is often darkened by mud and even shaly (“calpy” +type). This rock produces a fairly level country, both north and +south of the valley of the Liffey, although the beds are greatly +folded. Beds of a higher Carboniferous zone are retained in synclinals +near Rush. The rugged peninsula of Howth, connected +by a raised bench with the mainland, is formed of old quartzites +and shales, crushed and folded, and probably of Cambrian age. +The rocks of the county show many signs of ice-action, and boulder-clays +and drift-gravels cover the lowland, the latter being banked up +on the mountain-slopes to heights of 1200 ft. or more. Much of this +glacial material has been imported from the area of the Irish Sea. +Lead-ore has been mined at the granite-contact at Ballycorus.</p> + +<p><i>Industries.</i>—The extension of Dublin city and its suburbs has no +doubt had its influence on the decrease of acreage under both tillage +and pasture. Oats and potatoes are the principal crops, but live +stock, especially cattle, receives greater attention. A large proportion +of holdings are of the smallest, nearly one-half of those +beneath fifteen acres being also beneath one acre. The manufactures +of the county are mainly confined to the city and suburbs, but there +is manufacture of cotton hosiery at Balbriggan. The haddock, +herring and other fisheries, both deep-sea and coastal, are important, +and Kingstown is the headquarters of the fishery district. The +salmon fishery district of Dublin also affords considerable employment. +As containing the metropolis of Ireland, the communications +of the county are naturally good, several important railways and +two canals converging upon the city of Dublin, under the head of +which they are considered.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Population and Administration.</i>—The population (148,210 in +1891; 157,568 in 1901) shows a regular increase, which, however, +is not consistent from year to year. About 70% are Roman +Catholics, the Protestant Episcopalians (24%) standing next. +The chief towns, apart from the capital, are Balbriggan (pop. +2236), Blackrock (8719), Dalkey (3398), Killiney and Ballybrack +(2744), Pembroke (25,799), Rathmines and Rathgar (32,602), +and the important port of Kingstown (17,377). These are urban +districts. Skerries, Howth and Rush are small maritime towns. +There are nine baronies in the county, which, including the city +of Dublin, are divided into 100 parishes, all within the Protestant +and Roman Catholic dioceses of Dublin. Assizes are held in +Dublin, and quarter sessions also in the capital, and at Balbriggan, +Kilmainham, Kingstown and Swords. Previous to the +union with Great Britain, this county returned ten representatives +to the Irish Parliament,—two for the county, two for the city, +two for the university, and two for each of the boroughs of +Swords and Newcastle. The county parliamentary divisions are +now two, north and south, each returning one member. The +city of Dublin constitutes a separate county.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—Dublin is among the counties generally considered +to have been formed by King John, and comprised the chief +portion of country within the English pale. The limits of the +county, however, were uncertain, and underwent many changes +before they were fixed. As late as the 17th century the mountainous +country south of Dublin offered a retreat to the lawless, +and it was not until 1606 that the boundaries of the county +received definition in this direction, along with the formation +of the county Wicklow. Although so near the seat of government +67,142 acres of profitable land were forfeited in the Rebellion of +1641 and 34,536 acres in the Revolution of 1688. In 1867 the +most formidable of the Fenian risings took place near the village +of Tallaght, about 7 m. from the city. The rebels, who numbered +from 500 to 700, were found wandering at dawn, some by a small +force of constabulary who, having in vain called upon them to +yield, fired and wounded five of them; but the great bulk of +them were overtaken by the troops under Lord Strathnairn, +who captured them with ease and marched them into the city. +There are numerous antiquities in the county. Raths or encampments +are frequent, and those at Raheny, Coolock, Lucan, +with the large specimen at Shankill or Rathmichael near the +Scalp pass may be mentioned. Cromlechs occur in Phoenix +Park, Dublin, at Howth, and elsewhere. There are fine round +towers at Swords, Lusk and Clondalkin, and there is the stump +of one at Rathmichael.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUBLIN,<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> a city, county of a city, parliamentary borough +and seaport, and the metropolis of Ireland, in the province of +Leinster. It lies at the head of a bay of the Irish Sea, to which +it gives name, about midway on the eastern coast of the island, +334 m. W.N.W. of London by the Holyhead route, and 70 m. W. +of Holyhead on the coast of Anglesey, Wales. (For map, see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ireland</a></span>.) Its population in 1901 was 290,638.</p> + +<p><i>Site, Streets and Buildings.</i>—Dublin lies on the great central +limestone district which stretches across the island from the Irish +Sea to the Atlantic Ocean, and occupies both banks of the river +Liffey. Its situation is justly admired. The populous shores +of the bay are exceedingly picturesque. To the north and west +the country is comparatively level, the central plain of Ireland +here reaching to the coast, but to the south the foothills of the +Wicklow Mountains practically touch the confines of Greater +Dublin, affording comprehensive views of the physical position +of the city, and forming a background to some of the finest +streets. The municipal boundary lies generally a little outside +the so-called Circular Road, which may be taken as encircling +the city proper, with a few breaks. It bears this name on both +the north and south sides of the river. As the city is approached +from the bay, the river Liffey, which divides the city from west +to east roughly into two equal parts, is seen to be lined with a +fine series of quays. At its mouth, on the north side, is the +North Wall quay, where the principal steamers lie, and in this +vicinity are the docks. At the opposite (western) end of the +city, the Phoenix Park may be taken as a convenient landmark. +Between this and North Wall the river is crossed by twelve +bridges, which, in order from west to east, are these:—Sarah +Bridge, the bridge of the North Wall extension railway; King’s, +commemorating a visit of George IV.; Victoria or Barrack; +Queen’s; Whitworth, of interest as occupying the site where a +bridge has stood since the 12th century; Richmond, Grattan +and Wellington; O’Connell, Butt and a swivel bridge carrying +a loop railway. Of these O’Connell bridge (formerly known as +Carlisle) is the principal, as it connects the chief thoroughfare +on the north side, namely Sackville (or O’Connell) Street, with +Great Brunswick Street and others on the south. Sackville +Street, which gains in appearance from its remarkable breadth, +contains the principal hotels, and the post office, with a fine +Ionic portico, founded in 1815. At the crossing of Henry Street +and Earl Street is the Nelson pillar, a beautiful monument 134 ft. +in height, consisting of a fluted Doric column, raised on a massive +pedestal, and crowned by a statue of the admiral. At the southern +end of the street is Daniel O’Connell’s monument, almost completed +by John Henry Foley before his death, and erected in +1882. In Rutland Square, at the northern end, is the Rotunda, +containing public rooms for meetings, and adjoining it, the +Rotunda hospital with its Doric façade.</p> + +<p>From the north end of Sackville Street, several large thoroughfares +radiate through the northern part of the city, ultimately +joining the Circular Road at various points. To the west there +are the Broadstone station, Dominion Street, and beyond this +the large workhouse, prison, asylum and other district buildings, +while the Royal barracks front the river behind Albert Quay. +Two other notable buildings face the river on the north bank. +Between Whitworth and Richmond bridges stands the “Four +Courts” (law courts), on the site of the ancient Dominican +monastery of St Saviour. It was erected between 1786 and 1796, +and is adjoined by other court buildings, the public record office, +containing a vast collection, and the police offices. Below the +lowest bridge on the river, and therefore in the neighbourhood +of the shipping quarter, is the customs house (1781-1791), +considered one of the chief ornaments of the city. It presents +four fronts, that facing the river being of Portland stone, in the +Doric order, while the rest are of granite. The centre is crowned +by a dome, surmounted by a statue of Hope. This building +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page619" id="page619"></a>619</span> +provides offices for the Local Government Board, Boards of +Trade and of Public Works and other bodies.</p> + +<p>It is, however, to the south of the river that the most interesting +buildings are found. Crossing O’Connell bridge, the short +Westmoreland Street strikes into a thoroughfare which traverses +the entire city parallel with the river, and is known successively +(from west to east) as James, Thomas, High, Castle, Dame, +College and Great Brunswick streets. At the end of Westmoreland +Street a fine group of buildings is seen—Trinity College +on the left and the Bank of Ireland on the right. Barely half a +mile westward down Dame Street, rises the Castle, and 300 yds. +beyond this again is the cathedral of Christ Church. These, +with the second cathedral of St Patrick, are more conveniently +described in the inverse order.</p> + +<p>The cathedral of Christ Church, or Holy Trinity, the older +of the two Protestant cathedrals in the possession of which +Dublin is remarkable, was founded by Sigtryg, a +Christianized king of the Danes of Dublin, in 1038, +<span class="sidenote">Christ Church.</span> +but dates its elevation to a deanery and chapter from +1541. It was restored in 1870-1877 by G. E. Street at the charge +of Mr Henry Roe, a merchant of Dublin, who also presented +the Synod House. The restoration involved the complete rebuilding +of the choir and the south side of the nave, but the +model of the ancient building was followed with great care. +The crypt embodies remains of the founder’s work; the rest +is Transitional Norman and Early English in style. Among the +monuments is that of Strongbow, the invader of Ireland, to +whom the earlier part of the superstructure (1170) is due. Here +the tenants of the church lands were accustomed to pay their +rents. The monument was injured by the fall of one of the +cathedral walls, but was repaired. By its side is a smaller tomb, +ascribed to Strongbow’s son, whom his father killed for showing +cowardice in battle. Synods were occasionally held in this +church, and parliaments also, before the Commons’ Hall was +destroyed in 1566 by an accidental explosion of gunpowder. +Here also the pretender Lambert Simnel was crowned.</p> + +<p>A short distance south from Christ Church, through the +squalid quarter of Nicholas and Patrick streets, stands the +other Protestant cathedral dedicated to St Patrick, +the foundation of which was an attempt to supersede +<span class="sidenote">St Patrick’s.</span> +the older foundation of Christ Church, owing to jealousies, +both ecclesiastical and political, arising out of the Anglo-Norman +invasion. It was founded about 1190 by John Comyn, +archbishop of Dublin; but there was a church dedicated to the +same saint before. It was burnt about two hundred years +later, but was raised from its ruins with increased splendour. +At the Reformation it was deprived of its status as a cathedral, +and the building was used for some of the purposes of the courts +of justice. Edward VI. contemplated its change into a university, +but the project was defeated. In the succeeding reign +of Mary, St Patrick’s was restored to its primary destination. +The installations of the knights of St Patrick, the first of which +took place in 1783, were originally held here, and some of their +insignia are preserved in the choir. This cathedral contains the +monuments of several illustrious persons, amongst which the +most celebrated are those of Swift (dean of this cathedral), of +Mrs Hester Johnson, immortalized under the name of “Stella”; +of Archbishop Marsh; of the first earl of Cork; and of Duke +Schomberg, who fell at the battle of the Boyne. The tablet over +Schomberg’s grave contains what Macaulay called a “furious +libel,” though it only states that the duke’s relatives refused +the expense of the tablet. In the cathedral may be seen the +chain ball which killed General St Ruth at the battle of Aughrim, +and the spurs which he wore. The cathedral was restored by +Sir Benjamin Lee Guinness (1864), whom a fine statue by John +Henry Foley commemorates, and the work was resumed by his +son Lord Iveagh in 1900. Attached to the cathedral is Marsh’s +library, incorporated in 1707, by a request of Primate Marsh, +archbishop of Armagh. It contains a good number of theological +works and of manuscripts, and is open to the public; but is +deficient in modern publications.</p> + +<p>Dublin Castle stands high, and occupies about ten acres of +ground, but excepting St Patrick’s Hall, the apartments are +small, and the building is of a motley and unimposing appearance, +with the exception of the chapel (a Gothic building +<span class="sidenote">The Castle.</span> +of the early 19th century) and great tower. The castle +was originally built in the first two decades of the +13th century; and there are portions of this period, but nearly +the whole is of the 16th century and later. In St Patrick’s hall +where the knights of St Patrick are invested, are the banners +of that order. Opposite the castle is the city hall (1779), in the +possession of the corporation, with statues in the central hall of +George III., of Grattan (a superb work by Sir Francis Chantry), +of Daniel O’Connell, and of Thomas Drummond by John Hogan +and several others.</p> + +<p>The Bank of Ireland (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Architecture</a></span>, fig. 85) occupies +five acres, and was formerly the House of Parliament. There +are three fronts; the principal, towards College +Green, is a colonnade of the Ionic order, with façade +<span class="sidenote">Bank of Ireland.</span> +and two projecting wings; it connects with the +western portico by a colonnade of the same order, forming the +quadrant of a circle. The eastern front, which was the entrance +of the House of Lords, is, by their special wish, of the Corinthian +order, made conformable with the rest of the building not without +difficulty to the architect. The House of Lords contains tapestry +dating from 1733, and remains in its original condition, but the +octagonal House of Commons was demolished by the bank +directors, and replaced with a cash-office. The building was +begun in 1729, but the fronts date from the end of the century; +the remodelling took place in 1803.</p> + +<p>Trinity College, or Dublin University, fronts the street with +a Palladian façade (1759), with two good statues by Foley, of +Goldsmith and Burke. Above the gateway is a hall +called the Regent House. The first quadrangle, +<span class="sidenote">Trinity College.</span> +Parliament Square, contains the chapel (1798), with +a Corinthian portico, the public theatre or examination hall +(1787), containing portraits of Queen Elizabeth, Molyneux, +Burke, Bishop Berkeley and other celebrities, and the wain-scotted +dining hall, also containing portraits. A beautiful +modern campanile (1853), erected by Lord John George Beresford, +archbishop of Armagh and chancellor of the university, occupies +the centre of the square. Library Square takes its name from +the library, which is one of the four scheduled in the Copyright +Act as entitled to receive a copy of every volume published in +the United Kingdom. There is a notable collection of early +Irish manuscripts, including the magnificently ornamented +Book of Kells, containing the gospels. The building was begun +in 1712. In this square are the oldest buildings of the foundation, +dating in part from the close of the 17th century, and the modern +Graduates’ Memorial buildings (1904). These contain a theatre, +library and reading-room, the rooms of the college societies +and others. The schools form a fine modern pile (1856), and +other buildings are the provost’s house (1760), printing house +(1760), museum (1857) and the medical school buildings, in three +blocks, one of the best schools in the kingdom. Other buildings +of the 20th century include chemical laboratories. The College +Park and Fellows’ Garden are of considerable beauty. In the +former most of the recreations of the students take place; but +the college also supports a well-known rowing-club. The college +observatory is at Dunsink, about 5 m. north-west of Dublin; +it is amply furnished with astronomical instruments. It was +endowed by Dr Francis Andrews, provost of Trinity College, +was erected in 1785, and in 1791 was placed by statute under +the management of the royal astronomer of Ireland, whose +official residence is here. The magnetic observatory of Dublin +was erected in the years 1837-1838 in the gardens attached to +Trinity College, at the expense of the university. A normal +climatological station was established in the Fellows’ Garden in +1904. The botanic garden is at Ball’s Bridge, 1 m. S.E. of the +college.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The alternative title of Dublin University or Trinity College, +Dublin (commonly abbreviated T.C.D.), is explained by the fact that +the university consists of only one college, that of “the Holy and +Undivided Trinity.” This was founded under charter from Queen +Elizabeth in 1591, and is the greatest foundation of its kind in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page620" id="page620"></a>620</span> +country. The corporation consists of a provost, 7 senior fellows, +25 junior fellows and 70 scholars. A vacancy among the fellows is +filled up by the provost and a select number of the fellows, after +examination comprised in five principal courses, mathematics, +experimental science, classics, mental and moral science and Hebrew. +Fellowships are held for life. Until the year 1840 the fellows were +bound to celibacy, but that restriction was then removed. All except +five (medical and law fellows) were bound to take Holy Orders until +1872. The scholars on the foundation (or “of the House”) are +chosen from among the undergraduates, for merit in classics, mathematics +or experimental science. The pecuniary advantages attaching +to scholarship (£20 Irish, free commons, and rooms at half the charge +made to other students) last for four years. Students after an +examination are admitted as fellow-commoners, pensioners or sizars. +Fellow-commoners, who have decreased in numbers in modern times, +pay higher fees than the ordinary undergraduates or pensioners, and +have certain advantages of precedence, including the right of dining +at the fellows’ table. Sizarships are awarded on examination to +students of limited means, and carry certain relaxations of fees. +They were formerly given on the nomination of fellows. Noblemen, +noblemen’s sons and baronets (<i>nobilis, filius nobilis, eques</i>) have the +privilege of forming a separate order with peculiar advantages, on the +payment of additional charges. The mode of admission to the university +is in all cases by examination. Various exhibitions and prizes are +awarded both in connexion with the entrance of students and at +subsequent stages of the course of instruction, which normally lasts +four years. There are three terms in each year—Michaelmas (beginning +the Academic year), Hilary and Trinity. The undergraduate is +called in his first year a junior freshman, in his second a senior +freshman, in his third a junior sophister, and in his fourth a senior +sophister. The usual arts and scientific courses are provided, and +there are four professional schools—divinity, law, physic and +engineering. The undergraduate has certain examinations in each +year, and four “commencements” are held every year for the +purpose of conferring degrees. Freedom is offered to students who +wish to be transferred from Oxford, Cambridge, or certain colonial +universities to Trinity College, by the recognition of terms kept in the +former institutions as part of the necessary course at Trinity College. +In 1903 it was decided to bestow degrees on women, and in 1904 +to establish women’s scholarships. The funds of the college, arising +from lands and the fees of students, are managed solely by the +provost and seven senior fellows, who form a board, to which and +to the academic council the whole government of the university, +both in its executive and its legislative branches, is committed. +The council consists of the provost and sixteen members of the +senate elected by the fellows, professors, &c; the senate consists +of the chancellor or his deputy and doctors and masters who keep +their names on the books. The average number of students on the +books is about 1300. By an act passed in 1873, known as Fawcett’s +Act, all tests were abolished, and the prizes and honours of all +grades hitherto reserved for Protestants of the Established Church +were thrown open to all. The university returns two members to +parliament. (See <i>Dublin University Calendar</i>, annual.)</p> +</div> + +<p>There remain to be mentioned the following buildings in +Dublin. The permanent building of the International Exhibition +of 1865 adjoins the pleasure ground of St Stephen’s Green. +This building was occupied by the Royal University of Ireland +until its dissolution under the Irish Universities Act 1908, which +provided for a new university at Dublin, to which the building +was transferred under the act (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ireland</a></span>: <i>Education</i>). The +new university is called the National University of Ireland. +At the same time a new college was founded under the name of +University College. The Royal University replaced the Queen’s +University under the University Act (Ireland) in 1879. No +teaching was carried on, but examinations were held and degrees +conferred, both on men and on women. On the west side of St +Stephen’s Green is the Catholic University (1854), which is under +the Jesuit Fathers and affiliated to the Royal University. +Between Trinity College and St Stephen’s Green, a large group +of buildings includes the Royal Dublin Society, founded in +1683 to develop agriculture and the useful arts, with a library +and gallery of statuary; the Science and Arts Museum, and the +National Library, the former with a noteworthy collection of +Irish antiquities; the Museum of Natural History, with a splendid +collection of Irish fauna; and the National Gallery of Ireland, +founded in 1853. Here was once a residence of the duke of +Leinster, and the buildings surround the open space of Leinster +Lawn. Educational foundations include the Royal College +of Physicians, of Surgeons and of Science; the Royal Irish +Academy, with an unequalled collection of national antiquities, +including manuscripts and a library; and the Royal Hibernian +Academy of painting, sculpture and architecture. In 1904 the +formation of a municipally supported gallery of modern art +(mainly due to the initiative and generosity of Mr Hugh Lane) +was signalized by an exhibition including the pictures intended +to constitute the nucleus of the gallery. In 1905 King Edward +VII. laid the foundation stone of a college of science on a site +in the vicinity of Leinster Lawn. The full scheme for the occupation +of the site included, not only the college, but also offices +for the Board of Works and the Department of Agriculture. +The famous Dublin Horse and Agricultural Shows are held at +Ball’s Bridge in April, August and December.</p> + +<p>The most notable churches apart from the cathedrals are +Roman Catholic and principally modern. The lofty church of the +Augustinians in Thomas Street; St Mary’s, the pro-cathedral, +in Marlborough Street, with Grecian ornamentation within, +and a Doric portico; St Paul’s on Arran Quay, in the Ionic +style; and the striking St Francis Xavier in Gardiner Street, +also Ionic, are all noteworthy, and the last is one of the finest +modern churches in Ireland. Among theatres Dublin has, in +the Royal, a handsome building which replaced the old Theatre +Royal, burnt down in 1880. Clubs, which are numerous, are +chiefly found in the neighbourhood of Sackville Street; and +there should further be mentioned the Rotunda, at the corner +of Great Britain Street and Sackville Street, a beautiful building +of its kind, belonging to the adjacent hospital, and used for +concerts and other entertainments, while its gardens are used +for agricultural shows.</p> + +<p><i>Suburbs.</i>—To the west of the city lies the Phoenix Park. Here, +besides the viceregal demesne and lodge and the magazine, are +a zoological garden, a people’s garden, the Wellington monument, +two barracks, the Hibernian military school, the “Fifteen Acres,” +a natural amphitheatre (of much greater extent than its name +implies) used as a review ground, and a racecourse. The +amenities of Phoenix Park were enhanced in 1905 by the purchase +for the crown of land extending along the Liffey from Island +bridge to Chapelizod, which might otherwise have been built over. +To the south lies Kilmainham. Here is the royal hospital for +pensioners and maimed soldiers. Close by is Kilmainham prison. +To the west the valley of the Liffey affords pleasant scenery, +with the well-known grounds called the “Strawberry Beds” +on the north bank. In this direction lies Chapelizod, said to +take its name from that Iseult whom Tennyson, Matthew Arnold +and Wagner made a heroine; beyond which is Lucan connected +with the city by tramway. Northward lies Clondalkin, with its +round tower, marking the site of the important early see of +Cluain Dolcain; Glasnevin, with famous botanical gardens; +Finglas, with a ruined church of early foundation, and an Irish +cross; and Clontarf, a favoured resort on the bay, with its +modern castle and many residences of the wealthy classes in the +vicinity. South of the city are Rathmines, a populous suburb, +near which, at the “Bloody Fields,” English colonists were +murdered by the natives in 1209; and Donnybrook, celebrated +for its former fair. Rathmines, Monkstown, Clontarf, Dalkey +and Killiney, with the neighbourhood of Kingstown and Pembroke, +are the most favoured residential districts. Howth, +Malahide and Sutton to the north, and Bray to the south, are +favoured seaside watering-places outside the radius of actual +suburbs.</p> + +<p><i>Communications.</i>—The direct route to Dublin from London and +other parts of England is by the Holyhead route, controlled by +the London & North Western railway with steamers to the port +of Dublin itself, while the company also works in conjunction +with the mail steamers of the City of Dublin Steam Packet +Company to the outlying port of Kingstown, 7 m. S.E. Passenger +steamers, however, also serve Liverpool, Heysham, Bristol, the +south coast ports of England and London; Edinburgh and +Glasgow, and other ports of Great Britain. The railways leaving +Dublin are the following: the Great Northern, with its terminus +in Amiens Street, with suburban lines, and a main line running +north to Drogheda, Dundalk and Belfast, with ramifications +through the northern countries; the Great Southern & Western +(Kingsbridge terminus) to Kilkenny, Athlone and Cork; the +Midland Great Western (Broadstone terminus), to Cavan, Sligo +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page621" id="page621"></a>621</span> +and Galway; the Dublin & South-Eastern (Harcourt Street +and Westland Row for Kingstown); and there is the North Wall +station of the London & North-Western, with the line known +as the North Wall extension, connecting with the other main +lines. The internal communications of the city are excellent, +electric tramways traversing the principal streets, and connecting +all the principal suburbs.</p> + +<p><i>Trade.</i>—Dublin was for long stigmatized as lacking, for so +large a city, in the proper signs of commercial enterprise. A +certain spirit of foolish pride was said to exist which sought +to disown trade; and the tendency to be poor and genteel in +the civil service, at the bar, in the constabulary, in the army, +in professional life, rather than prosperous in business, was one +of the most unfortunate and strongly marked characteristics of +Dublin society. This was attributable to the lingering yet +potent influence of an unhappy past was held by some; while +others attributed the weakness to the viceregal office and the +effects of a sham court. About the time of the Revolution, the +woollen trade flourished in Dublin, and the produce attained +great celebrity. The cheapness of labour attracted capitalists, +who started extensive factories in that quarter of the town +known even now as the Liberties. This quarter was inhabited +altogether by workers in wool, and as the city was small, the +aristocracy lived close by in noble mansions which are now miserable +memorials of past prosperity. About 1700 the English +legislature prevailed on William III. to assent to laws which +directly crushed the Irish trade. All exportation except to +England was peremptorily forbidden, and the woollen manufacture +soon decayed. But at the close of the 18th century +there were 5000 persons at work in the looms of the Liberties. +About 1715 parliament favoured the manufacture of linen, and +the Linen Hall was built. The cotton trade was soon afterwards +introduced; and silk manufacture was begun by the Huguenots, +who had settled in Dublin in considerable numbers after the +revocation of the edict of Nantes. Acts favourable to these +enterprises were passed, and they flourished apace. But the +old <span class="correction" title="amended from jealously">jealousy</span> arose in the reign of George I., and in the reign of +George III. an act was passed which tended directly to the ruin +of the manufacture. The linen shared the same fate. Dublin +poplins, however, keep their reputation. However adverse +influences may have been combated, Dublin yet produces little +for export save whisky and porter, the latter from the famous +Guinness brewery and others; but a considerable export trade, +principally in agricultural produce, passes through Dublin from +the country. The total annual export trade may be valued at +about £120,000, while imports exceed in value £3,000,000. To +the manufacturing industries of the city there should be added +mineral water works, foundries and shipbuilding.</p> + +<p>By continual dredging a great depth of water is kept available +in the harbour. The Dublin Port and Docks Board, which was +created in 1898 and consists of the mayor and six +members of the corporation, with other members +<span class="sidenote">Harbour.</span> +representing the trading and shipping interests, undertook +considerable works of improvement at the beginning of the +20th century. These improvements, <i>inter alia</i>, enabled vessels +drawing up to 23 ft. to lie alongside the extensive quays which +border the Liffey, at low tide. The extensive Alexandra tidal +basin, on the north side of the Liffey, admits vessels of similar +capacity. The Custom House Works on the north side have about +17 ft. of water. With docks named after them are connected +the Royal and Grand Canals, passing respectively to north and +south of the city, the one penetrating the great central plain of +Ireland on the north, the other following the course of the Liffey, +doing the same on the south, and both joining the river Shannon. +The docks attached to the canals, and certain other smaller +docks, are owned by companies, and tolls are levied on vessels +entering these, but not those entering the docks under the Board.</p> + +<p><i>Government.</i>—Dublin was formerly represented by two +members in the imperial parliament, but in 1885 the parliamentary +borough was divided into the four divisions of College +Green, Harbour, St Stephen’s Green and St Patrick’s, each +returning one member. The lord-lieutenant of Ireland occupies +Dublin Castle and the Viceregal Lodge in Phoenix Park. Dublin +is thus the seat of the viceregal court. It is also the seat of the +Irish courts of law and equity. In connexion with these it may +be noted that in 1904 a special court was established for children. +On the constitution of Dublin as a county borough in 1898, the +positions and duties of its corporation were left practically +unaltered. The corporation consists of a lord mayor, 20 aldermen +and 60 councillors, representing 20 wards. The income of the +body arises from rents on property, customs and taxes. Under an +act passed in 1875 the corporation has the right to forward every +year three names of persons suitable for the office of high sheriff +to the viceroy, one of which shall be selected by him. The +corporation has neither control over the police nor any judicial +duties, excepting as regards a court of conscience dealing with +debts under 40s. (Irish); while the lord mayor holds a court +for debts over 40s., and for the settlement of cases between +masters and servants. The lord mayor is clerk of the markets +and supervises weights and measures and deals with cases of +adulteration. Besides the usual duties of local government, +and the connexion with the port and docks boards already +explained, there should be noticed the connexion of the corporation +with such bodies as those controlling the city technical +schools, the Royal Irish Academy of Music, and the gallery of +modern art. The corporation has shown some concern for the +housing of the poor, and an extensive scheme taken up in 1904 +included the provision of cottage dwellings in the suburbs, as at +Clontarf, besides improvements within the city itself. In 1905 +a home on the model of the Rowton Houses in London, provided +by Lord Iveagh, was opened in Bride Road. A competent +fire-brigade is maintained by the corporation. The city coroner +is a corporate officer. The city hall, used as municipal offices, has +already been mentioned; the official residence of the lord mayor +is the Mansion House, Dawson Street. The Dublin metropolitan +police is a force peculiar to the city, the remainder of Ireland being +protected civilly by the Royal Irish Constabulary. A large +military force is usually maintained in the city of Dublin, +which is the headquarters of the military district of Dublin and +of the staff of Ireland (<i>q.v.</i>). The troops are accommodated in +several large barracks in various parts of the city.</p> + +<p><i>Charities.</i>—The number of charitable institutions is large. +The hospital and Free School of King Charles I., commonly +called the Blue Coat hospital, was founded in 1670. It is devoted +to the education and maintenance of the sons of citizens in +poor circumstances. Before the Irish Parliament Houses were +erected the parliament met in the school building. Among +hospitals those of special general interest are the Steevens, +the oldest in the city, founded under the will of Dr Richard +Steevens in 1720; the Mater Misericordiae (1861), which includes +a laboratory and museum, and is managed by the Sisters of +Mercy, but relieves sufferers independently of their creed; the +Rotunda lying-in hospital (1756); the Royal hospital for incurables, +Donnybrook, which was founded in 1744 by the Dublin +Musical Society; and the Royal Victoria Eye and Ear hospital, +Adelaide Road, which amalgamated (1904) two similar institutions. +Lunatics are maintained in St Patrick’s hospital, founded +in 1745, pursuant to the will of Dean Swift, and conducted by +governors appointed under the charter of incorporation. The +Richmond lunatic asylum, erected near the House of Industry, +and placed under the care of officers appointed by government, +receives patients from a district consisting of the counties of +Dublin, Louth, Meath and Wicklow, each of these contributing +towards its expenses in proportion to the number of patients +sent in. Besides these public establishments for the custody of +lunatics, there are in the vicinity of Dublin various private +asylums. The principal institution for blind men (and also those +afflicted by gout) is Simpson’s hospital (1780), founded by a +merchant of Dublin; while blind women are maintained at +the Molyneux asylum (1815). An institution for the maintenance +and education of children born deaf and dumb is maintained +at Claremont, near Glasnevin (1816). The plan of the Royal +hospital, for old and maimed soldiers, was first suggested by the +earl of Essex, when lord-lieutenant, and carried into effect +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page622" id="page622"></a>622</span> +through the repeated applications of the duke of Ormond to +Charles II. The site chosen for it was that of the ancient priory +of Kilmainham, founded by Strongbow for Knights Templars. +The building, completed in 1684, according to a plan of Sir +Christopher Wren, is an oblong, three sides of which are dwelling-rooms, +connected by covered corridors. The fourth contains the +chapel, the dining-hall, and the apartments of the master, who +is always the commander of the forces for the time being. The +Royal Hibernian military school in Phoenix Park (1765) provides +for soldiers’ orphan sons. The Drummond Institution, Chapelizod, +for the orphan daughters of soldiers, was established in 1864 by +John Drummond, alderman, who left £20,000 to found the asylum. +The Hibernian Marine Society for the maintenance of seamen’s +sons was established in the city in 1766, but now has buildings at +Clontarf. The Roman Catholic Church has charge of a number +of special charities, some of them educational and some for the +relief of suffering.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—The name of Dublin signifies the “Black pool.” +The early history is mainly legendary. It is recorded that the +inhabitants of Leinster were defeated by the people of Dublin +in the year 291. Christianity was introduced by St Patrick +about 450. In the 9th century the Danes attacked Dublin and +took it. The first Norseman who may be reckoned as king was +Thorkel I. (832), though the Danes had appeared in the country +as early as the close of the previous century. Thorkel established +himself strongly at Armagh. In 1014 Brian Boroihme, king of +Munster, attacked the enemy and fought the battle of Clontarf, +in which he and his son and 11,000 of his followers fell. The Irish, +however, won the battle, but the Danes reoccupied the city. +Constant struggles with the Irish resulted in intermissions of +the Danish supremacy from 1052 to 1072, at various intervals +between 1075 and 1118 and from 1124 to 1136. The Danes were +finally ousted by the Anglo-Normans in 1171. In 1172 Henry II. +landed at Waterford, and came to Dublin and held his court there +in a pavilion of wickerwork where the Irish chiefs were entertained +with great pomp, and alliances entered into with them. Previous +to his departure for England, Henry bestowed the government +on Hugh de Lacy, having granted by charter “to his subjects +of Bristol his city of Dublin to inhabit, and to hold of him and +his heirs for ever, with all the liberties and free customs which +his subjects of Bristol then enjoyed at Bristol and through +all England.” In 1176 Strongbow, earl of Pembroke, and chief +leader of the Anglo-Norman forces, died in Dublin of a mortification +in one of his feet, and was buried in Christ Church Cathedral, +where his monument remains well preserved. A fresh charter +was granted in 1207 by King John to the inhabitants of Dublin, +who had not yet made their peace with the neighbourhood, but, +like the settlers in other towns, were at constant feud with the +native Irish; so that two years after the date of this charter, +whilst the citizens of Dublin were celebrating Easter at Cullenswood, +they were set upon by the Irish of the neighbouring +mountains, and 500 of them killed. The scene of slaughter is +still called the Bloody Fields, and Easter Monday denominated +Black Monday. On each succeeding anniversary of that day, +with the prevalent desire of perpetuating a feud, the citizens +marched out to Cullenswood with banners displayed—“a terror +to the native Irish.” In 1216 Magna Carta, a copy of which is +to be found in the Red Book of the Exchequer, was granted +to the Irish by Henry III. In 1217 the fee farm of the city was +granted to the citizens at a rent of 200 marks per annum; and +about this period many monastic buildings were founded. In +1227 the same monarch confirmed the charter of John fixing +the city boundaries and the jurisdiction of its magistrates.</p> + +<p>During the invasion of Ireland by Edward Bruce in 1315 +some of the suburbs of Dublin were burnt to prevent them +from falling into his hand. The inroad of Bruce had been countenanced +by the native Irish ecclesiastics, whose sentiments were +recorded in a statement addressed to Pope John XXII. Some +notion of the defence made against Bruce’s invasion may be +gained from the fact that the churches were torn down to supply +stones for the building of the city walls. Bruce had seized +Greencastle on his march; but the natives re-took the town, +and brought to Dublin the governor who had yielded to Bruce. +He was starved to death.</p> + +<p>Richard II. erected Dublin into a marquisate in favour of +Robert de Vere, whom he also created duke of Ireland. The same +monarch entered Dublin in 1394 with 30,000 bowmen and 4000 +cavalry, bringing with him the crown jewels; but after holding +a parliament and making much courtly display before the native +chieftains, on several of whom he conferred knighthood, he +returned to England. Five years later, enriched with the spoils of +his uncle, John of Gaunt, Richard returned to Ireland, landing at +Waterford, whence he marched through the counties of Kilkenny +and Wicklow, and subsequently arrived in Dublin, where he +remained a fortnight, sumptuously entertained by the provost, as +the chief magistrate of the city was then called, till intelligence +of the invasion of his kingdom by Bolingbroke recalled him to +England.</p> + +<p>In 1534 Lord Thomas Fitzgerald, better known as Silken +Thomas (so called because of a fantastic fringe worn in the helmet +of his followers), a young man of rash courage and good abilities, +son of the Lord Deputy Kildare, believing his father, who was +imprisoned in the Tower of London, to have been beheaded, +organized a rebellion against the English Government, and +marched with his followers from the mansion of the earls of +Kildare in Thomas Court, through Dame’s Gate to St Mary’s +Abbey, where, in the council chamber, he proclaimed himself +a rebel. On his appearing before the wall with a powerful force, +the citizens were induced through fear to give admission to a +detachment of his troops to besiege the castle; but, on hearing +that he had met with a reverse in another quarter, they suddenly +closed their gates and detained his men as prisoners. He then +attacked the city itself; but, finding it too strong to be seized +by a <i>coup de main</i>, he raised the siege on condition of having +his captured soldiers exchanged for the children of some of the +principal citizens who had fallen into his hands. After much +vicissitude of fortune, Lord Thomas and others concerned in this +rebellion were executed at Tyburn in 1536.</p> + +<p>At the outbreak of civil war in 1641, a conspiracy of the +Irish septs, under the direction of Roger Moore, to seize Dublin +Castle, was disclosed by one Owen Connolly on the eve of the day +on which the attempt was to have been made, and the city was +thus preserved for the king’s party; but the Irish outside began +an indiscriminate extermination of the Protestant population. +In 1646 Dublin was besieged, but without success, by the Irish +army of 16,000 foot and 1600 horse, under the guidance of the +Pope’s nuncio Rinuccini and others, banded together “to +restore and establish in Ireland the exercise of the Roman +Catholic religion.” The city had been put in an efficient state of +defence by the marquess of Ormonde, then lord-lieutenant; but +in the following year, to prevent it falling into the hands of the +Irish, he surrendered it on conditions to Colonel Jones, commander +of the Parliamentary forces. In 1649 Ormonde was +totally defeated at the battle of Baggotrath, near Old Rathmines, +in an attempt to recover possession. The same year Cromwell +landed in Dublin, as commander-in-chief under the parliament, +with 9000 foot and 4000 horse, and proceeded thence on his +career of conquest.</p> + +<p>When James II. landed in Ireland in 1689 to assert his right +to the British throne, he held a parliament in Dublin, which +passed acts of attainder against upwards of 3000 Protestants. +The governor of the city, Colonel Luttrell, at the same time issued +a proclamation ordering all Protestants not housekeepers, excepting +those following some trade, to depart from the city within +24 hours, under pain of death or imprisonment, and in various +ways restricting those who were allowed to remain. In the +hope of relieving his financial difficulties, the king erected a mint, +where money was coined of the “worst kind of old brass, guns +and the refuse of metals, melted down together,” of the nominal +value of £1,568,800, with which his troops were paid, and tradesmen +were compelled to receive it under penalty of being hanged +in case of refusal. Under these regulations the entire coinage +was put into circulation. After his defeat at the battle of the +Boyne, James returned to Dublin, but left it again before +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page623" id="page623"></a>623</span> +daybreak the next day; and William III. advancing by slow +marches, on his arrival encamped at Finglas, with upwards of +30,000 men, and the following day proceeded in state to St +Patrick’s cathedral to return thanks for his victory.</p> + +<p>In 1783 a convention of delegates from all the volunteer corps +in Ireland assembled in Dublin for the purpose of procuring a +reform in parliament; but the House of Commons refused to +entertain the proposition, and the convention separated without +coming to any practical result. In May 1798 the breaking out of +a conspiracy planned by the United Irishmen to seize the city +was prevented by the capture of Lord Edward Fitzgerald, son +of the duke of Leinster and husband of the celebrated “Pamela.” +Lord Edward died in prison of the wounds received in the +encounter which preceded his capture. In 1803 an insurrection +headed by Robert Emmett, a young barrister of much promise, +broke out, but was immediately quelled, with the loss of some +lives in the tumult, and the death of its leaders on the scaffold. +In 1848 William Smith O’Brien, M.P. for Limerick, raised a +rebellion in Tipperary, and the lower classes in Dublin were +greatly agitated. Owing, however, to timely and judicious +disposition of the military and police forces the city was saved +from much bloodshed. In 1867 the most serious of modern +conspiracies, that known as the Fenian organization, came to +light. The reality of it was proved by a ship being found laden +with gunpowder in the Liverpool docks, and another with £5000 +and 2000 pike-heads in Dublin. The Habeas Corpus Act was +suspended at one sitting by both Houses of Parliament and +about 960 arrests were made in Dublin in a few hours. Dublin +castle was fortified; and the citizens lived in a state of terror +for several weeks together. For later history, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ireland</a></span>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See W. Harris, <i>History and Antiquities of the City of Dublin</i> (Dublin, +1766); Sir J. T. Gilbert, <i>History of the City of Dublin</i> (Dublin, 1859). +The history of the Norsemen in Dublin has been dealt with by a Norwegian +writer, L. J. Vogt, <i>Dublin som Norsk By</i> (Christiania, 1896).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 8, Slice 7, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 8 SL 7 *** + +***** This file should be named 32783-h.htm or 32783-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/2/7/8/32783/ + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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